UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY BY FEEDEKICK E. BOLTOX, M. S., Ph. D. PROFESSOR OP PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAL'KEE, WIS. 10 0^1 NEW YORK D. A PPL ETON AND COMPANY 1900 34 7 7 Copyright, 1900, By D. APPLETON AND COBIPANY. Electrotyped and Printed at the appl.eton press, u. s. a. STATE nORKAL sen EDITOE^S PEEFACE. Until recently there has been no adequate ac- connt in the English language of the secondary schools in Germany. There have been, it is true, many articles in magazines which quoted single pro- grammes and courses of study, but there has been no general survey of the subject, and, above all, no study of the origin and progressive growth of the system. Only through a study of its origin and its de- velopment does one become able to understand the present condition of a system of education, and to predict with some degree of accuracy its future trend. It is unscientific, not to say idle and unprofitable, to summon before us an existing system and attempt to pass judgment on it without first investigating its genesis and learning the function that it fills. Even a comparison of one system with another contemporary system does not go very far to enlight- en us on the question of improving our own system; for we must first recognise the social necessity that has called an institution into being before we can Vi SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. discern its present sliortcomings, and before we can judge of the merits of what is offered as a substitute for it. The new method of science which has come into vogue during the past forty years is slowly taking possession of all fields of inquiry. It has to some extent penetrated that of education. It is no longer possible for a first-class scientific man to write a book that arraigns the entire educational system of the age without any attempt to study its beginnings and growth, and without bestowing so much as a thought on the function which it has filled in forming the civilization of the present. Successful studies on organic growth deal sympathetically Avith the embry- ology of a living being, and lavish time and patience on the observation of the crude forms that ushered in the era of organic life on the planet. So, too, must the new literature of pedagogy take on the scientific spirit, and, emulating the methods of the biologist, give its attention to the first steps of edu- cation and the subsequent adaptation of a course of study to the social need. Civilization is the key word in the study of the history of pedagogy. What has been the ideal of civilization, and what have been the means to initiate the new human being, the child, into a participation in its benefits? How has the individual in youth been made to adopt such habits of life as to fit him to help his fellow-men and make him at the same time receptive of help from them ? In the history of school education we note con- tinually a struggle between one-sided reformers and EDITOR'S PREFACE. Vll devotees of a blind conservatism. The former desire to substitute new branches of learning or new meth- ods of instruction for those in vogue, without care- fully weighing their educational value. They adduce superficial grounds for adoption of the ncAV, and equally superficial objections against the old. The blind conservatives feel the importance of the old, and are not convinced of the necessity of change. The two parties are to be brought into harmony only by a scientific study which shall enumerate one by one the educational values of the conflicting methods and courses of study. These educational values are to be found in two lines : A study may be valuable as giving man power over Nature in time and space, as mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, geology, etc., or it may be valuable as giving an insight into human nature, thus making closer the union of man and man, so that the social whole may help each member of it to better advantage to help himself. Thus the study of language, history, philosophy, and, above all, of literature, is a direct means of promot- ing civilization. The solidarity of the present with the past is above all essential, and must be provided for at all hazards; otherwise we should always have revolu- tion instead of reform, and never any real progress. Here is the secret of the educational value of the classics. The Chinese study Confucius and Mencius, and thereby learn to understand much better their close-fitting etiquette as their spiritual garment of use and wont. The young Brahman sees in the Veda which he learns to read the active causes that Vlll SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. produced and maintain his caste system. So tlie Koran initiates the Mohammedan child, just as the study of the second book of Homer's Iliad did the Greek child, into the nature of the social whole in which he finds himself. Latin and Greek as studies in the seconrlary schools initiate the youth of modern European civili- zation wherever it is found, whether in the Old World or in the New, into the spirit of the Greeks and Eomans who furnished two essential threads to that civilization, namely, the laws, forms of judicial pro- cedure, and the forms of ownership and transfer of property — all these being forms of the social will, and chiefly Latin in their origin. On the other hand, the Greeks furnished the forms of art, literature, science, and philosophy, the intellectual side of our civilization. It does not require much reflection to see the educational value of some years' study of Greek and Latin to the European youth to build up in his mind an apperceptive mass of concepts that enable him to recognise the origin and significance of the laws and forms of civil combination which make possible the social whole in which he lives ; or, on the other hand, to recognise what is derivative in his art and literature and science. These useful things could not be taught scien- tifically and philosophically to youth of tender age ; but they are taught more effectually by an educative process lasting over several years' study of the classic languages — a process that gradually imbues the mind with the classic spirit. The effect is to build up a new consciousness supplementary to the natural EDITOR'S PREFACE. ix one received by the child in infancy and childhood, in his home and social life. He adds to himself a new life that is a shadowy reproduction of the life of the peoples that created the elements of his civilization for him. The consequence is that he goes forth from high school and college with a double childhood experience, the one modern, the other ancient, the latter a sort of key or clew to the other ; the one an organic life of to-day, the other an embryonic life that explains the former. The study of the classics of a civilization brings about a second birth, namely, into the world of producing causes of one's civilization. All who get this higher education have had this new birth, although they are rarely conscious of the rationale of the process. Language is a revelation of human nature differ- ent from that of history. The latter reveals indi- vidual collisions against the social whole and the collisions of one whole (a nation) against others (nations). But language shows directly the degree in which the people have realized individual freedom. The development of the independent functions of the parts of speech shows the advancement of the Indo- European and Semitic stages of consciousness as com- pared with Chinese and Turanic consciousness, which uses a language wherein the parts of speech have not yet differentiated and become independent. To ac- quire a familiarity with a language is in some measure to learn to think in it, and to look at the world after the manner of the people who made the language. Even the English method of spelling, which pre- serves the rights of each word to its own alj)habetical X SECONDAllY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CiERMANY. dress without nuicli rcstniiiit from uiiiilogy or from phonic laws, is a very close symbol of the Anglo- Saxon and Xorman constitution of England, wherein ancient compromises have become modern rights and privileges. For local self-government arose from com- promises between social power in the government and individual stubbornness of resistance. It is evident that the study of Latin by the south- ern nations of Europe is not of the same educational value as that by the northern nations. The latter have a Teutonic basis to their language, while the former have a Eoman basis. All southern Europeans should study English or German, and thereby add to their natural consciousness that of the northern nations, and through this enable them to understand readily the motives of action and the aspirations of their powerful neighbours. Is it not a blind, unconscious conviction in the Teutonic mind that causes his conservatism in the contest over the real-schools and the gymnasia — mat- ters faithfully recorded by Professor Bolton in this book — the struggle against the substitution of the so-called " moderns " (science, history, and modern literature) for the traditional classic course ? A con- servative may be excused for shuddering at a change that he thinks would deprive the coming generation of the power to see the past in the present — a power that he feels in himself to apperceive the Greek and Eoman contingents in modern civilization. It ap. pears to him like a proposition to dispense with the second birth, a birth into a consciousness of his heri- tage of the past. EDITOR'S PREFACE. xi Very many problems in German secondary in- struction are common to American, but their solu- tions have not been the same. It has been our gen- eral practice to take up algebra before geometry, but after quadratic equations to begin and complete plane geometry. The Germans begin with geometry and follow with algebra. On account of the close rehi- tion of algebra to arithmetic the American will justify himself, it is likely, in continuing his old practice, al- though some schools here are trying the German plan. Too much has been attempted in arithmetic and its applications before beginning algebra. There has been a constant tendency to produce arrested devel- opment on the mechanical stage of arithmetical cal- culation, and thus retard the pupil's progress into higher mathematics. A few weeks' study of algebra gives the pupil a surprising advantage over his fellow who has studied arithmetic only. He can now make rules for himself, and does not need to remember those of his book. What is said of the German practice of studying science without laboratories should lead to a careful investigation of the question whether there is not a preliminary stage of science — say for children and youth under sixteen years of age — in which the laboratory method is not so serviceable as the for- mer method of teaching. There can, of course, be no doubt of the superiority of the laboratory method in the college and the university. The question, " What is complete living ? " is a very pertinent one in the face of the dictum which asserts that the true object of education is to jjre- xii SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. pare people for complete living. Such complete living involves tlie two factors named above : (1) such a knowledge of Xature as enables one to con- quer it for human ends and purposes ; (2) the knowledge of human nature that enables each to combine helpfully with the social whole. The edu- cated individual should be able to avail himself of all human experience. I must not close this preface without speaking of the abuse of classic study. The study of Latin for an average of seven hours a week for nine years (aside from the study in the preparation of the les- son) would seem to be more than is necessary to create in the mind the desirable apperception basis spoken of above. All that is in addition to the proper amount, it must be remembered, goes to arrest the de- velopment of the mind on a lower stage of develop- ment. One often finds in English and French uni- versities, and occasionally here in America, scholars who have taken honours for their classical preparation (especially in Latin or Greek prosody) who seem to have lost their interest in the modern world. They have alienated themselves from the present and can not now return to it and grapple with its problems. This is the reductio ad ahsurdum of scholarship ; for the object of the school is to fit for complete living in the sense of conquering Xature and combining with one's fellow-men. The study of the past is a means for understanding the present, and not for adopting the past as a substitute for the present. W. T. Hakkis. Wasiiingtox, December 1, 1S99. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. At no time in the history of our country has the science of education been so zealously studied as during the last few years. • The subject has been considered from innumerable points of view. But we have many features to work out more systemat- ically than has yet been done. Much is still to be learned from a comparative, critical study of educa- tional systems in foreign countries. It has been said that " Germany is the schoolmistress of the world " ; and all will welcome any contribution to the existing knowledge concerning the educational status of a country so influential in shaping the world's thought. It was with pleasure that I availed myself of the opportunity while in Germany to personally visit and study the different forms of schools comprised in the educational system. I witnessed recitations in all branches of instruction in all grades from the kindergarten to the university, and hence gained a xiv SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. fairly adequate personal acquaintance with organi- zation and methods of instruction. In addition to this I sought every opportunity for conference with schoolmen, teachers and directors, to better acquaint myself with the motif inspiring the various features of the system. An endeavour was also made to study the family life, to gain a knowledge of the relations between patrons and the school system. I have attempted in the following pages to describe one section of the system, viz., the secondary schools. An attempt has been made to explain the essential features of the organization, government, and modus operandi of the schools. An important feature of the book, and one Avhicli ought to prove helpful by comparison with the status in our own country, is the consideration of the qualifications, training, and examination of teachers. Courses of study have received consider- able attention. Although these are but a means to an end, yet they are in no small degree determina- tive of the end. We have by no means solved the question concerning the subject-matter and division of our school curricula, and any precedents estab- lished by a country like Germany should receive careful investigation. Many valuable contributions have been made from time to time upon various phases of the Ger- AUTHOR'S PREFACE. XV mail schools, especially by the United States Bureau of Education, but no one has heretofore brought together any comprehensive treatment of the sec- ondary school system.* From the many expressions of students and educators with whom this work has been discussed while in preparation, I am led to believe that it will fill a real want. My greatest de- sire is that, though necessarily imperfect, it may contribute something to the betterment of the con- ditions of education in our own domain. I am under great obligation to my friend Dr. Alexander Benncwitz, of the Girls' High School at Leipzig, for many valuable suggestions, for the inter- pretation of data obscure in meaning to a foreigner, and for many important facts which would have been inaccessible but for his kindly assistance. To the many school officials, the librarians at the Comenius Stiftung and the Leipsic University Library, and others too numerous to mention indi- vidually, I desire in this public way to express my gratitude for the many courtesies extended me. The hearty co-operation of my wife throughout the entire prosecution of the work has not only rendered the book possible, but has enabled me to place the results before the public much sooner * Dr. Russell's German Higher Schools appeared since this was written. 9 XVI SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. than I otherwise could have done. My brotlier, Dr. Herbert E. Bolton, has read the entire work in manuscript, and his numerous suggestions on arrangement have made it of increased value. To Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Dr. William H. Burnham I am indebted for kindly sympathy and substantial aid while the work was maturing. For the treatise as a whole I alone am responsible. It is with jileasure I mention that every con- tributor to this series, as well as the educational public, owe a lasting debt of gratitude to the gen- eral editor, Hon. William T. Harris, LL. D., for his careful personal attention to every volume while it is passing through the press. F. E. B. State Normal School, IMilwaukee, Wis,, September, 1S99. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. PAGE General organization and management of German secondary schools 1 1. Introductory — Differentiation of German schools . 1 2. Classification and general definition of secondary schools .... o .... 5 3. Distribution of schools and pupils .... 8 4. Ages of pupils in secondary schools . . . 13- 5. Preparatory schools (Vorschulen) .... 17 6. Organization — Relation to state and city . . 19 7. Stimuli to secondary education .... 29 I. State recognition for completion of full school course 33 II. State recognition for completion of partial courses 35 8. Distribution of pupils by grades and ages (with tables) 37 9. Some general characteristics of the inner organiza- tion of the secondary schools .... 40 CHAPTER II. Teachers 55 1. Examination and certification .... 55 2. Observations upon the qualifications for certifica- tion 68 xviil SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. PAGE 3. Training of teachers 76 A. Introductory 76 B. Estublislunent of iicdagogical seminaries , 78 C. Tiie workings of tiie pedagogical seminaries . 81 I. Older seminaries in connection with ele- mentary sciiools 82 II. Gymnasial seminaries. (Prussian regula- tions governing the training of second- ary-school teachers) .... 85 III. University seminaries .... 91 a. The seminary at Jena ... 92 i. The seminary at Leipsic ... 95 c. The seminary at Strasburg . . 101 d. The seminary at Heidelberg . . 102 e. General note to section " C " . . 102 4. Teachers' official titles 112 5. Teachers' tenure of office 118 6. Teachers' salaries (with tables) . . . .119 CHAPTER III. Movements toward reform in courses of study . . 129 1. Historical basis of curricula 129 2. The final struggle 142 3. Changes wrought 156 CHAPTER IV. Present courses of study 1. Introductory — School programmes (with tables) .... 2. Outline of courses of study A. Religious instruction B. Classics : (a) Latin, {b) Greek C. Modern languages : (a) French, D. Mathematics . E. History and geography . CONTENTS. XIX PAGE F. Natural sciences 250 G. The mother tongue 2G0 H. Final examinations 269 CHAPTER V. Secondary and higher education of women . . 277 1. Classification of girls' schools 277 2. Courses of study in girls' schools (Hohere Madchen- schulen) 285 3. Distribution of girls' schools (with tables) . . 298 4. Girls' gymnasia 304 5. Women in the universities 313 6. Continuation schools (Fortbildungsschulen) for teachers 323 7. Salaries of women teachers (with tables) . . 330 8. The higher education of women considered . . 341 CHAPTER VI. Conclusions 351 1. General organization and management . . . 351 2. Position of the secondary schools in the system . 354 3. Classical and scientific instruction in separate institutions 356 4. Concentration in studies 357 5. Teachers' training 363 6. Suggestions for requirements in America . . 365 7. Teachers' examinations 366 8. Departmental teachers 368 9. Amount of work given to pupils .... 371 10. Sex of teachers 373 11. The separation of the sexes 375 13. The higher education of women .... 377 13. Effect of higher education upon the health of women 379 Bibliography 385 Index 391 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. IC047 CHAPTEK I. orgaxizatiox axd management. 1. Introductory. — Differentiation of German Schools. The secondary schools of Germany do not form, as in America, a second block in a tripartite pyram- idal system of primary, secondary, and higher edu- cation. 3 In a certain significant sense the German secondary schools form a system by themselves, or, more strictly speaking, they comprise several distinct systems, each having a special end in view. The first in rank of these are the humanistic gymna- sia {humanistische Gymnasien). "With their courses steeped in classic lore, they have for their special aim the preparation of students for the university. They articulate poorly with the people's schools ( Volksschulen), and, unless the transition from the people's schools to the gymnasia is made early, it is impossible for boys trained in the former to enter the latter, j The teachers in the gymjiasia strongly urge that the pupils coming to them be prepared in their own preparatory schools (the Vorschuleii)^ 1 2 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. rather than in the people's schools. ^The character- istic feature of the gymnasia is the classical basis of their curricula. A broad line of demarcation sep- arates tliem from a second class, the so-called real- schools (EealscJmlen). The latter have in view the fitting of students for business vocations, or for sub- sequent study in various technical higher institu- tions. A compromise between the two, which is a product of later development, and which receives much favour from certain classes, is the Real-gymna- sium. This school, although having less classical instruction than the gymnasium, like it, has little direct connection with the primary education offered in the people's schools. It, too, prefers, and virtu- ally demands for entrance, special preparation and an early transition from the j)eople's schools if loss of time is not to ensue. \ The boys who are pre- destined by their parents to pursue higher studies must begin them at an early age — say at ten or eleven years.* When a course of life is mapped out and entered upon, the Germans assume that it will be pursued to the end ; there is no readjustment of ill-planned and wrongly selected paths of labour ; no grafting of a new branch upon an old stock with the expectation of abundant and desirable fruit. With them there are many distinct classes of so- ciety and business, and they cannot believe that prep- aration in one direction may at the same time serve as preparation in another. Although "all roads lead to Rome," their view is that only one leads to the * Report of the Commissioner of Educatiou, 1889-'90, vol. i, p. 298. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 3 university. "W'e may make the general statement that the universities of the United States open their doors to all. The Germans, with their broad views concerning scientific work in the universities, and their profound respect for scientific investigation, whether it relates to road dust or to the stars, never- theless make sharp distinctions as to the relative worth of knowledge in the elementary courses. Only one course, the classical, is conceived by most of them to adequately prepare for future scien- tific or scholarly investigation. In the United States some sort of a higher education is offered to all, no matter what the direction of the elementary and sec- ondary work ; and many a man who would have been barred forever from the privileges of university training, had a knowledge of the classics been de- manded as a prerequisite foundation, has lived to demonstrate the fact that he could profit by univer- sity training, and has been able to make as penetrat- ing research and as valuable discoveries in the realm of scientific investigation as his classically trained contemporaries. This is not to dej)reciate in the smallest degree the value of the classics, but simply to show that the time-honoured classics do not form the only mental pabulum that may be offered to develop the mind. Digging out Greek and Latin roots un- doubtedly serves as excellent preliminary training for the future theologian, professor, lawyer, physician, or scientist, but it is not the only form of mental gymnastics that can be found for exercising the powers of the future scholar. Even conservative Germany is beginning to throw off the bonds of 4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. conservatism, and many of its foremost men main- tain that pupils from the non-classical schools ought to be admitted to all the university faculties without restriction, save, perhaps, those of theology and juris- pr^idence. / With the idea in mind that they can not well serve two masters at the same time, the Germans have differentiated their school system, each class of schools aiming to accomplish a special, well-defined purpose. They are much averse to a mixing of courses and to a division of energy. Hence in Ger- many we do not find, as is common in America, all forms of secondary schools under the same general name, and attempting to give instruction in a multi- plicity of directions. In America the " high school " is the institution where both boys and girls may re- ceive secondary instruction, and this instruction may take the various directions indicated by the terms ancient classical course, Latin scientific course, Eng- lish course, general science course, business course, etc. To the German, with his predilection for a special name to fit each individual object, and with his disgust for collective terms which may apply to various things, the appellation " high school " would be sadly inappropriate.* It is still more incompre- hensible to them to think of offering all of the above courses in the same school. In Germany there is not only a special class of schools for each course of * Their word "Hochschule" comprises the universities and technical schools. The term, however, is seldom used, prefer- ence being given to the special designations. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 5 study, but .there are also separate schools for boys and girls.* i 2. Classification axd General Definition of Secondary Schools. According to the end to be attained, the G erman secondary schools for boys are classed in general as gymnasia, or Gelehrtenschulen, and real-schools {Eealschulcn). By gymnasia, or Gelehrtenschulen, are meant literary or classical schools. Expressed in a few words, they are schools where the classics form the core of the instruction, and whose aim is to fit for university study. Fliigel defines Eealschule as " a school in which arts and sciences, as well as languages, are taught," or as " schools of utility." They make the sciences predominant in the course, modern languages are substituted for the classics, and their aim is to fit for entrance to certain tech- nical schools and to prepare for commercial and in- dustrial pursuits. A modification of either of these two general classes, or a compromise between the two, gives rise to the various forms of institutions, such as the Eeal-gymnasium and others, which ap- pear as subclasses below. Girls' higher schools are not usually recognised by law as higher schools on the same plane as the secondary institutions for boys. However, they are nominally, by common consent, in part so recognised, * It may be noted that in some of the Eastern cities of the United States there is a partial differentiation of high schools for different courses, and also separate schools for the sexes. G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. and no treatment of secondary institutions would be adequate Avhicli omitted them. In general the girls' higher schools are classed as hohere Mildchenschulen or hohere Tochtcrschulen. They aim to give a lib- eral course of training, including considerable ac- quaintance with modern languages and some of the household arts, but rigidly exclude all instruction in the classics, and any extended study of mathe- matics and natural sciences. The special concep- tions of the various girls' schools will be given de- tailed notice in a separate chapter.* The Prussian secondary schools for boys include : Gymnasia, with nine-year courses. Progymnasia, with six-year or seven-year courses. Eeal-schools, («) with Latin, which include 1. Eeal-gymnasia, with nine-year courses. 2. Eeal-progymnasia, with six-year courses. (b) Without Latin, which include 1. Higher real-schools {ObeiTealschule?i), with nine-year courses. 2. Eeal-schools, with six-year courses — in Prussia called higher burgher schools {hohere Biirgerscliulen). In many parts of Germany the higher burgher schools are not included with the secondary schools. However, when not thus included, there are real- schools corresponding to those in Prussia. In most of the states the higher burgher school is simply a common or people's school, with a continuation or Fortbildungs course. Bavaria regards all the secondary schools as fall- * Chapter V. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. Y ing under two heads : (a) the humanistic schools and (/;) technical institutions. The former include only the classical gymnasia with nine-year courses. The latter include : 1. Eeal-schools, with six-year courses. 2. Eeal-gymnasia, with nine-year courses. 3. Industrial schools, having courses two years additional to the real-school course. These industrial schools have courses in three directions : (a) mechanical engineering, {b) chemis- try, and (c) mining engineering. There are only three such technical schools in Bavaria, one being at Munich, one at Xiirnberg, and one at Augsburg. Wiirtemberg has the gymnasia, real-schools, and the so-called elementary schools {Eleme^itdrschulen). Unlike the rest of the states, the gymnasium course is ten years instead of nine. It begins a year earlier than in the other states, so that the ultimate end attained is about the same. The elementary schools have courses of two years, and are special prepara- tory schools for the gymnasia. In all the other states there are the Vorschulen in connection with many of the gymnasia. These have a course of three years preparatory to the gymnasia proper. All of these special fitting schools are considered, however, as a part of the higher school organization, since the character and direction of the work are one with the chief distinguishing characteristics of secondary school work. A burgher school may have as long a course as a real-school or a progymnasium ; but, since the course in the former is confined to the nec- essary or practical studies and includes no provision 8 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. for the more liberal arts, it would not be classed with the secondary schools. In Baden all the secondary schools are called in- termediate schools {Mittelschulen). They are of the same kind as in Prussia, with only slight deviations in length and arrangement of courses. For exam- ple, the real-schools in Baden have Latin as an elec- tive study, while most real-schools in Germany do not offer it at all. Baden includes in the secondary school system the higher burgher schools as well as the real-schools. Tlie higher burgher schools are of two kinds : {a) with four-year or five-year courses, and, as in the gymnasia, Greek may be taken as an elective ; [b) with four-year or five-year courses, and, as in the real-schools, Latin is offered as an elective. Baden also includes the higher girls' schools with the secondary schools (MittelscJiulen). This is not the case in most of the states pf the empire. In Saxony and the other states the schools are divided quite similarly to those described above. 3. DlSTKIBUTIOX OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS. In treating of the educational systems of Germany and the United States it is very common for writers to compare our high school, though unjustly, Avith the German gymnasium. In that way the idea becomes prevalent in America that all the secondary schools of Germany are gymnasia. But this is very errone- ous. A very large number of secondary schools, five hundred and thirty-six out of a total of a thousand and sixty-four, consist of some form of real-school. Xearly one half of all the pupils in secondary schools ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 9 attend the latter. The subjoined figures indicate approximately the proportion in each class of school in the empire.* Gymnasia or classical schools 134,845 Real-schools with Latin 50,947 Real-schools without Latin 62,579 Total 248,371 See also the complete table (page 10). Hence a comparison of the systems must include these non-gymnasial schools as a part of the system. It would be as erroneous to select only those high schools of the United States that have a thorough four years' classical course and speak of these as the high schools of the United States as to select only the gymnasia and represent the secondary system of Germany by them. The only fair comparison to be made is by taking the American high schools as an entirety, including at least all those having courses that meet state requirements, and all classes of Ger- man secondary schools, whether classical or scientific in their curricula, those having ten-year as well as those having twelve-year courses. The accompanying tables will perhaps suffice to show that the gymnasia proper do not include nearly all of the secondary schools of Germany. Moreover, it ought to demonstrate the fallacious position taken by those who make sweeping statements concerning the meagreness of work done in American high schools as compared with German secondary schools. Xot * Bureau of Education, 1893-'94, vol. i, p. 298. 10 sp:condary school system op Germany. O "* 00 00 I- lO T-. n a iramcDQOcDi-'Ciioo^^-OQOcc'7?»coorD 03 o^jo r- in oi -T o to ac t-_(rj «i Tf os co 05 O i^QO "^ CO »— < 1— < o oo o in CO -H lo in I- (-•-rci'X-t<-^oc>in T-iT-n-«O^CCOOO » O to (?) 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The average temperature at Karlsruhe for Jan- uary was 0.1° C. and in July 19.5° C. In Berlin it was —0.8° C. and 18.8° C. during January and July respectively. • ' The legal school age is from six to fourteen, dur- ing which period attendance is compulsory. The compulsory laws are not dead letters either, as they are in so many of our States. The school director gives each year to the police in his district a list of pupils of school age, and the police stand ready to co-operate with the school authorities in enforcing attendance. Children are on no account to be ex- cused except in case of illness. When a child is absent from school, it is the business of the class teacher to ascertain the cause. Should the pupil be needlessly absent, the case is reported to the director, who sends the Pedell or janitor to bring the pupil to school. If the servant fails to convince the pupil or his parents, the police are notified, and it is needless to say that matters are speedily adjusted. On re- turning to the school after an absence each pupil must bring a satisfactory excuse, or the parents must pay the prescribed fine. During the period of compulsory attendance pupils may attend any school they or their parents choose — public or private, elementary or secondary — provided only that the school meets the govern- ment requirements. In addition to the eight years of compulsory at- tendance each pupil must attend a Fortbildungs- schule, or continuation school, two hours weekly for two years. In this school instruction is provided ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 51 in studies of a practical nature, such as bookkeeping, business arithmetic, penmanship, etc. The Fort- bildungsschule course is not necessary if the boy continues his higher studies^,^^ Every city has a school physician who looks after the health of the pupils and the sanitary conditions of the buildings, grounds, etc. Particular care is exercised to prevent the spread of contagious and infectious diseases. Pupils must all have certificates of successful vaccination on entering school, and of revaccination after twelve years of age. Children suffering from any contagious disease are excluded from school, as are also children from the same fam- ily if they are liable to spread the disease. Although all buildings are constructed according to governmental regulations, yet the seating, light- ing, and heating are far from ideal. School play- grounds are usually very inadequate. The small space around the buildings is generally given up to the cultivation of flowers or to plants for botanical purposes. It is an excellent idea to have these school gardens for teaching purposes, but it is a mistake not to provide ample playground. Money expended for school playgrounds is money well in- vested. But in Germany, room for sports, games, and free play is deemed unnecessary. German boys are not encouraged to enter into sports like baseball, football, tennis, etc. The stiff, conven- tional, military " Turnen " is thought to be suf- ficient. Some features of this sort of exercise are excellent, but they in no way form a substitute for free play and well-regulated games. The five or ten 52 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. minute " pauses " between class exercises are passed in slowly promenading around the school grounds, and at the same time munching a piece of black (rye) bread. Some teacher is always detailed to over- see the play ( ? ) ground during these intermissions. He, also, munches his Roggenbrod as he keeps his watchful eye over his flock. (Even university stu- dents may be seen munching their Roggenbrod as they promenade the corridors between lectures.) At the tap of a bell the sauntering flock form a line in a column of twos and march into the schoolrooms. Even their chance of getting some amusement from looking into the streets is purposely hindered by the way in which the yard fence is constructed. The fences are usually of iron palings, but just at the height at which the pupils could look out the fence is made solid by a strip of sheet iron about two feet wide. About three hours a week are given to regular gym- nastic exercises. This consists of ordinary indoor gymnasium exercises, with occasionally some games. These are all under the svipervision of a Turnlehrer, or teacher of gymnastics. A considerable portion of the physical exercises consists of regular military " setting up " exercises. It always seemed to me when watching the drills as though much better results might be obtained by giving pupils a chance for free exercises and games. The military drills may be suited to training men as soldiers, but seem scarcely suitable for small boys and girls. Our foot- ball, baseball, tennis, field-day contests, etc., would, I am confident, give more animation and vigour to ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 53 the German boys, overburdened as they are by long hours of mental labour. The number of hours of actual class-room work exacted of gymnasial and other secondary-school in- structors is so small that preparation for it ought to be much better than usually is possible with high- school teachers. I find from an examination of many gymnasial programmes that the average num- ber of hours of actual class-room work required of each instructor is only from seventeen to eighteen hours per Aveek. This is an average of about three hours daily, including Saturday. The Prussian regu- lations prescribe from twenty-two to twenty-four hours weekly for professors and head teachers, while teachers of technical subjects and elementary teach- ers have from twenty-four to twenty-eight hours. In Saxony the director of a gymnasium need not teach more than four hours a week, while a real-school di- rector need not teach more than sixteen hours. Other teachers have from twenty-four to twenty- eight hours. The maximum number for elemen- tary teachers in Wiirtemljerg is thirty hours, while the directors have from eight to ten. Seldom over- crowded with class-room work, they have ample time for thorough preparation. This is a feature worthy of more consideration in America. The high-school teachers who have from five to seven daily recitations cannot be expected to do as good work as when a smaller number of hours is required in the class room. Little of the German teacher's time is need- ed for discipline. All lessons are prepared by the pupils at home or in class, and they assemble only 54 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. for the class recitation. When a lesson is over, the teacher is respectfully bowed out by the class standing at attention. He goes immediately to the large teachers' room, which is found in every secon- dary school. There he may read current pedagog- ical literature, of which an abundance is supplied, consult the ample library, or prepare his next lesson. This relieves him of much of the strain of " keep- ing order." Then, too, the inherent and constantly re-enforced idea of implicit, unquestioning obedi- ence to authority is so strong in German boys that the teacher needs to expend little energy in main- taining discipline.* All these facts tend to lighten the teacher's burden, and to leave him more energy available for the preparation of lessons, for vigor- ous instruction, and for general advancement. * Some one has wittily said that in Europe '• children obey their parents, the wife obeys her husband, the husband obeys the king, the king obeys God." CHAPTER IL teachers. 1. Examination akd Certification". The teaching force employed in German schools is always selected with great care. Xone but those thoroughly qualified by scholarship and demon- strated teaching cajDabilities are ever employed as regular teachers. The high standard of qualifi- cations of teachers is a Just source of pride to Ger- many. The difficulty with which positions are se- cured insures a thoroughly trained body of teachers. Many of the instructors are men who have secured their doctorate from the university. Without ex- ception the secondary school teachers are men, and one may see among their numbers many who have grown hoary-headed in the service. When visiting schools, it was with some degree of diffidence that I explained to the teachers that I, a young man, had been a school director (principal) in America. In Germany, young men would not be intrusted with so important a position ; they must all serve a long term of years in the lower ranks before aspiring to become directors of others. Only the few ever at- tain this coveted position. In university cities it is not infrequent to find the director enrolled as professor in the university Co 56 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. faculty as lecturer on pedagogics. Some of his best assistants may also be private docents in the univer- sity. This is especially true where a pedagogical seminary is maintained in connection with the uni- versity. Teachers of religion are frequently min- isters or candidates for the ministry. University diplomas are not accepted as creden- tials for teaching, as normal school and university diplomas so commonly are in America. All must take the state examination, regardless of their previ- ous preparation. Sometimes the doctorate disserta- tion is taken as a part of the written work. To give a more definite idea of the preparation required of candidates, a few notes are given from the numerous regulations (thirty pages) governing the certification of teachers in Saxony.* There are only slight varia- tions in the other states of the empire, and hence the following regulations are typical of the whole of Ger- many. The general regulations apply to candidates for positions in any of the public secondary schools, and also to those private institutions which aim to cover the same ground as the public schools. All candidates must be residents of Saxony. In addition to holding a full course certificate from one of the secondary schools, they must have done three years' work in German universities, one semester of which must have been in Leipsic, unless the candidate has been engaged in some public service in Saxony, f Special deviations from this may be granted only by * Ordnung der Priifung f iir das hohere Schulamt. f Similarly, in other states resident study in one of their own universities is required. TEACHERS. 57 the Minister of Education. He is empowered to grant special concessions only in case the candidate has spent three or more years in some German univer- sity. The leaving certificate (Eeife Zeugniss) from a gymnasium is required of all candidates, except those who wish to teach mathematics, modern lan- guages, or natural science. For teachers of these subjects the certificate from a real-gymnasium or a higher real-scliool serves the same purpose. Study of modern languages abroad may be accredited for a part of the required university residence. In the United States, candidates for teaching are seldom asked many questions, except those of a scholastic nature. But in Germany one's entire genealogy must be rehearsed in great detail, and conclusive evi- dence of irreproachable conduct and morality must be given. Candidates who wish permission to talce the examinations must announce themselves some time in advance. This request must be accompanied by the diploma from the secondary school, the Ab- gangszeugiiiss (or leaving permit from the univer- sity) and the Lebenslauf (course of life), including testimonials from the mayor of their town or their pastor. They must state their complete names, date and place of birth, religion, occupation of father, give an outline of their school training, their courses of university training, state their preparation for teach- ing languages, and the course of reading already pur- sued. If the candidate has been an assistant in a uni- versity, or a member of a seminary, or has attended different universities, all these facts should be stated. The biography is to be written in Latin by candidates 58 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. for teaching ancient languages, and by candidates for teaching modern languages in one of those lan- guages. In other courses it is accepted in German. The aim of the examination itself is (1) to deter- mine the candidate's general professional fitness, and (2) to determine his fitness for teaching special branches. The first qualifications are determined by examinations in philosophy and pedagogy, Ger- man language and literature, and religion. The second qualifications are tested by an examination in the branches selected by the candidate for his chosen line of work. Three grades of position are recognised in the secondary schools, and each grade has its corresponding special examinations. The lowest grade of work includes Sexta, Quinta, and Quarta ; the middle grade includes the next three classes ; and the highest includes the last three years of the nine-year courses. For positions in Greek, Latin, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy only two grades are given, inasmuch as all these branches, except Greek and Latin, are taught only in the middle and higher classes. Latin is begun in Sexta and Greek in Quarta, but for these basal studies only teachers having very extended special training in them are employed. All teachers are re- quired to take the examination in philosophical pro- paedeutics. Thus only those with professional in- sight, as well as specialized knowledge, may give instruction in the secondary schools. Two classes or grades of certificate are issued — those for the grade of ordinary teacher {Lehre?') and those for the grade of head teacher ( Oberlehrer). To TEACHEES. 59 obtain a teacher's certificate, in addition to the gen- eral requirements, the examination must demonstrate capability of instructing the middle classes (L. Ill, U. Ill, L. II) * in two selected major subjects, and in the lower classes (VI, V, IV) in two correlated minors selected from the same group as the major. The head teacher's ( Oberlchrer) certificate is the highest, and in order to obtain it the candidate must show that he is able to instruct the three upper classes (U. II, L. I, and U. I) in two selected majors and the three middle classes in two closely related minors. In place of the two minors a third major for the upper class instruction may be selected. Two groups of subjects are recognised from which the selections are to be made : {a) the lan- guage historical group, and {li) the mathematical scientific group. The subjects coming under the groups are as follows : Group "A." Group "B." German, French, Mathematics, Mineralogy, Latin, English, Physics, Botany, Greek, History, Chemistry, Zoology. Geography. Philosophical propaedeutics is a required subject for all candidates. Should Latin be chosen as one of the major subjects, geography must be taken as a minor. If French or English is taken as major, Latin must be a minor. Hebrew may be taken as a major only by candidates for an instructorship in religion. * See explanation of these classifications on i^age 35. G CO SECONDAllY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Tlie examinations are conducted by two methods — oral and written. Tlie written examination pre- cedes the oral, and its successful completion is a pre- requisite for admission to the oral. The written ex- amination diii'ers markedly from those in vogue in the United States. Instead of answering a fixed set of ten or more questions, an " Aufgabe," or form of thesis, is prescribed for each of the subjects or for a combination of allied subjects. Such branches as history and geography, mathematics and physics, or language and history may be combined. No one is to be given more than three written dissertations to prepare. One of these must be on the philosophical pedagogical topic. For the preparation of each paper a period of six weeks is given. By special per- mission more time may be given. (I understand that a second six weeks is usually required. Hence, to prepare three dissertations, about a year may be necessary.) The candidate is required by " Hand- schlagen " (handshaking ; equivalent to taking oath) to satisfy the committee that the work has been done independently. All aids in the way of books and periodicals must be stated in thg thesis. In classical philology the thesis must be written in Latin ; in modern foreign languages it must be written in the language which the examination represents (French or English). Theses in other subjects are written in German. Following the acceptance of the written work, and preceding the oral examination, a trial lesson in the major subject must be planned and presented to a class in presence of the examining committee. This TEACHERS. 61 trial over satisfactorily, the candidate is admitted to the final ordeal. The length of the test varies with the position sought. It occupies an hour in each of the branches if for a position in the upper classes, three quarters of an hour for the middle classes, and half an hour for the lower classes. Something of the scope and thoroughness of the examinations may be judged from the outline of the requirements in the following branches, which we will pass in review : In philosophy and pedagogy all are to show a knowledge of the elements of logic and empirical psychology. They must understand the most im- portant cosmological views, the general trend of the history of philosophy, and must have read at least one philosophical treatise. The princiiales of peda- gogy and didactics must be familiar, and also the most important facts concerning pedagogical develop- ment since the sixteenth century. If the candidate is to instruct in philosophical propedeutics, he must show a clear insight into the most important philo- sophical systems and be able to give a clear, con- nected discussion of philosophical questions. The examination in mathematics includes (1) for the lowest class certificate a knowledge of plane and solid geometry, trigonometry, universal arithmetic including logarithms, algebra including linear, quad- ratic and diophantic equations, as well as the neces- sary acquaintance with the properties of numbers sufficient for ordinary arithmetical calculations (2) For the middle class there is required a knowledge of the elements of analytic and projective geometry, G2 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. theory of algebraic equations, liigher analysis, and fundamentals of differential and integral calculus. (3) For the highest class the candidate must under- stand so thoroughly the important parts of higher geometry, higher analysis, and univi-rsal arithmetic that he can work out independently a moderately dif- ficult theme in any of these lines. The English examination includes (1) for the middle class (it not being taught in lower classes) an essentially correct translation of some selection of moderately difficult German into English, as the written part of the examination. The oral examina- tion must demonstrate a reasonably sure knowledge of grammatical rules and of word values sufficient for class instruction. Synonyms must be fairly well distinguished. A knowledge of the development of English literature must be shown, and some standard works of English authors must have been read with understanding. Essential rules of versification must be known, and some fluency in the use of the language must be possessed. (2) To obtain a certificate for upper class work, both oral and written work must exhibit not only grammatical correctness but easy control of expression. Knowledge of grammar, ety- mology, and syntax must be scientifically understood. The chief facts of scientific grammar must be so well mastered that grammatical forms, sounds, and etymo- logical development of modern English can be scien- tifically explained. A moderately difficult selection from Anglo-Saxon or Old English must be translated and explained. Laws of versification of Old English and Modern English must be understood. Finally, a TEACHERS. 63 correct knowledge of the development of all English literature must be demonstrated, as well as proof of having read with critical understanding some works of the prominent authors since the sixteenth century. The requirements in French are so similar to those in English that they may be omitted from this discussion. To give instruction in Latin (1) in the lower classes there is demanded exact knowledge of elemen- tary grammar and ability in its application. The easier prose and poetical works, as Cesar's Commen- taries, some of Cicero's Orations, and Ovid's Meta- morphoses, must have been read in the original. Selections from these works are to be read and trans- lated in the examination. This part of the work must show readiness and exactness in translation, understanding of versification, syntactical and sen- tential structure, and correct word valuation. (2) In addition to this there must be for the middle classes an appreciation of the difference between German and Latin modes of expression and the capability of handling independently certain themes relating to classical antiquity. The reading includes selections from Ceesar, Sallust, difficult portions of Livy, Cicero, Vergil (at least the ^Eneid), the most significant odes and satires of Horace, and the elegies of Tibul- lus and Ovid. It will be remembered that Greek instruction be- gins in Quarta, and hence there is no " lower class " instruction recognised. For the middle grade the examination includes general grammar, knowledge of Homeric etymology, and also the difference between 64 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. Ionic and Attic dialects. The written translation of moderately easy Latin or German into Greek should be done with facility. The reading includes Homer, Herodotus, Xenophon's Anabasis, Memorabilia, and Hellenica, Orations of Lysias, the shorter political speeches of Demosthenes, Plato's Apology, and the Crito. In both Latin and Greek the candidate must be so familiar with the authors that he can make satis- factory critiques of the contents and character of what he reads. Selected passages of moderate diffi- culty must be readily and exactly translated, the style criticised, synonyms differentiated, and the en- tire passages clearly explained. The laws of dactylic hexameter and pentameter must be well understood ; the lives and works of the given authors must have been carefully studied ; an acquaintance with my- thology is demanded ; and an acquaintance with aids and means of studying classical literature, history, and mythology, sufficient for independent investiga- tion, must be demonstrated. To instruct in the higher classes a thorough knowl- edge of philologic criticism is required. In this they are expected to be as proficient as instructors in our colleges. Xot only must they be able to read and translate, but they must be acquainted with the sources from which the school texts are compiled, and be able to give critical judgment upon the texts. The candidates must be able to speak and write Latin easily and correctly, and at least to write Greek cor- rectly. A completely correlated knowledge of the language, literature, history, art, mythology, etc., of TEACHERS. 65 the Greeks and Eomans is demanded. Besides this, in the philosophical examination the acquaintance with Greek and Roman philosophy must be shown to be sufficient to explain fully the authors read in the gymnasium. AVithout going into details concerning the quali- fications required for teachers of the mother tongue it will suffice to say that no mere ability to recite grammatical or rhetorical rules, nor a simple smatter- ing of literature, is deemed sufficient. Xo dilettan- teism is allowed. Nothing short of a thoroughly critical knowledge of the linguistic science of the language and the ability to make scholarly literary criticism will be accepted. The historical develop- ment of the language must have been studied, and also that of the languages from which it has been derived. Gothic, Old High German, and Middle High German must be easily read and understood, and some acquaintance with their literature must have been acquired. Ko one is permitted to give instruction in the upper classes if the work in German and the oral examination in philosophy indicate that general sci- entific questions cannot be discussed with philosoph- ical insight and in a lucid manner. All teachers of religion must show thorough ac- quaintance with the Scriptures and the creeds which they represent, biblical history, and the history of the Church. For the upper classes, the ability to read the Scriptures in the original is required, as well as ability to handle all questions in a thoroughly philosophical manner. G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. To teach physics tliero is demanded (1) in the middle classes a general knowledge of the most im- portant phenomena and their laws, and also the ability to demonstrate the laws mathematically, in so far as it is possible without a knowledge of higher mathemat- ics (i. e., not beyond trigonometry and elementary analytic geometry). (2) For the upper classes, there is required, additional to the above, mathematical phys- ics and a more exact knowledge of the fundamental mathematical and physical investigations in the more important portions of theoretical physics. For either class of certificate a facility in experimentation and manipulation of apparatus is required. The examination in chemistry must exhibit (1), if for the middle class certificate, a knowledge of the general laws of chemical action ; an acquaintance with the most frequently recurring elements, their properties, and their compounds ; a knowledge of chemical technology and sufficient practice in con- ducting ordinary school experiments. (2) For the upper classes considerably wider knowledge is re- quired. It includes, besides a more thorough knowl- edge of inorganic chemistry, the general theory of the constitution of organic compounds, familiarity with the most important groups of organic compounds and the single compounds, necessary to an under- standing of physiological phenomena and chemical technique. The candidate must also show that he is able to arrange instructional experiments easily, and must exhibit complete certainty in qualitative analysis and some familiarity with quantitative work. In botany, the examination for (1) the lower classes TEACHERS. 67 covers a knowledge of the most important native and foreign plants, as well as their individual organs, and the ability to classify according to the Linn^eau system. (2) For the middle classes there is required in addition the natural system, an acquaintance with structure and life phenomena. To instruct in any class, the examination must reveal close acquaintance with anatomical-j^hysical relations, the theory of evo- lution, principles of systematic botany, and the laws of plant distribution. Xo " higher class " certificate is issued, since botany is completed in the middle grades. The demands in zoology are quite parallel to those in botany, and hence a detailed account will be unnecessary. For all grades of instruction in either botany or zoology, the ability to draw plant and animal forms and tissues is required. In history the examination covers (1) for the low- est classes geographical and chronological knowd- edge of the events of universal history, and especial- ly '•^ vaterlandiachen Gescliichte'''' (German history). A fair acquaintance with the literature of the sub- ject is also demanded. (2) The examination for mid- dle-class instruction covers, in addition, a thorough knowledge of Greek and Eoman history, the funda- mental principles of the government of Eome and the most important Grecian states, and also a more comprehensive knowledge of the developement of systems of government. Medicfival and modern Ger- man history, and especially Saxon and Prussian his- tory, must be thoroughly understood. Besides more scientific and penetrating knowledge of the above 68 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. fields, there is demanded (3) for the upper classes the understanding of ways and means of investi- gating historical material from the original sources. The candidate must have worked out some phase of history from the original sources. An acquaintance with the most important sources and with the mas- terpieces of historical literature must he shown. Especial weight is placed upon the development of institutions, the main trend of the history of civili- zation, and above all upon a comprehensive idea of Greek and Eoman antiquity and the medieeval and modern history of Germany. 2. Observations upon the Qualifications for Certification. From the foregoing it must be admitted that the regulations and requirements in the examination of German school teachers are certainly very rigid. The examinations call for thorough and extended knowledge in all the branches that the candidate expects to teach. To instruct in the higher classes, an especially exhaustive knowledge of subjects is required. The teacher is not only expected to be mas- ter of the subject but also an authority on it. When compared with the qualifications exacted of average high-school teachers in America, they are found to be much higher in the upper classes and in some respects higher in the middle classes. But, as pre- viously shown, it is not fair to compare the average high school with the best secondary schools in Ger- many. Only those with the full four-year courses should be included, and of these the senior classes TEACHERS. 69 must be placed parallel with Upper Secunda. This leaves the last two classes of the gymnasia and other schools with nine-year courses to be compared with the freshman and sophomore classes in American colleges. When looked at in this light the differ- ence is not so great as many have been led to sup- pose from a cursory examination of the systems. The head teacher's certificate entitles the holder to teach in XJ. I, L. I, and U. II ; that is, in classes which correspond to the senior year in the high school and the first two years in college. Should wo compare the qualifications for the position of head teacher with those of high-school teachers, we should be forced to admit that the difference indicated in the requirements is very much in favour of the Ger- man teacher. The number of totally diverse sub- jects covered by the head teacher are not nearly so numerous as is usually required of the high-school teacher, but each department is much more exhaust- ively treated. In mathematics, for instance, trigo- nometry is required in only a few high schools, in fewer is analytical geometry required, and the calcu- lus in almost none. Throughout the whole range of requirements in Germany, the rule is thorough in- vestigation and mastery; while of our high-school teachers, it is extensive rather than intensive prep- aration that is expected. Thus it appears that the pupils in Upper Secunda have much more thoroughly qualified teachers than the senior classes in most American high schools. Usually we make no distinction in qualifications re- quired of teachers of the different grades in the high 70 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. scliool. The same teacher may teach either first- year or fourth-year classes. But, 'since L. I and U. I really correspond to college grades in America, we must discuss qualifications of teachers from that standpoint. Considered in this way, we shall find that the differences between the teachers of a given class of pupils in the tAVo countries are not so great as many suppose. In Germany, for the position of head teacher the doctor's degree is not required. In American col- leges, also, it is not. A doctor's degree is important in the head teacher's position ; in American colleges it is also very useful. In Germany the chief require- ment is exhaustive knowledge of the subjects which the candidate expects to teach ; in American colleges this holds true. In Germany this knowledge is tested by an examination ; in American colleges previous acquirements are investigated. In Germany the doc- torate is not accepted as a sufficient guarantee of ability to teach ; in American colleges it usually is, without regard to professional training, other quali- fications being satisfactory. In Germany only those who have a thorough knowledge of philosophy and pedagogy may occupy these positions ; in America, unfortunately, training in these important directions is seldom a requisite for similar positions. To make only a few special comparisons, we might talfe instructors of German in freshman and sopho- more classes in American colleges and compare them with teachers of English and French in the upper classes of German secondary schools. Instructors of German are usually fully as competent as teachers TEACHERS. 71 of English or French in the corresponding classes. Our mathematical instructors in the lower college classes are doubtless fully as well qualified as teach- ers in the upper gymnasial classes. The same would hold true in the sciences and history, and in a large measure in the classic languages. On the whole, there is a close correspondence between the scholar- ship demanded of a head teacher in Germany's sec- ondary schools and that of a college instructor in America. Both are expected to be specialists in par- ticular lines. The main diiferences lie in the method of examination and in the propedeutic knowledge required of the head teacher and the frequent lack of it on the part of the college instructor. /But when we examine the qualifications of the instructors in our average high schools for the purpose of compari- son with those of German gymnasial teachers, we find a very much greater difference. Whether we take scholastic preparation or professional training into account, we shall find the scales turning decid- edly in favour of the German teachers. The qualifications exacted of an ordinary teacher in the middle classes, or the three years correspond- ing to the first three years of our high schools, are much higher than are usually required of high-school teachers. The teacher is expected to go much more deeply into the subjects he teaches than the high- school teacher?\ For example, in mathematics the gymnasial instriictor must possess a thorough knowl- edge of trigonometry, analytic and projective geom- etry, and differential and integral calculus, none of which are usually required of our high-school teachers. 72 SFX'ONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. In the best American high scliools many instructors, perliaps most of them, do understand these branches, but a hick of them is not a legal disqualification. Thus in mathematics considerable superiority is re- quired of the gymnasial teacher over the high-school teacher. In history, geography, and natural science, a formal statement of the requirements does not show an essential difference from those usual in America, the most noticeable variation being in the amount of local geography and history and the closer ac- quaintance with peoples of antiquity which are re- quired in the German examinations. But when we remember that the German teacher necessarily has had training covering three years' university work, in addition to his gymnasial course (together an equiv- alent of five years' American college and university work), we can easily see that the actual attainments of the German teacher in these subjects are much higher than those usually secured in America. In the fields of modern history and geography we un- doubtedly cover more than they. The American high-school teacher is usually re- quired to possess knowledge of a more diversified character than the gymnasial teacher. In Germany never more than four subjects are required, while in America often no less than a dozen are required in the examination, if not in the teaching work. This makes a vast amount of difference in favour of the gymnasial teacher, since he may begin his specialized work immediately after finishing the secondary school course. In the universities he is not limited in his selection of subjects and is required to get up only TEACHERS. 73 three subjects for the doctorate. (These may be entirely unrelated subjects.) American high-school teachers usually have little time to specialize, because so many subjects must be prepared for examination. I refer here mainly to state-board examinations. In the larger city high schools we find, not infrequently, specialists who have devoted themselves to their cho- sen subjects both during their college course and sub- sequent to it. This is more the rule in the Eastern than in the Central and Western States. In certain cities the examinations are of a specialized character, or there are no examinations at all. Only those who are known to be specialists, either from their college credentials or from some special work accomplished, can secure positions. The days of the general " all- round " man, with no real mastery of anything, are becoming numbered. Even where the States grant licenses to teach in special departments, as German, Latin, music, or drawing, the examination is usually confined to those branches. It is safe to say that the teachers of English in the German secondary schools are not, as a rule, so well prepared for that special branch as the teachers of German in our best high schools are for their specialty. The gymnasium teacher has usually de- voted more attention to grammar, the scientific laws of the development of language, and to the laws of versification than the high-school teacher. The German instructor understands English well from the mechanical side — that is, as an acquired product — but it is always an artificial product. There is a lack of expression, a wretched pronunciation, and a 74 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. strained, awkward application of words and phrases which are inevitable witlioiit a living connection with the language. Most of them have never heard Eng- lish spoken by an Englishman ; they have learned their pronunciation from the dictionary or from a teacher who learned his pronunciation in that way. From the very nature of things the advantages are witli us. A large majority of teachers of Ger- man in our high schools and colleges (and lower schools where it is taught) are either of German birth or of German parentage, and have kno\^Ti the language from childhood. In many cases it is their first-learned language, and hence they are fully as conversant with it as with English. That German is not always well taught in American high schools is too true, but the defect is in the methods which teachers are so often obliged to pursue, and not in the capabilities of tlie teachers. A language must be taught as an instrument of thought and expres- sion if best results are to be obtained. Mastery can not be gained by studying grammatical rules. (See discussion later under Modern Languages.) That the gymnasial instructors are better pre- pared in the classics than high-school teachers is very evident. However, there a teacher of the classics is not expected to be prepared to teach every " ology " known to modern science. It could be easily shown that in the first two years of college we have as well prepared teachers of the classics as are to be found in the upper classes of the gymnasia. One direction in Avhich the Germans make heavy demands for all grades of secondary instruction is TEACHERS. Y5 that of philosophical pedagogy. As was seen from the outline of requirements, none are exempt from possessing thorough insight into the principles of empirical psychology, pedagogics, and the general trend of philosophical thought. This insures a class of teachers who can study educational problems philosophically, and who can apply the principles of psychology to all instruction. In the United States a few may be prepared in them, but the gen- eral rule is that high-school teachers, and even those who instruct freshmen and sophomores in college, are sadly deficient in these essentials. The requirement of philosophical-pedagogical grounding for the profession of teaching is highly essential, and the example that Germany sets us should be heeded. Other elements of preparation of teachers will be pointed out in the section on Training of Teachers. r^^'^n the whole, it seems apparent that the prepa- 'ration of teachers in the secondary schools and the requirements exacted of them are very much higher than for teaching in our high schools. Although we have many teachers in our high schools who are splen- didly equipped for their work, yet, as a body, our teachers are on a considerably lower level, if we may judge from required preparation. It is especially true that beginners in our schools start out with preparation much inferior to that demanded of teachers in German secondary schools. Many of our teachers acquire by experience and subsequent study high positions in the ranks of teachers ; but the qualifications demanded for entrance upon the work 7 76 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. are so low that it is not surprising tliat the average attainments are not hi":her. 3. Training of Teachers. (A) Introductory. V That something besides a knowledge of facts and acquaintance with subjects is necessary to the art of teaching is well recognised in Germany and is con- stantly gaining more emphasis. Xot even the scholar with his doctor's diploma, who is recognised as hav- ing gained the power of independent research, is allowed to go into the schools to attempt untried methods of training youthful minds. He may have become ever so skilful in his special department of investigation, but this is not accepted as a training which insures universal perfection in all arts. Xei- ther do they accept without qualification the old adage that " teachers are born, not made " ; all, how- ever well adapted they may think themselves to be, must partake of those special forms of instruction and training that are deemed of special value in preparing to teach and train the young. As a first requi site in attempting to train human beings to a comp lete and symmetrical deveTopment there ought to "bell kno\^TMgeoT"th^lrumaTr-bBing, and especially of tlia t sul3 t!e__ someTTi mg we caTTminSr Besides a knowledge of mental pFenomeha and the laws of mental growth and develoi^ment, the emotions, and the will, which by many psychologists are placed above the intellect in importance, must be under- stood. Beinirs are not alone to be filled with knowl- TEACHERS. 77 edge, but their moral natures are to be studied, cared for, and developed into impulses and desires that shall guide the physical and intellectual natures to higher and nobler actions. In order to arrive at sound pedagogical conclusions it is not safe to depend alto- gether upon the momentary decisions regarding im- portant questions relating to mental and moral life ; hence a study of psychology, ethics, and school man- agement, guided and supported by historical expe- riences, is fundamental in the teacher's equipmentj Upon these assumptions the Germans base their re- quirements for entering this highest of callings. The examination, Avhich is the first test to which candi- dates are subjected, is to determine whether a suf- ficient knowledge of the chosen subjects and their relations to the whole of knowledge has been mas- tered, and also to determine whether the strictly professional subjects have been learned thoroughly enough to give a broad scientific view of man and the laws of his development. Thus, although the subjects which the candidate expects to teach may be of his own choosing, the strictly professional sub- jects of psychology, pedagogy, and philosophy are obligatory upon all alike. A philosophical world- view is necessary to soundness of judgment and bal- ance of mind. This is to be gained from a study of systems of philosophy and pedagogy (which, in a strict sense, are a history of the development of thought), both current systems and those that have influenced the course of history. But the examination is only the first step. Al- though a candidate passes this creditably, or even 78 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. with highest lionours, he is not iillowcd in most parts of Germany to enter upon tlie duties of teach- ing in a permanent position v.ithout first taking a course of training which shall, on the one hand, add to^his theoretical insight, and, on tlie other hand, a^ord him practice under guidance, by means of which he may exhibit his power of and adaptation for teaching. Teachers in the people's schools usu- ally receive a course of training in seminaries or nor- mal schools, Avhere the work of academic instruction is carried on simultaneously with theoretical and practical professional instruction. A part of the secondary teachers are trained in the normal schools, but the number is decreasing, and the university- trained teacher occupies a much higher position so- cially and professionally, and receives a considerably larger salary than the one who is normal-trained (see Table of Salaries). (B) EstaMishmcnt of Seminaries. After candidates have passed their first examina- tion, before receiving a regular appointment as teach- ers in the schools, in a large part of Germany they are obliged to spend a certain amount of time in ob- taining practical preparation for their calling. In this respect it Avill be seen from what follows that requirements of various states are not entirely uni- form. Usually this preparatory period covers two years, and is divided into a seminary year {Seminar- jalir) and a following trial year {Pi'ohejnhr). I am told by teachers in the schools that although this is theoretically true, nevertheless, in practice, espe- TEACHERS. 79 cially in Saxony, candidates are often received into the schools as regular (salaried, but not permanent) assistants without taking either the seminary year or the trial year. This is more frequently the case when the number of candidates is small and posi- tions are sufficiently numerous. When conditions are reversed they can not so easily secure an appoint- ment. Prussia requires all teachers to be seminar}^ trained, and has provided a sufhcient number of in- stitutions to accommodate all. There are at present in Prussia eleven older school seminaries, thirty-five gymnasium seminaries, and university seminaries at Gottingen and Miinster.* In Saxony there are no laws regulating the organi- zation of seminaries in general, but, however, they are contemplated. The University of Leipsic (later described) has one of the best developed systems of seminary work in Germany, The Eoyal Gymnasium has a seminary, connected on the one side with the * The older schoo] seminaries in Prussia are situated at the following places, viz. : Berlin, Stettin, Konigsberg, Breslau, Gottingen, Magdeburg, Dantzic, Posen, Cassel, Coblentz, Miin- ster. The thirty-five gymnasial seminaries are distributed as follows: East Prussia — Konigsberg, Gumbinnen; West Prus- sia — Dantzic, Brandenburg, Berlin (four), Prenzfeu. Frankfort, Lauenburg, Posen, Bromberg ; Silesia — Breslau, Licgnitz; Sax- on Prussia — Burg, Wernigerode, Halle ; Schleswig-Holstein — Flensburg, Altona ; Hanover — Hanover, Gosler, Leer (two) ; Westphalia. Arnsburg, Warburg, Iserlohn ; Hesse-Xassau — Wielburg, Wiesbaden, Frankfort, Klingenschule ; Rhine Prov- inces — Gladbach (two), Cologne, Bremen, Diisseldorf (two). (From Baumeister's Ilandbuch, xxi, p. 73; article by Fries.) 80 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. gymnasium and on the other with the university. Probably this form of seminary as a preparation for the work of teaching in the secondary schools is un- excelled. All other forms of seminary have some conspicuous lack, the main defect in them being the lack of opportunity for combining higher uni- versity study and theoretical consideration of sub- jects with the practical Avork of the teacher.* Bavaria as yet has no definite laws relating to the establishment of pedagogical seminaries, but there is being made a practical test to determine their effi- ciency. The first seminaries were provisionally opened in 1893 in Munich, Wiirzburg, and Erlangen. In 1894 two more, one in Neuberg and another in Eegensburg, were started. The examination commissions already make a difference in favour of those candidates who have attended pedagogical lectures, over those who are simply qualified in the branches of knowledge in their chosen department. If the candidates have had practical preparation additional, they are not required to attend a pedagogical seminary but may demonstrate their professional abilities in some suit- able school in Munich. In Wiirtemberg there are no laws requiring teachers to be seminary trained, but a seminary has grown up in the University of Tubingen. Lectures in pedagogy are often delivered there, but, however, they are of the purely theoretical sort, and deal little with the practical aspects of the teacher's profession. The philological seminary attempts something in the * Fries, Die Vorbildunj: der Lehrer fiir das Lehrarat, p. 192. TEACHERS. 81 way of offering practical exercises in that particular line of instruction.* There are at present three pedagogical seminaries in Hesse : one long established in Giessen (1876), under the leadership of the well-known writer on pedagogy, H. Schiller, a second at Worms (1889), and a third in Darmstadt (1890), Only those candidates are taken who have passed the State examination for positions in the secondary schools. (C) The Workings of the Pedagogical Seminaries. To meet the demands for the professional train- ing of secondary school teachers, four forms of insti- tutions have arisen. They are (1) the normal schools {Lehrer-seminarien), (3) the gymnasial semi- naries, (3) seminaries in connection with elementary schools, and (4) those in connection with the uni- versities. The normal schools are mainly devoted to train- ing teachers for the elementary schools, and need not be described here. Those older seminaries in connection with schools, because of their historical priority and importance, will be treated from that point of view, and one noted example, that at Giessen, will be briefly described in its present work- ings. The gymnasial seminary will be outlined in connection with the Prussian regulations governing the training of all secondary-school teachers, which will give a fair type of the training received in gym- nasial seminaries throughout Germany. * Fries, Die Voi'bildung der Lehrer f iir das Lehramt, p. 76. 82 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. I. Older Seminaries in Connection with Schools. The earliest semiiiury for teachers was the histor- ical " Seminariuiu Prajceptorum " in Ilalle, which was founded in 1696 by the renowned A. H. Francke. This school attempted thorough instruction in aca- demic branches, theory of education, observation of school organization and methods, and practice in applying principles. Its avowed purpose was to fit for greater usefulness those who expected to teach. Although the seminarium was poorly organized, con- sidered from modern standpoints, yet it had a wide circle of usefulness at that time and is of great in- terest still, inasmuch as it was the initial step in the great movement toward a professional prepa- ration of teachers, and as it resulted in the mod- ern normal school (whose functions, in Germany, are becoming more and more relegated to the realm of training elementary teachers), the university pedagogical seminary, and the latest development, the seminary in connection with the secondary schools, especially those in connection with the gym- nasium. As particularly interesting examples of impor- tant seminaries in connection with schools may be mentioned the ones in Berlin, Stettin, Gottingen, Giessen, and \Yeimar. By the seminaries in connec- tion with schools, I mean those distinguished from the gymnasial seminaries, which are in connection with secondary schools only. Since this treatment is not historical, it will not be necessary to trace the detailed development of the foregoing seminaries, TEACHERS. 83 but only the present working of one, that at Giessen, will be briefly described. In Giessen the members assemble weekly for dis- cussion of theory. They visit classes and subse- quently undertake instruction under conditions sim- ilar to those in connection with other seminaries later described. The candidates begin instruction in the Vorschule and then gradually ascend to the gymnasium classes, up to Secunda. This is to give candidates a well-ordered and developed knowledge of the instruction in their respective branches. Besides this, Schiller, the director, undertakes departmental discussion of subjects to connect with the university study of the same branches. He also delivers pedagogical lectures in the university of which he is professor. During the seminary course a pedagogical thesis is required of each candidate. The following subjects for theses are selected from some given by Schiller in Giessen {Pddagogische hhmnarieti, Tp. 138): The value of historical* poems in historical instruction. Instruction in physics in the lower grades. Geometrical (Anschauungs) in- struction. The first mathematical instruction in Lower Tertia. Concentration in language, histori- cal, and geographical instruction in Quarta. Fries quotes the following from Muff, which he considers especially fit ones : The method of Latin instruction in Sexta, with special consideration of Perth's proposal for reform. Method of instruction in geometry in Quarta, with special consideration of Eeishaus's Vorschule der Geometric. 84 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. How shall historical instruction be conducted so that pupils will not only be receptive but will co- operate in the work ? Concentration of the instruction in Lower Ter- tia according to the new course of studies. Instruction in German in Lower Tertia as given in Muff's new reading book. How is descriptive natural science in the lower classes to be made anschauUch (objective) ? Sometimes themes are given which bear more directly upon particular branches which the candi- date is preparing to teach. These are examples : May the history of the earth and the earth's crust be adequately considered in a half-year's course (as was required in the former outline of studies) ? What Anschauungs-material must be made use of in the various grades of school ? How shall the forty dis- posable hours be divided ? Discuss the concentra- tion of ancient languages and ancient history instruc- tion. Discuss the teaching of ancient languages and history in Quarta as to selection of material and to methods of instruction. The reading exercise as the central point of modern language instruction. "What demands do the exponents of phonetics make in the preliminary instruction in French and how far may these be complied with ? Discuss natural science instruction in Upper Tertia of the realistic scliools according to the old and to the new courses of study. Discuss the translation of German into ancient lan- guages. The treatment of poetry in instruction in German in Tertia. The nature of artificial, judi- cious, and mechanical memories are to be discussed, TEACHERS. 85 and in connection with the discussion a definite se- lection of memory material is to be examined. II. Gymnasial Seminaries — Prussian Regulations Govern- ing THE Training of Teachers. The last form of teacher's seminary developed was the one in connection with the gymnasia. It is the most specifically differentiated of all the seminaries, and consequently the most thoroughly organized for a specific function. It is for secondary teachers alone, and makes its conditions for admission very rigid. It arose from the necessities of a more inti- mate connection between theoretical training and actual practice in instruction and school manage- ment. Between theoretical study and practice under unnatural conditions offered by normal schools and the actualities of school work, many German edu- cators believe there exists too great a gap. To train best the teacher to be, after mastering the academic work offered in the universities, he must study theory and practice amidst the usual conditions which he will meet when he takes charge of a school for him- self. That is, the practice work must not only bo carefully planned and criticized, but it must be exe- cuted under natural conditions, and in the same grades of classes and in the same subjects as the student will afterward teach, and not under purely artificial conditions. It was this enlightened conception of what prac- tice teaching should be that gave rise to the gymna- sial seminary. Below are given the main requirements of Prussia, 86 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. as published in the enactment of March 15, 1890,* governing the training of all its secondary-school teachers. As tliirty-five of the forty-eight Prussian seminaries are gynmasial, tliis required training is largely secured in tliat class of institutions, and it may be taken as a fair type of the work offered in gynmasial seminaries throughout Germany. The required training must cover two years of preparation, the first called the seminary year {Semi- narjahr) and the second the trial year {Prohejahr). The seminary year must be passed in some peda- gogical seminary or in a seminary connected with jisome of the secondary schools having a nine years' \ course and, if possible, a Vorschule. During this time / the candidate is to become acquainted with the prob- lems of instruction and education and their applica- tion in secondary schools, and to become specially well acquainted with methods of instruction in the individual branches. The trial year is usually to be passed in some other institution than the one in which the seminary year was passed. During this year the candidate is ex- pected to exhibit the powers of independent instruc- tion that he is sujDposed to have gained in the semi- nary year. Seminarii Year. — Candidates are received into the seminaries from any part of Germany, though in case of overcrowding preference is given to resi- dents of Prussia. Usually not more than six candi- dates at a time are received in the institutions which *Ordnung der praktischen Ausbildung der Kandidaten fiir das Lehrarat an den hOheren Schulen, 1890. TEACHERS. 87 are not regular seminaries. All of the seminaries are under the jurisdiction of the provincial school board. Before the practical part of the candidate's train- ing is begun he is expected to study theoretically the problems he will have to deal with. This theoretical training consists of discussions relating to carefully prepared pedagogical questions. These are selected by the director and discussed with him, and may be drawn from " the most important principles of the theory of instruction and education and their appli- cation to higher schools, especially in the course of instruction represented by the chief subjects se- lected by the candidate ; also an historical study of the important disciples of the newer pedagogy (since the beginning of the sixteenth century)." Eules for preparation for the instruction hour, judgment concerning observation of lessons given by candidates, fundamentals of discipline, when possi- ble in connection with individual cases, etc., are to be discussed. Short discussions are to be prepared upon topics relating to the technique of pedagogics and the school. These may be selected from particular points in the general course of studies, examination regulations, the transactions of the Prussian Direc- tors' Conferences, the oflBcially published special courses of study for secondary schools, or from im- portant newly published writings in the domain of pedagogy. Important methods, helps to instruction, apparatus, or principles of hygiene, etc., often fur- nish themes for discussion. Three months before the close of the seminary 88 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. year ciifli cundidate is required to prepare a thesis upon some concrete pedagogical or didactic subject selected by the director. In connection with the above theoretical work each candidate must take part in the practical work of the seminary. This consists of visitation of the classes taught by the director and other designated teachers, and in teaching a certain number of hours weekly, usually two. The teaching is done in the presence of the director and others who are commis- sioned by him to observe, usually the department teachers and some of the candidates. The teaching work is not given to candidates until the second quar- ter of the year, and is at first limited to short exer- cises, which are gradually extended. These lessons are carefully prepared, and after being given they are thoroughly discussed from theoretical and practical pedagogical standpoints. Candidates are expected to visit other schools in the vicinity when their time is not otherwise occu- pied by work in the seminary school. School ap- paratus and helps are to become familiar to them, especially the apparatus and appliances in natural science and geography. They are to take part in con- ducting work hours of pupils, and also play hours, especially the turner's (physical training) exercise. The regular department teacher reports monthly to the director his opinion of the candidate's work. Four weeks before the close of the seminary year the director submits to the provincial school board {Schulkollegium) a report concerning the work of each candidate for the seminary year. This report TEACHERS. 80 must discuss the diligence and capabilities of the student, his actual accomplishments and natural apt- itude for teaching, as well as faults and failures that may have been noticed. This report, accompanied by the thesis above mentioned, forms the basis for de- termining whether the candidate may be admitted by the provincial school board to the trial year. Trial Year. — During the trial year each student is required to give from eight to ten hours of in- struction weekly under guidance of the director and the department teacher. As in the seminary year, all lessons must be carefully planned and dis- cussed before given, and are afterward subject to criticism, based upon the manner in which the in- struction was imparted. Besides these eight to ten hours, which are given without salary, the student may, if capable, and the organization permits, give additional instruction for which he receives pay. The whole number of hours of weekly instruction may not, however, exceed twenty. All the work is outlined and apportioned by the director, who re- quires a faithful and diligent performance of all duties assigned. The main part of the instruction falls within the candidate's chief subjects, though work is assigned in several branches and in more than one grade. The department teacher is required to be pres- ent at all exercises offered by the candidate during the first quarter of the year. After that time, at least twice each month, it is obligatory for him to visit the recitations. However, at all times he must keep himself informed of the progress of the work. 90 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. and hold himself in readiness to check or counteract any wrong or fruitless work. He is to report peri- odically concerning the work of the candidates. In addition to the teaching assigned, the candi- date has outside duties similar to those expected of him in the seminary year. He is required to be present at the teachers' conferences, where he has full voice in discussing matters (when giving paid instruction), to visit certain designated classes, sub- mit reports of pupil's work, attend the usual exam- inations, give reports of examinations, and such other work as comes within his sphere of teaching and is assigned to him. He may be given charge of special pupils, who are behind in their studies or who need individual guidance. At the close of the year each candidate must prepare a written report and estimate of the work that he has accomplished. This, together with the report of the director, which is based upon his own observations and the reports of the department teacher, is submitted to the pro- vincial school board for consideration. If the suc- cess in the seminary year and the trial year has been satisfactory, and a thesis of a sufficiently schol- arly character has been presented, the school board may issue a certificate permitting the candidate to teach in any position indicated by the results of his first examination, which determines the subjects and the grade of positions. In special cases, persons may be assigned to po- sitions without having received the two years of practical training. This is true for ministers who wish to give instruction in religion. TEACHERS. 91 III. University Seminaries. To meet the demand for a study of education based on a wider scientific knowledge, and especially a philosophical training, the university seminary was organized. The pioneer in this direction was the seminary organized i n 1715 , by J. M. Gessner, in the University of Gottingen. It was more espe- cially devoted to a theoretical study of education, based upon historical pedagogy and philosophy. Such educators as Eatke, Comenius, and Locke were read, didactic theories were discussed, and rules for instruction were formulated. During the early existence of the seminary no practice work was at- tempted, but at a later date it came to occupy a per- manent position in the university seminary. As other notable examples we may mention several univer- sity seminaries, nearly all of which have continued with widening influence and usefulness to the pres- ent day. J. 8. Seniler organized the one at Halle in 1765 ; Fr. A. Wiedeburg, at Helmstedt, 1779 ; Fr. H. Ch. Schwarz, at Heidelberg, 1809 ; Kiel, 1777 ; Brzoska, at Jena, 1832 ; Ziller, at Leipsic, 1861 ; and at last we mention the one at Konigsberg, founded in 1809 by the great theorist, Herbart. There are seven university seminaries in G er- many, distributed as follows : I. Giving theoretical instruction only — Gottingen. II. Combining theory with practice : (a) In connection with regularly organized gymnasia — Heidelberg, Leipsic, Miinster, Tubing- en, Freiburg. 92 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. (h) Having a model school of its own — Jena.* The Seminary/ at Jena. — The pedagogical renown of Jena is world-wide. For the last three quarters of this century it has been the stronghold of the Herbartian school. The ablest exponents of Ilerbar- tian principles have there been active during the whole or a part of their educational careers. Brzos- ka, while in KOnigsberg, was influenced by Herbart along pedagogical and psychological lines, and was the first in Jena University to offer lectures on psy- chology and pedagogy. He announced practical courses in a practice school, but so few took part that he abandoned the project. Graefe, a burgher-school director, attempted to carry out the same work, but also failed. The one to whom success came, however, was Dr. Stoy, wlio succeeded in building up a pedagogical seminary in 1843. Since then it has had almost continuous exist- ence, f and Herbartian doctrines have been expound- ed by enthusiastic disciples of that great man ; in- struction based upon Herbartian principles has been exemplified in the practice schools, and men who have heard and seen at Jena have implanted the new doctrines in every civilized land. During the greater part of the seminary's, existence the practice work has been in various grades of burgher * The seminaries at Halle, Strasbur^^, Konigsberg, and Kiel, which have been renowned, are all discontinued — the one at Strasburg since 1892. Though not regularly organized by law, Karlsruhe has a seminary patterned after the one at Heidelberg. f Except from 1865 to 1874, when Dr. Stoy was in Heidelberg. TEACHERS. 93 schools ; but since the successor of Stoy, Dr. Eein, has been in control, a gymnasium class has been add- ed, so that all grades of primary and secondary in- struction are represented. Since 1891, the seminary under Dr. Eein, and the one in connection with the royal gymnasium under Dr. Richter, have been united. Dr. Eein being in charge of the theory of in- struction and education and its application in the practice school. Dr. Eein delivers lectures on theo- retical and practical pedagogy, and those who attend these lectures may visit the practice school to ob- serve instruction and to listen to the criticisms. Those who wish may also take charge of two or three lessons during a semester. Each lesson must be carefully planned by the student teacher, revised after criticism by the seminary teacher, and after the exercise is concluded the whole plan and execu- tion are subjected to the criticism of the candidate himself, of the critic teacher, and of the student teachers who have observed the instruction. The leaders of this seminary strive not only to fit the candidates for their life-work, but they aim to build up a more solid science of pedagogy. The plan is thoroughly in accord with the modern laboratory methods of investigation in allied subjects. For the practical course of instruction Professor Eichter regards the following formal steps as in- dispensable : Vorhild, Anleitung^ SelbstUbinig, Kritih (preparatory exposition, introduction, self practice, criticism). In addition to these there should not be lacking companions working toward similar ends in order to awaken a healthy spirit of rivalry for excel- 94 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. lence. As proper material for class instruction in the seminary work lie selects, for the first work, German in Quarta. Following this, Greek in Low- er Tertia is selected, and then work is assigned in Sexta. Later on in the course the candidates are left more to themselves for the selection of work. It, however, must be selected so as to be con- tinuous with the work of the regular department teachers. Each one of the classes (at present three burgher- school classes and one gymnasial class) has ten pupils. Besides the practice teachers, there are three regular department teachers who are responsible for the progress of the classes. A few of Jena's variations from other Prussian seminaries, of special note, are summed up as follows by Professor Fries : * 1. Candidates visit the school museums and laboratories under competent guid- ance to obtain a knowledge of apparatus and appli- ances. 2. They are given for a certain period entire charge of a backward pupil, or of one who has for some other reasons failed to pass his examinations. 3. Under a competent drawing teacher they receive instruction in perspective and map drawing to in- sure capability of rapid sketching on the blackboard before a class. They lay great stress on making the instruction " anschaulich." f 4. In certain cases the seminary year is allowed to count as one year of the trial year {Prohejahr). * Vorbildung fiir das hohere Lehramt. f That is, made plain to the senses through drawings and objective teaching. TEACHERS. 95 Tlie Seminary at Lei^Jsic. — Leipsic, though not the first to establish pedagogical courses, has been during the last twenty-five years one of the most active pedagogical centres. For some years, during the labours of Masius and Ziller, it was thoroughly Herbartian. Not only did these men herald Her- bartian pedagogy, but Professor Drobisch, who lec- tured on philosophy, was one of the best and ablest supporters of Herbartian psychology and philoso- phy ; Prof. Ludwig Striimpell, a disciple of Herbart, was for some time lecturer on pedagogy. He was a pioneer in the attempt to place pedagogy upon a psychological basis. His book on psychological ped- agogy is a masterful attempt to place pedagogy upon a sound foundation. In a supplement it contains one of the first, if not the first, attempts at a sys- tematic study of children. The contribution ante- dates Preyer's, and is frequently referred to in Prey- er's epoch-making treatise. Probably the most noted of all Leipsic peda- gogues was, however, Prof. Tuiskon Ziller. His seminary, a private institution, was grounded, like the one at Jena, upon the Herbartian pedagogy. His field of investigation covered elementary as well as higher education. His seminary, divided into the '•'■Theoreticiim, PraTctihiim, and /Confer en z," did much to extend Herbartian pedagogics. He laboured faith- fully in this field from 1861 until his death in 1882. At the present time Leipsic gives more courses in pedagogy and allied topics than any other German university. Its professors are not disciples of any particular school, but are thoroughly eclectic in their 96 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. system of instruction. Prof. Johannes Volkelt, a highly gifted man and a writer of considerable note in the field of philosophy and aesthetics, is head j^ro- fessor in the department of pedagogy. During one semester of each year he lectures on pedagogy, and during the other semester on jBsthetics. Besides these lectures he gives short courses upon particular periods of philosophy. He conducts a philosoph- ical-pedagogical seminary one evening each week during one semester and a seminary on selected topics in aesthetics during the second semester. His popularity draws large crowds to his lecture rooms and his seminaries. Two pedagogical seminaries at Leipsic offer abundant opportunities for observation, criticism, and j)ractice work in teaching. One, under the lead- ership of Professor Hoffman, a theologian, who has been connected with the university many years, is more especially adapted to the needs of future teach- ers in the burgher schools. The course consists of observational work and a chance to teach under guidance in all grades of schools. Under leadership of the professor, students visit once each week some grade of school. The visits include the district schools {Bezirksclitden), burgher schools, higher burgher schools, gymnasia, institutions for the blind, schools for the deaf and dumb, schools for Aveak- minded children, schools for incorrigibles, business schools, and technical schools. The student may also extend his visits to such other schools as interest him specially. For those who are sufficiently grounded in pedagogics, arrangements are made whereby can- TEACHERS. 97 didates may conduct classes. This is done under guidance and criticism. After carefully planned work the candidate conducts the class under the supervision of the regular teacher and selected critics. The lesson is then thoroughly discussed in all its relations, and after a time it is repeated in another parallel class. In this way each one may become acquainted with the theories regarding the work, become a critical observer, and, lastly, learn to apply the principles learned. In the lower grades the chief stress is laid upon the formal part of instruction, in the middle stage the form and content are to be dealt with more together, and in the higher classes the content of the lesson is to receive the chief stress. The semi- nary is more especially designed for future candidates for position in the burgher schools. Another seminary at Leipsic in connection with the Eoyal Gymnasium is designated by the Saxon kingdom as a practical seminary for candidates of the higher (secondary) schools. The seminary is under the supervision of the gymnasium director (Prof. Dr. Eichter), who also has the rank and title of assistant professor in the university. He delivers some lectures in the university. As assistants, there must be two other gymnasial teachers to supervise the work in their particular departments. The seminary is so conducted that three divisions are made according to subjects. The three groups usu- ally represented are ancient languages, under the director ; modern languages under the direction of Dr. Martin Hartmann ; and mathematics and natural 98 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. science, under the guidance of Prof. Dr. Lehmann. The exercises of the seminary consist of model les- sons, the first lesson of each semester being given by the teacher in charge, and the rest by the students {Praktikanten). The students are not compelled to give lessons, but it is to their advantage to do so, since the report of their work is to be handed to the Minister of Instruction to count on their seminary year, when they come to apply for a position. Only those students who have been in university attend- ance four or more semesters, or those who have pur- sued their sjDccial subjects for some years, are allowed to become active members of the seminary.* Others may be allowed to attend, but only as listeners {Zu- hbrer). In all cases students must receive permis- sion from the director and the special department teachers. All members are expected to attend the regular meetings of their special division in the sem- inary, and are earnestly requested to visit the school work in their own and other departments. After the first lesson in each semester the classes are placed in charge of the student teachers. They are at liberty to select a theme suitable for presenta- tion in some one of the nine classes of the gymnasia, which they must announce to the deiDartment teacher for his approval. He avoids the duplication of lessons, either given by the regular teacher or in seminary meetings, and determines whether the * This provision is made especially for people's school teach- ers who wish to pursue special branches, and thus become enabled to take examination for positions in the secondary schools. TEACHERS. 99 selected theme is suitable for the class chosen by the student. The intention is to make the lesson profitable to the class which acts as a practice class. The theme determined upon, the student teacher must submit a completely detailed plan of the lesson to be presented ; not a mere outline is accepted, but the objects expected to be obtained, and the means of attaining them, the division into " introduction," " body of the lesson," " conclusion," " review," must all be indicated with great exactness. Even the questions that are to be put before the class are worked out beforehand. When the candidate ap- pears before the class he is expected to be fully pre- pared at all points with the subject matter and method of his lesson. For example, in the case of instruction in modern foreign languages, the candi- date not infrequently has his questions and sen- tences and illustrative lines all by heart. After the written report is handed in, the candidate has a conference with the department teacher concerning the proposed work. Errors of method are pointed out, the theoretical and practical pedagogical aspects are carefully considered, division and amount of work discussed, etc. After criticism, the candidate reviews and corrects the work before presentation to the class. Before giving the lesson the candidate is expected to visit the class he is to teach, and other parallel classes as many times as possible, to become better acquainted with the class and with the work to be given. For practice classes, from eighteen to twenty-four pupils of the gymnasial class in which the instruc- 100 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. tion is to be given are selected by the department teacher. The instructors aim to select from the classes those of average ability, not taking the best, nor, on the other hand, the poorest. At one exercise which the writer witnessed, the rector selected half of the practice class from the brightest pupils, and the other half from the dullest. The exercise was one not requiring close analysis and hard thinking, but was largely mechanical. When the exercise was concluded the rector raised the question among the observers as to whether differences in ability had been detected. The fact had not been noticed, and the rector proceeded to explain how dull pupils could appear just as quick in purely mechanical work as the most perceiving, while, on the other hand, the superior strength of keener pupils was often unnoticed by the teacher who did not fully appreciate degrees of difficulty in lessons. The seminary possesses a library of pedagogical works, though it is limited in size, to which students have access. The library facilities, apart from this, are excellent in Leipsic. Besides the general uni- versity library and a special library in the university, which contains all the most important pedagogical works in German and French, there is the library known as the " Comenius Stiftung," containing a rich collection of pedagogical material. This latter, however, is open only on two afternoons in each week, and is in such incommodious quarters, with insuffi- cient number of attendants and poorly arranged cata- logues, that it is not so useful as it might be. Its use is limited mainly to teachers of the people's schools. TEACHERS. 101 To further the influence of the seminary, a certain number of stipendia, or scholarships, arc awarded to deserving and capable candidates, resi- dents of Saxony. These are not large in amount, but they aid a good many needy students. Strasburg. — The seminary in connection with the Strasburg University, although discontinued since 1893, deserves mention because of its excellent ac- complishment under the direction of Professor Zie- gler, a well-known pedagogical writer and university professor of philosophy and pedagogy. This semi- nary differed from all others except Jena in having a sort of model class for whose advancement the direc- tor and his assistants were entirely responsible. In- stead of selecting from gymnasial classes from time to time. Professor Ziegler selected eight or ten pu- pils from Tertia in the gymnasium. Having entire charge over them, a greater personal interest was taken in the pupils than would be the case were they under their direction at stated intervals only. In connection with the practical phase, Professor Zie- gler gave lectures on the history of pedagogy, pay- ing special attention to such authors as Locke, Rousseau, Comenius, and Herbart. Discussions in connection with the lessons given and with practi- cal problems were carried on as in the other semina- ries. Willmann's Didaktik, Schiller's Handbuch der Padagogik, and Ziegler's own Handbuch der Piida- gogik furnished much of the material for discus- sions.* * Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 41 et seq. 102 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. Heidelberg. — Heidelberg luis maintained a peda- gogical seminary since 1809. It was first organized by the well-known author Chr. Schwarze, and is at present under the charge of the gymnasium director and university Professor Uhlig. The students listen to lectures on pedagogy in the university, and may enter the seminary only after being in attendance at the university for two years. The order of observa- tion, instruction, and criticism is so similar to that offered at Leipsic and other university seminaries that it is unnecessary to give it in detail. The chief difference noticeable is in the distribution and order of classes given in charge of candidates. First a mid- dle class of the gymnasium is taken, next a lower one, and lastly the highest or Prima. For example, the students expecting to teach classical philology might take classes in the following order : Csesar or Ovid in Upper Tertia, Xenophon in Lower Secunda, Greek grammar in Lower Tertia, history in Quarta, Latin in Quinta, history in Upper Secunda, and at last Sophocles, Cicero, Plato, or Demosthenes in Prima.* General Note to Section " C." As some of the points to be noticed by student observers in visiting a class, Schiller, of Giessen, recommended the following : f 1. Selection and disposition of the material in itself and in relation to the disposable time. * Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 28 et seq. f Padagogische Seminarien, p. 138 ; also Fries, Die Vorbil- dunar der Lehrer fiir das Leliramt. TEACHERS. 103 2. Treatment : (a) The three teaching activities ; (h) questioning with special consideration of concen- tration. 3. Conduct and manner of the teacher (beginning and close of the lesson ; management of the class by attention and by the eye ; correct tone of . voice, speaking, reading, questions, attention to errors of pupils ; proper selection of resting point ; occupa- tion of entire class ; control toward close of the les- son ; were all pupils thoughtful about each question ? chorus answers, etc.). 4. Eesults as a whole : What Avas gained by the lesson ? Was an advance observable ? Frick, of Halle, gave the following plan for the observation of a lesson : * I. Selection and arrangement of material. 1. Was the kind and amount of the teaching ma- terial in right proportion to the given time ? 2. Was the material sufficiently sifted and cor- rectly divided ? 3. Was the disposition of the material clear and comprehensive ? II. Method of procedure. 1. Was a well-planned and suitable arrangement of the teaching activities followed ? namely : a. Preparation for the new by connecting with the old and well known. b. Elaboration ( Vertieftmg, Begriindiing, Riich- hlick, Ziisammenfassung). c. Presentation or development of the new. d. Application {EiniXhung^ Einprdgung). * Paila _ i -2 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 -T + ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 -4 + 8 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 ±0 + 1 - 11 -3 _ 2 ±0 ±0 ±0 _ 2 ±0 ±0 ±0 -2 ±0 ±0 + 4 Fi'ench 9 Geography Natural science. Physics -2 -1 1 Chem. and min. Mathematics.. . Writing Drawing + 2 _ 2 ±0 -8 ±0 ±0 1 Gymnastics English Hebrew The sentiment of the people everywhere, as shown in the character of the schools they were 162 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Table shoicing Total Numher of Hours for Each Subject, as determined in the Courses of Study legalized at the Indicated Times (Prussia). Religion Latin Greek German French Mathematics Natural science. Physics Chemistry History Geograpliy Drawing Writing Phil, prop Hebrew English Gymnasium. 60 [20 ■30 S4 25 20 86 42 20 17 32 25 28 6 4 Opt Opt Opt Opt R.-GyM. 20 18 Higher Real- School. 26 25 building during this period,* was also most signifi- cant. By establishing and maintaining real-schools at their own expense, when the Government would bear most of the expense for gymnasia, they plain- ly showed that what the Government was furnishing was not acceptable, and that they were determined to secure what they deemed more suited to their needs, cost what it might. In all the states the growth of real-schools and higher real-schools, as compared with gymnasia and real-gymnasia, has been amazing during the last decade and a half. In 1882 the number of pupils * As previously pointed out, the gymnasia are nearly all state institutions. The state builds few real-schools ; these are mostly maintained at local expense. REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 163 i- C'* C5 10 O !?* t^ O ' Wr-I T-.C* ■- X i-. lO ^ i-i CQ Ti i-- t- c* o T-i 1-1 ^;oo ^ cc !-« X cc oa X CC i-H rr O ?D .-« ,^H -« 5 H « K rt^ "^t: S ^ £ a B a S ^ •J H -< -< (d J S5 H «^ S J S a CO 3D 0> CO OT 0» »< O c^ o :c CI ^ c: e- u-2 X -T t- ^ »0 QD '^ CO CO o *r: o t^ ^-1 mxo*3c» ■-C CO t~ -0 •^ X X O — "-1 C0_^O,'T iO Ci COt^i-T xoeoi-irtcomooi-ocortoocxi CO'-'CS.OOSCOC^OOCOO'^'^T-^^rt rt . t- -< o -^ §3 J5 M cs^oiccot-oiinO'Hooo — o-t — Oi»T-.toxcO"-^oco t*OCO(?JCiO^*COO^^X0^^500*^0«0000 0^0^ C: 0^0 -^__iO ^_^-* i.- O C5 i- »J 1.-5 CO CO C-. "-1 CO i-i ■-• M Ci TI> m X O^C:__ CO CO Ci 0> {- O? CO t- 0» iO f^ CO 5J O ^ — t- i- X O CD X "; r -3 cs i'- ^ X ^ •:: = :3 )x :3 i 03. 104 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY, in the secondary schools of Prussia who were pur- suing Latin was nine times that of the pupils not studying it. By 1892 the proportion had so changed that the ratio was only five to one, and by 1894 the proportion stood three Latin pupils to one non-Latin pupil.* In Baden, as the following tabulation indicates, the pendulum has swung steadily in the non-Latin direction, with no less momentum and through as great amplitude as in Prussia. Distribution of Piqnls in Varioiis Classes of Schools in Baden from 1882 to 1895. Gymnasia. Real-gjmnasia. Real-schools. Total. 1882-'83 4,950 = 53.2^ 5,262=47.7^ 5,107 = 45.7^ 4.759 = 43. 8;^ 4,657 = 42.8^ 4,548 = 41. W 4,494 = 39.6^ 4,460 = 38.8^ 4,421 = 37.9^ 2,949 = 31.6^ 2,565 = 23.2^ 2,495 = 22.4/^ 2.394 = 22.0^ 2,376 = 21.9^ 2,146= 19.4JS 2,089 = 18.4;^ 1,813= 15.7^ 1,652 = U.'2% 1,406= 15.2^ 3,212 = 29.1^ 3,.564 = 31.9^ 3,724 = 34.2^ 3,838 = 35.3^ 4,372 = 39.5^ 4,773 = 42.0^ 5,233 = 45.5^ 5,578 = 47.9/^ 9,305 1887-'88 11.039 1888-'89 11.166 ]889-'90 10,877 10,871 11,066 11,356 11,.506 11,651 1890-'91 1891-^93 1893-'93 1893-'94 1894-^95 Gustave Wendt, Baumeister's Handbueh, etc., p. 185. Baumeister's Organisation des hoheren Unterrichts, pp. CHAPTER IV. present courses of study. 1. Introductory. — School Programmes in Vari- ous States. We shall next proceed to an examination of the courses of study in the secondary schools as they appear in the official programmes published by the several states. Although there is quite a similarity among the courses of all the states, especially of the four kingdoms (Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, AViirtem- berg), yet the variations forbid the taking of any single one as a standard without showing the differ- ences, and justify the more detailed exposition of each one separately. However, as methods of teach- ing are very similar and the aim to be attained almost identical in the several states, the variations will be exhibited mainly through comparative tables, and a general discussion, which will serve for all alike, will accompany the tables. The courses of study are outlined by the Minis- terium of each state. They represent the exact amount of time that shall be given to the individual subjects, and the distribution of this time through- out the school course. A detailed outline always accompanies the time table. This outline indicates the general minimum amount of each subject that 165 1G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. the schools are expected to cover, as well as general ends to be attained and methods of attaining them. Of course, the teachers are given much latitude in the method of procedure ; in fact, older teachers may be said to have entire freedom in this respect. The choice of parts of subjects is in a measure left to the individual schools ; yet, since the official pro- grammes indicate the general topics, there is not much variation in the selection of topics in the vari- ous schools in a given state. Each school, in the main each teacher, is left free in the selection of text-books and the appliances to be used. The courses of study in the various states have essentially the same end in view, and they are con- sidered to be of equal value. This is shown by the fact that the certificate from a gymnasium in any one of the Bundesstaaten is recognised (since 1889) as giving the same privileges in all the other states. The same is true of the certificate of the real-gym- nasia from most of the states. However, since there is considerable diversity among courses, some are not universally valid, but are recognised only in the state in which they are granted. This is true especially of the Wiirtemberg real-gymnasium certificates.* The certificates of maturity from the upper real- schools are recognised also only in the state which issues them. All higher schools have essentially the same courses in religion, German, history, and geog- raphy, and the instruction in these aims to reach the same ideals in all the different forms of schools. * See Centralbliitt, 1889, p. 224. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 1G7 They all strive to develop morality, fidelity, obedi- ence, and love for the Fatherland. Through a knowl- edge of the functions of the state and the duty of its citizens they aim to develop upright citizens and obedient, country-loving subjects. The school pro- grammes show a great preponderance of national and local geography and history. Enough of for- eign civilization is treated of to insure a proper per- spective in studying governments, and also to give in these matters the fundamentals of instruction necessary to liberal culture. The hr^^h position to which art and music have attained in Germany re- ceives assurance of continued security by the lofty ideals inculcated in the minds of pupils through- out the course. The a3sthetic culture to be derived through subjects of school study is nowhere so suc- cessfully imparted as in Germany. History, litera- ture, Xature studies, and even mathematics, provide material for gesthetic culture as well as intellectual development. It will be noticed from the comparative table that there is a great similarity among gymnasial courses throughout the different states of the empire. There are no very great deviations except in Wiirtemberg, which has in its programme eighty-one hours of Latin and forty hours of Greek, being from ten to fifteen hours more of Latin and about four hours more of Greek than the average amount in the other states. There are apparent variations in the amounts of natural science and in the history and geography work given in the various states, but those differ- ences arise principally because of the different ways 1G8 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Table shou'ing Amount of Time devoted to Each Subject in the (Ji/mnasia of Eight States. Religion German Latin Greek French History Geography Nature lessons.. Physics Chem. and niin. Matliematics Writing Drawing Singing Gymnastics English Hebrew. 4 •z g i ^ g h £ & 1 ^^ ;§ B i' 19 18 20 18 18 18 20 2(J 27 25 30 22 27 2.1 C3 06 73 81 72 68 71 3G 36 42 40 30 30 40 19 10 18 18 20 23 24 ;» 16 9 18 9 '-23 [26 }- 20 1 •• 8 5 8 6 10 10 [24 J [10 7 8 8 !-« i« 34 20 33 30 33 3.5 36 4 4 3 7 4 5 4 8 4 10 7 10 8 4 4 6 4 14 18 27 18 18 10 18 * (4e 6e 6e 8e 4e 6e -or or or or or 4e Oe 6e 8e 4e 6e ^.3 ■«! 18 25 71 36 24 (-25 Note. — The hours indicate an equivalent of so many hours per week for one year — e. g., five hours = to five hours a week for one year, or one hour a week for five years : or again, sixty-two hours (for Latin in Prus- sia) means sixty-two hours a week for one year, or nearly seven hours per week for nine years, etc. e — elective. * Not continued in all places on account of lack of appliances. Table showing Amount of Time devoted to Each Subject in the Real-Gymnasia of Seven States. Religion Latin German French English History Geography IMatliematics . . . Natural history Phj-sics Chem. and min. Writing Drawing Singing Gymnastics 29 20 13 16 10 38 7 6 5 4 23 Opt. 18 14 7U 20 27 11 -22J 59 8i 5 25i 18 53 28 31 18 [30 42 12 12 16 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 1G9 Table shoit'ing Amount of Time given to Each Branch in the Real-Schools of Eight States. Religion (ieniian French English Aritli. and algebra.. < )tht'r mathematics. . History (.ieography Nature lessons Physics Cliem. and min Writing Drawing Singing Gymnastics .s .3 >. H g. 1 3 -a fi & is 1^ a ^ 13 12 15 * 18 18 12 28 27 31 39 28 23 .31 27 28 46 30 So 13 10 16 24 12 13 ;-2s 13 18 1-3, 53 23 11 14 19 ;-i9 « 10 ;^ 17 10 12 12 21 10 6 10 10 8 12 8 7 (« 13 6 4 6 8 6 2 6 3 7 6 6 6 10 23 12 16 14 8 u 12 9 12 12 18 12 12 18 12 12 12 29 28 14 ^30 10 13 10 * The courses of the ten real-schools with two additional years cor- respond to the first eight classes of the higher real-schools. Besides these, there are sixty-three schools witn various plans. (Rethwisch, op. cit., p. 130.) of dividing the subjects. One school may have much under the head of Xature lessons and little under the topic physics, while in another case it may be Just the reverse. Still the two may give almost identical courses, since there is no sharp dividing line between the sciences, and much of physics may be included under the term Xature lessons, and vice versa. The most noticeable differences between the gymnasia and the real-gymnasia are in the relative amounts of the classics and the sciences. The real- gymnasia have abandoned all Greek and very mate- rially reduced the amount of required Latin. More mathematics and natural science are introduced, while the general fundamental studies remain about the same in the two. Many of the gymnasia offer no chemistry nor mineralogy, while all the real-gym- 170 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. nasia offer of these about three liours weekly through a period of three years. More thorough work is given in the real-gymnasium in physics, and in mathematics usually one year of five weekly hours is offered in analytic geometry and descriptive geom- etry. The real-gymnasium has fully fifty per cent, more time devoted to French than the gymnasium, and English is taken as a required study three hours weekly during the last six years of the course. The real-school curriculum is similar to the first six years of the real-gymnasium courses, with the ex- ception that the real-school course contains no Latin but more French during the corresponding years. The higher real-school contains three years addi- tional to the ordinary real-schools and, as previously stated, prepares for entrance to the university in the natural sciences and mathematics. Pupils who have completed a real-school course may enter a higher real-school of another city for the last three years of the work if no higher real-school is located in their own. The progymnasium takes up the first six or seven years of a gymnasial course, and is advanta- geous in that pupils may enter a gymnasium and com- plete their preparation for the university ; the real- progymnasium takes up the realistic side of the work and is simply the first six or seven years of a real- gymnasium. For purposes of comparison and reference I sub- Join detailed official programmes of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, and Wiirtemberg, An attempt is made to exhibit all the different types of secondary- school curricula existing in the empire. The cities PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 171 must all conform to state requirements unless spe- cially permitted to make minor deviations therefrom to suit local needs. Whatever deviations there are from general state regulations are very slight. Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian Gymnasia {since 1892). VI IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I u. I Religion 3 " German 4 3 Latin 8 8 Greek French History ( „ I o Geography ) I " Mathematics 4 4 Physics Elementarj' nat- ural science 2 2 Writing 2 2 Drawing 2 Gymnastics 3 3 English Hebrew. Total* 25 25 30 30 30 28 252 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden Gymnasia {since 1SS3). VI IV L. Ill U. Ill L II U. II L. I U. I Religion 2 German 3 Latin 9 Greek French History Geography 2 Mathematics 4 Natural science 2 Phil, propfedeutics. .. Hebrew (elective). . . . English (elective).. .. Writing 2 Drawing 2 Singing 2 Gymnastics 2 (2) (2) (2) 2 4 2 (2^ (2) (2) 2 2 1 (2) (2) (2) 2 2 4 2 1 (2) (2) (2) 2 2 Total * 26 26 27 31 31 30 30 30 30 36 20 18 8 33 18 2 (8) (8) 4 10 + (8) 14 18 261 * Exclusive of electives, singing, and gymnastics. 13 172 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Weekly Hours devoted to JJach Studu in the Gymnasia in Saxonij. vr IV L.IIIU. I!I L. IIU.II L.I U.I Total Religion 3 3 2 German 4 3 3 Latin 9 9 8 Greek P"'rench 2 History 2 2 5 Geography 2 2 2 Mathematics 3 4 3 Natural history 2 2 2 Physics EngUsh (elective) Hebrew (elective) Drawing 2 2 Writing 2 1 Singing 2 2 2 Gymnastics 2 3 2 Total* 27 28 29 2 2 2 i2 2 2 20 2 2 2 3 3 3 25 8 8 8 - 8 8 73 43 3 •) 2 2 2 2 18 2 2 2 2 2 2 18 2 ] 9 3 4 4 4 4 4 33 1 1 8 2 2 2 2 8 (2) (3) (2) (6) or or or (2) (2) (2) (6) 2 2 2 10 3 31 30 29 30 30 18 Weel-Jy Hours devoted to Each Study in the Gymnasia in Bavaria {since 1S9T). VI V IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total. Religion ... 2 2 4 8 3 1 1 2 2 3 8 3 o T 2 1 2 2 8 6 2 2 1 2 2 2 8 6 4 o \ 1 '2 2 6 3 4 2 2 6 3 5 2 2 3 fi 6 5 3 2 4 6 6 2 4 3 18 27 Latin ... 8 6G 36 10 Arithmetic Mathematics Physics History Geography Nature lessons. . . . '.'.'. 1 33 . 16 9 5 4 Writing ... 2 4 18 Total* ...23 23 24 25 2G 26 27 27 27 228 * Singing, gymnastics, and electives not counted. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 173 Weelxhj Hours devoted to Eacli Study in the Wilrtemberg Gymnasia {since ISOl). VI V IV I . Ill U. Ill L. 11 U. II L. I U.I Total. Religion ... 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 18 ... 3 8 10 2 10 2 10 2 10 8 2 8 3 8 3 7 82 Latin ...10 81 Greek 7 ~ 7 7 () fi 40 French 2 2 3 3 2 o 14 Mathematics .. 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4 34 Physics 2 2 2 2 8 History 2 i U n 2 2 2 2 14 Geography ... 1 1 1 u H 1 7 Nature lessons . . . ... 2 i> 2 6 Drawing 1 2 2 5 Writing o 2 o 6 Gymnastics 2-3 2-3 2 2-3 2 2 2 2 18-20 Total* ...24 26 25 31 31 31 30 29 30 257 Philosophical propjedeutics obligatory two hours weekly in Upper Prima. Hebrew, English, New Testament, free-hand drawing, sabre practice, or Italian niaj* be elected as an hour or two extra from Lower Seeunda on. Singing one hour weekly in three lowest classes. These would increase the totals. Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study i)i the Prussia Real-Gymnasia {1892). VI V IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L.I U. I Total. Religion 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 German 3) ^/ and V 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 28 History (narratives^. if li Latin 8 H 7 4 4 3 3 3 3 43 French 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 31 English 3 3 3 3 3 3 18 Historv 1 o 12 2 !- l» / 28 Geographv »- (2 2 2 1 \-' Mathematics 4 4 4 r> 5 .T 5 5 5 42 Natural historv 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 Phj'sics 3 3 3 3 12 Chem. and miu 2 2 2 6 Writing 2 2 2 •1 '2 '2 "2 ■.i '2 4 Drawing 14 Smgmg 2 2 4 Gymnastics 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27 Total* 25 25 29 30 30 30 50 30 30 259 * Exclusive of singing and gymnastics. 174 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Weeldy Hours devoted to Each Studij in the Bavarian lieal-Oymnasia {1801). VI IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total Reliprion 2 2 2 German 5 4 3 Latin 8 8 8 French English Arithmetic I ., „ o Mathematics )" '^ '^ "^ Physics Nature lessons 1 1 1 Chera. and min History 2 Geography 2 2 2 Writing... 2 1 1 Drawing 2 2 Gymnastics 2 2 2 18 27 GO 20 13 38 G 7 5 10 10 4 23 18 Total* 23 23 24 28 29 31 31 31 Elective : Italian, instrumental music, singing, stenography. The first three years are the same as in the gymnasia. Several i-eal-gyninasia have only the last six years' work, and admit from the gymnasia or from Latin schools. Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Saxony Real-Oyinnasia {1897). VI IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total Religion 3 German 4 Latin 8 French English Geography 2 History 1 Mathematics 5 Physics Chemistry Natural history 2 Writing 2 Drawing 2 Singing 2 Gymnastics 2 Total* 29 32 31 32 32 32 32 31 31 290 Stenography elective. Not counting gymnastics or singing. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. Weekhj Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden Real- Gymnasia {since 1887). VI IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total Religion 2 2 2 German 3 3 2 Latin 9 9 8 French 4 English Geography 2 2 2 History 2 Mathematics 4 4 3 Pl^-sics Chemistry Natural historj' 2 2 2 Writing 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 Singing 2 2 2 Gymnastics 2 2 2 Total* 26 26 27 30 30 30 30 30 30 259 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian Real- School. VI V IV III II I Total. Change. Religion 3 2 2 2 2 2 German (5 4 , a a 3 History (narrative) ^1 1 13 28 31 13 19 28 10 s fi 10 4 18 ±0 + 7 French 6 6 6 5 4 4 English 5 4 4 History ( ., „ 2 1 2 '^ 2 f 2 / Geography (' ~ ~ 2 )" 2 f 1 )" 2 1' Mathematics 4 4 5 5 5 5 Natural history 2 2 2 2 2 .. -9 ±0 -3 -1 — 3 Physics, etc 3 5 Writing 2 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 ±0 -2 Singing 2 2 Gymnastics 3 3 3 3 3 3 Total* 25 25 28 30 29 29 166 -13 * Singing, electives, and gymnastics not counted. 176 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Weekli/ Hours devoted to Each Study in the Bavarian Heal- Schools {since 1804). IV III II Religion 2 2 German 6 5 French (> English Arithmetic 4 Geometry ' Physics Natural history 2 Chem. and min History Geograpliy 2 2 Drawing 2 4 Writing 2 1 Gymnastics 2 2 2 Total*'. 26 26 26 27 32 32 Totiil. Cbaage. 181 + 1 - 1 + 1 Stenography, singing, instrumental music, and swimming may be elected. Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Saxony Real-Scliool. Religion 3 German 8 French English History 1 Geography 2 Natural history 2 Chem. and min Physics Mathematics 5 Drawing 2 Writing .3 Gymnastics 2 Singing 2 Total* 26 3 3 2 2 2 U 6 () T^ 4 4 33 6 6 6 5 5 28 4 4 4 12 o o 2 3 2 n 2 2 2 2 1 1 30 3 3 6 2 2 4 4 6 6 ( 7 3.5 3 2 2 2 2 12 2 2 2 9 2 3 2 2 2 12 2 2 3 1 1 10 29 31 33 34 34 186 Stenographj' elective from IV class on. * Singing, electives, and gymnastics not counted. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 177 WeeMy Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden Higher Real-Schools. IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II V. II L. I U. I Total, Religion 2 2 2 2 German 6 5 4 4 French 6 6 6 ti English 4 History 2 2 Geography 2 2 2 2 Natural history 2 2 2 2 Chem., min., g'eol Physics Mathematics 5 5 5 5 Drawing 2 2 2 Writing 2 2 2 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 18 39 46 24 17 10 10 8 13 53* 10 (J 18 Total t 25 26 27 29 30 30 31 31 31 * Includes two hours weekly projective geometry, or " Darstellender Unterricht," as it is called. Weekly Hours devoted to each Study in the Higlier Real- Schools in Prussia. IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total Religion 3 2 2 German and / 4 1 3 1 . Historical narrative \ \ ) \ \ French 6 6 6 English History \ c, o * 2 Geography j' ~ " '/ 2 Mathematics 5 5 6 Nature lessons 2 2 2 Physics Chem. and min Writing 2 2 2 Drawing 2 2 Singing 2 2 Gymnastics 3 3 3 2 3 3 6 fi 5 4 Totalt 25 25 28 30 30 * The six years' work included in "a" corresponds to the real-school; that included in " b " is additional for the higher real-school. t Except singing and gymnastics. 178 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in a Combination Real-School in Prussia. Special for buiiness IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II training. L. I U. I Religion 2 2 2 German 6 5 4 German corre- spondence French 6 C 6 French corre- spondence French conversa- tion English English corre- spondence English conversa- tion Italian Book-keeping History 2 Geography 2 2 2 Natural history ... 2 2 2 Chem., geol., min Physics Mathematics 5 5 5 Drawing 2 2 Writing (stenog- raphy) 2 2 2 Gymnastics 2 2 2 18 41 2 24 2 2 9 2 17 13 10 8 13 48 16 8 20 Total* 25 26 27 29 30 28 31 30 80 283 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian Real-Progymnasia. VI IV III II Religion 3 2 2 2 2 German 6 5 3 3 3 Latin .. 7 4 4 French 6 6 5 5 5 EnglLsh 3 3 History 2 2 2 Geography 2 2 2 2 2 Mathematics 4 4 4 5 5 Natural history and I o o o o o Physics \ " ^ ~ '^ '^ Writing 2 2 Drawing 2 2 2 2 Singing 2 2 Total* 27 27 31 32 32 * Except singing and gymnastics. 13 23 18 31 9 8 11 27 4 173 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 179 aoeoooDi-'i-oocaoi-ioco-'^ooco y-^ ZO ■^ CO G^ T-i y-i r^ t-i »0 r^ y~^ p (Mcooroecco • . C^ CO I- 5* .0* . TO J (Mcotojocoro • ■'NCOt-IJ .Jif . 3 6 ojcooeocoKi • • cjmtofM ■ 5} . CO cjOT50-*co»i • -Wffjc-c* -at atcoa:>-^natoiat ■ ■•v>t •*» INOTOO'fl'COfNOJei • •■*(?» •« .J o o a O CO -SI -OJOJ TO OjTt* 'iO^Oi ' '^Cil-OJ ■©« (J! ■^ • lo ■^ c> cj (Jj • oj in ffj • oj w* • to -rf if 2 24 - 4 Matlieniatics. . 5 .0 5 4 4 3 4 4 3 37 + 3 Natural hist.. » 2 2 2 2 2 10 ± Physics o 2 2 2 8 ± Writing: 2 o 4 + Drawing 2 2 2 2 8 + 2 25 25 26 28 28 30 31 31 31 255 - 13 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Frankfort Real-Gymnasium {sitice Easter, 1S92). VI V IV L. Ill U. HI L. 11 U. II L.I U. I Total. Change. Rehgion 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 ± German and hist, nar 5 4* 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 31 + 4 Latin 8 8 6 6 6 6 40 - 14 French fi C. 4 4 3 3 3 3 38 + 4 English 6 4 4 4 18 - 2 Hist, and geog. 2 2 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 2. - 3 Mathematics.. 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 42 - 2 Natural hist. . . 2 2 2 2 2 10 — 2 Physics 3 2 2 o 9 - 3 Chemistry 2 2 2 6 ± Writing 2 2 4 ± Drawing 2 ~ 2 2 2 2 2 2 16 - 2 25 25 26 28 28 32 32 32 32 260 -20 Gymnastics, three hours weekly throughout. Singing in VI and V, two hours weekly ; an hour and a half weekly for rest of course for pupils who can sing. Drawing (elective), two hours weekly in II and I. English (elective), two hours weekly in three highest classes (gymna- sium). Hebrew, the same as English. 182 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 2. OuTLixE OF Courses of Study. The followin,!? outline of courses in the various branches of study is taken from the programme {Lehrplan) of tlie Leibnitz Gymnasium of Berlin, 1895-'96. It is typical of all gymnasia, since there is little variation from a common standard in the different schools of the country. The smaller gym- nasia have essentially the same courses as the larger.* A. RELIGION. (a) Vorschule. 1st class, 3 hours weekly. f Bible history, Old and New Testaments. The Ten Commandments without Luther's comments. Short Bible proverbs. Lord's Prayer, Morning and evening prayer. Church hymns, £d class, 3 hours. History of Old and Xew Tes- taments, Bible proverbs. Prayers and the three hymns, " Ach, bleib' mit deiner Gnade " ; " Nun danket alle Gott " ; " Lobt Gott, ihr Christen." 3d class, 3 hours. Biblical history from Old and New Testaments. Church creed with Luther's com- ments. Church hymns and proverbs, (b) Gymnasium. Sexta, 2 hours. Biblical study from Old and New Testaments, Sixty stories. Preceding each of the church festivals, the appropriate biblical history from the New Testament. Learn first part of creed with Luther's comments. Impressing (Einpragicvg) les- sons of catechism and hymns. * Bericht iiber das Schuljahr 1895-'96, Berlin, 1896. •j-The number of hours means weekly in each case. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 183 Quinta^ 2 hours. History of the Xew Testament. Fifty stories. Explanation and learning of the second part of the creed with Luther's comments. Thirty- four proverbs as in Sexta, with six new ones. Quarta, 2 hours. Succession and division of books of Old Testament in connection with reading of most important sections. History of Kingdom of God as ■■ given in the Old Testament. Eeview of catechism learned in VI and Y. Explanation and "Einprii- gung " of the third division of the creed. Lower Tertia, 2 hours. Names and divisions of the books of the Xew Testament. Kead book of Matthew. Eeview previously learned catechism. Take fourth part of creed, additional proverbs. Ee- view previous hymns, take four new ones. Explana- tion of three or four other new hymns, at the same time learning individual couplets. Explain three psalms. Upper Tertia, 2 hours. Acts of the Apostles. Most important parts of church and Eeformation history in connection with the life of Luther. Ee- view previous catechism. Memorize fifth part of creed. Proverbs. Explanation of psalms (three memorized). Eeview previous hymns with explana- tion of three or four additional. Learning of indi- vidual couplets. Loioer Secunda, 2 hours. Instruction in church doctrines and significance of orders of worship. Life and teachings of Jesus. Biblical teachings of Xcav Testament. Eeview catechism. Proverbs, hymns, psalms. Upper Secunda, 2 hours. History of Israel. Fur- 184 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. tlier study of Old and Xew Testaments. Kead Acts of the Apostles. Selected parts of non-Paulinian letters. Eeview churcli liymns, psalms, proverbs, and catechism. Lower Prima, 2 liours. Study writings of John, with selected readings from his gospel. Life and writings of the Apostle Paul, especially Eomans, Corinthians, Galatians, and Philippians. TT^jper Prima, 2 hours. Life and works of John, with comprehensive lectures upon his evangelism. Eeformation and church history. Most important teachings of the Evangelical Church. Augsburg confession. EevicAV catechism. Proverbs, psalms, and church hymns. Xo detailed comments upon the course of instruc- tion in religion will be offered. Since biblical in- struction forms no part of our public-school cur- ricula, the discussion could not be made comparative, and a merely expository treatment is not necessary. It may be well, however, to answer a question frequently asked me, viz. : Since there are different religious denominations, how is it possible to give instruction that avoids creating dissension and is acceptable to all ? Dissension is avoided by provid- ing teachers of religion for the various denomina- tions represented in the schools. This is made possible by employing, in many cases, clergymen of the city to give instruction in religion. It does not usually necessitate the employment of many teachers for this branch in a given school. Seldom more than a Protestant and a Catholic — sometimes a Jewish — teacher are necessary for the same school. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 185 Very frequently the pupils in a school are nearly all of the same denomination. It is also to be noted that attendance upon religious instruction is not obligatory if given by a teacher of a faith different from that of the pupil. My observations led me to believe that the greatest harmony prevailed, and that there was none of that strife between church and state that we in America would naturally expect as a result of the close correlation of secular and religious instruction. It is not to be inferred that a similar procedure could be followed in this country. Conditions are different, and the question has been settled in a way apparently best fitted to meet our own peculiar demands. ]S'o question of this nature can be settled upon purely a priori grounds. All institutions must ultimately be adjusted to the civ- ilization amid which they exist. B. CLASSICS. («) Latin. Sexta., 8 hours. Grammar, with the greatest stress upon the regular verbs, excluding the deponent verbs. Word values from reading books. Some ele- mentary syntactical rules inductively learned. Trans- lation as home work. Memorizing individual sen- tences. Pure writing in Latin. Weekly half-hour thoughtful consideration of content of text. Quinta, 8 hours. Eeview of regular grammatical forms. Deponent verbs. Irregular grammatical forms, with limitation to those necessary. Pronouns, com- parison, numerals, prepositions, and adverbs. Some 18G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. syntactical rules as necessity demands. Oral and written exercises as well as Latin composition. Quarta, 7 hours. Eeading, first semester, three hours ; second semester, four hours. Cornelius Xepos and selections by 0. Kichter. Exercises in constru- ing unj^repared selections. Translation back into Latin. Phrases and synonyms distinguished in the reading lesson. Grammar, first semester, four hours ; second semester, three hours. Eeview of previous forms. Case forms. Syntax of verbs as necessity demands. Oral and written translations into Latin. Every three weeks, two short translations as writ- ten or oral class " extemporale." Each semester, three written translations from Latin into Ger- man. Lower Tertia., 7 hours. Grammar, three hours. Eeview and extension of case forms. Eules of tense and mode. Oral and written translations from War- schauer's exercise book. Every two weeks, an " ex- temporale " or " Exerzitium " (written exercise) in connection with reading. Every six weeks, a written translation into German. Eead in summer: Caesar de bello Gallico, I,- 1-128 ; VI, 11-29. AYinter : Caesar de bello Gallico, II, III, IV. tipper Tertia, 7 hours. Explanations and exer- cises in dactylic hexameter. Eeading and exercises as in L. III. Eeview and extension of mode and tense in connection with the syntax of verbs. Use of exercise book as in L. III. Eead in summer semester : Csesar, de bell, civ., II, 1-19; Ovid, Metam., II, 1-328 ; VII, 618-724. Winter semester : Csesar, de bell, civ., Ill, Avith exceptions. Ovid, Metam., PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 187 VI, 313-381 ; X, 1-77 ; XI, 1-GG ; IV, 55-166 ; V, 341-571 ; XIII, 750-899. Lower Secunda, 7 hours. Memorize poetry. As opportunity affords, rhetorical rules and distinction of synonyms in connection with reading. Grammar, 3 hours. Eeview and extension of previous Avork. Every three weeks, two short translations into Latin in connection with reading, either " extemporale " or " Exerzitium." Every six weeks, instead of class work, a written translation into German. Eead in summer semester : Cicero, de imp. Cn. Pompeii ; Verg., ^n., 1, 1-389 ; Liv., lib. XXI, c. 1-31 ; Cicero in Catil., I, III ; Verg., .En., II, 250-558. AYinter : Liv., XXI, c. 1-48 ; Verg., ^n., I, 1-393 ; II, 1-250 ; III, 1-191. Upper Secunda, 6 hours. Memorize portions of Vergil or Casar. Ehetorical and grammatical points in connection with reading. Every two weeks a written translation into Latin. " Content " lessons. Eead Cicero's Pro Sext. Eosc. Am. ; Vergil's ^n., VII, VIII (with exceptions). III, 690-718, IV ; Sal- lust, de conj. Catil., c. 21-61. Lower Prima, 6 hours. Eead Cicero, TuscuL, I ; selected letters from 1st and 2d books. Horace, history which relates to Maecenas and other friends, also history relating to Eoman states. Eemainder of work as in U. I. Upper Prima., 6 hours. Tacitus' Germ., and sections from Cgesar's Gallic War ; Tacitus' Annals, I, II, which refers to Germany. Poems from Horace wliich have a close relation to later literature. Se- lected letters of Cicero. Livy, I. Philosophical 14 188 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. poems of Horace, which refer to moral upbuilding. Memorize portions of Horace. Exj)lanation of im- portant rhetorical rules. Synonyms. Translations into Latin bi-weekly. Translations into German. " Content " lessons. Exercises in grammatical and rhetorical rules. {h) Greek. Loiver Tertia, G hours. Eegular grammar of Attic dialect to the mute verbs, excepting tlie sec- ondary tenses. Important parts of sound and ac- cent in connection with inflections. Syntactical rules learned inductively in connection with read- ing. Oral and written translations into Greek every two weeks (seldom as home work, usually in class). Reading according to Bellerman's reading book. TJ'pinr Tertia^ 6 hours. The secondary tenses, liquid verbs, the verbs in "m," and the important irregular verbs of the Attic dialect. Prepositions memorized. Eeview and extension of lessons in U. III. Important rules selected in connection with reading. Written translations every 14 days. Read- ing Xenophon's Anabasis, I, 1-3, II, 3-5, IV. Lower Secunda, 6 hours. Syntax of nouns, arti- cles, and pronouns. The important facts relating to mode. Every two weeks a written class exercise. Occasionally a home translation from Greek into German. Read, Summer : Xen., Anab, IV, V, 1 ; Homer's Od., III. Winter: Xen., Hell., Ill, IV, with exceptions. Homer's Od., I, II, with excep- tions. Portions of Homer memorized. Upper Secunda^ 6 hours. Written translations from Greek into German, in connection with prose PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 189 readings, mode, tense, verbs, infinitives, participles. Read selections of Xen. A23omm. ; Herod., VII, 1st half, IX ; Homer's Od., XIY-XVIII ; Plato's Apol- ology. Parts of Homer memorized. Loiver Prima., 6 hours. Eead Plato's Lacli. Euth. ; Demosthenes, Phil., I ; Homer's II., XIX- XXI ; Sophocles, Ajax ; Thncy., VI., with excep- tions. Homer's II., I-V. Eemainder as in U. I. Ujiper Prima., 6 hours. Memorize poetry. Ee- view grammar. Translations from Greek into Ger- man from book or from dictation. Eead Plato's Protag. ; Homer's H., II, IV, VI-IX, XVII-XXIV ; Soph., Ajax ; Dem., Phil., III. {c) Hebrew {piitionaX). Upper Seciuida, 2 hours. Elements of Hebrew grammar. Eegular verbs with suffixes, nouns, vo- cabulary. Exercises in translation. Lower Prima, 2 hours. Combined with U. I. Upper Prima, 2 hours. Irregular verbs, nouns, numerals. Syntax. Vocabulary. Eead Genesis and Psalms. The classics, as is well known, form the back- bone of the gymnasial course. They have held this distinction for hundreds of years and are likely to for some time to come. For many lines of subse- quent study they are tenaciously held to be indis- pensable. This prejudice, if it be such, will not be overthrown easily. Only the lapse of time under modern conditions can determine their right to re- main or to be superseded. Of the details of method I shall not attempt a 190 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. discussion. I sliall attempt to point out what seem to me, from personal observation, the salient fea- tures of classical instruction in German schools, and to mention something concerning the changing atti- tude toward the classics in Germany. The general aim to be reached is an understand- ing of the most significant classical authors, and discipline in the logic of language (" Verstdndniss der hedeutenderen klassischen SrltriftsteUer der Iso- mer 11 nd der (irieclien und spraclilicli-Jogische Schu- luiKj^'' Lehrplan, 1891). However, it is stated that the rules of grammar are to be only a means to an end — that of reading and understanding the authors of antiquity. By systematic instruction this power of logical reasoning is to be strengthened and devel- oped, and a mastery of the language gained. But the higher and more important motives are not to be lost sight of. The main object is to create in the learners' minds higher and nobler ideals of life, and to give them, through acquaintance with the ancient literature and history, a more substantial and exten- sive historic background. This only can give sound- ness of judgment concerning things of the present. History, literature, geography, and language (ancient and modern) are correlated into a solid phalanx. "WTiatever be the future walk in life, the pupil can not fail to have been bettered and strengthened by this ideal course. The future philosopher and the scientist require this background for a proper under- standing of the development of their departments ; for the future philologist, it goes without saying that it is indispensable ; the historian should be in posses- PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 191 sion of the main truths, gained either in translation or at first hand, and the future politician or man of affairs can not fail to gain in critical judgment by an intimate acquaintance with the ancients. It is in imparting this deeper and more impor- tant insight that I believe the Germans excel us. We teach the language for its own sake, and, we claim, to cultivate logical thinking — both purely formal ob- jects. But the important ends, the formation of sound historical judgment and the inculcation of higher ideals, those things that really educate, we too often overlook. As I shall attempt to show concerning history, likewise in the classics, those factors which tend to produce fealty to government, stability of purpose, and conservatism of ideas are all fostered. This view is too important to be overlooked. The domi- nant questions should be : What does this contribute toward future manhood or womanhood, toward indi- viduality, toward citizenship ? I would not have the latter confined to political boundaries, but citizenship in the broadest, most far-reaching significance. As one of the means toward this end, I believe that their use of objective (" Anschauungs ") ma- terial in teaching the classics needs special mention. As in modern languages, the attempt is made to place the pupil in the midst of the people and places which he is studying. When studying Rome, he is to see the Eomans as they were. Eoman soldiers and citizens had distinctive appearances in dress ; the pupils must not think of them in German sol- diers' and citizens' dress. Full life-size pictures of 192 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. a Roman soldier, with helmet, shield, greaves, and battle-axe, or of citizens with the toga, form a part of the objective material for the lesson on one day. On another day the Roman Forum or the Athenian Parthenon are shown in drawings on a large scale. When possible, many of the implements of war or those used in the industries are brought in from the museums for inspection. Greek and Roman statuary is also to be seen on every hand, not usually in the schoolroom indeed, but accessible, and ancient forms of architecture may be pointed out by the teacher during any les- son. In this way the subject becomes full of in- terest and reality. It assumes an ineffaceable mean- ing not to be lightly esteemed. I have often ob- served its correlation with mathematics, as well as with history — for example, in connection with the Pythagorean theorem, the conchoid of Xicomedes, or the octagonal form of the Roman Forum. We have seen from the study of the development of the present curricula that the amount of time spent upon the classics is a constantly diminishing quantity. The question naturally arises : What will be the final outcome ? Is the study of the classics to retain its present preponderance, or is it to be made co-ordinate with, or even subordinate to, subjects of more modern interest ? Xot even Germans who are the best acquainted with the situation would venture unqualified assertions. Hence it would be presumptu- ous in a foreigner to make too sweeping statements. However, if we may judge of the future, using the past changes as indices, certain conclusions can not PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 193 be escaped. The types of schools have been gradu- ally but definitely changing from the purely classical schools for all alike, to those which are seemingly better adjusted to the diverse needs of the many. The classical schools have not been eliminated, but other schools, semi-classical and non-classical in character, have been established for those who needed little Latin and no Greek, and those who wished neither. More modern studies have been substituted for those persons who need special preparation in non-classical directions. Even the classical gymnasia have necessarily modified their curricula to suit the ever-changing conditions of civilization. This shows us the simple principle, which, however, too many entirely overlook — name- ly, that no curriculum of subjects can ever be ar- ranged that will meet the needs of all times or of all countries, or even the needs of all people in the same country at the same time. The more complex and highly organized civilization becomes, the more differentiated must the curriculum be to meet the demands. An institution is an evolutionary growth ; a curriculum is a result of evolution, just as much as an individual, or just as much as a people for whom schools and curricula are formed. It is simply the adjustment of relations ; the passage " from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, co- herent heterogeneity." * It is this principle that ought to be constantly borne in mind when studying proposed changes in * Spencer, First Principles, 1st ed., p. 39G. 194 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. our own school curricula. It is not a valid argu- ment for the introduction or exclusion of certain features to say that Germany does so, or that Eng- land does otherwise. The study of other countries certainly should aid in pronouncing more valid judgments, but the question must be worked out from the local (largely national) features of the case. The strenuous effort in Germany to secure an " Einheitsschule " having a common basis of instruc- tion without Latin in the lower grades has a great significance. Although the question was answered in the negative in the Conference of 1890, and it received no attention in the Lehrplan of 1891, it is still before the people and receiving much discussion. Permission was even received from the government by the local authorities of Erankfort to institute a temporary innovation in this direction. The gymna- sium and the real-gymnasium of the city were en- tirely reorganized. The main features of the curric- ulum (see p. 181) are as follows : Latin is not begun in the lowest class but is deferred until the fourth (L. Ill) in both forms of school. Greek is deferred in the gymnasium until the sixth year (L. II) instead of having it begin as usual in IV. In place of Latin in the lower classes Erench is taken from the begin- ning and carried through the course. A greater number of hours (six) is given to it in the lower grades and a smaller number of hours in the latter part of the course. The total is essentialh^ un- changed. In the real-gymnasium English is taken through the last four years only, instead of through PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 195 six, but the total is the same, a greater number of weekly hours being given than formerly. Latin and Greek, when begun, also have an exceedingly large amount of time given them weekly. Latin has ten hours weekly for two years, and eight hours for the remaining four years. Greek occupies eight hours weekly through four years. The advantages claimed for this system are these : Xo two foreign languages are being studied in their elementary stages simulta- neously. One is pretty well conquered before another is begun. Again, more intensive work is put upon each when once begun. Lastly, probably of prime importance, an easy living language is substituted for a difficult obsolete one, during the period when the child mind is least able to cope with difficult grammatical abstractions. During this period his mind is most plastic and hence pre-eminently fitted to acquire language by the natural method. The easy is placed in the more tender years and the diffi- cult in the period when the mind can better grapple with difficulties, instead of the reverse arrangement. This plan is now in operation in the Leibnitz Gymna- sium, Hanover, in Altona, Magdeburg, and Iserlohn, and it is contemplated in Liibeck, Lichtenburger and many other places.* So far as can be seen, the plan meets with great satisfaction. The first class of graduates will leave the Frankfort school soon, and it will not be long be- fore the system will have had a thorough trial. Ac- cording to Professor Paulsen's views, there is no * Program II, Kealschule, Frankfort, 1896-97. 196 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. reason why Latin may not bo put off until much later than Sexta. He Avrites that " Latin grammar is undoubtedly too severe for nine-year-old boys, and not the best mental food at that age. Some can digest it, others suffer from it. The stream of red ink that daily is poured over the ' extemporale ' exercises of the boys in Sexta, Quinta, and Quarta cries out toward Heaven." * Professor Paulsen believes that the elements of a modern language taught orally would be much easier learned than the classics, and if it had been usual to begin Latin in Tertia no one would for a moment think of beginning it in Sexta. In the Middle Ages it was customary to make the very first instruction Latin ; now the first instruction is in the mother tongue, but the custom of making Latin the first foreign language still prevails. He further says : " I believe the growing distance from the Middle Ages and the increasing significance of the modern lan- guages will cause us to break even with this custom, as has already been the case with neighbouring na- tions." f There will be, he adds, J a gradual changing of the classical gymnasia into real-gymnasia. A large number of classical schools will be necessary for some time to come. " For always ? I believe not." Professor Paulsen cites his own early training * to prove that the classics may be begun at a much later period than Sexta. He was a farmer boy and at- * Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, II, p. 617. f Loc. cit., p. 618. X J^oc. cit., p. 618. * Loc. ciL, p. 619. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 197 tended the village school until about seventeen years old. He then entered the Altona Gymnasium in Secunda, finishing the entire course in three years more. He had begun Latin at fifteen and a quarter years of age by private instruction, at the same time continuing in the village Volksschule. At sixteen he began, also, Greek, Hebrew, French, English, and Danish. This shows that it is not necessary to begin Latin at nine years and Greek at eleven. C. MODEEN LA^'GUAGES. (a) French. Quarfa, 4 hours. Elementary reading book, les- sons 1-32. Eeading exercises and attempts at speak- ing. Eegular conjugation in the indicative mode of avoir and efre. Articles in the nominative and accusative. Gender and declension of nouns. Eeg- ular and irregular comparison of adjectives. Nu- merals, adverbs, and conjunctive pronouns. Dic- tation exercises, " extemporale," and written work alternating every two weeks. Lower Tertia, 3 hours. Plotz's elementary read- ing book, lessons 33-51. Grammar, lessons 2-25. Eeview of regular conjugations of avoir and etre. Conjunctions, verbs with cer, ger, etc. Necessary irregular verbs and pronouns. Dictation exercises, "extemporale," and written work alternating every three weeks. Conversation exercises. Eead from elementary reading book. Selected poetry. Upper Tertia, 3 hours. School grammar, lessons 26-33. Irregular verbs, omitting the less important 198 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. composite verbs. Use of luixiliaries avoir aiul Hre. Order of words. Tenses in the indicative and sub- junctive modes. Written and oral translations into French. Dictation lessons, " content " lessons, and conversation. Eead Erckmann-Chatrian's Histoire d'un Conscrit de 1813, or Choix de nouvelles mo- dernes, and Au coin du feu. Lower Secimda, 2 hours. School grammar, les- sons 54-72. Conjunctions, adjectives, adverbs, arti- cles, prepositions, participles, infinitives. Eevievv pronouns. Written and oral translations into French and conversation exercises. Read selected narra- tives. Sandeau's Mile, de la Seigliere. Upper Secunda, 2 hours. Review grammar in connection with oral translations into French. Every four weeks a translation from French into German. Conversation. Read Daudet's Le Petit Chose, Racine's Phedre, Merimee's Colomba. Selec- tions from French poets. La Fontaine, Beranger, Fr. Coppee. Loioer Prima, 2 hours. Read Pailleron's Le Monde on Ton s'ennuie, Moliere's Le Malade Imagi- naire, D'Herisson's Journal d'un officier d'ordon- nance. Poems selected from La Fontaine, Victor Hugo, Fr. Coppee. Upper Prima, 2 hours. Review grammatical rules in combination with oral translation into French. Every four weeks a translation from French. Conversation. Read D'Herisson's Journal d'un offi- cier d'ordonnance, Moliere's I'Avare. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 199 (/;) Fiir/lish {elective). Ui^per Secumla., 2 hours. Grammar is given in Bando, Lehrbuch tier Englischen Sprache. Read first part of this book and Burnett's Little Lord Fauntleroy. Loioer and Upper Prima., 2 hours. (Work ar- ranged together, but it is taken two hours each year.) Read Dickens's Sketches, Burnett's Little Lord Faunt- leroy, Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Byron's Prisoner of Chillon, Mazeppa. It will be seen from the above course in English that it is only a side issue in the gymnasia. It is elective, and consequently is often omitted because of the press of other work. Future theological students alwa3's take Hebrew instead. The following outline of work from the Leipzig real-gymnasium will indicate the scope and character of the work done in the best real-gymnasia and higher real- schools. English in Leipzig Real-Gymnasium. Loiver Tertia, 3 hours. General introductory work. Weekly a written or oral " extemporale " in connection with the reading lessons. Talks about spring or a farmyard. Upjjer Tertia^ 3 hours. Reading Book, Part II (Zimmerman). Selections from Herrig's Reading Book and Burnett's Little Lord Fauntleroy. Con- versation exercises. A weekly written exercise, pre- pared or " extemporale." 200 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Lower Secunda, 3 hours. Zimmerman's Reading Book, systematic course, lessons 30-54. Selections from Herrig's Reading Book. Tales from the Alhambra, Irving. A weekly written exercise. Upi^er Secunda^ 3 hours. Schmidt's Grammar of the English Language, Part I ; Syntax, G9-144. Review of etymology. Read Herrig's Classical Au- thors, Irving's English Sketches. A weekly written exercise (prepared or " extemporale "). Lower Prima., 3 hours. General review of the work done in L. II. Continuation of Schmidt's Grammar of the English Language, Part II; Syn- tax, 145-215. Every two weeks a written exercise, " exercitium, extemporale," or an elective exercise. Read from Herrig's Classical Authors, and from Macaulay's Lord Clive. Upper Prima., 3 hours. Schmidt's Grammar of the English Language, Part II ; Syntax, 215-254. Re- view the work of L. I. Oral exercises as in Schmidt. Every two weeks a written exercise (translation, " ex- temporale," or elective work). Read selections from Herrig's Classical Authors, parts of Milton's Paradise Lost, Shakespeare's Coriolanus, cursory reading of History of English Literature. A Modern languages, especially French, have con- siderable time devoted to them. In the humanistic gymnasia, where so much time is given to Latin and Greek, a less amount of time is given to the modern languages than in the realistic schools of various forms. But even in the classical schools French is studied to an extent that would seem considerable in American schools. The average amount of time PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 201 allowed for it in the various States is a little above twenty weekly hours, or with us that would mean a daily lesson, five hours a week, for four school years. When we consider that freshmen and soj)homores in college acquire a good reading knowledge of French in two years, or even quite a fair knowledge in one 3^ear, it means, even considering the younger age at which the first part of the work is done in German schools, that quite a degree of proficiency ought to be attained in the long period devoted to it in Ger- man schools. And such is tlie case. Before the end of the course the boys read and sj^eak French with quite an enviable fluency. Prussia has nineteen hours of French in its course of study. Saxony and "Wiirtemberg eighteen hours each, Mecklenburg- Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Alsace-Lorraine twenty-four hours each, Hesse twenty-three, Baden twenty, while Bavaria brings up the rear with only ten hours. The real-gymnasia, which have no Greek in their courses, and have nine years of work, the same as the gymnasia, increase the number of liours quite materially. The average number of hours in all the eight principal states, Bavaria excepted, is about thirty. In Bavaria only twenty hours are offered. * The real-schools (with courses of only six years) have varying numbers of hours set apart for French. Mecklenburg leads the list with a total of thirty-five hours, while Bavaria has only twenty-seven. Prussia * This deviation in Bavaria is unexplainable, since the other studies have no extra hours to compensate. Bavaria, it will be seen from the table, has a lighter course throughout. 202 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. has thirty-one hours, tliat being about tlie average for all Germany. Iligher real-schools have a still larger amount of time for French. I'russia gives, in addition to the thirty-one hours in the real-school proper, four hours a week in each of the upper classes beyond the real-schools. This makes a total of forty- seven weekly hours ! The subject is begun in the humanistic gymnasia usually with Quarta (at the latest, Lower Tertia), and continued throughout the course with an average of nearly three hours weekly. This class of school, having so much Latin and Greek, aims to have only one foreign language begun at a time, and starts with Latin in Sexta, deferring Greek until a year later than French. English is begun somewhat later in the course, but during the last three or four years of a boy's life in the gymnasium he is completely satu- rated with linguistic training. He is almost sure of three, and usually has four, foreign languages to battle with at the same time. If the pupil does not elect English, which is optional, he may elect He- brew, and in some states Spanish, Italian, etc., are offered. These in addition to his own mother tongue. There are always fourteen or fifteen hours per week of required language work, and when English or Hebrew is elected the amount is swelled to sixteen or seventeen hours. Saxony requires seventeen hours, and offers two hours elective Avork. Thus the German gymnasia require about as many hours of language training in their courses as we have for all studies combined. Besides the foreign languages, they require from two to four hours weekly study of PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 203 the mother tongue. Then come mathematics, with an average of about one lesson a day throughout the entire period of school life, some science, a continuous draft of time for religion, obligatory gymnastics ; and then considerable time and energy is to be devoted to drawing, writing, singing, etc. Should American boys be obliged to undertake so heavy a burden of studies, I fancy there would soon be a cry of inhuman treatment arising from tens of thousands of fond parents. Even in Germany the cry of "Uberbiir- dung" has been heard from all quarters, and the " tJberbiirdungsfrage," together with the clamour for more practical arts and sciences and less of the apparently useless furniture of Latin and Greek,* makes one of the most burning questions of practical pedagogics in Germany, Languages in their totality receive less attention in the real-gymnasia, but in these schools modern languages are accorded a relatively much greater place than in the humanistic institutions. Foreign languages occupy from ninety-two weekly hours of the entire course in Prussia to one hundred and two and a half weekly hours in Wiirtemberg in the real-gymna- sia. The gymnasia in the same states give one hun- dred and seventeen and one hundred and thirty-nine hours respectively to foreign linguistic training. French is usually begun in the real-gymnasia in Quarta or LoAver Tertia, and pursued for three or four hours weekly to the end of the course. This * That is, when obligatory in such quantities for students of all professions. Few dispute their relative value. 204 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. gives to the real -gymnasia from six to seven hours more of French than the gymnasia. In the real-schools, which have no foreign lan- guages besides English and French, the latter is begun in Sexta, or at the beginning of the course, and taken throughout the six years of the course for a little over six hours weekly ; the total amount of time given to French and English being about the same as that given in the real-gymnasia. The various progymnasia and real-progymnasia require about the same amount as the real-gymnasia. The higher real-schools, however, offer the same amount as the real-schools through the first six years, and then add about four hours weekly (see Prussian higher real-school) for the last three years of the course. This provides a total of forty-seven hours' (Prussia) French instruction in the entire course. It was not my good fortune to visit a higher real- school, as they are not yet very numerous,* but with this amount of time spent upon French the pupils ought to acquire a very ready acquaintance with the printed language, and ought to speak and write it fluently. They probably do, for the instruction is excellent in most schools, and the pupils seem to acquire the language readily. Many of the schools are drawing away from the older methods of teaching modern languages. Some still cling to the sahie method of presentation as is pursued with the classics, but they are the exception * They, however, seem to be in great demand, having in- creased more rapidly during the last few years than any other form of school. See table on distribution of schools. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 205 rather than the rule. It may be said that the gymna- sium teachers favour the grammatical method, while the real-school teachers advocate the natural method. The results obtained in English in the gymnasia are not usually so good as those reached in the real-school and real-gymnasia. Still, some of the best teaching of English that I was able to witness in all my visits was in the gymnasia. French is taught as a spoken language, and taught well in all classes of schools. The real-schools usually give instruction of the most vigorous sort, which, viewed from the standpoint of practical utility, is most effective. This utilitarian tendency which the newer methods are believed to engender and foster is viewed with great disfavour by many gymnasial instructors. They believe that the philological method is the only one that can afford mental discipline, which they claim is the main and almost the sole object of teaching any subject. The real-school men, on the other liand, maintain that no mental discipline is sacrificed by the natural method. They believe that there is even a gain, since the interest aroused in the study is so greatly increased. The practical end, which they do not deny, but believe is the chief purpose of teaching the modern foreign languages, is also reached. The real-school courses in their entirety owe their exist- ence to the clamour for studies of practical utilit}'', and may not the continuance of the basal studies in their courses be justified by the necessity for training that will enable the classes who are its patrons to best meet the bread-and-butter problems of life ? Who shall say that the practical training received in these 206 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. schools does not enable their students to live more completely? And it must be conceded that com- plete living is the end of all true education. It must also be remembered that what constitutes complete living for one does not constitute complete living for all. Some live most completely when understanding and mastering the practical — even material — condi- tions of life only ; others live completely only when in the contemplation of things spiritual. To culti- vate pure spirituality only, and not to furnish the means for securing those things which enable people to have leisure and the surroundings necessary for the enjoyment of intellectual occupation, is apt to create an inharmonious condition. Individuals so trained are apt to be out of unison with their envi- ronment. The Germans regard these as a class of hunger candidates, unable to secure the means for their ideal existence, and unwilling and unable to turn to more menial service. The teaching of modern languages, according to the natural or Pestalozzian method, is receiving thorough critical discussion in all parts of the coun- try. All the pedagogical magazines are replete with able discussions jwo and con, those in favour of the natural method being decidedly in the majority. There are also several journals exclusively devoted to a consideration of this important question. Not only are the newer methods finding favour in discus- sions, but many disciples are putting into practice the new doctrines, or, more strictly, the more re- cently revised doctrines. The natural method has had many exponents among the great leaders of peda- PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 207 gogical thouglit. It was heralded by Erasmus, Co- menius, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Willmann, Ackermann, Kern, and others, not to mention its English sup- porters. By this method the ear as well as the eye is made a factor in the acquisition. The new language is to be acquired by the same method that a child learns its mother tongue — by reception through the ear, watching the movements of the lips, and by imi- tation of what it perceives. Through constant asso- ciation of things with words the objective and the subjective are related. Frequent repetition is an important factor, and the influence of muscular memory brought about by movement of the vocal organs is taken advantage of. * By the proper selection of material the interest is stimulated. This, it may be said, is perhaps only second to repetition in the influence upon memoriz- ing. Of course, the youth who has learned to read possesses an advantage over the infant, and hence with him not all acquisition depends upon " parrot repetition " ; logical associations aid the youth. The eye is also a factor in acquisition. But the initial work until the elements of pronunciation are well mastered belong to the oral side of language teaching. It is usual to begin the teaching of both English and French in German schools by considerable intro- ductory oral work. After some skill has been acquired in understanding the spoken word and in pronuncia- * See J. R. Street, Ped. Sein. IV, A Study in Language Teaching ; also Dr. H. T. Lukeus, Ped. Sem. Ill, A Study in learuintr Lanauage. 208 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. tion (this includes sentences as well as words), read- ing is begun. The lessons arc first read by the teacher, who explains the words and phrases not understood by the pupils ; the pupils then read the selection ; and after tliis follows a large amount of judicious questioning upon what has been read. At first the questions are so framed that the pupil may answer in the words given in the book, or by chang- ing a single word or at most a very few words of the teacher's question ; for example : Sind sie lang in London geblieben ? Ja, ich bin lang in London geblieben. Who went with you to Eugby ? Henry went with me to Rugby. Did you see the Queen's palace in London ? Yes, we saw the Queen's palace in London. Concert answering in the first stages of the work is recommended as an aid in cultivating the ear and the voice. " Ausbildung der Hor- und Sprechftlhig- keit des Schlilers ist stets im Auge zu behalten " (Prussian Lehrplan). Much stress is placed upon the teaching of words and phrases used in daily life by the people whose language is being studied. Pro- fessor Hauskneclit claims that the current language of the people should be learned before the literary forms. It is manifestly a lack, he maintains, when (as is the case with certain elementary books on English) pupils are not given in the course of an entire year the expression for letter, post, railway train, steamer, tailor, coffee, or supper ; further, the characteristic English expressions, roast beef, beef- steak, plum pudding, ham, eggs, ale, ginger-beer, tramway, waterproof, trade, industry, commerce, PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 209 yes, also, daughter, mother, aunt, girl, and even pretty. And the pupil has been obliged to memo- rize the words fossil igumiodon ! The more recent books and the official regulations state that pupils are to be made acquainted with the daily life and occurrences of the people whose lan- guage they are studying. AVhen studying English, they are carried in thought, aided by maps, pictures, and proper reading books, we will say, to the capital of England, and made acquainted with its location, its streets, its points of interest, such as the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, Kensington Gar- dens, Hyde Park, Eotten Eow, Trafalgar Square, the British Museum, the Bank of England, the Tower, Big Ben, etc. I have witnessed very in- teresting lessons based upon Tom's Journey through London and its Environs. (See Hausknecht's English Student.) The boys were introduced to all the fa- mous sights, learned something about the Charter- house School and Eugby, about the English school- boy's games, and life in England generally. The schoolboy life is, of course, of greatest interest, being so nearly related to their own experiences. Had the language been French, Paris or some other French city would have formed the centre of the theme, and French schoolboy life would have received attention. I have witnessed very spirited exercises upon a study of French schools. Many of the German modern -language teachers speak with a good deal of pride of the fact that their books on French contain very few classical tales and fables. The French reading books on German are 210 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. almost exclusively made up of classic material. Such selections tend to deaden all interest. Greek tales, if in any foreign language, should be studied in Greek, Latin tales in Latin, and fables in the mother tongue. Some of our American text-book writers could well profit by this suggestion when preparing foreign-lan- guage manuals. Interest is fundamental in the ac- quisition of any subject, and I believe, from the work I saw, that the Germans have struck one of the right keys toward securing it in language teaching. Along with this the geography of the country is correlated, names are learned as they are pronounced at home, much valuable information is added, and with no loss — on the contrary, with gain — to the lan- guage lesson. Important events of history are dis- cussed. The authors who have contributed most to the literature are considered biographically, and some of their most important productions are at least talked about if time does not permit a more detailed consideration. In the higher real-schools quite a thorough and detailed survey of English literature is attempted, but in the gymnasia, where it is taken for such a limited time, the elements only can be studied. Simultaneously with learning vocabularies (which in the early portion of the work are learned from the teacher) and becoming acquainted with the life of the people, rules of grammar are considered. But they are of minor importance, and are incidental instead of being the " Hauptsache, " The above necessarily brief discussion will give something of the aims and methods in teaching mod- ern languages. The theories advanced by their most PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 211 progressive teachers are founded on a sound peda- gogical and psychological basis. Some schools secure most creditable results, others less perfect. From all the schools the boys come with a good working knowledge of French — i. e., they can read it, speak it, and write it with considerable ease and fluency. From many schools the same may be said of English, but it is far from universal. Few of the university stu- dents have a good working knoAvledge, and scarcely any can speak it. This is due to two causes : First, most of the university students are gymnasial trained, and there little attention is paid to it, some never studying it ; second, few teachers can speak it correct- ly, hence the poor pronvmciation of the students. While they teach French pronunciation perfectly, in general the English pronunciation is wretched. It is very exceptional to find native English teachers in the schools, and few of the German teachers ever master the difficulties of English pronunciation. Occasionally a teacher sjaends a short time in Eng- land, but it is the exception rather than the rule. Hence, although the real-gymnasia and higher real- school graduates can read and write the language well, they can seldom speak it so that an Englishman or an American can understand without difficulty. I have listened to a class of Upper Prima boys read from Herrig's Classical Authors and was unable to understand a line without also looking on the book. They had studied the language over five years. On the whole, I believe their methods and results in modern languages are very commendable, and should they secure English-speaking teachers, their proce- 212 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. dure in English in the real-gymnasia and liigher real- schools would be as admirable as it now is in teach- ing French. Appendix to Section C. The following is a list of works compiled by the School Board in Coblenz,* from which teachers are to make selections in teaching English : Historical: Chambers, History of the English People U. III. Scott, Tales of a Grandfather U. HI, L. II. Macaulay, Lord Clive II. Irving, The Discovery of America 11. Macaulay, Warren Hastings U. II, L. I. The Duke of Monmouth U. II, L. I. " History of England I. Green, A Short History of the English People. I. McCarthy, The Crimean War U. II, I. Biographical : Franklin's Autobiography II. Smiles, Deeds of Heroism L. 11. " George Stephenson II. Irving, Sketch-Book U. II, L Goadby, The England of Shakespeare I. Narrative : Irving, Tales of the Alhambra U. Ill, L. II. Marryat, Masterman Ready U. Ill, L. II. " The Children of the New Forest U. Ill, L. II. " The Settlers in Canada U. HI, L. II. " The Three Cutters U. Ill, L. II. " Collection of Tales and Sketches II. Scott, Waverly, Kenilworth, Ivanhoe U. II. Dickens, Sketches U. II. " A Christmas Carol U. II, I. " The Cricket on the Hearth * Centralblatt, 1897, pp. 225-227. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 213 Orations : Parliamentary Speeches of Pitt, Burke, etc. Science and History of Civilization: Great Explorers and Inventors U. II. Besant, London, Past and Present U. II, I. Green, Short History of the English People. . . U. II, I. Escott, England and its People U. II, I. Polity and Pursuits London and its Environs U. II, I. Poetry : Julius Caesar, Coriolanus, Macbeth, Richard III, Merchant of Venice I. Scott's Lady of the Lake U. IT, I. Byron's Selections from Childe Harold I. Milton, Selections from Paradise Lost I. Collection from Groff and Ilausknecht U. Ill, I. Seleci ions for Frtnch. Historical : Lame-Fleury, Decouverte de TAmerique U. III. Michaud, Premiere Croisade U. III. *' Troisieme Croisade U. Ill, L. II. Barante, Ilistoire de Jeanne d'Arc U. Ill, L. II. Thiers, Bonaparte en Egypte et en Syrie L. II. Drury, Sieele de Louis XIV L. II. Segur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande Armee U. II. Miquet, Histoire de la Revolution U. II, I. Lamprey, Histoire de Napoleon I. Taine, Les Origines de la France contempo- raine I. Biooraphical : Miquet, Vie de Franklin II. Michaud, Vie et Coutumes des Croisades II. Halevy, L'ln vasion II. Larcey, Le Siege de Paris L^. II, I. D'Herisson, Journal d'un Oilieier d'Ordon- nance U. II. 214 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. BlOGRAIMIICAL : Montes(iuieu, Consiclorations sur les Causes, etc. U. TI, I. Taine, Napoleon I. Guizot, Etude sur Washinj^ton I. " Histoire de la Civilisation I. Orations : Deseze, Defence de Ludwig XVI I. Narratives : Bruno, Le Tour de la France en 5 Mois U. III. " Francinet U. III. Souvestre, Au Coin de Feu U. Ill, L. II. Erckmann-Chatrian, Histoire d'un Conscrit. . . U. Ill, L. II. " " Waterloo, Contes Popu- laires, Contes du Bord du Rhin L.II. Conteurs Moderne L. II. Choix de Nouvelles Moderne II. Daudet, Lettres de Mon Moulin U. II. Contes du Lundl U. II. Coppee, Nouvellan U. II. Merimee, Colomba U. II. Toepier, Nouvelles Genevoises U. II. * Natural Science, Geography, Technical : Voyageurs et Inventeurs celebres L. II. Figuier, Les Grandes Inventions raodernes. ... L. I. M. du Camp, Paris I. Drama : Girardin, La Joie fait Peur L. II. Scribe, Bertrand et Raton, Le Verre d'Eau.. . . II. Bataille des Dames U. II. I. Sandeau, Mile, de la Seigliere U. II. Feuillet, Le Village U. II. Augier et Sandeau, Le Gendre de M. Poisier. . U. II. I. Racine, Athalie, Britannicus U. II. Corneille, Lc Cid, Horace, Cinna U. II. I. , Moliere, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme U. II. " L'Avare U. II, I. " Les Femine Savantes I. " Le Misanthrope U. II. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 215 On the four following pages is given the table of contents of one of the modern German books * for teaching English. It illustrates very well the meth- ods which I have seen tried in some of the best schools. It seems to me to contain much worthy of imitation in teaching foreign languages in our own schools ; hence I give it without change. D. MATHEMATICS. 1st class, Vorschide. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Exer- cises in the four fundamental operations with num- bers to one hundred. Division with one-place divi- sors. Multiplication table. Exercises from the Rechenfihel (primer of arithmetic) with numbers from one to one hundred. 2d class, Vorschule. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Kopf- recltnen (mental arithmetic) with numbers from one to one thousand. Written exercises. Fundamental operations with numbers to one million. 3d class, Vorschule. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Men- tal and written exercises with numbers of any size ( Unbegretizten Zahlraum) with concrete and abstract numbers. Coins, measures, and weights. Sexta {Gymnasium). Arithmetic, 4 hours. Eepe- tition of fundamental operations with whole num- bers, concrete and abstract. Eeduction of integral numbers (simple examples). German measures, weights, coins. Exercises in decimal notation and calculation. * Oberstufe zum Lehrbuch der englisclien Sprache vom Dr. Oskar Thiergen, of Dresden. Publislied by 15. G. Teubner, Leipzig, 1897. 21G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. o oja a og; ^ ^ i ; ^5 >e t— I -I-; 1— I i^:s ^ -^ Kl ssi^ PS w c: H 6-? 1—? 1— 1 9 ^ cH-3 g J M^-SSi 5x5-2 Sgi. S H t^ C J-* ii*gl2 ■6' S «-» ^ mi 6-> & iS (r< rJS Sf^ s ^* ES^ (§1 ^£ s# "^ • --TO <-* w w * „ ^ .-^ '.\ »-• ^1=^ ?^- ^ ■^* ■ e o ^'^ ^ o ^1? d o js^ jO o 2 >-S>--"j5 Ifl ir. sn^ <^ Eg o "-S& »-.''-— tj "^ '-' Bq ^' 2 . " *o "^ §■ ^ =5^- • ■^' fi K i: ►^ -ri ' y >- X, c t' c ^ o .S •= C '-^ •'^ c o cO O jO ic ti: 'jz S ~ t: -c, .it « "S 5 _: t~ "§ F IS. <^ ^/ &( s c 2 § ^-^ e •>• ^- Co ^^ R,^ t-1 (^JC^ ti s c £(--» ^ _ r> „ o l-q — -g — >• & TS/E '3 s s "§© 5 I^ >^ rs ^ TCr <- ^ 218 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. > H wo o F o m S' c 3 M-l •|:®®-S.S ■g <-t t— - *-* S^SSg'f id tw '^ «; ^ S;HgS^ ^ ^ g ^ e: «=!^.4i;.'r7 rH ^' ^ Tli CJ <-> 2 ^iS;§.'-r7 'S ® © o a « I-: s< ^^~ ti ? ■r. '^ - = f^ £"2 as ^ - 3 ,_. iS ^'^ ^H ^ ""^^ iT. s' j: ^ C! Pli e^-< ^MO <1 <) « s; 2 1 ,£S1 5^ JS J s 'So ^ ^ ^ ^"^ ►^ g JO c 3-c! a >- ? <=a "x: £> ga «-* JO w c ^•E ^5J ^ & 6) t'* £ h^S'S-SSjS 1-5 -S i-J'S'g a;^ ^"^ ti sC?- ^ g ®d g JOjO J ~ il ^ tto C-l ^f PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 219 s S .§3 1 .Sl^:^ *9 & § «o -o S'.S j=^ s s]S . S»tj =-•"£ M4 ^ff S ^( ^?"^ 1-1(5 " a t« i>^ CO o cc p Cfi p 220 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Quinta. Arithmetic, 4 hours. Divisibility of numbers. Common fractions. Simple equations, Avith numerical expressions on one side. Simple exercises in proportion. German weights, measures, and coins. Quarta. Mathematics, 4 hours (aritlimetic 2 hours). Decimals, simple and compound 2:)roportion, with integral numbers and fractions (exercises from "biirgerliche " life). Eeview of fractions and nu- merical computation of literal expressions. Planime- try 2 hours. Straight lines, angles, triangles. Fun- damental constructions. Loiver Tertia. Mathematics, 3 hours. First se- mester, arithmetic 2 hours, planimetry one hour. Second semester, the reverse. In arithmetic the fundamental principles in calculation of absolute lit- eral expressions. Equations of the first degree with one unknown quantity. Planimetry : Parallelograms, circles (first part), construction of triangles, and tangents. Upper Tertia. Mathematics, 3 hours. First se- mester, arithmetic 2 hours, planimetry 1 hour. Sec- ond semester, reverse the number of hours. Arith- metic : Equations of the first degree with one and with several unknown quantities. Exercises in frac- tions. Powers and roots, considering only positive in- tegral exponents. Planimetry : Circle (second part), equality of surfaces, calculation of rectilinear sur- faces. Introduction to similarity of figures. Con- struction of triangles, having given the sum and dif- ference of two sides and of the opposite angles. Louder Secimda. Mathematics, 4 hours. First se- PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 221 mester arithmetic, second semester planimetry. Simple and quadratic equations with one unknown quantity. Application of these in triangulation. Definition of power and roots. Xegative and frac- tional exponents. Logarithms and ajiplication with five-place logarithmic tables. Calculation of surfaces and circumferences of circles. Definition of trigo- nometric functions. Trigonometric calculation of right-angled and equiangular triangles. Calculation of sides, surfaces, and volumes of regular polyhe- drons. Upjjcr Secunda, 4 hours. Trigonometric con- struction of triangles. Powers, roots, logarithms. Equations, including quadratics with several un- known quantities. Arithmetical and geometrical series of the first order. Similarity of figures, geo- metric means, and a little concerning harmonic points and rays. Continuation of algebraic geom- etry. Lower Prima, 4 hours. Eeview arithmetical principles of former classes. Interest, rent, imagi- naries, binomial theorem for positive integral expo- nents. Stereometry. Maxima and minima, cubic equations. Upper Prima, 4 hours. Eeview arithmetic of previous years. Interest, rent, imaginary numbers, binomial theorem with positive integral exponents. Completion of trigonometry (addition theorems). Constructions and determinations. Application of trigonometrical principles to spherical triangles. The mathematical curricula in all the German secondary schools offer many points of suggestive- 222 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. ness for American schools. The entire course occu- pies a little less time than is usually devoted to mathematics in American schools. Beginning with the first year in the Vorschulen, four hours a week is the average amount of time devoted to the subject. From Sexta to Ujiper Prima in the gymnasia, from thirty-three to thirty-six (usually thirty-three) weekly hours of instruction are given to mathematical sub- jects of various kinds. We may regard four hours weekly throughout the entire course as about the average amount of time. In American schools about five hours a week are given through each of the eight grades of the gram- mar-school course, or about forty weekly hours of in- struction plus from two to two and a half years of five hours a week in the high school, making a total of from fifty to fifty-two and a half weekly hours before leaving the high school. If we add at least one year of five hours weekly in college to carry the pupil to the same point of proficiency, the difference in the amount of time becomes very great. This shows a considerable excess in the amount of time occupied by the American boy to the end of the high-school course — in acquiring what ? An amount of mathematical knowledge and skill equal to that possessed by the gymnasial graduate ? As can be seen from an examination of the German school pro- grammes, the American boy at the end of the high- school course has acquired less knowledge of math- ematics than his German cousin at the end of the gymnasial course. To be sure, as was demonstrated in the chapter on Ages of Graduates, the German PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 223 boy is about two years older, but we must regard as of considerable moment the less amount of time he has spent in acquiring this knowledge, and the extra amount of time he has left for other branches. The gymnasial graduate has about the same mathematical acquirements as the average college student at the end of his freshman year. Those who have taken the real-gymnasium or the higher real-school course have accomplished work nearly equivalent to that finished the end of the sopho- more year in college. The real-school courses of six years' duration cover as much ground in mathematics as our high schools ; that is, pupils may have acquired in Ger- man schools as much mathematics at the end of the ninth year of school life (if they finish at a normal age) as our pupils at the end of the twelfth year of school. If we again compare the work in the Ger- man gymnasia (humanistic and real) with the entire mathematical course through the sophomore year, we find that the American boy has spent from fifteen to twenty weekly hours more than the gymnasial grad- uate. This means an equivalent of from three to four years of five hours weekly. Surely a difference worth investigating ! The causes of this discrepancy may be summed up, perhaps, under the following heads : ' (a) The German schools have better instruction by more thoroughly trained teachers. (b) There is a better co-ordination and division of work. (c) The work is continued to the end of the gym- 224: SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. nasial course, and only about four hours are given weekly, instead of five hours to the end of the sec- ond year of the high school, and then a cessation. (d) In the German schools the metric system is used, instead of our awkward system of weights and measures. (e) The Germans omit all unnecessary details, especially in arithmetic and demonstrative geometry. Only such propositions are dwelt upon as will be in constant use throughout the course. (/) The Germans omit all unnecessary or un- practical parts of arithmetic. Only those parts are taken that are of actual use in business life or are necessary preliminaries for the subsequent mathe- matical work. The business arithmetic is confined to elementary principles. Such topics as banking, bank discount, partial payments, alligation, partner- ship, and others that are required in our elementary schools, do not appear in their programmes and re- ceive little treatment in their text-books on arithme- tic. In Quarta (the sixth year of school life) the work begins to diverge from the ordinary numerical arithmetic, and a more strictly mathematical treat- ment is begun by introducing literal arithmetic. Xot all the hard problems have been solved, nor all possible arithmetical rules and combinations mas- tered ; but the boy is led by gradual steps to a more purely mathematical consideration of number and quantity. He is also helped to acquire principles which will enable him to conquer some of the diffi- culties that he has previously encountered, but which he has escaped by going around. A maxim nowhere PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 225 more true than in mathematics is, that " often the best way to conquer a difficulty is by going around it." Single-handed the boy must frequently floun- der around unnecessarily, probably overmastered by the formidable and useless arithmetical puzzles that appear in many American text-books on arithmetic. {g) The manner of dividing the work is such that pupils may take up topics and subjects in the order of their difficulty. Xot all of one subject, in- cluding all the side issues, are attempted before tak- ing up a new subject. Simple equations are easier than partial payments and it would certainly appear psychological to begin them in their order of diffi- culty. It is an almost trite pedagogical maxim, that the presentation of a subject should always bo adapted to the capabilities of the taught ; and also that we should proceed from the simple to that which is more complex. One logical order that might be followed, and that one we have been fol- lowing, consists in attempting to finish the entire subject before beginning a new one. This in the case of mathematics violates the psychological order, which is more important. It is also certainly as logical to arrange topics in their order of difficulty if one will directly aid in the interpretation of the other ; and there can be no question but that some parts of algebra and geometry are necessary pre- liminaries of certain arithmetical operations. A knowledge of the equation is almost indispensable in many parts of arithmetic. Much oral work is required in all grades and in all mathematical subjects. There are no black- 226 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. boards large enough to admit of having an entire class work at the board. I never saw a blackboard in Germany larger than four feet by eight feet. The teacher uses the board for demonstrational and illus- trative purposes, and the pupils are obliged to follow the work mentally. Thus all crutches are taken away, and the results are certainly excellent. I have never witnessed mathematical exercises where pupils exhibited more mental alertness. In our American schools the too abundant use of the black- board is unquestionably conducive to weakness in mathematical computations. When too much writ- ten work is permitted, the pupil fails through lack of training to grasp and to hold clearly and firmly in mind the proper mathematical relations. Students often enter the universities without any power what- ever of following a lecture or a connected discourse, and this habit of leaning on visual helps in mathe- matics is one of the causes to which the defect may be attributed. As a sj)ecimen of the facility with which examples may be worked mentally by young pupils, I append a number of examples that were given to boys in the fourth year of school.* The class were very ordinary boys in appearance, but as they, some sixty in num- ber, sat in soldierly order upon those low, backless recitation benches for an entire hour (from 3 to 4 p. M.) and vanquished problem after problem which the teacher hurled at them, with scarcely an error, it excited my admiration for their masterly accom- * From III Ilohcre Burger Schulc, Leipzig. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 227 plishments. At the same time I pitied their poor backs and aching muscles, and I could not repress a smile as an occasional one, longing for physical motion, pricked his neighbour with a jjin or punched him in the ribs ; this, of course, when the teacher was not looking. The lesson ivas upon denominate numbers, and was evidently a review lesson, I omit preliminaries, and give only some of the examples : How many mm. in 1 cm. ? cm, in 1 m. ? mm. in 1 m, ? m. in 1 km. ? How many sec. in 25 min. ? 35 min, ? 75 min, ? 1 hour equals how many min. ? 2 hrs. ? 24 hrs, ? 59 hrs. ? How many hours in 1 day ? 5 days? 9 days? 60 days? 85 days? 66 days? 90 days ? 99 days ? in month of February ? months in 9 years ? 80 years ? 70 years ? 700 years ? Exact date of Luther's birth ? death ? How many years, months, days old waa he ? Same for Goethe. How many years old is your father ? months ? How many days in 2 years? 10 X 10 equals? 100 X 10 equals? 1,000 X 10 equals ? so on up to 1,000,000,000. How many hours (approximately) in 1,000,000,000 seconds? A great advance has been made in Germany within the last few years in the methods of teaching mathematics. Undoubtedly the methods there have not been very poor for a long time, for with so many competent teachers who have been able, because of their broad scholarship, to see the entire course in its proper relations the methods could not possibly be inferior. The chief advance, according to Dr. Eethwisch,* has been in the introduction of the * Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen iin 19. Jahrhundert, 228 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. heuristic method. The old Euclidian method has been almost entirely abandoned. Instead of follow- ing a written course of reasoning and then memorizing it, pupils are taught to discuss relations for them- selves, and from known discovered conditions to draw conclusions. One of the best geometry lessons I ever witnessed was in a class of boys about twelve years old. The lesson was upon similarity of triangles. Five or six cases of similarity of triangles were dis- posed of during the hour — more than are usually taken by the old method of memorizing the author's reasoning. The pupils were led to discover all relations, to formulate the theorems, and from the known conditions given the conclusions were drawn and the course of reasoning carried out by the pupils themselves. The teacher guided the discussion, but the pupils formulated it. The method may perhaps be called the heuristic-analytic method. To quote Eethwisch again, " In der Ausbildung der genetischen systeme beim analytischen Beweis- fuhrung und heuristischen Lehrverfahren gipfelt der Fortschritt des mathematischen Unterrichts." The following paragraphs are inserted as a fair sample of the division of work as carried on in most of the secondary schools I have visited. It is com- piled from the table of contents of a much-used work in mathematics designed for higher grades in sec- ondary schools.* Pla7iimet7'y. — Under this are included angles, *F. 0. Mehler, Ilauptsiltze der Elementar-Mathematik zum Gebrauch an Gymnasien und Kealgymnasien ; seventeenth edition, 1893. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 229 parallel lines, rectilinear figures, equality of rectan- gular figures, circles, similarity of figures, comparison and measurements of rectilinear surfaces and regu- lar polygons, measurement of the circle, algebraic geometry. Algebra. — Four fundamental operations, powers and roots, imaginaries, expressions of the form V« ± V^ ^"^^ '^^' ± ^^-i proportion, equations, con- tinued fractions, logarithms, interest and rent (by logarithms). Trigonometry : trigonometric func- tions, solution of plane triangles. Series and binomial theorem : geometric series, arithmetical series, appli- cation of these in the elementary notions of simple transcendental functions. Binomial theorem and applications. Stereoinetri/. — Straight lines and planes in space, solid angles, polyhedrons, cylinder, cone, sphere. Spherical trigonometry. Trigonometric tables. Throughout the entire course the number of formula to be memorized is reduced to the mini- mum, but these few are constantly put into practice. The fundamental principles of planimetry are first met with in Quarta, and are constantly used through- out the remaining six years of the course. Trigono- metric functions are first defined in Lower Secunda, a year before our p^^pils leave the high school, and the knowledge of these is made necessary almost daily for the next four years. The same is true of algebraic equations. Their solution is learned early in the course, and their application is constantl}^ de- manded throughout the whole realm of mathematics. Trigonometric formulge are reduced to the minimum, 230 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. but by endless repetition they become indeliljly fixed in the memory. The method of procedure, it will be noticed, is diametrically opposite to the methods in our own schools. Examine the courses of study in a thou- sand American high schools (and those courses are followed quite strictly), and it will be found that arithmetic seldom appears, it supposedly having been finished in the grammar school ; algebra is found to be a first- or second-year study, geometry fol- lows after it (as an isolated study), and trigonometry, which will not be found in ten per cent of the courses, follows along after geometry. Is there any psycho- logical reason why they should follow this order ? I am firmly convinced that one of tlie weakest spots in American school administration is this unnatural, unj)sychological, arbitrary division of subjects into isolated units. Psychologists will agree that repetition and asso- ciation are among the most, if not the most, potent factors in memory. The more ways in which a prin- ciple is applied the more association tracts it forms, and hence the more firmly fixed in memory. By the German plan of studies all principles learned are kept before the mind through long periods. In American schools the reverse is true. Studies are pursued for a short period and then dismissed entire- ly. It is no wonder that when pupils appear for ex- amination for entrance to college they know so little about algebra and other secondary-school studies. This " spiral " arrangement of subjects is worthy of special commendation. By this I mean that the PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 231 student is led to cross and recross the same ground many times, each time with a different purpose. At one time a topic may be studied with an entirely practical end in view — for example, that of acquir- ing a mechanical mastery of the operations involved in reaching results ; at another time it may be con- sidered for the purpose of vinderstanding the scien- tific principles involved. By this spiral plan the student is also enabled to secure a deeper insight into the topic,each time he recurs to it. He is also obliged to continually apply all the important princi- ples gained. They thus become firmly fixed in mind. Of perhaps more importance than any of these advantages is the permanent interest that the stu- dent gains from the long-continued pursuance of the study. By constantly keeping the subject be- fore the mind and continually applying it in mani- fold relations it becomes an integral part of the uni- fied possession of the mind rather than a mass of undigested facts soon to be forgotten, which is the inevitable result of the usual arrangement of Ameri- can high-school programmes. In Germany a great deal of importance is at- tached to drawing in connection with mathematics. The teachers say they wish to make the instruction anscliaulicli. Constructions are made whenever pos- sible. All tables of measurements are learned in- ductively and objectively. In all schools will be found model sets of weights and measures. Often I have seen scales of measurements printed on the wall in constant view. Dividers, rulers, T-squares, try- squares, etc., are always at hand. 232 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Great stress is laid upon securing a connected view of ^he different processes involved. For exam- jjle, it is. shown that multiplication is an addition of equals, subtraction and division are the reverse of the direct processes, powers are multiples of equal factors, roots and logarithms are inversions of direct processes of involution. Then the negative, partial, irrational, imaginary, and transcendental systems lose their arbitrary appearance.* An attemjit is made to correlate mathematics with other branches, and with considerable success. Examples and problems are drawn as far as possible from hurgcrliclie life, from practical measurements necessary to be made, and from the work in physics and chemistry. History is not left out, inasmuch as the great mathematicians are considered biograph- ically and with reference to their place in the his- tory of the development of thought. Many of the great mathematicians having been philosophers as well, a great direct connection with the history of philosophy can be made. The story of the discov- ery of important theorems ahvays adds wonderful interest. Mathematics is often correlated with aesthetic cul- ture, as it ought to be, since mathematical propor- tions are basal in the assthetics of architecture, and to a certain extent in all true art. One of the most impressive " correlation " lessons I have witnessed was a demonstration of the possi- bilities of cultivation of aesthetic ideas in connection * See Dr. A. Thaer in Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen im 19. Jahrhundert. PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 233 with mathematics. The geometry lesson was upon mean proportionals (" golden mean " or goldene Sclimitt). After the strictly mathematical demon- strations were completed, the application of this prin- ciple was discussed in its more utilitarian aspect, first considering more common applications, then passing to the examples in finer and more renowned architec- ture, and finally its application in ' pure art. The special application was made with reference to Eaphael's most renowned masterpiece, the Sistine Madonna. The relation "the lesser j)art is to the greater part as the greater part is to the whole " was shown to maintain in nearly a dozen group- ings of prominent points in the picture. Specimens of faulty art were shown where the picture had even to untrained eyes a seeming lack of har- mony. This unharmonious aspect was shown to be a result of lack of proportion. Varieties of mar- ginal arrangements were shown to affect the whole aspect of the picture, and most radically. Even prin- ciples of physics were re-enforced by discussing the positions of the figures. The " line of direction " was shown to be exactly over the centre of gravity. And certain other positions were only explainable by a knowledge of other physical principles. Such cor- relation has a true psychological basis, and can not help but create higher esthetic ideals as well as re- enforce the scientific truths gained. The whole ex- planation occupied only a few minutes, and no dissi- pation of energy was possible. If not a single gesthetic ideal had grown out of the discussion, from the stand- point of the pedagogy Avhich seeks only devices for 234 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. more securely implanting the cold hard facts of science, the lesson was above criticism. The four formal steps — clearness, association, system, meth- od — had been cxemijlilied, and had provided an ap- plication of the principles. And how much higher the aim than in wholly neglecting the application, or in making some of those vapid, senseless bases of cor- relation such as " estimating the worth of the tobac- co chewed and smoked by a Virginia planter when studying the geography of Virginia ! " * Below are given some final examination questions, which will indicate something of the degree of pro- ficiency required in mathematics. Ashanisches Gymnasium^ Berlin, 1895. 1. In the triangle ABC draw a line xy parallel with B C so that (the line xChevag also drawn) the triangles Axy and BxC shall be equal. :v,j. , 2. In a triangle, the side c, the difference between the other two sides a and h, the difference between the angles A and B opposite these sides is known. Determine the sides and the angles. 3. Around a cone whose radius is r the frustum of a right cone is circumscribed. The entire surfaces of the two are in the ratio of m : n. Determine the value of the radius of the circular bases of the second. 4. X :y ^= z:u X -\- u — I'i , , -.1 V solve. y -{- z = 11 a;2 + 2/^ + 2^ + ?r = 170 ^ * As can be found in a certain American work on pedagogy. PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 235 Humholdt Gymnasium, Berlin, 1896. 1. The axes of two parabolas whose parameters are pi and p., lie along the same straight line, but in opposite directions. Determine the point in this line from which the two parabolas will appear at the same angle. 2. A train of Teg weight and cm velocity is to be brought to a standstill in a m distance. Determine {a) the working power, {h) the strength of the brake, (c) the time necessary for stopping. 3. In a paraboloid of revolution whose diameter, surface, and height are known, inscribe the max- imum cylinder. E. IIISTOKY AND GEOGKAPIIY. 3d Class, Vorschule. Home Geography [Heimats- Jcunde), 3 hours. Development of geographical ideas by means of observations around the city (Berlin) and the province (Brandenburg), Introductory work by means of charts and pictures. History relating to Berlin. Sexta. Geography, 2 hours. Fundamental prin- ciples of physical and mathematical geography. First introduction to study of relief maps, globe, and charts. Brief general view of the physical and po- litical features of the earth. Quinta. Geography, 2 hours. Physical and po- litical geography of Germany. Drawing simple boundaries on blackboard (by teacher). Quarta. Geography, 2 hours. Physical and po- litical geography of non-German Europe, especially the Mediterranean region. 17 230 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. Lower Tertia. History, 2 hours. Survey of Grecian history, from Draco to the death of Alex- ander the Great. A brief survey of Roman history from Pyrrhus to the death of Augustine. Neces- sary and important parts of Oriental history of civil- ization. Importance of historical geography. Loioer Tertia. History and geography, 3 hours. Survey of the " Kulturgeschichte " of western Eome from the death of Augustus, then German history to the close of the Middle Ages. Eeview themes of Quarta. Review of political geography of Germany, excepting the German colonies. Map sketching. Upper Tertia. History and geograj)hy, 3 hours. German history from the close of the Middle Ages to Frederick the Great. Review themes of previous class. Review physical features of Germany. Geography of German colonies. Map sketching as in Quarta. Louver Secunda. History and geography, 3 hours. German and Prussian history from Frederick the Great to 1888. Review themes of previous year. Review geography of Europe. Elementary mathe- matical geography. Upper Secunda. History and geography, 3 hours. Greek history. Roman history. Review historical and geographical themes of previous years. Loiver Prima. History and geography, 3 hours. Review of geography in connection with history. German history from 1273-1648 A. i). Most impor- tant non-German history. Review ancient history. Upper Prima. History, 3 hours. German history, 1648-1890. Most important parts of foreign history. Review geography in connection with history. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 237 As will be noticed from tlie school programmes, the geography and history work very largely coalesce. Except in the most elementary work, geography does not appear from the programmes to be set apart as a separate study. The real geography, that which deals with the subject as a consideration of the earth and its relation to man, as affecting man, and in turn being modified by man, is closely correlated with history. All the geographical factors that have influenced political, commercial, economic, or social conditions, and have helped to shape the course of historical development, are largely discussed in con- nection with the particular phases of history which they affect. It is because of this close correlation of historical and geographical work that one sees history and geographical work placed together in the programmes. But it must not be inferred that they are mixed to- gether promiscuously in the recitation. It is true that the study of topography, cartography, political and commercial geography are largely correlated with history, but an inspection of any of the programmes will show that, with the exc.eption of the unification for purposes of review, work is carried on quite sepa- rately. In all of my visits I did not observe more than the incidental correlation of the two subjects. There Avere always distinct teaching periods for the two subjects. I have examined many Schnlhe- riclite (yearly announcements) and have found no exceptions to this division of work. Many of them read "history and geography," but immediately following the work is divided. In one, which has 238 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. the two grouped under the topic heading Ge~ scMclite und (Jeograjjhie, I find the further division into " History, 2 hours. German history from the Reformation to the Vienna Congress. Geography, 2 hours. Xon-German European jihysical and po- litical geography." (Real - gymnasium, Leipzig.) Again, from the real-school in Meerane : " Geogra- phy, 2 hours. Kingdom of Saxony ; general geog- raphy of the entire earth. History, 1 hour. Biog- raphy from Greek and Roman history." The examples might be multiplied by referring to the Hcliulhericlite, or to the official courses of study. It will be found that occasionally the two are taken up in the same class. But from the nature of the work it would be impossible to handle the two entirely simultaneously and do it successfully. Whenever an understanding of geographical features is necessary to produce clear historical conceptions, the geographical instruction is given simultaneously with the historical ; or whenever historical allusions will contribute anything to in- terest, clearness, or toward permanency of ideas, then the digression is made ; otherwise the two are very properly given at separate periods. The phases of geography mentioned at the be- ginning may and ought to be correlated with history, but the scientific principles relating to geological, meteorological, or physical effects must necessarily be studied in a separate class devoted to them. Tp stop in the midst of historical narrative and discuss fully the barometer, trade winds, or ocean tides would be exceedingly unpedagogical. I make the foregoing PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 239 suggestions because I think some Americans have wholly overestimated the extent of correlation done in German schools in these subjects. I could not agree that, " except possibly in the first two years of the course, geography is nowhere an independent study in the higher schools. The general truths of mathematical and physical geography which have no direct bearing upon the events of history are taught incidentally, one might say, in the lower grades." * Of course, the elementary notions of geography must be built up separately, and in part before the work in history, as such, is commenced. This is ac- complished in the lowest grades in the Heimatshunde, or home geography. This locative and descriptive, largely physical geography, is later made more physico-political, commercial, and social, and it is then that the facts of geography begin to be corre- lated with the historical work. The elementary work is carried on much as in our own schools. The work is begun by a consideration of home geography ; from this as a basis, map language is learned, relief forms are studied from maps and globes, or, best of all, objectively ; then follows a general notion of the physical and political geography of Germany. A little later text-books are used as aids, and at the same time pujiils begin to learn to sketch out- lines on the little blackboards. In this the teachers are very proficient and are able to add much interest to the work. The pupils gain no very great facility in blackboard sketching, because the small amount * School Review, May, 1897, p. 263. 240 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. of blackboard space does not afford much chance for practice. Later on physical, political, and commer- cial geography are studied more in detail, as may be seen by reference to the detailed outlines given above. Drawing is recommended in Prussia, espe- cially during the last year of the work, which is usually in Tertia. Besides the correlation with history, it is also brought into close relations with natural science. The Prussian " Lehrplan " states that " Avhether the instruction in geography would be better given by the teacher of natural science depends upon the personal equipment of the teachers. In general it appears more suitable to have for geography the same teacher as for natural science in the lower grades, and the same as for history in the middle grades. The reviews in the upper grades, so far as the political and physical geography are concerned, should be given by the teacher of history, and the mathematical geography should be given by the teacher of mathematics or physics." All schools are supplied with an abundance of maps and charts to illustrate the work. Xearly all schools are in regions rich in historic landmarks, and drawings and paintings illustrating these are to be found in most schools. Eelief maps and outline maps are abundant and well executed. Most teach- ers make effective use of photographs of various places of interest and of historic personages. The schools are usually well supplied with these, and the teacher always solicits the pupils' aid in collecting pictures bearing upon particular lessons. It was in- PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 241 teresting to note the abundance of practical objec- tive material that was arranged in conspicuous places in the hallways and about the buildings in such a way that pupils could have them constantly before them. For example, large barometers, thermometers, weather maps, charts showing the cardinal points, charts showing the daily relative positions of the sun, moon, and the earth, etc. The text-books are quite diiferent from those ordinarily used in American schools. They are divided into two parts, one containing the descrip- tive matter and the other a separate atlas containing the maps. The latter are beautifully executed in the highest art known to book and map makers, but the descriptive texts can hardly be commended. In matter they may do, inasmuch as the teacher is the source of almost all the facts in all studies, while the text-book is intended merely to assist in reviewing and fixing the lessons ; but in mechanical execu- tion the majority of school geographies are in every way uncommendable, except in price. The print is poor, the matter crowded and wholly unattractive in arrangement. With such a prevalence of spectacled eyes as one sees in German schools, it is a wonder that such text-books are tolerated. They are usually in Irochure form, and are therefore cheap. But better executed books are a physiological necessity, and the advantage to be derived from more attractive books is an important psychological consideration. One of the best features of geographical instruc- tion is that of making frequent excursions. Thus, objects are studied instead of words. In a country 242 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. so full of historic landmarks it is not difficult to make these excursions frequently and inexpensively. For example, around Leipzig are clustered many spots upon which have been enacted some of the most thrilling dramas of human life. Half an hour's walk to the eastward brings the school to the Xapo- leon Monument, erected in memory of the battle of Leipzig, October 18, 1813. The stone stands upon the spot where Napoleon watched the progress of the battle all one long night. On the monument is the inscription : "HiER WEPLTE Napoleon am 18ten Okt., 1813, Die VoELKERSCnLACHT beobachtend. Der Herr 1ST der rechte Kriegsmakn, IIerr 1ST SEINE Name." How much more of historic and patriotic interest can be infused into a class by taking them to the place and explaining the details of the battle, as well as the general plan of the war, than by reading them from a book or by simple narration ! To the north of the city within a few miles is the spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell during the Thirty Years' War. Just south of Xapoleon Monument is Monarch's Hill, where the heads of three great nations met in council. Within the city are other battle monuments, also monuments to Luther, Goethe, Schiller, and other renowned Germans. In the heart of the city is Auerbach's cellar, where Goethe places a scene in Faust. In other parts may be found Goethe's residence when a student, Schiller's residence, the Pleisseburg Castle, the old PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 243 city hall (eight huuclred years old), and scores of other landmarks too numerous to mention, had I space. All these are visited by teachers and pupils. Other cities are equally rich in associations. In the above manner history and geography are truly cor- related, interest is awakened, life is quickened, and new ideals are formed. To do likewise in America is not possible to the same extent because of distance and lack of historic landmarks, but every locality has its oldest buildings, a historic battle ground, a colonial church, an In- dian council ground, or historic landmark of some sort or other. Points of geographic interest (physi- ographic, political, or commercial) are also usually within easy reach. To study objectively the means at command is most sure to awaken true historic and geographic interest, and that is the chief aim. In Prussia, the Lehrziel or end to be attained in teaching is stated thus : " Knowledge of the epoch-making events of the world's history, esioecially of the German and Prus- sian history, in connection with causes, effects, and the development of historical ideas." (Schulord- nung, 1891.) " In Bavaria the aim in the classes from the third to the fifth, to be attained mainly through biography, is the impressing of a solid foundation of historical data, and in general outlines to give a view of Greek, Koman, German, and Bavarian history. From the sixth to the ninth classes the aim should be to in- vestigate facts more thoroughly, to awaken and de- velop capabilities, to rearrange and make individual 244 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMAXY. the materials that liave been acquired from given standpoints." (Schulordnung, 1891.) In Baden the conrse in history is so arranged that the entire province of history shall be gone over twice, and with special prominence given to ancient Roman and Grecian and German history. In the first historical instruction in Quarta and Tertia a comprehensive view is presented. Here more at- tention is given to the biographical side of the work. In Quarta the main portions of ancient his- tory are considered, and during the two years in Tertia the events beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century are studied. Following this the events clustered about 1813-'14, and lastly the pivotal point in modern German history, the war of 1870-'71. During the last four years the entire work is gone over again with the view of making it a connected whole, and of course from a more philo- sophical point of view and in a much more compre- hensive manner. During the entire course special stress is laid upon the geographical relations neces- sary to a clear and comprehensive grasp of the his- torical facts. The work is followed out according to some good text-book, with, of course, lectures or talks by the teacher to elucidate and supplement the text. Pupils are encouraged to arrange the materi- als in such a manner that they can talk connectedly upon topics (Schulordnung). Throughout all Germany the courses in history, as well as those in mathematics, and in fact all other subjects, follow the spiral plan. The instruc- tion is so arranged that the entire course forms " an PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 245 ever-ascending spiral from the apex of which an outlook over the past is obtained." * The course in history, as carried out in German schools, next to the classical branches, is in one direction one of the strongest portions of the entire school curriculum. In another significant direction it is one of the weakest parts of the curriculum. The course in his- tory, together with the instruction in the classics, serves to shape the tliinking and the course of ac- tion pursued by the Germans perhaps more than any and all other features connected with their educa- tional system. The policy of the German joeople is reflected in its historical curriculum. The historical instruction contributes to make that policy what it is. In the first place, the course of instruction is grounded upon instruction in the classical period. This serves to give a wide knowledge of the j^ast. And such a \dew can not but aid in creating a rever- ence for the past and its institutions. A thoroughly developed course, with the groundwork in the classi- cal period of history, must impart what we term the " historic sense." It must show at what cost of time and effort all enduring institutions have been raised into existence. Such a training can not fail to tend to produce a careful, conservative, deliberative peo- ple. Institutions that have been judged fit to sur- vive will not be swept rashly away in the flush of a momentary impulse. All German institutions are rooted deep in the past, and only those new institu- tions may survive which root themselves firmly in * Lucy M. Salmon, Ed. Rev., June, 1898. 240 SEICONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. the passing generations. That which is without a wide expanse of historical background represents to a German mind the essence of instability. To them a country like America is viewed only as an experi- ment. They behold a heterogeneous mass of ma- terials gathered together haphazard, and in con- tinual danger of explosion should some slight anarchistic wave disturb its equilibrium. To a Ger- man who has never been in America it is inconceiv- able that there should have evolved from the hetero- geneous elements any such institution as a sta- ble government, possessing firmly founded, well- equipped and well - ordered universities, schools, churches, etc. American institutions are viewed by Germans much as they view our railroad trains — sehr gefdhrlich — wonderfully rapid but terribly dan- gerous and destructive. The German venerates age, solidity, stability, and shrinks from the thoughts of hurry, boldness, and change. To him these latter mean dissolution and disintegration. Such are some of the characteristics of the Germans, and the historical instruction tends to preserve these ideals. Another feature of German life is the intense love and devotion to the Fatherland. Nowhere else, perhaps, may be witnessed such fealty to country as in Germany. Every individual feels not only a sense of duty in- being a protector of his country's interests, but he feels a thrill of pride and love in having this duty confided to him. This spirit is kindled in the breast of every subject as soon as he begins to listen to nursery tales ; and the feeling once awakened is never allowed to wane in inten- PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 247 sity. The historical instruction, in addition to being founded upon the past, has for its centre, from which all instruction radiates, the Fatherland. Not only German history by all pupils, but special local history of each region is thoroughly learned. The achieve- ments of the long lines of princes, potentates, war- riors, and Church Fathers can be recited with sur- prising glibness and accuracy by boys of a dozen years of age. Xo course of study is j)lanned without hav- ing some clause to the effect that " special considera- tion is to be paid to German history and to the history of the province in question." " The ' Lehrplan ' of 1892 brings prominently to the front the necessity of understanding the events in German and Prussian history. It is the national history rather than the universal which is empha- sized ; the political, which has culminated in a new and regenerated German Empire, rather than the general, which deals with salient points in the prog- ress of civilization. It shows clearly the determina- tion of the Government to make use of the schools in stemming the tides of socialism and liberalism. History is to be taught not altogether as a means of intellectual training, nor as an essential part of a liberal education, nor yet as an independent science, but preeminently with a view to the malting of pa- triotic citizens." * A point of seeming weakness is noticeable, inas- much as the course in history fails to give sufficient place to that which is modern and outside of Ger- * Jus. E. Russell, School Review, May, 1897. 248 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. man3^ A careful examination of programmes fails to reveal any provision for the definite study of English or American history. Some consideration may be assumed in the study of extra-German relations of universal historical importance {ausserdeutschen Ver- hciltnisse von iveltgeKcliiclUliche Bedeutumj), etc., but at most it is only very superficial and insufficient. In the case of America it may be argued with some Justice that it is too young a nation — that in a strict sense it has little history ; but the same explanation does not apply to the instruction in its geography. Were an adequate geographical consid- eration accorded to it with proper historical set- tings, the course in this particular would not be so open to criticism. But the same feeling is mani- fested toward a geographical consideration of Eng- land. As a result, gross ignorance of existing con- ditions is manifested by even educated Germans concerning a country of twenty times the size of their own and with fifteen million more people than their own country. To many Germans ]S ew York, Xorth America, and South America are almost synonymous terms. But even were America to go unconsidered, ex- cejit in a cursory way, England deserves thorough consideration. A country which has influenced civi- lization so powerfully, a country whose history is as old as that of Germany, a country which has spread its language to the uttermost parts of the earth, and which is tending rapidly toward making its language the world language, a country which has proved her- self so strong a rival of Germany, and which even PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 249 has had so many interests in common with Germany, can not well be passed over with a few words. The extreme conservatism of the Germans is one of the greatest drawbacks to their advancement. Unwilling to allow innovations, and loath to acknowl- edge the superiority of any other country in any particular, their eyes are not infrequently blinded to the merits of experiments and discoveries the adap- tation of which would often aid in their own advance- ment. As indicated in another place, their extreme conservatism has allowed them to fall behind most other countries in such important directions as the education of women. A most undesirable characteristic of the German nation noticeable to all foreigners is their lack of cosmoiDolitanism. Their manners, customs, institu- tions, machinery, implements, school furniture, man- ner of accomplishing all practical results, all indicate a lack of leavening ideas derived from different na- tionalities. Xo one individual or nation can monop- olize all the best ideas, and in these days of rapid transit and electric communication can any nation afford to ignore the accomplishments of others? The nation that accepts the doctrine of eclecticism must profit thereby, while the one that is all absorbed and satisfied by its own achievements will as surely find itself distanced in important directions. On the whole, I believe that the historical teach- ing is well done. The teachers, at least, accomplish their first point : the facts of history from the clas- sical periods down to the present concerning those countries which are studied are firmly fixed in mind. 250 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. At the end of the secondary school course the German boys are thoroughly conversant with the history of their own country and of all those nations from which their civilization luis directly or indirectly developed. They have a thoroughly built and organized back- ground of historical events, and the only criticism that may be offered is the one previously pointed out. Their horizon extends spatially in only one direction, and that toward the Orient. But the results, from the standpoint of the nationalizing tendencies incul- cated, are certainly gratifying. I believe, however, that the time is ripe for a larger world view. Broader sympathies may be fostered by extending the range of historical studies without endangering in any way the primary end now aimed at. The psychological principle of repetition is thoroughly carried out in their history teaching. The work begins in the low- est class and extends to the highest. They never feel that they have " finished " the subject. The same ground is continually crossed and recrossed, viewed from different standpoints and from positions where all can be surveyed ; the relations of cause and effect are thoroughly studied until all becomes a closely and firmly associated whole. They believe in learning much about a few things instead of a little about many. In this lies their greatest peda- gogical strength. F. NATUP.AL SCIENCES. Sexta. Nature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : De- scription of available flowering plants, considering parts and forms of roots, stems, leaves, and easily PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 251 understood flowers and fruits. Winter : A descrip- tion of important mammals and birds, considering form, colour, size, the available specimens determin- ing the species. Study modes of life, usefulness, or destructiveness. Quinta. Xature lessons, 3 hours. Summer : Complete knowledge of outer organs of flowering plants. Description and comparison of related spe- cies that are accessible at the same time. Winter : Description of important accessible vertebrates, considering manner of life, use, or harmfulness. Fundamental principles of bone structure of man. Exercises in simple schematic drawing of what is seen. Quartet. Xature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : A comparative description of related kinds and species of flowering plants (determined by available speci- mens). Consideration of natural systems of classi- fication. Living phenomena of plants. Winter : Lower animals and their enemies. Special consid- eration of insects. Continue drawing what is ob- served. Loiver Tertia. Nature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : Description of some of the more difficult plant species to complete knowledge of form. Systematic botany and biology. Discussion of the most important use- ful foreign plants. Winter: jinatomy and physi- ology of plants. Cryptogams. Diseases of plants. Ill the last quarter of the year, survey of the animal kingdom. Distribution of animals. Upper Tertia. Physiology and physics, 2 hours. Human body and care of the health. Preparatory 18 252 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. ph5'sical science. Mecliaiiieal phenomena. Impor- tant parts of heat. Lower Secunda. Physics, 2 hours. Magnetism, electricity, the important chemical phenomena, acoustics, and selected sections of optics. Vpinr Secunda. Physics, 2 hours. Magnetism, electricity, heat, meteorology. Eeview fundamentals of chemistry. Loiver Prima. Physics, 2 hours. Mechanics of solids, fluids, and gases. Acoustics. Upper Prima. Physics, 2 hours. 02"ttics, parts I and II. Mathematical and astronomical geog- raphy. In the real-gymnasia and higher real-schools the same subjects and the same topics are covered, only more thoroughly. In botany and geology more is learned of microscopical structure, and classification is learned more thoroughly. In physics, more of the mathematical side of theoretical physics is covered ; and in chemistry, besides taking organic chemistry in addition to the inorganic, some simple laboratory work is expected of the students. Crystallography receives more extended consideration also. In the lower grades the work is entirely descrip- tive, dealing with the outward characteristics of the objects dealt with, whether plants or animals, or from the inorganic kingdom. At this age it is unneces- sary to consider the minute inner organization. Mi- croscopic structural relations and processes of de- velopment would be out of j)lace here. " This, and a more exact knowledge of systems, as well as inde- pendent investigations, belong to the higher grades PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. £53 or to private interest." * Study at this age should give " an extensive knowledge of the home vicinity, a living Anschatim/f/ or mental picture of that which is foreign, an understanding of the great thoughts of .'N'ature, a sense of respect for the smallest apparently insignificant things, a desire for and some skill in observation." f The courses, whether in the gymnasia or the real- istic institutions, are divided into two parts : during the first four years the time is devoted to Naturhe- schreihuug, or description of Xature, while in the last five years the more serious work of physics, chemistry, and mineralogy are considered. The main difference between the courses in the classical and realistic schools is one of amount. Sometimes min- eralogy and chemistry receive no consideration in the gymnasia. The differences in time and courses can be seen from the accompanying tables. Throughout all the grades, in all branches of Xature lessons, excellent appliances are found in every school for demonstrational purposes. This material is for use almost solely by the teacher, not the pupil. There is always at hand a wealth of maps, charts, models, and apparatus. I have seen in real-schools and real-gymnasia cabinets of specimens from the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms, coloured plates, and wax and ijainer-maclw models, as rich in quantity and quality as those possessed by many ordinary colleges. The charts and coloured * G. Uttendorfer, Preface to Leitfaden der Naturkunde fur mittlere uiid hohere Schuleii. f Loe. cit. 254 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. plates are usually on stiff cardboard about 28 X 36 iuches, and are provided with appliances for hanging them before the class when used for demonstrational purposes. Among the plant models and plants, not only the cryjDtogams, but the phanerogams, are fully repre- sented ; mosses, microscopic water plants, and uni- cellular as well as multicellular plants and animals. In one exercise with a class of boys from thirteen to fourteen years old I saw a collection of charts and wax models, illustrating the marchantia and other liverworts, equal to any university collection I ever saw. All schools are well equipped with the most im- proved apparatus and excellent cabinets of accessory materials. It will be unnecessary to enumerate the pieces of apparatus, or even to give a general outline of the accessory appliances. In the real-schools and real-gymnasia the outfit in botany, zoology, physics, and chemistry contain everything necessary for dem- onstrational purposes. There are usually materials sufficient to enable the teacher to carry on research work. In the gymnasia the outfit is usually limited to the most necessary pieces of apparatus and to typical specimens in botany and zoology. But work in all schools is only demonstrational, since only a few schools are fitted uj) with labora- tories for individual work. Some of our modern high schools, with their magnificently appointed lab- oratories and workshops, are beyond comparison with the German schools. All the laboratories there are may be found in the higher real-schools, and oc- PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 255 casionally in the real-gymnasia. The reason for the lack of them is not dilficult to find. The courses are so overcrowded that there is no time left for in- dividual experimentation. All experiments are made by the instructor in the presence of the class. He questions as he goes along, and does not leave the ex- periment until the principle is understood by all. In many respects this is better than much of the so- called independent investigation that is allowed in our own high schools, and even in the colleges, where students are told to perform experiments, or are given a manual of instructions to follow. They are to ex- periment, observe, infer, and record. Not knowing how to observe or what to observe, nor having suffi- cient training to make proper inferences, the work dwindles into purposeless (unless getting through is a purpose) mechanical manipulation of apparatus, and just as mechanical recording. This is not neces- sary, nor is it the universal condition of affairs, for many of our high schools do most creditable work. But with inexperienced teachers the work may and often does miscarry. It is only by a judicious blend- ing of experimentation with proper class demonstra- tion, criticism, and questioning that the work in nat- ural sciences is successful. If there is no experi- mentation the work becomes mere verbal gymnas- tics ; if the proper class work is lacking, it dwindles into manual gymnastics or into rule-of-thumb meth- ods at best. The German method, although it does not permit the geniuses — and geniuses are scarce — to explore fields for themselves, at least guides and directs the 256 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. work, so that the basal principles of the science are not hurried over half realized. The fundamentals become so systematically arranged in the students' minds that they can begin individual investigation at a later date if they choose. ^Moreover, the experi- mentation, which always comes out as intended when manipulated by the teacher, kindles a spirit of en- thusiasm and awakens curiosity. When apparatus is manipulated by unguided students the experi- ments often fail and create weariness and disgust. Manual dexterity can be acquired later more quickly than scientific principles. And yet, if time were allowed for considerable individual laboratory experi- mentation the courses would be much stronger than at present. I think that in the lower classes the lack of the laboratory method is specially marked. Not that there is any lack of objective material always in the classroom, and not that it is not used, but it is used and handled exclusively by the wrong person — the teacher. I have already intimated that the charts, models, and apparatus are rich in quantity and qual- ity, and, moreover, for botanical study all the cities have special gardens, from which plants are delivered to all the schools as they are required. By this means the schools are sure of being supplied with sufficient materials, and at the proper time, on demand. There are often arrangements also whereby arti- cles from museums are supplied to the schools. But with all the materials at hand for study, very little of it gets into the proper hands — the pupil's. In the PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. £57 lesson on the marcliantia, referred to previously, the diagrams were profuse, fine wax models were numer- ous, and the teacher's explanations lucid, concise, and scientific, but the majority of the class were not within twenty feet of the models, and I doubt whether a single one ever saw the real plant. There certainly • were no plants in the room, and no instructions were given for procuring them. The charts and models were systematically explained, and the pupils an- swered well when questioned in review, but I could not help feeling that scarcely one of those boys would be able to distinguish between marchantia and mush- rooms. Indeed I believe from the models and charts mushrooms would come nearer the pupils' ideas of the size. Professor Russell also writes (School Review, January, 1897) that, " while in theory each pupil is ex- pected to have in his hands a specimen of all the com- mon plants as they are discussed in class, I have seen the pea studied by a class of thirty boys from a model that never left the teacher's desk during the hour, and at the close of the lesson not a word was said about noting the plant in its cultivated state, al- though acres of it were growing within a mile of the site ; but, on the contrary, the home task assigned was to copy the drawing given in the text-book. I still have my doubts whether the majority of the class did not conceive of the true flower as being about a foot in diameter." The school excursion plays a most important role in the study of Kature as well as in history and geog- raphy. Its value is great, but still it can not be expect- ed to take the place of carefully planned laboratory 258 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. investigation. From the field the rehitions of the different kingdoms cun well be studied, the natural conditions under which various products are found and the elements of geographical distribution may be learned. From the field materials may be secured and gross anatomy observed in a general way, but it must not be allowed to usurp the rightful place of laboratory and classroom investigation. In some schools I witnessed the attempt to teach obscure life processes, such as assimilation and repro- duction in the liverworts, to very young classes. The lesson on the marchantia, before referred to, was in Quarta. This, it seems to me, Avas a serious error. All the pupils could carry away were words. The facts had no objective meaning. In mineralogy the technical significance of min- erals and a description of the chemical and crystallo- graphic characters are avoided. The more outward characteristics are observed, and the general place in Nature is the chief feature to be shown. Considerable prominence is given to the indus- trial value of plants, animals, and minerals. This is a point of great significance, for, while aifording mental discipline, a stock of practical knowledge is being acquired. The text-books on natural science have some manifest advantages over our own. In America the writers of elementary text-books fall into the error of trying to make things very simple, and by doing so they make the instruction childish. In Germany the desire to make them systematic and logical is rather at the expense of adaptability to the learners' needs. But as far as the work is carried PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 259 on things are called by their right names, and hence no unlearning is necessitated. The future work is an extension, an " Ergiinzung," and not a rectifica- tion. Considered as a whole, I think that the results of the work in natural science are good. The strong features are its distribution through a long period of time and its correlation. By the distribution pupils are kept for a long time in acquaintance with the subjects, and the residuum of knowledge about them is much greater than can possibly result from ac- quaintance with the subjects for a year at most — often a term or so — and then total abandonment. In a case of simple memory — e. g., a quotation one wishes to keep in mind after learning — it is far better to repeat once a day for ten days than once an hour for ten successive hours. If the intervals be not too long the greater the length of time between repeti- tions the stronger will be the resulting memory. The attention which is given to judicious corre- lation of subjects in the German schools leads pupils, I believe, to have a better conception of the relation which the parts of subjects bear to each other, the relation between different subjects, and to all knowl- edge as a unity, than is usually the case in too many of our schools. In short, the substructure of philo- sophical thinking is better laid than in our own schools, where pupils " finish " this subject and that and never refer to them again, and are never led to suspect tliat there are any relations whatever. At the end of the school course the pupils from the gymnasia are about as far advanced in the 260 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. natural sciences as pupils from our best high schools, those from the higher real-schools a little further, especially in chemistry and mineralogy, while the gymnasial pupils are less advanced — that is, meas- ured by the amount of ground covered. This statement is supported by the fact that the lowest courses offered by the universities are fully as elemen- tary as those offered in our own universities. The supply is in response to a demand. It ought to be stated that in physics more attention has been given to the mathematical side than with us, so that with the principles firmly fixed in mind, even though some experimental knoAvledge has been slighted, their students are rather better able to begin strictly scien- tific considerations of the subject when they enter the university than students from our high schools. G. GERMAN. (a) Vorscliule. 1st class, ^ hours. Exercises upon elementary sounds. Letters used in writing and printing (Ger- man). Heading of connected parts of primer. Writ- ing dictated words and sentences. Short dictation lessons from the reading book which have been pre- viously talked about and also copied. Learn to recognize nouns. Capitalization, " umlauting," con- versation exercises based upon language charts, exer- cises in narration. 2d class, 7 hours. Exercises in mechanical read- ing and conversation concerning the contents. Gram- mar : parts of speech, subject predicate, declension PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 2G1 of substantives and personal pronouns, conjugation in the direct tenses. Orthograpliy and dictated les- sons. Learning fables and poems. 3d class, 6 hours. Exercises in mechanical and expressive reading. Narration of what has been read or heard. Eecitation of short poems and exercises read. Simple and complex sentences, parts of speech, conjugation in the active and passive voice in the in- dicative and subjunctive modes, prepositions. Dicta- tion exercises. (b) Gymnasium. Sexta, 4 hours. Grammar : parts of speech, mem- bers of simple sentences, difference between strong and weak declensions. Correct writing from dicta- tion. Reading prose and poetry. Fables, tales, nar- ratives from Vaterldndischen Sage, and history. Ora- reproduction of same by pupils. Memorizing and ex- pressive recitation of poems. " Lebensbilder " from the " Yaterland." History from Kaiser Wilhelm I to Karl the Great. Quitita, 3 hours. Simj)le and complex sentences, necessary parts of compound sentences. Correct writing and punctuation twice w^eekly in dictation exercises. Oral narration by pupils. First attempts at written reproduction (in class). Narration of stories from Greek and Roman mythology. Other work as in Sexta. Qnarta, 3 hours. Compound sentences. Most important parts of etymology with application to typical examples. Punctuation. Correct writing in class. Home composition every six weeks. Read 262 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. poetic and prose selections. Narration. Discussion of contents of lessons and memorizing of poems. Lower Tertia, 2 hours. Connected view of most important grammatical laws. Home compositions, narrative, descriptive, and imaginative. Translation from a foreign language every six weeks. Written " content " exercises in class. Discussion of prose and poetic selections. (Xorse and Germanic myths, sagas; general ludfiirr/escMchte, geography, natural history, epics, and especially ballads.) Memorizing and recitatioia of poems. Uppei' 7'ei'tia, 2 hours. Written composition as in L. III. Autobiographies, individual experiences, sometimes in letter form. In general, a prominence given to poetry rather than prose. Lyrics and dra- matic poetry (especially William Tell), with wider inductive teaching of poetry and rhetoric. Memoriz- ing and recitation of poems. Read Uhland's Ernst von Schwaben, Schiller's AVilliam Tell, Ludwig der Baier, Ballads from Schiller and Uhland. Loiver Secunda, 3 hours. Practical introduction to composition writing through exercises in deter- mining materials and arrangement in class. Seven easy compositions, especially comparative studies in connection with critical exposition. Translations from foreign languages. Written discussions to complete what has been read in class. Memorizing of poems. Read Schiller's Marie Stuart, Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm, Kleist's Prinz von Homburg, Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, Gutz von Berlich- ingen. Poems from Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, and Lessinff memorized. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 263 Upper Secunda, 3 lioiirs. Short compositions on closely allied work (as history), 7 exercises. Intro- duction to the Xibelungenlied, testing by the origi- nal text. Survey of Norse sagas, German mythology, epics, and lyrics. Examination of different kinds of poetry. Memorizing of poems. Discussions and reports by pupils 'on Middle High German poetry or modern dramas. Longer Prima, 3 hours. Eeview life of Goethe. Eecent period of German literature since 1805, Goethe's Euphrosyne ; Kleist's life, in lectures ; Prinz Friedrich von Homburg ; Hermann's Victory ; Sopho- cles's Philoctetes ; Lessing's Laokoon, concerning Philoctetes ; Shakespeare's Hamlet ; Kiithchen von Heilbronn ; Penthesilea ; Grillparzer's Sappho ; His- tory of literature from Luther to Lessing : Minna von Barnhelra, Emilia Galotti, Xathan der Weise, Miss Sarah Sampson, Laokoon und Hamburg. Drama (selected jDarts). Keports in connection with read- ings. Explanation and reading of lyrics. Upper Friinn, 3 hours. Eeview lives of Lessing and Goethe. Dichtung und Wahrheit, books 1-6, and selected j)arts from other works of Goethe. Iphi- genie. Iphigenie of Euripides. Tasso. Xatiirliche Tochter. Faust, first part. Goethe's life reviewed. Hermann und Dorothea ; Egmont ; Schiller's criti- cism of Egmont ; Achilles ; Gotz. Newer period of German literature since 1805. Kleist's Prinz Fried- rich von Homburg ; Hermann's Victory ; Kathchen von Heilbronn ; Sappho ; Ottokar. Eeview Sopho- cles's Ajax. Schiller's Bride of Messina. Memoriz- ing of didactic and lyric poems. 2G4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. A discussion of tlie iiietliods of teachiiifr (iermun will not be entered upon here, and the scope of the course and its distribution throughout the various years can be seen sutliciently from the outline given above. Granting that essentially the same end is accomplished in the secondary-school course in the acquisition of the mother tongue and knowledge of national literature as is accomplished in our own schools through the corresponding years, I shall direct my attention to a single phase of the work — that is, to the consideration of the amount of time devoted to attaining the same end. This seems to me a very important consideration, and one which has been almost entirely overlooked by reformers of our curricula. With all the discussion concern- ing the shortening of courses, enriching of courses, and with all the lamentations concerning slow jDrog- ress in our schools no one, to my knowledge, lias seemed impressed with the fact that an enormous amount of time is given in our curricula to the study of language — and often resulting in only a passable acquaintance, or hardly that, if we are to believe the murmurings that are heard from most of our colleges concerning the preparation of those entering. The following figures show the amount of time spent in study of the mother tongue in some of the representative cities of the United States as com- pared with some of the German secondary schools. From the American cities the entire amount of time from the entrance into school to the end of the high-school course is given. The entire course, PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. -265 including the tliree years in the Vorschule, is given for Germany,* The following cities were taken because the facts concerning the division of time were most accessible. Many annual reports do not give specific figures, but my knowledge of the average schools through- out the country leads me to believe these are c^uite representative. The charts given by Dr. Harris in liis German, American, and French Schools Com- pared f will verify my assumptions. We thus see that American schools devote about twice as much time to a study of the mother tongue as German schools do. We must, of course, take * As before, the numbers given signify tlie hours given per week on the topic if the whole course were reduced to one year. f Gymnasium 46 liours. Ti . Real-gymnasium ... 48 " rrussia -; t^,. , 1 Higher real-school. . 54 " [ Real-school 48 " Washington. D. C. Elementary (primary and grammar), 60; high school, 16 = 76. Chicago, 111. Primary and grammar, 82 ; high school. 11 = 93. o • c 1 T A,r n ■ if Eng. course, 15 r= 122 Springfield, Mass. Primary and 1^ *= ^ -.nr, ■>■ ^ i" 1 , ^ Eng. Lat., 12.5 = 119.5 grammar, 107; high school + ] ^, . *" ^ I Classical, 7.8 = 114.8 r, J r. • 1 Tf 1 Tj • f Commerc. Eng., 19 = 126 Grand Rapids, Mich. Pnmarv I „ , ^ in" I • i German Eng., 19 = 126 and grammnr, 10/ ; high J . . " ' ,1 1 Scientific, 20 = 127 schoooi + [ Classical, 11 = 118 f Coll. prep., 7 = 82 Utica, N. Y. Primary and gram- I Eng. sci., 10.5= 85.5 mar, 75 ; high school -f- 1 English, 13 = 88 • [ Teachers', 12 = 87 f Report of Conimissioner of Education, 1, 1888-"89, p. 53. 206 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. into consideration that German boys have religious instruction two hours weekly, which contributes not a little to their mastery of the mother tongue. Then, in most of the schools the study of Latin grammar obviates to a considerable extent the pursuit of Ger- man grammar. But even the real-schools with no classics in their courses have much less time than our schools set apart for the study of the mother tongue. Why the discrepancy ? The school year is a little longer in Germany than in this country, be- ing from ten and a half to eleven months in dura- tion, but this accounts for only a small difference. There are, to my mind, two directions in which our schools spend altogether too much time : these are spelling and formal grammar. It is true that English orthography is exceedingly difficult and arbitrary. But do we not magnify the difficulty beyond any necessity in continually requiring children to spell words which they have not made their own ? If children's requirements in spelling were limited to their usable written vocabulary, relatively more time could be given to these difficulties and a greater mastery insured in less time. German children do much more oral work than ours, and of course there are no misspelled oral words. A great many of the difficulties of even English orthography may be eas- ily mastered when the age of discrimination and analysis is reached. The German orthography is very simple, but when we turn to a comparison of grammatical impediments the case is reversed. How- ever, our American schools usually devote much more time to English grammar, which is one of the PRESENT COUESES OP STUDY. 267 simplest in all languages, than German schools do to their grammar, one of the mogt complex. Again, we magnify the difficulty by requiring children to spend vast amounts of time almost use- lessly by plunging them prematurely into abstrac- tions which they do not comprehend. Were grammar reserved for its proper place the whole of English grammar necessary for any one but a philologist could be learned in one year in the high school. One's native language should be learned by imitation and not mastered by rule. Xearly all of grammar could be learned in connection with a study of the language and literature, as is done in Germany. The codes of most of the German states make it ex- plicit that separate systematic instruction in gram- mar which deals with sentences devoid of connection with each other is to be prohibited. How many bookfuls of disconnected sentences do our children analyze and parse ! " The teaching of German gram- mar as a foreign language in German schools is to be discarded," says the Prussian order of 1891. Cor- rect speaking and writing are to be learned by habit. Then, too, they do not spend much time with for- mal rhetoric. The time in the higher classes is de- voted to literature. Upon the average high-school pupil formal rhetoric has little more effect than to create distaste for literature and to crush out all spontaneity of expression. Ehetoric has a place, but not in the high school. In the German schools style and arrangement of composition are by no means overlooked, but the method is largely what may be called the imitative method. A jDupil is never given 19 208 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. a composition upon matter with which he is not per- fectly familiar. In the lower classes composition topics are taken from the reading books or from subjects such as Naiurkunde, and in the higher from the literary selections. In the lower classes the teacher assists in the analysis of the theme ; teacher and pupils build up the composition orally; it is then written on the blackboard, and finally in note books and corrected. The fundamental presuj)posi- tion of this method is the inability of young 2)upils to compose and think out a series of ideas without considerable assistance. They believe, also, that style should be a matter for the eye and the ear to decide, and not for the eye alone. In the higher classes the themes for composition are usually selected from German literature. Much attention is given to the arrangement of thoughts. They even undoubtedly sacrifice originality of thought to logical arrange- ment. Although they have learned how to arrange any written theme, the results sometimes evidence stiffness and awkwardness rather than spontaneity. But on the whole we may credit them with having gained the mastery of expressing thoughts correctly, although fluency of expression is less a characteristic of German than of American pupils. They have also gained a thorough acquaintance with considerable of the choicest national literature, both prose and verse. The Prussian Lehrplan (1891) claims that " instruc- tion in German, together with religion and history, is the most significant part ethically of the organization of the higher schools." In other places it is stated to be, next to religion, the most valuable as a train- PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 269 ing for the character and the intellect. Undoubted- ly the national literature is most potent in preserv- ing the intense national pride and patriotism so characteristic of Germans. The foundation for its appreciation is laid in the schools. By the substitu- tion of those things which are most vital and inspir- ing in our language — the literature and language themselves — in place of the uninteresting, and to children meaningless formal aspects, we may accom- plish two things : First, much precious time can be saved ; and, second, the spiritual lives of youth will be vitalized and quickened by the rich stores which the world's masters have treasured up for us. 9. FlXAL EXAMINATIOXS. The purpose of the examination, as published in the Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben, 1892, is to deter- mine whether the candidate has successfully com- pleted the work in Upper Prima. Usually pupils are not allowed to take the examination until they have been at least half a year in the highest class. The general scope of attainments required in each subject is given below : 1. Religion. Contents and connection of Scrip- tures, the fundamental princijDles of his Church con- fession, and chief epochs of Church history. 2. German. A composition within the candidate's ability, showing independent conclusions in orderly arrangement, and free from grammatical or compo- sitional errors. In oral language there must be ex- hibited clear, correct, ready, and connected use of the mother tongue ; a familiarity with the most impor- 270 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. tant sections of history, national poetry, and master- pieces of German literature. 3. Latin. Translation of the simpler portions of Cicero's Orations, Sallust, Livy, Virgil's ^Eueid, Epistles and Odes of Horace ; usual laws of versifi- cation. The written work must be free from errors which show great grammatical uncertainty, 4. Greek. Ability to translate Homer, Xenophon, easier parts of Demosthenes, and Plato. 6. French. Sure understanding and fluent trans- lation of simpler authors ; exercise in oral and written use of the language. 6. History and geography. Knowledge of the epoch-making events of the world's history, espe- cially of German and Prussian history, in connection with their causes and effects and exact location in time and place. Fundamentals of mathematical ge- ography ; important physical relations and political divisions of the earth, especially middle Europe. However, the examination covers only German and Prussian history, and takes up no portion not passed over in Prima. Mathematics. Algebra and arithmetic through the binomial theorem, with positive, integral expo- nents, and quadratic equations. Clear, connected, and well-ordered knowledge of geometry and plane trigonometry, with ability to apply in solution of simple exercise. (Calculus frequently included.) Physics. Clear knowledge of the laws of statics, and of motion, heat, electricity, magnetism, light, and sound. English (if taken). Readiness in reading ; some PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 271 exercise in translation of easy prose ; most important grammatical rules reasonably well learned. Hebrew (if taken). Fluent reading, acquaint- ance with grammatical forms, and ability to trans- late simpler parts of the Old Testament into German. The final examination is to be passed before a commission, consisting of the commissioner of the school board, the gymnasial director, and the teacher under whom the particular subject is taken. The written examination in Prussia consists of: (1) A German composition (five hours) ; (3) a translation from German into Latin (two hours) ; (3) a transla- tion from French into German (three hours) ; (4) a translation from Greek into German (three hours) ; (5) mathematics, consisting of an exercise from each of algebra, trigonometry, planimetry, and stereome- try ; (6) translations from Hebrew into German, and from English into German (two -hours each). These are optional, except that the latter is necessary for future theological students. The examination ques- tions are prepared by the teacher of the respective subjects, but to prevent either any possible leniency or too great difiiculties he must prepare three sets of questions, which he submits to the director and the commissioner, who select one of the three sets for the examination. The law cautions against mak- ing the examination of greater difficulty than the pupils have been prepared for by their work, and also, on the other hand, stipulates that the questions must not be those recently given, and thus obviate the necessity of careful thought. The board may 272 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. substitute questions of their own choosing in place of those submitted by the teacher. The time for the mathematical exercise, which must be completed in five forenoon hours, may be divided into two equal periods, provided that only half of the examination is given at each of the sit- tings. For all other examinations no pauses are allowed in the work. These seem to be especially long examination periods, notably the one in Ger- man composition. It is customary to write the com- position twice, the first time writing it with refer- ence to the content, the second time devoting especial attention to style and to handwriting as well as to making corrections. This all comes in the allotted five hours, Avhich may at times be ex- tended about half an hour. All helps are, of course, excluded in the examina- tion. In the case of translations from Greek, He- brew, and French into German a dictionary of those languages is permitted ; also a table of logarithms for the mathematical exercises. Any attempt at cheating deprives the candidate from further par- ticipation in the examination, and he may have only one more trial at a later date, or he may be excluded forever ; this latter punishment must, however, be assented to by the Cultus Minister. The examination papers are first looked over by the teacher having charge of the subject, who marks the papers and gives his estimate, not in percent values as is usual in the United States, but with the words selir gut, gut, genvgend, niclit genugcnd (" very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient "). Along PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 273 with the estimates of the written work the teacher is to place the estimate of the class work, but in no case may class work influence the estimates of the written work. AVhen the teacher is through with the papers he sends them to the director, who in con- ference with the other members of the examining commission determine who may take the oral exami- ination, who are to be excluded from it, or who ex- empted from it because of especially good work. For those who pass this Avritten examination success- fully an oral examination is yet in store. Pupils who have secured the mark fjenilgend in all the writ- ten tests, and whose behaviour through the course has been faultless, are freed from the oral examina- tion. Others who have secured the mark genvgend in a certain number of branches may be freed from being orally examined on those. The oral examinations are conducted by the class teacher in the presence of the examination commission {Prilfungs Kommission), and all the teachers of the school, and frequently the public, are invited. Sometimes the commission give the ques- tions, and in all cases they determine the subjects for examination. The pupils are examined in groups of about ten each day. In Latin and Greek the ex- amination consists of translations, together with oc- casional related questions on metre, grammar, myth- ological allusions, and antiquities. The selections are to be made from the work read or prepared in Prima. Prose selections must be those which have not been read before, while poetry may have been read, though not in the last half vear of the course. His- 274 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. torical considerations include only Germany, espe- cially the Prussian states, and are selected from the parts that have received special treatment in Prima. Physics is not taken as a special subject for exami- nation, but may be treated of in connection with mathematics. Religious questions are confined to topics that have received exhaustive treatment in Prima. In making the final estimates the class markings are to be reckoned in with the others. When the mark nicM genugend (" not sufficient ") has not been given in any obligatory subject, the candidate is con- sidered to have passed. A failure in one branch may be offset by very good marks in another, in certain cases. Failures in German, and in both Greek and Latin, can not be counterbalanced by substitutes. They form the kernel of the instruction, and fail- ures in all these moan nearly total failure. Nicht geuilgend in one of the classics may be counterbal- anced only by good marks in the other or by German or mathematics, and a poor mark in mathematics is only offset by one of the classics or German. According to AVendt, a good deal of liberality is extended toward candidates in the examination, the stress being laid upon their ability to think care- fully and clearly rather than upon the mass of facts they may have accumulated. He writes * that " with justice, more value is placed in the examination upon the power of the pupils, and upon the manifestation of their maturity of judgment, than upon the know- * Rein's Encyclopiidisches Handbueh der Padagogik, III, p. 159. PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 275 ing facts. The recollection of former accomplish- ments should also be taken into consideration, as well as the not entirely just results of the exami- nation, which may be influenced by all sorts of acci- dental features. Eepetition is at once necessary and unavoidable in all school work, and hence it is not difficult to understand that the entire examination of the pupils should not appear otherwise than as the usual final exercise, differing only in so far as it is held in the presence of the Government Commission, and possibly other visitors, and consequently may re- sult in a little greater tension on the part of those whose maturity is in doubt." I have been informed by teachers in the schools, also, that the examination is regarded simply as a usual lesson, held, however, in the presence of visitors. Surely these are rational views concerning final examinations. Although there are not many important devia- tions from the Prussian plan in other states, yet a few variations may be noted. In Bavaria the final written examination lasts four days and is appor- tioned as follows : ^ , , ( 7-11 A. M. Translation, German into Latin. 1st dav 1 o - Ti !• ■ • ( o-o p. M. Religious composition. 2d day 7-11 a. m. German composition. _ , , I 7-10 A. M. Translation, Greek into German. 3d day ^ „ ^ , ■r^ i • . r. • t 3-5 p. M. '' French into German. 4th day 7-11 Mathematics and physics. The examination questions are prepared by the Minister of Instruction, sent sealed to the examina- tion commission, and opened in the presence of the class at the hour of examination. 276 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. In some schools the marks during the whole course count as a part of the final standings, while in others — Saxony for example — only the last year, or the last four semesters, are taken into account. Some schools have several examinations yearly to determine the averages, and for promotions, while others have only the written examination, and the public examination at the close of the year at Easter. CHAPTEE V. SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. I. Classification of Girls' Schools. There are at present in Germany four classes of schools in which girls receive their elementary and secondary education. Only a few receive any higher or university training. These schools are : (a) The Common Schools (burgher schools or people's schools), all public, and open to girls and boys, though they are instructed separately except in the lowest classes. {!)) The Girls' Intermediate Schools {Madchen MittelscMUn), public and private, for girls only. (c) The Girls' Higher Schools {hohere llddchen- scliulen), public and private, for girls only. {d) The Girls' Gymnasia {Madchen Gymnasia), so far all private, buildings and appliances sometimes furnished by the city. These do not, of course, include the many techni- cal schools for household industries, nor the normal schools {Lehrerin Semindre). The last are also con- sidered as technical schools, and are not a part of the general system of education, having for its aim the imparting of general information and culture. 277 278 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. The first-nfimed scliools, being elementary schools, do not fall within the ,8cope of this discussion. It may, however, be said in passing that the people's schools do not form the foundation upon which the more elaborate secondary and higher education rests. As was pointed out with reference to secondary schools for boys, girls' high schools form a system by themselves, and are not the middle frustum of an educational pyramid. Girls as well as boys have their education determined by the surroundings into which they are born. If born under a lucky star they may receive the benefits of more than the pro- verbial E's ; if, however, they are born of parents who are hewers of wood and drawers of water they stand a fair show of following the same occupations. ■ The prevailing view of the Germans places the girls' intermediate school and the girls' higher schools in the same category as the people's schools. They are all classed as niedrige t^cliulen^^ or elementary schools. The courses of study in the people's schools and the intermediate schools for girls contain about the same branches of instruction. The ordinary burgher school course of eight years, however, sel- dom contains a foreign modern language, while the higher burgher school courses and those in the girls' intermediate schools usually do. The latter, at least, seldom exist without offering instruction in one for- eign language. The girls' intermediate school follows a some- what higher aim than the burgher school, and of- * See Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 62. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 279 fers, besides the extra language training, a general preparation for some practical industrial or clerical occupation. They must have at least five classes, though the number of years in the course is not defi- nite, and no class may contain more than fifty jiu- pils. More would detract from the efficiency of the work, and reduce it to the level of the people's school with its sometimes overcrowded conditions.* Officially the girls' higher schools belong in the same class with the intermediate schools ; but, how- ever, after earnest striving for recognition as second- ary institutions of learning like secondary schools for boys, they have at least received practical though not official recognition as such. A distinction exists between the girls' higher schools and the intermediate schools. The distinc- tion was decided upon at a conference held in 1873, and has been operative ever since, especially in Prussia. From the tabulation of schools it will be seen that only one class, the girls' higher schools, are recognised in the states outside of Prussia. Accord- ing to the decisions of the conference, the fully de- veloped schools with ten-year courses are to be rec- ognised as girls' higher schools. The course must include two foreign languages as obligatory subjects, and a general, deeper consideration of courses, such as can be given by academic (university) trained teachers. The intermediate schools were to include those schools with eight-year courses, and which confined * Sec Zeitschrift fur weibliclie Bildung, 1890, p. 62 280 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. themselves to the pursuit of one foreign language. The instruction in general was to be of a more prac- tical nature, fitted to the needs of everyday life of the citizen {hilrgerliclien Lehen).'^ A girls' higher school must have at least nine years in its course (beginning with the fourth school year), with at least seven classes receiving instruction. Its aim is considered higher than that of the inter- mediate school. Two modern foreign languages are given instead of one, and all technical training is prohibited.! However, certain technical or industrial branches may be elective. The schools are under the Govern- ment, and the teachers, as above indicated, must have received professional or university training. Theo- retically the course of instruction closes with the fifteenth year of age, but practically it frequently extends through an additional year, even though only the nine grades of work are attempted. ^-^he Minister of Instruction, Brrik>i?se, in a gen- eral order. May 31, 1894, defined the position occu- pied by the girls' schools of all classes, and also made imperative many points only partially realized before. The order relates to the regulations concerning build- ings, size of classes, ends to be attained, etc. It is as follows : J 1. The number of pupils shall not exceed forty in any class. 3. The school room must contain at least 0.8 square metres floor space for each pupil, and in its * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1894. t Ibid., 1896, p. 63, to 1897, p. 3. t Ibid., 1894, p. 322 ef seq. HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 281 entirety must contain at least 24 square metres floor space, and also be sufficiently high. Each room must he sufficiently lighted, provided with fresh air, be protected against storms, and the windows prop- erly curtained to protect from the sunshine. The light must come from the left side of the pupils' desks and seats must be suited to the size of the pupils, and so arranged that they may work with- out injury to their health. Hooks for garments must be placed in corridors outside of the class rooms. 3. Schools having seven or more grades must have suitable separate rooms for drawing, singing, and gymnastics ; also, a separate room must be jDro- vided for the use of teachers during free periods and between recitations. 4. Every school must have a sufficiently large garden, courtyard, or other place where pupils may move about freely during pauses between classes. 5. To every school room belong two tables, one teacher's chair, and one or more cupboards for pre- serving books, handwork, etc. 6. Every school must possess a carefully selected library for the use of pupils, which is to be under the oversight and management of the teachers. 7. For instructional purposes there are necessary : (a) At least one copy of each book used in school. (b) At least one globe. {<•) For the instructional exercises of several classes, the corresponding ^4 ?is«'/ia?. Saved (as in Moret's Anarchiste). Shall we call Thekla in Wallenstein a weak character ? French, 5 hours. Grammar in connection with reading. Eeading from reader; also Scribe, Mon Ftoile, Choix de nouvelles III, and Scribe and Lc- gouve, La bataille de Dames. Thirty written exer- cises, dictations, translations, and compositions. Conversation. Reports by the pupils on self-selected subjects. English, 4 hours. Grammar. The most im- portant chapters of English syntax, with special at- tention to verbs, infinitives, participles and gerun- dives, prepositions and conjunctions, according to Ranch's Repetitional Grammar ; thirty written exer- cises (translations, dictations, compositions, letters). Literature : Survey of the development of English literature. Special stress on Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare (short history of the English drama), Milton, Scott, Byron, Bulwer, Tennyson. Lectures and biographies are given in English. Read Ten- HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 297 nyson's Enoch Arden. Poems from Gropp and Hausknecht's collection. Massey's In the Struggle of Life. Bulwer's The Lady of Lyons. Conversa- tion : Anglicisms. Phraseology from home, business, and social life. Lectures by students in English on self-selected themes. Eecitation of English poems and memorizing portions of ShakesiDcare and Ten- nyson. History, 2 hours. History of Germany and the other powers from the Thirty Years' War to 1870, giving special attention to the Kulturgeschichte (in- stitutional history). Elements of economics. Geography, 2 hours. Mathematical and physical geography. Germany. Xature lessons, 2 hours. Chemistry and mineral- ogy (text-book). Arithmetic, 1 hour. Discount, business arith- metic, alligation. Geometry, 1 hour. Important theorems of pla- nimetry reviewed ; cube, prism, cylinder, cone, and sphere. Drawing, 2 hours. Shading plaster ornaments ac- cording to models. Painting simple natural objects in water colours. Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. Needlework, 2 hours. Cutting and sewing; coarse and fine work. Machine sewing. Embroid- ery, fancy needlework, and painting upon cloth, etc. As in the other schools of Germany, in the girls' schools the system of departmental teaching is car- ried out, except in the lowest three classes, which have the same teacher during the entire day. This 298 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. jolan is in vogue in nearly all German schools, and it has manifest advantages over the American system, which requires the same person to be teacher of all subjects. There are some disadvantages, however, from having so many dilTercnt teachers, especially from the standpoint of authority and discipline, but the advantages probably outweigh the disadvantages. When all the teachers are thoroughly trained, and the supervision of the entire course is thorough, the danger from lack of balance and proper correlation is not great. 3. DiSTRiBUTioisr OF GiELs' Schools. At the end of this section will be found some tables showing the distribution of girls' schools throughout the whole Empire, with the number of pupils in attendance and the number and sex of the teachers in charge. From those tables and the data here subjoined, we notice some striking illustrations of the meagre efforts toward higher education of women as com- pared with those for men. Statistics for the entire Empire are imperfect, and hence Prussian statistics will in the main be quoted. In the people's schools of Prussia, which are free to both sexes, we find that in 1891 they were attend- ed by 2,467,558 boys and 2,448,918 girls, or by nearly as many girls as boys. It must be considered, how- ever, that a large number of boys, and girls also, were in the secondary schools, which begin with the fourth year of school life, and hence we can not estimate exactly the proportion that took advantage HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 299 of the public elementary training offered. During the same year, 82,350 girls received instruction in the intermediate and higher girls' schools, and 48,920 boys received instruction in the intermediate schools. The entire number of pupils receiving secondary instruction in Prussia during 1891 was distributed as follows : Boys. Gymnasia, I'eal-gymnasia, real-schools, etc.. . . 13G,000 Vorschulen 21,000 Intermediate schools 48,920 In other private schools about 16,000 Total 221,920 Girls. In public intermediate schools and higher. . . 82,350 In private intermediate schools 65,766 Total 148,116 These figures indicate two facts, viz. : (a) While the numbers of boys and girls receiving elementary instruction in the people's schools are nearly equal, the number of boys receiving secondary instruction is somewhere near seventy thousand in excess of the number of girls, (b) That only about fifty-five per cent of girls have higher training provided for them in public schools, while about forty-five per cent must receive their secondary training in private institu- tions. Less than ten per cent of all the boys receive their secondary instruction in private schools.* * To be sure, the expense of attending a private school is not much different from that of attending a public school, since tuition must be paid in either case, but the public school grants 21 Men. Women. 973 866 460 323 449 87 ,073 34 300 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Thus the higher education of girls in Prussia is more the cure of private enterprise than of the state. In this connection it is interesting to note the relative proportion of male and female teachers in Prussia, and also the means provided for their pro- fessional training apart from the general training received in the lower schools. Public girls' higher schools — regular teachers. Public intermediate girls' schools — regular teachers Public schools above grade of people's schools 111 the various forms above assistant teachers . Total for girls' higher schools 2,955 1,310 Public people's schools, regular teachers and as- sistants : men, G3,237 ; women, 8,494. This shows that about thirty per cent of the teaching force in all the public secondary schools for girls are women, while in the public people's schools there are only about twelve per cent of women. Turning to the private schools for girls, we find the conditions reversed, which would appear to in- dicate that were the wishes of patrons consulted more, and were the conditions not imposed by cen- tral authority, the number of women teachers, es- pecially in charge of girls' instruction, would be much larger.* privileges with its diplomas that the private schools are not empowered to do. * Miss Lange states (Entwicklung und Stand des hoheren Madchenschulwesen in Deutschland, p. 13) that in the public higher girls' schools from ninety-one to ninety-two per cent of HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 301 In the six hundred and forty-seven private higlier girls' schools giving instruction to 57,943 girls, there were during the same year, 1891 : Men with permanent positions. . 112 i ^^^ -.XT- vi <- -i- o ^o;^ - 2)599 regular teachers. Women with permanent positions 2,4o7 ) Men full assistants 18 Women full assistants Men partial assistants Women partial assistants 499 J Women assistants in industrial work. . . 1,072. ron ' 2'^^^ assistants. Instead of the small proportion of women notice- able in the public schools, we find about ninety-five per cent of the regular teachers were women, while those occupying the assistants' positions were about seventy-eight per cent men. The state does not seem to care to increase the number of women teachers very rapidly, if we are to Judge from the professional training jorovided for them, as shown in the following schedule : NORMAL SCHOOLS. Number yearly graduates. Costs to state. Number positions open. Men ... 3 3,300 230 4,404,879 M. 503,602 M. Women 2 550 This left three hundred and twenty of the neces- sary women teachers to secure the requisite profes- sional training in some private institution. The above does not adequately represent the dispropor- all teachers are men, and only eight or nine per cent women. But in the private higher girls' schools eighty-seven per cent to eighty-eight per cent of the teachers are women, and only twelve to thirteen per cent are men. 302 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERI\rANY. tionate provision made for women to prepare them- selves for the profession of teaching, since the uni- versities were at that time all closed to women, though practically all the men teachers in the sec- ondary schools received their training there. More- over, the gymnasial and other certificates from the boys' schools give permission to take the examina- tions for teaching, and the institutions provide more adequate training than any of the girls' higher schools.* The following table showing the distribution of girls' higher schools, teachers, and pupils, is com- piled from various reports and tables given by Helene Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Pupils. Prussia. Public higher girls' schools Public girls' int. schools Public mixed int Privateliigliei' girls' schools Other higher girls' schools. Bavaria (ISOl). Public Private Wilrtemberg (ISOO). Public Private Baden (1800-'01). Public Private Hesse. Public Private i ^ c^ ^ 1 s i o "S ■« S ~ ^ jj *« B § z i^ S. (£ s iS 206 44.788 973 866 295 58 93 28,679 461 356 65 28 68 8,8(13 647 57.942 130 2,733 1,690 499 291 7,824 24 1 103)' 13,770 592 1,077 9 1.8.53 62 42 4 1,607 56 55 7 2,548 47 49 23 6 2,172 58 42 39 2,500 138 132 368 353 1,073 * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1897, p. 03. HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 303 Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Pupils {continued). Mecklenburg. Public Private Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach. Public Private Oldenburg. Public Private Braunschweig. Public Private Saxe-Me.in.-Hildb. Private (only) Saxe-Altenburg. Public Private Saxe- Coburq-Gotha. Public and private Anhalt. Public Private Schwarzbnrg- Rudolstadt. Public ". Private Schwarzburg-Sondershau- sen. Public WaldecJc and Pyrmont. Public Reiiss. Public and private Lippe and Schaumbui-g-L Public and private Liibeclc. Public Private Bremen. Private (only) Hambxn-g. Public ." Private Alsace-Lorra inc. Public Private 4 .a 'Z. 1 2 J3 1 S 1 i i. ;S S ta i ■3 B r. 2,052 27 30 48 4,540 280 2 529 513 19 8 57a 29 32 G 8 1,144 4S4 25 24 39 5 ],2'!4 39 39 ( rro 43 59 311 21 19 o 203 12 (i 1 124 " 4 3 484 10 12 4 1,200 34 25 g 102 9 10 2 125 9 4 2 19 " ~ o 201 10 4 1:32 14 12 3 440 15 8 6 430 1 349 4 8 10 1,335 To 71 10 2,303 53 123 2.344 23 80 53 0,350 158 441 9 1,337 48 53 55 5.941 134 502 304 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. Lange in Entwickkmg unci Stand tics hohercn Miid- chenscliulwesen in Deutschland, It is only approxi- mately correct, as the reports are from various years. It is incomplete, since the materials necessary for complete tabulation are not accessible. There are so many kinds of girls' higher schools that it is diffi- cult to classify them in any adequate manner. Even the Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen Deutschlands fails to do this. In all except Prussia the regular teachers and assistants are enumerated in the same column. A majority of the male teach- ers are only assistants, while nearly all the women are regular teachers. 4. Girls' Gymkasia. The great desire of German women to study in the universities has been met by the potent argument that they had no adequate fitting schools to prepare them for the new character of work which they pro- posed to undertake, even though the university fac- ulties should freely grant them admission. Tradi- tion and popular sentiment were too strong to per- mit the people even to entertain the idea that girls might go to the boys' gymnasia, and receive the same preparatory instruction as their brothers. It was in response to this pressing demand that the Allsemeine Frauen Verein conceived the idea of opening private Miidchen gymnasia, where young women might supplement the work of the higher girls' schools by taking the languages, mathematics, and history, as well as broadening in other essential lines. With the important cause championed by HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 305 Frtiulein Helene Lange, of Berlin, who pleaded for a chance to experiment, rather than to settle the ques- tion summarily by logic, the women at last succeeded in making a beginning. A girls' gymnasium, with Frl. Lange as directress, was first opened in Berlin in 1894. Almost con- temporaneously one was started in Leipzig, and since that, one each in Karlsruhe and Breslau. One is in process of organization in Bremen, and in several other cities they are contemplated. The Bremen gymnasium was erected by the city with the intention of having its graduation certifi- cate recognised as a passport to the university. It was opened in October, 1897, under the leadership of Frl. Dr. Plehn.* The one in Karlsruhe received permission from the Minister of Instruction to have graduates from its school, which was planned similar to the upper real-schools, admitted to the study of natural sci- ences and mathematics in the university, f Mann- heim awaits the outcome of this to determine whether a girls' gymnasium shall be erected there. J Baden was reported about to follow the example of other cities,* and Weimar is considering the matter. The girls' gymnasium in Breslau is to be united with the present girls' higher school. The first six years of the course are to remain unchanged, while during the last three years of the present course Latin will * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, April, 1897. f Academische Revue, January. 1896. i Ibid., March, 1897. * Ibid., June, 1895. 30G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. be taken. In addition, three years, corresponding to Upper Secimda and the two years in Prima of the boys' gymnasium, will be maintained.* In 1895 the first woman was admitted to the " Eeifepriif ung " or final gymnasium examination in Prussia. f In 189G the first class finished the course with Miss Lange in Berlin. The papers stated that she was entirely successful (" Sie haben damit Beweis ihrer Lernfilhigkeit vollgiitig erbracht").| About the same time one woman took the examination with credit in Diisseldorf.* The old prejudice is passing away, and women from the best families are taking up in earnest defi- nite courses of study. The daughter of Dr. Bosse, Minister of Instruction, is said to be studying phar- macy. The Countess Helene Posadowsky, daughter of the State Secretary, will this year take the scien- tific examination for teachers. || It is probably only a question of time when women will be admitted regularly to the universities and higher seats of learning. The girls' gymnasium in Leipzig was organized by the Allgemeine deutsche Frauenverein, under whose patronage it is conducted and managed. It was opened at Easter, 1894, under the leadership of Friiulein Dr. K. Windschied, daughter of the late Professor Windschied of the law department of the University of Leipzig. Dr. Windschied was granted * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung-, 1896, p. 597. f Ibid., 1895, p. 864. J Ibid.. 1896, p. 191. « Ibid., 1896, p. 170. || Ibid., April, 1897. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 307 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Heidelberg in the fall of 1893.* The course is one of four years of twenty-four weekly hours of instruction. Pupils may take twelve hours weekly instead, and extend the time twice as long. Students must be at least sixteen years of age, and are admitted only by an entrance examina- tion. All admitted are under obligations to attend at least one full year. The object of the course, as with the other girls' gymnasia, is specifically to pre- pare young women for entrance upon a course of university study. The subjects of instruction in- clude Latin, Greek, mathematics, German, Prench, English, history, geography, and natural science. The instruction is all given in the morning hours, from eight to twelve. The tuition is 120 marks per semester, or 240 marks yearly. f The first year of its establishment there were ten pupils, the oldest of whom was twenty-five years of age. At the beginning of the second year ten joined the first year's class, and two new ones, who had pri- vately prepared themselves, the second year's class. The first report of the director stated that the " pupils had applied themselves with eagerness and industry to their difficult task, but that the severe exertions had had no detrimental influence upon their health." This course, together with what is a prerequisite for admission, is about equivalent to * Zeitschrift fiu' weibliche Bildung, 1894, p. 21 ; Deutsche Schulzeitung, November 33. 1893. t Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1894 p. 27. 308 SECONDARY SCHOOl- SYSTEM OF GERMANY. the real-gymnasium courses for boys. The latter contain considerably more higher mathematics and some more science training. The real-gymnasium also has more Latin but no Greek. The girls' gym- nasium is not strictly comparable to any of the ex- isting courses for boys, but its aims are most closely allied to the one mentioned. Young women may enter the same university faculties. Below is given the detailed course of the Leipzig girls' gymnasium. Those in other cities are quite similarly planned, so that this may be taken as thoroughly representative of the work pursued and the ends to be attained. Course in the Girls' Gymnasium, Leipzig. VI VII VIII Total. Latin 5 Greek Mathematics 4 German 3 French 3 English 3 Geography 1 History 2 Natural science 2 Phys., chem., and min. . . Religion 19 13 16 8i 8* 8i 4 8 2 G 23a424aia4 24 2424 191 95i * Semesters, not years. I is the first, VIII the last, semester of the course. T Total number of weekly hours on year basis. FIKST YEAR. Latin. Eegular and irregular etymology. Chief rules of syntax. Eead in exercise book. In last quarter of year, Caesar's Gallic War. Read text-books, parts usually taken by Sexta and Quinta. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 309 Greek (begins second semester). Regular ety- mological forms to the liquid verbs. Translations and readings. Mathematics. Four fundamental operations in algebra. Equations with one unknown quantity. Begin geometry. Geometric quantities ; their origin. Straight lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, circles. Constructions. Analytical methods of solving the construction exercises. German. Thorough consideration of elementary sounds, etymology, and syntax. Oral and written analysis. Compositions. Lectures by students. Theory of style and structure of poetry. German literature from earliest writing to the middle of the thirteenth century. French. Review grammatical forms. Exercises to aid in fixing syntactical rules. Translations, dicta- tions. Read some author. Literature from earliest period to the middle of the sixteenth century. English. Review and extension of etymology and syntax. Dictation, translations. Read some easy author. Literature from the beginning to 1603. History. Greece. Roman history to the year 476. Geography. Fundamentals of mathematical ge- ography. l!s atural history. Botany : Review systematic botany, and take the most important jaarts of anat- omy and physiology of plants. Zoology : Represen- tatives of the most important classes of the animal kingdom. 310 SECONDARY SCUOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. SECOND YEAR. Latin. Complete the syntax of the verbs and nouns. Ecad Cassar, and an easy work of Cicero. In the last part of the year, introduction into prosody. Selected portions of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Greek. Liquid verbs. Irregular verbs. Syntax of the noun. Chief rules of mode and tense. Eead Xenoi^hon's Anabasis and Homer's Odyssey. Mathematics. Proportions. Equations of the first degree with several unknown quantities. Pow- ers with positive and negative, integral, and frac- tional exponents. Imaginaries and complex num- bers. Easy quadratic equations with one unknown quantity. Pol^'gonal surfaces. Similarity of tri- angles. Harmonic points and lines. Constructions. Eatios and measurement of polygons. German. Connected grammatical and oral use of constructions in connection with the reading. Compositions. Dissertations by students. Litera- ture from 1300 to 1748. French. Continued exercises in speaking and grammatical rules in connection with the reading of some author. Literature from the middle of the sixteenth century to 1700. English. Exercises in speaking with reference to certain grammatical rules in connection with the reading of some author. Connected conversations. Literature from 1603 to 1750. History. Middle ages to the year 1517. Geography. European states. Xon-European geography. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 311 Xatural history. Elementary concepts of chem- istry. Most important minerals. General proper lies of matter, magnetism, frictional electricity. THIKD YEAR. Latin. Finish etymology and syntax. Eeview most dilficult sections of tense and mode. Consid- eration of style. Eead from Cicero, Livy, Ovid, Virgil. Greek. Continue tense and mode. S3mtax and style considered in connection with the reading. Read Xenophon's Hellenica ; Lysias. Easy dialogues of Plato ; Herodotus ; Homer's Odyssfey and Iliad. Mathematics. Quadratic equations with one or two unknown quantities. Logarithms. Arithmetical series of the first order. Geometric series. Calcu- lation of circles. Plane trigonometry and goniom- etry. Begin stereometry. German. Prosody. History of German art. Compositions. Lectures by students. German lit- erature from 1748 to 1832. French. Cofttinue work of the second year. Literature from 1700 to 1830. Eeadings. English. Continue second year's work. Litera- ture from 1750 to 1830. Readings. History. From the beginning of the Reformation to the death of Frederick I of Prussia (1713). Geography. Most important portions of physical geography. Thorough consideration of important geographical points and questions of the day, as the Alps, Mediterranean Sea, the German colonies, etc. Xatural science. Physics, galvanic electricity, 312 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. heat, meclianics, most important parts of the theory of wave motion. FOURTH YEAE. Latin. Reviews. Historical considerations (an- tiquities, literature, and art history). Eead Tacitus and Horace. Greek. Eeview grammar. Consider sjmtax and style in connection with the reading. Eead Demos- thenes, Plato, Thucydides, Sophocles, Homer's Iliad. Mathematics. Interest and rent. Binomial theorem with positive integral exponents. Graphic representation of functions. Stereometry : Synthetic consideration of sections of the sphere. Elements of co-ordinates. (Special consideration of applications to mathematical geog- raphy and circular surfaces.) Methods of solving geometric constructions by algebraic analysis. Ee- view and systematizing of mathematics previously considered. German. Eeview of previous work. Composi- tions. Dissertations by students. Elements of psy- chology and logic. German literature from 1832 to the present. Eeadings. French. Translation of a German author into French. Systematic consideration of synonyms. Style. Short dissertations by pupils. Literature from 1830 to the present. Eeadings. English. Translation of a German prose work into English. Systematic consideration of synonyms. Style. Short discourses by pupils. Literature from 1830 to the present time. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOME.V. 313 History. History of the eighteenth century ; nineteenth century to 1870-'71. Natural science. Physics : Acoustics, optics. Eeligion. Eeview doctrines considered in pre- vious training, proverbs, and hymns. Biblical history and geograjihy. Reading and interpretation of Xew Testament writings. Church history. A course in pedagogics covering three years may be taken as elective. 5. WoMEjf IIS" THE Universities. Notwithstanding all the conservatism manifested in this matter of women entering the higher schools of learning in Germany, the most pronounced oppo- nents can scarcely fail to recognise that women will most assuredly soon — and it is only a question of time — have admission at all the highest portals of learning. Without much clamour or demonstration, yet with most powerful and convincing appeals, woman is demanding and securing the right to en- joy all the privileges to be derived from acquaintance with the best thoughts of the world's greatest mas- ters. Unquestionably not a decade of the dawning twentieth century will have passed ere the German university lecture rooms, traditionally barred against the weaker sex, v/ill all have swung wide their doors, and coeducation will be a recognised feature of uni- versity life. The German Herren Studenten, at first indignant that woman should dare set foot within the sacred portals of learning, next dazed that she should be so audacious and persistent, will at last yield gracefully, and will finally be ready to pay to 314 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. the new woman dl that knightly homage tliat tho German student with all his courtly formalities is able to do. They at first dubbed the women " Mi- nerva " or " Valkyre," but were never openly dis- respectful. Most of the German professors believe that the craving of women for university training ought to be satisfied. The older men naturally look askance at any such encroachments upon traditional ways. One says, " To deliver history to women is to declare permanent revolution. "/ There are others who seem to think that the male students will be distracted from doing effective work. A certain professor is said to have stated that " the face of woman is, of all books, that which attracts most and teaches least." Some of the professors stormed blusteringly when the subject was first broached to them. It is reported that Professor von Treitschke ordered the University beadle to lead out in a summary manner a woman who entered his lecture-room without per- mission ; and that Professor Schmidt invoked the aid of the Minister of Instruction against the Damen- invasion (invasion of women).* The new order of things in German universities is commented upon by the Exefelder Zeitung, No- vember 10, 189G, in the following manner : f " Still and unostentatiously, yet full of signifi- cance for the future, a new era has this winter broken in upon our Ehenish university (Bonn). As * Hochschule Nachrichten, December, 1895. f See Zeitschrift f iir weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 589. HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 315 in so many other occupations of life, the tender hand of woman has knocked on the portals of the temple of sober science. Hence we observe this year women sweeping by us with long feathers and plumes as we go into the halls and lecture rooms. The circle of studies which they wnll choose is as incalculable as the practical consequences which are to follow. However, it is noAv safe to assert that it will not be without a certain influence upon that select portion of the youthful students avIio sit at the feet of the docents upon the same benches with the fair sex. Apart from a certain knightly courtliness, which is peculiar in a remarkable degree to other nations where coeducation exists, doubtless this common striving after higher education will kindle greater eagerness for learning, so as not to remain behind the scientific accomplishments of the women stu- dents. For that the women will take study serious- ly, the 3Ii{sensdhne (students), who at first more or less doubtingly opposed, must very soon become aware of." ^ That the women will have soon won the battle is not a theory, but a fact, beginnings of which are clearly discernible. At least one half of all the uni- versities at the present time have admitted women to the lecture rooms on conditions more or less satis- factory. These include the largest and most prom- inent universities. It is inevitable that the time will come — and not long hence — when the remain- ing universities will admit women, and all will grant privileges satisfactory to the fair aspirants. Whether it was a foreign woman or a German 23 316 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. woman who first stormed the castle of opposition and succeeded in gaining entrance to a German uni- versity, I can not say. It is, however, probable that the example of the achievements of their sisters in America, England, Switzerland, France, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and even Eussia and Austria, fired the German women with greater de- termination to conquer the traditional prejudice against the higher education of women. For several years nunvbers of German women have been resorting to the Swiss universities, where they have been reg- ularly admitted to the same privileges and on the same conditions as men.* Many also attend the Swiss gymnasia to receive the secondary training which has heretofore been denied them at home. But through the importu- nities of foreign women and by their own timid sup- plications for their rights, women have succeeded in initiating the movement toward establishing a new order of things. There are now several gymna- sia where girls may secure preparatory training ne- cessary to university study, and, as above mentioned, about one half of the universities grant certain priv- ileges of instruction, while others (see below) have surrendered tradition completely, and grant admis- sion and the full privileges on the same conditions as to men. But, as in all European countries, conservatism * Basel has but recently admitted women, and only as an experiment; but in the four principal universities, Berne, Ge- neva. Zurich, and Neuchatel, there is no distinction in the laws between men and women. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 317 is exceedingly deep-rooted, and it is only after long periods of struggle that they will be able to break the bonds of tradition that have held them so long. It will take long and earnest endeavours to bring Germany into line with those countries that have such a start in the race,* The existing conditions with regard to the ad- mission of women to the universities is given here in detail for each of the universities that have admitted them : Berlin. Women are admitted (since 1895) only as H'urerinnen (hearers), and have no academical status ; their names do not even appear in the per- sonal register; they possess no CollegienhucJi,^ and are usually excluded from seminars and other special work. They are not eligible to the degrees granted, but may only profit as much as they can by listening to the lectures. However, all who are admitted as H'0rerin7ie)i or Hospitantinnen must go through much formality to secure even this small conces- sion. First, permission must be secured from the Minister' cler geistliclien Unterrichts^ etc. ; second, the rector of the university must give his consent ; third, the professor or decent must be consulted, * At the end of section 6 is exhibited in brief comparative outlines the position of women in education in the principal countries of the world. f A book possessed by every matriculated student, in which a record of the lectures, the receipt from the questor and from the professor under whom the lectures are taken. For those who do not receive a degree this is the only evidence of work taken. The book has a greater traditional than real signifi- cance. 318 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. and if he is not an oj^ponent of the Fraueufrage^ final permission is obtained to hear the respective lectnres. Although no CoUrgienhuch is granted them, fees for lectures are not omitted. Without due permission they are even excluded from the public lectures. Those who wish to be admitted as hearers {Huro'innen), and not as visitors {Hospi- tantinnen), must pass a preliminary examination, no matter what their qualifications are, and even though they possess a diploma from a gymnasium. This causes a good deal of dissatisfaction, because they say that all men from foreign countries who have permission to attend in their home universities re- ceive approval of attendance here. This, they claim, ought not to be, in view of the variety of conditions imposed upon candidates for entrance to American universities. Foreigners even take degrees in the medical faculty without having received classical preliminary training, and this of all things is viewed with disfavour with reference to German candidates fo;? the medical profession. It is impossible to determine the number of women in the German universities by consulting the per- sonal Verzeichnisse (registers) of the several institu- tions, since their names do not appear as regularly matriculated students; and among the number of non-matriculated students given there are many men (middle-aged men, mainly teachers, who have not secured secondary-school diplomas). There are probably one hundred and twenty-five to one. hun- dred and fifty women in all the universities^ 'Berlin alone having sixty ZuhOrerinnen in one semester. HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 319 Eecently there have been several in the University of Leipzig. Among all the lectures I attended in the philosophical faculty, and one in the medical faculty, I do not remember one which had not from one to eight women among the hearers. The greatest number are probably in the psychological and philo- sophical lecture rooms, though the philological lec- tures count several women as students. The majority of these are Americans, but there are some Ger- mans, Russians, Poles, and Roumanians. The men sometimes look askance at them, and exchange knowing looks among themselves, but the women proceed unmindfully, and act as if they had always belonged there and been allowed there. Although the subject of social conditions enters largely into the question of admitting women into the universities of Germany, and not a few conserv- atives combat them on the grounds of mental in- capacity, and still others, alarmists, upon the hypoth- esis that woman's womanliness is endangered by cultivation of her higher mental faculties, yet the Regierungs Kommission (government commission) explain that the royal Government is not against the admission of women to the universities ; the ques- tion, in their estimation, is not within the province of the educational commission to dispose of ; there is a present lack of funds for any such measures, and all efforts to change the existing conditions should be directed toward the royal Landesbelwi'den (department of finance) for adjustment.* * Uochschule Xachrichten, May, 1896. 320 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. In October, 1896, there were fort}'^ women in Ber- lin University, all, with one exception, as hearers. This one was regularly matriculated in the law fac- ulty. It is thought that they will soon be admitted to the medical, dental, and pharmacy departments. During the same year one woman was even admitted to the lectures in the agricultural department. A daughter of the Minister of Education, Dr. Bosse, is taking the gymnasial course preparatory to becoming an apothecary. Frau Dr. Lucie Messnor, of Munich, has given to the managers of the Berlin gymnasium for women 20,000 marks, the interest of which is to serve as stipendia for women to study in the university.* Bonn admits women as visitors, in each case re- quiring evidence of adequate preparation, and per- mission from the Kultus Minister, the rector of the university, and the professor with whom the work is contemplated. The first one was admitted in the autumn of 1896. f Breslau, in addition to admitting women as hear- ers on the same conditions as in Berlin, has sprung beyond all limits prescribed by tradition, and has a woman assistant in the medical faculty. J More than that, she is a foreigner, an American, Dr. Tillie Tie- gel, of Illinois. Her work now lies in the Dermato- * See Hochschule Nachrichten, August, October, 1895, April, October, 1896. February, March. 1897. f Ibid., August, September. 189G ; Zcitsehrift f lir weiblichc Bildung, 1896, p. 427. I Hochschule Nachrichten, March. 1897; Akadcmische Revue, March, 1897. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEiN". 321 logical Institute, in the clinic for skin diseases and diseases of women. Freiburg has had some women students, and in 1895 granted to Miss Blickworth of Cleveland, Ohio, the degree of Ph. D. in zoology. In the fac- ulty vote there was only one dissenting voice.* Gottingen is quite a favourite place for women, especially foreigners from America and England. In the winter semester, 1895-'96, there were thirty- one women reported in the various faculties, one being in the medical and the rest mainly in the mathematical, natural science, and modern lan- guage depariments. As early as 1787 Dorothea Schloze was granted the doctor's degree, her disser- tation being upon a mathematical subject. In 1874 two women were honoured Vv'ith degrees, and after that no more until recently. In June, 1895, Miss Grace Chisholm, of London, carried away a doc- tor's diploma, having passed the examinations, after writing a thesis in mathematics on Gruppentheo- retische Untersuchungen liber sphiirische Trigo- nometric, f Halle took tl>e lead in admitting women to the medical faculty. They even exhibited some degree of pride in announcing (November, 1896) that three graduates of the girls' gymnasium in Berlin, who had been denied entrance to the Berlin University, were admitted to all courses of medical lectures in Halle. They were even admitted to the dissecting rooms and laboratories, the very places where the other * See Hochschule Nachrichten, August, 1895. f Ibid., August, December, 1895. 322 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. universities objected most to their attending. Ber- lin especially denied women admission to the medical faculty and to the anatomical lectures and demon- strations,* During 189G-'97 there were nine women matriculated at Ilalle, and the faculty even jiut them- selves on record with the Breslau faculty by selecting Frilulein M. Griifin v. Linden as assistant in the zoological institute.! Heidelberg was the first university to grant, in recent times, the degree of Ph. D. to women. Got- tingen had granted the degree for the last time in 1874 (see Gottingen). On February 18, 1894, Frilu- lein Kathie Windschied of Leipzig, daughter of the renowned professor of law in the latter university, was awarded the degree for the successful comple- tion of a thesis and an examination in modern lan- guages, her dissertation being a treatise upon Early English Pastoral Poetry. In 1895 Frilulein Mary Gernet secured a degree in mathematics, her inaugural dissertation being upon Eeduction of Hyperelliptic Integrals through Kational Substitution. It was reported from there in 1895 that, " as in other German universities the question of women studying in the universities has also found root here.":]: In March, 1896, Misses Gebsen and Mor- rill secured degrees from this university also. Jena has recently swung into line, and now all * Hochschule Nachrichten, November, December, 1896 ; Akademische Revue, December, 189G. ■f Ibid. i Hochsclmle Nachrichten, August, 1895, March. 1896. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 323 courses of lectures and degrees are open to women on the same conditions as to men. The vote, taken in March, 1897, passed the faculty without a single dissenting voice.* The technical high schools (which are to all in- tents and purposes universities) in Munich and Darm- stadt have also admitted women to the lectures. The German university at Vienna has begun to admit women, and the first ones received the degree of Doctor of Medicine in April, 1897. Berne, Switzer- land, granted to eight women, in 189G, the degree in medicine, and to one in philosojshy.f 6. CoNTiNUATioisr Schools for Teachers. ( ForthildungsscMi len. ) In addition to the concession to women in the matter of entrance to the general courses of the uni- versities, work of a professional nature has been offered them in several universities. This arose out of a growing demand made by women upon the educational ministerium for some means of prepar- ing themselves to occupy positions equal to men in the secondary schools, especially in the schools for girls, but also in the boys' schools. Many of these courses, following the lead of American universities, are summer school courses, * Akademische Revue, March, 1897 ; also Hochschule Nach- richten, same date. f Akademische Monatshofto, December, 1890 ; Hochschule Nachrichten, December, 1896, April, 1897. 324 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. but several universities are now offering special courses for women, which extend throughout the entire university year. A specimen of the latter type of course oflcred at Guttingen is appended below. Continuation or Forthildungs course for women teachers in Guttingen as announced for the year 1896-'97 : * 1. Eeligion, G hours. («) S.f Church history : From the Eeformation to the nineteenth century. W. Church history during the nineteenth century. {h) Systems of theology : S. Chief questions of dog- mas. W. Fundamental problems of ethics, (c) Xew Testament exegesis : 8. Eomans ; selected portions of the epistles of Paul. W. Acts of the Apostles. Eead selected parts of John's Gospel. 2. History of philosophy, 2 hours. S. Prominent followers of Platonic philosophy. "W. Aristotle and Kant. 3. Pedagogy to alternate with philosophy; first course in 1897-98. 4. German, 6 hours. («) Historical grammar : S. Theories of sounds and inflections of Gothic and Old High German. Interpretation of Gothic and Old High German texts. W. Middle High German : Etymology, readings, and consideration of literary productions. Prosody, (b) Literature : S. Litera- ture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Schiller's dramatic delineations in seminary. AY. * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 156. \ " S." and " W." mean summer semester and winter se- mester. HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 325 Literature of the nineteenth century. Goethe's early poems in seminary. 5. French, 6 hours, (a) Historical grammar and ancient literature : S. Fundamentals of phonetics and pronunciation of French. Didactic and lyric poems of Old French literature in connection with reading and interpretation of Old French texts. W. Historical syntax. Drama and prose of Old French literature. Interpretation of Old French texts, (b) Modern French language and literature : S. Recent literature, from 1850 to the present. Readings and written exercises. Translations. W. History of lit- erature of the seventeenth century. Readings and written exercises. 6. English, 6 hours, (a) Historical grammar and older literature : S. Introduction to Old and Middle English. Interpretation of Middle English texts. W, Introduction to phonetics. Textual interpreta- tion. Exercises and reviews of Old and Middle Eng- lish, (b) Theory of sound and inflections of Gothic, Old, and Middle High German. (This especially for those who do not elect German.) (r) Modern English language and literature : S. Literature of the first half of the nineteenth century. W. Same continued. Prose readings and written exercises. Translations. 7. History, 8 hours, (a) History of the middle ages and of modern times : S. From the Westphalian Peace to the French Revolution. W. Middle ages. (b) Historical exercises. (c) Ancient history : S. Civilization during the time of the Roman Empire. W. Civilization of Oriental peoples and the Greeks to the Persian wars. 326 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GEEMANt. 8. Geography, 4 hours. To be more definitely determined after candidates have matricuhited. 9. Natural science, G to 8 hours, (a) Botany : S. Systematic botany of flowering plants and biol- ogy of the same {Bliitexbiologie). Plant geography. W. Elements of general botany. Microscopy of the organs of higher plants, {h) Experimental physics : S. Optics. W. Magnetism and electricity, {c) Ele- ments of chemistry. The students in the Gottingen course are divided into two classes, {a) co-workers {Ilitarheitermnen) and (b) listeners (Anhorende). The first comprises all those who have already passed the state examina- tion for teachers. Only the first class are permitted to take the final examinations of the course, which is of two years' duration. The course is limited to the subjects taught in the girls' higher schools. The diploma given at the close of the course for its suc- cessful completion is not recognised as a teacher's certificate, nor has it the value of a degree. The course is not an end, but a means to an end. It gives unqualified admission to the scientific exami- nation for teachers, and the training is of a charac- ter directly preparatory to the latter. Since 1894 only have women been allowed to take the scien- tific examination securing them the rank of head teachers {Oberlelirerinnen) and the right to become directors of schools. In case they have taken the Gottingen or Victoria Lyceum course, only two years' experience in Prussian schools is required ; all others must have had at least five years of service. Since October 1, 1897, all women teachers HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 327 of whatever rank must be at least nineteen years of age. At the beginning of the year 1897 a class of twelve women successfully passed the examination in the Gottingen course. On June 29, 1895,* the first examination {Oberlehr&riitnen Frilfung) of women for the position of head teacher took place. Five of the eight candidates were successful. Of these, four had received preparation at Gottingen and one in the Victoria Lyceum, Berlin. The three who failed were prepared through private instruction. The examination is conducted quite similarly to that given to men. The examination is to be passed before a commission named by the Minister of In- struction. All candidates are examined in two sub- jects, chosen from each of the following groups : («) Eeligion, German, French, English ; {b) history, geography, mathematics, natural science. The ex- amination is partly oral and partly written, the written examination consisting of a thesis in one of the subjects selected. Six weeks, with a possible ex- tension of four weeks, are given for its preparation. The oral examination is to be passed before the entire commission. Both subjects must be com- pleted within a year, and in case of failure they may be but once repeated. f This whole movement, including the permission of women to become head teachers and directors, and the securing of continuation courses, as well as * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1895, p. 400. f Ibid., 1894, p. 341 et seq. 328 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. girls' gymnasia, owes much of its success to the active efforts of Miss Lange. She, of course, is not the sole cause of it all, but it may be said justly that she has been the power that has united the scattered forces tending toward innovation. The nltimate cause is traceable to the general tide of sentiment leading away from aristocratic tendencies toward those more democratic. But, like all true re- formers, she has had the insight to know when and how to act after opjiortunity was rijie. She, with four other Berlin women, petitioned * the Minister of Instruction in 1893 to have women allowed a greater share in the instruction of girls, especially in the middle and higher classes. They desired partic- ularly to have the German and religious instruction placed in the hands of women. Those studies that contribute most to shape the sentiments in morals and religion they felt could be best intrusted to those of the same sex, whose modes of thinking and whose instincts would make them more sym- pathetic with the impulsiveness and instability of budding womanhood. The petition was' opposed in an energetic manner and refused, however, chiefly on the ground of the present lack of properly pre- pared teachers. Since that, the women have won a large part of what they sought, and the courses of- fered by the Victoria Lyceum and the Guttingen University have opened the way for the initiatory supply of competent teachers. Miss Lange and her * Unsere Lehrerinnen. Zeitschrift f. w. Bildung, 1895, p. 740 ff., article by Auguste Sprengel. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 329 co-workers demanded the employment of more women in the schools upon moral and ethical grounds, believing that only women should be in- structors of girls in the above-named subjects. Moreover, she claims that throughout all periods of a girl's life a part, at least, of all her instruction should be in the hands of women. The girls' schools had not only suffered from a lack of female instructional force, but they had been obliged to employ the less capable men teachers. Not being recognised officially as secondary schools, the best prepared candidates were not required and, of course, not secured. A large majority of the teachers were from the normal schools instead of from the universities — that is, their teachers were on the same plane with the teachers of the people's schools. In many respects they were not so highly regarded. They could not even receive the title of head teacher (Oherlehrer). Since September 28, 189-4,* however, they are recognised as head teachers in Prussia, and may receive that title as soon as that position in school is reached. Now, the directors, in- structors in religion, foreign languages, and ethical subjects, in so far as these do not come within the province of women, are to be in charge of men who have passed examinations for higher teaching posi- tions. Thus, there is a distinct gain in the quality of the female teaching force to be employed subse- quently, although the female sex has not secured so large a representation as they desired. With their * Centralblatt, 1894, p. 743. 330 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. better preparation assured, however, their future brightens. The Minister of Instruction long recognised that the state hitherto had done too little for girls' in- struction, which is explained by the fact that the higher ediication of boys is deemed necessary for their entrance to higher state positions, while girls are by custom excluded from nearly all state posi- tions except teaching. He further recognises that girls' education is important for the state in many directions. However, many. Dr. Bosse included, maintain that the interests of the greater number are not to be overlooked. Only a comparatively few girls are to receive higher education or to enter technical pursuits, while the masses find their life callings in household pursuits. Hence it is deemed best to shape education to the needs of the many. 7. Salaries of Women Teachers. Women receive much lower salaries than men. However, there is an effort being made to equalize more nearly the salaries of the two sexes for the same quality and amount of work. That is, of course, a difficult matter to adjust, even though it were ar- ranged so that there should be no discrimination against women when they perform the same amount of work as men; quantities could be estimated in units of time actually spent in instruction, but the amount of work really accomplished is difficult to estimate. Still harder is it to compare in tangible form the qutility of intellectual accomplishments. One class of work may be better or poorer than HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 331 another, but it is difficult to establish a scale of wages that shall represent equable compensation therefor. The main arguments proposed in Germany are that men have to provide for the support of families, while women seldom have this to think of. Against this is then urged that men with families ought ac- cording to such reasoning to be paid more for given service than bachelors or men without children. It is urged by opponents of the Emanciimtion der Fraiien that the province of women lies within the domestic circle, and that those who choose oc- cupations outside of household duties are usurping the rightful callings of men. Those, at least, who are not driven by necessity to choose remunerative work ought to leave the field clear for men. A woman whose family is in moderate circumstances and whose health is such that she may look forward to marriage ought not to take away from men the means of earning a livelihood. Such women, they urge from social considerations, ought to leave the bread-winning avenues free to men, and to content themselves with necessary preparation for wise man- agement of a household and intelligent and judicious motherhood. A prominent teacher in a girls' higher school related to the writer an instance of the daugh- ter of a school director, a man earning (5,000 marks a year, who entered the field of teaching, thereby, as he considered, taking the bread away from some worthy man who needed the money to bring uj) a family. He considered it contrary to the social in- terests of the country. 23 332 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. From the social standpoint, also, there comes an answer to the above arguments. ^Vhatever may be the natural end to be attained by every woman, which is assumed to be that of marriage and the care of a family, the social conditions are now such that it is unattainable. Statistics show that in 1890 of all women of marriageable age (twenty-one to fifty) 33.7 per cent in Germany were single — that is, un- married or widowed, and largely dependent upon themselves for the means of support. In the upper circles of society marriages are less frequent than in the lower. A woman in the latter stratum can help earn the living for a family by working in factories or in the fields. In the upper classes no means of earning is possible, and hence fewer men marry, be- cause, alone, some earn inadequate support for a wife and family. The proportion of single women among the upper classes is said to be as high as fifty per cent of the marriageable.* This makes the question one of close connection with that of pay of women school teachers, since it is from families of the better classes, who are able to send their girls to the higher schools, and hence from this stratum of society, that the majority of women teachers come. Saxony stands alone in placing women and men on the same salary list in the people's schools. In their statutes (6) they explained that " Unter Lehrer im Sinne dieses Gesetzes sind auch die Lehrerinnen zu verstehen." The Prussian law of 1885 prescribes salaries of women equal to from seventy-five to eighty * Cf. Zeitschrift flir weibliclie Bildung. Frauenberuf in Diakouie vou Dr. C. Wander: also see Paulsen's Ethik. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 333 per cent of those received by men. According to Frl. Helene Lange,* however, the salaries of women in the city people's schools are 69.5 per cent of men's ; in the girls' middle schools, 53.1 per cent ; and in the girls' higher schools about 53.3 per cent. The only compensation for the discrepancy is offered in the smaller number of hours required of women. In Berlin and Hanover, however, where the maximum salary of women is 300 to 350 marks per year less than that of men of the same training — i. e., semi- nary training — there is not to be found a correspond- ing difference in hours of work.f The question of woman's pay and woman's work is one which is pertinent in America as well as in Germany. There are few, however, in America who regard woman as a usurper in the field of teaching. So few men care to fit themselves for the work with its small compensation that the field is practically free to women in all but the higher ranks. Although there is nearly as great disparity between men's and women's wages in America as in Germany, yet the absolute compensation awarded to women who are competent and thoroughly trained is much bet- ter in America than in Germany. * Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbiich d. Padagogik. f Where the men have received university training and the women only seminary (normal school), there is justice in the discrepancy. Few women, however, could hope to receive as much as men even though equal salaries were given for equal training, since the universities are practically closed to women; first, because the universities are opposed to their entrance, and, second, because they have no means of preparing for the uni- versities. 334 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Capable women can earn salaries in America such as are paid only to men in Giermany wlio liave under- gone long courses of training and served long periods in the teaching ranks. Both women and men are much better paid in America than for equal service in Germany. Many, if not most, Germans them- selves recognise this fact. The words of Frl. Helena Lange confirm this view.* Below are enumerated the salaries paid to women in the various grades of schools in some of the states and a few representative cities. The list is intended to be illustrative rather than exhaustive. The figures mentioned in connection with the states show the salary as prescribed by law. Many of the cities have permission to enact their own regulations in this re- gard as in others. Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck are free cities, and act as independent states. Baden. Beginning salary. After 3 yrs. After After 6 yrs. 9 yrs. After 12 yrs. Rent. Head teachers, people's l,100t 800 to 900 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 115-260 Under teachers, people's schools * " Weit besser wird freilich die deutsche Lehrerin, falls sie wirklich etwas versteht, im Auslande bezahlt, besonders in England und Amerika. Spricht sie die modernen Fremde- sprachen gelanfig, hat sie tilchtige Leistungen in Malen und Musik aufzuweisen, ist sie im Stande. in Latein und Matheniatik zu unterrichten. so kann sie bei freier Station ein Gehalt bis zu 2,700 und 3,000 Mark beziehen " (Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, i, p. 373). f The amounts given are in marks. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 335 Saxony. People's schools, 40 pupils in class Pf()i)le"s schools, more than 40 pupils Be>;inning salary. After 6 yrs. After lOyre. After 15yr». After 20 yrs. After 25 yrs. 1,000* 1,000 1,075 1,200 1,150 1,350 1,225 1,500 1,300 1,600 1,375 1.700 After 30 yrs. 1,450 1,800 Hesse. People's schools, ordiuary teachers 900-1,200 and rent. People's schools, ordinary teachers, large cities 1,200-1,400 " Darmstadt people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,750 " Mainz people's schools, ordiuary teachers 1,200-1,600 "' AVorms people's schools, ordinarj^ teachers 1,200-1,600 " Giessen people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,600 " Bingen people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,000-1,400 " In girls' higher schools 1,400-2,400 " MecMenhiirg. In girls' higher schools 900-1,500 and rent. In peoi)le"s schools 600-1,200 " Saxe- Weimar. In people's schools 900-1,400 and rent. In people's schools (cities) 1,000-1,400 " People's schools . A Isace-Lorraine. . 720-900 Girls' higher schools. Hamburg. 1,000-1,800 Ordinary teachers, people's school's Assistant teachers, people's schools Head teachers, girls' higher schools Ordinary teachers, girls' higher schools BeprinniDg After After After After Ealary. 3 yrs. 6 yrs. 8 yrs. lOjTS. 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 1,000 1,900 2,100 2,300 2,500 2,700 1,400 l.GOO 1,800 2.000 Allowed. Allowed. Allowed. Bremen. . Ordinary teachers, people's schools 1,000-1,500 and rent. * The amounts given are in marks. 33G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Karlsrnhe. Oi'diuary teachers, people's schools 1.500-1,800 and rent. Dresden. Ordinary teachers, girls' higher schools 1,000-2,400 and rent. Assistant teachers, girls' higher schools 1,400 and rent. Leipzig. Ordinary teachers, girls' higher schools 1.3.50-2,400 and rent. Assistant teachers, girls' higher schools 1,X'00 and rent. Luheck. Beginning After After After After After After After After s.ilary. 3 yrs. 6 jrs. 9 yrs. 12 yrs. 16 yrs. 18 yrs. 21 yrs. 24 yrs. People's schools, ordi- nary teachers 1,000 1.050 1,100 1,150 1,200 1,250 1^00 1,350 1,400 Girls' intermediate schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,600 Note.— See Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Piidagogik, i, article Besoldung der Lehrerin. Table showing Salaries of Women Teachers in Rejwesenta- tive States and. Cities. East Prussia West Prussia Berlin Brandenburg Pommern Posen Schlesien Saxon Prussia Schleswig-Holstein Hannover Westphalia Hesse-Nassau Kheinland Hohenzollern Average for Prussia : (a) In cities (6) In country Av. for men in same positions. (o) Cities (b) Country people's SCHOOLS. Entire Average yearly salary. including perquisites 670* 936 715 1.010 1.22'.» 1..5.38 801 1,089 669 992 727 1.026 916 1.160 788 l.O-oO 7S2 967 732 981 899 1.146 903 1.197 907 1,101 766 934 979 1,261 ) 793 1,171 ] 1,.359 1,814 1 911 1,271 f Average salary higher schools. Average frirls' intern^edi 1,125 1.256 2,001 1,313 1.275 1.253 1,373 1.195 1.304 1.202 1.396 3.782 1,637 1,433 2,854 1.057 1,002 1.223 1,1.59 1.193 1,.395 1.126 1,152 1,230 1.175 1,.501 1,590 1,257 2,364 Averagft income inixed intermedi- ate schools. 1,285 1.106 1.3.50 1.275 979 i'.OJS 1.200 1,850 1,131 1,991 * The amounts given are in marks. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 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(-» L- t- S ^ i~i ^ ^ "^ "^ O f— C ,■/■, j> - , _^ •*« f-t V) >>« r^ r*« r" • Sll&jyuiisfliifsjlliiii rt 0- -e C ri * c i ■^: = 'Si^co oj ^ '^^ a 'tf "^ ^ tie 5) I. £-. cfi ^ n t>^ :i " ■— "H --^ -V £3 rv ^3 aj C ►> ,ij .S *-' >is5|^3 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 339 «^ "^ ^ (D S r-. d W M ^ o P. S X2 o t- -a g |d £ ID (1> o^aog«.3c3 ti Zri o ";? a ^ '-' '^ m ciC."°"- •5,^5 i2Sp.^2£op:^5 rti __ &i .2SaS='g'35-2fe.y*'S-^gg.-go § 2 ^ ^ ■S ^ ^ $ V a i^ B ^ -^ -i ^ ^ S , ' Ni:3|itii~Mi-°iiil is c >>Om St- i'OgSCfl-'fkPfl gc»!>.^o-2fiS?f2^£So i :^ 6 c.'B « £;; ^ — • ■ U; - ■ 2 ^ S5 ;; o ce e OaiOr>'^P oi T3ajM.3afe'go^S«.9.^oo5a3cij ?755o.2=«Sj3>>e^2rt?^£?tf"S o^ O) n p . •- fS *i ,- 01 ^^ .3 S3 « e 3oa.sasBoS".S>tx ^ -i ■& g ^ ^' -c ~ :§ '^ g 5 ^5 £ § w :§ S ^ m S ^ I g i s s s g £ g ^ § g 2 I 5 I . g " M I HJGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 341 8. The Higher Education of Women considered. That the German views concerning the education of women differ very radically from those of most Americans is well known. In Germany it has been held by the majority that woman's activities ought to be confined to household arts and the duties con- nected with rearing a family. Besides this province, when circumstances are straitened, she ought to be the helper of her husband in agricultural or other industrial pursuits. This is not a theory alone, but hundreds of thousands of women daily perform heavy manual labour such as falls only to men in America, thus following the path which custom and popular opinion has marked out for them. By the multi- tudes women are not considered capable of receiving higher education of the same quality and amount as men. Some who hold no doubt of her educability, however, believe that she would be transgressing her naturally foreordained functions by receiving higher education. //Helene Lange says:* "We frequently meet in foreign and home journals the statement that the German is the only and the last great nation of culture which leaves its women under the oppres- sion of the Middle Age fetters, keeping closed against them the institutions of higher learning — that is, the requisites of every higher professional activity — and thus effectually preventing the solution of the * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 1. Translated by L. R. Klemm. 342 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. burning question, which is only possible through intellectual emancipation." Thus within the last decade or two a few cham- 2:)ious of the " woman's cause " have appeared in Ger- many who insist that all avenues of intellectual pur- suits should be open without restriction to women who are inclined to enter them. Moreover, they should be aided and encouraged in accomijlishing their end. Better provisions for instruction are de- manded for them, that they may be enabled to grapple with the newly arising conditions which a changing industrial world is forcing upon them. It is these very industrial changes which are the important fac- tors in modifying the educational status of women. They are of more force than any sentiment born even of custom or tradition. They are the forces which are reversing the sentiments based on mediaeval tra- dition. Changing industrial conditions are rapidly and surely forcing women, even in the face of a strong and deep-rooted prejudice, to become educated as a means of livelihood. In the days when women spun all the yarn and made all articles of wearing apparel by hand in the home women had sufficient work to keep them employed, and they could earn enough to support themselves. But with the introduction of machinery many of the former channels of domestic labour have been closed. Women have found it neces- sary to seek a means of subsistence elsewhere, and many of the newer occupations have necessitated better educational preparation. A few have found occupations as teachers in the lower classes of the public schools, some in the girls' higher schools, and HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 343 still others as private teachers in families. This last occupation is being displaced, however,by the pub- lic and private girls' high schools that are every year becoming more numerous. Because of the changed industrial conditions, also, fewer women marry than formerly. Competition in the business world is so sharp that fewer men can support wives, and also because the household duties have become so much diminished that a man feels he has less need of a wife. In the lower and middle classes, if the women marry, they must necessarily work in the factories or in some business as clerks, or tend small shops of their own.* Thus the education of women is being forced upon them from a practical subsistence standpoint, and the demand is being supplied by education of a utilitarian character largely. These changing senti- ments and changing industrial conditions have with- in the last ten years brought the so-called Frauen- frage into considerable prominence in Germany. A few women, prominent among whom is Frilu- lein Helene Lange of Berlin, who are anxious to promote the best interests of women in Germany, have spared no effort to bring legislation and public sympathy to contribute to the better establishment and maintenance of all classes of higher schools for girls. They are not seeking to elevate from present conditions only, by educating from a utilitarian point of view, but they maintain that woman, if given the chance, would prove herself capable of receiving the * Paulsen's Ethik, and Berlin hohere Madchenschule in Zeitsclirit't fur weibliche Bildunp:. 344: SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. same kind of education and in the same degree as man. The educational periodical literature, as well as the daily press, is continually mooting the Frauen- frage both 2^>'(> ^ud con. The discussions in many respects remind one of the arguments to be found in periodical literature in America in the middle of the present century, when the higher education of women was a debated question. In America the question has been settled ; there are few who doubt that woman may occupy positions in any of the learned callings with credit to herself and to the calling. The high schools, colleges, and universities give daily proof that women may receive to advan- tage the opportunities for the highest mental train- ing which the land affords. Examination records and honour lists give ample evidence that they do not fall by the wayside nor lack in pluck and endur- ance, nor fail to secure their due share of laurels. Even in German universities, when accorded an op- portunity, they carry off the doctor's honours with credit. AVith these achievements of American and English women in mind, some of the German women have been spurred on to follow and compete with American women in the higher intellectual callings. However, many are so bitterly opposed to the so- called Emancipation der Frauen that it is only by severest efforts that they are able to gain any ground at all. But, as Friiulein Lange says, what they need in settling the question is not logic, but experiment. But with all the activities looking toward the higher education of women in other countries, espe- HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 345 cially in America, England, and Switzerland, it is becoming imperative that some just measure of recognition be taken of the women petitioners for advantages equal to those offered in other countries. Notwithstanding all that has been accomplished in this direction in America, many of the German op- ponents of the higher education of women will not admit that the results are desirable ones. Dr. Sclione wrote : " I believe we have no reason, if we observe America's school organization, to wish for the higher education of women. Moreover, to be continually placing America as a pattern is only possible when one has no knowledge of the conditions there, or will purposely misrepresent them. Further, thor- oughly educated women we need, but learned women not. By a truly educated woman is to be understood one who is prepared in the household arts. A learned woman is of no use in that capacity." * Others look upon the conditions resulting from higher education of women in America as among the most desirable attainments, and regard America as a Paradies der Frauen. Dr. Emil Hausknecht, an opponent, says : " If we should insist on expecting of our girls the same amount of work we now require of the boys, the girls would be physically ruined under the enor- mous burden of work ; hence the advocates of clas- sical secondary schools for girls will fail in their endeavours." He has viewed the situation in Amer- ica, and, although recognising at least j^artial success * None Forderungen, in Zeitschrift f iir weibliche Bildung, 189r>, p. 53. 34G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. iu the bystom as developed under American condi- tions, he does not believe it could be applied success- fully in Germany. He says : " Still it must be ad- mitted that in a few of their colleges the Americans have surpassed us, and that they have happily avoided the dangerous rocks on which a higher sci- entific education for girls is so often wrecked — the dangers to health, diversions from the duties of do- mesticity, the disappearance of womanly grace, and the growth of the blue-stocking." * Upon what he bases his former sweeping statements is difficult to de- termine. The experiment has never been tried in Germany, and the results in other countries would not bear out his assumptions. It is simply the dog- matic reasoning that so many alarmists have indulged in. The European discussions remind us very strong- ly of the prophecies made by such men as Dr. Clarke in this country a generation ago. But, as Dr. Harris l^oints out.f " Exjjerience has not, however, con- firmed the theory. The differences of mind, on the whole, when brought to bear on the subjects stud- ied in college or university tend rather to help than to hinder the progress of both sexes. Each jiarty gains something from the other's views, and, although the profit of higher study is not precisely the same for women as for men, there is ample profit for each. Hence coeducation in college work makes progress continually, and the higher education of women in * Report of the Commissioner of Education, vol. i, 1892-'93, p. 532. f Preface to Higher Education of \Yorac'n in Europe, by Helen e Lange, p, vi. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 34Y one of the two modes — in separate institutions or in coeducating ones — is become quite a matter of course." Dr. Hausknecht is obliged to admit that "the common opinion of physicians, educators, mothers, and all women who themselves received a college education in America, goes to confirm the state- ment that the health of girls in colleges specially- intended for their sex is not only not endangered, but promoted by means of wise alternation between intellectual and frequent physical exercises, such as walking, cycling, gymnastics, swimming, bathing, rowing, etc. The condition of college girls is gen- erally better than that of girls of equal age who re- mained at home." * But feeling that he must make remonstrance, no matter how feeble, he maintains that " coeducation is possible, however, in America more than in Germany or elsewhere, because custom and education have given to the girl and the woman greater freedom and determination in their manners and appearance, and have also given them strong protection against encroachment and improprieties." f Could we ask for a better testimonial of the benefits of the" higher education of women or a more eloquent plea for its universal extension ? The fact confirms the theory that were women given higher education, were coeducation the rule, and were more women teachers employed in the German schools, the respect and reverence for them would increase and elevate them to their rightful position. * Bureau of Education Reports, vol. i, 1893-'93, p. 532. f Ibid. 24 348 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. The present Empress, although opposed to " man- nishness " in woman, would not countenance idleness nor make woman simply an ornament or a drudge. She conceives matrimony as the natural destiny of woman.* She says : " My ideal is a wife who is man's complement, who strengthens him, Avho in the silent bosom of the family prepares him for life's severe struggles. I am opposed to women's activity in men's callings. I would permit women neither in the factory nor in business houses. In the school, in the hospitals and sick rooms, on the stage, in the concert halls, in the studio, there is her sphere of activity. Embroidery, fine needlework, all kinds of feminine industrial activity, find in me an enthusias- tic admirer. However, may woman ever hold in mind that for her there is no more beautiful calling, no more noble destiny, than the holy and important duty — the foundation of every state — the moral and bodily education of the child. In my estimation, the mother of the Gracchi stands upon a higher plane than George Sand or Rosa Bonheur. It is my view that a woman fulfils her entire destiny only when she is a wife and an intelligent mother." The Emperor is also very strongly opposed to bookish training and the over-intellectual develop- ment of women. He is reported as saying that women's interests should be completely absorbed in the " three K's " — Kinder, Kiiche, unci Kirche. The possibility, says Miss Lange, of having true mothers can come only when the development of * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1896, pp. 88, 89. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 349 woman's character is no longer liindered, her intelli- gence chained and kept in darkness. The inflneuce of the mother npon the first six years of a child's life is almost continuous, and hence we must logically conclude that any lack of mentality on the part of the mother must act as a web around the child which chains his whole being. To properly instruct chil- dren, or even to intelligently develop their senses, the average mothers are incapable. For the majority this knowledge must first be awakened ; they must first learn " to have more interest in the soul of the child than for embroidered curtains." The influence of mothers on all great men has been immense, Avhile the lack of it in criminals' mothers is suffi- ciently established.* Miss Lange has made an eloquent appeal to se- cure some panacea to relieve the discontent of the modern girl. She is diametrically opposed to the views of conservative Germans, that the admission of women to higher spheres of activity will cause dis- content. She has shown that " true happiness is to be found in work ; there can be no leisure without toil ; people who do nothing are unfruitful fig trees which cumber the soil." \ Xot only must women be allowed to work, but they must be helped and aided in their work the same as men are. Moreover, as no man is happy in a calling arbitrarily selected for him by some one else, so women " must have the right to choose according to their powers and talents. * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1890, p. 475. t Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 122, Klemm's translation. 350 SECONDARY SCEOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Xobody chooses otherwise. Hence no field of labour should be denied, not even the highest intellectual labour. Those who intellectually hunger should be offered the best intellectual food available in Ger- many. No one in Germany should be denied oppor- tunities to fill that inner desolate void, no one obliged to stifle what is considered the highest sign of superiority — a longing for serious mental and pro- fessional work. Yet this murder of the mind is committed daily in our country." * Friiulein Haecker, of Coblenz, conceives the "aim of the present women's movement to be the highest and noblest thinkable, for that which we women really strive for is not simply the permission to enter this calling or that ; not simply the guarantee of certain individual state or business privileges ; it is the recognition of the highest rights of mankind — the rights of inner and outer personality — the rights of individuality." f * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 128, Klemm's translation. •f- Zeitschrift fur weibliehe Biklung, 1894, p. 363. CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSIONS. In" this chapter I shall attempt to summarize briefly the most important features to which atten- tion has been directed more in detail throughout the foregoing pages. The summary will be more critical than expository, and an attempt will be made to point out the most significant lessons — either for adaptation or avoidance — that the German system has for us. A consideration of the school organization, methods of examining teachers, quali- fications of teachers, courses of study, education of women, etc., has revealed many striking differences between Germany's school system and our own. Their system certainly possesses many features di- vergent from America's ; some of these features are highly commendable for all countries, others possess advantages for Germany only, while still others seem objectionable per se. To sift out and summarize these several features is the aim of this chapter. 1. General Organization and Management. — The entire system may be termed bureaucratic, for, al- though there is local representation and a certain degree of local option permitted, the initiative in all 351 352 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. movements and the balance of power rest with the state officials, who are virtually appointees of the ruling monarchs of each state. Tlie cultus minis- ter is a member of the king's cabinet. The king's decree in educational matters is supreme, and all appointments to official positions are indirectly in his power. Local autonomy is unknown. True, a cer- tain degree of option is given to cities as to what type of school they will maintain by local taxation, but the state may establish whatever schools it sees fit and may support them from the public treasury. The general administration of the school, selection of teachers, fixing of courses of study, examination of pupils, etc., are all directly or indirectly in the hands of the central authority. The state may dele- gate to the city certain functions, but in order to secure ahiturienten privileges for its students the city must conform to state regulations. Methods of taxation and support need not detain us. Our system is probably adjusted to our demo- cratic form of government as Germany's is to its monarchical institutions. Investigation of this de- partment concerns state administration or sociology rather than pedagogy. Germany's method of selec- tion of teachers is incompatible with our thorough faith in local autonomy. The more we can leave to local option the greater the interest created and the greater efforts toward self-education. Our system tends to produce individuals rather than types. Ob- servation leads me to believe that a stronger feeling of interest concerning education is exhibited by par- ents in America, especially of the lower and middle CONCLUSIONS. 853 classes, than in Germany, There the interest is more concerned with the fulfilment of the law than with active personal relations. Certain features of a professional character can be much more efficiently conducted by a central body than when left to local autonomy. Among these are the certification of teachers, preparation of courses of study, etc. But with these, as with all matters delegated to the state, the more satisfactory and no less efficient manner, at least for a democratic country, is to have a representative body rather than one centrally appointed. To a certain extent we have imitated Germany in the state certification of teachers and in proscribing uniform state courses of study. We might with great advantage to our edu- cational system carry out the scheme in toto. Xofc only should each State examine and certificate all its teachers by some uniform method, but a given cer- tificate in one State ought to be recognised at its face value in all the States. It would seem also a great ad- vantage were the high-school graduates' diplomas, like the Reifezeugniss^ recognised in all sections, without consideration of State boundaries. In Germany all universities require the same qualifications for en- trance. A boy educated in a Prussian gymnasium or real-school can move to Saxony and enter a uni- versity there as well as one in Prussia. We all know the condition in the United States. It is gratifjing that our A. B. degrees are almost everywhere ac- cepted for entrance upon graduate study. The university courses are more and more being planned with some idea of general equivalence ; why may we 354 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. not extend this to the high schools and to college-en- trance requirements? The unqualified success in Germany certainly affords a strong plea. It is im- perative for the welfare of education that we attain greater unity of aim in education. This can only be done satisfactorily by the greater centralization of the purely pedagogical and professional administra- tion of education. The universities act as a great unifying agent in education, but their influence is largely hortatory. We need more binding legisla- tion on the part of the States, and some, at least, ad- visory body representing the different States, that will tend to unify educational matters. In the in- fluence of the Regierungs Kommissioji we have a good example of the efficiency of such a body. 2. Position of the Secondary Schools 171 the Sys- tem. — The secondary schools, like those of England, form a class in almost no respect continuous with the common schools, which in all countries do and must contain the bulk of the school po]3ulation. The people's schools and the secondary schools' over- lap in several years of their courses. But although this is true, the division of the work is such that a boy from the people's school must begin near the foot of the ladder again if he attempts a course in the secondary schools. The masses are debarred by the higher tuition from participating in the benefits of the secondary schools which they are taxed to support, f The system apparently Avorks without much friction in European countries, but in a coun- try founded upon and steeped with democratic prin- ciples the system would be untenable. Even in CONCLUSIONS. 355 Germany there is not entire satisfaction with the arrangement. The later reform movements indi- cate that the people at least wish to secure some form of instruction common to all the lower classes (Binheitsschulen), which will enable all to pursue a higher course subsequently if pecuniary conditions permit. Kone wish to be excluded because of the lack of continuity of the school courses. (See Frankfort plan, etc.) / The European system is distinctly a class sys- tem, and in my opinion it militates directly against the lower classes. Only those possessed of at least moderate means can hope to secure the benefits of higher education. The poor boy can never know whether he has in him the requisites for scholar- ship. Xewsboys, bootblacks, match venders, stable- boys, farmer boys, and canal-boat boys can never hope to rise above their station. | They will never be num- bered among the college professors or among states- men. Our own country can point to hundreds of scholars and men of distinction in the various voca- tions who, had they been born under and remained under the German flag, would have gone down to their graves unremembered. The more we can do to strengthen the continuity between primary and secondary schools, between secondary and higher schools, the greater will be the strength of our educational system. / The secondary schools must be a fitting continuation of the primary schools, and a natural road to higher education and for life's duties. By extending the benefits of edu- cation to all alike, as we are largely doing, we need 35G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. not be troubled with Germany's hallucinations of a land filled with " hunger candidates," the result of ov^r-education. "We should seek through education to elevate work, not to raise men by education above work. How to adjust education to accomplish this better is a pertinent question, but one beyond the province of this work to enter upon. The solution, most as- suredly, is not in withliolding higher education from any who desire it. Such a system crushes out all personal ambitions and aspirations of the lower classes. 3. Classical and realistic instruction in entirely separate institutions offer certain advantages. The energies of the school are not dissipated in too di- verse directions, and the result is that the highest type of work is accomplished in the class represented. There are some disadvantages, especially in smaller cities that can afford only one type of school. This would be avoided in a large measure by the Einlicits- 5c7i?;7e affording common instruction later, and hence enabling pupils to remain longer at home before removing to another place to complete the desired course. Our own high schools suffer from a too great dissipation of energy in attempting to offer too many varieties of instruction. Similarly to the new Frankfort plan, we need to offer a concentrated course extended as late as possible, rather than to induce too early specialization. The function of the schools is to prepare men and women, not spe- cialists, tradesmen, nor candidates for a particular college. The schools have no right to assume the CONCLUSIONS. 357 classics as the chief end to be attained, nor is it their sphere to assume that the realities make up the sum of life. The preparation for life is the busi- ness of the schools, and whatever best subserves that purpose should be sought. Specialization, according to biological and psychological laws, should be later acquisitions. Entire devotion to the classics or to the realistic studies undoubtedly is a form of special- ization. Waste of energies from attempting too many lines of work, it is true, should be avoided. "We need concentration, and prolonged concentration upon all lines attempted, but not ^ncialization, nor exclu- sion of all except one given line of work. 4. Concentration in Studies. — We have seen that the German plan is to make some grou]) of studies the core of all the work in a given course. In the humanistic gymnasium the classics form the core, while in the realistic institutions studies in Xature and mathematics receive the stress of work. The mul- tiplicity of subjects and the dissipation of energy in American schools are well known. Pupils dabble in this and dabble in that, taste here and taste there ; they flit about from subject to subject without a real appreciation or understanding of any. . In nearly all subjects attempted in Germany the course is con- tinuous throughout the entire school life. I believe that the arrangement of the courses of study in American schools forms one of the most pressing and important problems for our considera- tion. The making of a course of study means more than finding a place on the school programme where all apparently necessary and desirable branches of 358 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. human learning shall be represented ; also more than a distribution of subjects in such a way as to avoid conflicts. The curriculum as a whole and the pro- gramme in detail should be so planned as to have each subject presented at the period most adapted to the psychical development of pupils. Unfortu- nately, the purely external practical considerations usually take precedence over the psychological. The "final test by which to judge any plan of culture," says Spencer, " is. Does it create a pleasur- able excitement in the pupils ? " True intellectual interest is more than mere transient pleasurable emotion in that which is novel or striking. It is dependent upon one's knowledge. Both the amount of knowledge upon a given subject and the relation it is made to assume toward other knowledge alfects one's interests in the subject. IS'ow, studies that occupy the attention of the learner for a short period only are consequently viewed in only one general aspect, and necessarily fail to produce deep or last- ing interest in them. For the arousal of permanent interests in a subject, it must be looked at in diverse relations. This means that it must come before the learner at difl'erent periods of his life, when he has new data with which to link it, and when his stages of development make it possible to use the subject as an aid in bringing to complete maturity the awak- ening instincts. Each phase of every subject should be j)resented when the " nascent periods " of interest in the different phases appear. " The great thing in all pedagogy," says James, " is to strike when the iron is hot." CONCLUSIONS. 359 To present the philosophy of history and gram- matical abstractions when the chikl is in the nascent period of concrete illustrations is to proceed counter to all psychological laws. And when studies are pursued for a limited time only, all phases must be presented at one time, if presented at all ; hence many phases are very inopportune. "When a study is pursued for a single term, or a year at most, and never reverted to, as is the case with the majority of studies in our high schools, the newly acquired knowledge has little chance of be- coming an integral part of the unity of mental pos- sessious. It is acquired as an isolated set of facts, and all that does not " evaporate " remains largely isolated through life. Although all pedagogues will quote glibly the statement that discipline and train- ing are of paramount importance, and the knowledge of facts of secondary importance, yet how many make any attempts, or even realize that an attempt is necessary, to provide proper conditions for real train- ing? It is usually lost sight of that discipline of mind comes through acquiring and retaining knowl- edge, and that these processes are dependent upon the proper grouping of knowledge. It is not alone the few facts which are logically or objectively connected with a given fact, but the whole mental content, that determines how new materials shall be assimilated and retained. This necessitates a con- sideration of the relation of all the parts of the cur- riculum to each other and to the Avhole. In the arrangement of our courses of study we have been guided almost entirely by merely practical 360 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. considerations. There has been altogether too little psychological and pedagogical perspective. To have pupils finish all the prescribed studies in a given course has been the main desideratum. Whether the knowledge of those subjects should be abiding, and whether those studies should furnish real men- tal grasp and ability, have been rather secondary con- siderations. The pupils often pursue their subject units with little else in mind than the "finishing" of the subject. Ask most high-school graduates whether they have had history or physics, etc., and they will tell you, " Yes, we ' finished ' that " at such a time. And because of the brevity of time through which the subject was pursued and the single view which they have obtained, they frequently neither know nor care whether there is more beyond. In- terests that have germinated have become dormant from lack of exercise, or because they have been choked out by the plethora of new and unrelated ma- terials forced upon them. The American boy at the close of his high-school career has seldom tasted that inspiration which comes from deep and unified knowledge, and which leads to the contemplation of infinite possibilities. He is more apt to be dissatis- fied, which is a natural result from the contempla- tion of his own sense of completeness. It is a hopeful sign that our universities have been so thoroughly impregnated with the German ideas of continuity and correlation. Their curricula are being arranged upon a more psychological basis. Xow, all great educational movements begin in the higher institutions and work toward the lower. The CONCLUSIONS. 3G1 law may be termed tliat of " descending radiation." According to this, the diit'usion of German ideals in education must soon permeate the high schools and grammar schools. The Eeport of the Committee of Ten on Second- ary Schools advocated many of the views which I have maintained. The Reijort of the Committee of Fifteen also advised the earlier introduction of some of the secondary-school studies and the continua- tion of nearly all studies through a much longer time. More recently the Committee of Seven on History Teaching have re-emphasized very strongly the plea for greater continuity in education. Many Avriters arc independently asserting the necessity for prolonged continuous effort in some lines of work, so as to give the j)upils a sense of mastery. It is only thus that they can be brought to self-realization and independence. Professor Hanus, in a recent work, says that through the pursuit of " dominant groups of ideas the organization of his knowledge and thorough achievement are natural and inevitable. Without them, desultory effort, sporadic exertion, half achievement are sure to determine the nature and quality of his work. The intellectual fiabbiness and uncertainty, the want of enthusiasm and pleas- ure in knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge, too often shown by many a high-school pupil and by too many high-school graduates, illustrate what is meant. . . . Further, intensiveness and continuity in the pursuit of individual subjects beyond their barest rudiments, and of activities beyond their be- ginnings, are essential to the development of power. 362 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Sucli intensiyeiioss and continuity only can deter- mine whether a pupil has a real or merely a transi- tory or illusory interest in given subjects." * One of the greatest of living educators has said : " Only great, concentrated, and prolonged efEorts in one direction really train the mind, because only they train the will beneath it. Many little, hetero- geneous efforts of different sorts, as some one has said in substance, leave the mind like a piece of well-used blotting paper, and the will like a rubber band stretched to flaccidity around one after another bundle of objects too large for it to clasp into unity. ' In der Beschriinkung zeigt sich der Meister.' All-sidedness through one-sidedness. The unity of almost any even ideal jiurpose is better than none, if it tends to check the superficial one of learning to repeat again or of boxing the whole compass of sciences and liberal arts, as so many of our high schools and colleges attempt." f 5. Teachers' Training. — Germany's teaching force has manifest superiority over ours in certain respects. The thorough training that all must secure before entrance upon their duties insures advantages appar- ent to all. ' From the standpoint of mere subject teaching thoroughly equipped teachers can better and more quickly impart knowledge. Thus pupils are enabled to master a greater range of knowledge in less time and also to gain a firmer grasp of all attempted. More than that, it is the added insight, * Educational Aims and Values, 1899, p. 37. t Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Moral Education and Will Training, Ped. Sem., vol. ii, p. 88. CONCLUSIONS. 303 enabling a more accurate estimate of everything at its right -value, which places the trained teacher above the unskilled novice. Then the moral stamina which such teachers can infuse is of inestimable value. Means of Training. — The methods in vogue in Germany for training secondary teachers offer many points of comparison and interest for the solution of this vital problem in America. The plan followed there is entirely different from anything that we have attempted. The plan, as has been shov/n in detail, is {a) at least three years of university study; {b) prolonged study of the special branches the can- didate expects to teach as a prerequisite to exami- nation; (c) philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy must be one group of examination subjects; {d) the setnifiar or professional year is required, which in- cludes study, practice, criticism ; (e) the trial year is required under conditions as near as possible to actual future conditions. The general end to be attained is one which we need to make strenuous efforts to secure. The great lack of professional equipment has long been one of the vulnerable points in our system. We have had either teachers with academic preparation but wholly lacking in professional training, and during the first years of their work without definiteness of aim, and perchance through their whole career without philo- sophical balance ; or teachers with so-called profes- sional preparation without proper academic knowl- edge of their subjects. Professional training can only properly follow thorough academic study. This 3G4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. is Germany's plan. A new era, however, is in sight in America, thougli not fully inaugurated, which will demand for the high schools adequately prepared teachers. The movement, like all great educational movements, began at the to^i, and is proceeding down- ward ; that is, the universities have demanded bet- ter prepared students, which could only be met by an invigoration of the teaching force where univer- sity students are prepared. Then, again, the supply of college-trained teachers is increasing so rapidly that competition is driving the unfit to the wall. The new movement to supply the deficiencies in the strictly professional preparation of secondary teachers and superintendents in some respects re- sembles the German plan, though in other respects there is a radical difference. I have reference to the schools of education or schools of pedagogy * being rapidly established in universities. Both the grad- uate and the undergraduate dej^artments of these schools have important functions. Such schools possess important advantages over training schools isolated from universities. The chief feature is that students are in contact with high scholarship, ade- quate libraries and appliances, and are apt to imbibe aspirations for breadth of learning, and not to fall, into mere so-called professionalism. The system presents certain features superior to the German plan. The consideration of educational history, * For an outline of the earlier part of this new movement see The Professional Preparation of Secondary Teachers in the United States, Dr. F, W. Atkinson, Dissertation, Leipzig, 1893. CONCLUSIONS. 365 philosophy, theory and its application, go hand in hand. In Germany courses in systems of philosophy, psychology, and in educational history are given in the universities. But courses in current educational problems, application of psychology to education, child study, foreign educational systems, etc., are wholly lacking. These subjects can be more profit- ably presented by university professors who have the scholarship, time, and libraries than by gymna- sial instructors. We have not developed practice schools or model schools to any extent in the uni- versity schools of education, nor have we the Probe- jahr. The functions of our new university training schools are thought to be to lay the foundations of education, to consider the broad principles of educa- tion, to teach educational philosophy, and not to spend the time in practising devices. 6. As tentative suggestions the following are offered as an outline of minimum requirements that should be made of all candidates for secondary- school positions: A. Teachers should have received a full uni- versity or collegiate course, including (or in addi- tion to it) at least one year of professional study, to embrace {a) physiology, {h) psychology, (c) educa- tional history and theory, [d) philosophy. K state certificate may be secured by examination, but at least two years of collegiate training should be one prerequisite therefor. Xot only ability to answer examination questions is necessary, but acquaintance with men, apparatus, libraries, and appliances is indispensable. The " self-made " man is only half 3G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. made. The book learning he may have acquired, but the no less important factors are apt to be lacking. B. Principals and superintendents, both city and country, should have a full collegiate course j)lus, at least, one year of professional study. This Avould relegate to the normal schools the function of preparing teachers for the primary and grammar schools, which is all tliey can hope to do in time to come. In these each student ought to take one line of intensive work (in connection with the professional), so that graduates would be not merely teachers, but teachers of something. While the man, the woman, is above the subject, yet there need be no sacrifice of character in prejDaring for a definite thing. The character will then be enabled to assert itself all the more strongly, 7. Teachers^ Exmninations. — The method of exam- ination of teachers in Germany insures a fair test of each candidate's powers. Xo mere memorizing and cramming for a set of questions to be answered at one sitting will suffice. The plan of prescribing a thesis to be prepared in a given time is similar to that followed in universities where a thesis in the major studj^ is exacted of all asjiirants for degrees. The teaching candidate is given a month to demon- strate whether he knows how to use knowledge, how to use books and libraries, and to show whether he can assimilate, interjsret, and expound data which he collects. In certain cases the doctorate disserta- tion is accepted in place of a separate essay. This is a very commendable feature. The oral examina- tion of candidates singly gives a chance for the ex- CONCLUSIONS. 367 amiuers to estimate capability in diverse ways not limited to the questions on the subject-matter. Examiners acquire a personal knowledge of each candidate during the various stages of the exami- nation, which is invaluable. Lastly, the demonstra- tion of actual teaching skill in conducting a class before the examiners, which, although not so im- portant, is of additional value in gaining a per- sonal acquaintance with the candidate. I believe we might to great advantage adopt almost every feature of their plan of examination. Its thorough- ness and rationality and its restriction to a few sub- jects make it far surpass the methods commonly in vogue in this country. By the solely written test no personal acquaintance of the teacher is acquired. Knowledge as shown in the power of writing ex- aminations is by no means the most vital featiire to be inquired into in admitting to the teaching pro- fession. What we need to look for as well are ster- ling character, personal magnetism, breadth of cul- ture, and professional bearing. These can be better determined by a thesis which requires time, patience, perseverance, and breadth of reading and by an oral examination which exhibits the candidate's strength or points of vulnerability, mode of attacking ques- tions, and manner of oral expression, all of which are important considerations. By the acceptance of col- lege and normal-school diplomas we virtually recog- nise this as a superior method. Candidates who have been long under the personal tutelage of trusted au- thorities, and who have had long courses of instruc- tion, may be considered as having passed through 368 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. long periods of examination of which tliere is no equivalent. Those who show their strength and powers of endurance are admitted to certain jirivi- leges without further formal examination. Such procedure ought to be a guarantee that the psycho- logical and pedagogical attainments have been reached. Baccalaureates who intend eventually to become barristers, clergymen, or prescribers of pills and boluses, and who have never studied a peda- gogical or psychological principle, ought not to be allowed to enter the ranks of teachers without first making adequate preparation. Those who are neither born nor made for the profession should be excluded therefrom. 8. Departmental Teachers. — Except in the lower grades department teaching is the rule in Germany. There is not, of course, the rigorous division of sub- jects that there is in a university. But no teacher, as was shown in the subject of Teachers' Examina- tions, has more than one group of closely allied sub- jects. The higher the grade of pupils a teacher Instructs the smaller the range of subjects required and the greater the depth of knowledge demanded in the few. The great objection made against the system is the anticipated lack of definite moral training afforded to pupils. While there is validity in the objection, especially for lower grades, yet the difficulties may undoubtedly be overcome by judi- cious grouping of subjects and wise supervision. The objections grow less with advancing grades and the advantages multiply. In this country there is some difficulty in securing properly qualified special CONCLUSIONS. 369 teachers because of small salaries. Here the " teach- ers are fewer, and must divide their time among several subjects ; in such cases the first step is to employ teachers with a good all-round training, with some extended preparation on each subject they undertake, in preference to those who have a smat- tering of many subjects." * This difficulty does not appear in Germany, since the Government regulates the salaries, and schools in small cities secure equally as good teachers as the larger ones. The advantages that are secured by receiving instruction from a master, an authority rather than a mere echoist, are so apparent to a pro- fessional eye that it would seem unnecessary to reit- erate them. Yet school boards, and even some super- intendents, exhibit a woeful lack of appreciation of the fact. In Germany, teachers are encouraged and even required to keep up with the progress of their subjects. There, teachers as well as university men must do original investigation if they would not fall behind in the race. The yearly scientific disserta- tion sent out by some member of the faculty of each secondary school is an example of what is accom- plished. This specialization insures a class of teach- ers who are not only masters, but authorities ; it raises them above all servility to text-book teaching. They teach better, waste less time, better sift out * Report of the Committee (of Ten) on Secondary School Studies, 1893, p. 187. This committee dealt with tlie school side of the question. I liave endeavoured to show how a reform in examinations requiring fewer subjects and more extended research would remedy some of these evils. (See topic Teachers.) 370 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. the unessentials, give greater inspiration, and better scholarship is the natural result. There is no appar- ent disciplinary loss — in fact, the greatly increased interest aroused is the initial impulse to greater jier- sistence. Hence, will power is augmented. It has been said that "above all, the teacher must keep up with the times in books, methods, lines of thought, and interest. . . . She must realize that the world is always passing on, and that, like Alice in Wonder- land, she must run as fast as she can to keep where she is. . . . She must keep herself in connection with the great teachers of her time." * This is the especial need of keeping up in one's special line of teaching. It is impossible to be " Jack of all trades " and master of any one. Let us hope for a Germanizing in this respect. The opportuni- ties for securiiig adequately trained teachers are such that every good high school should be properly equipped. The supply of candidates is now, or soon will be, such that no school board need put up with incompetent teachers. The need of specially trained teachers is not confined to the high schools. The Committee of Ten have pointed out that " many teachers are too unskilled to present in the elemen- tary schools the beginnings of geometry, science, history, or literature, and that the failures in this work are due to the mechanical efforts of those who have had no higher or special training." f * Quoted in Report of Commission on Secondary School Studies, p. 186. f See Bureau of Educational Reports, vol. ii, 1892-93, p. 1476, CONCLUSIONS. 371 9. Tlie amount of work given German piqjils is simply enormous. They have at least ten hours a week more work than corresponding classes in our schools. It would seem unwise to attempt to imi- tate in this respect. There is little doubt that in our climate serious consequences would result. Even in Germany the cry of iXberiirdung (overloading) has gone up from all j)a^rts of the empire. Many believe that in the boys' higher schools pupils are being over- burdened with work during school hours, still more weighed down with obligatory home work, and occa- sionally by the voluntary work which the pupils do for the sake of praise. In many cases the work reaches as high as eleven hours of obligatory school duties — some- thing that mature men can not stand if continuously kept up. The pupils do not secure sufficient sleep, nervousness sets in, weak, spectacled eyes become more common, and all forms of chronic diseases are said to be more frequent among pupils of the sec- ondary schools than among pupils of the burgher schools, where less is exacted of the pupils.* It has been said that English boys are two years behind the Erench at eighteen, but at twenty-five they have outstripped them. This is attributed to the overcrowding of the French boys during their adolescent years, and the comparative freedom from mental overstimulation of the English boys. The great devotion to all sorts of sports requiring bodily activity in the open air, together with the immunity from mental overexertion, gives to the English boy, "" Zeitschrift fiir Sehulgesundheitspflege, Nos. 11, 12, 1897. 372 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. although less precocity at eighteen, a vigour of mind and body and staying qualities which insure his being a winner in the race. Better than to increase the quantity of work, an improvement of quality is most desirable in American high schools. The time above seven or eight hours' close mental application would be better spent in athletics and the manual arts. An increase above this amount of intellectual application in adolescents is suicidal to the race. Some writers who have made close investigation of the subject claim that the mental ability of German youth is decreasing and that the results will be disastrous to future genera- tions.* Let us take due warning. It would seem as though the fact that we can not preserve sound minds in unhealthy bodies is completely demonstrated by physiology and psychology. Its reiteration seems a mere platitude. Yet how persistently is it disre- garded ! 10. Sex of Teacher's. — The great predominance of men teachers in the upper grades is undoubtedly one of the strong features of the German instructional force. The men make it a life work, and there is none of the " temporariness " usually incident to woman's teaching. Then, undoubtedly, during ado- lescence the firm and strong hand of man is neces- sary to guide the restless youth aright. Women are by nature too emotional and vacillating to have en- tire guidance during this critical j)eriod. Best of all, many of the men are fathers of families, and they * Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, Nos. 11, 12, 1897. CONCLUSIONS. 373 have that necessary knowledge of and sympathy with adolescence to care judiciously for those intrusted to them. A teacher who is a parent is the best of counsellors. No young men or women are compa- rable. To me this seemed one of the most admirable features of the entire system. There is no injudi- cious impulsiveness usual with young men, nor the weakness, capriciousness, and sentimentalism apt to be exhibited by young women. Older men exhibit calmness, deliberation, firmness, yet fatherly consid- eration. On the other hand, the lack of women in the primary grades and girls' schools is a defect in the system. Women are the natural teachers of chil- dren. What little lad or lassie would look instinc- tively for sympathy and love from a bearded and grizzled old man ? They need the gentle tones and tenderness that only a sympathetic woman can bestow upon them. Most little children know intimately among grown people only their mother, and how can it be expected that a strange man — the proverbial schoolmaster most of all — will win their love and confidence ? Without their confidence how can they be taught the highest and noblest lessons of life ? By all means have the loving hand of woman to guide the tender years of childhood. Dr. W. T. Harris says of woman's fitness for teach- ing, that " her natural endowments of versatility and alertness of mind fit her in a peculiar sense for the sphere of teacher of children. Their arbitrari- ness and caprice can be best watched and foiled by her. Their feeble strength demands intermittence 374 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. and periodicity, and their training must, above all, be gentle." * When children become older and feel the restlessness and impatience of youth upon them, give them over, at least in part, to tliose whose strength tliey will look upon with respect and admi- ration. Even here woman's presence has a desirable influence, and she should not be excluded therefrom. In my opinion were there at least a small percentage of women in the higher schools of Germany there would be a distinct gain. It would manifest itself in causing a higher and more wholesome respect for woman, which would add much to German life. The defect is the most deplorable in the lower schools. If boys have not learned to api^reciate woman at her just value before they reach the higher grades, it is a difficult matter to alter their opinions. And cer- tainly women ought to be employed in part in teach- ing girls. " A man can not have as clear a comprehension of the nature of girls as a woman, a representative of the same sex, undoubtedly has. He is more apt to make mistakes in treating them. Furthermore, in things essentially feminine in the education of girls, such as fostering the sense of order, punctuality, cleanliness, graceful carriage of the body, propriety, and good manners, he can not nearly so well give advice and exercise supervision as a female teacher, with whom these things are matters of course. . . . To employ young unmarried male teachers in classes full of budding girls growing into maturity is objec- * Report of Bureau of Education, vol. ii, 1891-'92, p. 813. CONCLUSIONS. 3Y5 tionable from a pedagogical and even a moral point of view. . . . Older teachers are often lacking in that vivacity in instruction which girls need often in a greater degree than boys and youths." * 11. The sejjciration of the sexes is complete in all the schools of Germany excepting some of the pri- mary classes. The advisability of this is a large question, but by no means a settled one. Many ar- guments may be advanced p7'0 and con. Germany feels that she has the proper solution, while in Amer- ica, with an opposite answer, we feel for the most part satisfied. From the standpoint of discipline there seems some advantage in separating the sexes. Certainly discipline in German schools is most per- fect, and the separation of the sexes seems to have contributed in some measure to this end. There can be no valid reasons on the score of incapability for excluding girls from the pursuance of the same studies as boys pursue. They have demonstrated repeatedly their perfect ability to master as severe mental tasks as boys. Candour would compel a majority of teachers in schools and colleges to admit that girls are among the best students. That girls and women sometimes break down while pursuing severe courses of study is no argument for their in- feriority or incapability either mentally or physically. The real cause is stupidly overlooked. Custom and Dame Fashion prescribe that girls should take no exercise, must dress unhygienically, and thus impair * Ilclene Lan^e, Higher Education of Women in Europe, translated by L. R. Klemm, p. 163. 376 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. if not ruin their health. Give girls the same chance for their physical well-being, and they will not evince any more signs of nervous breakdown than their brothers. With reference to the moral effect npon the school, the words of Jean Paul Richter (Levana) seem pregnant with truth : " To insure modesty, I Avould advise the education of the sexes together ; for two boys will preserve twelve girls, or two girls twelve boys, innocent amid winks. Jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinctive sense which is the fore- runner of natural modesty. But I will guarantee nothing in a school where girls are alone together, and still less where boys are." Dr. Harris writes of his large experience in the St. Louis schools when coeducation was introduced : " Discipline has im- proved continually with the adoption of mixed schools ; . . . the rudeness and abandon which pre- vails among boys when separate at once gives place to self-restraint in the presence of girls. The pru- rient sentimentality engendered by educating girls apart from boys . . . disappears almost entirely in mixed schools. In its place a quiet self-possession reigns ; the consequence of this is a milder form of discipline. Boys and girls, originating according to Nature's plan, in the same family as brothers and sisters, their culture should be together, so that the social instincts may be saved from abnormal, dis- eased action. The natural dependence of each in- dividual upon all the rest in society should not be hindered by isolating one sex from another during the most formative stages of growth. . . . Intellectual CONCLUSIONS. 377 development is far more sound and healthy." * He further writes, " I had noticed that the atmosphere of mixed schools was desexualized, where that of separate schools seemed to have a tendency to de- velop sexual tension." f Dr. E. E. White writes in the same symposium, " The fact that there is sex in the mind does not necessitate sex in courses of study and instruction." Dr. James McAllister's conviction is that " boys and girls can be taught to better ad- vantage in every way together." We might multiply opinions of prominent educators and physicians who have actually witnessed both phases of the experi- ment, and Avho are unanimous in their declarations of the feasibility and advisability of coeducation. Germany would perhaps gain nothing from the stand- point of intellectual instruction nor from mechanical discipline by adopting coeducation. But there is little question that the whole social position of woman would begin to appear in a new light. Woman would be seen at her true value, and greater respect and affection for woman would be exhibited in the coming generations. We have no reason to abandon our growing sentiment of appreciation for coeducation for the conservatism of Germany. 12. Higher Education of Women. — We in this country are not confronted with the immediate question whether women will receive higher educa- tion. The women of this country have settled it, for a time at least, in the aflBrmative. The ultimate * Report of Bureau of Education, vol. ii, 1891-'93, jj. 807. + Ibid., p. 806. 378 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. question of whether this is the correct solution is still a debatable one. Shall we lend our aid and encouragement, or shall we take our stand with the conservative element of Germany? The question is one of far-reaching importance. The results will be judged in the future more wisely than now. Great tact is needed in dealing with it. Its solution will affect all future civilization. Will the higher educa- tion of women ultimately advance or retard the best and highest interests of mankind ? AVliat will be the effects mentally, morally, physically, upon woman and upon the race ? It is beyond my prov- ince to enter into an exhaustive discussion of the subject. The question, it seems to me, is a bio- logico-anthropological one, and I leave the discus- sion to the expounders of those sciences. However, I may set forth a few tentative opinions that appear warrantable in the light of present knowledge. The question has only just begun to be freed from mere passing sentiment. When logic has bedn applied, the past, the usual, the customary has been taken as the major premise, with the result of finding the new to be untenable. " The unusual appears absurd." The subject involves several as- pects, a part of which may be indicated in the fol- lowing questions : (a) What is the result to woman's health ? (b) Does the acquisition of a higher educa- tion subject her to such strain that woman will be less capable of bearing and rearing healthy children ? (c) Does it produce aversion toward marriage and the duties of motherhood? (d) Does higher educa- tion unfit her for household duties, which from the CONCLUSIONS. 379 nature of the case must fall to her ? (e) Does higher education tend to take away that peculiar charm of femininity, usually termed " womanliness," which has undoubtedly been potent in 23roducing the highest and noblest types of sentiment? (/) Will women become more masculine, and thus those finer shades of sympathy, love, compassion, altruism — all of which are conserved in the race through woman's influence — become displaced by the grosser charac- teristics which belong to masculinity ? The last two questions can not be answered in the present ; only long time can demonstrate the answer. However, in the light of the present and from our knowledge of the development of the sen- timents, we can hardly conceive of danger from this source. In discussing the effect of the study and practice of medicine upon woman, which was looked upon as the uUimatissimum of desexualiziug occu- pations, we may quote Miss Lange's opinion concern- ing English women jihysicians. According to her, experience shows that the womanliness of women physicians is in no danger. Xot only has woman preserved unsullied her womanliness, but, " more than that, the womanliness of a great number of patients is spared." * 13. From the standpoint of health Ilae\ie\e there is nothing to fear from the higher education of women. Considered in the light of all available statistics, few unfavourable results are directly trace- able to this cause. Careful investigations have been * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 47. 2G 380 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. carried out by inquiry concerning the health of Avomen college graduates. The most exhaustive, perhaps, was that instituted by a committee of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae concerning the health of female college graduates.* From this re- port the statement comes that " the facts which we have presented would seem to warrant the assertion, as the legitimate conclusion to be drawn from a careful study of the tables, that the seeking of a college education on the part of a woman does not in itself necessarily entail a loss of health or serious impairment of the vital forces. Indeed, the tables show this so conclusively that there is little need, were it within our province, for extended discussion of the subject." Further : " It is sufficient to say that the female graduates of our colleges and uni- versities do not seem to show, as the result of their college studies and duties, any marked difference in general health from the average health likely to be reported by an equal number of women engaged in other kinds of work, or, in fact, of women gener- ally without regard to occupation followed." From the same source it is shown that maternity is equally as common, and infant mortality as low, among women college graduates as among other women of the same social strata. If the number of children among the higher classes is smaller than in the working classes, it is not necessarily due to sterility. The cause may be attributable to per- verted notions incident to the social demands made * See report under this title, 1885, pp. 77, 78. CONCLUSIONS. 381 upon society women ; or the proper regard for the economical and educational possibilities may limit the size of a family. Quality, and not quantity, is most desirable. Dr. Helen P. Kennedy has made a valuable con- tribution to the medical aspect of the question in her study of " The Effects of High-School Work upon Girls during Adolescence." * She maintains that " great intellectual demands are made ujaon young girls at the time Xature is developing the female organism. The whole nature of the girl at puberty is undergoing a change that will fit her for mother- hood. ... If the present system of education inter- feres with this process, then a better system should be devised. If the system as it is inflicts no harm, then we must look to other causes for the existing ill health of American girls. Till we know the present state of health of schoolgirls we can not be sure that the educational system is at fault, and therefore can not demand its improvement." From her thorough study of one hundred and twenty-five cases she finds an improvement in forty- eight per cent of the girls during their high-school course, twenty-six per cent noticed no change, and only thirteen per cent were aware of any increased unfavourable symptoms. To her mind there was " clear evidence that the girls were graduated from the high school in an improved physical and mental condition rather than the reverse." K^either were the girls " stunted in physical development, being * Pedagogical Seminary, vol. iii, 1894-'95. 382 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. normal in height and well proportioned in other re- spects." Alarmists are prone, as I have elsewhere indicated, to call for application of the knife at the wrong source. Schools are charged with endanger- ing the health of children when the real source of evil is in the home.* 14. Effect on Home Life. — It is only those who have warped opinions concerning true housewifery who look askance upon intellectuality in a wife or mother. They have advanced little beyond the seventeenth-century ideas in which the lower classes of women were regarded as drudges and the higher as ornaments ; intellectual culture was considered as either useless or dangerous. I believe that affection for and devotion toward woman has been greatly in- creased by her conquests and victories in the vari- ous departments of art and science that she has entered. Concerning the genesis of love, Spencer says : " Egoistic pleasures of all kinds are doubled by another's sympathetic participation, and the pleasures of another are added to the egoistic pleas- * My purpose is not to minimize the evils due to unhygienic conditions under which pupils work in schools. The grossest ignorance of school-room hygiene, hygiene of work, hygiene of the body and mind, are frequently exhibited by teachers who should know better. Schoolhouses are also frequently almost criminally constructed, and pupils are sometimes shamefully overworked, though I do not think the last is general in America. My aim is to show the need of proper diagnosis of situations, Teachers are in a measure responsible for not causing necessary knowledge to reach down more among the masses. Home peda- gogy is a crying necessity, but its right to exist must be first demonstrated by those who stand in high places. CONCLUSIONS. 383 ures." * How can " sympathetic participation " be engendered save through knowledge of common in- terests ? Added to the purely physical elements of love " there is the sentiment of admiration, respect, or reverence ; in itself one of considerable power, and which in this relation becomes in a high degree active." f " I would protest against the superstition that the housewife and the scientifically educated woman are incongruities which threaten to rend German life in twain. For the wife who does not understand the great interests of her husband is not able to foster and increase his idealism, which disdains material for higher gains ; she will, on the contrary, endeavour to drag him down to her own level." J * Principles of Psychology, vol. i, p. 488. + Ibid. X Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 157. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. W. Rein. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, Langensalza. (Probably 6 vols., 3 vols, ready. Begun 1895. Alphabetically arranged.) " R. E." will indicate this work throughout these references. 0. Altenberg. Abgangspriifung, R. E., i. 5-15. P. Cauer. Suum Cuique, Fiinf Aufsatze zur Reform d. hoheren Schulwesens, 1889. A. Gopfert. Geographischer Unterricht, R. E., ii, 572-583. A. Bauraeister. Die Einrichtung und Verwaltung des hoheren Schulwesens, Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unter- richtslehre fiir hohere Schulen, 4 vols., Munich, 1896. H. Grosse. Biblische Bilder, R. E., i, 387-395. S. Gunther, R. Menge, and others. Biblische, geographische, historische, naturwissenschaftliche Bilder fiir den Kunstunter- richt, R. E., i, 383-412. R. Gotz. Gesetz iiber die Realschulen und Seminiire (Sach- sen), 1877. J. Horn. Das Zukunftsgymnasium, 1803. J. A. Herzog. Die Schule und ihr neuer Aufbau auf natiir- licher Grundlage, 1892. 0. Jager. Das huinanistische Gymnasium und die Petition um durchgreifende Schulreform, 1889. O. Janke. Arbeitszeit, R. E., i, 139. Juling. Das Gymnasium init zehnjahrigem Kursus, 1893. K. Knabe. Gyranasiallehrer, R. E., iii, 68-74. O. Kohl. Griechischer Unterricht, R. E., iii, 1-63. 385 386 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. n. Kefcrstein. Anschauungsunterricht; Botanik in hohercn Schulen, R. E., i, 88-94, 489-498. A. Lomberg. Excursioncn nnd Schulwanderungen, R. E., ii, 117-126. R. Menge. Abgang von der Schule, R. E., i, 15-16. Ab- schlussprufung, R. E., i, 24. Anschaulichkeit des Unterrichts, R. E., i, 94-102. Meinhold. Lehr- und Priifungsordnung der siichsisehen Gyninasien, 1893 ; Priifungsordnung flir die Kandidaten des hoheren Lehrarats in Preussen vora Februar 1887 nebst der Bestimmung iiber die praktische Ausbildung vom Marz 1890, Berlin, 1891. R. 3Ienge. Hospitieren an lioheren Lehranstalten, R. E., iii, 733-741. F. Nebauer. Geschichtsunterricht auf holieren Schulen, R. E., ii, 765-801. F. Paulsen. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, 2 vols., 1897. Das Realgymnasium und die humanistische Bildung, 1889. Uber die gegenwilrtige Lage des hoheren Schulwesens, 1892. F. Palmie. Die socialen Frage und die Schule, 1890. W. Preyer. Stand und Ziele der Schulreform-Bewegung, 1889. G. Richter. Gymnasialseminar, R. E., iii, 126-136. W. Rein. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Pildagogik (see above). Aus dem padagogischen Universittits-Seminar zu Jena. Pamphlets on various subjects, 1888-1894. Am Ende der Schulreforni (especially good, complete bibliography), 1892. H. Schiller. Handbiich der praktischen Padagogik fiir hohere Lehranstalten, 1894. Geschichte der Padagogik, 1890. Padagogische Seminarien fiir das liuhere Lehramt — Geschichte und Erfahrung, 1890. Sallwiirk. Das Staatsseminar fiir Padagogik, 1890. K. A. Schmid. EncyclopJidie des gesammten Erziehungs- und L^nterrichtswesens, bearbeitet von einer Anzahl Schul- manner und Gelehrten, 11 vols., 1876-1896. Karl Schmidt. Geschichte der Padagogik, 1890, AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 387 C. Rethwisch. Deutschlands hohercs Schulwesen im 19. Jahrhundert, Halle, 1893. W. Schrader. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre flir Gym- nasien und Realschulen, 1876. Uhlig. Das humanistische Gymnasium, 1890. Schubert. Augenglaser und Augenkrankheiten, R. E., i, 199-213. W. Siegert. Beleuchtung der Schulziramer, R, E., i, 302. Steinbai-t. Bereehtigungen, R. E., i, 327-333. Besoldung an hoheren Knabenschulen, R. E., i, 362-367. J. Tews. Besoldung der VolksschuUehrer, R. E., i, 350- 360. Besoldung der Seminarlehrer, R. E., i, 360-362. 0. Willmann. Griechische Erziehung, R. E., ii, 916- 920. Th. Ziegler. Geschichte der Padagogik, Band i, 1, Baii- meisters Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir hohere Schulen, 1896. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. Academische Revue, Salvisberg, Munich. Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzeitung. A. Berthelt and M. Kleinert, Leipzig. Allgemeine deutsche padagogische Rundschau, Berlin. Bayerische Lehrerzeitung, Niirnberg. Braunschweigisches Schulblatt, Braunschweig. Blatter fiir das Gymnasialschulwesen, Miinchen. Centralblatt fiir die Gesammte Unterrichts-Verwaltung in Preussen, Berlin. (01!icial organ of the Department of Educa- tion.) Deutsche Schulzeitung, Berlin. (Central organ for all Ger- many.) Deutsche Schulpraxis, Leipzig. Hamburgische Schulzeitung, Hamburg. Hessische Schulzeitung, Hessen. Jahresberichte liber das Hohere Schulwesen, Rethwisch, Halle. Lehrerzeitung fiir Ost- und Westprcussen, Konigsberg. 388 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. Neue Bahnen. II. Schcror, J. IMeyer, Wiesbaden. Piidagogische Studieii. W. Rein, Dresden. Padagogisclie Zeitung, Berlin. Piidagogische Blatter. C. Kehr, Gotha. Piidagogium, F. Dittes. Piidagogische Reform, Hamburg. Lehrproben und Lehrgiinge aus der Praxis der Gymnasien und Realschulen. W. Fries, R. Menge, Halle. Piidagogischer JaLresbericht. A. Richter, Leipzig. Siichsische Schulzeitung, Dresden. Statistisches Jahi'buch der hoheren Schulcn Deutschlands. B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. Zeitschrift fiir Gymnasialwesen. H. J. Miiller, Leipzig. Zeitschrift fiir den deutschen Unterricht. Lyon, Leipzig. Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic und Piidagogik. 0. Fliigel, W, Rein, Langensalza. Zeitschrift fiir lateinlose hohere Schulen. Weidner, Leip- zig. Zeitschrift fiir das Gymnasialwesen. Miiller, Berlin. ON WOMEN'S EDUCATION. Die Lehrerin, Gera. Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung in Schule und Haus. Buchner, Leipzig. From the last the following articles are taken : Armbrustei'. Das erste und zweite Schuljahr ira Karls- ruher Miidchengymnasium, 1895, pp. 345-353. Barthels. Die Zukunft der hoheren Madchenschulen in Preussen, 1894, pp. 419-427. Buchner. Die neuen Regulative fiir die preussische Mad- chenschulen, 1894, pp. 346-365. Bestiramung iiber das Miidchenschulwesen in Preussen, 1894. pp. 317-325. Das Miidchengymnasium in Bremen, 1896, p. 595. Die Wirkungcn der Bestimmung vom 31. Mai 1894 auf die ancrkannten hoheren Madchenschulen Preussens, 1896, pp^. 409- 419. AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 389 Die Petition der akademisch gebildeten Lehrer preussiseher hoherer Miidchenschulen an den Herrn Unterrichtsminister, 1895, pp. 1-6. Hubert. Gymnasialkurse fiir Frauen in Leipzig, 1895, pp. 458-464. C. Miehe. Die hoheren Madchenschulen in Berlin, 1895, pp. 62-83. Die Antwort des Kgl. preussischen Ministers, auf die Denk- schrift des Oberbiirgermeisters von Koln, 1895, pp. 225-236. Goldbeck. Die Berliner Gymnasialkurse f lir Frauen, 1894, p. 209 ; 1895, pp. 211-216. Wunder. tJber die Altersversorgung der Lehrerinnen, 1894, p. 40. Vorwerk. Wissenschaftliche Fortbildungskurse fiir Leh- rerinnen, 1894, p. 64. Fortbildungskurse fiir Lehrerinnen in Gottingen, 1896, pp. 156, 157. Wunder. Neun- oder zehnstufiger Lehrgang fiir die iiffent- lichen hoheren Madchenschulen Preussens, 1894, pp. 237-263. A. Spi'engel. Unsere Lehrerinnen, 1895, pp. 447-458, 470-478. OTHER LITERATURE. Helene Lange. Frauenbildung, 1889. (Same, translated by L. R. Klemm, Higher Education of Women.) Entwicklung und Stand des hoheren Madchenschulwesens in Deutscliland, 1893. Prom each one of the secondary schools there is issued yearly a Bericht or report of the year's work accomplished. There are nearly a thousand issued yearly. From these I have gained a large amount of statistical matter, details of school programmes, etc. LITERATURE IN ENGLISH. Dr. L. R. Klemm. European Schools. M. E. Sadler. The Realschulen in Berlin and their Bear- ing on Questions of Secondary and Commercial Education, Spec. Rep., Ed. Dept.. Great Britain, 1896-'97. The Oberreal- schulen of Prussia, ibid. 390 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Catherine I. Dodd. The School Journey in Germany, ibid, F. H, Dale. The Teaching of the Mother Tongue in Ger- many, ibid. The Admission of Women to Universities in all Countries of the World. Report of the Commissioner of Education of the United States. Contains nearly every year a rich fund of information concerning education in various countries. For complete bib- liography of articles on German education, see vol. i, 1894-'95, p. 321. Special articles on secondai-y education consulted for this work : Bird's-eye View of the Schools in Central Europe, i, 1888-89. The Higher Schools of Prussia and the School Conference of 1890, Charles H. Thurber, 1, 1888-89. School Gardens in Germany and Austria, 1888-'89, p. 308. Attendance in Secondary Schools for Boys in Germany, 1893-'94, p. 298. Is German Pedagogy in a State of Decomposition 1 1894- '95, p. 329. Comparison of the Schools of Germany, France, and the United States, with diagrams, 1888-'89, p. 32. The Training of Secondary Teachers in Germany, with Sug- gestions for England, 1893-'9'4. Coeducation of the Sexes, with bibliography, ii, 1891-'92. Dr. J. E. Russell has a series of articles in the School Review on the teaching of various subjects in the secondary schools of Germany : German, 1894, p. 199 ; Mathematics, 1894, pp. 479, 549 ; Greek and Latin, 1894, pp. 585. 664 ; History and Geog- raphy, 1897, pp. 257, 539 ; Natural Science, 1897, pp. 18, 65. [Since this volume went to the printer. Dr. Russell's articles have been gathered into book form and constitute the main part of his work on German Higher Schools. Longmans, Green &Co.] E. J. Goodwin. Some Characteristics of Prussian Schools, Educational Review, 1896, p. 453. Dr. W. H. Burnham. The Higher Pedagogical Seminaries in Germany, Pedagogical Seminary, 1891, p. 390. INDEX. Abgangszeugniss, 57. Abiturienten, certificate, S3 ; ex- amination inaugurated, 134, ex- plained, 269-276. Abschlusspri'ifung, 157. Abstract studies, often too early introduced, 359. Jisthetic culture, 167 ; in mathe- matics, 232. Ages, of secondary-school gradu- ates, 13 ; of college graduates, 14 ; of students in Leipsic Gym- nasitxm, 15; table of, 16. Algebra, course in, 229. Allgemeine Frauen Verein, 304. Anschauungs njaterial, 83, 84 ; in classics, 191 ; in natural science, 253. Appliances, sclioolroom, 42, 45, 240, 253. Appointment, of teachers, 22-28 ; of provincial school boards, 21 ; of provincial school inspectors, 22; of minister of education, 23. Askanisches Gymnasium, mathe- matical examination, 234. Atkinson, Dr. F. W., on univer- sity schools of education, 364. Attendance, compulsory, 15. Baden, general organization, 24; tuition in, 27 ; number of pupils in each grade (tables), 38, 39 ; teachers' titles, 114, 116; teach- ers' salaries, 120; changes made by the Conference of 1890, 160; programme in gymnasium, 171 ; real - gymnasia, 175; real - schools, 177 ; mixed school in Baden-Baden, 179 ; progymna- sia, 180; course in history, 244. Bavaria, general organization, 23 ; professional training, 80 ; teach- ers' titles, 117 ; teachers' sala- ries, 120 ; changes made by Con- ference of 1890, 160 ; programme in gymnasia, 172; real-gymna- sia, 174; real-schools, 176. Beiriithe, 24, 28. Berechtigung, 30-37, 137. Berlin, 20; climatic conditions in, 50 ; teachers' salaries, 124 ; Con- ference of 1890, 130-158. Boards, provincial school, 21. Bosse, Dr., present Minister of Education, 20. Botany, teachers' examination in, 66 ; course in, 250-258. Bremen, tuition in, 27 ; girls' gym- nasium, 305. 391 392 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Breslau, girls' gymnasium, 305. Buildings, 43; lighting of, 44; government inspection of, 51. Bureaucracy (Schulbureaukratie), 22, 27, 138, 351. Burgher schools, 6, 34. Burnham, Dr. W. H., 146. Calculu.s, 02. Certification, of teachers in Sax- ony, 50 ; State, in America, 365. Chemistry, teachers' examination in, 60 ; course in, 252. Church, the, in establishment of schools, 131. Cities, growth of, 130. City schools, rise of, 130. Civic instruction, 166, 167, 191, 193, 232, 243, 246-250 ; Emperor on, 153, ff. ; civic ideals, 245, if. Civil service, 35. Class distinctions, 117, 118. Class exercises, critique of, 102- 104. Classes of schools recognised since 1882, 140. Classical schools compared with non- classical, 9; comparative table, 163. Classics, core of instruction, 132, 189 ; end in teaching, 190 ; fu- ture of instruction in, 192-196. Clergymen, teachers of religion, 184. Climate and education, 48. Collegiate Alunmos, Association of, 380. Comenius Stiftung, 100. Committee, local school, 21 ; of Seven and of Ten, 361, 370. Compulsory education, 15, 50. Concentration, 83, 84 ; lack of, in American schools, 357 ; Prof. Ilaiius on, 361 ; President Hull on, 862. Conference of 1890, 130-158; call for, 147; Emperors attitude to- ward, 147, 148, 152-155; ques- tions discussed, 148 flf. ; changes effected by, 156-158, 160-164; recommendations of, 158-161. Conservatism, 34, 249, 313, 310, 377. Continuity, German idea of, 360. Correlation, German and history centre of, 157 ; of history, lit- erature, and geography, 190, 237 ; mathematics and art, 237. Courses of study, historical basis of, 129; reforms in, 129-164; in the earliest secondary schools, 131 ; previous to 1882, 161 ; from 1812 to 1891, 162; outlined by ministry, 165; similar through- out Germany, 166 ; present, 165- 276 ; tabular programmes for gymnasia, 168 ; for real-gym- nasia, 168 ; for real - schools, 169; courses in religion, 182- 185; in classics, 185-197; in modern languages, 197-215; in mathematics, 215-235 ; in his- tory and geography, 235-250; in natural sciences, 250-200 ; in German, 200-269 ; making of an important problem, 357. Crystallography, 252. Curricula, changes throughout Europe, 144-147 ; correlated, 359. See also Courses of Study. Dameninvasion in universities, 314. INDEX. 393 December Conference. See Con- ference. Departmental teachers, 58-78, 3G8, 369. Development, stages of, 358. Differentiation of schools, 4. Diplomas, university, not legal certiticates, 56 ; value of sec- ondary school, 30 ; prerequisites for certain occupations, 31, 32; chussitied list of values, 33-36; recognition of, in America, 367. Directors, appointment of, 40; characteristics of, 40. Discipline, 41, 42, 53 ; mental, 359. Diseases, school, 371. District inspectors, 22. Doctorate degrees, value as licenses, 70. Dom and Kloster Scliulen, 130. Dresden, salaries in, 27. Drobisch, Prof. Martin, 95. Education, Ministerium of, 20 ff. ; social value of, 29, 30 ; and mili- tary duty, 31, 36; of women, 297-350 ; general discussion of, 341-350, 377-383 ; schools of, in America, 364. Einheitsschulen, 142, 194. Elementiirschulen, 7. Emancipation der Frauen, 331. Emperor, on school reform, 152 ff. ; on education of girls, 348. Empress on education of girls, 348. English, qualifications for teach- ing, 62; course in reading, 199; in Leipsic real-gymnasium, 199 ; general discussion, 206-211 ; suggestive list in, 212; method of teaching suggested, 216-218. Examinations, of teachers, 50 ff. ; .scope of, in various subjects, 01- 68 ; trial lesson a part of, 60 ; groups of subjects in, 59 ; final, in secondary schools, 269-276. Eyesight, defective, 43, 44, 154, 155, 371. Fatigue of students, 371. Final examinations, purpose of, 269 ; how conducted, 271 ; stud- ies included in, 271. Francke, A. H., 82. French, course in, 197-199 ; dis- cussion of, 200 tf. Frick, Dr., 148. Fries, Frof. William, 94. Geography, course in, 235-250; correlation, 190. Geometry, required of teachers, 62; course in, see Mathemat- ics. German, qualifications for teach- ing, 05 ; in American schools, 73 ; course in, 200-269 ; maxi- mum results in minimum time, 264-269 ; comparative statistics on teaching, 205. Giessen, pedagogical seminary, 83, 102. Girls' schools, 5 ; classification of, 277 ; separate from boys', 278 ; general regulations, 280 If. ; courses of study in, 285 ff. ; girls' gymnasia, 304 ; in Bre- men, Breslau, Karlsruhe, 305 ; Leipsic, 306 ff. ; course in, 308 ff. Go.ssler, Minister von, 156. Gottingen, pedagogy at, 91, 105; Fortbildungs course for women, 324 S. 394 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. Greek, qualifications tor teaching, 63 ; examination in, 64 ; course in, 188. Griffing and Franz, eye tests of, 44. Gymnasia, characteristics of, 1, (J ; salaries in boys', 20 ; progratiime in Prussia, 171; in Baden, 171 ;in Saxony, 172; in Bavaria, 172 ; in Wijrteniberg, 173 ; in Frankfort, 181 ; girls', 304. Gymnastics, 52. Hall, President G. S., on concen- tration, 362. Halle, first real-school, 133. Hamburg, tuition in secondary schools, 27 ; salaries, 124. Hanus, Prof. P. 11., on concentra- tion, 361. Harris, Dr. W. T., on education of girls, 346. Hartmann, Prof. Martin, 97. Hausknecht, Dr. E., on education of girls, 345, 347. Hebrew, course in, 189. Hecker, J. J., 133. Held el berg,pedagogical seminary , 102. Hesse,tuition in secondary schools, 27 ; distribution of schools, 38, 39. High school the people's college, 11. History, teachers' examination, 67 ; civic ideals in, 243 ; Lehrziel in Bavaria, 243 : in Baden, 244 ; course outlined, 235-250 ; cor- relation in, 157, 237 ff. ; Com- mittee of seven on, 361. Hofl'man, Prof. Franz, 96. Humanism, 1. Humboldt Gymnasium, 235. Hunger candidates, 141, 154. Hygienic conditions, supervised, 24 ; in schools, 382. Inflexibility of method, 42. Inspectors, district ( Kreisschulin- spektoren), 22. Instruction, oral, 41. Instructors, number in a school, 40 ; maturity of, 40. Intellectual flabbiness of high- school graduates, 361. Interest, factors determining, 358 ; creating permanent, 358 ; killed by overcrowding, 360. James, Prof. William, on nascent periods, 358. Jena, pedagogical seminary, 92. Journey, school, 24 tf. Juling, Director, 13. Karlsruhe, girls' gymnasium, 305. Karzer (school prison), 42. Kennedy, Dr. Helen, education and girls' health, 381. King, relation of, to school sys- tems, 23. Klemm, Dr. L. E., 44, 375. Knowledge, meaning of proper grasp of, 359. Kreisschulinspektoren, 22. Kuratorium, 25. Laboratories, equipment of, 253, 258. Lange, Helene, on education ot Avomen, 110, 300, 305, 333, 334, 341, 343, 349, 379; Prof. Karl, 109. Latin, teachers' examination in, 63; schools in England, 130 ; iu INDEX. 395 Gernumy,13-t; composition, 15S; course in, 185-188; end iu view in, 190 ; correlation, 192 If. Also see Classics. Lelimann, Prof. Ernst, 98. Lehrplan, Prussian, 1S7, 190, 240, 2(58. Lehrziel, in classics, 190 ; in his- tory, 243, 244. See Civic In- struction. Leipsic, Royal Gynniasium, 15 ; meteorological conditions, 48 ; pedagogical seminaries, 9(j, 97, 106 ; higher girls' school, 285 ; girls' gymnasium, 306. Liberalism, growth of, 3. London University, reform in, 145. Maps and charts, good, 45. Mathematics, qualitications for teaching, 61, 69 ; course in, 215- 235 ; general discussion of course, 221 ; improved methods, cause of, ^2; instruction better in Ger- many than in America, 223 ; great facility and accuracy at- tained, 226, 227 ; unnecessary parts omitted, fundamentals of- ten applied, 224 ; nmch oral work in, 225 ; general arrange- ment of course, 228 ; in Ameri- can schools poorly taught, 230; spiral course, 230 ; correlation, 230 ; specimen final paper, 234. McAllister, Dr. James, on educa- tion of girls, 377. Meteorological conditions in the United States (table), 49. Method, see Various Studies. Military duty, compulsory, 28-31 ; exemption from, 31 ; service, 36. Minister of Education, 23, 24. Ministerium, 20, 23, 24. Mittelschulen, 8. Modern languages, requirements for teaching, 73 ; courses in, 197- 215 ; general discussion, 200 if. ; natural method being adopted, 204, 206 ; oral work, 207 ; cor- relation with geography, 209 ; excellent results in, 211 ; in real- schools and real-gymiuisia, 203- 210. Mother tongue, time given to, in Germany and iu Amei-ica, 264 ff. Museums, school, 256. See also Anschauung. Na-sceut jJeriods, Prof James on, 359. National system in Germany, no, 19. Normal schools, 78, 81, 366. Oberlehrer, 59, 114. Oberrealschule explained, 6; pro- grammes in, 177, 179 ; modem languages iu, 204. ^ Oberschulriithe, 24. Oral instruction, 41. Ordentliche Lehrer, 115. Organization, outline of, 1 ff. ; re- lation of schools to state and city, 19 ff. ; general features of inner, 40 ff. Overwork, 47, 53. See Ucber- bilrdung. Paternalism of state, 28. Paulsen, Prof. F., 129, 131, 141 ; on modern languages and future of classical studies, 195, 106. Pedagogy, requii'ed of all teach- ers, 75, 70 ; in the universities, 396 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 104-112; courses in, 105; ex- perimental, 109 ; in American universities, 364. People's schools, 2, 27, 100, 29S- 300. Petersilie, Dr. A., 22. Philology in language examina- tions, 62, 64 fl". Philosophy required of all teach- ers, 59, 61, 74, 76. Physics, qualitications for teach- ing, 66 ; course in, 252 fif. Planimetry, 228. Play, too little, in Germany, 51. Playgrounds, inadequate, 51. Politeness, marked in pupils, 40. Practice classes, 99 ; teaching, points to observe, 102. Precocity of Frencli boys, 372. Preparation, of teachers, thorough, SO, 40, 42, 55-105, 362, 364, 368 ; suggestions for, in America, 365. Preparatory schools, 17. Preyer, Prof. William, 109, 155. Privileges (Berechtigungen), 30 AT. Probejahr, 78, 86, 89. Professional training, defective in America, 363 ; should follow academic study, 364. Progymnasia, Prussian and Ba- den, 180. Pronunciation of English poor, 211. Prorector, 114. Provincial boards, 21. I'riifungskommission, 273. Prussia, general organization, 22 ; tuition, 27 ; value of diplomas, 33 ; number in grades, 38, 39 ; number of recitations per teacher, 53 ; training of teach- ers, 81-85 ; type of all Germany, 81; seminary year, 86; trial year, 89; teachers' titles, 119; salaries, 120; few changes of teachers, 119; birth of real- gynniasium, 136 ; real-schools without Latin, 140; develop- ment of curricula (table), 162; programmes in gymnasia, 171 ; real-gymnasia, 173 ; real -schools, 175 ; higher real-schools, 177 ; a mixed school, 178 ; real-pro- gynmasia, 178 ; progymnasia, 180. Psychology in education, 59, 64, 74, 76, 365. Punishments, 41, 42. Pupils, number of. in classes, 40, 158; distribution of, 8, 9, 38, 39; ages of, 13-16; continuous course of, 12, 47, 118. Pyramidal system, 1. Qualifications of teachers, 68-75. See also Various Studies. Quadrivium, 130. Ratschulen, 130. Eeading, course in, 212-215. Keal-gymnasia, origin, 136 ; pro- grammes in, Prussia, 173; Ba- varia, Saxony, 174 ; Baden, 175 ; Frankfort, 181. Eeal-progymnasia, in Prussia, 178. Beal-schools defined, 2 ; main- tained at local expense, 23 ; origin, 133 ; without Latin, first, 140 ; programmes in Prussia, 175 ; Bavaria, Sa.xony, 176 ; Ba- den, 177. Reform, Association for School, 143 ; propositions for, 142 fiF. ; accomplished by Conference of INDEX. 397 1890, 150 ff. ; in other countries, 145, 1-16. Keichsschulkoramission, 19. Keife Zeu