UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 
 
 THE 
 
 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 OF GERMANY 
 
 BY 
 
 FEEDEKICK E. BOLTOX, M. S., Ph. D. 
 
 PROFESSOR OP PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY, 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAL'KEE, WIS. 
 
 10 0^1 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. A PPL ETON AND COMPANY 
 
 1900 
 
 34 7 7
 
 Copyright, 1900, 
 By D. APPLETON AND COBIPANY. 
 
 Electrotyped and Printed 
 at the appl.eton press, u. s. a.
 
 STATE nORKAL sen 
 
 EDITOE^S PEEFACE. 
 
 Until recently there has been no adequate ac- 
 connt in the English language of the secondary 
 schools in Germany. There have been, it is true, 
 many articles in magazines which quoted single pro- 
 grammes and courses of study, but there has been 
 no general survey of the subject, and, above all, no 
 study of the origin and progressive growth of the 
 system. 
 
 Only through a study of its origin and its de- 
 velopment does one become able to understand the 
 present condition of a system of education, and to 
 predict with some degree of accuracy its future 
 trend. 
 
 It is unscientific, not to say idle and unprofitable, 
 to summon before us an existing system and attempt 
 to pass judgment on it without first investigating its 
 genesis and learning the function that it fills. 
 
 Even a comparison of one system with another 
 contemporary system does not go very far to enlight- 
 en us on the question of improving our own system; 
 for we must first recognise the social necessity that 
 has called an institution into being before we can
 
 Vi SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 discern its present sliortcomings, and before we can 
 judge of the merits of what is offered as a substitute 
 for it. 
 
 The new method of science which has come into 
 vogue during the past forty years is slowly taking 
 possession of all fields of inquiry. It has to some 
 extent penetrated that of education. It is no longer 
 possible for a first-class scientific man to write a book 
 that arraigns the entire educational system of the 
 age without any attempt to study its beginnings and 
 growth, and without bestowing so much as a thought 
 on the function which it has filled in forming the 
 civilization of the present. Successful studies on 
 organic growth deal sympathetically Avith the embry- 
 ology of a living being, and lavish time and patience 
 on the observation of the crude forms that ushered 
 in the era of organic life on the planet. So, too, 
 must the new literature of pedagogy take on the 
 scientific spirit, and, emulating the methods of the 
 biologist, give its attention to the first steps of edu- 
 cation and the subsequent adaptation of a course of 
 study to the social need. 
 
 Civilization is the key word in the study of the 
 history of pedagogy. What has been the ideal of 
 civilization, and what have been the means to initiate 
 the new human being, the child, into a participation 
 in its benefits? How has the individual in youth 
 been made to adopt such habits of life as to fit him 
 to help his fellow-men and make him at the same 
 time receptive of help from them ? 
 
 In the history of school education we note con- 
 tinually a struggle between one-sided reformers and
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. Vll 
 
 devotees of a blind conservatism. The former desire 
 to substitute new branches of learning or new meth- 
 ods of instruction for those in vogue, without care- 
 fully weighing their educational value. They adduce 
 superficial grounds for adoption of the ncAV, and 
 equally superficial objections against the old. The 
 blind conservatives feel the importance of the old, 
 and are not convinced of the necessity of change. 
 The two parties are to be brought into harmony only 
 by a scientific study which shall enumerate one by 
 one the educational values of the conflicting methods 
 and courses of study. These educational values are 
 to be found in two lines : A study may be valuable 
 as giving man power over Nature in time and space, 
 as mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, geology, 
 etc., or it may be valuable as giving an insight into 
 human nature, thus making closer the union of man 
 and man, so that the social whole may help each 
 member of it to better advantage to help himself. 
 Thus the study of language, history, philosophy, and, 
 above all, of literature, is a direct means of promot- 
 ing civilization. 
 
 The solidarity of the present with the past is 
 above all essential, and must be provided for at all 
 hazards; otherwise we should always have revolu- 
 tion instead of reform, and never any real progress. 
 Here is the secret of the educational value of the 
 classics. The Chinese study Confucius and Mencius, 
 and thereby learn to understand much better their 
 close-fitting etiquette as their spiritual garment of 
 use and wont. The young Brahman sees in the 
 Veda which he learns to read the active causes that
 
 Vlll SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 produced and maintain his caste system. So tlie 
 Koran initiates the Mohammedan child, just as the 
 study of the second book of Homer's Iliad did the 
 Greek child, into the nature of the social whole in 
 which he finds himself. 
 
 Latin and Greek as studies in the seconrlary 
 schools initiate the youth of modern European civili- 
 zation wherever it is found, whether in the Old World 
 or in the New, into the spirit of the Greeks and 
 Eomans who furnished two essential threads to that 
 civilization, namely, the laws, forms of judicial pro- 
 cedure, and the forms of ownership and transfer of 
 property — all these being forms of the social will, 
 and chiefly Latin in their origin. On the other hand, 
 the Greeks furnished the forms of art, literature, 
 science, and philosophy, the intellectual side of our 
 civilization. It does not require much reflection to 
 see the educational value of some years' study of 
 Greek and Latin to the European youth to build up 
 in his mind an apperceptive mass of concepts that 
 enable him to recognise the origin and significance 
 of the laws and forms of civil combination which 
 make possible the social whole in which he lives ; or, 
 on the other hand, to recognise what is derivative in 
 his art and literature and science. 
 
 These useful things could not be taught scien- 
 tifically and philosophically to youth of tender age ; 
 but they are taught more effectually by an educative 
 process lasting over several years' study of the classic 
 languages — a process that gradually imbues the 
 mind with the classic spirit. The effect is to build 
 up a new consciousness supplementary to the natural
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. ix 
 
 one received by the child in infancy and childhood, 
 in his home and social life. He adds to himself a 
 new life that is a shadowy reproduction of the life 
 of the peoples that created the elements of his 
 civilization for him. The consequence is that he 
 goes forth from high school and college with a 
 double childhood experience, the one modern, the 
 other ancient, the latter a sort of key or clew to the 
 other ; the one an organic life of to-day, the other 
 an embryonic life that explains the former. The 
 study of the classics of a civilization brings about a 
 second birth, namely, into the world of producing 
 causes of one's civilization. All who get this higher 
 education have had this new birth, although they are 
 rarely conscious of the rationale of the process. 
 
 Language is a revelation of human nature differ- 
 ent from that of history. The latter reveals indi- 
 vidual collisions against the social whole and the 
 collisions of one whole (a nation) against others 
 (nations). But language shows directly the degree 
 in which the people have realized individual freedom. 
 The development of the independent functions of the 
 parts of speech shows the advancement of the Indo- 
 European and Semitic stages of consciousness as com- 
 pared with Chinese and Turanic consciousness, which 
 uses a language wherein the parts of speech have not 
 yet differentiated and become independent. To ac- 
 quire a familiarity with a language is in some measure 
 to learn to think in it, and to look at the world after 
 the manner of the people who made the language. 
 
 Even the English method of spelling, which pre- 
 serves the rights of each word to its own alj)habetical
 
 X SECONDAllY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CiERMANY. 
 
 dress without nuicli rcstniiiit from uiiiilogy or from 
 phonic laws, is a very close symbol of the Anglo- 
 Saxon and Xorman constitution of England, wherein 
 ancient compromises have become modern rights and 
 privileges. For local self-government arose from com- 
 promises between social power in the government and 
 individual stubbornness of resistance. 
 
 It is evident that the study of Latin by the south- 
 ern nations of Europe is not of the same educational 
 value as that by the northern nations. The latter 
 have a Teutonic basis to their language, while the 
 former have a Eoman basis. All southern Europeans 
 should study English or German, and thereby add 
 to their natural consciousness that of the northern 
 nations, and through this enable them to understand 
 readily the motives of action and the aspirations of 
 their powerful neighbours. 
 
 Is it not a blind, unconscious conviction in the 
 Teutonic mind that causes his conservatism in the 
 contest over the real-schools and the gymnasia — mat- 
 ters faithfully recorded by Professor Bolton in this 
 book — the struggle against the substitution of the 
 so-called " moderns " (science, history, and modern 
 literature) for the traditional classic course ? A con- 
 servative may be excused for shuddering at a change 
 that he thinks would deprive the coming generation 
 of the power to see the past in the present — a power 
 that he feels in himself to apperceive the Greek and 
 Eoman contingents in modern civilization. It ap. 
 pears to him like a proposition to dispense with the 
 second birth, a birth into a consciousness of his heri- 
 tage of the past.
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. xi 
 
 Very many problems in German secondary in- 
 struction are common to American, but their solu- 
 tions have not been the same. It has been our gen- 
 eral practice to take up algebra before geometry, but 
 after quadratic equations to begin and complete plane 
 geometry. The Germans begin with geometry and 
 follow with algebra. On account of the close rehi- 
 tion of algebra to arithmetic the American will justify 
 himself, it is likely, in continuing his old practice, al- 
 though some schools here are trying the German plan. 
 
 Too much has been attempted in arithmetic and 
 its applications before beginning algebra. There has 
 been a constant tendency to produce arrested devel- 
 opment on the mechanical stage of arithmetical cal- 
 culation, and thus retard the pupil's progress into 
 higher mathematics. A few weeks' study of algebra 
 gives the pupil a surprising advantage over his fellow 
 who has studied arithmetic only. He can now make 
 rules for himself, and does not need to remember 
 those of his book. 
 
 What is said of the German practice of studying 
 science without laboratories should lead to a careful 
 investigation of the question whether there is not a 
 preliminary stage of science — say for children and 
 youth under sixteen years of age — in which the 
 laboratory method is not so serviceable as the for- 
 mer method of teaching. There can, of course, be 
 no doubt of the superiority of the laboratory method 
 in the college and the university. 
 
 The question, " What is complete living ? " is a 
 very pertinent one in the face of the dictum which 
 asserts that the true object of education is to jjre-
 
 xii SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 pare people for complete living. Such complete 
 living involves tlie two factors named above : (1) 
 such a knowledge of Xature as enables one to con- 
 quer it for human ends and purposes ; (2) the 
 knowledge of human nature that enables each to 
 combine helpfully with the social whole. The edu- 
 cated individual should be able to avail himself of 
 all human experience. 
 
 I must not close this preface without speaking of 
 the abuse of classic study. The study of Latin for 
 an average of seven hours a week for nine years 
 (aside from the study in the preparation of the les- 
 son) would seem to be more than is necessary to 
 create in the mind the desirable apperception basis 
 spoken of above. All that is in addition to the proper 
 amount, it must be remembered, goes to arrest the de- 
 velopment of the mind on a lower stage of develop- 
 ment. One often finds in English and French uni- 
 versities, and occasionally here in America, scholars 
 who have taken honours for their classical preparation 
 (especially in Latin or Greek prosody) who seem to 
 have lost their interest in the modern world. They 
 have alienated themselves from the present and can 
 not now return to it and grapple with its problems. 
 This is the reductio ad ahsurdum of scholarship ; for 
 the object of the school is to fit for complete living 
 in the sense of conquering Xature and combining 
 with one's fellow-men. The study of the past is a 
 means for understanding the present, and not for 
 adopting the past as a substitute for the present. 
 
 W. T. Hakkis. 
 
 Wasiiingtox, December 1, 1S99.
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 At no time in the history of our country has the 
 science of education been so zealously studied as 
 during the last few years. • The subject has been 
 considered from innumerable points of view. But 
 we have many features to work out more systemat- 
 ically than has yet been done. Much is still to be 
 learned from a comparative, critical study of educa- 
 tional systems in foreign countries. It has been 
 said that " Germany is the schoolmistress of the 
 world " ; and all will welcome any contribution to 
 the existing knowledge concerning the educational 
 status of a country so influential in shaping the 
 world's thought. 
 
 It was with pleasure that I availed myself of the 
 opportunity while in Germany to personally visit 
 and study the different forms of schools comprised 
 in the educational system. I witnessed recitations 
 in all branches of instruction in all grades from the 
 kindergarten to the university, and hence gained a
 
 xiv SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 fairly adequate personal acquaintance with organi- 
 zation and methods of instruction. In addition to 
 this I sought every opportunity for conference with 
 schoolmen, teachers and directors, to better acquaint 
 myself with the motif inspiring the various features 
 of the system. An endeavour was also made to study 
 the family life, to gain a knowledge of the relations 
 between patrons and the school system. I have 
 attempted in the following pages to describe one 
 section of the system, viz., the secondary schools. 
 An attempt has been made to explain the essential 
 features of the organization, government, and modus 
 operandi of the schools. 
 
 An important feature of the book, and one Avhicli 
 ought to prove helpful by comparison with the 
 status in our own country, is the consideration of 
 the qualifications, training, and examination of 
 teachers. Courses of study have received consider- 
 able attention. Although these are but a means to 
 an end, yet they are in no small degree determina- 
 tive of the end. We have by no means solved the 
 question concerning the subject-matter and division 
 of our school curricula, and any precedents estab- 
 lished by a country like Germany should receive 
 careful investigation. 
 
 Many valuable contributions have been made 
 from time to time upon various phases of the Ger-
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. XV 
 
 mail schools, especially by the United States Bureau 
 of Education, but no one has heretofore brought 
 together any comprehensive treatment of the sec- 
 ondary school system.* From the many expressions 
 of students and educators with whom this work has 
 been discussed while in preparation, I am led to 
 believe that it will fill a real want. My greatest de- 
 sire is that, though necessarily imperfect, it may 
 contribute something to the betterment of the con- 
 ditions of education in our own domain. 
 
 I am under great obligation to my friend Dr. 
 Alexander Benncwitz, of the Girls' High School at 
 Leipzig, for many valuable suggestions, for the inter- 
 pretation of data obscure in meaning to a foreigner, 
 and for many important facts which would have 
 been inaccessible but for his kindly assistance. 
 To the many school officials, the librarians at the 
 Comenius Stiftung and the Leipsic University 
 Library, and others too numerous to mention indi- 
 vidually, I desire in this public way to express my 
 gratitude for the many courtesies extended me. 
 
 The hearty co-operation of my wife throughout 
 the entire prosecution of the work has not only 
 rendered the book possible, but has enabled me to 
 place the results before the public much sooner 
 
 * Dr. Russell's German Higher Schools appeared since this 
 was written. 
 9
 
 XVI SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 than I otherwise could have done. My brotlier, 
 Dr. Herbert E. Bolton, has read the entire work 
 in manuscript, and his numerous suggestions on 
 arrangement have made it of increased value. To 
 Dr. G. Stanley Hall and Dr. William H. Burnham 
 I am indebted for kindly sympathy and substantial 
 aid while the work was maturing. For the treatise 
 as a whole I alone am responsible. 
 
 It is with jileasure I mention that every con- 
 tributor to this series, as well as the educational 
 public, owe a lasting debt of gratitude to the gen- 
 eral editor, Hon. William T. Harris, LL. D., for his 
 careful personal attention to every volume while it 
 is passing through the press. 
 
 F. E. B. 
 
 State Normal School, IMilwaukee, Wis,, 
 September, 1S99.
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 General organization and management of German 
 
 secondary schools 1 
 
 1. Introductory — Differentiation of German schools . 1 
 
 2. Classification and general definition of secondary 
 
 schools .... o .... 5 
 
 3. Distribution of schools and pupils .... 8 
 
 4. Ages of pupils in secondary schools . . . 13- 
 
 5. Preparatory schools (Vorschulen) .... 17 
 
 6. Organization — Relation to state and city . . 19 
 
 7. Stimuli to secondary education .... 29 
 
 I. State recognition for completion of full school 
 
 course 33 
 
 II. State recognition for completion of partial 
 
 courses 35 
 
 8. Distribution of pupils by grades and ages (with 
 
 tables) 37 
 
 9. Some general characteristics of the inner organiza- 
 
 tion of the secondary schools .... 40 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Teachers 55 
 
 1. Examination and certification .... 55 
 
 2. Observations upon the qualifications for certifica- 
 
 tion 68
 
 xviil SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3. Training of teachers 76 
 
 A. Introductory 76 
 
 B. Estublislunent of iicdagogical seminaries , 78 
 
 C. Tiie workings of tiie pedagogical seminaries . 81 
 
 I. Older seminaries in connection with ele- 
 mentary sciiools 82 
 
 II. Gymnasial seminaries. (Prussian regula- 
 tions governing the training of second- 
 ary-school teachers) .... 85 
 III. University seminaries .... 91 
 a. The seminary at Jena ... 92 
 i. The seminary at Leipsic ... 95 
 
 c. The seminary at Strasburg . . 101 
 
 d. The seminary at Heidelberg . . 102 
 
 e. General note to section " C " . . 102 
 
 4. Teachers' official titles 112 
 
 5. Teachers' tenure of office 118 
 
 6. Teachers' salaries (with tables) . . . .119 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Movements toward reform in courses of study . . 129 
 
 1. Historical basis of curricula 129 
 
 2. The final struggle 142 
 
 3. Changes wrought 156 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Present courses of study 
 
 1. Introductory — School programmes 
 
 (with tables) .... 
 
 2. Outline of courses of study 
 
 A. Religious instruction 
 
 B. Classics : (a) Latin, {b) Greek 
 
 C. Modern languages : (a) French, 
 
 D. Mathematics . 
 
 E. History and geography .
 
 CONTENTS. XIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 F. Natural sciences 250 
 
 G. The mother tongue 2G0 
 
 H. Final examinations 269 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Secondary and higher education of women . . 277 
 
 1. Classification of girls' schools 277 
 
 2. Courses of study in girls' schools (Hohere Madchen- 
 
 schulen) 285 
 
 3. Distribution of girls' schools (with tables) . . 298 
 
 4. Girls' gymnasia 304 
 
 5. Women in the universities 313 
 
 6. Continuation schools (Fortbildungsschulen) for 
 
 teachers 323 
 
 7. Salaries of women teachers (with tables) . . 330 
 
 8. The higher education of women considered . . 341 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Conclusions 351 
 
 1. General organization and management . . . 351 
 
 2. Position of the secondary schools in the system . 354 
 
 3. Classical and scientific instruction in separate 
 
 institutions 356 
 
 4. Concentration in studies 357 
 
 5. Teachers' training 363 
 
 6. Suggestions for requirements in America . . 365 
 
 7. Teachers' examinations 366 
 
 8. Departmental teachers 368 
 
 9. Amount of work given to pupils .... 371 
 
 10. Sex of teachers 373 
 
 11. The separation of the sexes 375 
 
 13. The higher education of women .... 377 
 13. Effect of higher education upon the health of 
 
 women 379 
 
 Bibliography 385 
 
 Index 391
 
 THE SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 OF GERMANY. 
 
 IC047 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 orgaxizatiox axd management. 
 
 1. Introductory. — Differentiation of German 
 Schools. 
 
 The secondary schools of Germany do not form, 
 as in America, a second block in a tripartite pyram- 
 idal system of primary, secondary, and higher edu- 
 cation. 3 In a certain significant sense the German 
 secondary schools form a system by themselves, or, 
 more strictly speaking, they comprise several distinct 
 systems, each having a special end in view. The 
 first in rank of these are the humanistic gymna- 
 sia {humanistische Gymnasien). "With their courses 
 steeped in classic lore, they have for their special 
 aim the preparation of students for the university. 
 They articulate poorly with the people's schools 
 ( Volksschulen), and, unless the transition from the 
 people's schools to the gymnasia is made early, it is 
 impossible for boys trained in the former to enter 
 the latter, j The teachers in the gymjiasia strongly 
 urge that the pupils coming to them be prepared 
 in their own preparatory schools (the Vorschuleii)^ 
 
 1
 
 2 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 rather than in the people's schools. ^The character- 
 istic feature of the gymnasia is the classical basis of 
 their curricula. A broad line of demarcation sep- 
 arates tliem from a second class, the so-called real- 
 schools (EealscJmlen). The latter have in view the 
 fitting of students for business vocations, or for sub- 
 sequent study in various technical higher institu- 
 tions. A compromise between the two, which is a 
 product of later development, and which receives 
 much favour from certain classes, is the Real-gymna- 
 sium. This school, although having less classical 
 instruction than the gymnasium, like it, has little 
 direct connection with the primary education offered 
 in the people's schools. It, too, prefers, and virtu- 
 ally demands for entrance, special preparation and 
 an early transition from the j)eople's schools if loss 
 of time is not to ensue. \ The boys who are pre- 
 destined by their parents to pursue higher studies 
 must begin them at an early age — say at ten or 
 eleven years.* When a course of life is mapped out 
 and entered upon, the Germans assume that it will 
 be pursued to the end ; there is no readjustment of 
 ill-planned and wrongly selected paths of labour ; no 
 grafting of a new branch upon an old stock with 
 the expectation of abundant and desirable fruit. 
 With them there are many distinct classes of so- 
 ciety and business, and they cannot believe that prep- 
 aration in one direction may at the same time serve 
 as preparation in another. Although "all roads lead 
 to Rome," their view is that only one leads to the 
 
 * Report of the Commissioner of Educatiou, 1889-'90, vol. 
 i, p. 298.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 3 
 
 university. "W'e may make the general statement 
 that the universities of the United States open their 
 doors to all. The Germans, with their broad views 
 concerning scientific work in the universities, and 
 their profound respect for scientific investigation, 
 whether it relates to road dust or to the stars, never- 
 theless make sharp distinctions as to the relative 
 worth of knowledge in the elementary courses. 
 
 Only one course, the classical, is conceived by 
 most of them to adequately prepare for future scien- 
 tific or scholarly investigation. In the United States 
 some sort of a higher education is offered to all, no 
 matter what the direction of the elementary and sec- 
 ondary work ; and many a man who would have 
 been barred forever from the privileges of university 
 training, had a knowledge of the classics been de- 
 manded as a prerequisite foundation, has lived to 
 demonstrate the fact that he could profit by univer- 
 sity training, and has been able to make as penetrat- 
 ing research and as valuable discoveries in the realm 
 of scientific investigation as his classically trained 
 contemporaries. This is not to dej)reciate in the 
 smallest degree the value of the classics, but simply to 
 show that the time-honoured classics do not form the 
 only mental pabulum that may be offered to develop 
 the mind. Digging out Greek and Latin roots un- 
 doubtedly serves as excellent preliminary training for 
 the future theologian, professor, lawyer, physician, 
 or scientist, but it is not the only form of mental 
 gymnastics that can be found for exercising the 
 powers of the future scholar. Even conservative 
 Germany is beginning to throw off the bonds of
 
 4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 conservatism, and many of its foremost men main- 
 tain that pupils from the non-classical schools ought 
 to be admitted to all the university faculties without 
 restriction, save, perhaps, those of theology and juris- 
 pr^idence. 
 
 / With the idea in mind that they can not well 
 serve two masters at the same time, the Germans 
 have differentiated their school system, each class of 
 schools aiming to accomplish a special, well-defined 
 purpose. They are much averse to a mixing of 
 courses and to a division of energy. Hence in Ger- 
 many we do not find, as is common in America, all 
 forms of secondary schools under the same general 
 name, and attempting to give instruction in a multi- 
 plicity of directions. In America the " high school " 
 is the institution where both boys and girls may re- 
 ceive secondary instruction, and this instruction may 
 take the various directions indicated by the terms 
 ancient classical course, Latin scientific course, Eng- 
 lish course, general science course, business course, 
 etc. To the German, with his predilection for a 
 special name to fit each individual object, and with 
 his disgust for collective terms which may apply to 
 various things, the appellation " high school " would 
 be sadly inappropriate.* It is still more incompre- 
 hensible to them to think of offering all of the above 
 courses in the same school. In Germany there is 
 not only a special class of schools for each course of 
 
 * Their word "Hochschule" comprises the universities and 
 technical schools. The term, however, is seldom used, prefer- 
 ence being given to the special designations.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 5 
 
 study, but .there are also separate schools for boys 
 
 and girls.* i 
 
 2. Classification axd General Definition of 
 Secondary Schools. 
 
 According to the end to be attained, the G erman 
 secondary schools for boys are classed in general 
 as gymnasia, or Gelehrtenschulen, and real-schools 
 {Eealschulcn). By gymnasia, or Gelehrtenschulen, 
 are meant literary or classical schools. Expressed 
 in a few words, they are schools where the classics 
 form the core of the instruction, and whose aim is to 
 fit for university study. Fliigel defines Eealschule 
 as " a school in which arts and sciences, as well as 
 languages, are taught," or as " schools of utility." 
 They make the sciences predominant in the course, 
 modern languages are substituted for the classics, 
 and their aim is to fit for entrance to certain tech- 
 nical schools and to prepare for commercial and in- 
 dustrial pursuits. A modification of either of these 
 two general classes, or a compromise between the 
 two, gives rise to the various forms of institutions, 
 such as the Eeal-gymnasium and others, which ap- 
 pear as subclasses below. 
 
 Girls' higher schools are not usually recognised 
 by law as higher schools on the same plane as the 
 secondary institutions for boys. However, they are 
 nominally, by common consent, in part so recognised, 
 
 * It may be noted that in some of the Eastern cities of the 
 United States there is a partial differentiation of high schools 
 for different courses, and also separate schools for the sexes.
 
 G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 and no treatment of secondary institutions would be 
 adequate Avhicli omitted them. In general the girls' 
 higher schools are classed as hohere Mildchenschulen 
 or hohere Tochtcrschulen. They aim to give a lib- 
 eral course of training, including considerable ac- 
 quaintance with modern languages and some of the 
 household arts, but rigidly exclude all instruction 
 in the classics, and any extended study of mathe- 
 matics and natural sciences. The special concep- 
 tions of the various girls' schools will be given de- 
 tailed notice in a separate chapter.* 
 
 The Prussian secondary schools for boys include : 
 
 Gymnasia, with nine-year courses. 
 
 Progymnasia, with six-year or seven-year courses. 
 
 Eeal-schools, («) with Latin, which include 
 
 1. Eeal-gymnasia, with nine-year courses. 
 
 2. Eeal-progymnasia, with six-year courses. 
 (b) Without Latin, which include 
 
 1. Higher real-schools {ObeiTealschule?i), with 
 nine-year courses. 
 
 2. Eeal-schools, with six-year courses — in Prussia 
 called higher burgher schools {hohere Biirgerscliulen). 
 
 In many parts of Germany the higher burgher 
 schools are not included with the secondary schools. 
 However, when not thus included, there are real- 
 schools corresponding to those in Prussia. In most 
 of the states the higher burgher school is simply a 
 common or people's school, with a continuation or 
 Fortbildungs course. 
 
 Bavaria regards all the secondary schools as fall- 
 
 * Chapter V.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. Y 
 
 ing under two heads : (a) the humanistic schools 
 and (/;) technical institutions. The former include 
 only the classical gymnasia with nine-year courses. 
 The latter include : 
 
 1. Eeal-schools, with six-year courses. 
 
 2. Eeal-gymnasia, with nine-year courses. 
 
 3. Industrial schools, having courses two years 
 additional to the real-school course. 
 
 These industrial schools have courses in three 
 directions : (a) mechanical engineering, {b) chemis- 
 try, and (c) mining engineering. There are only 
 three such technical schools in Bavaria, one being at 
 Munich, one at Xiirnberg, and one at Augsburg. 
 
 Wiirtemberg has the gymnasia, real-schools, and 
 the so-called elementary schools {Eleme^itdrschulen). 
 Unlike the rest of the states, the gymnasium course 
 is ten years instead of nine. It begins a year earlier 
 than in the other states, so that the ultimate end 
 attained is about the same. The elementary schools 
 have courses of two years, and are special prepara- 
 tory schools for the gymnasia. In all the other 
 states there are the Vorschulen in connection with 
 many of the gymnasia. These have a course of three 
 years preparatory to the gymnasia proper. All of 
 these special fitting schools are considered, however, 
 as a part of the higher school organization, since the 
 character and direction of the work are one with the 
 chief distinguishing characteristics of secondary 
 school work. A burgher school may have as long a 
 course as a real-school or a progymnasium ; but, 
 since the course in the former is confined to the nec- 
 essary or practical studies and includes no provision
 
 8 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 for the more liberal arts, it would not be classed with 
 the secondary schools. 
 
 In Baden all the secondary schools are called in- 
 termediate schools {Mittelschulen). They are of the 
 same kind as in Prussia, with only slight deviations 
 in length and arrangement of courses. For exam- 
 ple, the real-schools in Baden have Latin as an elec- 
 tive study, while most real-schools in Germany do not 
 offer it at all. Baden includes in the secondary 
 school system the higher burgher schools as well as 
 the real-schools. Tlie higher burgher schools are of 
 two kinds : {a) with four-year or five-year courses, 
 and, as in the gymnasia, Greek may be taken as an 
 elective ; [b) with four-year or five-year courses, and, 
 as in the real-schools, Latin is offered as an elective. 
 Baden also includes the higher girls' schools with 
 the secondary schools (MittelscJiulen). This is not 
 the case in most of the states pf the empire. 
 
 In Saxony and the other states the schools are 
 divided quite similarly to those described above. 
 
 3. DlSTKIBUTIOX OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS. 
 
 In treating of the educational systems of Germany 
 and the United States it is very common for writers 
 to compare our high school, though unjustly, Avith the 
 German gymnasium. In that way the idea becomes 
 prevalent in America that all the secondary schools 
 of Germany are gymnasia. But this is very errone- 
 ous. A very large number of secondary schools, five 
 hundred and thirty-six out of a total of a thousand 
 and sixty-four, consist of some form of real-school. 
 Xearly one half of all the pupils in secondary schools
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 9 
 
 attend the latter. The subjoined figures indicate 
 approximately the proportion in each class of school 
 in the empire.* 
 
 Gymnasia or classical schools 134,845 
 
 Real-schools with Latin 50,947 
 
 Real-schools without Latin 62,579 
 
 Total 248,371 
 
 See also the complete table (page 10). 
 
 Hence a comparison of the systems must include 
 these non-gymnasial schools as a part of the system. 
 It would be as erroneous to select only those high 
 schools of the United States that have a thorough 
 four years' classical course and speak of these as the 
 high schools of the United States as to select only 
 the gymnasia and represent the secondary system of 
 Germany by them. The only fair comparison to be 
 made is by taking the American high schools as an 
 entirety, including at least all those having courses 
 that meet state requirements, and all classes of Ger- 
 man secondary schools, whether classical or scientific 
 in their curricula, those having ten-year as well as 
 those having twelve-year courses. 
 
 The accompanying tables will perhaps suffice to 
 show that the gymnasia proper do not include nearly 
 all of the secondary schools of Germany. Moreover, 
 it ought to demonstrate the fallacious position taken 
 by those who make sweeping statements concerning 
 the meagreness of work done in American high schools 
 as compared with German secondary schools. Xot 
 
 * Bureau of Education, 1893-'94, vol. i, p. 298.
 
 10 sp:condary school system op Germany. 
 
 
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 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. H 
 
 all of their secondary institutions cover the gymna- 
 sial courses, nor are all American high schools of the 
 low standard that is usually thought of when the 
 average is mentioned. Undoubtedly the best Ameri- 
 can high schools will bear favourable comparison 
 with the German secondary schools for the corre- 
 sponding periods that they cover and in the corre- 
 sponding lines of work which they attempt. But 
 we must bear in mind that a comparison of non- 
 classical high schools with German gymnasia is 
 unfair. Only the so-called classical high schools 
 may be put in the same category, and even then 
 we must bear in mind the disparity of ages of the 
 graduates of the two (see table below). The non- 
 classical schools, if compared, must be put beside 
 some form of real-school and not beside the gym- 
 nasium. , 
 
 The American high school is the people's college 
 and the courses of study represent all the branches 
 of a liberal secondary education, while the gymnasium 
 is a classical school in the fullest sense of the word. 
 Were the ages of the pupils in the high schools the 
 same as those of the gymnasium pupils, we might 
 then make the comparison with such schools as have 
 the " ancient classical courses." Even then the com- 
 parison would be only partially legitimate, as the 
 Germans would regard our high schools having the 
 strongest classical courses as real-schools with a little 
 Latin and Greek, or at best as real-gymnasia. 
 
 As will be shown later, the German boy begins 
 the classics many years before American boys reach 
 the high school, which usually brings the first intro-
 
 12 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 diiction to Latin and Greek. Hence our schools can 
 not pretend to give as thorough training in the 
 chissics as is given in the German gymnasia. The 
 only reason one may have for asserting that the one 
 class of pupils is better educated than the other at 
 a given age, or that one is better fitted for the uni- 
 versity than the other, must be founded upon a 
 settlement of the question of what studies help best 
 to educate and Avhat studies best prepare for college. 
 We can only compare two quantities when they are 
 the same in kind. When the amounts of study have 
 been set forth, then a measure of educational values 
 must come in before the question can be settled. 
 
 4. Ages of Pupils iis" Secondary Schools. 
 
 A comparison of ages shows us that German 
 boys are in the gymnasia (also the real-gymnasia and 
 the higher real-schools) to a considerably greater 
 age than American boys are in the high schools. 
 The gymnasial course being nominally one of nine 
 years, with three years in the Vorschule or prepara- 
 tory school, and the legal age at which children begin 
 school being six years, the normal age at graduation 
 would be eighteen years. But during my visits to 
 the schools I was much surprised to find in the upper 
 classes pupils who were no longer boys in appearance, 
 but full-grown men, many of them with mustaches. 
 They appeared to be fully as old as freshmen and 
 sophomores in American colleges. On looking up 
 the statistics of ages I found that my estimations 
 were quite right, as the accompanying table will 
 show.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 13 
 
 Age of Graduates (Prussia). 
 
 DATE. 
 
 Under 17. 
 
 n years. 
 
 18 years. 
 
 19 years. 
 
 20 years. 
 
 Over 21 
 years.* 
 
 1871-75 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 o.rr 
 
 0.6 
 0.47 
 0.17 
 0.07 
 
 Per cent. 
 5.5 
 5.3 
 5.0 
 3.6 
 3.6 
 
 Per cent. 
 19.1 
 19.1 
 18.0 
 16.3 
 20.1 
 
 Per cent. 
 28.1 
 27.5 
 26.3 
 26.4 
 27.1 
 
 Per cent. 
 24.9 
 24.9 
 
 24.4 
 
 25.8 
 24.8 
 
 Per cent. 
 23.0 
 
 1876-"79 
 
 23 
 
 1880-'a5 
 
 26.3 
 
 1886-'90 
 
 27 6 
 
 Gymnasia, 1893- '94 .... 
 
 24.1 
 
 * Paulsen's Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, vol. ii. See also 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch der hOheren Schulen Deutschlands, 1896-'97. 
 
 It thus appears that an exceedingly small number 
 ai-e under eighteen years at the time of leaving the 
 gymnasia, while one fourth of the number are over 
 twenty, and 79 per cent are nineteen years of age. 
 Moreover, the table indicates that the number under 
 nineteen is constantly decreasing while the number 
 above that age is constantly increasing.]. From the 
 official programmes of 1895-'96 and 1896-'97, I find 
 that many graduates are twenty-one or twenty-two 
 y^rs of age. Concerning the year 1890, Dr. Juling 
 reports that 4,251 pupils announced themselves as 
 candidates for examination. Of this number, 3,702 
 were successful, while 549 were held back to try it 
 again. Of those who passed the examination, 6 were 
 under seventeen years and 98 were seventeen years old. 
 
 Dr. Juling further wTites that " Only 579 stu- 
 dents were of the normal age of eighteen years, 
 or, in other words, only one sixth or 16f j)er cent.'' 
 Put in tabular form, the same results would read 
 thus : 
 
 f 736, or 19 per cent, were under nineteen. 
 
 Year | 972, or 26 per cent, were nineteen. 
 
 1890. ^ 959, or 26 per cent, were twenty. 
 
 [ 1,035, or 28 per cent, were twenty-one and over.
 
 14 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Thus only 736 were under nineteen, while nearly 
 3,000, or 80 per cent, were nineteen and over.* 
 
 I On inquiring among university students the rea- 
 son for the advanced age of the pupils, I learned 
 that two causes are operative in raising the age 
 above the normal. The first is that many pupils 
 Avho enter the secondary schools, especially those 
 who enter from the people's schools, are required to 
 do the first year's work over because of their poor 
 preparation. Then a good many can not finish in 
 the nine years because the requirements are too 
 heavy, and they are obliged to remain in the last 
 class from one and a half to two years. 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that the age 
 of the graduates is considerably greater than that 
 of high-school graduates in the United States. The 
 average age at graduation from Harvard is about 
 twenty-two and a half years, which means that 
 the preparatory schools are completed at eighteen 
 and a half. It is true that in the West, where boys 
 work on the farms until well grown up, the average 
 age is sometimes greater. But, on the other hand, 
 it is not uncommon to find high-school graduates 
 only sixteen years of age. It is not impossible to 
 find boys well along in their freshman year in col- 
 lege by their sixteenth birthday. But it is only fair, 
 of course, to draw the comparison with such as 
 enter school at the normal age and make the steady 
 march without interruption. In America averages 
 are delusive. Every one is a law unto himself. But 
 in Germany what one does may be asserted of al- 
 
 * Das Gyranasium luit zehnjiihrigen Kursus.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 15 
 
 most everybody else in the s:ime category. What 
 is once begun is carried out with the regularity of a 
 machine. For the first eight years of school life 
 strict laws compel pupils to be in attendance. 
 Nothing but sickness can absolve them from the ob- 
 ligation. The classes move along with great regu- 
 larity as regards age. In the Eoyal Gymnasium in 
 Leipsic, I found the average age of the pupils who 
 had just entered tli^ lowest class, Sexta, to be ten 
 years, ten months and sixteen days. The average 
 variation from this was very small. The average of 
 the class just finishing was nineteen years, ten 
 months. Sexta, the lowest class, contained 80 pupils, 
 Avhile Upper Prima, the highest, contained 54, or 
 nearly 70 per cent of those who started nine years 
 before. Of these pupils, 47 entered this school six 
 or more years previously, and 37 had been in the same 
 school the entire nine years. This does not mean 
 that 70 per cent of all who reach the fourth year 
 of school life continue until they finish the gymna- 
 sium course. These figures are for the gymnasia 
 alone, and take no account of the people's schools, 
 real-schools, etc. They simply indicate the great 
 regularity that is maintained when once the gymna- 
 sium course is begun. The separation between the 
 people's schools and the secondary schools begins 
 with the fourth year of school life, and, although it 
 is safe to predict that a very large percentage of 
 those who once enter the gymnasia will continue to 
 the close, yet of the great masses who enter on the 
 non-classical branch of the road very few may ever 
 expect to reach the university.
 
 IG SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
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 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 17 
 
 5. Pkeparatory Schools ( Vorschulen). 
 
 The question of preparatory schools is one which 
 receives lively discussion in German educational and 
 political circles. On this question the teachers in 
 the people's schools and the socialists may be said 
 to be generally arrayed against the teachers in the 
 higher schools and universities and the aristocratic 
 and conservative political parties. The chief objec- 
 tion raised against the Vorschulen is that they en- 
 gender social class distinctions. At an early age the 
 children of the well-to-do are placed in these pre- 
 paratory schools, and no common ground of meeting 
 is possible for the children of the rich and the poor. 
 Opponents claim that class distinctions would in no 
 wise be decreased were all the Vorschulen abolished, 
 but that, on the other hand, the very intermingling 
 would bring them all the earlier to consciousness. 
 To one who has passed through a system of public 
 schools with foundation principles proclaiming equal- 
 ity of opportunities for all, it is difficult to compre- 
 hend the validity of the above assumptions. How- 
 ever, a residence of some duration in a European 
 country can not fail to give one an insight into the 
 role played by tradition in all long-settled countries, 
 and a feeling that radical departures from the tradi- 
 tional following of spheres of activity into which 
 people are born would mean social disintegration. 
 Moreover, for a long time to come in all monarchical 
 countries there must be and will be avenues in which 
 people can walk apart from those unlike them- 
 selves. Even we, in our country Avith its fundamen-
 
 18 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 tally democratic institutions, have select circles. "We 
 do not generally wish to affiliate ourselves with those 
 of dissimilar aims, tastes, aspirations, and abilities- 
 We maintain the right to foster class distinctions in 
 many important directions. European class distinc- 
 tions differ from ours more in degree than in kind. 
 
 Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden have no Vor- 
 schulen, and the class distinctions are said to be just 
 as strong there as in other parts of Germany.* This 
 would, however, prove nothing in itself either way, 
 for school organization is only one element of the 
 problem. There are many other facts entering into 
 their political and social life, and these kingdoms, 
 being parts of the entire empire, share in the na- 
 tional views on social and political questions. The 
 supporters of the Vorschulen maintain, with un- 
 doubted justice, that the private Vorschule offers 
 many advantages in the superior character of its 
 instruction. Not only the methods but the selec- 
 tion of material insures a speedier and better prep- 
 aration for the superstructure which is to be erected 
 later. The pupils also meet with those of similar 
 aims, capabilities, and attainments ; this insures 
 greater incentives to individual exertion, and a more 
 even development, with none of the drawbacks and 
 hindrances encountered in schools for the masses, 
 where the lame and the lazy impede the progress of 
 the strong and the ambitious. 
 
 The following table shows the numbers in the 
 
 * See Rein's Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, 
 article Gymnasial Padagogik, by Schiller, p. 79; also Schiller's 
 Handbuch der Padagogik.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 19 
 
 Prussian Vorschulen connected with tlie various sec- 
 ondary institutions from the summer semester of 
 1892 to the winter semester of 1894-'95 : * 
 
 
 Gymmisia. 
 
 Pro- 
 gymnasia. 
 
 Real- 
 gymnasia. 
 
 Real-pro- 
 gytnn.isia. 
 
 Higher 
 real-schools. 
 
 Real- 
 schools. 
 
 Summer, 18!)^ 
 
 Winter, lSll:.'-"93 
 
 Siuiiiner, IS'.CJ 
 
 Winter, lS'.t3-'94 
 
 Siuniner, IS'.a 
 
 Winter, l«'.t4-'95 
 
 9,326 
 9,485 
 9,147 
 9,413 
 9.011 
 9,181 
 
 390 
 459 
 30T 
 259 
 293 
 298 
 
 4,002 
 4,081 
 4,443 
 3,903 
 3,802 
 3,813 
 
 1,.540 
 1..50S 
 1.203 
 1,318 
 1,096 
 1,070 
 
 885 
 903 
 1,140 
 1,162 
 1,341 
 1,664 
 
 3,830 
 3.806 
 3,814 
 3,783 
 3,701 
 3,406 
 
 6. ORGANizATioisr. — Eelation" to State and City. 
 
 I Although each state is practically independent in 
 the government of its schools, and there is not in 
 the strict sense of the phrase a national system of 
 schools, yet there is a certain unity in the school 
 organization, i There are minor deviations from the 
 general plan in the various states, but the broad lines 
 of a unified school policy may be said to be operative 
 over the entire empire. To facilitate this unity of 
 principle and purpose, a school commission {Reichs- 
 SchulJcommission), consisting of six members selected 
 from various parts of the empire|llias been organized 
 since 1875. One member is chosen from each of 
 Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and AYi;rtemberg, these 
 being the four kingdoms and the principal states of 
 the German Empire. A fifth member is chosen alter- 
 nately from Baden, Hesse, Alsace-Lorraine, and Meck- 
 lenburg-Schwerin, each in turn having a representa- 
 tive for a period of two years. The sixth member is 
 
 * Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen Deutsch- 
 lands, 1896.
 
 20 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 chosen alternately from the remaining states, each 
 having a representative two years at a time.* This 
 commission meets twice each year for the purpose of 
 transacting business relating to the Avelfare of all the 
 schools of the empire. The business office of the 
 commission is in Berlin. Each of the states has its 
 own methods of managing its particular school mat- 
 ters. There is a great similarity among them all, 
 yet individual differences. 
 
 Prussia, the largest, has the most complicated 
 yet most highly organized governing system of all. 
 There is a governing body having a general over- 
 sight of all the educational affairs of the kingdom. 
 This highest body is called the Ministerium of Spir- 
 itual, Instructional, and Medicinal Affairs {Minis- 
 terium cler geistlichen, UnterricMs- und Medizinalr 
 Angelegenheite7i). The chief official is the state's 
 minister, the present incumbent being Dr. Bosse, of 
 Berlin. The Ministerium has four departments : (a) 
 The department of spiritual affairs, (b) two depart- 
 ments relating to public instruction, (c) a depart- 
 ment relating to medicine. At the head of each 
 department is a director who has an advisory board 
 of ten or more members. All the members of these 
 four departments reside in Berlin. All orders of a 
 general nature relating to the entire kingdom origi- 
 nate with the Ministerium, each department paying 
 attention to its own special matters. The depart- 
 ment of instruction has about thirty members. The 
 departments of instruction have among their mem- 
 
 * Statistisches Jahrbuch dei- hoheren Schulen.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 21 
 
 bers a few specially competent schoolmen wlio look 
 after the technicalities relating to instruction, teach- 
 ing force, courses of study, etc. These men acquaint 
 themselves as much as possible with coiiditions of 
 the schools through the kingdom. This they accom- 
 plish by personal visitation and inspection of differ- 
 ent localities and by a study of reports submitted to 
 them by local officers. 
 
 /;/ To manage all tlie details for the entire state 
 would form too great a task, and probably an unde- 
 sirable one, and hence the management not general 
 in nature is delegated to each of the several prov- 
 inces. Each province has what may be called a 
 provincial school board {SchnlkoIIegium), consisting 
 of several members, varying with the size of the 
 province. The seat of ithese school boards is at the 
 capital of the province."^ 
 
 The foregoing boards have only a general over- 
 sight of the provincial school affairs and the details 
 of management are left to the local school commit- 
 tees {Schnldeputation) and to the local inspectors 
 {SchulinspeJdoren). The members of the Schnl- 
 deputation are members of the city council. They 
 are usually chosen by the city magistrate or mayor, 
 but their ajjpointment must be confirmed by the 
 state government. The Schnldeputation has charge 
 of the external welfare of the schools, such as the 
 
 * That is, at the following places : For East Prussia, Konigs- 
 berg ; West Prussia, Dantzic ; Brandenburg, Potsdam ; Pom- 
 erania, Stettin ; Posen, Posen ; Silesia, Breslau ; Saxon Prus- 
 sia, Magdeburg; Westphalia, jMlinster; Hesse-Nassau, Cassel; 
 Rhenish Prussia, Coblentz ; Hohenzollern's Land, Sigmaringen.
 
 22 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 erection of buildings, hygienic surroundings, etc., 
 unci also assists in the selection of directors and 
 teachers.* Teachers are usually selected by the 
 local authorities, but the Ministerium or the King 
 must confirm the appointment. There are also va- 
 rious school inspectors who are limited to districts 
 within the provinces. These are termed District 
 inspectors {KreisschuUnsjJektoren). 
 
 Besides the foregoing boards of managers which 
 represent the three divisions of government, national, 
 state, and local, there are numerous boards of man- 
 agers of various academies and societies which are 
 all under royal or state authority, and in a certain 
 sense under the control of the educational depart- 
 ment of government, f 
 
 Thus the entire educational system, though man- 
 ed by representatives, is virtually under royal au- 
 
 * Dr. A. Petersilie, Das oilcntliche Unterriehtswesen iin 
 deutsehen Reiche, p. 325. 
 
 ■(• Among the institutions comprised under the educational 
 department thei'e are, besides all the secondary schools, the 
 Royal Academy of Fine Arts, in Berlin ; Royal Academy of 
 Science, Berlin; Royal Museum, Berlin; National Art Gallery, 
 Berlin ; Royal Geodetic Institute and Central Bureau for Inter- 
 national Survey ; Royal Meteorological Institute of Berlin ; 
 Royal Astro-physical Observatory. Potsdam ; royal universities, 
 of which there are nine, besides the academy at Miinster and the 
 lyceum at Braunsberg ; the three royal technical high schools at 
 Berlin, Hanover, and Aachen ; the royal normal schools for men 
 and for women, state and city preparatory institutions, deaf- 
 and-dumb schools, schools for the blind, Society for Art Appro- 
 priations, School for Teachers of Gymnastics, public higher 
 gii'ls' schools, evangelical normal schools for women, and vari- 
 ous learned societies. (Centralblatt, 1896, p. 1 et seq.)
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 23 
 
 thority. The Minister of Education is selected by 
 the King, and is in this sense a royal official. The 
 King himself often personally issues decrees and 
 edicts pertaining to educational matters. Appoint- 
 ments to teaching positions must all be confirmed 
 by him or his minister, and teachers are dependent 
 upon him even for the title of professor, etc' (See 
 topic Titles, etc.) * 
 
 For Saxony it suffices to say, without going into 
 details, that all the secondary schools are either royal 
 (state) institutions or are otherwis3 erected and 
 managed according to state laws. Several cities 
 maintain gymnasia or real-schools at local expense 
 entirely, but over even these the Ministerium has 
 general oversight and control. Courses of study 
 must be accepted by the state and all teachers must 
 have their appointments confirmed by the }.linis- 
 terium. In those schools entirely maintained by the 
 cities, the director and the chief teachers are ap- 
 pointed by the Minister of Education. These schools 
 usually have a committee {ScJmlkommission), con- 
 sisting of the director, one member of the city coun- 
 cil, and two members appointed by the Ministerium 
 (upon the advice of the council). It is usually the 
 real-schools that are maintained by the cities. Some 
 schools are mixed state and city institutions and are 
 governed accordingly. The final authority, however, 
 in all cases, is vested in the state. 
 
 In Bavaria the highest central governing body 
 is the Ministerium {Ministerium des Innern fur 
 
 * Cf. Centralblatt, 1896, p. 315.
 
 24 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 KircJicn vnd ScJmlangelegenJieiten), whose executive 
 officer is the Minister. To manage the details of 
 government there is a Kollegium composed of pro- 
 fessors of the universities, technical schools, gym- 
 nasia, and other secondary schools, together with a 
 number of physicians, who are to look after the 
 hygienic conditions of the schools. These persons 
 are termed Schulriithe, or school advisers. 
 
 The instructional and religious affairs of Baden 
 are managed by the " Ministerium der Justiz." Since 
 1886 there has been a board of advisers severally 
 called Beirathe, who are representatives of the peo- 
 ple of the city in which the school is located. This 
 advisory body stands as mediator between the teach- 
 ers and the Ministerium, As well as being an ad- 
 visory body it serves as a check upon one-sided man- 
 agement on the part of the teachers. This com- 
 mittee is made up of the director of the school, one 
 teacher chosen by the faculty, and three or four Ober- 
 schulriithe of the city. They have advisory powers 
 in all general questions of organization, hygienic 
 conditions, tuition fees, and also have an advisory 
 voice regarding the punishment of pupils, especially 
 expulsion. All teachers are, however, state officers, 
 and are appointed by the state. Where funds are 
 raised by contribution from any particular religious 
 sect, only teachers belonging to that faith may be 
 paid from such funds. This law has been operative 
 only since 1870 and it is said to be highly satisfac- 
 tory. Since that time many teachers of Jewish faith 
 have been added to the teaching force. 
 
 A division of the " Ministerium des Innern und
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 25 
 
 der Justiz " has oversight of the educational affairs 
 in Hesse. The gymnasial institutions receive most 
 of their suj^port from the state, from private endow- 
 ments and gifts, and from the tuition. They are 
 managed by the directors, together with a Kura- 
 torium similar to Baden. The real-schools, on the 
 other hand, do not receive so much of their support 
 from the state, but the buildings and appliances, 
 and a part of the teachers' salaries, are furnished by 
 the city. Tuition fees go toward the support of 
 teachers, and where this is insufficient the state fur- 
 nishes the balance. In both the gymnasia and the 
 real-schools the teachers are state officials and are 
 selected by the government, or the city appoints 
 them subject to confirmation by the government. 
 The remaining states have such similar methods of 
 management that it will be unnecessary to go further 
 into details concerning them. 
 
 The support of the schools comes from state 
 funds, from local taxation, from tuition, and from 
 bequests and contributions. The patrons of the 
 schools pay tuition enough to insure their lively in- 
 terest in its wise expenditure. The local aid is 
 usually, api^lied toward buildings, appliances, and in 
 some cases toward teachers' salaries. In most cases 
 free residence is furnished by the city to all the 
 teachers. * The director always resides in the school 
 building, which is constructed with that end in view. 
 The remainder of the support comes from state 
 funds. The state contributes most largely toward 
 
 * See topic, Pay of Teachers.
 
 26 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the gymnasia, wliile the rcaL-schools are more in 
 the hands of the people.* / The support of all 
 the secondary schools in Prussia during 1890 was 
 derived from the following sources : 5,545,020 marks 
 from state funds, 14,327,590 marks from tuition, 
 7,802,173 marks from city funds, 1,903,304 marks 
 from property belonging to the schools, and the re- 
 mainder of the 30,918,840 marks was derived from 
 gifts and interest on invested school funds. 
 
 I The public schools of Germany are not public in 
 the sense of being free schools. With the exception 
 of the people's schools ( Volkschuleu) of Prussia, there 
 are no schools in which a tuition fee is not exacted. 
 The amounts vary in different localities. All public 
 schools are jjublic in the sense that they admit with- 
 out distinction all who are properly prepared to enter, 
 and who will pay the necessary tuition fees. | Many 
 of the schools offer a certain number of free scholar- 
 ships by means of which worthy boys of exceptional 
 attainments may secure free tuition. However, not 
 many of the very poor can take advantage of these, 
 because the boys' labour cannot well be dispensed 
 with in the family, and also because there are so 
 many other necessary expenses connected with 
 attendance at these secondary schools. Books are 
 furnished by the pupils, board is no small item, and 
 then to keep up appearances in the matter of dress 
 is more than the poor can provide for. Since mainly 
 the sons of the rich attend the secondary schools, the 
 
 * According to Rethwisch, Deutsphlands hoheres Schul- 
 wesen iin 19. Jahrhundert, p, 144,
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 27 
 
 poor going generally to the people's schools, the 
 average are very well clothed, and all must wear some 
 uniform, usually a special kind of cap. To deviate 
 from custom in the matter of dress is a much more 
 serious affair with them than with people in Amer- 
 ica ; hence the expense connected with securing a 
 secondary education debars nearly all but sons of the 
 wealthy or the well-to-do. Below are indicated the 
 amounts of tuition paid in various states and a few 
 representative cities : 
 
 Marks Yearly. 
 Prussia, gymnasia, real-gymnasia, higher real- 
 schools 120 
 
 Prussia, progymnasia, real-progymnasia 100 
 
 Prussia, higher burgher schools or real-schools. . . 80 
 
 In same if Latin is taken 120 
 
 Bavaria, three lowest classes (all schools) 30 
 
 Bavaria, three middle classes (all schools) 3G 
 
 Bavaria, three highest classes (all schools) 40 
 
 Baden, three lowest classes (all schools) 75 
 
 Baden, other six classes (all schools) 84 
 
 Hesse, three lowest classes (all schools) 96 
 
 Hesse, other six classes (all schools) .- 108 
 
 Dresden and Bremen (all schools) 120-180 
 
 Leipsic (all schools) 80-240 
 
 Hamburg, gymnasia and real-gymnasia 192 
 
 Hamburg, real-schools 144 
 
 Hamburg, vorschulen 120 
 
 It is the custom to admit sons of all the teachers 
 or of university professors without requiring tuition. 
 In some of the schools five per cent, of all the pupils 
 may be admitted free. 
 
 In resume, it is to be noticed that while the peo- 
 ple — the patrons of the schools — are given a certain 
 4 
 
 /^
 
 28 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 advisory voice, they have nothing final to say in the 
 management of their children's education. Tliis ad- 
 visory function is fullillod by the school committees 
 — the Schuldeputation in Prussia, the Beiriithe in 
 Baden and Hesse, the Schulkollegium in Bavaria, 
 and by similarly empowered bodies in other states. 
 In each of these local bodies the director of the in- 
 stitution is usually one of the members. lie is sup- 
 posed to be most intimately acquainted with the 
 needs of the school and is a qualified representative of 
 the scholastic and pedagogical functions of the board. 
 In nearly all cases teachers in the secondary schools 
 (in fact, nearly all teachers) are state oflficials, receive 
 their appointments from the state, and are amen- 
 able to central authority only. To be sure, the local 
 commissions have a voice relating to teachers, but it 
 is only advisory at most. As well as teachers, nearly 
 all the managing ofilcers of the schools are appointed 
 by central authority. Thus the state is thoroughly 
 paternalistic in the management of its secondary 
 school system.. It may oblige a community to main- 
 tain a secondary school, and the community may do 
 so independently only by permission, and in this case 
 the state provides that only centrally authorized 
 teachers may instruct. In most instances the Gov- 
 ernment appoints the instructional force,* grants, 
 particular titles to the teachers, arranges the courses 
 of study, approves the buildings, etc. This insures a 
 thoroughly and uniformly prepared teaching force 
 
 * Tliat is, tlie confirmation of all appointments rests with 
 the Ministerium. 
 
 N
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 29 
 
 and provides against remiss methods of school man- 
 agement. Tlie state stipulates the salaries that shall 
 be paid to teacliers, either by direct tariffs or by 
 granting to certain cities the privilege of fixing their 
 own rates, thus insuring as good talent for the smaller 
 schools as for the larger. This was found necessary 
 after some degeneration of the smaller schools, be- 
 cause of the best teachers flocking to the cities where 
 larger salaries were paid. 
 
 17. Stimuli to Secondary Education. 
 There are several powerful stimuli which exert 
 a strong influence in keeping boys in school longer 
 than their inclinations might otherwise lead them 
 to remain. These stimuli lie chiefly in the social 
 prestige, enhanced business opportunities, advantage 
 for future scientific investigation, and exemption 
 from military service coming through the completion 
 of regular school courses. In the first place, one's 
 social standing in Germany, outside the nobility, de- 
 pends almost wholly upon the evidences of one's 
 scholastic attainments. The boys who receive only 
 the elements of education, such as are afforded by 
 attendance at the people's schools, are almost with- 
 out exception forever doomed to intercourse with 
 only the working classes, no matter what they may 
 have accomplished by themselves. Standing in 
 society is determined more by the school certificate 
 than by actual qualifications. Germany is pre- 
 eminently a land Avhere one's word and address 
 must be backed by legally executed vouchers. This 
 is no less true in the active walks of business life
 
 30 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 tlian in social circles. Xot even a butcher's boy, 
 a printer's apprentice, or a servant can find employ- 
 ment without written evidence of attainments and 
 former good conduct. What is true in the lower 
 walks of life is no less true, but even exaggerated, 
 in the higher. AYith these safeguards against im- 
 postors and the incompetent it necessarily follows 
 that all certificates of attainments are honoured at 
 their highest possible value. A given diploma, cer- 
 tificate, or " Berechtigung " is a guarantee of recogni- 
 tion in every particular assumed in it. The phrase 
 " self-made " man is still placed in quotation marks 
 by the Germans. The entity corresponding to it is 
 not indigenous to their soil, and is almost incompre- 
 hensible to them. To them, accomplishments are 
 only possible through prolonged and careful disci- 
 pline secured under authorized masters. Giermany 
 is pre-eminently the land of long apprenticeships, 
 where genius is allowed to blossom only after long 
 processes of cultivation. Hence, when a given call- 
 ing is looked forward to by a youth or by his 
 parents for him, the only possibility of realizing 
 those hopes is through conformity to the regular 
 courses leading up to that end. To deviate means 
 certain failure, to persevere means almost certain 
 success. 
 
 Again, the various forms of certificates of attend- 
 ance at school give corresponding rights to pursue 
 study in higher institutions of learning. Without 
 formal preliminary training it is assumed that no one 
 can become fitted for advanced study. Attainments 
 acquired by private study are not recognised as ade-
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 31 
 
 quate preparation for study in higher institutions. 
 They usually even deny one an examination to dem- 
 onstrate that he is capable of carrying on chosen 
 work in the higher schools. Students who have not 
 had regular gymnasial courses sometimes take Just 
 the last year of the course and then take the leav- 
 ing examinations. On rare occasions they are as- 
 signed by the provincial school-board to some gym- 
 nasium to take the examination for the diploma, 
 without taking the work in Prima. A specific prep- 
 aration is deemed necessary for each branch of busi- 
 ness and for each course of higher study, and hence, 
 if one has aspirations in a given direction, the way 
 of attainment is plainly marked out. For example, 
 a post-office official must secure a certificate of at 
 least six years of successful study in a secondary 
 school ; a special student of mathematics in a uni- 
 versity must secure a certificate of at least nine years 
 of study. This may or may not have included Latin 
 or Greek, there being some latitude allowed in this 
 direction ; but a student of theology, law, medicine, 
 or philosophy can never hope to listen to the masters 
 without securing evidence of the requisite amount 
 of classical instruction. All may reap as they choose 
 to sow. 
 
 In the fourth place, perhaps one of the most 
 potent factors inducing higher training in the sec- 
 ondary schools is the exemption from two of the 
 three years of compulsory military duty, to which all 
 adult male citizens of Germany are subject. To se- 
 cure this reduction of time is an escape from a heavy 
 burden, and is considered a great honour as well ; and
 
 32 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM! OP GERMANY. 
 
 parents exert themselves to the utmost to allow their 
 sons to share it. Furthermore, it adds two years to 
 their period of active husiness life or study, Avhich 
 is a most important consideration. j^Po be obliged to 
 serve three years in tlie army during the best years 
 of young manliood is a hardship which all gladly 
 avoid. But perhaps more potent than the exemption 
 from the two years' onerous service is the distinction 
 which comes from being known as having wealth 
 enough to attend school nine or ten years and to 
 pay the necessary expenses connected with the vol- 
 unteer service, for every volunteer must provide his 
 own uniform, accoutrements, and board. Again, he 
 stands a chance for promotion, which ordinary con- 
 scripts do not enjoy. 
 
 Below are enumerated in detail the privileges 
 conferred by a certificate received on completion of 
 the entire courses and for definite portions of the 
 various courses in the several classes of schools in 
 Prussia. The other states allow such similar privi- 
 leges that they need not be given in detail ; only 
 important deviations are noted. From a detailed 
 examination of what follows it will be seen that the 
 school certificates are not only evidences of scholar- 
 ship, but that they have a definite professional value, 
 being legal certificates of entry into the profes- 
 sions, the various grades admitting to different 
 kinds of employment, from Government service to 
 pharmacy; and it is most important to remember 
 that, conversely, it is unusual to gain entry into the 
 various callings of life by other than the prescribed 
 routes.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 33 
 
 I. STATE RECOGNITION FOR COMPLETION OF 
 FULL SCHOOL COURSE. 
 
 A. Gymnasia. — The certificate gives the right : 
 
 1. To study in the university in any department, 
 and to take the examinations for the higher church 
 and state positions. (These include teaching, law, 
 telegraph, postal, and marine service, etc.) 
 
 2. To study in the building and mechanical de- 
 partments of the royal technical high schools, and in 
 the mining and metallurgical schools. 
 
 3. To study in the royal agricultural academy, 
 and to become a candidate for teaching in the same. 
 
 4. To enter the royal academy of church music 
 for the purpose of receiving instruction as organist, 
 chorister, or music teacher in higher teaching posi- 
 tions, 
 
 5. To entrance as apprentice for higher postal 
 and telegraph service, and to an examination for jDosi- 
 tion as manager or overseer of higher positions from 
 secretary on. 
 
 B. Real-Gymnasia. — 1. Tlie certificate admits 
 pupils to the university in the philosophical faculty 
 (excluding from law, medicine, and theology) to 
 study mathematics, natural sciences, and modern 
 languages. 
 
 2. And to all other privileges granted by the 
 gymnasial certificate. 
 
 C. Higher Real-ScJiools. — The certificate is recog- 
 nised as indicative of extended instruction and ad- 
 mits : 
 
 1. To the study of mathematics and natural
 
 34 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 sciences in the university, and to tlie examinations 
 for higher school positions in these branches. 
 
 2. Possessors of this certificate are entitled to 
 examination for positions in shipbuilding and the 
 machinery departments of the royal navy. 
 
 3. To all other privileges mentioned in A and B, 
 except to study in the royal academy of music, and 
 for positions of teacher of music in high schools. 
 
 4. To a chance to take supplementary Latin in a 
 real-gymnasium, or Latin and Greek in a humanistic 
 gymnasium, and then to receive corresponding privi- 
 leges. 
 
 D. Higher Burgher Schools or Real-Schools (ho- 
 here Burgerscliuleii) {courses six or seven years). — 
 
 i. To all branches of the subaltern service, for 
 which a seven-years' course is demanded, also for 
 civil supcrnumerariat in the royal railway service, the 
 royal provincial and local district boards of manage- 
 ment, mining and metallurgical works (office work), 
 and in recording or registering offices. 
 
 2. To supernumerary positions in the internal 
 revenue offices. 
 
 3. To examination for position as surveyor. (In 
 this and (2) evidence of training in a technical 
 school must be given.) 
 
 4. To study in the royal agricultural high school. 
 
 5. To study in the Eoyal Academy of Art in Ber- 
 lin, and to examination for position of drawing 
 teacher in high schools. 
 
 6. To study in the Eoyal High School for Music 
 in Berlin. 
 
 7. To enter service in the national banks.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 35 
 
 8. To enter the second class in an industrial 
 school {GewerbescJmle). 
 
 9. To enter the Horticultural School in Potsdam 
 (provided evidence of Latin is given). 
 
 10. To take an apothecary's examination, if the 
 certificate is accompanied by evidence of Latin 
 equivalent to Upper Secunda * in a real-gymnasium. 
 
 II. STATE RECOGNITION FOR COMPLETION OF 
 PARTIAL COURSES. 
 
 (a) Civil Service. 
 
 The certificate of one year's attendance in Prima 
 in a gymnasium, real gymnasium, or higher real- 
 school entitles the holder to (1) positions in the in- 
 ternal revenue service ; (2) to higher positions in the 
 telegraph service. 
 
 The certificate of fitness to enter Prima in any of 
 the secondary schools entitles the holder to study as 
 a veterinary surgeon or as a dentist, to examination 
 for positions in the clerical departments of various 
 governmental bureaus connected with mining indus- 
 tries, surveying, etc. The certificate of fitness to 
 enter Lower Secunda gives the privilege to enter sev- 
 eral subordinate positions in the same lines of service 
 mentioned above, while a certificate for Tertia gives 
 privilege to enter still other subordinate positions. 
 
 *The grades or cLasses in the secondary schools are named 
 as follows : Sexta, Quinta, Quarta, Lower Tertia, Upper Tertia, 
 Lower Secunda, Upper Secunda, Lower Prima, Upper Prima. 
 Sexta is the lowest class and Upper Prima the highest. In the 
 tables they are designated as VI, V, IV, L. Ill, U. Ill, L. II, 
 U. II, L. I, U. I.
 
 3G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY., 
 
 (b) Military Service. 
 Tlie privilege to be obtained by a certain amount 
 of scholarship which will give immunity from a por- 
 tion of the three years' military service is among 
 the most enticing. To secure this immunity it is 
 necessary to possess (1) a full-course certificate from 
 a gymnasium, real-gymnasium, or a higher real- 
 school, or (2) a certificate of the successful comple- 
 tion of the work in Lower Secunda of any of the above 
 schools, or (3) a certificate indicating that the can- 
 didate has comisleted the course in a real-school, 
 higher burgher school, progymnasium, or a rcal-pro- 
 gymnasium. That is, those schools with six-year or 
 seven-year courses are recognised as equivalent to the 
 first six years of the courses in the corresponding 
 institution with a nine-years' course. If the school 
 has a seven-years' course its completion gives the 
 same commercial value as the completion of Upper 
 Secunda in the higher schools. A certificate of com- 
 pletion from one of these lower schools admits to 
 Upper Secunda in one of the corresponding higher 
 schools. To indicate what an exceedingly strong in- 
 centive this last factor appears to be I apjjend the fol- 
 lowing statistics from Prussia for the year 1889-90:* 
 
 Total number of pupils in secondary schools. . 135,337 
 Number that left school 20.038 
 
 (a) With the graduation certificate 4,105 
 
 (b) With certificate entitling to one year's 
 
 military service 8,051 
 
 (c) Without even reaching this point .... 7,883 
 
 * Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben fiir die hoheren Schulen, 
 Preussen.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 37 
 
 That is, from all the secondary schools only about 
 25 per cent, of those who left them had completed 
 the nine-year courses ; 40.3 per cent, left after secur- 
 ing the privilege of two years less military service ; 
 and only 39.3 per cent, abandoned study without se- 
 curing any definite privileges.* 
 
 8. Distribution of Pupils by Grades 
 AND Ages. 
 
 The two following tables indicate the distribution 
 of pupils in the various classes or grades. The first 
 gives the percentages in all the secondary schools 
 having nine-year courses ; the second gives the num- 
 bers in each of the classes in each form of school 
 separately. Ten of the principal states are given in 
 detail and the rest of Germany as a whole. The 
 principal points to be noted are the exceeding uni- 
 formity of attendance up to Lower Secunda and the 
 rapid decrease before entering the next higher class. 
 The tables are compiled from statistics furnished by 
 Eethwisch in Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen im 
 19. Jahrhundert. 
 
 * " Hierdurch ist dann jetzt das sogenannte ' Frei willigrecht ' 
 gewissermassen der Angelpunkt geworden, um den sieh der 
 ganze Aufbau des hoheren U^ntevriehtswesen in Preiissen gegen- 
 ■wartig dreht: ob zum Niitzen oder zum Schaden der wahren 
 Bildung, kann mir die Zukunft entscheiden .... Im mittel- 
 punkte des ganzen Frage steht die Berechtiguiig zum eiiijiihrig- 
 freiwilligen Hcerdienst. Sie hat cine kleine Geschiciite fur 
 sich" (Baumeister's Ilandhucli der Erziehinig, i, p. 6:J).
 
 38 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
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 40 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 9. Some General Features of the Inner 
 Organization of Secondary Schools. 
 
 (Each school ordiiiiirily lias from twenty to thirty 
 tractors, including the director. lie usually lives 
 in the building. In fact, nearly all elementary as 
 well as secondary schools provide the residence, or 
 WoJniu)/(/, of the director. He thus has continuous 
 oversight over the school, as he Avould have over his 
 own dwelling. The director is usually a man well 
 advanced m years. Tiie majority of his associates 
 are also men whose heads have been whitened by 
 the frosts of many winters. There is ordinarily 
 only a sprinkling of young men among the faculty. 
 These are frequently young men who have just suc- 
 ceeded in earning their doctor's degree from the 
 university. Promotions are slow and. changes very 
 infrequent, as I have elsewhere pointed out ; hence 
 the personnel of the faculty remains very constant 
 from year to year. The majority, perhaps, never 
 teach in more than one school during their lives ; 
 thus their particular school becomes thoroughly 
 known to them. Since boys not uncommonly at- 
 tend the same school continuously during the nine 
 years' course, the teachers and pupils are as well 
 known to each other as members of a family. When 
 the schools are large there are two divisions for 
 each grade. Forty is the maximum number allowed 
 in a room. The system followed may be termed 
 the class system in the lower grades and the de- 
 partment system in the higher grades. The rea- 
 sons are obvious. The large buildings are divided
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 41 
 
 into class rooms, where each class does all of its recita- 
 tion work, except such as requires special demon- 
 stration rooms. The studying, however, is all done 
 at home, if lessons are to be prepared. Much of 
 the ordinary preparation that we are accustomed to 
 assign in American schools is dispensed with, the 
 class work taking the place of it. The teacher plays 
 a much more important role than books. Ordinarily 
 instruction is imparted orally by the teacher. Les- 
 sons are not assigned from text-books so much as in 
 American schools, but pupils are held to recite upon 
 the work that has been explained by the teacher. 
 This oral instruction given by the teacher is the 
 main source of information. This results in pro- 
 ducing good listeners. By the time pupils reach 
 the university they have developed a good power of 
 attention in listening to lectures, i " But the advan- 
 tage is not wholly on the side of tile Germans. Our 
 boys have greater power in getting usable informa- 
 tion from books." * 
 
 The discipline in the schools is always excellent. 
 It is not entirely duo to the authority exerted over 
 the pupils while in the schoolroom. It is a national 
 characteristic for subordinates to implicitly obey 
 their superiors. Cases of severe punishment are not 
 numerous. Pupils obey as a matter of course. 
 Whenever the teacher or a visitor enters the room 
 the pupils all rise and stand respectfully until the 
 the incomer is seated, or until they are signalled to 
 be seated. 
 
 * E. J. Goodwin. Impressions of Prussian Schools. Edu- 
 cational Review, xii, 4G3.
 
 42 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Among the punishments spoken of in the legal 
 regulations are extra home work, deprivation of posts 
 of honour or of particular places in the class, public 
 or private rej)roval, arrest and imprisonment in the 
 " Karzer " or school prison,* withdrawal of stipends, 
 solitary recitations, and expulsion. Most of these 
 may be inflicted by the director, the severe ones only 
 by the faculty in council, and expulsion may follow 
 only after the verdict of the local school commis- 
 sion^ 
 
 ^^Notwithstanding the thorough scholastic train- 
 ing of the teachers, there appears to me to be some- 
 thing pedantic about the German schoolmaster. He 
 does not appear to have flexibility of method ; there 
 is too much according to one fixed rule. Through- 
 out there seems to be too little of what we Americans 
 are pleased to term "practical insight." The Ger- 
 mans think us too practical and not scientific. 
 
 The schoolrooms all have the high platforms for 
 the teacher. Upon this there is a standard type of 
 desk, behind which the teacher remains almost inva- 
 riably. He does not get down among his boys, 
 " touch elbows with them," and work with them. 
 He is literally and figuratively above them. In all 
 my visits I never but once heard a pupil ask a single 
 question. The questioning attitude we deem most 
 important, but in Germany pupils " speak Avhen 
 spoken to," and seldom otherwise. The discipline 
 is most perfect from a soldierly point of view. 
 Teachers seem to make little effort to maintain 
 
 * This is a common university punishment.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 43 
 
 discipline, though on occasion they are very severe, 
 and sarcasm and words of reproof are frequent. 
 From the German ideal of education, their system 
 must be admitted to be most perfect. 
 
 They have an aim in view, standing out clear and 
 distinct, and by faithfulness and unswerving perse- 
 verance they approach their ideals as perhaps no 
 other nation does. They certainly " correlate the 
 pupils with the time and place in which they live."^^^,,,^ 
 
 As a rule, the school buildings are dreary, mmC^ 
 tractive-looking structures. They present to the eye 
 a square, unpleasing appearance. While in the 
 United States the school buildings generally are the 
 most elaborate buildings in the towns and villages, 
 in Germany they bear no comparison with the court- 
 houses and other public edifices. Usually the brick- 
 work is entirely jDlastered over on the outside in the 
 prevailing style of the country, giving a most mo- 
 notonous appearance. Almost invariably they are 
 poorly lighted and poorly ventilated. It is a com- 
 mon remark among Americans that Germans have 
 no idea what good ventilation is. Too frequently 
 the windows are so covered with exhaled moisture 
 that one can scarcely see out of doors. Day after 
 day I have sat in the lecture room of one of the most 
 renowned German physiologists and watched the 
 windows gradually coat over, as the lecture pro- 
 gressed, with exhalations from the breath of the 
 auditors. At the close of the lecture the glass would 
 be only translucent, not transparent. And the pro- 
 fessor continued to theorize. 
 
 Defective eyesight is well known to be exceed-
 
 44 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 ingly prevalent among students in secondary schools 
 and universities.* This the Germans attribute in 
 part to the use of black slates and of German print. 
 There is much justice in the last assertion ; but it 
 is my firm belief that much more is due to the 
 effects of illy lighted rooms (schoolrooms and homes), 
 in which they are obliged to do all their studying. 
 Especially in Avinter, when a light is necessary until 
 nine in the morning and as early as half-past three 
 in the afternoon, the rooms are exceedingly dim.f 
 Very low intensities of light, less than from three 
 to ten candle power, are sources of even greater 
 fatigue than small type, and one hundred candle 
 power may be considered a very safe limit. Yet 
 the illumination in German schoolrooms has been 
 found frequently less than two candle power. J 
 
 Most of the school furniture is of the crudest sort. 
 " I am afraid that if American boys, who are used to 
 luxurious patent desks and seats, were asked to sit 
 for a term on a German school seat, they would make 
 strong objections. The seats are hand-made and 
 somewhat similar to those some of us used to sit 
 on in the country schools a quarter of a century ago. 
 However, in all my country-school experiences I 
 never sat on any so awkward-looking or uncomfort- 
 able. A straight, upright board, about eight inches 
 
 * See later on, Emperor William's speech at the " December 
 Conference." 
 
 f Cf. Dr. Klemm's article in Bureau of Education Reports, 
 1891-'93. 
 
 X Griffing and Franz. Conditions of Fatigue in .Reading. 
 Psychological Review, vol. iii, p. 530.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 45 
 
 wide, forms the back of the seat. The desks are, 
 however, made for two. (In Prussia they are com- 
 monly long affairs, accommodating (?) four or five. 
 When the middle boy leaves his seat the end boys 
 have to get up too.) The desks and seats are made 
 together, and heavy enough not to need fastening to 
 the floor. A piece of timber, from three to four 
 inches high, forms the base, and over this the pupils 
 must step every time they get in or out of the seats 
 or stand up to recite, for neither the desks nor seats 
 are hinged. Frequently the recitation benches are 
 backless. When we consider that recitations are 
 from forty-five to fifty-five minutes long, it seems 
 heroic treatment to subject small boys to, or even 
 larger ones." * 
 
 There appears to be a great lack of the modern 
 schoolroom appliances so common in America. I 
 have reference here to appliances which contribute 
 to comfort, and such as are mechanically easily ad- 
 justed, etc. Their maps, charts, models, " Anschau- 
 ungs " material, etc., are usually very good and often 
 excellent, but all lack that quality which we should 
 term "handiness." Maps are usually of excellent 
 print and of harmonious colours, but the arrange- 
 ments for handling are very primitive — no patent 
 rollers that will enable one to exhibit or remove a 
 map in a twinkling, but rather hung on a nail by a 
 string, or held in the hand. Of the variety of ap- 
 pliances and illustrative material used in construc- 
 
 * This paragraph first appeared in the Wisconsin Journal 
 of Education, June, 1897. See Schools in Germany.
 
 46 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 tion I shall speak later on in connection with a con- 
 sideration of each of the snhjects. 
 
 Blackboards of proper size are unknown. The 
 largest I saw were not more than four feet by eight 
 feet in size. They are all of the same style, being 
 suspended on a ponderous wooden frame, or else 
 placed on a sort of easel. The blackboard is not 
 used as a means of exhibiting pupils' work in recita- 
 tion. It is used solely by the instructor. Pictures 
 and statuary are not so abundant on the walls as one 
 would expect in a country where art has attained 
 sucWiigh rank. 
 
 ^^^f^chools are in session six days of the week and 
 'from forty to forty-two weeks of the year. Since each 
 pupil has from thirty to thirty-three hour lessons a 
 week, or from five to five and a half lessons a day, 
 the boy's time, when his home school work is reck- 
 oned in, may be said to be pretty fully occupied. 
 The sessions begin at seven o'clock in the morning 
 during the summer, and at eight o'clock in the win- 
 ter. Not long since the times were respectively six 
 o'clock and seven o'clock. American boys would 
 think this rather heroic treatment. yThe vacations are 
 as follows, varying only slightly i'n different states : 
 
 1. Easter, two weeks. (The school year begins 
 after the Easter vacation.) 
 
 2. Pfingsten ( Whitsuntide)^ from five days to one 
 week. 
 
 3. Summer, about four week's. Prussia, July 1st 
 to August 1st ; Saxony, begins third Saturday in 
 July ; Bavaria, eight weeks, July 14th to September 
 10th ; Baden, Bremen, Berlin, each five weeks.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 47 
 
 4. Michaelmas, about two weeks. 
 
 5. Christmas, usually two weeks. 
 
 It will be seen that the German children are in 
 school many more hours during a year than our own 
 pupils. The number of weeks in the school year is 
 greater than in most sections of the United States. 
 The question naturally arises : Can we, -wath advan- 
 tage, lengthen our school year and the number of 
 weekly hours in our own schools ? I think where 
 our high-school pupils have eighteen or twenty reci- 
 tations weekly, together with all the outside work 
 that necessarily accompanies proper preparation, 
 that they are suflBciently taxed. I would discourage 
 lengthened school years also. Here, as in other mat- 
 ters of school management (as I have indicated else- 
 where), local conditions must be taken into consider- 
 ation. For example, the Germans are favoured by 
 climatic conditions promotive of more regular study, 
 and longer school years. In most sections of the 
 United States, the climate is bracing and vigorous, 
 and conducive to vigorous action, mental and bodily, 
 but at the same time the processes of disintegration 
 and waste are much more rapid. If the German boys 
 accomplish more during their school life than our own 
 boys, we must place as one of the explanatory factors 
 the climatic conditions which allow their physiolog- 
 ical machinery to be driven harder. I am not sure 
 that American boys cannot accomplish as much in the 
 aggregate, but from their natures and the conditions 
 under which they live, they will work more actively 
 and vigorously for a time, and then they require a 
 period of rest. They do their work by spurts, as it
 
 48 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 were, the German boys by nnintermittent plodding. 
 In this connection the following quotation bears me 
 witness : " It may not be irrelevant to mention the 
 effect of our American climate upon the health of 
 our people. The more rapid and greater changes 
 of temperature experienced here than elsewhere, and 
 the dryness of the atmosphere, as compared with 
 that in other civilized countries, gives rise to more 
 exposure and more trying hygienic conditions. The 
 climatic effects of our country are at once noted by 
 foreigners in the stimulus and general exaltation of 
 feeling which are produced, but the vital force is 
 too rapidly exhausted, and one is left without reserve 
 powers of endurance." * 
 
 To indicate the equability of climatic conditions 
 I append a meteorological report for Leipsic during 
 the year 1896. For purposes of comparison a table 
 is also given showing meteorological summaries for 
 representative American cities. 
 
 .January 
 
 February . , 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September . 
 October . . . . 
 November . 
 December . , 
 
 Temperature, 
 
 — 1.50 Centigrade. 
 
 + 0.5° 
 
 + 3.3° 
 
 + 7.9° 
 
 + 13.2° 
 
 + 16. r° 
 
 + 17.9° 
 
 + 17.5° 
 
 + 13.9° 
 
 + 9.1° 
 
 + 3.7° 
 
 + 0.4° 
 
 Barometer. Precipitation. 
 
 7.51.8 mm. 
 
 751.6 
 
 750.7 
 
 750.4 
 
 750.9 
 
 751.6 
 
 751.8 
 
 751.8 
 
 7.52.2 
 
 751.4 
 
 7.50.8 
 
 7.52.2 
 
 32 mm. 
 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 The table below is not given in the same units 
 as that for Leipsic, but they may serve as well for 
 comparison of equability of climatic factors. 
 
 * Health Statistics of Women College Graduates, p. 8.
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 49 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 S 
 
 ■ipioi -^g 
 
 
 i5 
 
 ^INC*(N05-<l>-<t(Nff»r-l«l^ 
 
 •oSmjqo 
 
 1.12 
 3.48 
 1.26 
 2 79 
 4.16 
 2.82 
 3.61 
 3.52 
 6.70 
 1.36 
 2.16 
 0.16 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 •ilBaaiDaio 
 
 OCOOroi-OOOOCiOlOi 
 
 TT o <:; lo ■- 1- '* t- o 'T» C( o 
 
 ^ 
 s 
 
 r-i.-.CCO(N»<J-COinOiOTr-l 
 
 •BiqdiapBXiqj 
 
 fe&;:2fefeS;?gSSS 
 
 in 
 
 i-io-<}>>-icj^moojc*cj— ■ 
 
 •iasqiv 
 
 
 88 
 
 o-*Ti'Or^ejmijioo.-i«o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 PS 
 
 •sinoq -JS 
 
 
 
 
 •oSBOiqQ 
 
 CO in o ■* r- « lO ^ lO 00 oj t- 
 
 CO 
 
 •HBnnlonio 
 
 29.. 32 
 29.09 
 29.23 
 29,27 
 29.19 
 29.18 
 29.22 
 29.25 
 29.22 
 29.24 
 29.31 
 29.34 
 
 s 
 §■ 
 
 •KiqdiapBiiqj 
 
 i- o: 00 ITJ »» t- l>! CO ■* t o t~ 
 
 
 C5(N5<C0OJ<NOJS<IlOJCOCO 
 
 *.Cauq[v 
 
 nS5SS3gggggg§ 
 
 § 
 
 § 
 
 S?;S^?,?;g?§g§!SS 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 « 
 & 
 
 s 
 
 ■sinoT -js 
 
 OCOOCOOOO-5'CJCJIJQO 
 
 Ln 
 
 inioo-Pco-rooJOf^cDO 
 CO CO rf o I- t- i- 1- «5 lO -r Tt< 
 
 *oSB0!q3 
 
 O^Oi-^iCOC^iQOOO'^O 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 t» CO T-^ CO lo j^ oj »;} o C-. 00 oj 
 
 C^ITJCOlOtOCOt-i-aSTtCOCO 
 
 •i^^aajoni^ 
 
 i:oOQO:r>c?wc^^»r5-^o»-H 
 
 CO 
 
 IS 
 
 eoino«.-Hcooiniccocooc 
 
 CO CO CO CO t- I- t- £- O lO ■* CO 
 
 •BtqdpP'Uqj 
 
 T-;DQO?J(N-:)icO«5a)OTtii- 
 
 »n 
 
 i-H CO in ic (- o i- CO {- CO o -f 
 cococoinoi'i^t^coinioco 
 
 •XnBqiv 
 
 >:'HODrt5JCD{-«CO<7JtOeJ 
 
 QO 
 
 fa ?! -N 0.( io CO CO S i- CO T ■* 0< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 January 
 
 February . . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 Blay 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. 
 
 October 
 
 November. . 
 December . 
 
 ^ 
 1 
 >■ 

 
 50 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 The average temperature at Karlsruhe for Jan- 
 uary was 0.1° C. and in July 19.5° C. In Berlin it 
 was —0.8° C. and 18.8° C. during January and July 
 respectively. 
 
 • ' The legal school age is from six to fourteen, dur- 
 ing which period attendance is compulsory. The 
 compulsory laws are not dead letters either, as they 
 are in so many of our States. The school director 
 gives each year to the police in his district a list of 
 pupils of school age, and the police stand ready to 
 co-operate with the school authorities in enforcing 
 attendance. Children are on no account to be ex- 
 cused except in case of illness. When a child is 
 absent from school, it is the business of the class 
 teacher to ascertain the cause. Should the pupil be 
 needlessly absent, the case is reported to the director, 
 who sends the Pedell or janitor to bring the pupil to 
 school. If the servant fails to convince the pupil or 
 his parents, the police are notified, and it is needless 
 to say that matters are speedily adjusted. On re- 
 turning to the school after an absence each pupil 
 must bring a satisfactory excuse, or the parents must 
 pay the prescribed fine. 
 
 During the period of compulsory attendance 
 pupils may attend any school they or their parents 
 choose — public or private, elementary or secondary 
 — provided only that the school meets the govern- 
 ment requirements. 
 
 In addition to the eight years of compulsory at- 
 tendance each pupil must attend a Fortbildungs- 
 schule, or continuation school, two hours weekly 
 for two years. In this school instruction is provided
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 51 
 
 in studies of a practical nature, such as bookkeeping, 
 business arithmetic, penmanship, etc. The Fort- 
 bildungsschule course is not necessary if the boy 
 continues his higher studies^,^^ 
 
 Every city has a school physician who looks after 
 the health of the pupils and the sanitary conditions 
 of the buildings, grounds, etc. Particular care is 
 exercised to prevent the spread of contagious and 
 infectious diseases. Pupils must all have certificates 
 of successful vaccination on entering school, and of 
 revaccination after twelve years of age. Children 
 suffering from any contagious disease are excluded 
 from school, as are also children from the same fam- 
 ily if they are liable to spread the disease. 
 
 Although all buildings are constructed according 
 to governmental regulations, yet the seating, light- 
 ing, and heating are far from ideal. School play- 
 grounds are usually very inadequate. The small 
 space around the buildings is generally given up to 
 the cultivation of flowers or to plants for botanical 
 purposes. It is an excellent idea to have these 
 school gardens for teaching purposes, but it is a 
 mistake not to provide ample playground. Money 
 expended for school playgrounds is money well in- 
 vested. But in Germany, room for sports, games, 
 and free play is deemed unnecessary. German 
 boys are not encouraged to enter into sports like 
 baseball, football, tennis, etc. The stiff, conven- 
 tional, military " Turnen " is thought to be suf- 
 ficient. Some features of this sort of exercise are 
 excellent, but they in no way form a substitute for 
 free play and well-regulated games. The five or ten
 
 52 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 minute " pauses " between class exercises are passed 
 in slowly promenading around the school grounds, 
 and at the same time munching a piece of black 
 (rye) bread. Some teacher is always detailed to over- 
 see the play ( ? ) ground during these intermissions. 
 He, also, munches his Roggenbrod as he keeps his 
 watchful eye over his flock. (Even university stu- 
 dents may be seen munching their Roggenbrod as 
 they promenade the corridors between lectures.) 
 At the tap of a bell the sauntering flock form a line 
 in a column of twos and march into the schoolrooms. 
 Even their chance of getting some amusement from 
 looking into the streets is purposely hindered by the 
 way in which the yard fence is constructed. The 
 fences are usually of iron palings, but just at the 
 height at which the pupils could look out the fence 
 is made solid by a strip of sheet iron about two feet 
 wide. 
 
 About three hours a week are given to regular gym- 
 nastic exercises. This consists of ordinary indoor 
 gymnasium exercises, with occasionally some games. 
 These are all under the svipervision of a Turnlehrer, 
 or teacher of gymnastics. A considerable portion of 
 the physical exercises consists of regular military 
 " setting up " exercises. It always seemed to me 
 when watching the drills as though much better 
 results might be obtained by giving pupils a chance 
 for free exercises and games. The military drills 
 may be suited to training men as soldiers, but seem 
 scarcely suitable for small boys and girls. Our foot- 
 ball, baseball, tennis, field-day contests, etc., would, 
 I am confident, give more animation and vigour to
 
 ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT. 53 
 
 the German boys, overburdened as they are by long 
 hours of mental labour. 
 
 The number of hours of actual class-room work 
 exacted of gymnasial and other secondary-school in- 
 structors is so small that preparation for it ought to 
 be much better than usually is possible with high- 
 school teachers. I find from an examination of 
 many gymnasial programmes that the average num- 
 ber of hours of actual class-room work required of 
 each instructor is only from seventeen to eighteen 
 hours per Aveek. This is an average of about three 
 hours daily, including Saturday. The Prussian regu- 
 lations prescribe from twenty-two to twenty-four 
 hours weekly for professors and head teachers, while 
 teachers of technical subjects and elementary teach- 
 ers have from twenty-four to twenty-eight hours. In 
 Saxony the director of a gymnasium need not teach 
 more than four hours a week, while a real-school di- 
 rector need not teach more than sixteen hours. 
 Other teachers have from twenty-four to twenty- 
 eight hours. The maximum number for elemen- 
 tary teachers in Wiirtemljerg is thirty hours, while 
 the directors have from eight to ten. Seldom over- 
 crowded with class-room work, they have ample time 
 for thorough preparation. This is a feature worthy 
 of more consideration in America. The high-school 
 teachers who have from five to seven daily recitations 
 cannot be expected to do as good work as when a 
 smaller number of hours is required in the class 
 room. Little of the German teacher's time is need- 
 ed for discipline. All lessons are prepared by the 
 pupils at home or in class, and they assemble only
 
 54 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 for the class recitation. When a lesson is over, 
 the teacher is respectfully bowed out by the class 
 standing at attention. He goes immediately to the 
 large teachers' room, which is found in every secon- 
 dary school. There he may read current pedagog- 
 ical literature, of which an abundance is supplied, 
 consult the ample library, or prepare his next lesson. 
 This relieves him of much of the strain of " keep- 
 ing order." Then, too, the inherent and constantly 
 re-enforced idea of implicit, unquestioning obedi- 
 ence to authority is so strong in German boys that 
 the teacher needs to expend little energy in main- 
 taining discipline.* All these facts tend to lighten 
 the teacher's burden, and to leave him more energy 
 available for the preparation of lessons, for vigor- 
 ous instruction, and for general advancement. 
 
 * Some one has wittily said that in Europe '• children obey 
 their parents, the wife obeys her husband, the husband obeys 
 the king, the king obeys God."
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 teachers. 
 
 1. Examination akd Certification". 
 
 The teaching force employed in German schools 
 is always selected with great care. Xone but those 
 thoroughly qualified by scholarship and demon- 
 strated teaching cajDabilities are ever employed as 
 regular teachers. The high standard of qualifi- 
 cations of teachers is a Just source of pride to Ger- 
 many. The difficulty with which positions are se- 
 cured insures a thoroughly trained body of teachers. 
 Many of the instructors are men who have secured 
 their doctorate from the university. Without ex- 
 ception the secondary school teachers are men, and 
 one may see among their numbers many who have 
 grown hoary-headed in the service. When visiting 
 schools, it was with some degree of diffidence that 
 I explained to the teachers that I, a young man, had 
 been a school director (principal) in America. In 
 Germany, young men would not be intrusted with 
 so important a position ; they must all serve a long 
 term of years in the lower ranks before aspiring to 
 become directors of others. Only the few ever at- 
 tain this coveted position. 
 
 In university cities it is not infrequent to find 
 the director enrolled as professor in the university 
 
 Co
 
 56 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 faculty as lecturer on pedagogics. Some of his best 
 assistants may also be private docents in the univer- 
 sity. This is especially true where a pedagogical 
 seminary is maintained in connection with the uni- 
 versity. Teachers of religion are frequently min- 
 isters or candidates for the ministry. 
 
 University diplomas are not accepted as creden- 
 tials for teaching, as normal school and university 
 diplomas so commonly are in America. All must 
 take the state examination, regardless of their previ- 
 ous preparation. Sometimes the doctorate disserta- 
 tion is taken as a part of the written work. To give 
 a more definite idea of the preparation required of 
 candidates, a few notes are given from the numerous 
 regulations (thirty pages) governing the certification 
 of teachers in Saxony.* There are only slight varia- 
 tions in the other states of the empire, and hence the 
 following regulations are typical of the whole of Ger- 
 many. The general regulations apply to candidates 
 for positions in any of the public secondary schools, 
 and also to those private institutions which aim to 
 cover the same ground as the public schools. All 
 candidates must be residents of Saxony. In addition 
 to holding a full course certificate from one of the 
 secondary schools, they must have done three years' 
 work in German universities, one semester of which 
 must have been in Leipsic, unless the candidate has 
 been engaged in some public service in Saxony, f 
 Special deviations from this may be granted only by 
 
 * Ordnung der Priifung f iir das hohere Schulamt. 
 f Similarly, in other states resident study in one of their own 
 universities is required.
 
 TEACHERS. 57 
 
 the Minister of Education. He is empowered to grant 
 special concessions only in case the candidate has 
 spent three or more years in some German univer- 
 sity. The leaving certificate (Eeife Zeugniss) from 
 a gymnasium is required of all candidates, except 
 those who wish to teach mathematics, modern lan- 
 guages, or natural science. For teachers of these 
 subjects the certificate from a real-gymnasium or 
 a higher real-scliool serves the same purpose. Study 
 of modern languages abroad may be accredited for 
 a part of the required university residence. In the 
 United States, candidates for teaching are seldom 
 asked many questions, except those of a scholastic 
 nature. But in Germany one's entire genealogy 
 must be rehearsed in great detail, and conclusive evi- 
 dence of irreproachable conduct and morality must 
 be given. Candidates who wish permission to talce 
 the examinations must announce themselves some 
 time in advance. This request must be accompanied 
 by the diploma from the secondary school, the Ab- 
 gangszeugiiiss (or leaving permit from the univer- 
 sity) and the Lebenslauf (course of life), including 
 testimonials from the mayor of their town or their 
 pastor. They must state their complete names, date 
 and place of birth, religion, occupation of father, give 
 an outline of their school training, their courses of 
 university training, state their preparation for teach- 
 ing languages, and the course of reading already pur- 
 sued. If the candidate has been an assistant in a uni- 
 versity, or a member of a seminary, or has attended 
 different universities, all these facts should be stated. 
 The biography is to be written in Latin by candidates
 
 58 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 for teaching ancient languages, and by candidates 
 for teaching modern languages in one of those lan- 
 guages. In other courses it is accepted in German. 
 
 The aim of the examination itself is (1) to deter- 
 mine the candidate's general professional fitness, and 
 (2) to determine his fitness for teaching special 
 branches. The first qualifications are determined 
 by examinations in philosophy and pedagogy, Ger- 
 man language and literature, and religion. The 
 second qualifications are tested by an examination 
 in the branches selected by the candidate for his 
 chosen line of work. Three grades of position are 
 recognised in the secondary schools, and each grade 
 has its corresponding special examinations. The 
 lowest grade of work includes Sexta, Quinta, and 
 Quarta ; the middle grade includes the next three 
 classes ; and the highest includes the last three 
 years of the nine-year courses. For positions in 
 Greek, Latin, physics, chemistry, and mineralogy 
 only two grades are given, inasmuch as all these 
 branches, except Greek and Latin, are taught only in 
 the middle and higher classes. Latin is begun in 
 Sexta and Greek in Quarta, but for these basal 
 studies only teachers having very extended special 
 training in them are employed. All teachers are re- 
 quired to take the examination in philosophical pro- 
 paedeutics. Thus only those with professional in- 
 sight, as well as specialized knowledge, may give 
 instruction in the secondary schools. 
 
 Two classes or grades of certificate are issued — 
 those for the grade of ordinary teacher {Lehre?') and 
 those for the grade of head teacher ( Oberlehrer). To
 
 TEACHEES. 59 
 
 obtain a teacher's certificate, in addition to the gen- 
 eral requirements, the examination must demonstrate 
 capability of instructing the middle classes (L. Ill, 
 U. Ill, L. II) * in two selected major subjects, and 
 in the lower classes (VI, V, IV) in two correlated 
 minors selected from the same group as the major. 
 
 The head teacher's ( Oberlchrer) certificate is the 
 highest, and in order to obtain it the candidate must 
 show that he is able to instruct the three upper 
 classes (U. II, L. I, and U. I) in two selected majors 
 and the three middle classes in two closely related 
 minors. In place of the two minors a third major 
 for the upper class instruction may be selected. 
 
 Two groups of subjects are recognised from 
 which the selections are to be made : {a) the lan- 
 guage historical group, and {li) the mathematical 
 scientific group. The subjects coming under the 
 groups are as follows : 
 
 Group "A." 
 
 Group 
 
 "B." 
 
 German, French, 
 
 Mathematics, 
 
 Mineralogy, 
 
 Latin, English, 
 
 Physics, 
 
 Botany, 
 
 Greek, History, 
 
 Chemistry, 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 
 
 Philosophical propaedeutics is a required subject 
 for all candidates. Should Latin be chosen as one 
 of the major subjects, geography must be taken as a 
 minor. If French or English is taken as major, 
 Latin must be a minor. Hebrew may be taken as a 
 major only by candidates for an instructorship in 
 religion. 
 
 * See explanation of these classifications on i^age 35. 
 G
 
 CO SECONDAllY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Tlie examinations are conducted by two methods 
 — oral and written. Tlie written examination pre- 
 cedes the oral, and its successful completion is a pre- 
 requisite for admission to the oral. The written ex- 
 amination diii'ers markedly from those in vogue in 
 the United States. Instead of answering a fixed set 
 of ten or more questions, an " Aufgabe," or form of 
 thesis, is prescribed for each of the subjects or for a 
 combination of allied subjects. Such branches as 
 history and geography, mathematics and physics, or 
 language and history may be combined. No one is 
 to be given more than three written dissertations to 
 prepare. One of these must be on the philosophical 
 pedagogical topic. For the preparation of each 
 paper a period of six weeks is given. By special per- 
 mission more time may be given. (I understand 
 that a second six weeks is usually required. Hence, 
 to prepare three dissertations, about a year may be 
 necessary.) The candidate is required by " Hand- 
 schlagen " (handshaking ; equivalent to taking oath) 
 to satisfy the committee that the work has been done 
 independently. All aids in the way of books and 
 periodicals must be stated in thg thesis. In classical 
 philology the thesis must be written in Latin ; in 
 modern foreign languages it must be written in the 
 language which the examination represents (French 
 or English). Theses in other subjects are written 
 in German. 
 
 Following the acceptance of the written work, 
 and preceding the oral examination, a trial lesson in 
 the major subject must be planned and presented to a 
 class in presence of the examining committee. This
 
 TEACHERS. 61 
 
 trial over satisfactorily, the candidate is admitted to 
 the final ordeal. The length of the test varies with 
 the position sought. It occupies an hour in each of 
 the branches if for a position in the upper classes, 
 three quarters of an hour for the middle classes, and 
 half an hour for the lower classes. 
 
 Something of the scope and thoroughness of the 
 examinations may be judged from the outline of the 
 requirements in the following branches, which we 
 will pass in review : 
 
 In philosophy and pedagogy all are to show a 
 knowledge of the elements of logic and empirical 
 psychology. They must understand the most im- 
 portant cosmological views, the general trend of the 
 history of philosophy, and must have read at least 
 one philosophical treatise. The princiiales of peda- 
 gogy and didactics must be familiar, and also the 
 most important facts concerning pedagogical develop- 
 ment since the sixteenth century. If the candidate 
 is to instruct in philosophical propedeutics, he must 
 show a clear insight into the most important philo- 
 sophical systems and be able to give a clear, con- 
 nected discussion of philosophical questions. 
 
 The examination in mathematics includes (1) for 
 the lowest class certificate a knowledge of plane and 
 solid geometry, trigonometry, universal arithmetic 
 including logarithms, algebra including linear, quad- 
 ratic and diophantic equations, as well as the neces- 
 sary acquaintance with the properties of numbers 
 sufficient for ordinary arithmetical calculations (2) 
 For the middle class there is required a knowledge 
 of the elements of analytic and projective geometry,
 
 G2 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 theory of algebraic equations, liigher analysis, and 
 fundamentals of differential and integral calculus. 
 (3) For the highest class the candidate must under- 
 stand so thoroughly the important parts of higher 
 geometry, higher analysis, and univi-rsal arithmetic 
 that he can work out independently a moderately dif- 
 ficult theme in any of these lines. 
 
 The English examination includes (1) for the 
 middle class (it not being taught in lower classes) an 
 essentially correct translation of some selection of 
 moderately difficult German into English, as the 
 written part of the examination. The oral examina- 
 tion must demonstrate a reasonably sure knowledge 
 of grammatical rules and of word values sufficient 
 for class instruction. Synonyms must be fairly well 
 distinguished. A knowledge of the development of 
 English literature must be shown, and some standard 
 works of English authors must have been read with 
 understanding. Essential rules of versification must 
 be known, and some fluency in the use of the language 
 must be possessed. (2) To obtain a certificate for 
 upper class work, both oral and written work must 
 exhibit not only grammatical correctness but easy 
 control of expression. Knowledge of grammar, ety- 
 mology, and syntax must be scientifically understood. 
 The chief facts of scientific grammar must be so well 
 mastered that grammatical forms, sounds, and etymo- 
 logical development of modern English can be scien- 
 tifically explained. A moderately difficult selection 
 from Anglo-Saxon or Old English must be translated 
 and explained. Laws of versification of Old English 
 and Modern English must be understood. Finally, a
 
 TEACHERS. 63 
 
 correct knowledge of the development of all English 
 literature must be demonstrated, as well as proof of 
 having read with critical understanding some works 
 of the prominent authors since the sixteenth century. 
 
 The requirements in French are so similar to 
 those in English that they may be omitted from this 
 discussion. 
 
 To give instruction in Latin (1) in the lower 
 classes there is demanded exact knowledge of elemen- 
 tary grammar and ability in its application. The 
 easier prose and poetical works, as Cesar's Commen- 
 taries, some of Cicero's Orations, and Ovid's Meta- 
 morphoses, must have been read in the original. 
 Selections from these works are to be read and trans- 
 lated in the examination. This part of the work 
 must show readiness and exactness in translation, 
 understanding of versification, syntactical and sen- 
 tential structure, and correct word valuation. (2) In 
 addition to this there must be for the middle classes 
 an appreciation of the difference between German 
 and Latin modes of expression and the capability of 
 handling independently certain themes relating to 
 classical antiquity. The reading includes selections 
 from Ceesar, Sallust, difficult portions of Livy, Cicero, 
 Vergil (at least the ^Eneid), the most significant 
 odes and satires of Horace, and the elegies of Tibul- 
 lus and Ovid. 
 
 It will be remembered that Greek instruction be- 
 gins in Quarta, and hence there is no " lower class " 
 instruction recognised. For the middle grade the 
 examination includes general grammar, knowledge of 
 Homeric etymology, and also the difference between
 
 64 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Ionic and Attic dialects. The written translation of 
 moderately easy Latin or German into Greek should 
 be done with facility. The reading includes Homer, 
 Herodotus, Xenophon's Anabasis, Memorabilia, and 
 Hellenica, Orations of Lysias, the shorter political 
 speeches of Demosthenes, Plato's Apology, and the 
 Crito. 
 
 In both Latin and Greek the candidate must be 
 so familiar with the authors that he can make satis- 
 factory critiques of the contents and character of 
 what he reads. Selected passages of moderate diffi- 
 culty must be readily and exactly translated, the 
 style criticised, synonyms differentiated, and the en- 
 tire passages clearly explained. The laws of dactylic 
 hexameter and pentameter must be well understood ; 
 the lives and works of the given authors must have 
 been carefully studied ; an acquaintance with my- 
 thology is demanded ; and an acquaintance with aids 
 and means of studying classical literature, history, 
 and mythology, sufficient for independent investiga- 
 tion, must be demonstrated. 
 
 To instruct in the higher classes a thorough knowl- 
 edge of philologic criticism is required. In this they 
 are expected to be as proficient as instructors in our 
 colleges. Xot only must they be able to read and 
 translate, but they must be acquainted with the 
 sources from which the school texts are compiled, and 
 be able to give critical judgment upon the texts. 
 The candidates must be able to speak and write Latin 
 easily and correctly, and at least to write Greek cor- 
 rectly. A completely correlated knowledge of the 
 language, literature, history, art, mythology, etc., of
 
 TEACHERS. 65 
 
 the Greeks and Eomans is demanded. Besides this, 
 in the philosophical examination the acquaintance 
 with Greek and Roman philosophy must be shown to 
 be sufficient to explain fully the authors read in the 
 gymnasium. 
 
 AVithout going into details concerning the quali- 
 fications required for teachers of the mother tongue 
 it will suffice to say that no mere ability to recite 
 grammatical or rhetorical rules, nor a simple smatter- 
 ing of literature, is deemed sufficient. Xo dilettan- 
 teism is allowed. Nothing short of a thoroughly 
 critical knowledge of the linguistic science of the 
 language and the ability to make scholarly literary 
 criticism will be accepted. The historical develop- 
 ment of the language must have been studied, and 
 also that of the languages from which it has been 
 derived. Gothic, Old High German, and Middle 
 High German must be easily read and understood, 
 and some acquaintance with their literature must 
 have been acquired. 
 
 Ko one is permitted to give instruction in the 
 upper classes if the work in German and the oral 
 examination in philosophy indicate that general sci- 
 entific questions cannot be discussed with philosoph- 
 ical insight and in a lucid manner. 
 
 All teachers of religion must show thorough ac- 
 quaintance with the Scriptures and the creeds which 
 they represent, biblical history, and the history of 
 the Church. For the upper classes, the ability to 
 read the Scriptures in the original is required, as well 
 as ability to handle all questions in a thoroughly 
 philosophical manner.
 
 G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 To teach physics tliero is demanded (1) in the 
 middle classes a general knowledge of the most im- 
 portant phenomena and their laws, and also the ability 
 to demonstrate the laws mathematically, in so far as it 
 is possible without a knowledge of higher mathemat- 
 ics (i. e., not beyond trigonometry and elementary 
 analytic geometry). (2) For the upper classes, there is 
 required, additional to the above, mathematical phys- 
 ics and a more exact knowledge of the fundamental 
 mathematical and physical investigations in the more 
 important portions of theoretical physics. For either 
 class of certificate a facility in experimentation and 
 manipulation of apparatus is required. 
 
 The examination in chemistry must exhibit (1), 
 if for the middle class certificate, a knowledge of the 
 general laws of chemical action ; an acquaintance 
 with the most frequently recurring elements, their 
 properties, and their compounds ; a knowledge of 
 chemical technology and sufficient practice in con- 
 ducting ordinary school experiments. (2) For the 
 upper classes considerably wider knowledge is re- 
 quired. It includes, besides a more thorough knowl- 
 edge of inorganic chemistry, the general theory of the 
 constitution of organic compounds, familiarity with 
 the most important groups of organic compounds 
 and the single compounds, necessary to an under- 
 standing of physiological phenomena and chemical 
 technique. The candidate must also show that he 
 is able to arrange instructional experiments easily, 
 and must exhibit complete certainty in qualitative 
 analysis and some familiarity with quantitative work. 
 
 In botany, the examination for (1) the lower classes
 
 TEACHERS. 67 
 
 covers a knowledge of the most important native 
 and foreign plants, as well as their individual organs, 
 and the ability to classify according to the Linn^eau 
 system. (2) For the middle classes there is required 
 in addition the natural system, an acquaintance with 
 structure and life phenomena. To instruct in any 
 class, the examination must reveal close acquaintance 
 with anatomical-j^hysical relations, the theory of evo- 
 lution, principles of systematic botany, and the laws 
 of plant distribution. Xo " higher class " certificate 
 is issued, since botany is completed in the middle 
 grades. 
 
 The demands in zoology are quite parallel to 
 those in botany, and hence a detailed account will be 
 unnecessary. For all grades of instruction in either 
 botany or zoology, the ability to draw plant and 
 animal forms and tissues is required. 
 
 In history the examination covers (1) for the low- 
 est classes geographical and chronological knowd- 
 edge of the events of universal history, and especial- 
 ly '•^ vaterlandiachen Gescliichte'''' (German history). 
 A fair acquaintance with the literature of the sub- 
 ject is also demanded. (2) The examination for mid- 
 dle-class instruction covers, in addition, a thorough 
 knowledge of Greek and Eoman history, the funda- 
 mental principles of the government of Eome and 
 the most important Grecian states, and also a more 
 comprehensive knowledge of the developement of 
 systems of government. Medicfival and modern Ger- 
 man history, and especially Saxon and Prussian his- 
 tory, must be thoroughly understood. Besides more 
 scientific and penetrating knowledge of the above
 
 68 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 fields, there is demanded (3) for the upper classes 
 the understanding of ways and means of investi- 
 gating historical material from the original sources. 
 The candidate must have worked out some phase of 
 history from the original sources. An acquaintance 
 with the most important sources and with the mas- 
 terpieces of historical literature must he shown. 
 Especial weight is placed upon the development of 
 institutions, the main trend of the history of civili- 
 zation, and above all upon a comprehensive idea of 
 Greek and Eoman antiquity and the medieeval and 
 modern history of Germany. 
 
 2. Observations upon the Qualifications for 
 Certification. 
 From the foregoing it must be admitted that 
 the regulations and requirements in the examination 
 of German school teachers are certainly very rigid. 
 The examinations call for thorough and extended 
 knowledge in all the branches that the candidate 
 expects to teach. To instruct in the higher classes, 
 an especially exhaustive knowledge of subjects is 
 required. The teacher is not only expected to be mas- 
 ter of the subject but also an authority on it. When 
 compared with the qualifications exacted of average 
 high-school teachers in America, they are found to 
 be much higher in the upper classes and in some 
 respects higher in the middle classes. But, as pre- 
 viously shown, it is not fair to compare the average 
 high school with the best secondary schools in Ger- 
 many. Only those with the full four-year courses 
 should be included, and of these the senior classes
 
 TEACHERS. 69 
 
 must be placed parallel with Upper Secunda. This 
 leaves the last two classes of the gymnasia and other 
 schools with nine-year courses to be compared with 
 the freshman and sophomore classes in American 
 colleges. When looked at in this light the differ- 
 ence is not so great as many have been led to sup- 
 pose from a cursory examination of the systems. 
 
 The head teacher's certificate entitles the holder 
 to teach in XJ. I, L. I, and U. II ; that is, in classes 
 which correspond to the senior year in the high 
 school and the first two years in college. Should wo 
 compare the qualifications for the position of head 
 teacher with those of high-school teachers, we should 
 be forced to admit that the difference indicated in 
 the requirements is very much in favour of the Ger- 
 man teacher. The number of totally diverse sub- 
 jects covered by the head teacher are not nearly so 
 numerous as is usually required of the high-school 
 teacher, but each department is much more exhaust- 
 ively treated. In mathematics, for instance, trigo- 
 nometry is required in only a few high schools, in 
 fewer is analytical geometry required, and the calcu- 
 lus in almost none. Throughout the whole range of 
 requirements in Germany, the rule is thorough in- 
 vestigation and mastery; while of our high-school 
 teachers, it is extensive rather than intensive prep- 
 aration that is expected. 
 
 Thus it appears that the pupils in Upper Secunda 
 have much more thoroughly qualified teachers than 
 the senior classes in most American high schools. 
 Usually we make no distinction in qualifications re- 
 quired of teachers of the different grades in the high
 
 70 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 scliool. The same teacher may teach either first- 
 year or fourth-year classes. But, 'since L. I and U. I 
 really correspond to college grades in America, we 
 must discuss qualifications of teachers from that 
 standpoint. Considered in this way, we shall find 
 that the differences between the teachers of a given 
 class of pupils in the tAVo countries are not so great 
 as many suppose. 
 
 In Germany, for the position of head teacher the 
 doctor's degree is not required. In American col- 
 leges, also, it is not. A doctor's degree is important 
 in the head teacher's position ; in American colleges 
 it is also very useful. In Germany the chief require- 
 ment is exhaustive knowledge of the subjects which 
 the candidate expects to teach ; in American colleges 
 this holds true. In Germany this knowledge is tested 
 by an examination ; in American colleges previous 
 acquirements are investigated. In Germany the doc- 
 torate is not accepted as a sufficient guarantee of 
 ability to teach ; in American colleges it usually is, 
 without regard to professional training, other quali- 
 fications being satisfactory. In Germany only those 
 who have a thorough knowledge of philosophy and 
 pedagogy may occupy these positions ; in America, 
 unfortunately, training in these important directions 
 is seldom a requisite for similar positions. 
 
 To make only a few special comparisons, we might 
 talfe instructors of German in freshman and sopho- 
 more classes in American colleges and compare them 
 with teachers of English and French in the upper 
 classes of German secondary schools. Instructors of 
 German are usually fully as competent as teachers
 
 TEACHERS. 71 
 
 of English or French in the corresponding classes. 
 Our mathematical instructors in the lower college 
 classes are doubtless fully as well qualified as teach- 
 ers in the upper gymnasial classes. The same would 
 hold true in the sciences and history, and in a large 
 measure in the classic languages. On the whole, 
 there is a close correspondence between the scholar- 
 ship demanded of a head teacher in Germany's sec- 
 ondary schools and that of a college instructor in 
 America. Both are expected to be specialists in par- 
 ticular lines. The main diiferences lie in the method 
 of examination and in the propedeutic knowledge 
 required of the head teacher and the frequent lack 
 of it on the part of the college instructor. /But when 
 we examine the qualifications of the instructors in 
 our average high schools for the purpose of compari- 
 son with those of German gymnasial teachers, we 
 find a very much greater difference. Whether we 
 take scholastic preparation or professional training 
 into account, we shall find the scales turning decid- 
 edly in favour of the German teachers. 
 
 The qualifications exacted of an ordinary teacher 
 in the middle classes, or the three years correspond- 
 ing to the first three years of our high schools, are 
 much higher than are usually required of high-school 
 teachers. The teacher is expected to go much more 
 deeply into the subjects he teaches than the high- 
 school teacher?\ For example, in mathematics the 
 gymnasial instriictor must possess a thorough knowl- 
 edge of trigonometry, analytic and projective geom- 
 etry, and differential and integral calculus, none of 
 which are usually required of our high-school teachers.
 
 72 SFX'ONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 In the best American high scliools many instructors, 
 perliaps most of them, do understand these branches, 
 but a hick of them is not a legal disqualification. 
 Thus in mathematics considerable superiority is re- 
 quired of the gymnasial teacher over the high-school 
 teacher. In history, geography, and natural science, 
 a formal statement of the requirements does not show 
 an essential difference from those usual in America, 
 the most noticeable variation being in the amount 
 of local geography and history and the closer ac- 
 quaintance with peoples of antiquity which are re- 
 quired in the German examinations. But when we 
 remember that the German teacher necessarily has 
 had training covering three years' university work, in 
 addition to his gymnasial course (together an equiv- 
 alent of five years' American college and university 
 work), we can easily see that the actual attainments 
 of the German teacher in these subjects are much 
 higher than those usually secured in America. In 
 the fields of modern history and geography we un- 
 doubtedly cover more than they. 
 
 The American high-school teacher is usually re- 
 quired to possess knowledge of a more diversified 
 character than the gymnasial teacher. In Germany 
 never more than four subjects are required, while in 
 America often no less than a dozen are required in 
 the examination, if not in the teaching work. This 
 makes a vast amount of difference in favour of the 
 gymnasial teacher, since he may begin his specialized 
 work immediately after finishing the secondary school 
 course. In the universities he is not limited in his 
 selection of subjects and is required to get up only
 
 TEACHERS. 73 
 
 three subjects for the doctorate. (These may be 
 entirely unrelated subjects.) American high-school 
 teachers usually have little time to specialize, because 
 so many subjects must be prepared for examination. 
 I refer here mainly to state-board examinations. In 
 the larger city high schools we find, not infrequently, 
 specialists who have devoted themselves to their cho- 
 sen subjects both during their college course and sub- 
 sequent to it. This is more the rule in the Eastern 
 than in the Central and Western States. In certain 
 cities the examinations are of a specialized character, 
 or there are no examinations at all. Only those who 
 are known to be specialists, either from their college 
 credentials or from some special work accomplished, 
 can secure positions. The days of the general " all- 
 round " man, with no real mastery of anything, are 
 becoming numbered. Even where the States grant 
 licenses to teach in special departments, as German, 
 Latin, music, or drawing, the examination is usually 
 confined to those branches. 
 
 It is safe to say that the teachers of English in 
 the German secondary schools are not, as a rule, so 
 well prepared for that special branch as the teachers 
 of German in our best high schools are for their 
 specialty. The gymnasium teacher has usually de- 
 voted more attention to grammar, the scientific laws 
 of the development of language, and to the laws of 
 versification than the high-school teacher. The 
 German instructor understands English well from 
 the mechanical side — that is, as an acquired product 
 — but it is always an artificial product. There is a 
 lack of expression, a wretched pronunciation, and a
 
 74 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 strained, awkward application of words and phrases 
 which are inevitable witlioiit a living connection with 
 the language. Most of them have never heard Eng- 
 lish spoken by an Englishman ; they have learned 
 their pronunciation from the dictionary or from a 
 teacher who learned his pronunciation in that way. 
 
 From the very nature of things the advantages 
 are witli us. A large majority of teachers of Ger- 
 man in our high schools and colleges (and lower 
 schools where it is taught) are either of German 
 birth or of German parentage, and have kno\^Ti the 
 language from childhood. In many cases it is their 
 first-learned language, and hence they are fully as 
 conversant with it as with English. That German 
 is not always well taught in American high schools 
 is too true, but the defect is in the methods which 
 teachers are so often obliged to pursue, and not in 
 the capabilities of tlie teachers. A language must 
 be taught as an instrument of thought and expres- 
 sion if best results are to be obtained. Mastery can 
 not be gained by studying grammatical rules. (See 
 discussion later under Modern Languages.) 
 
 That the gymnasial instructors are better pre- 
 pared in the classics than high-school teachers is 
 very evident. However, there a teacher of the 
 classics is not expected to be prepared to teach every 
 " ology " known to modern science. It could be 
 easily shown that in the first two years of college we 
 have as well prepared teachers of the classics as are 
 to be found in the upper classes of the gymnasia. 
 
 One direction in Avhich the Germans make heavy 
 demands for all grades of secondary instruction is
 
 TEACHERS. Y5 
 
 that of philosophical pedagogy. As was seen from 
 the outline of requirements, none are exempt from 
 possessing thorough insight into the principles of 
 empirical psychology, pedagogics, and the general 
 trend of philosophical thought. This insures a class 
 of teachers who can study educational problems 
 philosophically, and who can apply the principles of 
 psychology to all instruction. In the United States 
 a few may be prepared in them, but the gen- 
 eral rule is that high-school teachers, and even 
 those who instruct freshmen and sophomores in 
 college, are sadly deficient in these essentials. The 
 requirement of philosophical-pedagogical grounding 
 for the profession of teaching is highly essential, 
 and the example that Germany sets us should be 
 heeded. Other elements of preparation of teachers 
 will be pointed out in the section on Training of 
 Teachers. 
 
 r^^'^n the whole, it seems apparent that the prepa- 
 'ration of teachers in the secondary schools and the 
 requirements exacted of them are very much higher 
 than for teaching in our high schools. Although we 
 have many teachers in our high schools who are splen- 
 didly equipped for their work, yet, as a body, our 
 teachers are on a considerably lower level, if we may 
 judge from required preparation. It is especially 
 true that beginners in our schools start out with 
 preparation much inferior to that demanded of 
 teachers in German secondary schools. Many of our 
 teachers acquire by experience and subsequent study 
 high positions in the ranks of teachers ; but the 
 qualifications demanded for entrance upon the work 
 7
 
 76 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 are so low that it is not surprising tliat the average 
 attainments are not hi":her. 
 
 3. Training of Teachers. 
 
 (A) Introductory. 
 
 V That something besides a knowledge of facts and 
 acquaintance with subjects is necessary to the art of 
 teaching is well recognised in Germany and is con- 
 stantly gaining more emphasis. Xot even the scholar 
 with his doctor's diploma, who is recognised as hav- 
 ing gained the power of independent research, is 
 allowed to go into the schools to attempt untried 
 methods of training youthful minds. He may have 
 become ever so skilful in his special department of 
 investigation, but this is not accepted as a training 
 which insures universal perfection in all arts. Xei- 
 ther do they accept without qualification the old 
 adage that " teachers are born, not made " ; all, how- 
 ever well adapted they may think themselves to be, 
 must partake of those special forms of instruction 
 and training that are deemed of special value in 
 preparing to teach and train the young. As a first 
 requi site in attempting to train human beings to a 
 comp lete and symmetrical deveTopment there ought 
 to "bell kno\^TMgeoT"th^lrumaTr-bBing, and especially 
 of tlia t sul3 t!e__ someTTi mg we caTTminSr Besides a 
 knowledge of mental pFenomeha and the laws of 
 mental growth and develoi^ment, the emotions, and 
 the will, which by many psychologists are placed 
 above the intellect in importance, must be under- 
 stood. Beinirs are not alone to be filled with knowl-
 
 TEACHERS. 77 
 
 edge, but their moral natures are to be studied, cared 
 for, and developed into impulses and desires that 
 shall guide the physical and intellectual natures to 
 higher and nobler actions. In order to arrive at sound 
 pedagogical conclusions it is not safe to depend alto- 
 gether upon the momentary decisions regarding im- 
 portant questions relating to mental and moral life ; 
 hence a study of psychology, ethics, and school man- 
 agement, guided and supported by historical expe- 
 riences, is fundamental in the teacher's equipmentj 
 Upon these assumptions the Germans base their re- 
 quirements for entering this highest of callings. The 
 examination, Avhich is the first test to which candi- 
 dates are subjected, is to determine whether a suf- 
 ficient knowledge of the chosen subjects and their 
 relations to the whole of knowledge has been mas- 
 tered, and also to determine whether the strictly 
 professional subjects have been learned thoroughly 
 enough to give a broad scientific view of man and 
 the laws of his development. Thus, although the 
 subjects which the candidate expects to teach may 
 be of his own choosing, the strictly professional sub- 
 jects of psychology, pedagogy, and philosophy are 
 obligatory upon all alike. A philosophical world- 
 view is necessary to soundness of judgment and bal- 
 ance of mind. This is to be gained from a study 
 of systems of philosophy and pedagogy (which, in a 
 strict sense, are a history of the development of 
 thought), both current systems and those that have 
 influenced the course of history. 
 
 But the examination is only the first step. Al- 
 though a candidate passes this creditably, or even
 
 78 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 with highest lionours, he is not iillowcd in most 
 parts of Germany to enter upon tlie duties of teach- 
 ing in a permanent position v.ithout first taking a 
 course of training which shall, on the one hand, add 
 to^his theoretical insight, and, on tlie other hand, 
 a^ord him practice under guidance, by means of 
 which he may exhibit his power of and adaptation 
 for teaching. Teachers in the people's schools usu- 
 ally receive a course of training in seminaries or nor- 
 mal schools, Avhere the work of academic instruction 
 is carried on simultaneously with theoretical and 
 practical professional instruction. A part of the 
 secondary teachers are trained in the normal schools, 
 but the number is decreasing, and the university- 
 trained teacher occupies a much higher position so- 
 cially and professionally, and receives a considerably 
 larger salary than the one who is normal-trained (see 
 Table of Salaries). 
 
 (B) EstaMishmcnt of Seminaries. 
 
 After candidates have passed their first examina- 
 tion, before receiving a regular appointment as teach- 
 ers in the schools, in a large part of Germany they 
 are obliged to spend a certain amount of time in ob- 
 taining practical preparation for their calling. In 
 this respect it Avill be seen from what follows that 
 requirements of various states are not entirely uni- 
 form. Usually this preparatory period covers two 
 years, and is divided into a seminary year {Seminar- 
 jalir) and a following trial year {Pi'ohejnhr). I am 
 told by teachers in the schools that although this is 
 theoretically true, nevertheless, in practice, espe-
 
 TEACHERS. 79 
 
 cially in Saxony, candidates are often received into 
 the schools as regular (salaried, but not permanent) 
 assistants without taking either the seminary year 
 or the trial year. This is more frequently the case 
 when the number of candidates is small and posi- 
 tions are sufficiently numerous. When conditions are 
 reversed they can not so easily secure an appoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Prussia requires all teachers to be seminar}^ 
 trained, and has provided a sufhcient number of in- 
 stitutions to accommodate all. There are at present 
 in Prussia eleven older school seminaries, thirty-five 
 gymnasium seminaries, and university seminaries at 
 Gottingen and Miinster.* 
 
 In Saxony there are no laws regulating the organi- 
 zation of seminaries in general, but, however, they 
 are contemplated. The University of Leipsic (later 
 described) has one of the best developed systems of 
 seminary work in Germany, The Eoyal Gymnasium 
 has a seminary, connected on the one side with the 
 
 * The older schoo] seminaries in Prussia are situated at the 
 following places, viz. : Berlin, Stettin, Konigsberg, Breslau, 
 Gottingen, Magdeburg, Dantzic, Posen, Cassel, Coblentz, Miin- 
 ster. The thirty-five gymnasial seminaries are distributed as 
 follows: East Prussia — Konigsberg, Gumbinnen; West Prus- 
 sia — Dantzic, Brandenburg, Berlin (four), Prenzfeu. Frankfort, 
 Lauenburg, Posen, Bromberg ; Silesia — Breslau, Licgnitz; Sax- 
 on Prussia — Burg, Wernigerode, Halle ; Schleswig-Holstein 
 — Flensburg, Altona ; Hanover — Hanover, Gosler, Leer (two) ; 
 Westphalia. Arnsburg, Warburg, Iserlohn ; Hesse-Xassau — 
 Wielburg, Wiesbaden, Frankfort, Klingenschule ; Rhine Prov- 
 inces — Gladbach (two), Cologne, Bremen, Diisseldorf (two). 
 (From Baumeister's Ilandbuch, xxi, p. 73; article by Fries.)
 
 80 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 gymnasium and on the other with the university. 
 Probably this form of seminary as a preparation for 
 the work of teaching in the secondary schools is un- 
 excelled. All other forms of seminary have some 
 conspicuous lack, the main defect in them being 
 the lack of opportunity for combining higher uni- 
 versity study and theoretical consideration of sub- 
 jects with the practical Avork of the teacher.* 
 
 Bavaria as yet has no definite laws relating to the 
 establishment of pedagogical seminaries, but there is 
 being made a practical test to determine their effi- 
 ciency. The first seminaries were provisionally 
 opened in 1893 in Munich, Wiirzburg, and Erlangen. 
 In 1894 two more, one in Neuberg and another in 
 Eegensburg, were started. 
 
 The examination commissions already make a 
 difference in favour of those candidates who have 
 attended pedagogical lectures, over those who are 
 simply qualified in the branches of knowledge in 
 their chosen department. If the candidates have 
 had practical preparation additional, they are not 
 required to attend a pedagogical seminary but may 
 demonstrate their professional abilities in some suit- 
 able school in Munich. 
 
 In Wiirtemberg there are no laws requiring 
 teachers to be seminary trained, but a seminary has 
 grown up in the University of Tubingen. Lectures 
 in pedagogy are often delivered there, but, however, 
 they are of the purely theoretical sort, and deal little 
 with the practical aspects of the teacher's profession. 
 The philological seminary attempts something in the 
 
 * Fries, Die Vorbildunj: der Lehrer fiir das Lehrarat, p. 192.
 
 TEACHERS. 81 
 
 way of offering practical exercises in that particular 
 line of instruction.* 
 
 There are at present three pedagogical seminaries 
 in Hesse : one long established in Giessen (1876), 
 under the leadership of the well-known writer on 
 pedagogy, H. Schiller, a second at Worms (1889), and 
 a third in Darmstadt (1890), Only those candidates 
 are taken who have passed the State examination for 
 positions in the secondary schools. 
 
 (C) The Workings of the Pedagogical Seminaries. 
 
 To meet the demands for the professional train- 
 ing of secondary school teachers, four forms of insti- 
 tutions have arisen. They are (1) the normal 
 schools {Lehrer-seminarien), (3) the gymnasial semi- 
 naries, (3) seminaries in connection with elementary 
 schools, and (4) those in connection with the uni- 
 versities. 
 
 The normal schools are mainly devoted to train- 
 ing teachers for the elementary schools, and need 
 not be described here. Those older seminaries in 
 connection with schools, because of their historical 
 priority and importance, will be treated from that 
 point of view, and one noted example, that at 
 Giessen, will be briefly described in its present work- 
 ings. The gymnasial seminary will be outlined in 
 connection with the Prussian regulations governing 
 the training of all secondary-school teachers, which 
 will give a fair type of the training received in gym- 
 nasial seminaries throughout Germany. 
 
 * Fries, Die Voi'bildung der Lehrer f iir das Lehramt, p. 76.
 
 82 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 I. Older Seminaries in Connection with Schools. 
 
 The earliest semiiiury for teachers was the histor- 
 ical " Seminariuiu Prajceptorum " in Ilalle, which was 
 founded in 1696 by the renowned A. H. Francke. 
 This school attempted thorough instruction in aca- 
 demic branches, theory of education, observation of 
 school organization and methods, and practice in 
 applying principles. Its avowed purpose was to fit 
 for greater usefulness those who expected to teach. 
 Although the seminarium was poorly organized, con- 
 sidered from modern standpoints, yet it had a wide 
 circle of usefulness at that time and is of great in- 
 terest still, inasmuch as it was the initial step in 
 the great movement toward a professional prepa- 
 ration of teachers, and as it resulted in the mod- 
 ern normal school (whose functions, in Germany, 
 are becoming more and more relegated to the realm 
 of training elementary teachers), the university 
 pedagogical seminary, and the latest development, 
 the seminary in connection with the secondary 
 schools, especially those in connection with the gym- 
 nasium. 
 
 As particularly interesting examples of impor- 
 tant seminaries in connection with schools may be 
 mentioned the ones in Berlin, Stettin, Gottingen, 
 Giessen, and \Yeimar. By the seminaries in connec- 
 tion with schools, I mean those distinguished from 
 the gymnasial seminaries, which are in connection 
 with secondary schools only. Since this treatment 
 is not historical, it will not be necessary to trace the 
 detailed development of the foregoing seminaries,
 
 TEACHERS. 83 
 
 but only the present working of one, that at Giessen, 
 will be briefly described. 
 
 In Giessen the members assemble weekly for dis- 
 cussion of theory. They visit classes and subse- 
 quently undertake instruction under conditions sim- 
 ilar to those in connection with other seminaries 
 later described. The candidates begin instruction 
 in the Vorschule and then gradually ascend to the 
 gymnasium classes, up to Secunda. This is to give 
 candidates a well-ordered and developed knowledge 
 of the instruction in their respective branches. 
 
 Besides this, Schiller, the director, undertakes 
 departmental discussion of subjects to connect with 
 the university study of the same branches. He also 
 delivers pedagogical lectures in the university of 
 which he is professor. During the seminary course 
 a pedagogical thesis is required of each candidate. 
 
 The following subjects for theses are selected 
 from some given by Schiller in Giessen {Pddagogische 
 hhmnarieti, Tp. 138): The value of historical* poems 
 in historical instruction. Instruction in physics in 
 the lower grades. Geometrical (Anschauungs) in- 
 struction. The first mathematical instruction in 
 Lower Tertia. Concentration in language, histori- 
 cal, and geographical instruction in Quarta. 
 
 Fries quotes the following from Muff, which he 
 considers especially fit ones : 
 
 The method of Latin instruction in Sexta, with 
 special consideration of Perth's proposal for reform. 
 
 Method of instruction in geometry in Quarta, 
 with special consideration of Eeishaus's Vorschule 
 der Geometric.
 
 84 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 How shall historical instruction be conducted so 
 that pupils will not only be receptive but will co- 
 operate in the work ? 
 
 Concentration of the instruction in Lower Ter- 
 tia according to the new course of studies. 
 
 Instruction in German in Lower Tertia as given 
 in Muff's new reading book. 
 
 How is descriptive natural science in the lower 
 classes to be made anschauUch (objective) ? 
 
 Sometimes themes are given which bear more 
 directly upon particular branches which the candi- 
 date is preparing to teach. These are examples : May 
 the history of the earth and the earth's crust be 
 adequately considered in a half-year's course (as was 
 required in the former outline of studies) ? What 
 Anschauungs-material must be made use of in the 
 various grades of school ? How shall the forty dis- 
 posable hours be divided ? Discuss the concentra- 
 tion of ancient languages and ancient history instruc- 
 tion. Discuss the teaching of ancient languages and 
 history in Quarta as to selection of material and to 
 methods of instruction. The reading exercise as the 
 central point of modern language instruction. "What 
 demands do the exponents of phonetics make in the 
 preliminary instruction in French and how far may 
 these be complied with ? Discuss natural science 
 instruction in Upper Tertia of the realistic scliools 
 according to the old and to the new courses of study. 
 Discuss the translation of German into ancient lan- 
 guages. The treatment of poetry in instruction in 
 German in Tertia. The nature of artificial, judi- 
 cious, and mechanical memories are to be discussed,
 
 TEACHERS. 85 
 
 and in connection with the discussion a definite se- 
 lection of memory material is to be examined. 
 
 II. Gymnasial Seminaries — Prussian Regulations Govern- 
 ing THE Training of Teachers. 
 
 The last form of teacher's seminary developed was 
 the one in connection with the gymnasia. It is the 
 most specifically differentiated of all the seminaries, 
 and consequently the most thoroughly organized for 
 a specific function. It is for secondary teachers 
 alone, and makes its conditions for admission very 
 rigid. It arose from the necessities of a more inti- 
 mate connection between theoretical training and 
 actual practice in instruction and school manage- 
 ment. Between theoretical study and practice under 
 unnatural conditions offered by normal schools and 
 the actualities of school work, many German edu- 
 cators believe there exists too great a gap. To train 
 best the teacher to be, after mastering the academic 
 work offered in the universities, he must study theory 
 and practice amidst the usual conditions which he 
 will meet when he takes charge of a school for him- 
 self. That is, the practice work must not only bo 
 carefully planned and criticized, but it must be exe- 
 cuted under natural conditions, and in the same 
 grades of classes and in the same subjects as the 
 student will afterward teach, and not under purely 
 artificial conditions. 
 
 It was this enlightened conception of what prac- 
 tice teaching should be that gave rise to the gymna- 
 sial seminary. 
 
 Below are given the main requirements of Prussia,
 
 86 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 as published in the enactment of March 15, 1890,* 
 governing the training of all its secondary-school 
 teachers. As tliirty-five of the forty-eight Prussian 
 seminaries are gynmasial, tliis required training is 
 largely secured in tliat class of institutions, and it 
 may be taken as a fair type of the work offered in 
 gynmasial seminaries throughout Germany. 
 
 The required training must cover two years of 
 preparation, the first called the seminary year {Semi- 
 narjahr) and the second the trial year {Prohejahr). 
 
 The seminary year must be passed in some peda- 
 gogical seminary or in a seminary connected with 
 jisome of the secondary schools having a nine years' 
 \ course and, if possible, a Vorschule. During this time 
 / the candidate is to become acquainted with the prob- 
 lems of instruction and education and their applica- 
 tion in secondary schools, and to become specially 
 well acquainted with methods of instruction in the 
 individual branches. 
 
 The trial year is usually to be passed in some other 
 institution than the one in which the seminary year 
 was passed. During this year the candidate is ex- 
 pected to exhibit the powers of independent instruc- 
 tion that he is sujDposed to have gained in the semi- 
 nary year. 
 
 Seminarii Year. — Candidates are received into 
 the seminaries from any part of Germany, though 
 in case of overcrowding preference is given to resi- 
 dents of Prussia. Usually not more than six candi- 
 dates at a time are received in the institutions which 
 
 *Ordnung der praktischen Ausbildung der Kandidaten fiir 
 das Lehrarat an den hOheren Schulen, 1890.
 
 TEACHERS. 87 
 
 are not regular seminaries. All of the seminaries 
 are under the jurisdiction of the provincial school 
 board. 
 
 Before the practical part of the candidate's train- 
 ing is begun he is expected to study theoretically the 
 problems he will have to deal with. This theoretical 
 training consists of discussions relating to carefully 
 prepared pedagogical questions. These are selected 
 by the director and discussed with him, and may be 
 drawn from " the most important principles of the 
 theory of instruction and education and their appli- 
 cation to higher schools, especially in the course of 
 instruction represented by the chief subjects se- 
 lected by the candidate ; also an historical study of 
 the important disciples of the newer pedagogy (since 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century)." 
 
 Eules for preparation for the instruction hour, 
 judgment concerning observation of lessons given by 
 candidates, fundamentals of discipline, when possi- 
 ble in connection with individual cases, etc., are to be 
 discussed. Short discussions are to be prepared upon 
 topics relating to the technique of pedagogics and 
 the school. These may be selected from particular 
 points in the general course of studies, examination 
 regulations, the transactions of the Prussian Direc- 
 tors' Conferences, the oflBcially published special 
 courses of study for secondary schools, or from im- 
 portant newly published writings in the domain of 
 pedagogy. Important methods, helps to instruction, 
 apparatus, or principles of hygiene, etc., often fur- 
 nish themes for discussion. 
 
 Three months before the close of the seminary
 
 88 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 year ciifli cundidate is required to prepare a thesis 
 upon some concrete pedagogical or didactic subject 
 selected by the director. 
 
 In connection with the above theoretical work 
 each candidate must take part in the practical work 
 of the seminary. This consists of visitation of the 
 classes taught by the director and other designated 
 teachers, and in teaching a certain number of hours 
 weekly, usually two. The teaching is done in the 
 presence of the director and others who are commis- 
 sioned by him to observe, usually the department 
 teachers and some of the candidates. The teaching 
 work is not given to candidates until the second quar- 
 ter of the year, and is at first limited to short exer- 
 cises, which are gradually extended. These lessons 
 are carefully prepared, and after being given they are 
 thoroughly discussed from theoretical and practical 
 pedagogical standpoints. 
 
 Candidates are expected to visit other schools in 
 the vicinity when their time is not otherwise occu- 
 pied by work in the seminary school. School ap- 
 paratus and helps are to become familiar to them, 
 especially the apparatus and appliances in natural 
 science and geography. They are to take part in con- 
 ducting work hours of pupils, and also play hours, 
 especially the turner's (physical training) exercise. 
 
 The regular department teacher reports monthly 
 to the director his opinion of the candidate's work. 
 Four weeks before the close of the seminary year 
 the director submits to the provincial school board 
 {Schulkollegium) a report concerning the work of 
 each candidate for the seminary year. This report
 
 TEACHERS. 80 
 
 must discuss the diligence and capabilities of the 
 student, his actual accomplishments and natural apt- 
 itude for teaching, as well as faults and failures that 
 may have been noticed. This report, accompanied by 
 the thesis above mentioned, forms the basis for de- 
 termining whether the candidate may be admitted 
 by the provincial school board to the trial year. 
 
 Trial Year. — During the trial year each student 
 is required to give from eight to ten hours of in- 
 struction weekly under guidance of the director 
 and the department teacher. As in the seminary 
 year, all lessons must be carefully planned and dis- 
 cussed before given, and are afterward subject to 
 criticism, based upon the manner in which the in- 
 struction was imparted. Besides these eight to ten 
 hours, which are given without salary, the student 
 may, if capable, and the organization permits, give 
 additional instruction for which he receives pay. 
 The whole number of hours of weekly instruction 
 may not, however, exceed twenty. All the work is 
 outlined and apportioned by the director, who re- 
 quires a faithful and diligent performance of all 
 duties assigned. The main part of the instruction 
 falls within the candidate's chief subjects, though 
 work is assigned in several branches and in more 
 than one grade. 
 
 The department teacher is required to be pres- 
 ent at all exercises offered by the candidate during 
 the first quarter of the year. After that time, at 
 least twice each month, it is obligatory for him to 
 visit the recitations. However, at all times he must 
 keep himself informed of the progress of the work.
 
 90 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 and hold himself in readiness to check or counteract 
 any wrong or fruitless work. He is to report peri- 
 odically concerning the work of the candidates. 
 
 In addition to the teaching assigned, the candi- 
 date has outside duties similar to those expected of 
 him in the seminary year. He is required to be 
 present at the teachers' conferences, where he has 
 full voice in discussing matters (when giving paid 
 instruction), to visit certain designated classes, sub- 
 mit reports of pupil's work, attend the usual exam- 
 inations, give reports of examinations, and such 
 other work as comes within his sphere of teaching 
 and is assigned to him. He may be given charge 
 of special pupils, who are behind in their studies or 
 who need individual guidance. At the close of the 
 year each candidate must prepare a written report 
 and estimate of the work that he has accomplished. 
 This, together with the report of the director, which 
 is based upon his own observations and the reports 
 of the department teacher, is submitted to the pro- 
 vincial school board for consideration. If the suc- 
 cess in the seminary year and the trial year has 
 been satisfactory, and a thesis of a sufficiently schol- 
 arly character has been presented, the school board 
 may issue a certificate permitting the candidate to 
 teach in any position indicated by the results of 
 his first examination, which determines the subjects 
 and the grade of positions. 
 
 In special cases, persons may be assigned to po- 
 sitions without having received the two years of 
 practical training. This is true for ministers who 
 wish to give instruction in religion.
 
 TEACHERS. 91 
 
 III. University Seminaries. 
 
 To meet the demand for a study of education 
 based on a wider scientific knowledge, and especially 
 a philosophical training, the university seminary 
 was organized. The pioneer in this direction was 
 the seminary organized i n 1715 , by J. M. Gessner, 
 in the University of Gottingen. It was more espe- 
 cially devoted to a theoretical study of education, 
 based upon historical pedagogy and philosophy. 
 Such educators as Eatke, Comenius, and Locke were 
 read, didactic theories were discussed, and rules for 
 instruction were formulated. During the early 
 existence of the seminary no practice work was at- 
 tempted, but at a later date it came to occupy a per- 
 manent position in the university seminary. As other 
 notable examples we may mention several univer- 
 sity seminaries, nearly all of which have continued 
 with widening influence and usefulness to the pres- 
 ent day. J. 8. Seniler organized the one at Halle 
 in 1765 ; Fr. A. Wiedeburg, at Helmstedt, 1779 ; Fr. 
 H. Ch. Schwarz, at Heidelberg, 1809 ; Kiel, 1777 ; 
 Brzoska, at Jena, 1832 ; Ziller, at Leipsic, 1861 ; and 
 at last we mention the one at Konigsberg, founded 
 in 1809 by the great theorist, Herbart. 
 
 There are seven university seminaries in G er- 
 many, distributed as follows : 
 
 I. Giving theoretical instruction only — Gottingen. 
 
 II. Combining theory with practice : 
 
 (a) In connection with regularly organized 
 gymnasia — Heidelberg, Leipsic, Miinster, Tubing- 
 en, Freiburg.
 
 92 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 (h) Having a model school of its own — Jena.* 
 The Seminary/ at Jena. — The pedagogical renown 
 of Jena is world-wide. For the last three quarters 
 of this century it has been the stronghold of the 
 Herbartian school. The ablest exponents of Ilerbar- 
 tian principles have there been active during the 
 whole or a part of their educational careers. Brzos- 
 ka, while in KOnigsberg, was influenced by Herbart 
 along pedagogical and psychological lines, and was 
 the first in Jena University to offer lectures on psy- 
 chology and pedagogy. He announced practical 
 courses in a practice school, but so few took part 
 that he abandoned the project. 
 
 Graefe, a burgher-school director, attempted to 
 carry out the same work, but also failed. The one 
 to whom success came, however, was Dr. Stoy, wlio 
 succeeded in building up a pedagogical seminary in 
 1843. Since then it has had almost continuous exist- 
 ence, f and Herbartian doctrines have been expound- 
 ed by enthusiastic disciples of that great man ; in- 
 struction based upon Herbartian principles has 
 been exemplified in the practice schools, and men 
 who have heard and seen at Jena have implanted 
 the new doctrines in every civilized land. During 
 the greater part of the seminary's, existence the 
 practice work has been in various grades of burgher 
 
 * The seminaries at Halle, Strasbur^^, Konigsberg, and 
 Kiel, which have been renowned, are all discontinued — the 
 one at Strasburg since 1892. Though not regularly organized 
 by law, Karlsruhe has a seminary patterned after the one at 
 Heidelberg. 
 
 f Except from 1865 to 1874, when Dr. Stoy was in Heidelberg.
 
 TEACHERS. 93 
 
 schools ; but since the successor of Stoy, Dr. Eein, 
 has been in control, a gymnasium class has been add- 
 ed, so that all grades of primary and secondary in- 
 struction are represented. Since 1891, the seminary 
 under Dr. Eein, and the one in connection with the 
 royal gymnasium under Dr. Richter, have been 
 united. Dr. Eein being in charge of the theory of in- 
 struction and education and its application in the 
 practice school. Dr. Eein delivers lectures on theo- 
 retical and practical pedagogy, and those who attend 
 these lectures may visit the practice school to ob- 
 serve instruction and to listen to the criticisms. 
 Those who wish may also take charge of two or 
 three lessons during a semester. Each lesson must 
 be carefully planned by the student teacher, revised 
 after criticism by the seminary teacher, and after 
 the exercise is concluded the whole plan and execu- 
 tion are subjected to the criticism of the candidate 
 himself, of the critic teacher, and of the student 
 teachers who have observed the instruction. The 
 leaders of this seminary strive not only to fit the 
 candidates for their life-work, but they aim to build 
 up a more solid science of pedagogy. The plan is 
 thoroughly in accord with the modern laboratory 
 methods of investigation in allied subjects. 
 
 For the practical course of instruction Professor 
 Eichter regards the following formal steps as in- 
 dispensable : Vorhild, Anleitung^ SelbstUbinig, Kritih 
 (preparatory exposition, introduction, self practice, 
 criticism). In addition to these there should not be 
 lacking companions working toward similar ends in 
 order to awaken a healthy spirit of rivalry for excel-
 
 94 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 lence. As proper material for class instruction in 
 the seminary work lie selects, for the first work, 
 German in Quarta. Following this, Greek in Low- 
 er Tertia is selected, and then work is assigned 
 in Sexta. Later on in the course the candidates 
 are left more to themselves for the selection of 
 work. It, however, must be selected so as to be con- 
 tinuous with the work of the regular department 
 teachers. 
 
 Each one of the classes (at present three burgher- 
 school classes and one gymnasial class) has ten pupils. 
 Besides the practice teachers, there are three regular 
 department teachers who are responsible for the 
 progress of the classes. 
 
 A few of Jena's variations from other Prussian 
 seminaries, of special note, are summed up as follows 
 by Professor Fries : * 1. Candidates visit the school 
 museums and laboratories under competent guid- 
 ance to obtain a knowledge of apparatus and appli- 
 ances. 2. They are given for a certain period entire 
 charge of a backward pupil, or of one who has for 
 some other reasons failed to pass his examinations. 
 3. Under a competent drawing teacher they receive 
 instruction in perspective and map drawing to in- 
 sure capability of rapid sketching on the blackboard 
 before a class. They lay great stress on making the 
 instruction " anschaulich." f 4. In certain cases the 
 seminary year is allowed to count as one year of the 
 trial year {Prohejahr). 
 
 * Vorbildung fiir das hohere Lehramt. 
 
 f That is, made plain to the senses through drawings and 
 objective teaching.
 
 TEACHERS. 95 
 
 Tlie Seminary at Lei^Jsic. — Leipsic, though not 
 the first to establish pedagogical courses, has been 
 during the last twenty-five years one of the most 
 active pedagogical centres. For some years, during 
 the labours of Masius and Ziller, it was thoroughly 
 Herbartian. Not only did these men herald Her- 
 bartian pedagogy, but Professor Drobisch, who lec- 
 tured on philosophy, was one of the best and ablest 
 supporters of Herbartian psychology and philoso- 
 phy ; Prof. Ludwig Striimpell, a disciple of Herbart, 
 was for some time lecturer on pedagogy. He was a 
 pioneer in the attempt to place pedagogy upon a 
 psychological basis. His book on psychological ped- 
 agogy is a masterful attempt to place pedagogy upon 
 a sound foundation. In a supplement it contains 
 one of the first, if not the first, attempts at a sys- 
 tematic study of children. The contribution ante- 
 dates Preyer's, and is frequently referred to in Prey- 
 er's epoch-making treatise. 
 
 Probably the most noted of all Leipsic peda- 
 gogues was, however, Prof. Tuiskon Ziller. His 
 seminary, a private institution, was grounded, like 
 the one at Jena, upon the Herbartian pedagogy. 
 His field of investigation covered elementary as well 
 as higher education. His seminary, divided into the 
 '•'■Theoreticiim, PraTctihiim, and /Confer en z," did much 
 to extend Herbartian pedagogics. He laboured faith- 
 fully in this field from 1861 until his death in 1882. 
 
 At the present time Leipsic gives more courses 
 in pedagogy and allied topics than any other German 
 university. Its professors are not disciples of any 
 particular school, but are thoroughly eclectic in their
 
 96 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 system of instruction. Prof. Johannes Volkelt, a 
 highly gifted man and a writer of considerable note 
 in the field of philosophy and aesthetics, is head j^ro- 
 fessor in the department of pedagogy. During one 
 semester of each year he lectures on pedagogy, and 
 during the other semester on jBsthetics. Besides 
 these lectures he gives short courses upon particular 
 periods of philosophy. He conducts a philosoph- 
 ical-pedagogical seminary one evening each week 
 during one semester and a seminary on selected 
 topics in aesthetics during the second semester. His 
 popularity draws large crowds to his lecture rooms 
 and his seminaries. 
 
 Two pedagogical seminaries at Leipsic offer 
 abundant opportunities for observation, criticism, 
 and j)ractice work in teaching. One, under the lead- 
 ership of Professor Hoffman, a theologian, who has 
 been connected with the university many years, is 
 more especially adapted to the needs of future teach- 
 ers in the burgher schools. The course consists of 
 observational work and a chance to teach under 
 guidance in all grades of schools. Under leadership 
 of the professor, students visit once each week some 
 grade of school. The visits include the district 
 schools {Bezirksclitden), burgher schools, higher 
 burgher schools, gymnasia, institutions for the blind, 
 schools for the deaf and dumb, schools for Aveak- 
 minded children, schools for incorrigibles, business 
 schools, and technical schools. The student may also 
 extend his visits to such other schools as interest him 
 specially. For those who are sufficiently grounded 
 in pedagogics, arrangements are made whereby can-
 
 TEACHERS. 97 
 
 didates may conduct classes. This is done under 
 guidance and criticism. After carefully planned 
 work the candidate conducts the class under the 
 supervision of the regular teacher and selected 
 critics. The lesson is then thoroughly discussed 
 in all its relations, and after a time it is repeated 
 in another parallel class. In this way each one may 
 become acquainted with the theories regarding the 
 work, become a critical observer, and, lastly, learn to 
 apply the principles learned. 
 
 In the lower grades the chief stress is laid upon 
 the formal part of instruction, in the middle stage 
 the form and content are to be dealt with more 
 together, and in the higher classes the content of 
 the lesson is to receive the chief stress. The semi- 
 nary is more especially designed for future candidates 
 for position in the burgher schools. 
 
 Another seminary at Leipsic in connection with 
 the Eoyal Gymnasium is designated by the Saxon 
 kingdom as a practical seminary for candidates of 
 the higher (secondary) schools. The seminary is 
 under the supervision of the gymnasium director 
 (Prof. Dr. Eichter), who also has the rank and title 
 of assistant professor in the university. He delivers 
 some lectures in the university. As assistants, there 
 must be two other gymnasial teachers to supervise 
 the work in their particular departments. The 
 seminary is so conducted that three divisions are 
 made according to subjects. The three groups usu- 
 ally represented are ancient languages, under the 
 director ; modern languages under the direction of 
 Dr. Martin Hartmann ; and mathematics and natural
 
 98 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 science, under the guidance of Prof. Dr. Lehmann. 
 The exercises of the seminary consist of model les- 
 sons, the first lesson of each semester being given by 
 the teacher in charge, and the rest by the students 
 {Praktikanten). The students are not compelled to 
 give lessons, but it is to their advantage to do so, 
 since the report of their work is to be handed to the 
 Minister of Instruction to count on their seminary 
 year, when they come to apply for a position. Only 
 those students who have been in university attend- 
 ance four or more semesters, or those who have pur- 
 sued their sjDccial subjects for some years, are allowed 
 to become active members of the seminary.* Others 
 may be allowed to attend, but only as listeners {Zu- 
 hbrer). In all cases students must receive permis- 
 sion from the director and the special department 
 teachers. All members are expected to attend the 
 regular meetings of their special division in the sem- 
 inary, and are earnestly requested to visit the school 
 work in their own and other departments. 
 
 After the first lesson in each semester the classes 
 are placed in charge of the student teachers. They 
 are at liberty to select a theme suitable for presenta- 
 tion in some one of the nine classes of the gymnasia, 
 which they must announce to the deiDartment 
 teacher for his approval. He avoids the duplication 
 of lessons, either given by the regular teacher or in 
 seminary meetings, and determines whether the 
 
 * This provision is made especially for people's school teach- 
 ers who wish to pursue special branches, and thus become 
 enabled to take examination for positions in the secondary 
 
 schools.
 
 TEACHERS. 99 
 
 selected theme is suitable for the class chosen by 
 the student. The intention is to make the lesson 
 profitable to the class which acts as a practice class. 
 The theme determined upon, the student teacher 
 must submit a completely detailed plan of the lesson 
 to be presented ; not a mere outline is accepted, but 
 the objects expected to be obtained, and the means 
 of attaining them, the division into " introduction," 
 " body of the lesson," " conclusion," " review," must 
 all be indicated with great exactness. Even the 
 questions that are to be put before the class are 
 worked out beforehand. When the candidate ap- 
 pears before the class he is expected to be fully pre- 
 pared at all points with the subject matter and 
 method of his lesson. For example, in the case of 
 instruction in modern foreign languages, the candi- 
 date not infrequently has his questions and sen- 
 tences and illustrative lines all by heart. After the 
 written report is handed in, the candidate has a 
 conference with the department teacher concerning 
 the proposed work. Errors of method are pointed 
 out, the theoretical and practical pedagogical aspects 
 are carefully considered, division and amount of 
 work discussed, etc. After criticism, the candidate 
 reviews and corrects the work before presentation to 
 the class. Before giving the lesson the candidate is 
 expected to visit the class he is to teach, and other 
 parallel classes as many times as possible, to become 
 better acquainted with the class and with the work 
 to be given. 
 
 For practice classes, from eighteen to twenty-four 
 pupils of the gymnasial class in which the instruc-
 
 100 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 tion is to be given are selected by the department 
 teacher. The instructors aim to select from the 
 classes those of average ability, not taking the best, 
 nor, on the other hand, the poorest. At one exercise 
 which the writer witnessed, the rector selected half 
 of the practice class from the brightest pupils, and 
 the other half from the dullest. The exercise was 
 one not requiring close analysis and hard thinking, 
 but was largely mechanical. When the exercise was 
 concluded the rector raised the question among the 
 observers as to whether differences in ability had 
 been detected. The fact had not been noticed, and 
 the rector proceeded to explain how dull pupils 
 could appear just as quick in purely mechanical 
 work as the most perceiving, while, on the other 
 hand, the superior strength of keener pupils was 
 often unnoticed by the teacher who did not fully 
 appreciate degrees of difficulty in lessons. 
 
 The seminary possesses a library of pedagogical 
 works, though it is limited in size, to which students 
 have access. The library facilities, apart from this, 
 are excellent in Leipsic. Besides the general uni- 
 versity library and a special library in the university, 
 which contains all the most important pedagogical 
 works in German and French, there is the library 
 known as the " Comenius Stiftung," containing a 
 rich collection of pedagogical material. This latter, 
 however, is open only on two afternoons in each week, 
 and is in such incommodious quarters, with insuffi- 
 cient number of attendants and poorly arranged cata- 
 logues, that it is not so useful as it might be. Its use 
 is limited mainly to teachers of the people's schools.
 
 TEACHERS. 101 
 
 To further the influence of the seminary, a 
 certain number of stipendia, or scholarships, arc 
 awarded to deserving and capable candidates, resi- 
 dents of Saxony. These are not large in amount, but 
 they aid a good many needy students. 
 
 Strasburg. — The seminary in connection with the 
 Strasburg University, although discontinued since 
 1893, deserves mention because of its excellent ac- 
 complishment under the direction of Professor Zie- 
 gler, a well-known pedagogical writer and university 
 professor of philosophy and pedagogy. This semi- 
 nary differed from all others except Jena in having a 
 sort of model class for whose advancement the direc- 
 tor and his assistants were entirely responsible. In- 
 stead of selecting from gymnasial classes from time 
 to time. Professor Ziegler selected eight or ten pu- 
 pils from Tertia in the gymnasium. Having entire 
 charge over them, a greater personal interest was 
 taken in the pupils than would be the case were they 
 under their direction at stated intervals only. In 
 connection with the practical phase, Professor Zie- 
 gler gave lectures on the history of pedagogy, pay- 
 ing special attention to such authors as Locke, 
 Rousseau, Comenius, and Herbart. Discussions in 
 connection with the lessons given and with practi- 
 cal problems were carried on as in the other semina- 
 ries. Willmann's Didaktik, Schiller's Handbuch der 
 Padagogik, and Ziegler's own Handbuch der Piida- 
 gogik furnished much of the material for discus- 
 sions.* 
 
 * Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 41 
 et seq.
 
 102 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Heidelberg. — Heidelberg luis maintained a peda- 
 gogical seminary since 1809. It was first organized 
 by the well-known author Chr. Schwarze, and is at 
 present under the charge of the gymnasium director 
 and university Professor Uhlig. The students listen 
 to lectures on pedagogy in the university, and may 
 enter the seminary only after being in attendance at 
 the university for two years. The order of observa- 
 tion, instruction, and criticism is so similar to that 
 offered at Leipsic and other university seminaries 
 that it is unnecessary to give it in detail. The chief 
 difference noticeable is in the distribution and order 
 of classes given in charge of candidates. First a mid- 
 dle class of the gymnasium is taken, next a lower one, 
 and lastly the highest or Prima. For example, the 
 students expecting to teach classical philology might 
 take classes in the following order : Csesar or Ovid 
 in Upper Tertia, Xenophon in Lower Secunda, 
 Greek grammar in Lower Tertia, history in Quarta, 
 Latin in Quinta, history in Upper Secunda, and at 
 last Sophocles, Cicero, Plato, or Demosthenes in 
 Prima.* 
 
 General Note to Section " C." 
 
 As some of the points to be noticed by student 
 observers in visiting a class, Schiller, of Giessen, 
 recommended the following : f 
 
 1. Selection and disposition of the material in 
 itself and in relation to the disposable time. 
 
 * Fries, Die Vorbildung der Lehrer fiir das Lehramt, p. 28 
 et seq. 
 
 f Padagogische Seminarien, p. 138 ; also Fries, Die Vorbil- 
 dunar der Lehrer fiir das Leliramt.
 
 TEACHERS. 103 
 
 2. Treatment : (a) The three teaching activities ; 
 (h) questioning with special consideration of concen- 
 tration. 
 
 3. Conduct and manner of the teacher (beginning 
 and close of the lesson ; management of the class by 
 attention and by the eye ; correct tone of . voice, 
 speaking, reading, questions, attention to errors of 
 pupils ; proper selection of resting point ; occupa- 
 tion of entire class ; control toward close of the les- 
 son ; were all pupils thoughtful about each question ? 
 chorus answers, etc.). 
 
 4. Eesults as a whole : What Avas gained by the 
 lesson ? Was an advance observable ? 
 
 Frick, of Halle, gave the following plan for the 
 observation of a lesson : * 
 
 I. Selection and arrangement of material. 
 
 1. Was the kind and amount of the teaching ma- 
 terial in right proportion to the given time ? 
 
 2. Was the material sufficiently sifted and cor- 
 rectly divided ? 
 
 3. Was the disposition of the material clear and 
 comprehensive ? 
 
 II. Method of procedure. 
 
 1. Was a well-planned and suitable arrangement 
 of the teaching activities followed ? namely : 
 
 a. Preparation for the new by connecting with 
 the old and well known. 
 
 b. Elaboration ( Vertieftmg, Begriindiing, Riich- 
 hlick, Ziisammenfassung). 
 
 c. Presentation or development of the new. 
 
 d. Application {EiniXhung^ Einprdgung). 
 
 * Paila<rotrische Abhandluntran, ii, o51.
 
 104 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 2. Was the lesson " anscluiulich "presented, logic- 
 ally developed, systematically elaborated, thoroughly 
 applied, and indelibly impressed ? 
 
 3. Was the questioning good, the application of 
 the questions good (especially the questions for con- 
 centration), and equally divided among the pupils? 
 
 III. Personality of the teacher. 
 
 How did the teacher conduct himself ? Was he 
 brisk yet cool, full of life, inspiring? Did he govern 
 the class by his glance, his strength, and warmth of 
 tone ? Was his speech correct, well articulated, clear, 
 plain, and economical ? His reading a model for his 
 pupils ? The entire conduct and attitude commend- 
 able? 
 
 IV. Discipline [ZucJit). 
 
 Was the entire class constantly busy ? Did the 
 teacher hold the attention and sympathy, in general, 
 at equal tension ? Did he understand how to renew 
 and revive these through external means, such as 
 pauses in the work, having the class stand, chorus 
 reciting, etc. ? Had he eye and ear for the failures 
 and mistakes of pupils, or were many instances un- 
 observed, others passed in silence ? 
 
 V. Entire results and impressions of the lesson. 
 
 Was there observable a definite gain for the pu- 
 pils ? Was there a perceptible advance, on the part 
 of the teacher, in independent recognition and care- 
 ful observance of the suggestions given ? 
 
 (D) Courses in Pedagogy offered in the Universities. 
 
 Below are indicated the various courses in peda- 
 gogy in all the German universities, taken from the
 
 TEACHERS. 105 
 
 various announcements of courses ( Verzeichnisse) for 
 the winter and the summer semesters of 1896-'97.* 
 (The figures refer to the nximber of hours weekly de- 
 voted to the lecture or the seminary exercise : W. 
 winter; S., summer.) 
 
 Berlin. W. Pedagogy, 4 ; Paulsen. 
 
 The psychological basis of pedagogy, 1 ; concern- 
 ing academic studies, 1 ; Steinthal. Summer semes- 
 ter, none. 
 
 Bonn. W. Philosophy and pedagogics, 2 ; Meyer. 
 Pedagogy, 3 ; Bender. S. Philosophy and pedago- 
 gics, 1 ; Meyer. Humanistic and realistic education, 
 1 ; Wentscher. 
 
 Braunsberg. W. Pedagogy, 2 ; Krause. S. none. 
 
 Breslau. W. none. S. Pedagogics, 2 ; Baeumker. 
 History of pedagogy, 2 ; Ebbinghaus. 
 
 Erlangen. W. none. S. none. 
 
 Freiburg. AY. General theory of instruction, 1 ; 
 discussion of pedagogical questions, 1 ; exercise in 
 teaching in the gymnasia, 1 ; Ziirn. S. History of 
 pedagogy from the close of the Middle Ages, with 
 special attention to the present, and giving particu- 
 lar consideration to the growth of pedagogical theo- 
 ries, 1 ; discussion of pedagogical questions, 7 ; exer- 
 cise in teaching in the gymnasium, 1 ; Ziirn. 
 
 Gottingen. W. none. S. History of pedagogy, 2 ; 
 exercises in instruction for those who intend to teach 
 philosophic propaedeutics, 1 ; Baumann. 
 
 Giessen. W. General didactics, 3 ; Schiller. S. 
 none. 
 
 * An examination of the course oflfered in 1898-'99 reveals 
 vciy fow chancres.
 
 IOC SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Greifswuld. W. History of (ircifswaldchurcliiuid 
 schools, 2 ; Pyl, Ethics and pedagogics, 4 ; Kelimkc. 
 
 Ilalle. W. Pedagogy, 3 ; Uphues. S. Ilistory of 
 pedagogy and instruction, especially in Germany 
 since the beginning of the eighteenth century, 3 ; 
 Erdmann. 
 
 Heidelberg. AY. Disputation on pedagogical ques- 
 tions, with discussions relating to selected sections 
 from Ilerbart and other pedagogical writers, 1 ; prac- 
 tice in instructing in the gymnasial subjects, 1 ; 
 Uhlig. S. The present condition of higher instruc- 
 tion in the civilized European countries, with special 
 attention to the disputed questions {Streitfragen) of 
 the present, 3 ; criticisms and readings of selected 
 passages from classical pedagogical authors, 1 ; exer- 
 cises in gymnasial instruction, 1 ; Uhlig. 
 
 Jena. W. System of pedagogy, 4 ; pedagogical 
 seminary with practice in instruction in the seminary 
 school. Rein. History of pedagogy, 3 ; pedagogical 
 discussions, 2 ; Stoy. S. General didactics, 1 ; peda- 
 gogical seminary with practice in the seminary school, 
 1 ; Rein. General philosophy of pedagogy, 3 ; peda- 
 gogical discussions relating to points in the lectures, 
 2; Stoy. 
 
 Kiel. W. Pedagogy, 2 ; Adickes. S. none. 
 
 Konigsberg. W. none. S. none. 
 
 Leipsic. AV. Exposition, criticism, and extension 
 of the Herbart-Ziller system of pedagogy, 3 ; Barth. 
 Selected questions from gymnasial ]3edagogy, 2 ; 
 Richter. Pedagogy and its history, 5 ; Hoffman. 
 Philosophical - pedagogical seminary : criticism of 
 Schleiermacher's pedagogy, 1-^; Volkelt. Pedagog-
 
 TEACHERS. 107 
 
 ical seminary : visits to all grades aud classes of 
 schools, with practice work for the advanced students, 
 1 hour visiting, 5 hours practice ; Hoffman. Practi- 
 cal pedagogical seminary : observation, practice, and 
 criticism in gymnasial instruction, 4 ; Richter, Hart- 
 mann, Lehmann. School diseases and school hy- 
 giene, 1 ; Lange. Physiology and dietetics of the 
 human body, especially for teachers, 4 ; Wenzel. S. 
 History of pedagogy since the Renaissance, 4 ; Yol- 
 kelt. The preparation of teachers for the higher 
 school positions, with introduction to the history of 
 the profession, 1 ; Richter. Christian religion for 
 those preparing to become religious teachers in sec- 
 ondary schools, 2 ; Hoffman. Philosophical-peda- 
 gogical seminary : exercises on aesthetics in connec- 
 tion with reading of selected poems of Schiller, 1^ ; 
 Volkelt. Pedagogical seminary : discussion of se- 
 lected themes from the history of didactics, 1^ ; 
 Barth. School diseases and school hygiene, 1 ; 
 Lange. The two practical seminaries as in the win- 
 ter semester. 
 
 Marburg. W. none. S. History of pedagogy, 2 ; 
 Natorp. Discussions relating to the history of peda- 
 gogy, 1 ; Natorp. 
 
 Munich. W. none. S. none. 
 
 Minister. W. Psychological and pedagogical 
 seminary, 1. S. Theory of gymnasial pedagogy, 4 ; 
 Miiller. 
 
 Rostock. W. none. S. none. 
 
 Strasburg. W. none. S. none. 
 
 Tiibingen. W. Practice in teaching philology in 
 the gymnasium, 2 ; Mager. S. none. 
 9
 
 108 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 AViirzburg. W. none. S, Pedagogy and didactics 
 as a system of educational instruction, in connection 
 ' with the history of pedagogy, 4 ; Grasberger. 
 
 The number of courses on pedagogy given in 
 German universities is not so great as one would 
 suppose, when the pedagogical renown of the country 
 is taken into consideration. Where the office of the 
 teacher requires such thorough preparation it would 
 be natural to suppose that all the universities would 
 offer complete facilities for the study of educa- 
 tional problems. All the universities have numer- 
 ous courses in pure philosophy, and usually there 
 are psychological courses offered. A number have 
 psychological laboratories for the experimental study 
 of problems. A few have made some experimen- 
 tal study of children and of educational psycho- 
 logical topics. But nearly all the work along the 
 line of child study has been done by physicians 
 rather than by psychologists or professors of peda- 
 gogy. Little of the modern work of this nature has 
 emanated from the universities. Although the study 
 of philosophy is earnestly and vigorously carried on, 
 and a large amount of practice is exacted before a 
 candidate is permitted to hold a permanent position, 
 there is not the amount of activity that one might 
 expect along the line of experimental education and 
 child study. The deeply scientific experimental 
 psychology, which has some of the most illustrious 
 exponents in Germany, is not wielding the influence 
 it might, and that it is exerting in America, in 
 the study of educational problems. Pedagogy 
 nowhere has received such thorough and scientific
 
 TEACHERS. 109 
 
 treatment as in Germany, but it has been discussed 
 from the logical and religious-moral standpoints in 
 the main. The Herbartian idea of moral-ethical- 
 religioiis training has received exhaustive consider- 
 ation. But efforts to experimentally determine 
 methods of procedure, capabilities of pupils, educa- 
 tional values, means toward ends, and many other 
 educational problems susceptible of experimental 
 study have received little attention at the hands of 
 either psychologists or pedagogues. The former 
 have been too engrossed in patiently and laboriously 
 studying details from a disinterested point of view, 
 while the latter do not seem to have become imbued 
 with this phase of the great work of which Herbart 
 was the pioneer and pathfinder. Both have failed 
 to accomplish what it seems true disciples of the 
 great master ought to do — the pedagogues to recog- 
 nise the merits of exact scientific experimental 
 methods of psychological investigation, and the psy- 
 chologists to make useful application of their acqui- 
 sitions. True, a few like Lange, Preyer, Striimpell, 
 Ebbinghaus, Schumann, Miiller, and others, most of 
 them in recent years, have made initial movements, 
 directly or indirectly, toward the application of ex- 
 perimental methods in education ; but the activities 
 in assiduously investigating educational problems 
 manifested in America may well be carefully noted 
 even by so great an educational country as Germany, 
 Avhere it has been said that all the world goes to 
 school. There may be some cause for looking on 
 too much unrest and experiment in education as a 
 sign of instability and as a lack of continuity of pur-
 
 110 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 pose ; but when wisely and thoughtrully executed, 
 unceasing agitation, premeditated and scientifically 
 carried on, can not fail to produce a more highly 
 organized and efficient educational system. 
 
 In many cases German pedagogy is based upon 
 traditions and hypotheses rather than principles 
 evolved from experience. If such questions as the 
 possibility and advisability of the higher education 
 of women, and the possibility of non-classical stu- 
 dents being able to profit by study in all or any of 
 the university faculties, had been given a test, rather 
 than negatived upon purely historical grounds — in 
 themselves hypothetical — there is little doubt as to 
 the results. AVith Frl. Helene Lange we can well 
 say that what Germany needs in settling the woman 
 question is not logic but experiment. 
 
 In substantiation of the views above expressed a 
 quotation from Professor Eein, of Jena, which was 
 published in the Deutsche Kevue, September, 1895, is 
 pertinent : " The ancient contrast between plan and 
 execution makes itself felt also in the field of edu- 
 cation. In order to overcome it, modern pedagogy 
 has turned toward the problem concerning the best 
 professional preparation of educators and teachers, 
 a question which the old generation viewed with 
 supreme indifference. ' Only get knowledge, and the 
 gift of imparting it will come by itself. Only have 
 spirit, and you will know how to awaken spirit.' 
 These and other similar sentiments that arose either 
 from boundless pride or criminal frivolity were 
 heard. However, the needs of the time make it 
 imperative to call into existence institutions which
 
 TEACHERS. HI 
 
 will promote the preparation of teachers. In estab- 
 lishing such institutions pedagogical considerations 
 have not always been heeded. It has been overlooked 
 that the centres of intellectual culture, our univer- 
 sities, should by right also undertake the task of pre- 
 paring the educators of the people, who can not only 
 comprehend the entire organization of our educa- 
 tional system, but also perform the detail work of 
 education with artistic skill and devotion. A false 
 notion of the object of our universities and their 
 duties seems to dim our eyes. In the United States 
 the universities are mvicli less prejudiced in this as 
 in other respects. It will not take long for them to 
 surpass us, as they are establishing pedagogical 
 chairs that will consciously, and with well-directed 
 efforts, influence the development of the entire edu- 
 cational system of the Union. That is the point 
 where we make a mistake. If, however, we notice 
 the progress made in this respect by modern peda- 
 gogy in Germany over the views of former times, we 
 may entertain the hope that the future will supply 
 that for which the present lacks comprehension." 
 (Translation as given in the Report of the Commis- 
 sioner of Education, 1894-'95, i, 329.) /^nd of a pos- 
 sible danger to America in imitating German meth- 
 ods the Educational Review says : " It is the examjile 
 of Germany, so helpful in many directions, so hurtful 
 in others, that has led us astray. In most German 
 universities we find a professor (very often a teacher of 
 philosophy or theology) discoursing learnedly ' Ueber 
 Piidagogik,' and we have imitated his example, for- 
 getting in our admiration of his Wissenschaft that
 
 112 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 the besetting sin of the Germans is in their worship 
 of thought to the neglect of action and reality." * 
 
 4. Teachers' Official Titles. 
 Titles play a much greater and more signifi- 
 cant role among German teachers than among 
 American teachers. This is not to be wondered at 
 in a land where a distinctive caste system reigns. 
 In all classes of public offices position is designated 
 very definitely by the title one is permitted to use. 
 While in the United States there are all sorts and 
 grades of presidents, professors, assistants, directors, 
 etc., the titles having no uniform significance, in 
 Germany all those with given titles occupy equal 
 rank in the state, and in general throughout the 
 empire. Within the same state the comi^ensation 
 received by all officials having the same title is 
 essentially the same at the same periods of service. 
 While there are all grades of individual capabilities 
 and capacities in Germany as everywhere, yet the 
 same title usually is evidence of exactly similar con- 
 ditions and exactions imposed upon the person who 
 is permitted to use the title. There are not, as with 
 us, doctors of medicine, who have received their di- 
 plomas after two years of five or six months' attend- 
 ance upon lectures of greatly varying standards, 
 without even a good common-school education 
 for a foundation,! side by side with others who have 
 
 * Educational Review, xiv, 3. 
 
 f It is only just to note that standards in medical colleges in 
 America are being raised very rapidly. All reputable institu- 
 tions have now three-year or four-year courses.
 
 TEACHERS. 113 
 
 taken a full college course as preparatory, and have 
 supplemented this by four full years of purely tech- 
 nical work, and yet all bearing the same title as in- 
 signia of fitness for performance of the same grade 
 of work. In the eyes of the world they are equal ; 
 the same might be said of law, theology, and teach- 
 ing. There are all grades of acquirements for the 
 same nominal accomplishments. These facts may 
 be cited incidentally, as some, perhaps the most jwo- 
 lific, of the causes tending to bring our educational 
 and professional callings into disrepute both at home 
 and abror.d. Although the intelligent discounte- 
 nance these methods, and understand the real condi- 
 tions, yet people are prone to generalize, and that, too, 
 from extreme cases. In this direction, although much 
 has been done to stamp out dilettanteism by strict 
 legislation, yet there is need of abundant vigorous 
 measures in order to insure Justice to all concerned. 
 In Germany, when a gymnasium director or a 
 real-school director is mentioned, one understands it 
 to mean a person in charge of an institution doing 
 a definite amount of work : only a person of a definite 
 minimum of attainments could be in charge. So, 
 also, Oberlehrer, or head teacher, means one who has 
 climbed a definite distance up the ladder of progress. 
 With us, when a high-school principal is mentioned, 
 unless his school is definitely known, no accurate idea 
 is conveyed. It may be a principal capable of taking 
 charge of a Boston high school, or a small two years' 
 course high school in Iowa. The title " professor " 
 is also applied variously to the village schoolmaster 
 and to the profound scholar in the university.
 
 114 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Since the middle ages the various titles of rector, 
 director, prorector, conrector, subconrector bacca- 
 laureus, collaborator, co-operator, collega, cantor, rec- 
 tor-perpetuus, historicus, niusicus, mathematicus, 
 pfarrer, tertius, quartus, etc., have been applied to 
 the different grades of instructors in the secondary 
 schools. The first three of these are still applied to 
 the leaders or principals of secondary institutions. 
 In Prussia the title of director is bestowed upon 
 those in charge of complete gymnasia, real-gymnasia, 
 or real-schools. The head of an incomplete institu- 
 tion — i. e., one having less than nine years in its 
 course — is classed as rector. This title applies to 
 those in charge of either burgher schools or of peo- 
 ple's schools. In Saxony the titles are used in the 
 reverse way, the head of a gymnasium being termed 
 the rector, while the head of a real-school, burgher- 
 school, or people's school receives the appellation of 
 director. The usual title for the leader of a gym- 
 nasium is rector, while the leader of a Latin school 
 is termed the subrector. Baden variously applies 
 the terms director, rector, and Vorstand to the 
 leaders of any secondary school. In Wlirtemberg the 
 head teacher of a gymnasium, real-gymnasium, or 
 real-school with ten classes is usually called the rec- 
 tor, but sometimes the Shidienrath (adviser of stud- 
 ies). The same titles are given in Hesse. 
 
 In Prussia the title OherleMer (head teacher) 
 is conferred upon those who have fulfilled the con- 
 ditions requisite for teaching at least two subjects 
 in Prima. (See topic Examinations.) Sometimes 
 the title is bestowed upon other especially distin-
 
 TEACHERS. 115 
 
 guished and capable instructors. All others are 
 called ordeiitliche Lehrer (ordinary teachers). The 
 title professor is not promiscuously bestowed upon 
 teachers, but is only conferred by proper authorities 
 on persons of definite rank. 
 
 In Prussia the Minister of Instruction is em- 
 powered to grant the title professor, and a head 
 teacher receives his title from the provincial school 
 board. In some states. Saxony, for example, the 
 King only confers titles. By these means the signifi- 
 cance of titles is preserved, and unfledged youths 
 and half-prepared dilettanti are kept from ranking 
 with the worthy. The title professor is conferred 
 only for especial merit in teaching, or for distinc- 
 tion gained in some scholarly work. Professors in 
 the secondary schools occupy the same rank in the 
 civil service as university professors. If in a uni- 
 versity city, the secondary school professors fre- 
 quently give lectures on pedagogics or didactics in 
 the university. Xow and then specially meritorious 
 teachers of music or drawing have the title con- 
 ferred upon them, but it is usually bestowed only 
 for purely scholarly work or long service. To make 
 the dignity of the title the greater, it is decreed that 
 only one third of all the head teachers may be raised 
 to the rank of professor at a given time. Only one 
 half of the whole number of professors may be 
 raised to the dignity of Riithe, or advisers, of the 
 fourth rank in the civil service. * This rank is only 
 attained after twelve years of service. 
 
 * Many officials are designated as a Rath, which means spe- 
 cial counsellor or adviser.
 
 116 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 The teachers in the Latin schools in Saxony were 
 formerly designated, according to the classes they 
 taught, as sextiis, quintus, tcrtius, etc.; there were 
 also collaborators or adjuncts. At the present time 
 they are called teacher or class teacher. Technical 
 teachers are designated as gymnastic teacher, singing 
 teacher, etc. The one next in service to the rector 
 is called the conrector. In all cases the title " head 
 teacher " is conferred only by special decree from 
 the King. Formerly it was conferred by the Cultus 
 Minister, and only after four years of service. It is 
 seldom given to those in the real-schools. The title 
 of professor is given to the head teachers longest in 
 the service, usually to from three to eight of an en- 
 tire corps of from twenty-five to forty teachers. It is 
 usually conferred for time of service rather than for 
 especial distinction gained in scientific investigation. 
 It seems to have been granted sparingly to real- 
 school teachers, since only five of the twenty-three 
 directors in 1894 possessed the title. 
 
 In Saxony teachers are not state officers in a legal 
 sense. However, the rectors and professors since 
 1893 have been entitled to court rank [Hofrang). 
 Professors in the secondary schools have the same 
 rank as assistant professors of the university. 
 
 Baden gives all teachers having permanent po- 
 sitions, and who have served a sufficient length of 
 time as teachers, the title of professor. Those with- 
 out permanent positions are termed Praktikanten. 
 The teachers in the Vorschulen are called Reallehrer 
 (teachers of science) or Volhsscliullelirer (people's 
 school teacher), while the religious instructor is
 
 TEACHERS. 1]7 
 
 called the Religionslelirer (teacher of religion). Ac- 
 cessistant or unpaid supernumerary is the title ap- 
 plied to candidates during their probationary period 
 in Hesse. After completing the trial service, they 
 receive the appellation Lehramts Accessor, or assist- 
 ant teacher. When permanently installed, they are 
 called, as in most of the states, gymnasium teachers, 
 real-gymnasium teachers, science teachers, etc.* 
 Those longest in the service are termed professors. 
 
 In Bavaria the ordinary teachers of scientific 
 branches are called professors or teachers in the 
 gymnasia, and Studienlelirer (study teacher or sub- 
 ject teacher, named according to the subject taught, 
 as mathematics or drawing teacher, etc.) in the 
 Latin schools. In the real-schools they are called 
 Reallehi'er (science teachers). There are also special 
 teachers of religion, gymnastics, and drawing. For 
 each class there is usually in all states one teacher 
 selected as a special overseer, who is responsible for 
 the discipline, is a general adviser, and also teaches 
 the most important studies connected with that 
 period of the course. 
 
 Wiirtemberg differs from most of the other 
 states throughout its school appointments, and is 
 not lacking in differences in teachers' titles as well 
 as in courses of study and other arrangements. (Cf. 
 chapter on Courses of Study.) The teachers are 
 
 * Any branch outside of th* purely technical arts of draw- 
 ing, singing, I'eligion, and physical training is termed " wis- 
 senscliaftlich " in Germany. The term is not to be confounded 
 with natural science.
 
 118 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 called preceptors and teachers in the begining of 
 their career. After a certain term of service, and 
 also for especially meritorious service, they re- 
 ceive the title of head preceptor or head teacher. 
 Mecklenburg and the other small states adopt 
 the same nomenclature as Prussia in designating 
 the various grades of teachers. Prussia serves as a 
 model to these states, not only in this, but in many 
 other important points relating to school organiza- 
 tion. (Cf. remarks concerning courses of study, 
 and also concerning students' leaving certificates 
 and qualifications of teachers.) 
 
 5. Teachers' Tejsture of Office. 
 
 In the United States the average official life of 
 teachers is very short, only a few years at most. 
 With women the average length of time that they 
 remain in. active teaching positions does not exceed 
 four or five years. The teacher is also in many sec- 
 tions of the country almost as much of an itinerant as 
 are Methodist ministers. Every year marks changes 
 in the personnel of teachers in every part of the coun- 
 try. In Wisconsin, about one third of the high-school 
 principals change positions every year. Each suc- 
 ceeding June brings a new exodus of teachers de- 
 parting for new fields of activity. 
 
 In Germany the case is far different. Teachers 
 once installed are fixtures for the rest of their ac- 
 tive lives. It not uncommonly happens that the 
 same teacher wields the rod and cares for the men- 
 tal welfare of father and son or mother and daughter ; 
 and even to instruct three generations of the same
 
 TEACHERS. 
 
 119 
 
 household is uot an unchronicled event in the an- 
 nals of some teachers' lives. 
 
 The following table indicates the changes that 
 occurred in the instructional force of the secondary 
 schools of Prussia for the four years from 1891 to 
 1894:* 
 
 Year. 
 
 T..tal 
 number 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 New 
 teachers, 
 first posi- 
 tion held. 
 
 New 
 teacb- 
 
 from 
 other 
 places. 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 Called 
 
 to 
 other 
 
 Choos- 
 ing 
 other 
 
 Num- 
 ber re- 
 
 Num- 
 ber re- 
 tired on 
 
 Num- 
 ber 
 
 
 positions. 
 
 teachers. 
 
 leaving. 
 
 posi- 
 tions. 
 
 occupa- 
 tions 
 
 tiring. 
 
 pen- 
 
 deaths. 
 
 1891 
 
 7,1.59 
 
 383 
 
 374 
 
 8 
 
 1.51 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 1893 
 
 7,336 
 
 341 
 
 336 
 
 o 
 
 179 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 61 
 
 55 
 
 18^3 
 
 7,348 
 
 298 
 
 396 
 
 2 
 
 304 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 79 
 
 1894 
 
 7,303 
 
 333 
 
 335 
 
 8 
 
 309 
 
 2 
 
 43 
 
 8 
 
 98 
 
 59 
 
 6. Teachers' Salaries. • 
 
 After a consideration of the great amount of 
 preparation that German teachers must secure be- 
 fore being admitted to the examinations for posi- 
 tions, the severity of the examinations when once 
 admitted, the long subsequent training, and, finally, 
 the difficulty experienced in securing a position, the 
 question naturally presents itself : What remunera- 
 tion do they get — are the salaries adequate to warrant 
 such long and expensive apprenticeship ? To answer 
 this question, which may have occurred to the reader, 
 tables are subjoined which indicate the salaries for 
 different positions in all the principal states of the 
 empire, and also in several typical cities. 
 
 * Compiled from Statistisches Jahrbueh der hoheren Schulen 
 Dcutschlands, u. s. w.
 
 120 SECONDARY SCUOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Tabic showing Salaries in I he 
 
 Priissia : 
 
 Berliu 
 
 Large cities. . 
 Cities under 
 
 5(1,000 
 
 Berlin and 
 
 larj^e cities 
 Cities under 
 
 50,000 
 
 Cities under 
 
 50,000 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Other places, 
 
 Bavaria 
 Bavaria 
 Bavaria 
 
 Bavaria 
 Bavaria 
 Bavaria 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxony . 
 Saxony . 
 Saxony . 
 Saxony . 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Wiirtemberg . 
 
 Wiirtemberg 
 
 Wiirtemberg 
 Wiirtemberg 
 
 Wiirtemberg . . 
 Wiirtemberg 
 BaJeu 
 
 Complete 9 cl. 
 Complete 9 cl. 
 
 Complete 9 cl. 
 
 Less than 9 cl. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 El, or Vorschule. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Gym. and indust. 
 
 sch. 
 
 G3'ni. and indust. 
 sch. 
 Progym. and 
 real-sch. 
 Latin sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Gymnasium, 
 (iyinnasiiim. 
 (iymnasiiim. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Real-school. 
 Real-school. 
 G. and R. G. and 
 
 10 el. R. S. 
 
 Lj'cees, R. L., 
 
 and 8 cl. R. S. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Lower Lat. and 
 R. S. 
 
 Lower Lat. and 
 R. S. 
 
 9 cl. sch. 
 
 Director. 
 Director. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Ord. teachers 
 Drawing. 
 Drawing. 
 
 Assistants. 
 Rector. 
 
 Professor. 
 
 Rector. 
 
 Sub-rector. 
 Assistants. 
 Draw, and 
 
 turn. 
 
 Gym., Stu- 
 
 dien, and 
 
 Real-lehrer. 
 
 Rector. 
 Ord. teachers 
 Ass't 
 
 Draw., turn 
 
 sing. 
 
 Dir. 
 
 Ord. teachers 
 
 Rector. 
 
 Rector. 
 
 Professors. 
 Other teach- 
 ers. 
 
 Academic 
 trained. 
 
 Not academic 
 trained. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Begin- 
 
 6,000 
 5,100 
 
 4,500 
 
 4,500 
 
 4,500 
 
 2.100 
 1,600 
 1,000 
 1,400 
 
 1.500 
 4,920 
 
 3,720 
 
 3,720 
 
 3,720 
 1,620 
 2,040 
 
 2,280 
 
 6,600 
 2,400 
 1,.500 
 1,500 
 
 4,500 
 1,500 
 4,400 
 
 4,200 
 
 3,600 
 2,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 3 yri. 4 yr«. i 5 yr». 6 yrs. 7 j r«, 
 
 2,400 
 
 2,050 to 
 2,100 
 
 to 
 1,850 
 
 4,800 
 4,800 
 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 1,550 
 
 1,800 
 2,640 
 
 ..to.. 
 5,280 
 
 4,080 
 
 4,080 
 
 4,080 
 
 2,220' 
 
 3.000 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,700 
 
 4,800 
 
 1,800
 
 TEACHERS. 
 
 121 
 
 Principal States of Germany. 
 
 AFTER 
 
 
 
 
 8 yrs. 
 
 9 yrs. 
 
 10 yrs 
 
 1 
 12 yrs 
 
 14 yrs 
 
 16 yrs 
 
 IG yrs 
 
 18 yrs 
 
 20 yrs 
 
 21 yrs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,roo 
 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 5,400 
 
 4,500 
 
 (27) 
 
 3,200 
 
 
 
 
 5,100 
 
 
 
 5,400 
 5,400 
 
 
 5,roo 
 
 5,700 
 
 3,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,100 
 
 3,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 3,300 
 
 2,800 
 2.800 
 1,850 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 !l',4()0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,200 
 
 2,150 
 
 to 
 
 2,800 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 i,ruo 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 ji 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,640 
 4,440 
 4,440 
 4,440 
 2,400 
 3,i80 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 4,800 
 4,800 
 4,800 
 2,580 
 3,360 
 
 
 
 6,180 
 (a) 
 
 4,980 
 (al 
 
 4,980 
 
 4,980 
 2,760 
 
 
 
 
 450 
 420 
 420 
 420 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 900-1,200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,200 
 6,000 
 2.100 
 4,000 
 
 5,400 
 3,900 
 4,900 
 
 4,700 
 
 4,100 
 2,600 
 
 (30 
 yrs.) 
 2,800 
 
 (30 
 yrs.) 
 2,250 
 
 (30 
 vrs.) 
 5,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 4,600 
 4,400 
 3,800 
 
 
 ..to.. 
 ..to.. 
 ..to.. 
 
 F. R. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 2,300 
 
 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 ..to., 
 .to.. 
 
 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .to.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 122 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Table showing Salaries in the 
 
 Baden 
 
 Baden 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Mecklenburg . 
 IMeclilenburg . 
 Alsace-Lor- 
 raine 
 
 Alsace-Lor- 
 raine 
 
 Alsace-Lor- 
 raine 
 
 Alsace-Lor- 
 raine 
 
 Braunschweig 
 Braunschweig 
 
 Braunschweig 
 
 Oldenburg 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Saxe-Weimar. 
 Saxe- Weimar. 
 
 Anhalt 
 Anhalt 
 
 9 cl. seh. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Gym. and R. G. 
 
 Real-sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 18 Gym. and 4 
 R.-sch. 
 
 8 sec. courses less 
 than 9 jt. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 i of compl. inst. 
 
 and I inc. 
 Gyni.andR.gym, 
 Gym.andR.gyni, 
 
 Gym. and R. gym 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Gym.andR.gym 
 Gym. and R. gym 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Professor. 
 
 Trial teach- 
 ers. 
 Director. 
 Director. 
 Ord. teachers 
 university 
 trained. 
 Ord. teachers 
 seminary 
 trained. 
 Director. 
 Sci. teachers 
 
 Director. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Head 
 teachers. 
 
 Head 
 teachers. 
 Director. 
 
 Head 
 teachers. 
 
 Ordinary 
 teachers. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Head 
 teacher. 
 
 Director. 
 Ord. teachers 
 
 Director. 
 
 Head 
 teachers. 
 
 BeglD- 
 
 ning 
 
 salary. 
 
 yr«. 4 yr». 6 yr». 6 yr». 1 yn. 
 
 2,000 2.500 
 1,200 
 
 5,140 
 4,720 
 2,500 
 
 1,650 
 
 5,roo 
 
 2,000 
 4,800 
 
 4,500 
 
 2,600 
 
 2.600 
 
 4.800 
 2,100 
 
 2,100 
 
 5.000 
 
 5.200 
 2.200 
 
 4,500 
 2,600 
 
 6,400 
 2,500 
 
 2,900 
 
 5,100 
 2,400 
 
 2,400 
 
 5.300 
 
 i!,400 2,700 
 
 4,800 
 2,900 
 
 5,4.')5 
 4,930 
 
 3,000 
 
 aee Baumeister. Erziehung and Unterrichtslehre, I, ii, pp. 1-239. Also Rein's
 
 TEACHERS. 
 Principal States of Oerraany {continued). 
 
 123 
 
 AFTER 
 
 
 
 
 8 yra. 
 
 9yrs. 
 
 10 yrs 
 
 12 yrs 
 
 14yr» 
 
 15 yrs 
 
 16 yrs 
 
 18 yrs 
 
 20 yrs 
 
 21 yrs 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 (11) 
 
 
 4,500 
 
 
 
 . to 
 
 5,000 
 
 (18) 
 1,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 ..to.. 
 ..to.. 
 ..to.. 
 
 5,570 
 5,140 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,000 
 2,925 
 
 
 
 
 ..to.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 or R. 
 NoR. 
 
 R. 
 R. 
 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 
 4,000 
 5,400 
 
 4,800 
 
 
 
 4,500 
 
 6,000 
 5,100 
 5,000 
 5,300 
 
 5,000 
 6,600 
 
 5,400 
 
 5,400 
 
 (25 
 yrs.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 5,900 
 
 (24 
 yrs.) 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 5,700 
 3,300 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,900 
 3,300 
 
 
 4,700 
 
 6,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 NoR. 
 R. 
 
 NoR. 
 NoR. 
 
 300-500 
 NoR. 
 
 R. or 800 
 
 M. 
 NoR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,600 
 
 3,200 
 
 6,200 
 4,500 
 
 ..to.. 
 
 3,900 
 
 3,400 
 
 6,500 
 4,800 
 
 
 4,200 
 3.600 
 
 
 4,,50O 
 3,800 
 
 
 5,400 
 (30 
 
 yrs.) 
 
 4,000 
 (30 
 
 yrs.) 
 
 
 
 5,100 
 
 
 5,400 
 
 
 5,700 
 (25 
 yrs.) 
 5,700 
 5,000 
 in 10 
 addi- 
 tions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,400 
 3,500 
 
 
 
 5,700 
 4,700 
 
 
 
 
 6,000 
 5,300 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,800 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 5.900 
 
 (24 
 yrs.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, article Besoldung der Lehrer, i, 350 et seq. 
 10
 
 124 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Salaries in Some Cities 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Berlin. . . . 
 
 Hamburg 
 Hamburg 
 Hamburg 
 Hamburg 
 Hamburg 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Leipsic. . . 
 Leipeic. . . 
 Leipsic. . . 
 
 Leipsic. . . 
 
 Leipsic. . . 
 
 Leipsic. . . 
 Bremen . 
 Bremen . 
 Bremen . 
 
 Bremen . 
 
 Bremen . 
 
 Bremen . 
 
 Dresden . 
 Dresden . 
 Dresden . 
 
 Gym., R. gym., Ober- 
 
 real-school. 
 Gym., R. gym., Ober- 
 
 real-school. 
 Gym., R. gym., Ober- 
 
 real-school. 
 Gym., R. gym., Ober- 
 
 real-school. 
 
 Gym., R. gym., Ober- 
 
 real-school. 
 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 R. S. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. scb. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Any sec. sch. 
 
 Vorschule. 
 
 Vorschule. 
 
 Gymnasium. 
 Gymnasium. 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Gym. and R. S. 
 
 Real-school. 
 Gym. and R. gym. 
 
 Real-school. 
 Gym. and R. gym. 
 
 Gym. and R. gym. 
 
 Real-school. 
 
 Real-school. 
 
 Gym. and R. gym. 
 Gym. and R. g.ym. 
 Gym. and R. gym. 
 
 Director. 
 
 Head teachers. 
 
 Technical sub- 
 jects. 
 Gynmastics. 
 
 Gymnastics. 
 
 Director. 
 Director. 
 Head teachers (a) 
 Head teachers (6j 
 Head teachers {c) 
 Technical teach- 
 ers («) 
 Technical teach- 
 ers (6) 
 Ordinary teach- 
 ers (a) 
 Ordinary teach- 
 ers (/*) 
 Rector. 
 Conrector. 
 Head teachers. 
 
 Assistants. 
 
 Gymnastics and 
 draw. 
 Director. 
 Director. 
 Director. 
 Academic 
 trained tr. 
 Seminary 
 trained tr. 
 Academic 
 trained tr. 
 Seminary 
 trained tr. 
 
 Rector. 
 Conrector. 
 
 Head teachers. 
 
 Begin* 
 nlni; 
 
 6,G00 
 
 3,200 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,400 
 
 1,900 
 
 10.000 
 7.200 
 7,200 
 5,2(X) 
 3.200 
 4,100 
 
 3,200 
 
 2,600 
 
 1,800 
 
 6,900 
 5,700 
 2,400 
 
 1,700 
 
 2,000 
 
 5.100 
 7,000 
 6,000 
 2,500 
 
 2,250 
 
 2,400 
 
 2,000 
 
 6,000 
 5,500 
 2,400
 
 TEACHERS. 
 
 125 
 
 not regulated hy the State. 
 
 Syrs. 
 
 6yrs. 
 
 7 yrs. 
 
 
 9 yrs. 
 
 10 yrs 
 
 12 yrs 
 
 14 yrs 
 
 15 yrs 
 
 18 yrs 
 
 . 20 yrs 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,200 
 
 4,700 
 3,200 
 3,200 
 2,500 
 
 5,000 
 3,800 
 3,400 
 
 5,S00 
 (21) 
 
 3.600 
 
 (21) 
 2,700 
 
 5,600 
 (24J 
 
 
 
 3,800 
 
 
 4,100 
 
 2,900 
 
 4,400 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,800 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 2,100 
 
 
 
 
 2,300 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,400 
 8.400 
 6.400 
 4,400 
 4,700 
 
 3,800 
 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,000 
 7,000 
 5,0(X) 
 5,000 
 
 4,100 
 
 3,600 
 
 2,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,100 
 2,300 
 
 
 3,350 
 
 7,500 
 ..to. 
 
 
 7,200 
 
 
 
 2,650 
 
 1,050 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,100 
 
 (25) 
 2,100 
 
 (25) 
 3,400 
 
 3,600 
 
 (25) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,^00 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,800 
 
 
 
 3,100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,050 
 
 7,500 
 6,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 7,000 
 4,500 
 
 3,250 
 
 4,200 
 
 3,000 
 
 7.200 
 fi.OOO 
 3,600 
 
 
 
 5,500 
 3,750 
 5,100 
 3,500 
 
 
 
 6,500 
 4,250 
 6,000 
 4,000 
 
 3,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,750 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,900 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 5,800 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,900 
 
 
 4,600 
 
 4,900 
 
 5.200 
 (21) 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 3,400 
 
 
 
 

 
 120 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GEIlMANY^ 
 
 The foregoing tables of this section show tlie 
 beginning salaries, and the various additions that 
 are made to them at intervals. Tlie values given 
 are in marks (1 mark = 23.8 cents ; approximately, 
 one quarter of a dollar). It will be remarked that 
 the beginning salaries are very low, and that in- 
 creases are small and far apart. (The last column 
 indicates whether a free residence (F. E.) is fur- 
 nished or the amount sometimes given in lieu of it. 
 In some cases it was impossible to determine. Usu- 
 ally from ten to fifteen per cent of the salary re- 
 ceived (according to expensiveness of the locality) 
 is allowed for rent. 
 
 When we take into consideration the fact that 
 the purchasing power of money is no greater in 
 Germany than in this country, it must be ad- 
 mitted that the salaries are very meagre. After 
 living in both countries, and keeping a very strict 
 account of expenses of living, I have found that to 
 live in Germany on the same plane as here the ex- 
 penses differ very inconsiderably. The balance, if 
 any, shows increased cost in Germany. I am well 
 aware that poj^ular opinion conceives the case differ- 
 ently, and also that many writers make opposite 
 statements. But they lose sight of the important 
 part of the argument — i. e., they forget to make 
 the plane of living the same for both countries. 
 That Germans do live more cheaply than Americans 
 I do not propose to dispute. But that one can live 
 in the average city in the United States as cheaply 
 as he can on the same plane in Germany, I am fully 
 convinced from an inspection of my own closely
 
 TEACHERS. 127 
 
 kept account book. There are certain classes of 
 articles that are much cheaper in Germany than in 
 America. Laces, silks, china ware, toys, fancy goods, 
 ladies' hats, cloaks, and ready-made dresses, wine, 
 beer, cigars, and smokers' articles are all cheaper 
 there than here — some very much, others only a 
 little. All sorts of amusements, such as theatres, 
 museums, fairs, public parks, skating rinks, baths, 
 etc., are about one fourth of American prices. 
 
 Kent is also considerably lower than in American 
 cities ; doctors' fees, lawyers' fees, dentists' fees, and 
 barber bills are also only one half or one third as 
 high there as here. But when we turn to the con- 
 sideration of the cost of food products and staple 
 articles of wearing apparel the case is changed. All 
 articles of food consumption, with the exception of 
 " Roggenbrod " and some kinds of vegetables, are 
 much higher. Wheat flour costs nearly twice as much, 
 all kinds of meat from twenty-five to fifty per cent 
 more ; eggs, butter, sugar, potatoes, and most fruits, 
 about twenty per cent more than in America. All 
 kinds of ready-made clothing, cotton or woollen 
 goods, shoes, hats, umbrellas, etc., can be bought 
 in America equally as cheap as in Germany. The 
 subject might be discussed at great length, but it is 
 sufficient to note that the facts shown in the tables 
 indicate that the amount of salary which the ordi- 
 nary German teacher receives is very small, consid- 
 ered absolutely or relatively. v 
 
 One compensation for the scantiness of salary is, 
 however, the expected pension. A teacher who has 
 served in the public schools ten years or more, if
 
 128 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 (lisiibled by sickness or accident, is assured of a pen- 
 sion. After serving about forty-five years he may 
 retire and receive a pension for the rest of his life. 
 The amount of the pension varies with the length 
 of service, being about twenty-five per cent of the 
 salary received at the end of ten years' service and 
 increasing up to about seventy-five per cent at the 
 end of forty-five years. The amounts and time re- 
 quirements vary in the different states. A man's 
 widow and small children also receive certain pen- 
 sions in case of the teacher's death. Hence there 
 is not that anxiety concerning a " rainy day " or old 
 age that constantly presses upon American teachers.
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 movements toward reform in courses of study. 
 
 1. Historical Basis of Curricula. 
 
 Since the question concerning the species of 
 secondary school or schools best adapted to the 
 needs of Germany has occupied so much of the 
 attention of the schoolmen and philosophers, and 
 the German people in general, it will probably not 
 be amiss to sketch briefly the fundamental questions 
 that have entered into the discussions. It will also 
 be well to point out the various epochs in the growth 
 of the secondary-school systems. The recent move- 
 ment is not of mushroom growth, but its roots ex- 
 tend far back into the past. The present movement 
 is only the culmination of long-continued agitation, 
 sometimes quiet and undemonstrative and at other 
 times breaking forth in discussions and controversies 
 of the most heated and lively sort. 
 
 I shall not enter into details of secondary school 
 history. To do it justice would require a volume 
 for that topic alone. Those who care to inquire 
 into the subject exhaustively will find rich mines of 
 information and philosophical treatment in such 
 works as Paulsen's Geschichte des gelehrten Unter- 
 richts. For full and detailed accounts of the most 
 recent movement, which culminated in the " De- 
 
 129
 
 130 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 cembcr Conference of 1800," see Prof. Charles H. 
 Thurber's account in tlie Eeport of the Commission- 
 er of Education, i, 188!)-'00. A clear and concise 
 account of the movement is also to be found in 
 Prof. Dr. Conrad Hetwisch's Deutschlands huheres 
 Schulwesen im 19. Jahrhundert. From the three 
 authors mentioned, the facts here embodied are 
 drawn principally, and the only justification of this 
 chapter is the advantage of making the treatment 
 of German secondary schools symmetrical, and also 
 the desire to place in proper jserspective, for those 
 who may not read German, the facts which come 
 later in my treatment of present courses of study. 
 
 The gymnasium is the outgrowth of the first 
 schools founded in Germany during the middle ages. 
 Previous to the influence awakened by the Eenais- 
 sance, learning was mostly confined to the monas- 
 teries ; but with the influx of new learning and the 
 growth of cities in Germany, other schools than the 
 Do7n and Eloster . Schulen (cathedral and cloister 
 schools) became a necessity. The Batscliulcn (city 
 schools) were erected, and from these came the typ- 
 ical Latin school of the sixteenth century, this in 
 turn developing in Germany into the gymnasium 
 of the present. In England the term "grammar 
 school " became prevalent in designating schools of 
 the same character. In America the term Latin 
 school was used until the beginning of the present 
 century to designate the offshoot in this country. 
 The name gymnasium first came into use in Ger- 
 many in the sixteenth century. 
 
 The purjDose of the Dom and Kloster schools was
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 131 
 
 avowedly that of preparing the clergy for the church, 
 and hence they attempted to give instruction and 
 finish in all knowledge which the clerical calling 
 made necessai-y. These branches consisted of sing- 
 ing, reading, writing, computation, and grammar, as 
 fundamentals ; then followed those studies which 
 enabled them to speak with more force and elegance. 
 A knowledge of the sciences was also considered 
 necessary to a proper exegesis of the sacred writings. 
 Thus arose the " seven disciplines " — the three for- 
 mal {artes sei^mocincdes) and the four real (artes 
 reales) disciplines. The first consisted of grammar, 
 rhetoric, and dialectics, and the latter of arithmetic, 
 geometry, astronomy, and music. All, however, it 
 must be borne in mind, centred about one point, 
 that of preparing for religious duties and formali- 
 ties. As Professor Paulsen says,* the aim was " lit- 
 terarische Bildung und Konfessionelle, oder mit 
 Joseph Sturms Formel, litterata jnetas.'''' He fur- 
 ther adds that the literary ideal conceived was the 
 ability to write classical Latin in prose and verse. 
 It was believed that imitation of the old poets and 
 rhetoricians was the road to eloquence. H. Wigge 
 writes : f " Das Gymnasium ist urspriinglich als Beruf- 
 schule f iir die Diener der Romischen Kirche gegriin- 
 det worden. Es war bestimmt, zu lehren, was zum 
 Verstandniss der Kirchenlohre und zur Ausiibung 
 des Kirchendienstes nothwendig war, die Sprachen, 
 die Bibel und der Kirchenvater ; Lateinisch, Grie- 
 
 * Geschiclite des gelehrten Unterrichts, ii, p. 8. 
 
 f Rein's Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Piidagogik, ii, iii.
 
 132 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 chiscli, llebriiisch, orsteres vor alien ; es musste also 
 die alten Sprachen treiben, um Theologen zu bil- 
 den." 
 
 From the schools of the middle ages, having the 
 classical studies as the core of all instruction, the 
 gymnasium of the present docs not widely deviate in 
 curriculum. By examination of their programmes in 
 Prussia, it is found that out of each 252 hours' total 
 instruction in a gymnasial course, 62 hours are de- 
 voted to Latin, 36 to Greek, 19 to religion. That is, 
 117 hours are still devoted to classics and to reli- 
 gious observances. Frequently there are 6 hours of 
 Hebrew additional. In Saxony even more time is 
 devoted to Latin and Greek than in Prussia. Thus, 
 nearly half of the boy's whole study time, from six 
 to twenty years of age, is spent in mastering Ian-' 
 guages long since dead, and with thoughts expressed 
 nearly twenty centuries ago — material which is no 
 longer necessary to investigation. Professor Paul- 
 sen says that if all the scientific literature of the 
 ancients were dropped completely out of existence, 
 mathematics, natural science, jurisprudence, philoso- 
 phy, and theology would in no wise suffer.* 
 
 Although the core of the studies is the same as 
 formerly, the ideals striven for are undoubtedly vast- 
 ly different. As Professor Paulsen sees it, the goal 
 now striven for is not imitation, but the formation 
 of the mind and taste through intercourse with the 
 old authors in all literary productions. This view 
 is perhaps the philosophical one taken by learned 
 
 * Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, ii, p. 633.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 133 
 
 pedagogues, but the more immediately practical 
 view sees that it is the secondary school which fits for 
 the university, and opens the way to certain privi- 
 leges in life which no other course will do. " All 
 roads lead to Eome, but only one to the university, 
 and that road is the gymnasium." * 
 
 Realschulen (real-schools) have been in existence 
 since the beginning of the eighteenth century. The 
 name was first used in Halle. Christopher Semler 
 there opened a " mathematische und mechanische 
 Eealschule." It was not a school with an independ- 
 ent existence, but an " institute " in which a few 
 courses were given, where "instruments, models, 
 machines, and implements, as well as natural objects 
 of all sorts, could be explained." The chief aim, 
 according to Semler, was : " dass die Jugend an eine 
 wahre Realitat gewohnt werde. For here are no 
 empty speculations or useless subtilities, but ipsis- 
 simce res, they are Dei opera, and. such machines as 
 render utility in daily life." f 
 
 The first fully developed real-school was organ- 
 ized in Berlin in 1747 by J. J. Hecker, a former stu- 
 dent in Halle. His first thought was to better the 
 existing conditions of Hhe elementary schools, and 
 secondly to provide a higher school for the most 
 inquiring of the middle classes. In this " okono- 
 misch-mathematischen Eealschule " of Hecker the 
 programme of 1747 included religion, Latin, Ger- 
 man, French, drawing, history, geography, geometry, 
 
 * Juling, Das zehnklassige Gymnasium, 
 f Paulsen, op. cit., ii, p. G3.
 
 13-i SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 mechanics, architecture, and morals, besides special 
 courses for particular callings.* Immediately after 
 this similar schools began to grow up all over Ger- 
 many. The courses at first did not appear very 
 different from many of the Latin schools of the day, 
 but as soon as tlie Abiturienten, or leaving examina^ 
 tion, was inaugurated in 1788 the separation became 
 at once definitely marked ; the gymnasium main- 
 tained its classical character while the real-school 
 became more and more a people's school. 
 
 About 1821 Director Spilleke of the Berlin school 
 began to realize that the same school could not well 
 give pupils of the middle classes of people a proper 
 general education and at the same time provide 
 technical instruction. In the early '20's Greek was 
 made one of the required major subjects of the 
 final examination in the Latin schools and gymnasia, 
 and was placed in the curricula as a regular subject 
 beginning with Quarta. These changes made the 
 Latin schools more and more unsuitable to the com- 
 mon people, and it became evident that something 
 must be done to provide for the needs of those who 
 expected to enter upon business life as well as of 
 those who expected to attend the universities. The 
 labourers realized that they did not need the clas- 
 sics ; they were learning what they did not need, and 
 what they needed they did not learn. The future 
 university students were also hindered by the pres- 
 ence of so much unnecessary foreign material. 
 
 But the government was loath to take a hand in 
 
 * Paulsen, op. cif., ii, p. 64.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. I35 
 
 the matter of adjustment. Paulsen writes that the 
 governmental interests were more closely united with 
 the gymnasium than with the seemingly necessary 
 " compromise " school. The question came up in 
 this form : " What shall be done with those gymna- 
 sium students who will not attend the universi- 
 ties ? " * 
 
 It was the opinion of Johannes Schulze (then 
 Minister of Education in Prussia) that the gymna- 
 sium must be entirely freed from this " Schiilerbal- 
 last " (later so called). 
 
 In March, 1824, a rescript from the minister was 
 issued which obliged the schools to make severer 
 examinations and sharper distinctions, so as to free 
 the gymnasia of all unsuitable material. But so 
 much pressure was brought to bear upon the govern- 
 ment in the clamour for some sort of a " compro- 
 mise " institution that in March, 1832, an order 
 relating to the final examinations (" Entlassungs- 
 priifungen dem hoheren Biirger und Eealschulen "), 
 was issued, which indicated that the pupils who 
 passed it should have the same privileges (relating to 
 the one year's free military service, the right to enter 
 the postal service, etc.), that had been given to the 
 gymnasial graduates. (At that time the real- 
 schools had nine-year courses.) The subjects for 
 examination were German, Latin (Caesar, Ovid, Ver- 
 gil), French (in schools where taught, including the 
 ability to read, write, speak), English, Italian, reli- 
 
 *"Was das Gymnasium mit dem Schiilerii nnicheii solle, 
 die nieht zu Uuiversitatsstudieii seieii^"
 
 136 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 gion, liistory, geography, mathematics, and natural 
 science. But it was also added that if Latin was 
 not taught the graduates should be excluded from 
 all positions where Latin was needed. Thus, here 
 was a distinct blow at tlie real-schools on the part of 
 the government. Latin was a prescribed study, and 
 if " Lateinlos," about the only privileges they could 
 claim were similar to those of the burgher schools, 
 since most of the important positions could and did 
 contend for Latin as a prerequisite for entrance to 
 them. The real-schools had become, as Paulsen 
 says, real-gymnasia against the wishes of the people 
 and without attached privileges. 
 
 But in consequence of the reaction against this 
 state of things there came better things for the real- 
 schools. Through the wail that went up from all 
 quarters concerning the injustice, the real status 
 became evident. The recognition of the evil was a 
 very important factor in the solution of the problem. 
 At all events, on October 6, 1859, an important order 
 was issued by the government. This marks the 
 birth of the Prussian real-gymnasium. 
 
 By this order the real-schools were brought under 
 the management of the Provincial Schulkollegium 
 instead of remaining under the same management 
 as the people's schools. They were in the future to 
 be recognised under three classes : real-schools of the 
 first class and second class, and higher burgher 
 schools. The first to be the 2iormal form, having 
 a nine-year course, with Latin throughout the 
 courses ; the other two to be incomplete forms with 
 shorter courses. The second class was to be ar-
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 137 
 
 ranged without entitling to the coveted privileges 
 {Berechtigunfjen) ; Latin was to be optional. The 
 higher burgher school was planned to have the same 
 course as the real-schools of the first class, lacking, 
 however, the two years in Prima. This form sub- 
 sequently developed into the real-progymnasium. 
 In the official Lehrplan, or plan of studies, it was 
 stated that no principal difference was to be recog- 
 nised between gymnasia and real-schools ; both were 
 to impart the fundamentals of knowledge ; the real- 
 school was not to become a technical school ; the 
 two were simply to prepare for the different future 
 callings. This division was made a necessity in 
 consequence of the development of science and the 
 changed relations of life fast asserting themselves. 
 
 But as to privileges the real-schools were still at 
 a disadvantage. True, the real-schools of the first 
 class, as well as the gymnasia, were given the privi- 
 lege of the one-year voluntary military service after 
 a half year's attendance in Secunda, and their gradu- 
 ates were also admitted to study in some of the tech- 
 nical schools. 
 
 In the other two classes of school a half year in 
 Prima was required to secure the one-year voluntary 
 service. But graduates from the real-schools of all 
 classes were debarred from the universities. The 
 classical gymnasium was still the only road. 
 
 Nevertheless, the necessity for the existence of 
 the real-schools was being demonstrated. On the 
 one hand, the conditions of life were constantly 
 changing, and the demands of the departments of 
 skilled labour were making manifest the necessity of
 
 138 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 higher training, combined with the acquaintance 
 with scientific methods ; on the other hand, the 
 technical schools were rapidly coming into exist- 
 ence. These, in turn, exerted a most potent influ- 
 ence in shaping the courses of training preparatory 
 to entering them. In place of the superfluous classic 
 lore they demanded an acquaintance with things. 
 Henceforth, in all parts of Germany this new form 
 of compromise school began to grow rapidly. They 
 were established in Saxony, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
 Hesse, Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, and in the 
 free cities of Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen. They 
 were recognised in name in Saxony as early as 1870, 
 (some years before they were in Prussia), and in 
 Bavaria in 1864. Paulsen strenuously denies that 
 they were arbitrary creations of the Prussian school 
 bureaucracy (" Sclnilhvreauhratie "), as some have 
 maintained, but affirms that they were the neces- 
 sary products of the age. He writes in substance : 
 " The real-gymnasium is not a discovery but it is a 
 growth of the time. Various commercial conditions 
 and necessities have brought forth the iiQVf form of 
 gymnasium. It is not a pure citizens' school, neither 
 is it a pure classical school, but partakes of the na- 
 ture of both. There are people who require a second- 
 ary education which neither the citizens' school nor 
 the classical gymnasium offers. They are in a large 
 part to be found in the government official positions, 
 and do not go to the university. It is for them that 
 the new form of ' Hochschulen ' has arisen during 
 this century (such as mining, engineering, forestry 
 academies, military academies, etc.). They cannot
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OP STUDY. 139 
 
 wholly dispense with Latin, because it is met with on 
 all sides in their work, neither can they get along 
 without the sciences and modern languages. Besides 
 these there are those who have charge of great in- 
 dustries, also merchants, landlords, technical men, and 
 chemists, who could get along without Latin in their 
 business, but frequently experience a lack in the 
 way of accomplishments, Avhen not in possession of 
 it. Hence, the real-gymnasium has arisen to meet 
 these demands.* If the real-gymnasium be struck 
 out the result cannot be otherwise than that the 
 majority of its pupils will turn toward the gymna- 
 sium rather than take up with the less worthy citi- 
 zens' school. The philologians will then view the 
 situation askance from two points of view. One 
 class will see only the growing burden of unfit 
 pupils {wachsende Schi'derballast), the other class 
 will see the growing recognition of classical instruc- 
 tion on the part of the common people." f 
 
 By 18G4 the higher citizens' school had nearly 
 disappeared, and in its place the real-gymnasium, or 
 Nutzlichkeitkramschule, as some derisively called it, 
 had become incorporated. The cities had conformed 
 to the new order and built real-gymnasia alongside of 
 the gymnasia. In 1869 the first class was graduated 
 from the real-gymnasia in Prussia. In 1870 the gradu- 
 ates were permitted to study mathematics, natural sci- 
 ence, and modern languages in the university. They 
 
 "■ Der BegrifE liebt reine Formen, die Wirklichkeit dagegen 
 fordert niannigfache Uebergangsformeu. 
 t Op, cif.,. ii, p. 557. 
 11
 
 140 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 still demanded more and asked to be admitted to 
 the universities witii the same privileges, especially 
 in medicine, as gymnasial students were accorded. 
 From this point the strife has gone on for a quarter 
 of a century, but little more has been gained. 
 
 About 1870 real-schools without Latin began to be 
 established. These have since developed into the high- 
 er real-schools. In 1879 they were given the privilege 
 of preparing students for the industrial school. 
 
 The revision of the course of study, which had 
 been before the authorities since 1873, was finally 
 effected in May, 1882. On the 27th of that month, 
 for the first time, all the higher schools were brought 
 together in a united order. The higher real-schools 
 were then first officially recognised. They had de- 
 veloped out of the real-schools of the second class 
 and the industrial schools. From that time seven 
 classes of secondary schools have been recognised, 
 viz. : gymnasia, real-gymnasia, higher real-schools, 
 progymnasia, real-progymnasia, burgher schools, and 
 real-schools.* 
 
 Thus matters stood in 1882 ; and since that time 
 discussion has waxed warm upon the questions that 
 were then uppermost, and upon side issues that have 
 grown out of the original questions at stake. On 
 the one hand there have been ranged the champions 
 of the newer scientific education, deemed to meet 
 better the necessities of the time, and still prepare 
 for the university faculties ; on the other hand are the 
 exponents of the time-honoured classical instruction, 
 
 *See chap, i, p. 6, Outline of Schools.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. Ul 
 
 who can see only one way of securing a liberal edu- 
 cation, and that through the classics. The latter 
 have prophesied that the recognised parity between 
 the classical and the realistic institutions would 
 jeopardize learning and ruin German science. More- 
 over, they fear a deluge of candidates for the learned 
 professions. They fear a class of " hunger candi- 
 dates," educated paupers, and wish to devise means 
 of keeping the masses away from the universities. 
 
 Out of these controversies has grown the " Ueber- 
 biirdungsfrage," or the question of overburdening of 
 courses, that has come about by attempting to make 
 each class of school meet the needs of all classes of 
 students. The gymnasium students have been over- 
 burdened with extra scientific studies, while the real- 
 school pupils are still swamped by the Latin they 
 must carry in order to secure recognition. Both 
 forms of institution have multiplied their subjects 
 in order to meet the modern demands made upon 
 them. According to Paulsen (ii, p. 561) the classical 
 enthusiasts are responsible for much of the manifest 
 unrest. He writes : " The entire school war {Sclml- 
 hricg), the entire unfortunate complication of things, 
 has been entirely brought about because the philo- 
 logians have secured laws making Greek a compul- 
 sory study in the gymnasium, and as a prerequisite 
 to all higher study. Had they let the Latin school 
 of the preceding century alone and allowed it to de- 
 velop itself naturally ; had they not decreed that all 
 who wish higher education must take Greek as the 
 only means ; then there would have branched out 
 peacefully from the classical schools a higher burgher
 
 142 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 school, instead of a real-school with Latin, which has 
 only split off from the gymnasium after a liard fight. 
 " The stubbornness and selfishness of the philo- 
 logic dogmatists (ScJudpapste), with their belief in 
 the requirement necessitating all the world to par- 
 take of the only saving culture (the classical), has 
 alone brought forth the entire uni'est and offensive- 
 ness of the struggle." 
 
 2. The Final Struggle. 
 
 The struggle for reform in the schools was very 
 pronounced during the years between 1882 and 1888. 
 During this period Dr. Eethwisch Avrites that no 
 less than three hundred and forty-four reform propo- 
 sitions were published, in which the following gen- 
 eral demands were most prominent : * 
 
 1. A common basis of organization of the lower 
 grades (eleven to sixteen years) in all secondary 
 schools, and, as far as possible, in the studies offered. 
 To accomplish this, they demanded the so-called 
 " Einheitsschule," witli the above features. 
 
 2. Greater weight placed upon the more modern 
 subjects of instruction in the gymnasia. 
 
 3. In all the secondary schools more especial at- 
 tention to the German language and literature. 
 
 4. Changes in the privileges (Berechtignngen) con- 
 ferred by the " Eeif ezeugniss " and other certificates 
 of promotion from the schools. f 
 
 *See Rethwisch's Deutschlands hciheres Schiilwesen, p. 119. 
 
 f Rethwiscli says : " Der Angelpunkt den ganzes Sehulfrage 
 
 lag in den Berechtigungswesen." {Loc. cit., p. 119.) Further,
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OP STUDY. 143 
 
 5. More bodily exercise in all schools. 
 
 Among other questions growing out of these are 
 a few taken from the constitution of (a) the General 
 German Association for School Eeform, and (b) the 
 prospectus of The Xew German School, the organ 
 of the association for school reform. 
 
 6. Better preparation of students for their later 
 callings as teachers and educators (from " a " and 
 
 7. Simplification of the system of examinations 
 (" a " and " b "). 
 
 8. Better school hygiene (" a " and " b "). 
 
 9. Greater co-operation of parents in the duties 
 and rights of education (from both " a " and " b "). 
 
 10. Unification of all efforts for school reform 
 (from " b "). 
 
 11. An independent administration for educa- 
 tional affairs under a more complete direction of 
 specialists (" b "). 
 
 12. An educational code (" b ").* 
 
 The general meaning of the entire unrest has 
 been admirably summed up by Dr. Eethwisch,f from 
 
 according to Prof. Ziegler: "Den Anlass zum Anspruch des 
 in den letzten Jaliren mit so grosser Erbitterung gefiihrten 
 Streites urn die Schulegab aber die Frage der Berechtigungen. 
 Das sogenannte Gyranasialmonopol wurde in Anspruch genom- 
 nien, und die Zulassung der Realgymnasialabitnrienten zura 
 Univeritiitsstudiuni. speziell zu dem der Medizin begehrt und 
 erstrebt." (Die Fragen der Schulreforin, p. 10.) 
 
 * See Bureau of Education Reports, 1889-'90, i, pp. 330-343, 
 for translations and reports. 
 
 j; Loc. cit., pp. 113-115.
 
 144 SECOXDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 whom I take tlie liberty of quoting fit some length. 
 "The German school reform movement is only one 
 branch of a general European movement. The de- 
 velopment of civilization in recent times has made 
 such extraordinary strides that the significance of 
 antiquity as a source of knowledge is much less than 
 formerly. Each European people of the ' Kultur- 
 Jcreis ' * looks back upon a rich national mental de- 
 velopment. Each one must, however, be admonished 
 to contemplate sharply its own powers and possibili- 
 ties in order to gain a more intimate acquaintance 
 with the characteristics of other civilized nations. 
 This is made imperative by the world's commercial 
 struggle, which has been ushered in by the electric 
 spark. The higher schools of all lands have an in- 
 finitely greater task to perform than formerly, in 
 bringing the growing youth into sympathy with the 
 education of the present. 
 
 " The degree in which the individual European 
 peoples still feel the effects of antiquity and corre- 
 spondingly change the subjects of study in their 
 higher schools stands in a direct projoortion to the de- 
 gree in which antiquity penetrated into the previous 
 national life. The culture of antiquity is yet a part of 
 the present in the life of Eomance peoples in a higher 
 degree than in the Germanic and other civilized na- 
 tions of Europe. Since Frary's ' La question du La- 
 tin,' the reform movement in France has not come 
 to a standstill. Only recently there was foi'med in 
 France, with the names of leading personalities head- 
 
 * Literally, civilized circle — i. e.. the educated nations.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. I45 
 
 ing the list, a national association for the reform 
 of secondary education, which attempts to formulate 
 a scheme in which the lowest grades shall all have 
 the same instruction. During the period of common 
 instruction the course is to be without ancient lan- 
 guages, while in the upper grades they may diverge 
 into the humanistic direction or into that of exact sci- 
 ence. An examination is to be given at the close of 
 the lower period. In all the schools with this com- 
 mon basis the first part of the baccalaureate exami- 
 nation of the classical secondary instruction consists 
 of a Latin translation and a French composition, 
 for which three themes are given to the pupil to se- 
 lect from. In the second place, the candidates are 
 examined in philosophy or in mathematical jihysics, 
 or, in special cases, in natural science. All three di- 
 visions of examinees must show their acquaintance 
 with modern history. 
 
 " In England, the London L'niversity has made 
 the beginning in the reform, since Greek is no longer 
 among the required subjects in the matriculation ex- 
 amination. 
 
 " Sweden and Korway have a three-grade common 
 school : the lower form without Latin ; a middle 
 form without Greek, but one branch having Latin ; 
 and an upper form with Greek for the classical stu- 
 dents. Greek is a prerequisite only for future theo- 
 logians and philologians. In the Hungarian gym- 
 nasia Greek has become optional, and is only re- 
 quired of students of theology, science of language, 
 philosophy, and history. All other branches of 
 study are open to the real-school graduates, who
 
 14:G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 may have optional Latin, as well as to the gymnasia! 
 graduates who have not chosen Latin. Greek may be 
 subsequently taken in a supplemental examination. 
 The mother tongue and national history form the 
 central field of attention. The gymnasium in the 
 canton of Berne consists of a three-class common 
 lower form without Latin and Greek, and a five-grade 
 upper form branching into literary and realistic di- 
 visions, of which only the first branch has Latin as 
 obligatory and Greek as elective. At the final ex- 
 amination in the St. Gall Canton school and in the 
 Lucerne Lyceum Greek is placed as an elective ; in 
 Basel it is required of future medical students." 
 
 During the last ten years, undoubtedly the ques- 
 tion relating to the overburdening of pupils has 
 rightfully secured a foremost rank in the struggle. 
 The people have taken up the cry of " Ueberbiirdung," 
 and the cause has found many able champions among 
 schoolmen. The attitude and action of the Em- 
 peror on this question have been most significant. 
 He has begun to fear that the overpressure in the 
 schools is endangering the physical health of pupils 
 and jeopardizing the future defence of the country. 
 Then, too, the superabundance of their studies has 
 crowded the study of the mother tongue to the wall, 
 and indirectly the patriotic teachings necessary for 
 the security of legal citizenship has been crowded 
 out. The programme of the Royal Cadet Corps, as 
 revised by his order, " lays special stress upon modern 
 languages and modern history." * 
 
 =■•■• Dr. W. H. Biirnham, Pcd. Sem.. i, 1.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OP STUDY. 147 
 
 Tlie Emperor's attitude toward tliese important 
 questions may be best shown by direct quotations 
 from some of his orders and speeches relating to the 
 matter. The first quotations are made from his 
 order of 1889. " I have for a long time thought of 
 making use of the schools in their separate grades 
 for combatting the spread of socialistic and commu- 
 nistic ideas. The prime idea of the schools will ever 
 be to lay the foundations for a sound comprehension 
 of both civic and social relations by cherishing rev- 
 erence for God and the love of Fatherland. But I 
 cannot fail to recognise that in a time when the 
 errors and misrepresentations of social democracy 
 are spread abroad with increased zeal, the school is 
 called upon to make increased efforts to advance the 
 recognition of the true, the real, and the 'possible in 
 the world. The school must endeavour to create in 
 the young the conviction that the teachings of social 
 democracy contradict not only the divine commands 
 and Christian morals, but are, moreover, impracti- 
 cable, and in their consequences destructive alike to 
 the individual and to the community." * 
 
 In March, 1890, Minister of Education von 
 Gossler first mentioned the idea of bringing together 
 in joint session the prominent exponents of both the 
 classical and realistic instruction for the purpose of 
 discussing, under parliamentary rules, the great ques- 
 tions that were pressing upon them. It was thought 
 that in this way more would be accomplished than 
 by debate and harangue in popular assemblages. On 
 
 * See DuiViui of Eduealion Reports, i, 1889-'90.
 
 148 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the 31st of October the Minister issued an invitation 
 to prominent schoohnen to attend a conference in 
 Berlin in December, for the purpose of discussing 
 matters pertaining to the welfare of the schools. 
 
 This conference was composed of forty-four 
 members representing the two antagonistic forces. 
 The reformers, however, considered it a " packed " 
 conference. The people had been led to believe 
 that they were at last to have an official hearing, and 
 that their cause would receive due recognition. But 
 as soon as the names of the participants and the con- 
 stitution were made known, the reformers lost all 
 hope. One gymuasial advocate said : " In fact, the 
 list of names and the questions (proposed for discus- 
 sion) contain the decision." There was a noticeable 
 lack of real-gymnasium supporters, the most promi- 
 nent ones in the country not having been summoned. 
 On the other hand, there was a strong array of sup- 
 porters of the classical gymnasia. Much might be 
 expected in the nature of general reforms, but no 
 pronounced changes in the customary school organ- 
 ization. Frick and Schiller were there to champion 
 the question of better pedagogical preparation of 
 teachers, and there were many ready to take up the 
 cause against overpressure and nearsightedness. 
 But, as Professor Thurber observes, " The friends of 
 the new German school, however, expected little, and 
 they would have been less disappointed than they 
 were but for the energetic interference of the Em- 
 peror." 
 
 The questions which came up before the confer- 
 ence were as follows :
 
 REFOEM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 149 
 
 1. Are the varieties of high school existing to-day 
 to be maintained in their present separation, or is it 
 advisable to unite (a) the gymnasium and the real- 
 gymnasium, (b) the real-gymnasium and the higlicr 
 real-school ? 
 
 2. Can a common foundation be provided for the 
 three existing classes of schools (gymnasia, real-gym- 
 nasia, schools without Latin) or for two of the same ? 
 In the latter case is it recommended (a) to extend 
 the existing uniformity for the three lower classes 
 of the gymnasia and real-gymnasia to Lower Secunda, 
 (inclusive), and to introduce from Upper Secunda 
 upward the study plan of the higher real-school ? 
 (This is providing for a combination of the real- 
 gymnasium with the real-school.) (b) Or to push 
 forward Latin in the real-gymnasium to Lower 
 Tertia, and to amplify the three lower classes that do 
 not study Latin into a higher burgher school ? 
 (This is providing for a combination of the real-gym- 
 nasium with the higher burgher school.) 
 
 3. Is it advisable to reduce the number of hours 
 devoted to the ancient languages in the study plan 
 of the gymnasia, and so make it possible to reduce 
 the total number of hours of instruction in the three 
 lower classes, to introduce English as an elective 
 study, and to make drawing obligatory above Quarta ? 
 Should Latin composition as a prime accomplish- 
 ment, and the written translation of Greek, be 
 dropped in Prima at the same time that this reduc- 
 tion of hours is introduced ? 
 
 4. Is it advisable to retain in the study plan of 
 the real-srvninasiura the increased amount of Latin
 
 150 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 introduced in the year 1882, or should a lessening of 
 the same, and thereby a reduction in the total num- 
 ber of school hours, be brought about ? 
 
 5. Is it advisable, (a) in places where there are 
 only gymnasia or real-gymnasia, to introduce, instead 
 of Latin, an increased amount of instruction in Ger- 
 man and modern foreign languages, according to the 
 local needs ; (h) in places where there are only high 
 schools that do not teach Latin, to add to their three 
 lower classes, according to local needs, instruction 
 in Latin ; (c) to reduce all institutions with seven 
 grades (progymnasia, real-progymnasia, real-schools) 
 to institutions with six grades ; (rl) to shape alike the 
 study plans of the real-schools and the higher burgher 
 schools, and to arrange both so that, without preju- 
 dice to the different methods of treatment of the 
 subjects of instruction and to the termination of the 
 course of education, the continuance of the same in 
 the higher real-school shall be made easier ? 
 
 6. Is it advisable to introduce in those institu- 
 tions arranged with a course of study running through 
 nine years, an earlier relative termination after the 
 sixth year of the course in the interests of the 
 scholars that enter into practical life before the com- 
 pletion of the nine years' course ? 
 
 7. Are still other standards desirable for the fur- 
 thering of successful education, with regard to (a) 
 the maximum size of the classes, {b) the number of 
 scholars and of classes allowed in each institution, 
 (c) the complete division of Tertia and Secunda in 
 two classes, according to years, and (d) the number 
 of hours of duty of the teacher ?
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 151 
 
 8. In liow far is it possible, even with a reduction 
 in the total number of school hours, by means of 
 intensive methodical instruction, to transfer the 
 greater part of the home work to the school, espe- 
 cially in the lower classes ? 
 
 9. What is to be done for the further develop- 
 ment of the instruction in gymnastics, which at 
 present is for the most part given two hours a week 
 and generally to large divisions, and what other pro- 
 visions for the physical development of the youth are 
 to be applied ? 
 
 10. Can the final examinations be dispensed with ? 
 In case they can not be done away with entirely, 
 should simplifications be introduced, and Avhat ones ? 
 
 11. What changes are desirable with reference to 
 the scientific training of the coming teachers in 
 higher schools? 
 
 12. Through what means can the higher institu- 
 tions of learning co-operate to the greatest extent 
 possible with the family to influence the moral de- 
 velopment of their pupils ? 
 
 13. AVhat changes seem advisable in the privi- 
 leges of the institutions (a) with a course of study 
 extending over nine years, (b) in the higher burgher 
 schools (to be discussed as fitting for the different 
 employments) ? 
 
 14. If in the future the right to one-year service 
 can be obtained earlier in the higher burgher schools 
 than in the other higher schools by reason of the 
 earlier termination of their course of study, and 
 changes are introduced for the benefit of these higher 
 burgher schools in regard to other privileges, then the
 
 152 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 demand for this class of schools will increase. AVhat 
 general rules shall be adopted for meeting this de- 
 mand ? Shall it be the combination of higher burgher 
 schools with existing institutions, the transforming 
 a part of the latter, or the building of new higher 
 burgher schools by the state or with state support ? 
 
 The Emperor was one of the most interested per- 
 sons in the entire assemblage. During the session he 
 made a most significant address. Professor Thurber 
 writes that " the scene therein presented, of the 
 most powerful monarch in the world addressing an 
 assemblage of schoolmen on the details of school 
 management, must be regarded as one of the most 
 striking and remarkable episodes in educational his- 
 tory." To indicate further the Emperor's attitude 
 upon this absorbing question, quotations from his 
 addresses are here given. 
 
 "... In the first place, I wish to observe that we 
 have to do here, above all, not with a political school 
 question, but entirely with technical and pedagogical 
 measures which we must adopt in order to fit the 
 growing generations for the demands of the present, 
 for the position of our Fatherland, and of our life in 
 the world at large. ... I have, on my part, pro- 
 posed some questions, . . . and I hope they will re- 
 ceive due consideration. . . . First, school hygiene 
 outside of gymnastics — a matter that must be con- 
 sidered very carefully ; then diminution in the sub- 
 jects of study (consideration of what must be cut 
 out) ; further, the plans of instruction for the indi- 
 vidual studies ; then the system of teaching, the 
 organization — the chief points have already been
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 153 
 
 brought forward. Sixth, is the crowding with unfit 
 pupils (in the nine-year schools) removed by the ex- 
 aminations ? And seventh, is overburdening avoided 
 for the future ? Eighth, what plan have we for con- 
 trol when the work is finished ? Only regular and 
 extraordinary inspection by different higher officials. 
 . . . The last period in which our school was a 
 standard for our whole national life and our develop- 
 ment w^as in the years 1804 or 1866 to 1870. Then 
 the Prussian schools and the Prussian teaching fac- 
 ulties were the bearers of the idea of unity that was 
 preached everywhere. All graduates who came out 
 of the schools and began their volunteer military 
 service or entered upon active life were united upon 
 this one point : The German empire shall be again 
 established, and Alsace and Lorraine won back again. 
 That ceased with the year 1870. The empire is 
 united : we have what we wanted to gain, and there 
 the matter has rested. Starting from the new basis, 
 the school ought now to animate the youth and 
 make clear to them that the purpose of the new po- 
 litical condition is that the empire may be preserved. 
 ... If one should converse with one of the gentle- 
 men concerned, and seek to explain to him that the 
 young man must, after all, to a certain extent, receive 
 a practical preparation for life and its problems, the 
 answer is ever, that that is not the task of the 
 schools ; the chief object is the gymnastics of the 
 intellect, and if these gymnastics are properly pur- 
 sued the young man will be in a condition to ac- 
 complish with these gymnastics all that is neces- 
 sary for life. I believe that we can be no longer de-
 
 154 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 ludcd by this doctrmc. . . . AVhoevcr lias, been in 
 the gymnasium himself, and has caught a glimpse 
 behind the scenes, knows what is lacking there. 
 Above all, the national basis is lacking. AVe must 
 take the German language as the foundation for the 
 gymnasium ; we ought to educate national young 
 Germans and not young Greeks and Romans. We 
 must depart entirely from the basis that has existed 
 for centuries — from the old monastic education of 
 the middle ages, where the standard was Latin with 
 a little Greek added. . . . The so-called 'hunger 
 candidates,' especially the journalists, are multifa- 
 riously ruined gymnasiasts ; they are a great danger 
 for us. This abundance of gymnasiums, that is al- 
 ready too great, like a saturated field that can take in 
 no more, must be disposed of. On that account I will 
 not sanction another gymnasium that cannot prove 
 absolutely its right to existence and its necessity. AVe 
 have enough already. AVe need a second class of 
 schools with practical culture but no real-gymnasia. 
 The real-gymnasia are half-and-half institutions ; 
 through them a half-and-half culture is obtained, and 
 it gives only a half-and-half preparation for life after- 
 ward. . . . Each scholar in the schools has about 25,- 
 000 hours of school and home study, and in this num- 
 bed only about 657 hours for gymnastics. That is a 
 preponderance of intellectual work which must cer- 
 tainly be reduced. . . . The statistical returns con- 
 cerning the spread of school diseases, especially near- 
 sightedness, are truly alarming. . . . The number 
 of the nearsighted in some classes in Prima rises as 
 high as 74 per cent."
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 155 
 
 In his own class in Cassel, " out of twenty-one 
 scholars eighteen wore spectacles, and there were 
 two of them who could not see as far as the black- 
 board with their spectacles." The Emperor said 
 with great earnestness in concluding : " Meine Her- 
 ren, die Manner sollen nicht durch Brillen die Welt 
 ansehen, sondern mit eigenen Augen, und Gefallen 
 finden an dem, was sie vor sich haben, ihrem Yater- 
 lande und seinen Einrichtungen. Dazu sollen Sie 
 jetzt helfen." 
 
 It would be interesting to follow the discussions 
 that arose during that long session of the conference 
 (December 4 to 17, 1890), and to give quotations 
 from the many interesting speeches that Avere made, 
 but the reader who is interested is referred to the 
 800-page stenographic report,* or to the excellent 
 extracts made by Professor Thurber,f from which I 
 have quoted many of the above translations. 
 
 Professor Preyer said : " One thing is certain, at 
 least, that every possible shade of opinion, every con- 
 ceivable idea, every practicable and every impractic- 
 able scheme has at last had a hearing and been brought 
 to the attention of the public." The great petition, 
 with 22,409 signatures, to the Prussian ministry, and 
 which contained the signatures of 300 gymnasium 
 teachers, 300 university professors, 300 clergymen, 
 and 1,500 physicians, he regarded as a " monster pe- 
 tition, which was alike excellent in form and content, 
 as an unmistakable proclamation of the nation, as a 
 fact in the history of civilization." 
 
 * Verhandlungen iiber Fragen des hoheren Unterrichts. 
 t Bureau of Education Reports, 1889-"90. 
 13
 
 15G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 3. Changes Wrought. 
 
 The resolutions passed at the close of the confer- 
 ence need not be given here.* They were only ad- 
 visory, while we may regard the new courses of study, 
 officially published in 1891, as more nearly represent- 
 ing the real results. The conference was purposely 
 so made up by the Minister von Gossler that the con- 
 servative element Avas much in the majority,f and 
 hence the hopes of the friends of real-school education 
 could not possibly be realized. Had it not been for 
 the great influence of the Emperor the changes rec- 
 ommended probably would have been materially dif- 
 ferent — more prejudicial to the classical side. Partly 
 as a result of the conference, and partly, probably 
 almost wholly, as the result of von Gossler's views,J a 
 new course of study was issued for Prussia, Decem- 
 ber 1, 1891, which went into effect at Easter, 1892. 
 
 The main features of change wrought by the long 
 struggle, as exhibited in the new order, may be sum- 
 marized as follows : 
 
 1. In general, the result was not favourable to the 
 friends of the real-gymnasium, this class of school 
 being forced nearer to the level of the higher real- 
 school by the reduction of the amount of Latin. (It 
 must be remembered that the real-school men wished 
 to retain Latin, but to have no Greek, and yet have 
 
 *For a full account of these resolutions see Professor Thur- 
 ber's article in tlic Report of the Couiinissioner of Education, 
 1880-'90, p. 389 et seq. 
 
 f Ziegler, Die Fi'agen der Schulreform, p. 12. 
 
 :}: Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts. p. 595.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OP STUDY. 157 
 
 ther schools on a par with the gymnasia in respect to 
 privileges.) 
 
 2. The amount of Latin was reduced about one 
 fourth in the gymnasium and about one seventh in 
 the real-gymnasium. German was made more promi- 
 nent in all schools. 
 
 3. The total number of hours of instruction was 
 decreased in all schools — sixteen hours in the gym- 
 nasia, twenty-one hours in the real-gymnasia, and 
 eighteen hours in the higher real-schools. 
 
 4. German and German history were made more 
 of a centre of correlation. The German -composi- 
 tion was made obligatory, while Latin composition 
 was no longer required. " Der deutsche Aufsatz 
 ist als Erbe der lateinischen eingesetzt. . . . Das 
 Gymnasium will jetzt sein eine deutsch-humanis- 
 tische Schule." * 
 
 5. More time and care were to be given to bodily 
 exercise. 
 
 6. The higher real-school graduates were per- 
 mitted to study mathematics and natural science in 
 the universities. 
 
 7. The certificates of the real-schools, real-pro- 
 gymnasia, and higher burgher schools with six-year 
 courses (or more) were to admit to the one-year vol- 
 untary military service and to subaltern positions. 
 
 8. A final examination {Abschlussprufung) was 
 to be allowed at the close of L. II for those who 
 wished to secure the same privileges as the six-year 
 
 * Paulsen, Ueber die gcgcnwiirtige Lage des huliereii Schul- 
 wesens, pp. 7, 8.
 
 158 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 courses offered. Previously, pupils had received these 
 privileges on. being promoted from L. II to U. II. 
 Many preferred tliis to taking the examinations at 
 the six-year schools, and hence the lower classes of 
 the nine-year schools were overcrowded — " Scliuler- 
 ballast." 
 
 9. In the final examination Latin composition 
 was to be no longer required, and the subject mat- 
 ter required in any branch of examination was to 
 extend only through the work done in the last two 
 years. 
 
 10. Not more than forty pupils in the lower classes 
 nor more than thirty in the higher were to receive 
 instruction together. Twenty-two hours were to be 
 the limit of weekly class instruction given by teach- 
 ers. 
 
 The following are among the most important 
 measures recommended by the conference : 
 
 1. That in the future only two classes of schools 
 be maintained — the classical gymnasia and the 
 schools with no ancient languages. These latter 
 would be higher real-schools and higher burgher 
 schools. The name real-school was proposed for the 
 higher burgher schools. 
 
 2. That schools having nine-year courses which 
 have very poor attendance beyond Lower Secunda 
 be transformed into higher burgher schools. (Such a 
 state might be caused by the exodus to the higher 
 burgher schools for the purpose of obtaining the 
 military privileges through graduation, which is 
 deemed easier than by taking an examination there- 
 for at the close of the sixth year in the nine-year
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 159 
 
 institutions. It might be caused also by pupils 
 leaving upon examination. Either condition would 
 justify the change.) 
 
 3. In cities which possess several gymnasial and 
 real-gymnasial institutions measures are to be taken 
 as far as possible to transform one of these institu- 
 tions into a higher burgher school. 
 
 4. In cities which as yet possess no secondary 
 schools, preference is to be given to the higher 
 burgher school when a secondary school is estab- 
 lished. 
 
 5. The state is to support the establishment and 
 maintenance of the higlier burgher schools according 
 to the same principles as have hitherto governed the 
 gymnasial institutions, especially during the period 
 of transition. The state is to further higher bur- 
 gher schools by the application of Government means 
 and to come to the financial aid of the less capable 
 cities in founding such institutions. 
 
 6. Teachers in the higher burgher schools are to 
 be paid as well as in the nine-grade institutions. 
 
 7. The courses of study in the higher burgher 
 schools are to be arranged so that pupils on finishing 
 these may pass to the higher real-schools without in- 
 convenience. 
 
 8. In places where there are only higher schools 
 without Latin, instruction in Latin should be added 
 in the three lower classes. 
 
 9. To reduce all schools with seven grades (pro- 
 gymnasia, real-progymnasia, etc.) to six-grade schools, 
 and to give a final examination at the close. 
 
 ' 10. A common substructure (as jiroposed in the
 
 IGO SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Einheitsschule) for gymnasia and non-classical schools 
 is not to be permitted. 
 
 11. Home work ought to be diminished. 
 
 12. No secondary scliool should have more than 
 four hundred students. 
 
 13. Better pedagogical preparation of teachers is 
 desirable. Teachers also ought to be accorded a 
 higher social status. 
 
 14. School instruction in modern foreign lan- 
 guages should lead to a thorough oral and written 
 mastery of them. 
 
 15. The moral culture of pupils should be fur- 
 thered by attention to general discipline, by foster- 
 ing religion and patriotism, and by greater co-opera- 
 tion with parents. The system of special teachers 
 should also be limited, and an attempt be made to 
 better understand the individuality of pupils. 
 
 As a result of the general ferment, changes were 
 made in all four of the kingdoms of Germany dur- 
 ing the year 1891. 
 
 All the other three accomplished changes even 
 before Prussia. Wiirtemberg announced a change, 
 February 10, 1891 ; Bavaria, July 23rd, and Saxony, 
 December 6th.* The changes made by the new 
 courses were more sweeping in Prussia than in any 
 other state, especially with regard to Latin and 
 Greek. 
 
 In all the kingdoms the changes made were quite 
 similar to those wrought in Prussia. In no other 
 
 *The change in Prussia was effected December 1st, but was 
 not publislied until 1892, and went into effect at Easter.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 161 
 
 case were they quite so radical. An examination of 
 the tables showing the present courses, and the table 
 exhibiting changes effected in 1892 reveals the facts 
 that Prussia now has a less amount of Latin in her 
 gymnasia and real-gymnasia, and has less Greek in 
 the gymnasia than Saxony, Wiirtemberg, or Meck- 
 lenburg. Xo state has less than Prussia. Drawing 
 was considerably increased in most of the states. 
 English, though not increased in the gymnasia, was 
 somewhat advanced by requiring all schools to offer 
 it as an elective. 
 
 The following tables show changes made by the 
 latest plan of studies, and the exact amount required 
 in the various schools in Prussia, during the various 
 periods of development in the last century. 
 
 Table showing Changes from Former Gymnasium Courses 
 by the Plan of Study issued in 1S92. 
 
 
 PruBsia. 
 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 Wiirtem- 
 berg. 
 
 Baden. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 R.-gym. 
 
 Pr. Hr. 
 
 R. S. 
 
 Religion 
 
 Gerniaa 
 
 ±0 
 + 5 
 -15 
 -4 
 o 
 
 _ 2 
 
 + 3 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±2 
 + 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 + 1 
 
 — 7 
 ±0 
 
 + 2 
 
 -3 
 
 + 4 
 -5 
 + 4 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 
 -1 
 + 2 
 -5 
 ±0 
 -2 
 
 -2 
 
 -1 
 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 
 _ 2 
 
 + 4 
 
 -m 
 
 — 2 
 
 + 2 
 -1 
 + 5 
 
 \*> 
 
 _ i 
 -2 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 -T 
 
 + 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 -4 
 
 + 8 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 + 1 
 
 - 11 
 
 -3 
 _ 2 
 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 _ 2 
 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 -2 
 
 ±0 
 
 ±0 
 
 + 4 
 
 
 
 Fi'ench 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Geography 
 
 Natural science. 
 Physics 
 
 -2 
 
 -1 
 1 
 
 Chem. and min. 
 Mathematics.. . 
 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 + 2 
 _ 2 
 
 ±0 
 -8 
 ±0 
 ±0 
 1 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 English 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 
 The sentiment of the people everywhere, as 
 shown in the character of the schools they were
 
 162 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Table shoicing Total Numher of Hours for Each Subject, as 
 determined in the Courses of Study legalized at the 
 Indicated Times (Prussia). 
 
 Religion 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek 
 
 German 
 
 French 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Natural science. 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 History 
 
 Geograpliy 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Writing 
 
 Phil, prop 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 English 
 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 60 
 [20 
 
 ■30 
 
 S4 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 86 
 42 
 20 
 17 
 32 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Opt 
 Opt 
 
 Opt 
 Opt 
 
 R.-GyM. 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 Higher 
 Real- 
 School. 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 building during this period,* was also most signifi- 
 cant. By establishing and maintaining real-schools 
 at their own expense, when the Government would 
 bear most of the expense for gymnasia, they plain- 
 ly showed that what the Government was furnishing 
 was not acceptable, and that they were determined 
 to secure what they deemed more suited to their 
 needs, cost what it might. 
 
 In all the states the growth of real-schools and 
 higher real-schools, as compared with gymnasia and 
 real-gymnasia, has been amazing during the last 
 decade and a half. In 1882 the number of pupils 
 
 * As previously pointed out, the gymnasia are nearly all 
 state institutions. The state builds few real-schools ; these are 
 mostly maintained at local expense.
 
 REFORM IN COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 163 
 
 
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 cs^oiccot-oiinO'Hooo — o-t — Oi»T-.toxcO"-^oco 
 
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 104 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY, 
 
 in the secondary schools of Prussia who were pur- 
 suing Latin was nine times that of the pupils not 
 studying it. By 1892 the proportion had so changed 
 that the ratio was only five to one, and by 1894 the 
 proportion stood three Latin pupils to one non-Latin 
 pupil.* 
 
 In Baden, as the following tabulation indicates, 
 the pendulum has swung steadily in the non-Latin 
 direction, with no less momentum and through as 
 great amplitude as in Prussia. 
 
 Distribution of Piqnls in Varioiis Classes of Schools in 
 Baden from 1882 to 1895. 
 
 
 Gymnasia. 
 
 Real-gjmnasia. 
 
 Real-schools. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 4,950 = 53.2^ 
 
 5,262=47.7^ 
 5,107 = 45.7^ 
 4.759 = 43. 8;^ 
 4,657 = 42.8^ 
 4,548 = 41. W 
 4,494 = 39.6^ 
 4,460 = 38.8^ 
 4,421 = 37.9^ 
 
 2,949 = 31.6^ 
 2,565 = 23.2^ 
 2,495 = 22.4/^ 
 2.394 = 22.0^ 
 2,376 = 21.9^ 
 2,146= 19.4JS 
 2,089 = 18.4;^ 
 1,813= 15.7^ 
 1,652 = U.'2% 
 
 1,406= 15.2^ 
 3,212 = 29.1^ 
 3,.564 = 31.9^ 
 3,724 = 34.2^ 
 3,838 = 35.3^ 
 4,372 = 39.5^ 
 4,773 = 42.0^ 
 5,233 = 45.5^ 
 5,578 = 47.9/^ 
 
 9,305 
 
 1887-'88 
 
 11.039 
 
 1888-'89 
 
 11.166 
 
 ]889-'90 
 
 10,877 
 10,871 
 11,066 
 11,356 
 11,.506 
 11,651 
 
 1890-'91 
 
 1891-^93 
 
 1893-'93 
 
 1893-'94 
 
 1894-^95 
 
 
 Gustave Wendt, Baumeister's Handbueh, etc., p. 185. 
 
 Baumeister's Organisation des hoheren Unterrichts, pp.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 present courses of study. 
 
 1. Introductory. — School Programmes in Vari- 
 ous States. 
 
 We shall next proceed to an examination of the 
 courses of study in the secondary schools as they 
 appear in the official programmes published by the 
 several states. Although there is quite a similarity 
 among the courses of all the states, especially of the 
 four kingdoms (Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, AViirtem- 
 berg), yet the variations forbid the taking of any 
 single one as a standard without showing the differ- 
 ences, and justify the more detailed exposition of 
 each one separately. However, as methods of teach- 
 ing are very similar and the aim to be attained 
 almost identical in the several states, the variations 
 will be exhibited mainly through comparative tables, 
 and a general discussion, which will serve for all 
 alike, will accompany the tables. 
 
 The courses of study are outlined by the Minis- 
 terium of each state. They represent the exact 
 amount of time that shall be given to the individual 
 subjects, and the distribution of this time through- 
 out the school course. A detailed outline always 
 accompanies the time table. This outline indicates 
 the general minimum amount of each subject that 
 
 165
 
 1G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the schools are expected to cover, as well as general 
 ends to be attained and methods of attaining them. 
 Of course, the teachers are given much latitude in 
 the method of procedure ; in fact, older teachers 
 may be said to have entire freedom in this respect. 
 The choice of parts of subjects is in a measure left 
 to the individual schools ; yet, since the official pro- 
 grammes indicate the general topics, there is not 
 much variation in the selection of topics in the vari- 
 ous schools in a given state. Each school, in the 
 main each teacher, is left free in the selection of 
 text-books and the appliances to be used. 
 
 The courses of study in the various states have 
 essentially the same end in view, and they are con- 
 sidered to be of equal value. This is shown by the 
 fact that the certificate from a gymnasium in any 
 one of the Bundesstaaten is recognised (since 1889) 
 as giving the same privileges in all the other states. 
 The same is true of the certificate of the real-gym- 
 nasia from most of the states. However, since there 
 is considerable diversity among courses, some are not 
 universally valid, but are recognised only in the state 
 in which they are granted. This is true especially 
 of the Wiirtemberg real-gymnasium certificates.* 
 The certificates of maturity from the upper real- 
 schools are recognised also only in the state which 
 issues them. All higher schools have essentially the 
 same courses in religion, German, history, and geog- 
 raphy, and the instruction in these aims to reach 
 the same ideals in all the different forms of schools. 
 
 * See Centralbliitt, 1889, p. 224.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 1G7 
 
 They all strive to develop morality, fidelity, obedi- 
 ence, and love for the Fatherland. Through a knowl- 
 edge of the functions of the state and the duty of 
 its citizens they aim to develop upright citizens and 
 obedient, country-loving subjects. The school pro- 
 grammes show a great preponderance of national 
 and local geography and history. Enough of for- 
 eign civilization is treated of to insure a proper per- 
 spective in studying governments, and also to give 
 in these matters the fundamentals of instruction 
 necessary to liberal culture. The hr^^h position to 
 which art and music have attained in Germany re- 
 ceives assurance of continued security by the lofty 
 ideals inculcated in the minds of pupils through- 
 out the course. The a3sthetic culture to be derived 
 through subjects of school study is nowhere so suc- 
 cessfully imparted as in Germany. History, litera- 
 ture, Xature studies, and even mathematics, provide 
 material for gesthetic culture as well as intellectual 
 development. 
 
 It will be noticed from the comparative table that 
 there is a great similarity among gymnasial courses 
 throughout the different states of the empire. There 
 are no very great deviations except in Wiirtemberg, 
 which has in its programme eighty-one hours of Latin 
 and forty hours of Greek, being from ten to fifteen 
 hours more of Latin and about four hours more of 
 Greek than the average amount in the other states. 
 There are apparent variations in the amounts of 
 natural science and in the history and geography 
 work given in the various states, but those differ- 
 ences arise principally because of the different ways
 
 1G8 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Table shou'ing Amount of Time devoted to Each Subject in 
 the (Ji/mnasia of Eight States. 
 
 Religion 
 
 German 
 
 Latin 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 
 
 Nature lessons.. 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chem. and niin. 
 
 Matliematics 
 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 English 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 4 
 
 •z 
 
 g 
 
 i ^ 
 
 g 
 
 
 h 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ;§ 
 
 B 
 
 i' 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 2(J 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 2.1 
 
 C3 
 
 06 
 
 73 
 
 81 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 3G 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 ;» 
 
 16 
 9 
 
 18 
 9 
 
 '-23 
 
 [26 
 
 }- 
 
 20 
 
 1 •• 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 [24 
 J 
 
 [10 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 !-« 
 
 i« 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 3.5 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 
 * 
 
 (4e 
 
 
 6e 
 
 6e 
 
 8e 
 
 4e 
 
 6e 
 
 -or 
 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 
 or 
 
 4e 
 
 
 Oe 
 
 6e 
 
 8e 
 
 4e 
 
 6e 
 
 ^.3 
 
 ■«! 
 
 18 
 25 
 71 
 36 
 24 
 
 (-25 
 
 Note. — The hours indicate an equivalent of so many hours per week 
 for one year — e. g., five hours = to five hours a week for one year, or one 
 hour a week for five years : or again, sixty-two hours (for Latin in Prus- 
 sia) means sixty-two hours a week for one year, or nearly seven hours 
 per week for nine years, etc. e — elective. 
 
 * Not continued in all places on account of lack of appliances. 
 
 Table showing Amount of Time devoted to Each Subject in 
 the Real-Gymnasia of Seven States. 
 
 Religion 
 
 Latin 
 
 German 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 
 
 IMatliematics . . . 
 Natural history 
 
 Phj-sics 
 
 Chem. and min. 
 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 29 
 20 
 13 
 16 
 10 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 Opt. 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 7U 
 20 
 27 
 11 
 
 -22J 
 
 59 
 
 8i 
 
 5 
 
 25i 
 
 
 18 
 53 
 28 
 31 
 18 
 
 [30 
 
 42 
 12 
 12 
 
 16
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 1G9 
 
 Table shoit'ing Amount of Time given to Each Branch in 
 the Real-Schools of Eight States. 
 
 Religion 
 
 (ieniian 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 Aritli. and algebra.. 
 < )tht'r mathematics. . 
 
 History 
 
 (.ieography 
 
 Nature lessons 
 
 Physics 
 
 Cliem. and min 
 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 .s 
 
 .3 
 
 >. 
 
 H 
 
 g. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 -a 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 & 
 
 is 
 
 1^ 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 * 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 
 39 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 .31 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 
 46 
 
 30 
 
 So 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 ;-2s 
 
 13 
 18 
 
 1-3, 
 
 
 53 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 ;-i9 
 
 « 
 10 
 
 ;^ 
 
 
 17 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 (« 
 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 u 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 29 
 28 
 14 
 
 ^30 
 
 10 
 13 
 10 
 
 * The courses of the ten real-schools with two additional years cor- 
 respond to the first eight classes of the higher real-schools. Besides 
 these, there are sixty-three schools witn various plans. (Rethwisch, 
 op. cit., p. 130.) 
 
 of dividing the subjects. One school may have much 
 under the head of Xature lessons and little under 
 the topic physics, while in another case it may be Just 
 the reverse. Still the two may give almost identical 
 courses, since there is no sharp dividing line between 
 the sciences, and much of physics may be included 
 under the term Xature lessons, and vice versa. 
 
 The most noticeable differences between the 
 gymnasia and the real-gymnasia are in the relative 
 amounts of the classics and the sciences. The real- 
 gymnasia have abandoned all Greek and very mate- 
 rially reduced the amount of required Latin. More 
 mathematics and natural science are introduced, 
 while the general fundamental studies remain about 
 the same in the two. Many of the gymnasia offer 
 no chemistry nor mineralogy, while all the real-gym-
 
 170 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 nasia offer of these about three liours weekly through 
 a period of three years. More thorough work is 
 given in the real-gymnasium in physics, and in 
 mathematics usually one year of five weekly hours is 
 offered in analytic geometry and descriptive geom- 
 etry. The real-gymnasium has fully fifty per cent, 
 more time devoted to French than the gymnasium, 
 and English is taken as a required study three hours 
 weekly during the last six years of the course. 
 
 The real-school curriculum is similar to the first 
 six years of the real-gymnasium courses, with the ex- 
 ception that the real-school course contains no Latin 
 but more French during the corresponding years. 
 
 The higher real-school contains three years addi- 
 tional to the ordinary real-schools and, as previously 
 stated, prepares for entrance to the university in the 
 natural sciences and mathematics. Pupils who have 
 completed a real-school course may enter a higher 
 real-school of another city for the last three years of 
 the work if no higher real-school is located in their 
 own. The progymnasium takes up the first six or 
 seven years of a gymnasial course, and is advanta- 
 geous in that pupils may enter a gymnasium and com- 
 plete their preparation for the university ; the real- 
 progymnasium takes up the realistic side of the work 
 and is simply the first six or seven years of a real- 
 gymnasium. 
 
 For purposes of comparison and reference I sub- 
 Join detailed official programmes of Prussia, Saxony, 
 Bavaria, Baden, and Wiirtemberg, An attempt is 
 made to exhibit all the different types of secondary- 
 school curricula existing in the empire. The cities
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 
 
 171 
 
 must all conform to state requirements unless spe- 
 cially permitted to make minor deviations therefrom 
 to suit local needs. Whatever deviations there are 
 from general state regulations are very slight. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian 
 Gymnasia {since 1892). 
 
 VI 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I u. I 
 
 Religion 3 " 
 
 German 4 3 
 
 Latin 8 8 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 History ( „ I o 
 
 Geography ) I " 
 
 Mathematics 4 4 
 
 Physics 
 
 Elementarj' nat- 
 ural science 2 2 
 
 Writing 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Gymnastics 3 3 
 
 English 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Total* 25 25 
 
 30 30 30 28 
 
 252 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden 
 Gymnasia {since 1SS3). 
 
 VI 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L II U. II L. I U. I 
 
 Religion 2 
 
 German 3 
 
 Latin 9 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 2 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
 Natural science 2 
 
 Phil, propfedeutics. .. 
 Hebrew (elective). . . . 
 English (elective).. .. 
 
 Writing 2 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Singing 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 (2^ 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 2 
 2 
 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 2 
 2 
 
 Total * 26 26 27 31 31 30 30 30 30 
 
 36 
 20 
 18 
 
 8 
 33 
 18 
 
 2 
 (8) 
 (8) 
 
 4 
 10 + (8) 
 14 
 18 
 
 261 
 
 * Exclusive of electives, singing, and gymnastics. 
 13
 
 172 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to JJach Studu in the Gymnasia 
 in Saxonij. 
 
 vr 
 
 IV L.IIIU. I!I L. IIU.II L.I U.I Total 
 
 Religion 3 3 2 
 
 German 4 3 3 
 
 Latin 9 9 8 
 
 Greek 
 
 P"'rench 2 
 
 History 2 2 5 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 
 
 Mathematics 3 4 3 
 
 Natural history 2 2 2 
 
 Physics 
 
 EngUsh (elective) 
 
 Hebrew (elective) 
 
 Drawing 2 2 
 
 Writing 2 1 
 
 Singing 2 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 3 2 
 
 Total* 27 28 29 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 i2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 •) 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (6) 
 
 
 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (6) 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 31 30 29 30 30 
 
 18 
 
 Weel-Jy Hours devoted to Each Study in the Gymnasia in 
 Bavaria {since 1S9T). 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 L. Ill 
 
 U. Ill 
 
 L. II 
 
 U. II 
 
 L. I 
 
 U. I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Religion 
 
 ... 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 o 
 
 T 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 4 
 o 
 
 \ 
 1 
 
 '2 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 fi 
 6 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 27 
 
 Latin 
 
 ... 8 
 
 6G 
 36 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 Physics 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 
 
 Nature lessons. . . . 
 
 '.'.'. 1 
 
 33 . 
 
 16 
 9 
 5 
 4 
 
 Writing 
 
 ... 2 
 
 4 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 Total* 
 
 ...23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 2G 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 228 
 
 * Singing, gymnastics, and electives not counted.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 173 
 
 Weelxhj Hours devoted to Eacli Study in the Wilrtemberg 
 Gymnasia {since ISOl). 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV I 
 
 . Ill 
 
 U. Ill 
 
 L. 11 
 
 U. II 
 
 L. I 
 
 U.I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Religion 
 
 ... 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 
 ... 3 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 82 
 
 Latin 
 
 ...10 
 
 81 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 ~ 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 () 
 
 fi 
 
 40 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 14 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 .. 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 Physics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 History 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 U 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Geography 
 
 ... 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Nature lessons . . . 
 
 ... 2 
 
 i> 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Writing 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-3 
 
 2 
 
 2-3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 18-20 
 
 Total* 
 
 ...24 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 257 
 
 Philosophical propjedeutics obligatory two hours weekly in Upper 
 Prima. Hebrew, English, New Testament, free-hand drawing, sabre 
 practice, or Italian niaj* be elected as an hour or two extra from Lower 
 Seeunda on. Singing one hour weekly in three lowest classes. These 
 would increase the totals. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study i)i the Prussia 
 Real-Gymnasia {1892). 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 L. Ill 
 
 U. Ill 
 
 L. II 
 
 U. II 
 
 L.I 
 
 U. I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 German 
 
 3) 
 
 ^/ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 V 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 History (narratives^. 
 
 if 
 
 li 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latin 
 
 8 
 
 H 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 French 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 Historv 
 
 1 o 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 !- 
 
 l» 
 
 / 
 
 28 
 
 Geographv 
 
 »- 
 
 
 (2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 \-' 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 r> 
 
 5 
 
 .T 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 Natural historv 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 Phj'sics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 Chem. and miu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Writing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 •1 
 
 '2 
 
 
 
 '2 
 
 "2 
 
 ■.i 
 
 '2 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 14 
 
 Smgmg 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 Total* 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 259 
 
 * Exclusive of singing and gymnastics.
 
 174 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Weeldy Hours devoted to Each Studij in the Bavarian 
 lieal-Oymnasia {1801). 
 
 VI 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total 
 
 Reliprion 2 2 2 
 
 German 5 4 3 
 
 Latin 8 8 8 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 Arithmetic I ., „ o 
 
 Mathematics )" '^ '^ "^ 
 
 Physics 
 
 Nature lessons 1 1 1 
 
 Chera. and min 
 
 History 2 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 
 
 Writing... 2 1 1 
 
 Drawing 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 2 
 
 18 
 27 
 GO 
 20 
 13 
 
 38 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 5 
 10 
 10 
 4 
 
 23 
 18 
 
 Total* 23 23 24 
 
 28 29 31 31 31 
 
 Elective : Italian, instrumental music, singing, stenography. The 
 first three years are the same as in the gymnasia. Several i-eal-gyninasia 
 have only the last six years' work, and admit from the gymnasia or 
 from Latin schools. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Saxony 
 Real-Oyinnasia {1897). 
 
 VI 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total 
 
 Religion 3 
 
 German 4 
 
 Latin 8 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 Geography 2 
 
 History 1 
 
 Mathematics 5 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Natural history 2 
 
 Writing 2 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Singing 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 
 
 Total* 29 32 31 32 32 32 32 31 31 290 
 
 Stenography elective. 
 Not counting gymnastics or singing.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 
 Weekhj Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden Real- 
 Gymnasia {since 1887). 
 
 VI 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total 
 
 Religion 2 2 2 
 
 German 3 3 2 
 
 Latin 9 9 8 
 
 French 4 
 
 English 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 
 
 History 2 
 
 Mathematics 4 4 3 
 
 Pl^-sics 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 Natural historj' 2 2 2 
 
 Writing 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 2 2 
 
 Singing 2 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 2 
 
 Total* 26 26 27 30 30 30 30 30 30 
 
 259 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian 
 Real- School. 
 
 VI V IV III II I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Change. 
 
 Religion 3 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 German (5 4 , a a 3 
 
 History (narrative) ^1 1 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 10 
 
 s 
 fi 
 
 10 
 4 
 18 
 
 ±0 
 
 + 7 
 
 French 6 6 6 5 4 4 
 
 English 5 4 4 
 
 History ( ., „ 2 1 2 '^ 2 f 2 / 
 
 Geography (' ~ ~ 2 )" 2 f 1 )" 2 1' 
 
 Mathematics 4 4 5 5 5 5 
 
 Natural history 2 2 2 2 2 .. 
 
 -9 
 ±0 
 
 -3 
 
 -1 
 — 3 
 
 Physics, etc 3 5 
 
 Writing 2 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 ±0 
 -2 
 
 Singing 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 3 3 3 3 3 3 
 
 
 Total* 25 25 28 30 29 29 
 
 166 
 
 -13 
 
 * Singing, electives, and gymnastics not counted.
 
 176 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Weekli/ Hours devoted to Each Study in the Bavarian 
 Heal- Schools {since 1804). 
 
 IV III II 
 
 Religion 2 2 
 
 German 6 5 
 
 French (> 
 
 English 
 
 Arithmetic 4 
 
 Geometry ' 
 
 Physics 
 
 Natural history 2 
 
 Chem. and min 
 
 History 
 
 Geograpliy 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 4 
 
 Writing 2 1 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 
 
 2 
 
 Total*'. 26 26 26 27 32 32 
 
 Totiil. Cbaage. 
 
 181 
 
 + 1 
 - 1 
 
 + 1 
 
 Stenography, singing, instrumental music, and swimming may be 
 elected. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Saxony 
 Real-Scliool. 
 
 Religion 3 
 
 German 8 
 
 French 
 
 English 
 
 History 1 
 
 Geography 2 
 
 Natural history 2 
 
 Chem. and min 
 
 Physics 
 
 Mathematics 5 
 
 Drawing 2 
 
 Writing .3 
 
 Gymnastics 2 
 
 Singing 2 
 
 Total* 26 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 () 
 
 T^ 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 ( 
 
 7 
 
 3.5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 186 
 
 Stenographj' elective from IV class on. 
 * Singing, electives, and gymnastics not counted.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 177 
 
 WeeMy Hours devoted to Each Study in the Baden 
 Higher Real-Schools. 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II V. II L. I U. I Total, 
 
 Religion 2 2 2 2 
 
 German 6 5 4 4 
 
 French 6 6 6 ti 
 
 English 4 
 
 History 2 2 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 2 
 
 Natural history 2 2 2 2 
 
 Chem., min., g'eol 
 
 Physics 
 
 Mathematics 5 5 5 5 
 
 Drawing 2 2 2 
 
 Writing 2 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 
 
 18 
 39 
 46 
 24 
 17 
 10 
 10 
 
 8 
 13 
 53* 
 10 
 
 (J 
 18 
 
 Total t 25 26 27 29 30 30 31 31 31 
 
 * Includes two hours weekly projective geometry, or " Darstellender 
 Unterricht," as it is called. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to each Study in the Higlier Real- 
 Schools in Prussia. 
 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II L. I U. I Total 
 
 Religion 3 2 2 
 
 German and / 4 1 3 1 . 
 
 Historical narrative \ \ ) \ \ 
 
 French 6 6 6 
 
 English 
 
 History \ c, o * 2 
 
 Geography j' ~ " '/ 2 
 
 Mathematics 5 5 6 
 
 Nature lessons 2 2 2 
 
 Physics 
 
 Chem. and min 
 
 Writing 2 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 2 
 
 Singing 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 3 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 fi 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Totalt 25 25 28 
 
 30 30 
 
 * The six years' work included in "a" corresponds to the real-school; 
 that included in " b " is additional for the higher real-school. 
 t Except singing and gymnastics.
 
 178 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in a Combination 
 Real-School in Prussia. 
 
 Special 
 for buiiness 
 IV L. Ill U. Ill L. II U. II training. L. I U. I 
 
 Religion 2 2 2 
 
 German 6 5 4 
 
 German corre- 
 spondence 
 
 French 6 C 6 
 
 French corre- 
 spondence 
 
 French conversa- 
 tion 
 
 English 
 
 English corre- 
 spondence 
 
 English conversa- 
 tion 
 
 Italian 
 
 Book-keeping 
 
 History 2 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 
 
 Natural history ... 2 2 2 
 
 Chem., geol., min 
 
 Physics 
 
 Mathematics 5 5 5 
 
 Drawing 2 2 
 
 Writing (stenog- 
 raphy) 2 2 2 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 2 
 
 18 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 9 
 2 
 
 17 
 13 
 10 
 8 
 13 
 48 
 16 
 
 8 
 20 
 
 Total* 25 26 27 
 
 29 30 28 31 
 
 30 80 283 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Prussian 
 Real-Progymnasia. 
 
 VI 
 
 IV 
 
 III 
 
 II 
 
 Religion 3 2 2 2 2 
 
 German 6 5 3 3 3 
 
 Latin .. 7 4 4 
 
 French 6 6 5 5 5 
 
 EnglLsh 3 3 
 
 History 2 2 2 
 
 Geography 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 Mathematics 4 4 4 5 5 
 
 Natural history and I o o o o o 
 
 Physics \ " ^ ~ '^ '^ 
 
 Writing 2 2 
 
 Drawing 2 2 2 2 
 
 Singing 2 2 
 
 Total* 27 27 31 32 32 
 
 * Except singing and gymnastics. 
 
 13 
 23 
 18 
 31 
 9 
 8 
 11 
 27 
 
 4 
 173
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 
 
 179 
 
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 ■'NCOt-IJ 
 
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 3 
 
 6 
 
 ojcooeocoKi • 
 
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 CO 
 
 cjOT50-*co»i • -Wffjc-c* -at 
 
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 INOTOO'fl'COfNOJei • •■*(?» •« 
 
 
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 3 
 
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 P 
 
 «-fl" 
 
 ■■*T»icO • -T^COt-O* -OiOl 
 
 CO 
 
 J 
 
 (N-i< 
 
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 53 
 
 U. II 
 
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 •■*Tl<CO • ;«COl>SI -OJOJ 
 
 TO 
 
 OjTt* 'iO^Oi ' '^Cil-OJ ■©« 
 
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 180 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Weeldy Hours devoted to Each Stufhj in the Prussian 
 Progymnasia. 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 III 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 "4 
 
 2 
 
 1) 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 <; 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 (! 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 Ijatin 
 
 44 
 
 
 18 
 
 French 
 
 13 
 
 History 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Geography 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Natural history 
 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Physics, chein., n)in.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Mathematics 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 Writing 
 
 •i 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Drawing 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 12 
 
 Singing 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 172 
 
 Weekly Iloiirs devoted to Each Study in the Baden 
 Progymnasium. 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 L. Ill 
 
 U. Ill 
 
 L. 11 
 
 u. 11 
 
 Total. 
 
 Religion 
 
 German 
 
 2 
 3 
 9 
 
 '2 
 
 a 
 
 "4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 9 
 
 '2 
 2 
 
 '4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 '4 
 
 '2 
 2 
 
 '3 
 
 '2 
 
 '2 
 
 B -3 
 
 a « 
 2-2 
 2-2 
 
 8-8 
 6-0 
 3-4 
 2—2 
 
 1—1 
 
 2-2 
 
 3-4 
 
 2-2 
 2-2 
 2-2 
 
 0—3 
 
 i -i 
 
 = « 
 2-2 
 
 2-2 
 
 8-8 
 6-0 
 3-4 
 2-2 
 1-1 
 2-2 
 
 3-4 
 
 2—2 
 2-2 
 2-2 
 
 0-3 
 
 1 -3 
 S ce 
 2-3 
 2—2 
 8-6 
 6-0 
 3-4 
 3-3 
 
 2-2 
 
 4-7 
 
 2-2 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 3 
 
 2-3 
 
 or 
 
 2-0 
 
 2 
 
 "s 
 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 '2 
 "2 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 14 
 58 
 24 
 16 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 4 
 25 
 
 4 
 14 
 10 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 14 
 14 
 56 
 
 Greek 
 
 French 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 
 
 Natural history . 
 
 Physics, etc 
 
 Mathematics . . . 
 
 Writing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Singing 
 
 Gymnastics 
 
 English 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 
 19 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 4 
 30 
 
 4 
 14 
 10 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 31-30 
 
 31-30 
 
 32-31 
 
 30 
 
 201 
 
 198 
 
 This is a programme showing a school that carries both the humanis- 
 tic and the realistic courses. Pupils from this may enter Upper SeCunda 
 of the corresponding school with nine-year coiu'ses.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 
 
 181 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Frankfort 
 Oymnasium {since Easter, 1892). 
 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 L. Ill 
 
 U III 
 
 L. 11 
 
 U. II 
 
 L. I 
 
 U.I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Change, 
 
 Religion 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 ± 
 
 German and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 history nar.. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 + 10 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 -25 
 
 Greek 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 - 8 
 
 Freneli 
 
 () 
 
 
 
 (! 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 + 9 
 
 Hist, and freo^. 
 
 o 
 
 •) 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 ■> 
 
 if 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 - 4 
 
 Matlieniatics. . 
 
 5 
 
 .0 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 + 3 
 
 Natural hist.. » 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ± 
 
 Physics 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 ± 
 
 Writing: 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 + 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 + 2 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 255 
 
 - 13 
 
 Weekly Hours devoted to Each Study in the Frankfort 
 Real-Gymnasium {sitice Easter, 1S92). 
 
 VI 
 
 V 
 
 IV 
 
 L. Ill 
 
 U. HI 
 
 L. 11 
 
 U. II 
 
 L.I 
 
 U. I 
 
 Total. 
 
 Change. 
 
 Rehgion 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 ± 
 
 German and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hist, nar 5 
 
 4* 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 + 4 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 - 14 
 
 French 
 
 fi 
 
 C. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 38 
 
 + 4 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 - 2 
 
 Hist, and geog. 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2. 
 
 - 3 
 
 Mathematics.. 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 - 2 
 
 Natural hist. . . 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 — 2 
 
 Physics 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 - 3 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 ± 
 
 Writing 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 ± 
 
 Drawing 
 
 2 
 
 ~ 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 - 2 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 260 
 
 -20 
 
 Gymnastics, three hours weekly throughout. Singing in VI and V, 
 two hours weekly ; an hour and a half weekly for rest of course for 
 pupils who can sing. Drawing (elective), two hours weekly in II and I. 
 English (elective), two hours weekly in three highest classes (gymna- 
 sium). Hebrew, the same as English.
 
 182 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 2. OuTLixE OF Courses of Study. 
 The followin,!? outline of courses in the various 
 branches of study is taken from the programme 
 {Lehrplan) of tlie Leibnitz Gymnasium of Berlin, 
 1895-'96. It is typical of all gymnasia, since there 
 is little variation from a common standard in the 
 different schools of the country. The smaller gym- 
 nasia have essentially the same courses as the larger.* 
 
 A. RELIGION. 
 
 (a) Vorschule. 
 
 1st class, 3 hours weekly. f Bible history, Old and 
 New Testaments. The Ten Commandments without 
 Luther's comments. Short Bible proverbs. Lord's 
 Prayer, Morning and evening prayer. Church hymns, 
 
 £d class, 3 hours. History of Old and Xew Tes- 
 taments, Bible proverbs. Prayers and the three 
 hymns, " Ach, bleib' mit deiner Gnade " ; " Nun 
 danket alle Gott " ; " Lobt Gott, ihr Christen." 
 
 3d class, 3 hours. Biblical history from Old and 
 New Testaments. Church creed with Luther's com- 
 ments. Church hymns and proverbs, 
 
 (b) Gymnasium. 
 Sexta, 2 hours. Biblical study from Old and New 
 Testaments, Sixty stories. Preceding each of the 
 church festivals, the appropriate biblical history from 
 the New Testament. Learn first part of creed with 
 Luther's comments. Impressing (Einpragicvg) les- 
 sons of catechism and hymns. 
 
 * Bericht iiber das Schuljahr 1895-'96, Berlin, 1896. 
 •j-The number of hours means weekly in each case.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 183 
 
 Quinta^ 2 hours. History of the Xew Testament. 
 Fifty stories. Explanation and learning of the second 
 part of the creed with Luther's comments. Thirty- 
 four proverbs as in Sexta, with six new ones. 
 
 Quarta, 2 hours. Succession and division of books 
 of Old Testament in connection with reading of most 
 important sections. History of Kingdom of God as ■■ 
 given in the Old Testament. Eeview of catechism 
 learned in VI and Y. Explanation and "Einprii- 
 gung " of the third division of the creed. 
 
 Lower Tertia, 2 hours. Names and divisions of 
 the books of the Xew Testament. Kead book of 
 Matthew. Eeview previously learned catechism. 
 Take fourth part of creed, additional proverbs. Ee- 
 view previous hymns, take four new ones. Explana- 
 tion of three or four other new hymns, at the same 
 time learning individual couplets. Explain three 
 psalms. 
 
 Upper Tertia, 2 hours. Acts of the Apostles. 
 Most important parts of church and Eeformation 
 history in connection with the life of Luther. Ee- 
 view previous catechism. Memorize fifth part of 
 creed. Proverbs. Explanation of psalms (three 
 memorized). Eeview previous hymns with explana- 
 tion of three or four additional. Learning of indi- 
 vidual couplets. 
 
 Loioer Secunda, 2 hours. Instruction in church 
 doctrines and significance of orders of worship. Life 
 and teachings of Jesus. Biblical teachings of Xcav 
 Testament. Eeview catechism. Proverbs, hymns, 
 psalms. 
 
 Upper Secunda, 2 hours. History of Israel. Fur-
 
 184 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 tlier study of Old and Xew Testaments. Kead Acts 
 of the Apostles. Selected parts of non-Paulinian 
 letters. Eeview churcli liymns, psalms, proverbs, and 
 catechism. 
 
 Lower Prima, 2 liours. Study writings of John, 
 with selected readings from his gospel. Life and 
 writings of the Apostle Paul, especially Eomans, 
 Corinthians, Galatians, and Philippians. 
 
 TT^jper Prima, 2 hours. Life and works of John, 
 with comprehensive lectures upon his evangelism. 
 Eeformation and church history. Most important 
 teachings of the Evangelical Church. Augsburg 
 confession. EevicAV catechism. Proverbs, psalms, 
 and church hymns. 
 
 Xo detailed comments upon the course of instruc- 
 tion in religion will be offered. Since biblical in- 
 struction forms no part of our public-school cur- 
 ricula, the discussion could not be made comparative, 
 and a merely expository treatment is not necessary. 
 
 It may be well, however, to answer a question 
 frequently asked me, viz. : Since there are different 
 religious denominations, how is it possible to give 
 instruction that avoids creating dissension and is 
 acceptable to all ? Dissension is avoided by provid- 
 ing teachers of religion for the various denomina- 
 tions represented in the schools. This is made 
 possible by employing, in many cases, clergymen of 
 the city to give instruction in religion. It does not 
 usually necessitate the employment of many teachers 
 for this branch in a given school. Seldom more 
 than a Protestant and a Catholic — sometimes a 
 Jewish — teacher are necessary for the same school.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 185 
 
 Very frequently the pupils in a school are nearly all 
 of the same denomination. It is also to be noted 
 that attendance upon religious instruction is not 
 obligatory if given by a teacher of a faith different 
 from that of the pupil. My observations led me to 
 believe that the greatest harmony prevailed, and 
 that there was none of that strife between church 
 and state that we in America would naturally expect 
 as a result of the close correlation of secular and 
 religious instruction. It is not to be inferred that a 
 similar procedure could be followed in this country. 
 Conditions are different, and the question has been 
 settled in a way apparently best fitted to meet our 
 own peculiar demands. ]S'o question of this nature 
 can be settled upon purely a priori grounds. All 
 institutions must ultimately be adjusted to the civ- 
 ilization amid which they exist. 
 
 B. CLASSICS. 
 («) Latin. 
 
 Sexta., 8 hours. Grammar, with the greatest stress 
 upon the regular verbs, excluding the deponent 
 verbs. Word values from reading books. Some ele- 
 mentary syntactical rules inductively learned. Trans- 
 lation as home work. Memorizing individual sen- 
 tences. Pure writing in Latin. Weekly half-hour 
 thoughtful consideration of content of text. 
 
 Quinta, 8 hours. Eeview of regular grammatical 
 forms. Deponent verbs. Irregular grammatical forms, 
 with limitation to those necessary. Pronouns, com- 
 parison, numerals, prepositions, and adverbs. Some
 
 18G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 syntactical rules as necessity demands. Oral and 
 written exercises as well as Latin composition. 
 
 Quarta, 7 hours. Eeading, first semester, three 
 hours ; second semester, four hours. Cornelius Xepos 
 and selections by 0. Kichter. Exercises in constru- 
 ing unj^repared selections. Translation back into 
 Latin. Phrases and synonyms distinguished in the 
 reading lesson. Grammar, first semester, four hours ; 
 second semester, three hours. Eeview of previous 
 forms. Case forms. Syntax of verbs as necessity 
 demands. Oral and written translations into Latin. 
 Every three weeks, two short translations as writ- 
 ten or oral class " extemporale." Each semester, 
 three written translations from Latin into Ger- 
 man. 
 
 Lower Tertia., 7 hours. Grammar, three hours. 
 Eeview and extension of case forms. Eules of tense 
 and mode. Oral and written translations from War- 
 schauer's exercise book. Every two weeks, an " ex- 
 temporale " or " Exerzitium " (written exercise) in 
 connection with reading. Every six weeks, a written 
 translation into German. Eead in summer: Caesar 
 de bello Gallico, I,- 1-128 ; VI, 11-29. AYinter : Caesar 
 de bello Gallico, II, III, IV. 
 
 tipper Tertia, 7 hours. Explanations and exer- 
 cises in dactylic hexameter. Eeading and exercises 
 as in L. III. Eeview and extension of mode and 
 tense in connection with the syntax of verbs. Use 
 of exercise book as in L. III. Eead in summer 
 semester : Csesar, de bell, civ., II, 1-19; Ovid, Metam., 
 II, 1-328 ; VII, 618-724. Winter semester : Csesar, 
 de bell, civ., Ill, Avith exceptions. Ovid, Metam.,
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 187 
 
 VI, 313-381 ; X, 1-77 ; XI, 1-GG ; IV, 55-166 ; V, 
 341-571 ; XIII, 750-899. 
 
 Lower Secunda, 7 hours. Memorize poetry. As 
 opportunity affords, rhetorical rules and distinction 
 of synonyms in connection with reading. Grammar, 
 3 hours. Eeview and extension of previous Avork. 
 Every three weeks, two short translations into Latin 
 in connection with reading, either " extemporale " 
 or " Exerzitium." Every six weeks, instead of class 
 work, a written translation into German. Eead in 
 summer semester : Cicero, de imp. Cn. Pompeii ; 
 Verg., ^n., 1, 1-389 ; Liv., lib. XXI, c. 1-31 ; Cicero 
 in Catil., I, III ; Verg., .En., II, 250-558. AYinter : 
 Liv., XXI, c. 1-48 ; Verg., ^n., I, 1-393 ; II, 1-250 ; 
 III, 1-191. 
 
 Upper Secunda, 6 hours. Memorize portions of 
 Vergil or Casar. Ehetorical and grammatical points 
 in connection with reading. Every two weeks a 
 written translation into Latin. " Content " lessons. 
 Eead Cicero's Pro Sext. Eosc. Am. ; Vergil's ^n., 
 
 VII, VIII (with exceptions). III, 690-718, IV ; Sal- 
 lust, de conj. Catil., c. 21-61. 
 
 Lower Prima, 6 hours. Eead Cicero, TuscuL, I ; 
 selected letters from 1st and 2d books. Horace, 
 history which relates to Maecenas and other friends, 
 also history relating to Eoman states. Eemainder 
 of work as in U. I. 
 
 Upper Prima., 6 hours. Tacitus' Germ., and 
 sections from Cgesar's Gallic War ; Tacitus' Annals, I, 
 II, which refers to Germany. Poems from Horace 
 wliich have a close relation to later literature. Se- 
 lected letters of Cicero. Livy, I. Philosophical 
 14
 
 188 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 poems of Horace, which refer to moral upbuilding. 
 Memorize portions of Horace. Exj)lanation of im- 
 portant rhetorical rules. Synonyms. Translations 
 into Latin bi-weekly. Translations into German. 
 " Content " lessons. Exercises in grammatical and 
 rhetorical rules. 
 
 {h) Greek. 
 
 Loiver Tertia, G hours. Eegular grammar of 
 Attic dialect to the mute verbs, excepting tlie sec- 
 ondary tenses. Important parts of sound and ac- 
 cent in connection with inflections. Syntactical 
 rules learned inductively in connection with read- 
 ing. Oral and written translations into Greek every 
 two weeks (seldom as home work, usually in class). 
 Reading according to Bellerman's reading book. 
 
 TJ'pinr Tertia^ 6 hours. The secondary tenses, 
 liquid verbs, the verbs in "m," and the important 
 irregular verbs of the Attic dialect. Prepositions 
 memorized. Eeview and extension of lessons in U. 
 III. Important rules selected in connection with 
 reading. Written translations every 14 days. Read- 
 ing Xenophon's Anabasis, I, 1-3, II, 3-5, IV. 
 
 Lower Secunda, 6 hours. Syntax of nouns, arti- 
 cles, and pronouns. The important facts relating to 
 mode. Every two weeks a written class exercise. 
 Occasionally a home translation from Greek into 
 German. Read, Summer : Xen., Anab, IV, V, 1 ; 
 Homer's Od., III. Winter: Xen., Hell., Ill, IV, 
 with exceptions. Homer's Od., I, II, with excep- 
 tions. Portions of Homer memorized. 
 
 Upper Secunda^ 6 hours. Written translations 
 from Greek into German, in connection with prose
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 189 
 
 readings, mode, tense, verbs, infinitives, participles. 
 Read selections of Xen. A23omm. ; Herod., VII, 1st 
 half, IX ; Homer's Od., XIY-XVIII ; Plato's Apol- 
 ology. Parts of Homer memorized. 
 
 Loiver Prima., 6 hours. Eead Plato's Lacli. 
 Euth. ; Demosthenes, Phil., I ; Homer's II., XIX- 
 XXI ; Sophocles, Ajax ; Thncy., VI., with excep- 
 tions. Homer's II., I-V. Eemainder as in U. I. 
 
 Ujiper Prima., 6 hours. Memorize poetry. Ee- 
 view grammar. Translations from Greek into Ger- 
 man from book or from dictation. Eead Plato's 
 Protag. ; Homer's H., II, IV, VI-IX, XVII-XXIV ; 
 Soph., Ajax ; Dem., Phil., III. 
 
 {c) Hebrew {piitionaX). 
 
 Upper Seciuida, 2 hours. Elements of Hebrew 
 grammar. Eegular verbs with suffixes, nouns, vo- 
 cabulary. Exercises in translation. 
 
 Lower Prima, 2 hours. Combined with U. I. 
 
 Upper Prima, 2 hours. Irregular verbs, nouns, 
 numerals. Syntax. Vocabulary. Eead Genesis and 
 Psalms. 
 
 The classics, as is well known, form the back- 
 bone of the gymnasial course. They have held this 
 distinction for hundreds of years and are likely to 
 for some time to come. For many lines of subse- 
 quent study they are tenaciously held to be indis- 
 pensable. This prejudice, if it be such, will not be 
 overthrown easily. Only the lapse of time under 
 modern conditions can determine their right to re- 
 main or to be superseded. 
 
 Of the details of method I shall not attempt a
 
 190 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 discussion. I sliall attempt to point out what seem 
 to me, from personal observation, the salient fea- 
 tures of classical instruction in German schools, and 
 to mention something concerning the changing atti- 
 tude toward the classics in Germany. 
 
 The general aim to be reached is an understand- 
 ing of the most significant classical authors, and 
 discipline in the logic of language (" Verstdndniss 
 der hedeutenderen klassischen SrltriftsteUer der Iso- 
 mer 11 nd der (irieclien und spraclilicli-Jogische Schu- 
 luiKj^'' Lehrplan, 1891). However, it is stated that 
 the rules of grammar are to be only a means to an 
 end — that of reading and understanding the authors 
 of antiquity. By systematic instruction this power 
 of logical reasoning is to be strengthened and devel- 
 oped, and a mastery of the language gained. But 
 the higher and more important motives are not to 
 be lost sight of. The main object is to create in the 
 learners' minds higher and nobler ideals of life, and 
 to give them, through acquaintance with the ancient 
 literature and history, a more substantial and exten- 
 sive historic background. This only can give sound- 
 ness of judgment concerning things of the present. 
 History, literature, geography, and language (ancient 
 and modern) are correlated into a solid phalanx. 
 "WTiatever be the future walk in life, the pupil can 
 not fail to have been bettered and strengthened by 
 this ideal course. The future philosopher and the 
 scientist require this background for a proper under- 
 standing of the development of their departments ; 
 for the future philologist, it goes without saying that 
 it is indispensable ; the historian should be in posses-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 191 
 
 sion of the main truths, gained either in translation 
 or at first hand, and the future politician or man of 
 affairs can not fail to gain in critical judgment by 
 an intimate acquaintance with the ancients. 
 
 It is in imparting this deeper and more impor- 
 tant insight that I believe the Germans excel us. We 
 teach the language for its own sake, and, we claim, 
 to cultivate logical thinking — both purely formal ob- 
 jects. But the important ends, the formation of 
 sound historical judgment and the inculcation of 
 higher ideals, those things that really educate, we 
 too often overlook. 
 
 As I shall attempt to show concerning history, 
 likewise in the classics, those factors which tend to 
 produce fealty to government, stability of purpose, 
 and conservatism of ideas are all fostered. This 
 view is too important to be overlooked. The domi- 
 nant questions should be : What does this contribute 
 toward future manhood or womanhood, toward indi- 
 viduality, toward citizenship ? I would not have the 
 latter confined to political boundaries, but citizenship 
 in the broadest, most far-reaching significance. 
 
 As one of the means toward this end, I believe 
 that their use of objective (" Anschauungs ") ma- 
 terial in teaching the classics needs special mention. 
 As in modern languages, the attempt is made to 
 place the pupil in the midst of the people and places 
 which he is studying. When studying Rome, he is 
 to see the Eomans as they were. Eoman soldiers 
 and citizens had distinctive appearances in dress ; 
 the pupils must not think of them in German sol- 
 diers' and citizens' dress. Full life-size pictures of
 
 192 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 a Roman soldier, with helmet, shield, greaves, and 
 battle-axe, or of citizens with the toga, form a part 
 of the objective material for the lesson on one day. 
 On another day the Roman Forum or the Athenian 
 Parthenon are shown in drawings on a large scale. 
 When possible, many of the implements of war or 
 those used in the industries are brought in from the 
 museums for inspection. 
 
 Greek and Roman statuary is also to be seen on 
 every hand, not usually in the schoolroom indeed, 
 but accessible, and ancient forms of architecture 
 may be pointed out by the teacher during any les- 
 son. In this way the subject becomes full of in- 
 terest and reality. It assumes an ineffaceable mean- 
 ing not to be lightly esteemed. I have often ob- 
 served its correlation with mathematics, as well as 
 with history — for example, in connection with the 
 Pythagorean theorem, the conchoid of Xicomedes, 
 or the octagonal form of the Roman Forum. 
 
 We have seen from the study of the development 
 of the present curricula that the amount of time 
 spent upon the classics is a constantly diminishing 
 quantity. The question naturally arises : What will 
 be the final outcome ? Is the study of the classics to 
 retain its present preponderance, or is it to be made 
 co-ordinate with, or even subordinate to, subjects of 
 more modern interest ? Xot even Germans who are 
 the best acquainted with the situation would venture 
 unqualified assertions. Hence it would be presumptu- 
 ous in a foreigner to make too sweeping statements. 
 However, if we may judge of the future, using the 
 past changes as indices, certain conclusions can not
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 193 
 
 be escaped. The types of schools have been gradu- 
 ally but definitely changing from the purely classical 
 schools for all alike, to those which are seemingly 
 better adjusted to the diverse needs of the many. 
 The classical schools have not been eliminated, 
 but other schools, semi-classical and non-classical 
 in character, have been established for those who 
 needed little Latin and no Greek, and those who 
 wished neither. More modern studies have been 
 substituted for those persons who need special 
 preparation in non-classical directions. Even the 
 classical gymnasia have necessarily modified their 
 curricula to suit the ever-changing conditions of 
 civilization. This shows us the simple principle, 
 which, however, too many entirely overlook — name- 
 ly, that no curriculum of subjects can ever be ar- 
 ranged that will meet the needs of all times or of 
 all countries, or even the needs of all people in the 
 same country at the same time. The more complex 
 and highly organized civilization becomes, the more 
 differentiated must the curriculum be to meet the 
 demands. An institution is an evolutionary growth ; 
 a curriculum is a result of evolution, just as much 
 as an individual, or just as much as a people for 
 whom schools and curricula are formed. It is simply 
 the adjustment of relations ; the passage " from an 
 indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, co- 
 herent heterogeneity." * 
 
 It is this principle that ought to be constantly 
 borne in mind when studying proposed changes in 
 
 * Spencer, First Principles, 1st ed., p. 39G.
 
 194 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 our own school curricula. It is not a valid argu- 
 ment for the introduction or exclusion of certain 
 features to say that Germany does so, or that Eng- 
 land does otherwise. The study of other countries 
 certainly should aid in pronouncing more valid 
 judgments, but the question must be worked out 
 from the local (largely national) features of the 
 case. 
 
 The strenuous effort in Germany to secure an 
 " Einheitsschule " having a common basis of instruc- 
 tion without Latin in the lower grades has a great 
 significance. Although the question was answered 
 in the negative in the Conference of 1890, and it 
 received no attention in the Lehrplan of 1891, it is 
 still before the people and receiving much discussion. 
 Permission was even received from the government 
 by the local authorities of Erankfort to institute a 
 temporary innovation in this direction. The gymna- 
 sium and the real-gymnasium of the city were en- 
 tirely reorganized. The main features of the curric- 
 ulum (see p. 181) are as follows : Latin is not begun 
 in the lowest class but is deferred until the fourth 
 (L. Ill) in both forms of school. Greek is deferred 
 in the gymnasium until the sixth year (L. II) instead 
 of having it begin as usual in IV. In place of Latin 
 in the lower classes Erench is taken from the begin- 
 ning and carried through the course. A greater 
 number of hours (six) is given to it in the lower 
 grades and a smaller number of hours in the latter 
 part of the course. The total is essentialh^ un- 
 changed. In the real-gymnasium English is taken 
 through the last four years only, instead of through
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 195 
 
 six, but the total is the same, a greater number of 
 weekly hours being given than formerly. Latin and 
 Greek, when begun, also have an exceedingly large 
 amount of time given them weekly. Latin has ten 
 hours weekly for two years, and eight hours for the 
 remaining four years. Greek occupies eight hours 
 weekly through four years. The advantages claimed 
 for this system are these : Xo two foreign languages 
 are being studied in their elementary stages simulta- 
 neously. One is pretty well conquered before another 
 is begun. Again, more intensive work is put upon 
 each when once begun. Lastly, probably of prime 
 importance, an easy living language is substituted 
 for a difficult obsolete one, during the period when 
 the child mind is least able to cope with difficult 
 grammatical abstractions. During this period his 
 mind is most plastic and hence pre-eminently fitted 
 to acquire language by the natural method. The 
 easy is placed in the more tender years and the diffi- 
 cult in the period when the mind can better grapple 
 with difficulties, instead of the reverse arrangement. 
 This plan is now in operation in the Leibnitz Gymna- 
 sium, Hanover, in Altona, Magdeburg, and Iserlohn, 
 and it is contemplated in Liibeck, Lichtenburger 
 and many other places.* 
 
 So far as can be seen, the plan meets with great 
 satisfaction. The first class of graduates will leave 
 the Frankfort school soon, and it will not be long be- 
 fore the system will have had a thorough trial. Ac- 
 cording to Professor Paulsen's views, there is no 
 
 * Program II, Kealschule, Frankfort, 1896-97.
 
 196 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 reason why Latin may not bo put off until much 
 later than Sexta. He Avrites that " Latin grammar 
 is undoubtedly too severe for nine-year-old boys, 
 and not the best mental food at that age. Some 
 can digest it, others suffer from it. The stream of 
 red ink that daily is poured over the ' extemporale ' 
 exercises of the boys in Sexta, Quinta, and Quarta 
 cries out toward Heaven." * 
 
 Professor Paulsen believes that the elements of a 
 modern language taught orally would be much easier 
 learned than the classics, and if it had been usual 
 to begin Latin in Tertia no one would for a moment 
 think of beginning it in Sexta. In the Middle Ages 
 it was customary to make the very first instruction 
 Latin ; now the first instruction is in the mother 
 tongue, but the custom of making Latin the first 
 foreign language still prevails. He further says : " I 
 believe the growing distance from the Middle Ages 
 and the increasing significance of the modern lan- 
 guages will cause us to break even with this custom, 
 as has already been the case with neighbouring na- 
 tions." f 
 
 There will be, he adds, J a gradual changing of 
 the classical gymnasia into real-gymnasia. A large 
 number of classical schools will be necessary for 
 some time to come. " For always ? I believe not." 
 Professor Paulsen cites his own early training * to 
 prove that the classics may be begun at a much later 
 period than Sexta. He was a farmer boy and at- 
 
 * Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, II, p. 617. 
 
 f Loc. cit., p. 618. X J^oc. cit., p. 618. * Loc. ciL, p. 619.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 197 
 
 tended the village school until about seventeen years 
 old. He then entered the Altona Gymnasium in 
 Secunda, finishing the entire course in three years 
 more. He had begun Latin at fifteen and a quarter 
 years of age by private instruction, at the same time 
 continuing in the village Volksschule. At sixteen 
 he began, also, Greek, Hebrew, French, English, 
 and Danish. This shows that it is not necessary to 
 begin Latin at nine years and Greek at eleven. 
 
 C. MODEEN LA^'GUAGES. 
 
 (a) French. 
 
 Quarfa, 4 hours. Elementary reading book, les- 
 sons 1-32. Eeading exercises and attempts at speak- 
 ing. Eegular conjugation in the indicative mode 
 of avoir and efre. Articles in the nominative and 
 accusative. Gender and declension of nouns. Eeg- 
 ular and irregular comparison of adjectives. Nu- 
 merals, adverbs, and conjunctive pronouns. Dic- 
 tation exercises, " extemporale," and written work 
 alternating every two weeks. 
 
 Lower Tertia, 3 hours. Plotz's elementary read- 
 ing book, lessons 33-51. Grammar, lessons 2-25. 
 Eeview of regular conjugations of avoir and etre. 
 Conjunctions, verbs with cer, ger, etc. Necessary 
 irregular verbs and pronouns. Dictation exercises, 
 "extemporale," and written work alternating every 
 three weeks. Conversation exercises. Eead from 
 elementary reading book. Selected poetry. 
 
 Upper Tertia, 3 hours. School grammar, lessons 
 26-33. Irregular verbs, omitting the less important
 
 198 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 composite verbs. Use of luixiliaries avoir aiul Hre. 
 Order of words. Tenses in the indicative and sub- 
 junctive modes. Written and oral translations into 
 French. Dictation lessons, " content " lessons, and 
 conversation. Eead Erckmann-Chatrian's Histoire 
 d'un Conscrit de 1813, or Choix de nouvelles mo- 
 dernes, and Au coin du feu. 
 
 Lower Secimda, 2 hours. School grammar, les- 
 sons 54-72. Conjunctions, adjectives, adverbs, arti- 
 cles, prepositions, participles, infinitives. Eevievv 
 pronouns. Written and oral translations into French 
 and conversation exercises. Read selected narra- 
 tives. Sandeau's Mile, de la Seigliere. 
 
 Upper Secunda, 2 hours. Review grammar in 
 connection with oral translations into French. 
 Every four weeks a translation from French into 
 German. Conversation. Read Daudet's Le Petit 
 Chose, Racine's Phedre, Merimee's Colomba. Selec- 
 tions from French poets. La Fontaine, Beranger, 
 Fr. Coppee. 
 
 Loioer Prima, 2 hours. Read Pailleron's Le 
 Monde on Ton s'ennuie, Moliere's Le Malade Imagi- 
 naire, D'Herisson's Journal d'un officier d'ordon- 
 nance. Poems selected from La Fontaine, Victor 
 Hugo, Fr. Coppee. 
 
 Upper Prima, 2 hours. Review grammatical 
 rules in combination with oral translation into 
 French. Every four weeks a translation from French. 
 Conversation. Read D'Herisson's Journal d'un offi- 
 cier d'ordonnance, Moliere's I'Avare.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 199 
 
 (/;) Fiir/lish {elective). 
 
 Ui^per Secumla., 2 hours. Grammar is given in 
 Bando, Lehrbuch tier Englischen Sprache. Read 
 first part of this book and Burnett's Little Lord 
 Fauntleroy. 
 
 Loioer and Upper Prima., 2 hours. (Work ar- 
 ranged together, but it is taken two hours each year.) 
 Read Dickens's Sketches, Burnett's Little Lord Faunt- 
 leroy, Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Byron's Prisoner 
 of Chillon, Mazeppa. 
 
 It will be seen from the above course in English 
 that it is only a side issue in the gymnasia. It is 
 elective, and consequently is often omitted because 
 of the press of other work. Future theological 
 students alwa3's take Hebrew instead. The following 
 outline of work from the Leipzig real-gymnasium 
 will indicate the scope and character of the work 
 done in the best real-gymnasia and higher real- 
 schools. 
 
 English in Leipzig Real-Gymnasium. 
 
 Loiver Tertia, 3 hours. General introductory 
 work. Weekly a written or oral " extemporale " in 
 connection with the reading lessons. Talks about 
 spring or a farmyard. 
 
 Upjjer Tertia^ 3 hours. Reading Book, Part II 
 (Zimmerman). Selections from Herrig's Reading 
 Book and Burnett's Little Lord Fauntleroy. Con- 
 versation exercises. A weekly written exercise, pre- 
 pared or " extemporale."
 
 200 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Lower Secunda, 3 hours. Zimmerman's Reading 
 Book, systematic course, lessons 30-54. Selections 
 from Herrig's Reading Book. Tales from the 
 Alhambra, Irving. A weekly written exercise. 
 
 Upi^er Secunda^ 3 hours. Schmidt's Grammar of 
 the English Language, Part I ; Syntax, G9-144. 
 Review of etymology. Read Herrig's Classical Au- 
 thors, Irving's English Sketches. A weekly written 
 exercise (prepared or " extemporale "). 
 
 Lower Prima., 3 hours. General review of the 
 work done in L. II. Continuation of Schmidt's 
 Grammar of the English Language, Part II; Syn- 
 tax, 145-215. Every two weeks a written exercise, 
 " exercitium, extemporale," or an elective exercise. 
 Read from Herrig's Classical Authors, and from 
 Macaulay's Lord Clive. 
 
 Upper Prima., 3 hours. Schmidt's Grammar of the 
 English Language, Part II ; Syntax, 215-254. Re- 
 view the work of L. I. Oral exercises as in Schmidt. 
 Every two weeks a written exercise (translation, " ex- 
 temporale," or elective work). Read selections from 
 Herrig's Classical Authors, parts of Milton's Paradise 
 Lost, Shakespeare's Coriolanus, cursory reading of 
 History of English Literature. 
 
 A Modern languages, especially French, have con- 
 siderable time devoted to them. In the humanistic 
 gymnasia, where so much time is given to Latin and 
 Greek, a less amount of time is given to the modern 
 languages than in the realistic schools of various 
 forms. But even in the classical schools French is 
 studied to an extent that would seem considerable in 
 American schools. The average amount of time
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 201 
 
 allowed for it in the various States is a little above 
 twenty weekly hours, or with us that would mean a 
 daily lesson, five hours a week, for four school years. 
 When we consider that freshmen and soj)homores in 
 college acquire a good reading knowledge of French 
 in two years, or even quite a fair knowledge in one 
 3^ear, it means, even considering the younger age at 
 which the first part of the work is done in German 
 schools, that quite a degree of proficiency ought to 
 be attained in the long period devoted to it in Ger- 
 man schools. And such is tlie case. Before the end 
 of the course the boys read and sj^eak French with 
 quite an enviable fluency. Prussia has nineteen 
 hours of French in its course of study. Saxony and 
 "Wiirtemberg eighteen hours each, Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Alsace-Lorraine 
 twenty-four hours each, Hesse twenty-three, Baden 
 twenty, while Bavaria brings up the rear with only 
 ten hours. 
 
 The real-gymnasia, which have no Greek in their 
 courses, and have nine years of work, the same as 
 the gymnasia, increase the number of liours quite 
 materially. The average number of hours in all 
 the eight principal states, Bavaria excepted, is about 
 thirty. In Bavaria only twenty hours are offered. * 
 
 The real-schools (with courses of only six years) 
 have varying numbers of hours set apart for French. 
 Mecklenburg leads the list with a total of thirty-five 
 hours, while Bavaria has only twenty-seven. Prussia 
 
 * This deviation in Bavaria is unexplainable, since the other 
 studies have no extra hours to compensate. Bavaria, it will be 
 seen from the table, has a lighter course throughout.
 
 202 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 has thirty-one hours, tliat being about tlie average 
 for all Germany. Iligher real-schools have a still 
 larger amount of time for French. I'russia gives, in 
 addition to the thirty-one hours in the real-school 
 proper, four hours a week in each of the upper classes 
 beyond the real-schools. This makes a total of forty- 
 seven weekly hours ! 
 
 The subject is begun in the humanistic gymnasia 
 usually with Quarta (at the latest, Lower Tertia), 
 and continued throughout the course with an average 
 of nearly three hours weekly. This class of school, 
 having so much Latin and Greek, aims to have only 
 one foreign language begun at a time, and starts with 
 Latin in Sexta, deferring Greek until a year later 
 than French. English is begun somewhat later in 
 the course, but during the last three or four years of 
 a boy's life in the gymnasium he is completely satu- 
 rated with linguistic training. He is almost sure of 
 three, and usually has four, foreign languages to 
 battle with at the same time. If the pupil does not 
 elect English, which is optional, he may elect He- 
 brew, and in some states Spanish, Italian, etc., are 
 offered. These in addition to his own mother tongue. 
 There are always fourteen or fifteen hours per week 
 of required language work, and when English or 
 Hebrew is elected the amount is swelled to sixteen 
 or seventeen hours. Saxony requires seventeen 
 hours, and offers two hours elective Avork. Thus the 
 German gymnasia require about as many hours of 
 language training in their courses as we have for all 
 studies combined. Besides the foreign languages, 
 they require from two to four hours weekly study of
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 203 
 
 the mother tongue. Then come mathematics, with 
 an average of about one lesson a day throughout the 
 entire period of school life, some science, a continuous 
 draft of time for religion, obligatory gymnastics ; and 
 then considerable time and energy is to be devoted 
 to drawing, writing, singing, etc. Should American 
 boys be obliged to undertake so heavy a burden of 
 studies, I fancy there would soon be a cry of inhuman 
 treatment arising from tens of thousands of fond 
 parents. Even in Germany the cry of "Uberbiir- 
 dung" has been heard from all quarters, and the 
 " tJberbiirdungsfrage," together with the clamour for 
 more practical arts and sciences and less of the 
 apparently useless furniture of Latin and Greek,* 
 makes one of the most burning questions of practical 
 pedagogics in Germany, 
 
 Languages in their totality receive less attention 
 in the real-gymnasia, but in these schools modern 
 languages are accorded a relatively much greater 
 place than in the humanistic institutions. Foreign 
 languages occupy from ninety-two weekly hours of the 
 entire course in Prussia to one hundred and two and a 
 half weekly hours in Wiirtemberg in the real-gymna- 
 sia. The gymnasia in the same states give one hun- 
 dred and seventeen and one hundred and thirty-nine 
 hours respectively to foreign linguistic training. 
 
 French is usually begun in the real-gymnasia in 
 Quarta or LoAver Tertia, and pursued for three or 
 four hours weekly to the end of the course. This 
 
 * That is, when obligatory in such quantities for students 
 of all professions. Few dispute their relative value.
 
 204 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 gives to the real -gymnasia from six to seven hours 
 more of French than the gymnasia. 
 
 In the real-schools, which have no foreign lan- 
 guages besides English and French, the latter is 
 begun in Sexta, or at the beginning of the course, 
 and taken throughout the six years of the course for 
 a little over six hours weekly ; the total amount of 
 time given to French and English being about the 
 same as that given in the real-gymnasia. The various 
 progymnasia and real-progymnasia require about the 
 same amount as the real-gymnasia. 
 
 The higher real-schools, however, offer the same 
 amount as the real-schools through the first six years, 
 and then add about four hours weekly (see Prussian 
 higher real-school) for the last three years of the 
 course. This provides a total of forty-seven hours' 
 (Prussia) French instruction in the entire course. 
 It was not my good fortune to visit a higher real- 
 school, as they are not yet very numerous,* but with 
 this amount of time spent upon French the pupils 
 ought to acquire a very ready acquaintance with the 
 printed language, and ought to speak and write it 
 fluently. They probably do, for the instruction is 
 excellent in most schools, and the pupils seem to 
 acquire the language readily. 
 
 Many of the schools are drawing away from the 
 older methods of teaching modern languages. Some 
 still cling to the sahie method of presentation as is 
 pursued with the classics, but they are the exception 
 
 * They, however, seem to be in great demand, having in- 
 creased more rapidly during the last few years than any other 
 form of school. See table on distribution of schools.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 205 
 
 rather than the rule. It may be said that the gymna- 
 sium teachers favour the grammatical method, while 
 the real-school teachers advocate the natural method. 
 The results obtained in English in the gymnasia are 
 not usually so good as those reached in the real-school 
 and real-gymnasia. Still, some of the best teaching 
 of English that I was able to witness in all my visits 
 was in the gymnasia. French is taught as a spoken 
 language, and taught well in all classes of schools. 
 The real-schools usually give instruction of the most 
 vigorous sort, which, viewed from the standpoint of 
 practical utility, is most effective. This utilitarian 
 tendency which the newer methods are believed to 
 engender and foster is viewed with great disfavour by 
 many gymnasial instructors. They believe that the 
 philological method is the only one that can afford 
 mental discipline, which they claim is the main and 
 almost the sole object of teaching any subject. 
 
 The real-school men, on the other liand, maintain 
 that no mental discipline is sacrificed by the natural 
 method. They believe that there is even a gain, 
 since the interest aroused in the study is so greatly 
 increased. The practical end, which they do not 
 deny, but believe is the chief purpose of teaching 
 the modern foreign languages, is also reached. The 
 real-school courses in their entirety owe their exist- 
 ence to the clamour for studies of practical utilit}'', 
 and may not the continuance of the basal studies in 
 their courses be justified by the necessity for training 
 that will enable the classes who are its patrons to 
 best meet the bread-and-butter problems of life ? Who 
 shall say that the practical training received in these
 
 206 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 schools does not enable their students to live more 
 completely? And it must be conceded that com- 
 plete living is the end of all true education. It must 
 also be remembered that what constitutes complete 
 living for one does not constitute complete living for 
 all. Some live most completely when understanding 
 and mastering the practical — even material — condi- 
 tions of life only ; others live completely only when 
 in the contemplation of things spiritual. To culti- 
 vate pure spirituality only, and not to furnish the 
 means for securing those things which enable people 
 to have leisure and the surroundings necessary for 
 the enjoyment of intellectual occupation, is apt to 
 create an inharmonious condition. Individuals so 
 trained are apt to be out of unison with their envi- 
 ronment. The Germans regard these as a class of 
 hunger candidates, unable to secure the means for 
 their ideal existence, and unwilling and unable to 
 turn to more menial service. 
 
 The teaching of modern languages, according to 
 the natural or Pestalozzian method, is receiving 
 thorough critical discussion in all parts of the coun- 
 try. All the pedagogical magazines are replete with 
 able discussions jwo and con, those in favour of the 
 natural method being decidedly in the majority. 
 There are also several journals exclusively devoted 
 to a consideration of this important question. Not 
 only are the newer methods finding favour in discus- 
 sions, but many disciples are putting into practice 
 the new doctrines, or, more strictly, the more re- 
 cently revised doctrines. The natural method has had 
 many exponents among the great leaders of peda-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 207 
 
 gogical thouglit. It was heralded by Erasmus, Co- 
 menius, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Willmann, Ackermann, 
 Kern, and others, not to mention its English sup- 
 porters. 
 
 By this method the ear as well as the eye is made 
 a factor in the acquisition. The new language is 
 to be acquired by the same method that a child 
 learns its mother tongue — by reception through the 
 ear, watching the movements of the lips, and by imi- 
 tation of what it perceives. Through constant asso- 
 ciation of things with words the objective and the 
 subjective are related. Frequent repetition is an 
 important factor, and the influence of muscular 
 memory brought about by movement of the vocal 
 organs is taken advantage of. * 
 
 By the proper selection of material the interest is 
 stimulated. This, it may be said, is perhaps only 
 second to repetition in the influence upon memoriz- 
 ing. Of course, the youth who has learned to read 
 possesses an advantage over the infant, and hence 
 with him not all acquisition depends upon " parrot 
 repetition " ; logical associations aid the youth. The 
 eye is also a factor in acquisition. But the initial 
 work until the elements of pronunciation are well 
 mastered belong to the oral side of language teaching. 
 
 It is usual to begin the teaching of both English 
 and French in German schools by considerable intro- 
 ductory oral work. After some skill has been acquired 
 in understanding the spoken word and in pronuncia- 
 
 * See J. R. Street, Ped. Sein. IV, A Study in Language 
 Teaching ; also Dr. H. T. Lukeus, Ped. Sem. Ill, A Study in 
 learuintr Lanauage.
 
 208 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 tion (this includes sentences as well as words), read- 
 ing is begun. The lessons arc first read by the 
 teacher, who explains the words and phrases not 
 understood by the pupils ; the pupils then read the 
 selection ; and after tliis follows a large amount of 
 judicious questioning upon what has been read. At 
 first the questions are so framed that the pupil may 
 answer in the words given in the book, or by chang- 
 ing a single word or at most a very few words of the 
 teacher's question ; for example : 
 
 Sind sie lang in London geblieben ? Ja, ich bin 
 lang in London geblieben. Who went with you to 
 Eugby ? Henry went with me to Rugby. Did you 
 see the Queen's palace in London ? Yes, we saw the 
 Queen's palace in London. 
 
 Concert answering in the first stages of the work 
 is recommended as an aid in cultivating the ear and 
 the voice. " Ausbildung der Hor- und Sprechftlhig- 
 keit des Schlilers ist stets im Auge zu behalten " 
 (Prussian Lehrplan). Much stress is placed upon 
 the teaching of words and phrases used in daily life by 
 the people whose language is being studied. Pro- 
 fessor Hauskneclit claims that the current language 
 of the people should be learned before the literary 
 forms. It is manifestly a lack, he maintains, when 
 (as is the case with certain elementary books on 
 English) pupils are not given in the course of an 
 entire year the expression for letter, post, railway 
 train, steamer, tailor, coffee, or supper ; further, the 
 characteristic English expressions, roast beef, beef- 
 steak, plum pudding, ham, eggs, ale, ginger-beer, 
 tramway, waterproof, trade, industry, commerce,
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 209 
 
 yes, also, daughter, mother, aunt, girl, and even 
 pretty. And the pupil has been obliged to memo- 
 rize the words fossil igumiodon ! 
 
 The more recent books and the official regulations 
 state that pupils are to be made acquainted with the 
 daily life and occurrences of the people whose lan- 
 guage they are studying. AVhen studying English, 
 they are carried in thought, aided by maps, pictures, 
 and proper reading books, we will say, to the capital 
 of England, and made acquainted with its location, 
 its streets, its points of interest, such as the Houses 
 of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, Kensington Gar- 
 dens, Hyde Park, Eotten Eow, Trafalgar Square, 
 the British Museum, the Bank of England, the 
 Tower, Big Ben, etc. I have witnessed very in- 
 teresting lessons based upon Tom's Journey through 
 London and its Environs. (See Hausknecht's English 
 Student.) The boys were introduced to all the fa- 
 mous sights, learned something about the Charter- 
 house School and Eugby, about the English school- 
 boy's games, and life in England generally. The 
 schoolboy life is, of course, of greatest interest, being 
 so nearly related to their own experiences. Had the 
 language been French, Paris or some other French 
 city would have formed the centre of the theme, and 
 French schoolboy life would have received attention. 
 I have witnessed very spirited exercises upon a study 
 of French schools. 
 
 Many of the German modern -language teachers 
 speak with a good deal of pride of the fact that their 
 books on French contain very few classical tales and 
 fables. The French reading books on German are
 
 210 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 almost exclusively made up of classic material. Such 
 selections tend to deaden all interest. Greek tales, if 
 in any foreign language, should be studied in Greek, 
 Latin tales in Latin, and fables in the mother tongue. 
 Some of our American text-book writers could well 
 profit by this suggestion when preparing foreign-lan- 
 guage manuals. Interest is fundamental in the ac- 
 quisition of any subject, and I believe, from the work 
 I saw, that the Germans have struck one of the right 
 keys toward securing it in language teaching. 
 
 Along with this the geography of the country is 
 correlated, names are learned as they are pronounced 
 at home, much valuable information is added, and 
 with no loss — on the contrary, with gain — to the lan- 
 guage lesson. Important events of history are dis- 
 cussed. The authors who have contributed most to 
 the literature are considered biographically, and some 
 of their most important productions are at least 
 talked about if time does not permit a more detailed 
 consideration. In the higher real-schools quite a 
 thorough and detailed survey of English literature is 
 attempted, but in the gymnasia, where it is taken for 
 such a limited time, the elements only can be studied. 
 Simultaneously with learning vocabularies (which in 
 the early portion of the work are learned from the 
 teacher) and becoming acquainted with the life of 
 the people, rules of grammar are considered. But 
 they are of minor importance, and are incidental 
 instead of being the " Hauptsache, " 
 
 The above necessarily brief discussion will give 
 something of the aims and methods in teaching mod- 
 ern languages. The theories advanced by their most
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 211 
 
 progressive teachers are founded on a sound peda- 
 gogical and psychological basis. Some schools secure 
 most creditable results, others less perfect. From 
 all the schools the boys come with a good working 
 knowledge of French — i. e., they can read it, speak 
 it, and write it with considerable ease and fluency. 
 From many schools the same may be said of English, 
 but it is far from universal. Few of the university stu- 
 dents have a good working knoAvledge, and scarcely 
 any can speak it. This is due to two causes : First, 
 most of the university students are gymnasial trained, 
 and there little attention is paid to it, some never 
 studying it ; second, few teachers can speak it correct- 
 ly, hence the poor pronvmciation of the students. 
 While they teach French pronunciation perfectly, in 
 general the English pronunciation is wretched. It is 
 very exceptional to find native English teachers in 
 the schools, and few of the German teachers ever 
 master the difficulties of English pronunciation. 
 Occasionally a teacher sjaends a short time in Eng- 
 land, but it is the exception rather than the rule. 
 Hence, although the real-gymnasia and higher real- 
 school graduates can read and write the language 
 well, they can seldom speak it so that an Englishman 
 or an American can understand without difficulty. 
 I have listened to a class of Upper Prima boys read 
 from Herrig's Classical Authors and was unable to 
 understand a line without also looking on the book. 
 They had studied the language over five years. On 
 the whole, I believe their methods and results in 
 modern languages are very commendable, and should 
 they secure English-speaking teachers, their proce-
 
 212 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 dure in English in the real-gymnasia and liigher real- 
 schools would be as admirable as it now is in teach- 
 ing French. 
 
 Appendix to Section C. 
 
 The following is a list of works compiled by the 
 School Board in Coblenz,* from which teachers are 
 to make selections in teaching English : 
 
 Historical: 
 
 Chambers, History of the English People U. III. 
 
 Scott, Tales of a Grandfather U. HI, L. II. 
 
 Macaulay, Lord Clive II. 
 
 Irving, The Discovery of America 11. 
 
 Macaulay, Warren Hastings U. II, L. I. 
 
 The Duke of Monmouth U. II, L. I. 
 
 " History of England I. 
 
 Green, A Short History of the English People. I. 
 
 McCarthy, The Crimean War U. II, I. 
 
 Biographical : 
 
 Franklin's Autobiography II. 
 
 Smiles, Deeds of Heroism L. 11. 
 
 " George Stephenson II. 
 
 Irving, Sketch-Book U. II, L 
 
 Goadby, The England of Shakespeare I. 
 
 Narrative : 
 
 Irving, Tales of the Alhambra U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 Marryat, Masterman Ready U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 " The Children of the New Forest U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 " The Settlers in Canada U. HI, L. II. 
 
 " The Three Cutters U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 " Collection of Tales and Sketches II. 
 
 Scott, Waverly, Kenilworth, Ivanhoe U. II. 
 
 Dickens, Sketches U. II. 
 
 " A Christmas Carol U. II, I. 
 
 " The Cricket on the Hearth 
 
 * Centralblatt, 1897, pp. 225-227.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 213 
 
 Orations : 
 
 Parliamentary Speeches of Pitt, Burke, etc. 
 Science and History of Civilization: 
 
 Great Explorers and Inventors U. II. 
 
 Besant, London, Past and Present U. II, I. 
 
 Green, Short History of the English People. . . U. II, I. 
 
 Escott, England and its People U. II, I. 
 
 Polity and Pursuits 
 
 London and its Environs U. II, I. 
 
 Poetry : 
 
 Julius Caesar, Coriolanus, Macbeth, Richard 
 III, Merchant of Venice I. 
 
 Scott's Lady of the Lake U. IT, I. 
 
 Byron's Selections from Childe Harold I. 
 
 Milton, Selections from Paradise Lost I. 
 
 Collection from Groff and Ilausknecht U. Ill, I. 
 
 Seleci ions for Frtnch. 
 Historical : 
 
 Lame-Fleury, Decouverte de TAmerique U. III. 
 
 Michaud, Premiere Croisade U. III. 
 
 *' Troisieme Croisade U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 Barante, Ilistoire de Jeanne d'Arc U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 Thiers, Bonaparte en Egypte et en Syrie L. II. 
 
 Drury, Sieele de Louis XIV L. II. 
 
 Segur, Histoire de Napoleon et de la Grande 
 
 Armee U. II. 
 
 Miquet, Histoire de la Revolution U. II, I. 
 
 Lamprey, Histoire de Napoleon I. 
 
 Taine, Les Origines de la France contempo- 
 
 raine I. 
 
 Biooraphical : 
 
 Miquet, Vie de Franklin II. 
 
 Michaud, Vie et Coutumes des Croisades II. 
 
 Halevy, L'ln vasion II. 
 
 Larcey, Le Siege de Paris L^. II, I. 
 
 D'Herisson, Journal d'un Oilieier d'Ordon- 
 
 nance U. II.
 
 214 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 BlOGRAIMIICAL : 
 
 Montes(iuieu, Consiclorations sur les Causes, etc. U. TI, I. 
 
 Taine, Napoleon I. 
 
 Guizot, Etude sur Washinj^ton I. 
 
 " Histoire de la Civilisation I. 
 
 Orations : 
 
 Deseze, Defence de Ludwig XVI I. 
 
 Narratives : 
 
 Bruno, Le Tour de la France en 5 Mois U. III. 
 
 " Francinet U. III. 
 
 Souvestre, Au Coin de Feu U. Ill, L. II. 
 
 Erckmann-Chatrian, Histoire d'un Conscrit. . . U. Ill, L. II. 
 " " Waterloo, Contes Popu- 
 
 laires, Contes du Bord du Rhin L.II. 
 
 Conteurs Moderne L. II. 
 
 Choix de Nouvelles Moderne II. 
 
 Daudet, Lettres de Mon Moulin U. II. 
 
 Contes du Lundl U. II. 
 
 Coppee, Nouvellan U. II. 
 
 Merimee, Colomba U. II. 
 
 Toepier, Nouvelles Genevoises U. II. * 
 
 Natural Science, Geography, Technical : 
 
 Voyageurs et Inventeurs celebres L. II. 
 
 Figuier, Les Grandes Inventions raodernes. ... L. I. 
 
 M. du Camp, Paris I. 
 
 Drama : 
 
 Girardin, La Joie fait Peur L. II. 
 
 Scribe, Bertrand et Raton, Le Verre d'Eau.. . . II. 
 
 Bataille des Dames U. II. I. 
 
 Sandeau, Mile, de la Seigliere U. II. 
 
 Feuillet, Le Village U. II. 
 
 Augier et Sandeau, Le Gendre de M. Poisier. . U. II. I. 
 
 Racine, Athalie, Britannicus U. II. 
 
 Corneille, Lc Cid, Horace, Cinna U. II. I. , 
 
 Moliere, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme U. II. 
 
 " L'Avare U. II, I. 
 
 " Les Femine Savantes I. 
 
 " Le Misanthrope U. II.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 215 
 
 On the four following pages is given the table of 
 contents of one of the modern German books * for 
 teaching English. It illustrates very well the meth- 
 ods which I have seen tried in some of the best 
 schools. It seems to me to contain much worthy of 
 imitation in teaching foreign languages in our own 
 schools ; hence I give it without change. 
 
 D. MATHEMATICS. 
 
 1st class, Vorschide. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Exer- 
 cises in the four fundamental operations with num- 
 bers to one hundred. Division with one-place divi- 
 sors. Multiplication table. Exercises from the 
 Rechenfihel (primer of arithmetic) with numbers 
 from one to one hundred. 
 
 2d class, Vorschule. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Kopf- 
 recltnen (mental arithmetic) with numbers from one 
 to one thousand. Written exercises. Fundamental 
 operations with numbers to one million. 
 
 3d class, Vorschule. Arithmetic, 5 hours. Men- 
 tal and written exercises with numbers of any size 
 ( Unbegretizten Zahlraum) with concrete and abstract 
 numbers. Coins, measures, and weights. 
 
 Sexta {Gymnasium). Arithmetic, 4 hours. Eepe- 
 tition of fundamental operations with whole num- 
 bers, concrete and abstract. Eeduction of integral 
 numbers (simple examples). German measures, 
 weights, coins. Exercises in decimal notation and 
 calculation. 
 
 * Oberstufe zum Lehrbuch der englisclien Sprache vom Dr. 
 Oskar Thiergen, of Dresden. Publislied by 15. G. Teubner, 
 Leipzig, 1897.
 
 21G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
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 220 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Quinta. Arithmetic, 4 hours. Divisibility of 
 numbers. Common fractions. Simple equations, 
 Avith numerical expressions on one side. Simple 
 exercises in proportion. German weights, measures, 
 and coins. 
 
 Quarta. Mathematics, 4 hours (aritlimetic 2 
 hours). Decimals, simple and compound 2:)roportion, 
 with integral numbers and fractions (exercises from 
 "biirgerliche " life). Eeview of fractions and nu- 
 merical computation of literal expressions. Planime- 
 try 2 hours. Straight lines, angles, triangles. Fun- 
 damental constructions. 
 
 Loiver Tertia. Mathematics, 3 hours. First se- 
 mester, arithmetic 2 hours, planimetry one hour. 
 Second semester, the reverse. In arithmetic the 
 fundamental principles in calculation of absolute lit- 
 eral expressions. Equations of the first degree with 
 one unknown quantity. Planimetry : Parallelograms, 
 circles (first part), construction of triangles, and 
 tangents. 
 
 Upper Tertia. Mathematics, 3 hours. First se- 
 mester, arithmetic 2 hours, planimetry 1 hour. Sec- 
 ond semester, reverse the number of hours. Arith- 
 metic : Equations of the first degree with one and 
 with several unknown quantities. Exercises in frac- 
 tions. Powers and roots, considering only positive in- 
 tegral exponents. Planimetry : Circle (second part), 
 equality of surfaces, calculation of rectilinear sur- 
 faces. Introduction to similarity of figures. Con- 
 struction of triangles, having given the sum and dif- 
 ference of two sides and of the opposite angles. 
 
 Louder Secimda. Mathematics, 4 hours. First se-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 221 
 
 mester arithmetic, second semester planimetry. 
 Simple and quadratic equations with one unknown 
 quantity. Application of these in triangulation. 
 Definition of power and roots. Xegative and frac- 
 tional exponents. Logarithms and ajiplication with 
 five-place logarithmic tables. Calculation of surfaces 
 and circumferences of circles. Definition of trigo- 
 nometric functions. Trigonometric calculation of 
 right-angled and equiangular triangles. Calculation 
 of sides, surfaces, and volumes of regular polyhe- 
 drons. 
 
 Upjjcr Secunda, 4 hours. Trigonometric con- 
 struction of triangles. Powers, roots, logarithms. 
 Equations, including quadratics with several un- 
 known quantities. Arithmetical and geometrical 
 series of the first order. Similarity of figures, geo- 
 metric means, and a little concerning harmonic 
 points and rays. Continuation of algebraic geom- 
 etry. 
 
 Lower Prima, 4 hours. Eeview arithmetical 
 principles of former classes. Interest, rent, imagi- 
 naries, binomial theorem for positive integral expo- 
 nents. Stereometry. Maxima and minima, cubic 
 equations. 
 
 Upper Prima, 4 hours. Eeview arithmetic of 
 previous years. Interest, rent, imaginary numbers, 
 binomial theorem with positive integral exponents. 
 Completion of trigonometry (addition theorems). 
 Constructions and determinations. Application of 
 trigonometrical principles to spherical triangles. 
 
 The mathematical curricula in all the German 
 secondary schools offer many points of suggestive-
 
 222 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 ness for American schools. The entire course occu- 
 pies a little less time than is usually devoted to 
 mathematics in American schools. Beginning with 
 the first year in the Vorschulen, four hours a week 
 is the average amount of time devoted to the subject. 
 From Sexta to Ujiper Prima in the gymnasia, from 
 thirty-three to thirty-six (usually thirty-three) weekly 
 hours of instruction are given to mathematical sub- 
 jects of various kinds. We may regard four hours 
 weekly throughout the entire course as about the 
 average amount of time. 
 
 In American schools about five hours a week are 
 given through each of the eight grades of the gram- 
 mar-school course, or about forty weekly hours of in- 
 struction plus from two to two and a half years of 
 five hours a week in the high school, making a total 
 of from fifty to fifty-two and a half weekly hours 
 before leaving the high school. If we add at least 
 one year of five hours weekly in college to carry the 
 pupil to the same point of proficiency, the difference 
 in the amount of time becomes very great. This 
 shows a considerable excess in the amount of time 
 occupied by the American boy to the end of the 
 high-school course — in acquiring what ? An amount 
 of mathematical knowledge and skill equal to that 
 possessed by the gymnasial graduate ? As can be 
 seen from an examination of the German school pro- 
 grammes, the American boy at the end of the high- 
 school course has acquired less knowledge of math- 
 ematics than his German cousin at the end of the 
 gymnasial course. To be sure, as was demonstrated 
 in the chapter on Ages of Graduates, the German
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 223 
 
 boy is about two years older, but we must regard as 
 of considerable moment the less amount of time he 
 has spent in acquiring this knowledge, and the extra 
 amount of time he has left for other branches. 
 
 The gymnasial graduate has about the same 
 mathematical acquirements as the average college 
 student at the end of his freshman year. Those 
 who have taken the real-gymnasium or the higher 
 real-school course have accomplished work nearly 
 equivalent to that finished the end of the sopho- 
 more year in college. 
 
 The real-school courses of six years' duration 
 cover as much ground in mathematics as our high 
 schools ; that is, pupils may have acquired in Ger- 
 man schools as much mathematics at the end of the 
 ninth year of school life (if they finish at a normal 
 age) as our pupils at the end of the twelfth year of 
 school. If we again compare the work in the Ger- 
 man gymnasia (humanistic and real) with the entire 
 mathematical course through the sophomore year, we 
 find that the American boy has spent from fifteen to 
 twenty weekly hours more than the gymnasial grad- 
 uate. This means an equivalent of from three to 
 four years of five hours weekly. Surely a difference 
 worth investigating ! 
 
 The causes of this discrepancy may be summed 
 up, perhaps, under the following heads : 
 
 ' (a) The German schools have better instruction 
 by more thoroughly trained teachers. 
 
 (b) There is a better co-ordination and division of 
 work. 
 
 (c) The work is continued to the end of the gym-
 
 224: SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 nasial course, and only about four hours are given 
 weekly, instead of five hours to the end of the sec- 
 ond year of the high school, and then a cessation. 
 
 (d) In the German schools the metric system is 
 used, instead of our awkward system of weights and 
 measures. 
 
 (e) The Germans omit all unnecessary details, 
 especially in arithmetic and demonstrative geometry. 
 Only such propositions are dwelt upon as will be in 
 constant use throughout the course. 
 
 (/) The Germans omit all unnecessary or un- 
 practical parts of arithmetic. Only those parts are 
 taken that are of actual use in business life or are 
 necessary preliminaries for the subsequent mathe- 
 matical work. The business arithmetic is confined 
 to elementary principles. Such topics as banking, 
 bank discount, partial payments, alligation, partner- 
 ship, and others that are required in our elementary 
 schools, do not appear in their programmes and re- 
 ceive little treatment in their text-books on arithme- 
 tic. In Quarta (the sixth year of school life) the 
 work begins to diverge from the ordinary numerical 
 arithmetic, and a more strictly mathematical treat- 
 ment is begun by introducing literal arithmetic. 
 Xot all the hard problems have been solved, nor all 
 possible arithmetical rules and combinations mas- 
 tered ; but the boy is led by gradual steps to a more 
 purely mathematical consideration of number and 
 quantity. He is also helped to acquire principles 
 which will enable him to conquer some of the diffi- 
 culties that he has previously encountered, but which 
 he has escaped by going around. A maxim nowhere
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 225 
 
 more true than in mathematics is, that " often the 
 best way to conquer a difficulty is by going around 
 it." Single-handed the boy must frequently floun- 
 der around unnecessarily, probably overmastered by 
 the formidable and useless arithmetical puzzles that 
 appear in many American text-books on arithmetic. 
 
 {g) The manner of dividing the work is such 
 that pupils may take up topics and subjects in the 
 order of their difficulty. Xot all of one subject, in- 
 cluding all the side issues, are attempted before tak- 
 ing up a new subject. Simple equations are easier 
 than partial payments and it would certainly appear 
 psychological to begin them in their order of diffi- 
 culty. It is an almost trite pedagogical maxim, that 
 the presentation of a subject should always bo 
 adapted to the capabilities of the taught ; and also 
 that we should proceed from the simple to that 
 which is more complex. One logical order that 
 might be followed, and that one we have been fol- 
 lowing, consists in attempting to finish the entire 
 subject before beginning a new one. This in the 
 case of mathematics violates the psychological order, 
 which is more important. It is also certainly as 
 logical to arrange topics in their order of difficulty 
 if one will directly aid in the interpretation of the 
 other ; and there can be no question but that some 
 parts of algebra and geometry are necessary pre- 
 liminaries of certain arithmetical operations. A 
 knowledge of the equation is almost indispensable 
 in many parts of arithmetic. 
 
 Much oral work is required in all grades and in 
 all mathematical subjects. There are no black-
 
 226 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 boards large enough to admit of having an entire 
 class work at the board. I never saw a blackboard 
 in Germany larger than four feet by eight feet. The 
 teacher uses the board for demonstrational and illus- 
 trative purposes, and the pupils are obliged to follow 
 the work mentally. Thus all crutches are taken 
 away, and the results are certainly excellent. I 
 have never witnessed mathematical exercises where 
 pupils exhibited more mental alertness. In our 
 American schools the too abundant use of the black- 
 board is unquestionably conducive to weakness in 
 mathematical computations. When too much writ- 
 ten work is permitted, the pupil fails through lack of 
 training to grasp and to hold clearly and firmly in 
 mind the proper mathematical relations. Students 
 often enter the universities without any power what- 
 ever of following a lecture or a connected discourse, 
 and this habit of leaning on visual helps in mathe- 
 matics is one of the causes to which the defect may 
 be attributed. 
 
 As a sj)ecimen of the facility with which examples 
 may be worked mentally by young pupils, I append 
 a number of examples that were given to boys in the 
 fourth year of school.* The class were very ordinary 
 boys in appearance, but as they, some sixty in num- 
 ber, sat in soldierly order upon those low, backless 
 recitation benches for an entire hour (from 3 to 4 
 p. M.) and vanquished problem after problem which 
 the teacher hurled at them, with scarcely an error, 
 it excited my admiration for their masterly accom- 
 
 * From III Ilohcre Burger Schulc, Leipzig.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 227 
 
 plishments. At the same time I pitied their poor 
 backs and aching muscles, and I could not repress 
 a smile as an occasional one, longing for physical 
 motion, pricked his neighbour with a jjin or punched 
 him in the ribs ; this, of course, when the teacher 
 was not looking. The lesson ivas upon denominate 
 numbers, and was evidently a review lesson, I omit 
 preliminaries, and give only some of the examples : 
 
 How many mm. in 1 cm. ? cm, in 1 m. ? mm. in 1 
 m, ? m. in 1 km. ? How many sec. in 25 min. ? 35 
 min, ? 75 min, ? 1 hour equals how many min. ? 2 
 hrs. ? 24 hrs, ? 59 hrs. ? How many hours in 1 day ? 
 5 days? 9 days? 60 days? 85 days? 66 days? 90 
 days ? 99 days ? in month of February ? months in 
 9 years ? 80 years ? 70 years ? 700 years ? Exact date 
 of Luther's birth ? death ? How many years, 
 months, days old waa he ? Same for Goethe. How 
 many years old is your father ? months ? How many 
 days in 2 years? 10 X 10 equals? 100 X 10 equals? 
 1,000 X 10 equals ? so on up to 1,000,000,000. How 
 many hours (approximately) in 1,000,000,000 seconds? 
 
 A great advance has been made in Germany 
 within the last few years in the methods of teaching 
 mathematics. Undoubtedly the methods there have 
 not been very poor for a long time, for with so many 
 competent teachers who have been able, because of 
 their broad scholarship, to see the entire course in 
 its proper relations the methods could not possibly 
 be inferior. The chief advance, according to Dr. 
 Eethwisch,* has been in the introduction of the 
 
 * Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen iin 19. Jahrhundert,
 
 228 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 heuristic method. The old Euclidian method has 
 been almost entirely abandoned. Instead of follow- 
 ing a written course of reasoning and then memorizing 
 it, pupils are taught to discuss relations for them- 
 selves, and from known discovered conditions to 
 draw conclusions. One of the best geometry lessons 
 I ever witnessed was in a class of boys about twelve 
 years old. The lesson was upon similarity of triangles. 
 Five or six cases of similarity of triangles were dis- 
 posed of during the hour — more than are usually 
 taken by the old method of memorizing the author's 
 reasoning. The pupils were led to discover all 
 relations, to formulate the theorems, and from the 
 known conditions given the conclusions were drawn 
 and the course of reasoning carried out by the pupils 
 themselves. The teacher guided the discussion, but 
 the pupils formulated it. The method may perhaps 
 be called the heuristic-analytic method. 
 
 To quote Eethwisch again, " In der Ausbildung 
 der genetischen systeme beim analytischen Beweis- 
 fuhrung und heuristischen Lehrverfahren gipfelt der 
 Fortschritt des mathematischen Unterrichts." 
 
 The following paragraphs are inserted as a fair 
 sample of the division of work as carried on in most 
 of the secondary schools I have visited. It is com- 
 piled from the table of contents of a much-used work 
 in mathematics designed for higher grades in sec- 
 ondary schools.* 
 
 Pla7iimet7'y. — Under this are included angles, 
 
 *F. 0. Mehler, Ilauptsiltze der Elementar-Mathematik zum 
 Gebrauch an Gymnasien und Kealgymnasien ; seventeenth 
 edition, 1893.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 229 
 
 parallel lines, rectilinear figures, equality of rectan- 
 gular figures, circles, similarity of figures, comparison 
 and measurements of rectilinear surfaces and regu- 
 lar polygons, measurement of the circle, algebraic 
 geometry. 
 
 Algebra. — Four fundamental operations, powers 
 and roots, imaginaries, expressions of the form 
 V« ± V^ ^"^^ '^^' ± ^^-i proportion, equations, con- 
 tinued fractions, logarithms, interest and rent (by 
 logarithms). Trigonometry : trigonometric func- 
 tions, solution of plane triangles. Series and binomial 
 theorem : geometric series, arithmetical series, appli- 
 cation of these in the elementary notions of simple 
 transcendental functions. Binomial theorem and 
 applications. 
 
 Stereoinetri/. — Straight lines and planes in space, 
 solid angles, polyhedrons, cylinder, cone, sphere. 
 Spherical trigonometry. Trigonometric tables. 
 
 Throughout the entire course the number of 
 formula to be memorized is reduced to the mini- 
 mum, but these few are constantly put into practice. 
 The fundamental principles of planimetry are first 
 met with in Quarta, and are constantly used through- 
 out the remaining six years of the course. Trigono- 
 metric functions are first defined in Lower Secunda, 
 a year before our p^^pils leave the high school, and 
 the knowledge of these is made necessary almost 
 daily for the next four years. The same is true of 
 algebraic equations. Their solution is learned early 
 in the course, and their application is constantl}^ de- 
 manded throughout the whole realm of mathematics. 
 Trigonometric formulge are reduced to the minimum,
 
 230 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 but by endless repetition they become indeliljly fixed 
 in the memory. 
 
 The method of procedure, it will be noticed, is 
 diametrically opposite to the methods in our own 
 schools. Examine the courses of study in a thou- 
 sand American high schools (and those courses are 
 followed quite strictly), and it will be found that 
 arithmetic seldom appears, it supposedly having 
 been finished in the grammar school ; algebra is 
 found to be a first- or second-year study, geometry fol- 
 lows after it (as an isolated study), and trigonometry, 
 which will not be found in ten per cent of the courses, 
 follows along after geometry. Is there any psycho- 
 logical reason why they should follow this order ? 
 I am firmly convinced that one of tlie weakest spots 
 in American school administration is this unnatural, 
 unj)sychological, arbitrary division of subjects into 
 isolated units. 
 
 Psychologists will agree that repetition and asso- 
 ciation are among the most, if not the most, potent 
 factors in memory. The more ways in which a prin- 
 ciple is applied the more association tracts it forms, 
 and hence the more firmly fixed in memory. By the 
 German plan of studies all principles learned are 
 kept before the mind through long periods. In 
 American schools the reverse is true. Studies are 
 pursued for a short period and then dismissed entire- 
 ly. It is no wonder that when pupils appear for ex- 
 amination for entrance to college they know so little 
 about algebra and other secondary-school studies. 
 
 This " spiral " arrangement of subjects is worthy 
 of special commendation. By this I mean that the
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 231 
 
 student is led to cross and recross the same ground 
 many times, each time with a different purpose. At 
 one time a topic may be studied with an entirely 
 practical end in view — for example, that of acquir- 
 ing a mechanical mastery of the operations involved 
 in reaching results ; at another time it may be con- 
 sidered for the purpose of vinderstanding the scien- 
 tific principles involved. By this spiral plan the 
 student is also enabled to secure a deeper insight 
 into the topic,each time he recurs to it. He is also 
 obliged to continually apply all the important princi- 
 ples gained. They thus become firmly fixed in mind. 
 
 Of perhaps more importance than any of these 
 advantages is the permanent interest that the stu- 
 dent gains from the long-continued pursuance of 
 the study. By constantly keeping the subject be- 
 fore the mind and continually applying it in mani- 
 fold relations it becomes an integral part of the uni- 
 fied possession of the mind rather than a mass of 
 undigested facts soon to be forgotten, which is the 
 inevitable result of the usual arrangement of Ameri- 
 can high-school programmes. 
 
 In Germany a great deal of importance is at- 
 tached to drawing in connection with mathematics. 
 The teachers say they wish to make the instruction 
 anscliaulicli. Constructions are made whenever pos- 
 sible. All tables of measurements are learned in- 
 ductively and objectively. In all schools will be 
 found model sets of weights and measures. Often I 
 have seen scales of measurements printed on the wall 
 in constant view. Dividers, rulers, T-squares, try- 
 squares, etc., are always at hand.
 
 232 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Great stress is laid upon securing a connected 
 view of ^he different processes involved. For exam- 
 jjle, it is. shown that multiplication is an addition of 
 equals, subtraction and division are the reverse of 
 the direct processes, powers are multiples of equal 
 factors, roots and logarithms are inversions of direct 
 processes of involution. Then the negative, partial, 
 irrational, imaginary, and transcendental systems 
 lose their arbitrary appearance.* 
 
 An attemjit is made to correlate mathematics 
 with other branches, and with considerable success. 
 Examples and problems are drawn as far as possible 
 from hurgcrliclie life, from practical measurements 
 necessary to be made, and from the work in physics 
 and chemistry. History is not left out, inasmuch as 
 the great mathematicians are considered biograph- 
 ically and with reference to their place in the his- 
 tory of the development of thought. Many of the 
 great mathematicians having been philosophers as 
 well, a great direct connection with the history of 
 philosophy can be made. The story of the discov- 
 ery of important theorems ahvays adds wonderful 
 interest. 
 
 Mathematics is often correlated with aesthetic cul- 
 ture, as it ought to be, since mathematical propor- 
 tions are basal in the assthetics of architecture, and to 
 a certain extent in all true art. 
 
 One of the most impressive " correlation " lessons 
 I have witnessed was a demonstration of the possi- 
 bilities of cultivation of aesthetic ideas in connection 
 
 * See Dr. A. Thaer in Deutschlands hoheres Schulwesen im 
 19. Jahrhundert.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 233 
 
 with mathematics. The geometry lesson was upon 
 mean proportionals (" golden mean " or goldene 
 Sclimitt). After the strictly mathematical demon- 
 strations were completed, the application of this prin- 
 ciple was discussed in its more utilitarian aspect, first 
 considering more common applications, then passing 
 to the examples in finer and more renowned architec- 
 ture, and finally its application in ' pure art. The 
 special application was made with reference to 
 Eaphael's most renowned masterpiece, the Sistine 
 Madonna. The relation "the lesser j)art is to the 
 greater part as the greater part is to the whole " 
 was shown to maintain in nearly a dozen group- 
 ings of prominent points in the picture. Specimens 
 of faulty art were shown where the picture had 
 even to untrained eyes a seeming lack of har- 
 mony. This unharmonious aspect was shown to be 
 a result of lack of proportion. Varieties of mar- 
 ginal arrangements were shown to affect the whole 
 aspect of the picture, and most radically. Even prin- 
 ciples of physics were re-enforced by discussing the 
 positions of the figures. The " line of direction " 
 was shown to be exactly over the centre of gravity. 
 And certain other positions were only explainable by 
 a knowledge of other physical principles. Such cor- 
 relation has a true psychological basis, and can not 
 help but create higher esthetic ideals as well as re- 
 enforce the scientific truths gained. The whole ex- 
 planation occupied only a few minutes, and no dissi- 
 pation of energy was possible. If not a single gesthetic 
 ideal had grown out of the discussion, from the stand- 
 point of the pedagogy Avhich seeks only devices for
 
 234 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 more securely implanting the cold hard facts of 
 science, the lesson was above criticism. The four 
 formal steps — clearness, association, system, meth- 
 od — had been cxemijlilied, and had provided an ap- 
 plication of the principles. And how much higher 
 the aim than in wholly neglecting the application, or 
 in making some of those vapid, senseless bases of cor- 
 relation such as " estimating the worth of the tobac- 
 co chewed and smoked by a Virginia planter when 
 studying the geography of Virginia ! " * 
 
 Below are given some final examination questions, 
 which will indicate something of the degree of pro- 
 ficiency required in mathematics. 
 
 Ashanisches Gymnasium^ Berlin, 1895. 
 
 1. In the triangle ABC draw a line xy parallel 
 with B C so that (the line xChevag also drawn) the 
 triangles Axy and BxC shall be equal. 
 :v,j. , 2. In a triangle, the side c, the difference between 
 the other two sides a and h, the difference between 
 the angles A and B opposite these sides is known. 
 Determine the sides and the angles. 
 
 3. Around a cone whose radius is r the frustum of 
 a right cone is circumscribed. The entire surfaces of 
 the two are in the ratio of m : n. Determine the value 
 of the radius of the circular bases of the second. 
 
 4. X :y ^= z:u 
 
 X -\- u — I'i , , 
 
 -.1 V solve. 
 
 y -{- z = 11 
 
 a;2 + 2/^ + 2^ + ?r = 170 ^ 
 * As can be found in a certain American work on pedagogy.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 235 
 
 Humholdt Gymnasium, Berlin, 1896. 
 
 1. The axes of two parabolas whose parameters 
 are pi and p., lie along the same straight line, but in 
 opposite directions. Determine the point in this 
 line from which the two parabolas will appear at the 
 same angle. 
 
 2. A train of Teg weight and cm velocity is to be 
 brought to a standstill in a m distance. Determine 
 {a) the working power, {h) the strength of the brake, 
 (c) the time necessary for stopping. 
 
 3. In a paraboloid of revolution whose diameter, 
 surface, and height are known, inscribe the max- 
 imum cylinder. 
 
 E. IIISTOKY AND GEOGKAPIIY. 
 
 3d Class, Vorschule. Home Geography [Heimats- 
 Jcunde), 3 hours. Development of geographical ideas 
 by means of observations around the city (Berlin) and 
 the province (Brandenburg), Introductory work by 
 means of charts and pictures. History relating to 
 Berlin. 
 
 Sexta. Geography, 2 hours. Fundamental prin- 
 ciples of physical and mathematical geography. 
 First introduction to study of relief maps, globe, and 
 charts. Brief general view of the physical and po- 
 litical features of the earth. 
 
 Quinta. Geography, 2 hours. Physical and po- 
 litical geography of Germany. Drawing simple 
 boundaries on blackboard (by teacher). 
 
 Quarta. Geography, 2 hours. Physical and po- 
 litical geography of non-German Europe, especially 
 the Mediterranean region. 
 17
 
 230 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Lower Tertia. History, 2 hours. Survey of 
 Grecian history, from Draco to the death of Alex- 
 ander the Great. A brief survey of Roman history 
 from Pyrrhus to the death of Augustine. Neces- 
 sary and important parts of Oriental history of civil- 
 ization. Importance of historical geography. 
 
 Loioer Tertia. History and geography, 3 hours. 
 Survey of the " Kulturgeschichte " of western Eome 
 from the death of Augustus, then German history 
 to the close of the Middle Ages. Eeview themes of 
 Quarta. Review of political geography of Germany, 
 excepting the German colonies. Map sketching. 
 
 Upper Tertia. History and geograj)hy, 3 hours. 
 German history from the close of the Middle Ages to 
 Frederick the Great. Review themes of previous class. 
 Review physical features of Germany. Geography of 
 German colonies. Map sketching as in Quarta. 
 
 Louver Secunda. History and geography, 3 hours. 
 German and Prussian history from Frederick the 
 Great to 1888. Review themes of previous year. 
 Review geography of Europe. Elementary mathe- 
 matical geography. 
 
 Upper Secunda. History and geography, 3 hours. 
 Greek history. Roman history. Review historical 
 and geographical themes of previous years. 
 
 Loiver Prima. History and geography, 3 hours. 
 Review of geography in connection with history. 
 German history from 1273-1648 A. i). Most impor- 
 tant non-German history. Review ancient history. 
 
 Upper Prima. History, 3 hours. German history, 
 1648-1890. Most important parts of foreign history. 
 Review geography in connection with history.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 237 
 
 As will be noticed from tlie school programmes, 
 the geography and history work very largely coalesce. 
 Except in the most elementary work, geography does 
 not appear from the programmes to be set apart as a 
 separate study. The real geography, that which 
 deals with the subject as a consideration of the earth 
 and its relation to man, as affecting man, and in 
 turn being modified by man, is closely correlated 
 with history. All the geographical factors that have 
 influenced political, commercial, economic, or social 
 conditions, and have helped to shape the course of 
 historical development, are largely discussed in con- 
 nection with the particular phases of history which 
 they affect. 
 
 It is because of this close correlation of historical 
 and geographical work that one sees history and 
 geographical work placed together in the programmes. 
 But it must not be inferred that they are mixed to- 
 gether promiscuously in the recitation. It is true 
 that the study of topography, cartography, political 
 and commercial geography are largely correlated with 
 history, but an inspection of any of the programmes 
 will show that, with the exc.eption of the unification 
 for purposes of review, work is carried on quite sepa- 
 rately. In all of my visits I did not observe more 
 than the incidental correlation of the two subjects. 
 There Avere always distinct teaching periods for 
 the two subjects. I have examined many Schnlhe- 
 riclite (yearly announcements) and have found no 
 exceptions to this division of work. Many of them 
 read "history and geography," but immediately 
 following the work is divided. In one, which has
 
 238 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the two grouped under the topic heading Ge~ 
 scMclite und (Jeograjjhie, I find the further division 
 into " History, 2 hours. German history from the 
 Reformation to the Vienna Congress. Geography, 
 2 hours. Xon-German European jihysical and po- 
 litical geography." (Real - gymnasium, Leipzig.) 
 Again, from the real-school in Meerane : " Geogra- 
 phy, 2 hours. Kingdom of Saxony ; general geog- 
 raphy of the entire earth. History, 1 hour. Biog- 
 raphy from Greek and Roman history." 
 
 The examples might be multiplied by referring 
 to the Hcliulhericlite, or to the official courses of 
 study. It will be found that occasionally the two 
 are taken up in the same class. But from the nature 
 of the work it would be impossible to handle the two 
 entirely simultaneously and do it successfully. 
 
 Whenever an understanding of geographical 
 features is necessary to produce clear historical 
 conceptions, the geographical instruction is given 
 simultaneously with the historical ; or whenever 
 historical allusions will contribute anything to in- 
 terest, clearness, or toward permanency of ideas, 
 then the digression is made ; otherwise the two are 
 very properly given at separate periods. 
 
 The phases of geography mentioned at the be- 
 ginning may and ought to be correlated with history, 
 but the scientific principles relating to geological, 
 meteorological, or physical effects must necessarily 
 be studied in a separate class devoted to them. Tp 
 stop in the midst of historical narrative and discuss 
 fully the barometer, trade winds, or ocean tides would 
 be exceedingly unpedagogical. I make the foregoing
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 239 
 
 suggestions because I think some Americans have 
 wholly overestimated the extent of correlation done 
 in German schools in these subjects. I could not 
 agree that, " except possibly in the first two years of 
 the course, geography is nowhere an independent 
 study in the higher schools. The general truths of 
 mathematical and physical geography which have no 
 direct bearing upon the events of history are taught 
 incidentally, one might say, in the lower grades." * 
 
 Of course, the elementary notions of geography 
 must be built up separately, and in part before the 
 work in history, as such, is commenced. This is ac- 
 complished in the lowest grades in the Heimatshunde, 
 or home geography. This locative and descriptive, 
 largely physical geography, is later made more 
 physico-political, commercial, and social, and it is 
 then that the facts of geography begin to be corre- 
 lated with the historical work. The elementary 
 work is carried on much as in our own schools. The 
 work is begun by a consideration of home geography ; 
 from this as a basis, map language is learned, relief 
 forms are studied from maps and globes, or, best of 
 all, objectively ; then follows a general notion of the 
 physical and political geography of Germany. 
 
 A little later text-books are used as aids, and at 
 the same time pujiils begin to learn to sketch out- 
 lines on the little blackboards. In this the teachers 
 are very proficient and are able to add much interest 
 to the work. The pupils gain no very great facility 
 in blackboard sketching, because the small amount 
 
 * School Review, May, 1897, p. 263.
 
 240 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 of blackboard space does not afford much chance for 
 practice. Later on physical, political, and commer- 
 cial geography are studied more in detail, as may be 
 seen by reference to the detailed outlines given 
 above. Drawing is recommended in Prussia, espe- 
 cially during the last year of the work, which is 
 usually in Tertia. 
 
 Besides the correlation with history, it is also 
 brought into close relations with natural science. 
 The Prussian " Lehrplan " states that " Avhether the 
 instruction in geography would be better given by 
 the teacher of natural science depends upon the 
 personal equipment of the teachers. In general 
 it appears more suitable to have for geography the 
 same teacher as for natural science in the lower 
 grades, and the same as for history in the middle 
 grades. The reviews in the upper grades, so far as 
 the political and physical geography are concerned, 
 should be given by the teacher of history, and the 
 mathematical geography should be given by the 
 teacher of mathematics or physics." 
 
 All schools are supplied with an abundance of 
 maps and charts to illustrate the work. Xearly all 
 schools are in regions rich in historic landmarks, and 
 drawings and paintings illustrating these are to be 
 found in most schools. Eelief maps and outline 
 maps are abundant and well executed. Most teach- 
 ers make effective use of photographs of various 
 places of interest and of historic personages. The 
 schools are usually well supplied with these, and the 
 teacher always solicits the pupils' aid in collecting 
 pictures bearing upon particular lessons. It was in-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 241 
 
 teresting to note the abundance of practical objec- 
 tive material that was arranged in conspicuous places 
 in the hallways and about the buildings in such a 
 way that pupils could have them constantly before 
 them. For example, large barometers, thermometers, 
 weather maps, charts showing the cardinal points, 
 charts showing the daily relative positions of the 
 sun, moon, and the earth, etc. 
 
 The text-books are quite diiferent from those 
 ordinarily used in American schools. They are 
 divided into two parts, one containing the descrip- 
 tive matter and the other a separate atlas containing 
 the maps. The latter are beautifully executed in the 
 highest art known to book and map makers, but the 
 descriptive texts can hardly be commended. In 
 matter they may do, inasmuch as the teacher is the 
 source of almost all the facts in all studies, while the 
 text-book is intended merely to assist in reviewing 
 and fixing the lessons ; but in mechanical execu- 
 tion the majority of school geographies are in every 
 way uncommendable, except in price. The print is 
 poor, the matter crowded and wholly unattractive in 
 arrangement. With such a prevalence of spectacled 
 eyes as one sees in German schools, it is a wonder that 
 such text-books are tolerated. They are usually in 
 Irochure form, and are therefore cheap. But better 
 executed books are a physiological necessity, and the 
 advantage to be derived from more attractive books 
 is an important psychological consideration. 
 
 One of the best features of geographical instruc- 
 tion is that of making frequent excursions. Thus, 
 objects are studied instead of words. In a country
 
 242 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 so full of historic landmarks it is not difficult to 
 make these excursions frequently and inexpensively. 
 For example, around Leipzig are clustered many 
 spots upon which have been enacted some of the 
 most thrilling dramas of human life. Half an hour's 
 walk to the eastward brings the school to the Xapo- 
 leon Monument, erected in memory of the battle of 
 Leipzig, October 18, 1813. The stone stands upon 
 the spot where Napoleon watched the progress of the 
 battle all one long night. On the monument is the 
 inscription : 
 
 "HiER WEPLTE Napoleon am 18ten Okt., 1813, 
 
 Die VoELKERSCnLACHT beobachtend. 
 
 Der Herr 1ST der rechte Kriegsmakn, 
 
 IIerr 1ST SEINE Name." 
 
 How much more of historic and patriotic interest 
 can be infused into a class by taking them to the 
 place and explaining the details of the battle, as well 
 as the general plan of the war, than by reading them 
 from a book or by simple narration ! 
 
 To the north of the city within a few miles is the 
 spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell during the Thirty 
 Years' War. Just south of Xapoleon Monument is 
 Monarch's Hill, where the heads of three great 
 nations met in council. Within the city are other 
 battle monuments, also monuments to Luther, 
 Goethe, Schiller, and other renowned Germans. In 
 the heart of the city is Auerbach's cellar, where 
 Goethe places a scene in Faust. In other parts 
 may be found Goethe's residence when a student, 
 Schiller's residence, the Pleisseburg Castle, the old
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 243 
 
 city hall (eight huuclred years old), and scores of 
 other landmarks too numerous to mention, had I 
 space. All these are visited by teachers and pupils. 
 Other cities are equally rich in associations. In the 
 above manner history and geography are truly cor- 
 related, interest is awakened, life is quickened, and 
 new ideals are formed. 
 
 To do likewise in America is not possible to the 
 same extent because of distance and lack of historic 
 landmarks, but every locality has its oldest buildings, 
 a historic battle ground, a colonial church, an In- 
 dian council ground, or historic landmark of some 
 sort or other. Points of geographic interest (physi- 
 ographic, political, or commercial) are also usually 
 within easy reach. To study objectively the means 
 at command is most sure to awaken true historic 
 and geographic interest, and that is the chief aim. 
 
 In Prussia, the Lehrziel or end to be attained in 
 teaching is stated thus : 
 
 " Knowledge of the epoch-making events of the 
 world's history, esioecially of the German and Prus- 
 sian history, in connection with causes, effects, and 
 the development of historical ideas." (Schulord- 
 nung, 1891.) 
 
 " In Bavaria the aim in the classes from the third 
 to the fifth, to be attained mainly through biography, 
 is the impressing of a solid foundation of historical 
 data, and in general outlines to give a view of Greek, 
 Koman, German, and Bavarian history. From the 
 sixth to the ninth classes the aim should be to in- 
 vestigate facts more thoroughly, to awaken and de- 
 velop capabilities, to rearrange and make individual
 
 244 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMAXY. 
 
 the materials that liave been acquired from given 
 standpoints." (Schulordnung, 1891.) 
 
 In Baden the conrse in history is so arranged 
 that the entire province of history shall be gone over 
 twice, and with special prominence given to ancient 
 Roman and Grecian and German history. In the 
 first historical instruction in Quarta and Tertia a 
 comprehensive view is presented. Here more at- 
 tention is given to the biographical side of the 
 work. In Quarta the main portions of ancient his- 
 tory are considered, and during the two years in 
 Tertia the events beginning with the middle of the 
 seventeenth century are studied. Following this 
 the events clustered about 1813-'14, and lastly the 
 pivotal point in modern German history, the war of 
 1870-'71. During the last four years the entire 
 work is gone over again with the view of making it 
 a connected whole, and of course from a more philo- 
 sophical point of view and in a much more compre- 
 hensive manner. During the entire course special 
 stress is laid upon the geographical relations neces- 
 sary to a clear and comprehensive grasp of the his- 
 torical facts. The work is followed out according 
 to some good text-book, with, of course, lectures or 
 talks by the teacher to elucidate and supplement the 
 text. Pupils are encouraged to arrange the materi- 
 als in such a manner that they can talk connectedly 
 upon topics (Schulordnung). 
 
 Throughout all Germany the courses in history, 
 as well as those in mathematics, and in fact all 
 other subjects, follow the spiral plan. The instruc- 
 tion is so arranged that the entire course forms " an
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 245 
 
 ever-ascending spiral from the apex of which an 
 outlook over the past is obtained." * The course in 
 history, as carried out in German schools, next to 
 the classical branches, is in one direction one of the 
 strongest portions of the entire school curriculum. 
 In another significant direction it is one of the 
 weakest parts of the curriculum. The course in his- 
 tory, together with the instruction in the classics, 
 serves to shape the tliinking and the course of ac- 
 tion pursued by the Germans perhaps more than any 
 and all other features connected with their educa- 
 tional system. The policy of the German joeople is 
 reflected in its historical curriculum. The historical 
 instruction contributes to make that policy what it 
 is. In the first place, the course of instruction is 
 grounded upon instruction in the classical period. 
 This serves to give a wide knowledge of the j^ast. 
 And such a \dew can not but aid in creating a rever- 
 ence for the past and its institutions. A thoroughly 
 developed course, with the groundwork in the classi- 
 cal period of history, must impart what we term the 
 " historic sense." It must show at what cost of time 
 and effort all enduring institutions have been raised 
 into existence. Such a training can not fail to tend 
 to produce a careful, conservative, deliberative peo- 
 ple. Institutions that have been judged fit to sur- 
 vive will not be swept rashly away in the flush of a 
 momentary impulse. All German institutions are 
 rooted deep in the past, and only those new institu- 
 tions may survive which root themselves firmly in 
 
 * Lucy M. Salmon, Ed. Rev., June, 1898.
 
 240 SEICONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the passing generations. That which is without a 
 wide expanse of historical background represents to 
 a German mind the essence of instability. To them 
 a country like America is viewed only as an experi- 
 ment. They behold a heterogeneous mass of ma- 
 terials gathered together haphazard, and in con- 
 tinual danger of explosion should some slight 
 anarchistic wave disturb its equilibrium. To a Ger- 
 man who has never been in America it is inconceiv- 
 able that there should have evolved from the hetero- 
 geneous elements any such institution as a sta- 
 ble government, possessing firmly founded, well- 
 equipped and well - ordered universities, schools, 
 churches, etc. American institutions are viewed by 
 Germans much as they view our railroad trains — 
 sehr gefdhrlich — wonderfully rapid but terribly dan- 
 gerous and destructive. 
 
 The German venerates age, solidity, stability, and 
 shrinks from the thoughts of hurry, boldness, and 
 change. To him these latter mean dissolution and 
 disintegration. Such are some of the characteristics 
 of the Germans, and the historical instruction tends 
 to preserve these ideals. Another feature of German 
 life is the intense love and devotion to the Fatherland. 
 Nowhere else, perhaps, may be witnessed such fealty 
 to country as in Germany. Every individual feels 
 not only a sense of duty in- being a protector of his 
 country's interests, but he feels a thrill of pride and 
 love in having this duty confided to him. This spirit 
 is kindled in the breast of every subject as soon as 
 he begins to listen to nursery tales ; and the feeling 
 once awakened is never allowed to wane in inten-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 247 
 
 sity. The historical instruction, in addition to being 
 founded upon the past, has for its centre, from which 
 all instruction radiates, the Fatherland. Not only 
 German history by all pupils, but special local history 
 of each region is thoroughly learned. The achieve- 
 ments of the long lines of princes, potentates, war- 
 riors, and Church Fathers can be recited with sur- 
 prising glibness and accuracy by boys of a dozen years 
 of age. Xo course of study is j)lanned without hav- 
 ing some clause to the effect that " special considera- 
 tion is to be paid to German history and to the 
 history of the province in question." 
 
 " The ' Lehrplan ' of 1892 brings prominently to 
 the front the necessity of understanding the events in 
 German and Prussian history. It is the national 
 history rather than the universal which is empha- 
 sized ; the political, which has culminated in a new 
 and regenerated German Empire, rather than the 
 general, which deals with salient points in the prog- 
 ress of civilization. It shows clearly the determina- 
 tion of the Government to make use of the schools 
 in stemming the tides of socialism and liberalism. 
 History is to be taught not altogether as a means of 
 intellectual training, nor as an essential part of a 
 liberal education, nor yet as an independent science, 
 but preeminently with a view to the malting of pa- 
 triotic citizens." * 
 
 A point of seeming weakness is noticeable, inas- 
 much as the course in history fails to give sufficient 
 place to that which is modern and outside of Ger- 
 
 * Jus. E. Russell, School Review, May, 1897.
 
 248 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 man3^ A careful examination of programmes fails to 
 reveal any provision for the definite study of English 
 or American history. Some consideration may be 
 assumed in the study of extra-German relations of 
 universal historical importance {ausserdeutschen Ver- 
 hciltnisse von iveltgeKcliiclUliche Bedeutumj), etc., but 
 at most it is only very superficial and insufficient. 
 In the case of America it may be argued with 
 some Justice that it is too young a nation — that in 
 a strict sense it has little history ; but the same 
 explanation does not apply to the instruction in its 
 geography. Were an adequate geographical consid- 
 eration accorded to it with proper historical set- 
 tings, the course in this particular would not be so 
 open to criticism. But the same feeling is mani- 
 fested toward a geographical consideration of Eng- 
 land. As a result, gross ignorance of existing con- 
 ditions is manifested by even educated Germans 
 concerning a country of twenty times the size of 
 their own and with fifteen million more people than 
 their own country. To many Germans ]S ew York, 
 Xorth America, and South America are almost 
 synonymous terms. 
 
 But even were America to go unconsidered, ex- 
 cejit in a cursory way, England deserves thorough 
 consideration. A country which has influenced civi- 
 lization so powerfully, a country whose history is as 
 old as that of Germany, a country which has spread 
 its language to the uttermost parts of the earth, and 
 which is tending rapidly toward making its language 
 the world language, a country which has proved her- 
 self so strong a rival of Germany, and which even
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 249 
 
 has had so many interests in common with Germany, 
 can not well be passed over with a few words. 
 
 The extreme conservatism of the Germans is one 
 of the greatest drawbacks to their advancement. 
 Unwilling to allow innovations, and loath to acknowl- 
 edge the superiority of any other country in any 
 particular, their eyes are not infrequently blinded to 
 the merits of experiments and discoveries the adap- 
 tation of which would often aid in their own advance- 
 ment. As indicated in another place, their extreme 
 conservatism has allowed them to fall behind most 
 other countries in such important directions as the 
 education of women. 
 
 A most undesirable characteristic of the German 
 nation noticeable to all foreigners is their lack of 
 cosmoiDolitanism. Their manners, customs, institu- 
 tions, machinery, implements, school furniture, man- 
 ner of accomplishing all practical results, all indicate 
 a lack of leavening ideas derived from different na- 
 tionalities. Xo one individual or nation can monop- 
 olize all the best ideas, and in these days of rapid 
 transit and electric communication can any nation 
 afford to ignore the accomplishments of others? 
 The nation that accepts the doctrine of eclecticism 
 must profit thereby, while the one that is all absorbed 
 and satisfied by its own achievements will as surely 
 find itself distanced in important directions. 
 
 On the whole, I believe that the historical teach- 
 ing is well done. The teachers, at least, accomplish 
 their first point : the facts of history from the clas- 
 sical periods down to the present concerning those 
 countries which are studied are firmly fixed in mind.
 
 250 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 At the end of the secondary school course the German 
 boys are thoroughly conversant with the history of 
 their own country and of all those nations from which 
 their civilization luis directly or indirectly developed. 
 They have a thoroughly built and organized back- 
 ground of historical events, and the only criticism 
 that may be offered is the one previously pointed out. 
 Their horizon extends spatially in only one direction, 
 and that toward the Orient. But the results, from 
 the standpoint of the nationalizing tendencies incul- 
 cated, are certainly gratifying. I believe, however, 
 that the time is ripe for a larger world view. Broader 
 sympathies may be fostered by extending the range 
 of historical studies without endangering in any way 
 the primary end now aimed at. The psychological 
 principle of repetition is thoroughly carried out in 
 their history teaching. The work begins in the low- 
 est class and extends to the highest. They never 
 feel that they have " finished " the subject. The 
 same ground is continually crossed and recrossed, 
 viewed from different standpoints and from positions 
 where all can be surveyed ; the relations of cause 
 and effect are thoroughly studied until all becomes 
 a closely and firmly associated whole. They believe 
 in learning much about a few things instead of a 
 little about many. In this lies their greatest peda- 
 gogical strength. 
 
 F. NATUP.AL SCIENCES. 
 
 Sexta. Nature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : De- 
 scription of available flowering plants, considering 
 parts and forms of roots, stems, leaves, and easily
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 251 
 
 understood flowers and fruits. Winter : A descrip- 
 tion of important mammals and birds, considering 
 form, colour, size, the available specimens determin- 
 ing the species. Study modes of life, usefulness, or 
 destructiveness. 
 
 Quinta. Xature lessons, 3 hours. Summer : 
 Complete knowledge of outer organs of flowering 
 plants. Description and comparison of related spe- 
 cies that are accessible at the same time. Winter : 
 Description of important accessible vertebrates, 
 considering manner of life, use, or harmfulness. 
 Fundamental principles of bone structure of man. 
 Exercises in simple schematic drawing of what is 
 seen. 
 
 Quartet. Xature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : A 
 comparative description of related kinds and species 
 of flowering plants (determined by available speci- 
 mens). Consideration of natural systems of classi- 
 fication. Living phenomena of plants. Winter : 
 Lower animals and their enemies. Special consid- 
 eration of insects. Continue drawing what is ob- 
 served. 
 
 Loiver Tertia. Nature lessons, 2 hours. Summer : 
 Description of some of the more difficult plant species 
 to complete knowledge of form. Systematic botany 
 and biology. Discussion of the most important use- 
 ful foreign plants. Winter: jinatomy and physi- 
 ology of plants. Cryptogams. Diseases of plants. 
 Ill the last quarter of the year, survey of the animal 
 kingdom. Distribution of animals. 
 
 Upper Tertia. Physiology and physics, 2 hours. 
 Human body and care of the health. Preparatory 
 18
 
 252 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 ph5'sical science. Mecliaiiieal phenomena. Impor- 
 tant parts of heat. 
 
 Lower Secunda. Physics, 2 hours. Magnetism, 
 electricity, the important chemical phenomena, 
 acoustics, and selected sections of optics. 
 
 Vpinr Secunda. Physics, 2 hours. Magnetism, 
 electricity, heat, meteorology. Eeview fundamentals 
 of chemistry. 
 
 Loiver Prima. Physics, 2 hours. Mechanics of 
 solids, fluids, and gases. Acoustics. 
 
 Upper Prima. Physics, 2 hours. 02"ttics, parts 
 I and II. Mathematical and astronomical geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 In the real-gymnasia and higher real-schools the 
 same subjects and the same topics are covered, only 
 more thoroughly. In botany and geology more is 
 learned of microscopical structure, and classification 
 is learned more thoroughly. In physics, more of the 
 mathematical side of theoretical physics is covered ; 
 and in chemistry, besides taking organic chemistry 
 in addition to the inorganic, some simple laboratory 
 work is expected of the students. Crystallography 
 receives more extended consideration also. 
 
 In the lower grades the work is entirely descrip- 
 tive, dealing with the outward characteristics of the 
 objects dealt with, whether plants or animals, or from 
 the inorganic kingdom. At this age it is unneces- 
 sary to consider the minute inner organization. Mi- 
 croscopic structural relations and processes of de- 
 velopment would be out of j)lace here. " This, and 
 a more exact knowledge of systems, as well as inde- 
 pendent investigations, belong to the higher grades
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. £53 
 
 or to private interest." * Study at this age should 
 give " an extensive knowledge of the home vicinity, 
 a living Anschatim/f/ or mental picture of that which 
 is foreign, an understanding of the great thoughts of 
 .'N'ature, a sense of respect for the smallest apparently 
 insignificant things, a desire for and some skill in 
 observation." f 
 
 The courses, whether in the gymnasia or the real- 
 istic institutions, are divided into two parts : during 
 the first four years the time is devoted to Naturhe- 
 schreihuug, or description of Xature, while in the 
 last five years the more serious work of physics, 
 chemistry, and mineralogy are considered. The main 
 difference between the courses in the classical and 
 realistic schools is one of amount. Sometimes min- 
 eralogy and chemistry receive no consideration in the 
 gymnasia. The differences in time and courses can 
 be seen from the accompanying tables. 
 
 Throughout all the grades, in all branches of 
 Xature lessons, excellent appliances are found in 
 every school for demonstrational purposes. This 
 material is for use almost solely by the teacher, not 
 the pupil. There is always at hand a wealth of 
 maps, charts, models, and apparatus. I have seen in 
 real-schools and real-gymnasia cabinets of specimens 
 from the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms, 
 coloured plates, and wax and ijainer-maclw models, as 
 rich in quantity and quality as those possessed by 
 many ordinary colleges. The charts and coloured 
 
 * G. Uttendorfer, Preface to Leitfaden der Naturkunde fur 
 mittlere uiid hohere Schuleii. 
 f Loe. cit.
 
 254 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 plates are usually on stiff cardboard about 28 X 36 
 iuches, and are provided with appliances for hanging 
 them before the class when used for demonstrational 
 purposes. 
 
 Among the plant models and plants, not only the 
 cryjDtogams, but the phanerogams, are fully repre- 
 sented ; mosses, microscopic water plants, and uni- 
 cellular as well as multicellular plants and animals. 
 In one exercise with a class of boys from thirteen to 
 fourteen years old I saw a collection of charts and 
 wax models, illustrating the marchantia and other 
 liverworts, equal to any university collection I ever 
 saw. 
 
 All schools are well equipped with the most im- 
 proved apparatus and excellent cabinets of accessory 
 materials. It will be unnecessary to enumerate the 
 pieces of apparatus, or even to give a general outline 
 of the accessory appliances. In the real-schools and 
 real-gymnasia the outfit in botany, zoology, physics, 
 and chemistry contain everything necessary for dem- 
 onstrational purposes. There are usually materials 
 sufficient to enable the teacher to carry on research 
 work. In the gymnasia the outfit is usually limited 
 to the most necessary pieces of apparatus and to 
 typical specimens in botany and zoology. 
 
 But work in all schools is only demonstrational, 
 since only a few schools are fitted uj) with labora- 
 tories for individual work. Some of our modern 
 high schools, with their magnificently appointed lab- 
 oratories and workshops, are beyond comparison 
 with the German schools. All the laboratories there 
 are may be found in the higher real-schools, and oc-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 255 
 
 casionally in the real-gymnasia. The reason for the 
 lack of them is not dilficult to find. The courses 
 are so overcrowded that there is no time left for in- 
 dividual experimentation. All experiments are made 
 by the instructor in the presence of the class. He 
 questions as he goes along, and does not leave the ex- 
 periment until the principle is understood by all. In 
 many respects this is better than much of the so- 
 called independent investigation that is allowed in 
 our own high schools, and even in the colleges, where 
 students are told to perform experiments, or are given 
 a manual of instructions to follow. They are to ex- 
 periment, observe, infer, and record. Not knowing 
 how to observe or what to observe, nor having suffi- 
 cient training to make proper inferences, the work 
 dwindles into purposeless (unless getting through is 
 a purpose) mechanical manipulation of apparatus, 
 and just as mechanical recording. This is not neces- 
 sary, nor is it the universal condition of affairs, for 
 many of our high schools do most creditable work. 
 But with inexperienced teachers the work may and 
 often does miscarry. It is only by a judicious blend- 
 ing of experimentation with proper class demonstra- 
 tion, criticism, and questioning that the work in nat- 
 ural sciences is successful. If there is no experi- 
 mentation the work becomes mere verbal gymnas- 
 tics ; if the proper class work is lacking, it dwindles 
 into manual gymnastics or into rule-of-thumb meth- 
 ods at best. 
 
 The German method, although it does not permit 
 the geniuses — and geniuses are scarce — to explore 
 fields for themselves, at least guides and directs the
 
 256 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 work, so that the basal principles of the science are 
 not hurried over half realized. The fundamentals 
 become so systematically arranged in the students' 
 minds that they can begin individual investigation 
 at a later date if they choose. ^Moreover, the experi- 
 mentation, which always comes out as intended when 
 manipulated by the teacher, kindles a spirit of en- 
 thusiasm and awakens curiosity. When apparatus 
 is manipulated by unguided students the experi- 
 ments often fail and create weariness and disgust. 
 Manual dexterity can be acquired later more quickly 
 than scientific principles. And yet, if time were 
 allowed for considerable individual laboratory experi- 
 mentation the courses would be much stronger than 
 at present. 
 
 I think that in the lower classes the lack of the 
 laboratory method is specially marked. Not that 
 there is any lack of objective material always in the 
 classroom, and not that it is not used, but it is used 
 and handled exclusively by the wrong person — the 
 teacher. I have already intimated that the charts, 
 models, and apparatus are rich in quantity and qual- 
 ity, and, moreover, for botanical study all the cities 
 have special gardens, from which plants are delivered 
 to all the schools as they are required. By this 
 means the schools are sure of being supplied with 
 sufficient materials, and at the proper time, on 
 demand. 
 
 There are often arrangements also whereby arti- 
 cles from museums are supplied to the schools. But 
 with all the materials at hand for study, very little 
 of it gets into the proper hands — the pupil's. In the
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. £57 
 
 lesson on the marcliantia, referred to previously, the 
 diagrams were profuse, fine wax models were numer- 
 ous, and the teacher's explanations lucid, concise, and 
 scientific, but the majority of the class were not within 
 twenty feet of the models, and I doubt whether a 
 single one ever saw the real plant. There certainly • 
 were no plants in the room, and no instructions were 
 given for procuring them. The charts and models 
 were systematically explained, and the pupils an- 
 swered well when questioned in review, but I could 
 not help feeling that scarcely one of those boys would 
 be able to distinguish between marchantia and mush- 
 rooms. Indeed I believe from the models and charts 
 mushrooms would come nearer the pupils' ideas of 
 the size. Professor Russell also writes (School Review, 
 January, 1897) that, " while in theory each pupil is ex- 
 pected to have in his hands a specimen of all the com- 
 mon plants as they are discussed in class, I have seen 
 the pea studied by a class of thirty boys from a model 
 that never left the teacher's desk during the hour, 
 and at the close of the lesson not a word was said 
 about noting the plant in its cultivated state, al- 
 though acres of it were growing within a mile of the 
 site ; but, on the contrary, the home task assigned was 
 to copy the drawing given in the text-book. I still 
 have my doubts whether the majority of the class 
 did not conceive of the true flower as being about a 
 foot in diameter." 
 
 The school excursion plays a most important role 
 in the study of Kature as well as in history and geog- 
 raphy. Its value is great, but still it can not be expect- 
 ed to take the place of carefully planned laboratory
 
 258 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 investigation. From the field the rehitions of the 
 different kingdoms cun well be studied, the natural 
 conditions under which various products are found 
 and the elements of geographical distribution may 
 be learned. From the field materials may be secured 
 and gross anatomy observed in a general way, but it 
 must not be allowed to usurp the rightful place of 
 laboratory and classroom investigation. 
 
 In some schools I witnessed the attempt to teach 
 obscure life processes, such as assimilation and repro- 
 duction in the liverworts, to very young classes. 
 The lesson on the marchantia, before referred to, 
 was in Quarta. This, it seems to me, Avas a serious 
 error. All the pupils could carry away were words. 
 The facts had no objective meaning. 
 
 In mineralogy the technical significance of min- 
 erals and a description of the chemical and crystallo- 
 graphic characters are avoided. The more outward 
 characteristics are observed, and the general place in 
 Nature is the chief feature to be shown. 
 
 Considerable prominence is given to the indus- 
 trial value of plants, animals, and minerals. This is 
 a point of great significance, for, while aifording 
 mental discipline, a stock of practical knowledge is 
 being acquired. The text-books on natural science 
 have some manifest advantages over our own. In 
 America the writers of elementary text-books fall 
 into the error of trying to make things very simple, 
 and by doing so they make the instruction childish. 
 In Germany the desire to make them systematic and 
 logical is rather at the expense of adaptability to the 
 learners' needs. But as far as the work is carried
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 259 
 
 on things are called by their right names, and hence 
 no unlearning is necessitated. The future work is 
 an extension, an " Ergiinzung," and not a rectifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Considered as a whole, I think that the results of 
 the work in natural science are good. The strong 
 features are its distribution through a long period of 
 time and its correlation. By the distribution pupils 
 are kept for a long time in acquaintance with the 
 subjects, and the residuum of knowledge about them 
 is much greater than can possibly result from ac- 
 quaintance with the subjects for a year at most — 
 often a term or so — and then total abandonment. 
 In a case of simple memory — e. g., a quotation one 
 wishes to keep in mind after learning — it is far better 
 to repeat once a day for ten days than once an hour 
 for ten successive hours. If the intervals be not too 
 long the greater the length of time between repeti- 
 tions the stronger will be the resulting memory. 
 
 The attention which is given to judicious corre- 
 lation of subjects in the German schools leads pupils, 
 I believe, to have a better conception of the relation 
 which the parts of subjects bear to each other, the 
 relation between different subjects, and to all knowl- 
 edge as a unity, than is usually the case in too many 
 of our schools. In short, the substructure of philo- 
 sophical thinking is better laid than in our own 
 schools, where pupils " finish " this subject and that 
 and never refer to them again, and are never led to 
 suspect tliat there are any relations whatever. 
 
 At the end of the school course the pupils from 
 the gymnasia are about as far advanced in the
 
 260 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 natural sciences as pupils from our best high schools, 
 those from the higher real-schools a little further, 
 especially in chemistry and mineralogy, while the 
 gymnasial pupils are less advanced — that is, meas- 
 ured by the amount of ground covered. This 
 statement is supported by the fact that the lowest 
 courses offered by the universities are fully as elemen- 
 tary as those offered in our own universities. The 
 supply is in response to a demand. It ought to be 
 stated that in physics more attention has been given 
 to the mathematical side than with us, so that with 
 the principles firmly fixed in mind, even though 
 some experimental knoAvledge has been slighted, their 
 students are rather better able to begin strictly scien- 
 tific considerations of the subject when they enter 
 the university than students from our high schools. 
 
 G. GERMAN. 
 (a) Vorscliule. 
 
 1st class, ^ hours. Exercises upon elementary 
 sounds. Letters used in writing and printing (Ger- 
 man). Heading of connected parts of primer. Writ- 
 ing dictated words and sentences. Short dictation 
 lessons from the reading book which have been pre- 
 viously talked about and also copied. Learn to 
 recognize nouns. Capitalization, " umlauting," con- 
 versation exercises based upon language charts, exer- 
 cises in narration. 
 
 2d class, 7 hours. Exercises in mechanical read- 
 ing and conversation concerning the contents. Gram- 
 mar : parts of speech, subject predicate, declension
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 2G1 
 
 of substantives and personal pronouns, conjugation 
 in the direct tenses. Orthograpliy and dictated les- 
 sons. Learning fables and poems. 
 
 3d class, 6 hours. Exercises in mechanical and 
 expressive reading. Narration of what has been read 
 or heard. Eecitation of short poems and exercises 
 read. Simple and complex sentences, parts of speech, 
 conjugation in the active and passive voice in the in- 
 dicative and subjunctive modes, prepositions. Dicta- 
 tion exercises. 
 
 (b) Gymnasium. 
 
 Sexta, 4 hours. Grammar : parts of speech, mem- 
 bers of simple sentences, difference between strong 
 and weak declensions. Correct writing from dicta- 
 tion. Reading prose and poetry. Fables, tales, nar- 
 ratives from Vaterldndischen Sage, and history. Ora- 
 reproduction of same by pupils. Memorizing and ex- 
 pressive recitation of poems. " Lebensbilder " from 
 the " Yaterland." History from Kaiser Wilhelm I 
 to Karl the Great. 
 
 Quitita, 3 hours. Simj)le and complex sentences, 
 necessary parts of compound sentences. Correct 
 writing and punctuation twice w^eekly in dictation 
 exercises. Oral narration by pupils. First attempts 
 at written reproduction (in class). Narration of 
 stories from Greek and Roman mythology. Other 
 work as in Sexta. 
 
 Qnarta, 3 hours. Compound sentences. Most 
 important parts of etymology with application to 
 typical examples. Punctuation. Correct writing in 
 class. Home composition every six weeks. Read
 
 262 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 poetic and prose selections. Narration. Discussion 
 of contents of lessons and memorizing of poems. 
 
 Lower Tertia, 2 hours. Connected view of most 
 important grammatical laws. Home compositions, 
 narrative, descriptive, and imaginative. Translation 
 from a foreign language every six weeks. Written 
 " content " exercises in class. Discussion of prose 
 and poetic selections. (Xorse and Germanic myths, 
 sagas; general ludfiirr/escMchte, geography, natural 
 history, epics, and especially ballads.) Memorizing 
 and recitatioia of poems. 
 
 Uppei' 7'ei'tia, 2 hours. Written composition as 
 in L. III. Autobiographies, individual experiences, 
 sometimes in letter form. In general, a prominence 
 given to poetry rather than prose. Lyrics and dra- 
 matic poetry (especially William Tell), with wider 
 inductive teaching of poetry and rhetoric. Memoriz- 
 ing and recitation of poems. Read Uhland's Ernst 
 von Schwaben, Schiller's AVilliam Tell, Ludwig der 
 Baier, Ballads from Schiller and Uhland. 
 
 Loiver Secunda, 3 hours. Practical introduction 
 to composition writing through exercises in deter- 
 mining materials and arrangement in class. Seven 
 easy compositions, especially comparative studies in 
 connection with critical exposition. Translations 
 from foreign languages. Written discussions to 
 complete what has been read in class. Memorizing 
 of poems. Read Schiller's Marie Stuart, Lessing's 
 Minna von Barnhelm, Kleist's Prinz von Homburg, 
 Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, Gutz von Berlich- 
 ingen. Poems from Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, and 
 Lessinff memorized.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 263 
 
 Upper Secunda, 3 lioiirs. Short compositions on 
 closely allied work (as history), 7 exercises. Intro- 
 duction to the Xibelungenlied, testing by the origi- 
 nal text. Survey of Norse sagas, German mythology, 
 epics, and lyrics. Examination of different kinds of 
 poetry. Memorizing of poems. Discussions and 
 reports by pupils 'on Middle High German poetry or 
 modern dramas. 
 
 Longer Prima, 3 hours. Eeview life of Goethe. 
 Eecent period of German literature since 1805, 
 Goethe's Euphrosyne ; Kleist's life, in lectures ; Prinz 
 Friedrich von Homburg ; Hermann's Victory ; Sopho- 
 cles's Philoctetes ; Lessing's Laokoon, concerning 
 Philoctetes ; Shakespeare's Hamlet ; Kiithchen von 
 Heilbronn ; Penthesilea ; Grillparzer's Sappho ; His- 
 tory of literature from Luther to Lessing : Minna 
 von Barnhelra, Emilia Galotti, Xathan der Weise, 
 Miss Sarah Sampson, Laokoon und Hamburg. Drama 
 (selected jDarts). Keports in connection with read- 
 ings. Explanation and reading of lyrics. 
 
 Upper Friinn, 3 hours. Eeview lives of Lessing 
 and Goethe. Dichtung und Wahrheit, books 1-6, 
 and selected j)arts from other works of Goethe. Iphi- 
 genie. Iphigenie of Euripides. Tasso. Xatiirliche 
 Tochter. Faust, first part. Goethe's life reviewed. 
 Hermann und Dorothea ; Egmont ; Schiller's criti- 
 cism of Egmont ; Achilles ; Gotz. Newer period of 
 German literature since 1805. Kleist's Prinz Fried- 
 rich von Homburg ; Hermann's Victory ; Kathchen 
 von Heilbronn ; Sappho ; Ottokar. Eeview Sopho- 
 cles's Ajax. Schiller's Bride of Messina. Memoriz- 
 ing of didactic and lyric poems.
 
 2G4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 A discussion of tlie iiietliods of teachiiifr (iermun 
 will not be entered upon here, and the scope of the 
 course and its distribution throughout the various 
 years can be seen sutliciently from the outline given 
 above. Granting that essentially the same end is 
 accomplished in the secondary-school course in the 
 acquisition of the mother tongue and knowledge of 
 national literature as is accomplished in our own 
 schools through the corresponding years, I shall 
 direct my attention to a single phase of the work — 
 that is, to the consideration of the amount of time 
 devoted to attaining the same end. This seems to 
 me a very important consideration, and one which 
 has been almost entirely overlooked by reformers 
 of our curricula. With all the discussion concern- 
 ing the shortening of courses, enriching of courses, 
 and with all the lamentations concerning slow jDrog- 
 ress in our schools no one, to my knowledge, lias 
 seemed impressed with the fact that an enormous 
 amount of time is given in our curricula to the 
 study of language — and often resulting in only a 
 passable acquaintance, or hardly that, if we are to 
 believe the murmurings that are heard from most 
 of our colleges concerning the preparation of those 
 entering. 
 
 The following figures show the amount of time 
 spent in study of the mother tongue in some of the 
 representative cities of the United States as com- 
 pared with some of the German secondary schools. 
 From the American cities the entire amount of time 
 from the entrance into school to the end of the 
 high-school course is given. The entire course,
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. -265 
 
 including the tliree years in the Vorschule, is given 
 for Germany,* 
 
 The following cities were taken because the facts 
 concerning the division of time were most accessible. 
 Many annual reports do not give specific figures, 
 but my knowledge of the average schools through- 
 out the country leads me to believe these are c^uite 
 representative. The charts given by Dr. Harris in 
 liis German, American, and French Schools Com- 
 pared f will verify my assumptions. 
 
 We thus see that American schools devote about 
 twice as much time to a study of the mother tongue 
 as German schools do. We must, of course, take 
 
 * As before, the numbers given signify tlie hours given per 
 week on the topic if the whole course were reduced to one year. 
 
 f Gymnasium 46 liours. 
 
 Ti . Real-gymnasium ... 48 " 
 
 rrussia -; t^,. , 
 
 1 Higher real-school. . 54 " 
 
 [ Real-school 48 " 
 
 Washington. D. C. Elementary (primary and grammar), 60; 
 
 high school, 16 = 76. 
 
 Chicago, 111. Primary and grammar, 82 ; high school. 11 = 93. 
 
 o • c 1 T A,r n ■ if Eng. course, 15 r= 122 
 
 Springfield, Mass. Primary and 1^ *= ^ 
 
 -.nr, ■>■ ^ i" 1 , ^ Eng. Lat., 12.5 = 119.5 
 
 grammar, 107; high school + ] ^, . 
 
 *" ^ I Classical, 7.8 = 114.8 
 
 r, J r. • 1 Tf 1 Tj • f Commerc. Eng., 19 = 126 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. Pnmarv I „ 
 
 , ^ in" I • i German Eng., 19 = 126 
 
 and grammnr, 10/ ; high J . . " ' 
 
 ,1 1 Scientific, 20 = 127 
 
 schoooi + 
 
 [ Classical, 11 = 118 
 
 f Coll. prep., 7 = 82 
 
 Utica, N. Y. Primary and gram- I Eng. sci., 10.5= 85.5 
 
 mar, 75 ; high school -f- 1 English, 13 = 88 
 
 • [ Teachers', 12 = 87 
 
 f Report of Conimissioner of Education, 1, 1888-"89, p. 53.
 
 206 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 into consideration that German boys have religious 
 instruction two hours weekly, which contributes not a 
 little to their mastery of the mother tongue. Then, 
 in most of the schools the study of Latin grammar 
 obviates to a considerable extent the pursuit of Ger- 
 man grammar. But even the real-schools with no 
 classics in their courses have much less time than 
 our schools set apart for the study of the mother 
 tongue. Why the discrepancy ? The school year is 
 a little longer in Germany than in this country, be- 
 ing from ten and a half to eleven months in dura- 
 tion, but this accounts for only a small difference. 
 There are, to my mind, two directions in which our 
 schools spend altogether too much time : these are 
 spelling and formal grammar. It is true that English 
 orthography is exceedingly difficult and arbitrary. 
 But do we not magnify the difficulty beyond any 
 necessity in continually requiring children to spell 
 words which they have not made their own ? If 
 children's requirements in spelling were limited to 
 their usable written vocabulary, relatively more time 
 could be given to these difficulties and a greater 
 mastery insured in less time. German children do 
 much more oral work than ours, and of course there 
 are no misspelled oral words. A great many of the 
 difficulties of even English orthography may be eas- 
 ily mastered when the age of discrimination and 
 analysis is reached. The German orthography is 
 very simple, but when we turn to a comparison of 
 grammatical impediments the case is reversed. How- 
 ever, our American schools usually devote much 
 more time to English grammar, which is one of the
 
 PRESENT COUESES OP STUDY. 267 
 
 simplest in all languages, than German schools do to 
 their grammar, one of the mogt complex. 
 
 Again, we magnify the difficulty by requiring 
 children to spend vast amounts of time almost use- 
 lessly by plunging them prematurely into abstrac- 
 tions which they do not comprehend. Were grammar 
 reserved for its proper place the whole of English 
 grammar necessary for any one but a philologist 
 could be learned in one year in the high school. 
 One's native language should be learned by imitation 
 and not mastered by rule. Xearly all of grammar 
 could be learned in connection with a study of the 
 language and literature, as is done in Germany. 
 The codes of most of the German states make it ex- 
 plicit that separate systematic instruction in gram- 
 mar which deals with sentences devoid of connection 
 with each other is to be prohibited. How many 
 bookfuls of disconnected sentences do our children 
 analyze and parse ! " The teaching of German gram- 
 mar as a foreign language in German schools is to 
 be discarded," says the Prussian order of 1891. Cor- 
 rect speaking and writing are to be learned by habit. 
 Then, too, they do not spend much time with for- 
 mal rhetoric. The time in the higher classes is de- 
 voted to literature. Upon the average high-school 
 pupil formal rhetoric has little more effect than to 
 create distaste for literature and to crush out all 
 spontaneity of expression. Ehetoric has a place, but 
 not in the high school. In the German schools style 
 and arrangement of composition are by no means 
 overlooked, but the method is largely what may be 
 called the imitative method. A jDupil is never given 
 19
 
 208 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 a composition upon matter with which he is not per- 
 fectly familiar. In the lower classes composition 
 topics are taken from the reading books or from 
 subjects such as Naiurkunde, and in the higher 
 from the literary selections. In the lower classes the 
 teacher assists in the analysis of the theme ; teacher 
 and pupils build up the composition orally; it is 
 then written on the blackboard, and finally in note 
 books and corrected. The fundamental presuj)posi- 
 tion of this method is the inability of young 2)upils 
 to compose and think out a series of ideas without 
 considerable assistance. They believe, also, that style 
 should be a matter for the eye and the ear to decide, 
 and not for the eye alone. In the higher classes the 
 themes for composition are usually selected from 
 German literature. Much attention is given to the 
 arrangement of thoughts. They even undoubtedly 
 sacrifice originality of thought to logical arrange- 
 ment. Although they have learned how to arrange 
 any written theme, the results sometimes evidence 
 stiffness and awkwardness rather than spontaneity. 
 
 But on the whole we may credit them with having 
 gained the mastery of expressing thoughts correctly, 
 although fluency of expression is less a characteristic 
 of German than of American pupils. They have also 
 gained a thorough acquaintance with considerable of 
 the choicest national literature, both prose and verse. 
 The Prussian Lehrplan (1891) claims that " instruc- 
 tion in German, together with religion and history, is 
 the most significant part ethically of the organization 
 of the higher schools." In other places it is stated 
 to be, next to religion, the most valuable as a train-
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 269 
 
 ing for the character and the intellect. Undoubted- 
 ly the national literature is most potent in preserv- 
 ing the intense national pride and patriotism so 
 characteristic of Germans. The foundation for its 
 appreciation is laid in the schools. By the substitu- 
 tion of those things which are most vital and inspir- 
 ing in our language — the literature and language 
 themselves — in place of the uninteresting, and to 
 children meaningless formal aspects, we may accom- 
 plish two things : First, much precious time can be 
 saved ; and, second, the spiritual lives of youth will 
 be vitalized and quickened by the rich stores which 
 the world's masters have treasured up for us. 
 
 9. FlXAL EXAMINATIOXS. 
 
 The purpose of the examination, as published in 
 the Lehrplane und Lehraufgaben, 1892, is to deter- 
 mine whether the candidate has successfully com- 
 pleted the work in Upper Prima. Usually pupils 
 are not allowed to take the examination until they 
 have been at least half a year in the highest class. 
 The general scope of attainments required in each 
 subject is given below : 
 
 1. Religion. Contents and connection of Scrip- 
 tures, the fundamental princijDles of his Church con- 
 fession, and chief epochs of Church history. 
 
 2. German. A composition within the candidate's 
 ability, showing independent conclusions in orderly 
 arrangement, and free from grammatical or compo- 
 sitional errors. In oral language there must be ex- 
 hibited clear, correct, ready, and connected use of the 
 mother tongue ; a familiarity with the most impor-
 
 270 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 tant sections of history, national poetry, and master- 
 pieces of German literature. 
 
 3. Latin. Translation of the simpler portions of 
 Cicero's Orations, Sallust, Livy, Virgil's ^Eueid, 
 Epistles and Odes of Horace ; usual laws of versifi- 
 cation. The written work must be free from errors 
 which show great grammatical uncertainty, 
 
 4. Greek. Ability to translate Homer, Xenophon, 
 easier parts of Demosthenes, and Plato. 
 
 6. French. Sure understanding and fluent trans- 
 lation of simpler authors ; exercise in oral and 
 written use of the language. 
 
 6. History and geography. Knowledge of the 
 epoch-making events of the world's history, espe- 
 cially of German and Prussian history, in connection 
 with their causes and effects and exact location in 
 time and place. Fundamentals of mathematical ge- 
 ography ; important physical relations and political 
 divisions of the earth, especially middle Europe. 
 However, the examination covers only German and 
 Prussian history, and takes up no portion not passed 
 over in Prima. 
 
 Mathematics. Algebra and arithmetic through 
 the binomial theorem, with positive, integral expo- 
 nents, and quadratic equations. Clear, connected, 
 and well-ordered knowledge of geometry and plane 
 trigonometry, with ability to apply in solution of 
 simple exercise. (Calculus frequently included.) 
 
 Physics. Clear knowledge of the laws of statics, 
 and of motion, heat, electricity, magnetism, light, 
 and sound. 
 
 English (if taken). Readiness in reading ; some
 
 PRESENT COURSES OP STUDY. 271 
 
 exercise in translation of easy prose ; most important 
 grammatical rules reasonably well learned. 
 
 Hebrew (if taken). Fluent reading, acquaint- 
 ance with grammatical forms, and ability to trans- 
 late simpler parts of the Old Testament into 
 German. 
 
 The final examination is to be passed before a 
 commission, consisting of the commissioner of the 
 school board, the gymnasial director, and the teacher 
 under whom the particular subject is taken. The 
 written examination in Prussia consists of: (1) A 
 German composition (five hours) ; (3) a translation 
 from German into Latin (two hours) ; (3) a transla- 
 tion from French into German (three hours) ; (4) a 
 translation from Greek into German (three hours) ; 
 (5) mathematics, consisting of an exercise from each 
 of algebra, trigonometry, planimetry, and stereome- 
 try ; (6) translations from Hebrew into German, and 
 from English into German (two -hours each). These 
 are optional, except that the latter is necessary for 
 future theological students. The examination ques- 
 tions are prepared by the teacher of the respective 
 subjects, but to prevent either any possible leniency 
 or too great difiiculties he must prepare three sets 
 of questions, which he submits to the director and 
 the commissioner, who select one of the three sets 
 for the examination. The law cautions against mak- 
 ing the examination of greater difficulty than the 
 pupils have been prepared for by their work, and 
 also, on the other hand, stipulates that the questions 
 must not be those recently given, and thus obviate 
 the necessity of careful thought. The board may
 
 272 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 substitute questions of their own choosing in place 
 of those submitted by the teacher. 
 
 The time for the mathematical exercise, which 
 must be completed in five forenoon hours, may be 
 divided into two equal periods, provided that only 
 half of the examination is given at each of the sit- 
 tings. For all other examinations no pauses are 
 allowed in the work. These seem to be especially 
 long examination periods, notably the one in Ger- 
 man composition. It is customary to write the com- 
 position twice, the first time writing it with refer- 
 ence to the content, the second time devoting 
 especial attention to style and to handwriting as 
 well as to making corrections. This all comes in 
 the allotted five hours, Avhich may at times be ex- 
 tended about half an hour. 
 
 All helps are, of course, excluded in the examina- 
 tion. In the case of translations from Greek, He- 
 brew, and French into German a dictionary of those 
 languages is permitted ; also a table of logarithms 
 for the mathematical exercises. Any attempt at 
 cheating deprives the candidate from further par- 
 ticipation in the examination, and he may have only 
 one more trial at a later date, or he may be excluded 
 forever ; this latter punishment must, however, be 
 assented to by the Cultus Minister. 
 
 The examination papers are first looked over by 
 the teacher having charge of the subject, who marks 
 the papers and gives his estimate, not in percent 
 values as is usual in the United States, but with 
 the words selir gut, gut, genvgend, niclit genugcnd 
 (" very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient "). Along
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 273 
 
 with the estimates of the written work the teacher 
 is to place the estimate of the class work, but in no 
 case may class work influence the estimates of the 
 written work. AVhen the teacher is through with 
 the papers he sends them to the director, who in con- 
 ference with the other members of the examining 
 commission determine who may take the oral exami- 
 ination, who are to be excluded from it, or who ex- 
 empted from it because of especially good work. 
 For those who pass this Avritten examination success- 
 fully an oral examination is yet in store. Pupils 
 who have secured the mark fjenilgend in all the writ- 
 ten tests, and whose behaviour through the course 
 has been faultless, are freed from the oral examina- 
 tion. Others who have secured the mark genvgend 
 in a certain number of branches may be freed from 
 being orally examined on those. 
 
 The oral examinations are conducted by the 
 class teacher in the presence of the examination 
 commission {Prilfungs Kommission), and all the 
 teachers of the school, and frequently the public, are 
 invited. Sometimes the commission give the ques- 
 tions, and in all cases they determine the subjects 
 for examination. The pupils are examined in groups 
 of about ten each day. In Latin and Greek the ex- 
 amination consists of translations, together with oc- 
 casional related questions on metre, grammar, myth- 
 ological allusions, and antiquities. The selections are 
 to be made from the work read or prepared in Prima. 
 Prose selections must be those which have not been 
 read before, while poetry may have been read, 
 though not in the last half vear of the course. His-
 
 274 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 torical considerations include only Germany, espe- 
 cially the Prussian states, and are selected from the 
 parts that have received special treatment in Prima. 
 Physics is not taken as a special subject for exami- 
 nation, but may be treated of in connection with 
 mathematics. Religious questions are confined to 
 topics that have received exhaustive treatment in 
 Prima. 
 
 In making the final estimates the class markings 
 are to be reckoned in with the others. When the 
 mark nicM genugend (" not sufficient ") has not been 
 given in any obligatory subject, the candidate is con- 
 sidered to have passed. A failure in one branch may 
 be offset by very good marks in another, in certain 
 cases. Failures in German, and in both Greek and 
 Latin, can not be counterbalanced by substitutes. 
 They form the kernel of the instruction, and fail- 
 ures in all these moan nearly total failure. Nicht 
 geuilgend in one of the classics may be counterbal- 
 anced only by good marks in the other or by German 
 or mathematics, and a poor mark in mathematics is 
 only offset by one of the classics or German. 
 
 According to AVendt, a good deal of liberality is 
 extended toward candidates in the examination, the 
 stress being laid upon their ability to think care- 
 fully and clearly rather than upon the mass of facts 
 they may have accumulated. He writes * that " with 
 justice, more value is placed in the examination upon 
 the power of the pupils, and upon the manifestation 
 of their maturity of judgment, than upon the know- 
 
 * Rein's Encyclopiidisches Handbueh der Padagogik, III, 
 p. 159.
 
 PRESENT COURSES OF STUDY. 275 
 
 ing facts. The recollection of former accomplish- 
 ments should also be taken into consideration, as 
 well as the not entirely just results of the exami- 
 nation, which may be influenced by all sorts of acci- 
 dental features. Eepetition is at once necessary and 
 unavoidable in all school work, and hence it is not 
 difficult to understand that the entire examination 
 of the pupils should not appear otherwise than as 
 the usual final exercise, differing only in so far as it 
 is held in the presence of the Government Commission, 
 and possibly other visitors, and consequently may re- 
 sult in a little greater tension on the part of those 
 whose maturity is in doubt." I have been informed by 
 teachers in the schools, also, that the examination is 
 regarded simply as a usual lesson, held, however, in 
 the presence of visitors. Surely these are rational 
 views concerning final examinations. 
 
 Although there are not many important devia- 
 tions from the Prussian plan in other states, yet a 
 few variations may be noted. In Bavaria the final 
 written examination lasts four days and is appor- 
 tioned as follows : 
 
 ^ , , ( 7-11 A. M. Translation, German into Latin. 
 1st dav 1 o - Ti !• ■ 
 
 • ( o-o p. M. Religious composition. 
 
 2d day 7-11 a. m. German composition. 
 
 _ , , I 7-10 A. M. Translation, Greek into German. 
 3d day ^ „ ^ , ■r^ i • . r. 
 
 • t 3-5 p. M. '' French into German. 
 
 4th day 7-11 Mathematics and physics. 
 
 The examination questions are prepared by the 
 Minister of Instruction, sent sealed to the examina- 
 tion commission, and opened in the presence of the 
 class at the hour of examination.
 
 276 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 In some schools the marks during the whole course 
 count as a part of the final standings, while in others 
 — Saxony for example — only the last year, or the last 
 four semesters, are taken into account. Some schools 
 have several examinations yearly to determine the 
 averages, and for promotions, while others have only 
 the written examination, and the public examination 
 at the close of the year at Easter.
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 
 SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
 I. Classification of Girls' Schools. 
 
 There are at present in Germany four classes of 
 schools in which girls receive their elementary and 
 secondary education. Only a few receive any higher 
 or university training. These schools are : 
 
 (a) The Common Schools (burgher schools or 
 people's schools), all public, and open to girls and 
 boys, though they are instructed separately except in 
 the lowest classes. 
 
 {!)) The Girls' Intermediate Schools {Madchen 
 MittelscMUn), public and private, for girls only. 
 
 (c) The Girls' Higher Schools {hohere llddchen- 
 scliulen), public and private, for girls only. 
 
 {d) The Girls' Gymnasia {Madchen Gymnasia), so 
 far all private, buildings and appliances sometimes 
 furnished by the city. 
 
 These do not, of course, include the many techni- 
 cal schools for household industries, nor the normal 
 schools {Lehrerin Semindre). The last are also con- 
 sidered as technical schools, and are not a part of 
 the general system of education, having for its aim 
 the imparting of general information and culture. 
 
 277
 
 278 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 The first-nfimed scliools, being elementary schools, 
 do not fall within the ,8cope of this discussion. It 
 may, however, be said in passing that the people's 
 schools do not form the foundation upon which the 
 more elaborate secondary and higher education rests. 
 
 As was pointed out with reference to secondary 
 schools for boys, girls' high schools form a system 
 by themselves, and are not the middle frustum of 
 an educational pyramid. Girls as well as boys have 
 their education determined by the surroundings into 
 which they are born. If born under a lucky star 
 they may receive the benefits of more than the pro- 
 verbial E's ; if, however, they are born of parents 
 who are hewers of wood and drawers of water they 
 stand a fair show of following the same occupations. ■ 
 
 The prevailing view of the Germans places the 
 girls' intermediate school and the girls' higher schools 
 in the same category as the people's schools. They 
 are all classed as niedrige t^cliulen^^ or elementary 
 schools. The courses of study in the people's schools 
 and the intermediate schools for girls contain about 
 the same branches of instruction. The ordinary 
 burgher school course of eight years, however, sel- 
 dom contains a foreign modern language, while the 
 higher burgher school courses and those in the girls' 
 intermediate schools usually do. The latter, at least, 
 seldom exist without offering instruction in one for- 
 eign language. 
 
 The girls' intermediate school follows a some- 
 what higher aim than the burgher school, and of- 
 
 * See Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 62.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 279 
 
 fers, besides the extra language training, a general 
 preparation for some practical industrial or clerical 
 occupation. They must have at least five classes, 
 though the number of years in the course is not defi- 
 nite, and no class may contain more than fifty jiu- 
 pils. More would detract from the efficiency of the 
 work, and reduce it to the level of the people's 
 school with its sometimes overcrowded conditions.* 
 
 Officially the girls' higher schools belong in the 
 same class with the intermediate schools ; but, how- 
 ever, after earnest striving for recognition as second- 
 ary institutions of learning like secondary schools 
 for boys, they have at least received practical though 
 not official recognition as such. 
 
 A distinction exists between the girls' higher 
 schools and the intermediate schools. The distinc- 
 tion was decided upon at a conference held in 1873, 
 and has been operative ever since, especially in 
 Prussia. From the tabulation of schools it will be 
 seen that only one class, the girls' higher schools, are 
 recognised in the states outside of Prussia. Accord- 
 ing to the decisions of the conference, the fully de- 
 veloped schools with ten-year courses are to be rec- 
 ognised as girls' higher schools. The course must 
 include two foreign languages as obligatory subjects, 
 and a general, deeper consideration of courses, such 
 as can be given by academic (university) trained 
 teachers. 
 
 The intermediate schools were to include those 
 schools with eight-year courses, and which confined 
 
 * Sec Zeitschrift fur weibliclie Bildung, 1890, p. 62
 
 280 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 themselves to the pursuit of one foreign language. 
 The instruction in general was to be of a more prac- 
 tical nature, fitted to the needs of everyday life of 
 the citizen {hilrgerliclien Lehen).'^ 
 
 A girls' higher school must have at least nine 
 years in its course (beginning with the fourth school 
 year), with at least seven classes receiving instruction. 
 Its aim is considered higher than that of the inter- 
 mediate school. Two modern foreign languages are 
 given instead of one, and all technical training is 
 prohibited.! 
 
 However, certain technical or industrial branches 
 may be elective. The schools are under the Govern- 
 ment, and the teachers, as above indicated, must have 
 received professional or university training. Theo- 
 retically the course of instruction closes with the 
 fifteenth year of age, but practically it frequently 
 extends through an additional year, even though 
 only the nine grades of work are attempted. 
 ^-^he Minister of Instruction, Brrik>i?se, in a gen- 
 eral order. May 31, 1894, defined the position occu- 
 pied by the girls' schools of all classes, and also made 
 imperative many points only partially realized before. 
 The order relates to the regulations concerning build- 
 ings, size of classes, ends to be attained, etc. It is 
 as follows : J 
 
 1. The number of pupils shall not exceed forty 
 in any class. 
 
 3. The school room must contain at least 0.8 
 square metres floor space for each pupil, and in its 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1894. 
 
 t Ibid., 1896, p. 63, to 1897, p. 3. t Ibid., 1894, p. 322 ef seq.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 281 
 
 entirety must contain at least 24 square metres floor 
 space, and also be sufficiently high. Each room 
 must he sufficiently lighted, provided with fresh air, 
 be protected against storms, and the windows prop- 
 erly curtained to protect from the sunshine. The 
 light must come from the left side of the pupils' 
 desks and seats must be suited to the size of the 
 pupils, and so arranged that they may work with- 
 out injury to their health. Hooks for garments 
 must be placed in corridors outside of the class 
 rooms. 
 
 3. Schools having seven or more grades must 
 have suitable separate rooms for drawing, singing, 
 and gymnastics ; also, a separate room must be jDro- 
 vided for the use of teachers during free periods and 
 between recitations. 
 
 4. Every school must have a sufficiently large 
 garden, courtyard, or other place where pupils may 
 move about freely during pauses between classes. 
 
 5. To every school room belong two tables, one 
 teacher's chair, and one or more cupboards for pre- 
 serving books, handwork, etc. 
 
 6. Every school must possess a carefully selected 
 library for the use of pupils, which is to be under 
 the oversight and management of the teachers. 
 
 7. For instructional purposes there are necessary : 
 
 (a) At least one copy of each book used in school. 
 
 (b) At least one globe. 
 
 {<•) For the instructional exercises of several 
 classes, the corresponding ^4 ?is«'/ia?<w«^s material (for 
 object lessons), geographical wall maps, drawing 
 models, cabinet of natural curiosities, and apparatus.
 
 282 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 (d) The necessary reading and arithmetical ma- 
 terial for the lowest classes. 
 
 (e) A good piano. 
 
 For evangelical schools : 
 
 ( /■) A sufficient number of Bibles and song books. 
 
 {g) In all classes a class book called the "log- 
 book " is to be kept, and it must always be in readi- 
 ness to be inspected. In this book each teacher 
 must indicate exactly the material gone over during 
 a recitation, also the lesson assigned for the next 
 recitation. 
 
 Besides this, each teacher must have a list of his 
 pupils, which must indicate any lessons assigned to 
 individuals ; also a school day-book, in which the cases 
 of negligence and correction or punishment are 
 exactly recorded. A programme of exercises must 
 hang in every room, and the plan of studies must be 
 always at hand in the class room. 
 
 The director must keep a school chronicle and a 
 JSimnmKst^ (genealogical list), as well as a directory 
 of entering and leaving. 
 
 (h) In the selection of text-books which pupils 
 must purchase care is to be exercised to make the 
 list as small as possible. Books are to be so selected 
 as to make all dictations, and Ansarbeifung (elab- 
 oration) on the part of the pujails unnecessary. Such 
 AuM/i^heiiungen are not to be permitted even as vol- 
 untary work. 
 
 8. Each pupil receives, on entrance to the school 
 and Avhen passing to a new grade, a list of all books 
 and appliances which she is obliged to purchase. 
 Pupils must not be permitted to voluntarily pur-
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 283 
 
 chase text-books, outlines, song books, etc., that are 
 not indicated on the list. 
 
 9. It is desirable, whenever possible, that pupils 
 be provided with two copies of the various text-books 
 and other necessary books, so as to obviate carry- 
 ing them to and from school. The school-bag and 
 the maps should be under the teacher's inspec- 
 tion, in order to prevent overloading pupils with 
 books, etc. 
 
 10. The highest number of weekly hours of in- 
 struction in the first school year is eighteen, the 
 second twenty, the third twenty-two, the fourth 
 twenty-eight, and for the following years each thirty. 
 All subjects of instruction are obligatory. To be 
 freed from technical instruction on account of ill 
 health, a physician's certificate is necessary. 
 
 11. In arranging the daily programme care is to 
 be taken to place those subjects requiring constant 
 use of the eyesight (reading, writing, drawing, geog- 
 raphy, industrial handwork) in the hours of clearest 
 daylight. 
 
 If possible, the instruction in religion should 
 come first in the morning. 
 
 Studies requiring severe reflection should not 
 follow one another in the daily programme. 
 
 12. There must be pauses of ten minutes after 
 each hour of instruction, except after the second and 
 fourth hours of instruction, when there must be 
 pauses of fifteen minutes. (The recitation periods 
 are thus from forty-five to fifty minutes long.) 
 
 13. At least during the fifteen-minutes pauses 
 the pupils must leave the class rooms to give chance 
 
 20
 
 284 SECONDARY SCnOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 to air the buildings. When the weather permits, 
 pupils should move about in the open air. 
 
 14. The chief stress of school work should be laid 
 upon the class-room instruction. Xo exercises should 
 be assigned for home work except those that have 
 been previously prepared in class in such a way 
 that the pupils can accomplish them unaided. 
 
 The home work shall be, for the lower grades, 
 at most one hour daily ; for the middle grades, at 
 most one and a half hour daily ; for the highest 
 grades, at most two hours daily. 
 
 15. Xo home work shall be assigned in the fore- 
 noon to be prepared in the afternoon. 
 
 16. No work is to be assigned for the vacations 
 — not even to volunteers. 
 
 17. Material to be memorized is to be carefully 
 selected, definitely assigned, and as far as possible to 
 be indicated in the plan of studies for the entire 
 year. 
 
 18. Each teacher must indicate the maximum 
 amount of material in each German composition. 
 In general it is better to assign frequent exercises 
 than long ones. 
 
 19. Extemporaneous and home compositions are 
 permitted as exercises, but not to count as examina- 
 tions, especially for promotion. 
 
 20. All written work must be carefully corrected 
 by the pupils after suggestions by the teacher. It 
 must bear the date of handing in and of the correc- 
 tions. 
 
 21. Drawings and maps shall not be given as 
 home work.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 285 
 
 22. Work of any sort as punishment is prohibited. 
 
 23. Hand industrial work, drawing, and writing 
 exercises must not be carried on simultaneously with 
 exercises in foreign languages or lectures in the 
 same room. 
 
 24. Review of previously considered work must 
 take place daily, so that special reviews of entire 
 sections of work will be unnecessary. 
 
 25. Should a pupil necessarily be prohibited from 
 promotion, the parents must be first notified. Dur- 
 ing the period the pupil is held back she must be 
 both busy and under guidance. 
 
 26. Parents are to receive at least half yearly a 
 certificate indicating their children's conduct, indus- 
 try, and accomplishments in the individual branches. 
 
 27. Public examinations are prohibited. 
 
 2. CouKSES OF Study in Girls' Schools. 
 
 The following course of study is fairly represent- 
 ative of the courses usually pursued in the girls' 
 higher schools. It is the course as pursued in the 
 Iwhere MadcltenscJinJe in Leipzig, and arranged ac- 
 cording to the general plan for Saxony which has 
 been operative ever since 1878. The school is a very 
 large one, employing twenty-two teachers, five of 
 whom are women, and having, during 1896-'97, five 
 hundred and thirty five pupils. 
 
 Like most of the higher schools for girls, it has 
 ten classes (grades), the first three of which take the 
 place of the corresponding years in the people's 
 schools. The teachers prefer to have the pupils 
 enter this school for their first instruction, as the
 
 2SG SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 course is apt to be less thoroughly carried out in the 
 people's schools, and frequently when pupils enter 
 the advanced classes from the latter they are obliged 
 to repeat some of the work already gone over, which 
 means a loss of time on the part of the pupils. 
 
 Programme of Study hi Leipzig Girls' Higher School. 
 
 X IX VIII VII VI V IV III II 
 
 Religion 3 2 23 3 3 3 2 2 2 
 
 German 8886444444 
 
 French. 
 
 English 
 
 History 
 
 Geography 
 
 Natural science. 
 
 4 5 4 5 5 
 
 .... 3 4 4 4 
 
 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 1112 2 2 2 2 
 
 112 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 Mathematics 4444 3 32222 
 
 Writing 4 4 4 3 2 1 
 
 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 Singing 2222 1 1 1 
 
 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 Needlework 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 18 22 24 28 30 30 30 30 30 30 
 
 272 
 
 Note. — Class X is the lowest class, and Class I the highest. 
 
 Class X. Eeligion, 2 hours. Sixteen stories from 
 the Old and the Isew Testaments. Proverbs, prayers, 
 and songs memorized. 
 
 German, 12 hours, {a) Anscliannngfi (observa- 
 tional) instruction. Two half hours weekly conver- 
 sation exercises from the following Anschauung 
 groups : school and house ; garden and meadow ; 
 field and forest ; land life ; happy hours ; verses 
 from Gull, Hey, Dieffenbach, Reinick, and others 
 memorized. 
 
 {h) Reading and writing, use first reading book. 
 In the last half of the year the letters arranged in the 
 writing exercise in a methodical order for the pur- 
 pose of bringing out beauty of form. The simplest
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 287 
 
 orthographical rules given, and pupils exercised on 
 examples illustrating the same. 
 
 Arithmetic. Fundamental operations with num- 
 bers from 1 to 20. 
 
 Class IX. Eeligion, 2 hours. Twenty-three sto- 
 ries from the Old Testament and twenty-five from 
 the Xew Testament related, and suitable pictures 
 studied in connection with them ; also appropriate 
 proverbs and songs memorized. 
 
 German, 8 hours. Easy and well-articulated 
 reading, reading book. Memorizing short prose se- 
 lections and poems. Weekly exercises in copying 
 and dictation to insure good style. Elements of 
 theory of sounds, syllables, and words. Short home 
 repetition exercises of the same. 
 
 Home Geography and History {Heimatslcunde), 1 
 hour. Dwelling house. City and village, and their 
 inhabitants. Leipzig and vicinity ; chief streets and 
 Pldtze, especially the inner city according to the city 
 maps. Easiest fundamental geographical concepts. 
 
 Xature lessons, 1 hour. In summer consider 
 plants in the vicinity ; in winter, description of ani- 
 mals in the vicinity. 
 
 Arithmetic, 4 hours. Numbers from 4 to 100. 
 
 Writing, 4 hours. Exercises in German and Latin 
 script. 
 
 Knitting, 2 hours. First exercises in knitting. 
 A pair of stockings begun. 
 
 Class VIII. Eeligion, 2 hours. Eeview biblical 
 history studied in previous classes. Proverbs, strophes 
 from songs, the Ten Commandments, without Lu- 
 ther's interpretation.
 
 288 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTExM OF GERMANY. 
 
 German, 8 hours. Exercises in reading, especially 
 for the contents of the lessons. Stories from history 
 related. Prose and poetic selections memorized. 
 Four parts of speech learned. A knowledge of the 
 simple sentence and its members learned in connec- 
 tion with model sentences, and selections in reading. 
 Exercises in declensions and conjugations through 
 sentential use. Cultivate good style and accuracy 
 {RecMschreihung) through study of examples. 
 Spelling, division of polysyllabic words, copying. 
 Change from German to Latin script, and vice versa, 
 word-building, and prepared dictation exercises. A 
 weekly written grammatical exercise or composition. 
 
 Geography, 1 hour. Home geography and his- 
 tory of a wider extent than in previous class. Wall 
 map of city. Leading men of the city. 
 
 IS^atural history, 1 hour. Plants, mammals, birds. 
 Exercises on natural history from books, with direct 
 observation of objects whenever possible. Observa- 
 tion exercises. 
 
 Arithmetic, 4 hours. Eeview numbers to 100, fix- 
 ing firmly operations of multiplication and division. 
 Numbers to 1,000. Twenty-six written exercises. 
 
 Writing, 4 hours. German script. Especial at- 
 tention to Latin script in words and sentences, using 
 materials from other class instruction. Exercise on 
 the figures. 
 
 Gymnastics, 2 hours. 
 
 K^eedlework, 2 hours. Complete the stockings 
 begun in Class IX. 
 
 Class VII. Religion, 3 hours. Old and New 
 Testament history. Sixteen proverbs. Articles I
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 289 
 
 and III of the Creed, without interpretation. Five 
 hymns. 
 
 German, 6 hours. Grammar. Extended consid- 
 eration of the simple sentence. Twenty composi- 
 tions, thirty-nine dictation exercises, fifteen declama- 
 tions. Eeading from reading book. 
 
 French, 4 hours. Thirty-seven pages of reader 
 Xo. I. Thirty-two written exercises. Dictation ex- 
 ercises, compositions, conversation, memorizing of 
 poems and songs. 
 
 Geography, 1 hour. Geography of Saxony. 
 
 !tsatural history, 1 hour. Consider various ani- 
 mals and plants according to Terks's text-book, 
 Part I. 
 
 Arithmetic, 4 hours. Eeview numbers to 1,000, 
 Four fundamental operations with wdiole numbers. 
 Exercise book. 
 
 Writing, 3 hours. Capitals and small letters in 
 German and Latin script. Groups of words and 
 short sentences. Foreign words, French vocables. 
 Figures. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 Xeedlework, 2 hours. Knitting of a pair of 
 stockings. 
 
 Class VI. Eeligion, 3 hours. Biblical history of 
 Xew Testament, Thirty-eight proverbs reviewed and 
 learned. First and second part of the Creed. Xu- 
 merous hymns and songs reviewed and learned. 
 Geography of Palestine. 
 
 German, 4 hours. Grammar: Etymology. Twen- 
 ty-one compositions, thirty-four dictation exercises, 
 twelve declamations. Readinsf from reading book.
 
 290 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 French, 4 hours. Reading book Xo. I. Thirty- 
 six written exercises. Poems and prose selections 
 memorized ; conversation exercises in connection 
 with these. 
 
 History, 2 hours. Sagas of chissical antiquity. 
 German sagas (Xibelungen and Gudrun). Middle 
 ages to time of Rudolf of Hajisburg. 
 
 Geography, 2 hours. Saxony reviewed. German 
 EmjDire. Brief survey of European countries. 
 
 Natural history, 2 hours. Botany and zoology 
 according to Terks's text-book. Part II. Herbarium 
 prepared under direction of the instructor. 
 
 Arithmetic, 3 hours. Reduction. The four opera- 
 tions with various kinds of integral numbers. Time 
 computation. Twenty written exercises. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Perpendicular, horizontal, 
 and diagonal lines. Square, equiangular triangle, 
 hexagon, octagon, circle, angle. 
 
 Writing, 2 hours. Continuance of previous work. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 Needlework, 2 hours. Exercise in sewing. 
 
 Class V. Religion, 3 hours. Review first and 
 second parts of Creed, with more thorough considera- 
 tion. Review former proverbs. Fifty-three proverbs 
 and eight songs learned. The parables of Jesus. 
 
 German, 4 hours. Grammar. Sentences and 
 punctuation ; sentential analysis. Reading of model 
 prose and poetry. Memorize poems. Stories related 
 by pupils. Thirty-six dictation exercises and twenty- 
 one compositions. 
 
 French, 5 hours. Reading book No. II, lessons 1 
 to 24. Thirty-five written exercises.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 291 
 
 History, 2 hours. From 1492 to the present. 
 
 Geography, 2 lioiirs. Fundamental concepts of 
 universal geograph}-. The non-European countries. 
 
 Xatural history, 2 hours. Botany and zoology 
 according to text-book of Terks, Part III. Continue 
 the herbarium. 
 
 Arithmetic, 3 -hours. The four operations with 
 common and decimal fractions. Exercise book Xo. 
 IX. Twenty written exercises. 
 
 Writing, 1 hour. Mainly exercise on Latin script. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Pentagon, ellipse, spirals, 
 drawing from Xature. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 Xeedlework, 2 hours. Cutting and sewing a 
 girl's linen shirt. 
 
 Class IV. Eeligion, 3 hours. Eeview and study 
 more thoroughly the second and third parts of 
 the Creed. Apostolical history. Eeview previously 
 learned proverbs, learn fifty-three additional, and 
 eight songs. 
 
 German, 4 hours. Grammar according to Hoff- 
 man's theory of sentences and punctuation. Model 
 prose read. Poetry learned and declaimed. Fifteen 
 narrative and descriptive compositions. Fifteen dic- 
 tation exercises. 
 
 French, 4 hours. Eeading book Xo. Ill, lessons 
 1-14 (irregular verbs). Thirty-five written exercises. 
 Memorize prose and poetry. Conversation. 
 
 English, 3 hours. First work in English. Eead- 
 ing and grammar. Oral and written exercises. Dec- 
 lamations. Thirty-six written exercises. 
 
 History, 2 hours. German history to the present.
 
 292 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Geography, 3 hours. Physical and political ge- 
 ography of Europe, with special attention to Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Natural history, 2 hours. Botany and zoology 
 according to Terks's text-book, Part IV. Complete 
 the herbarium. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Draw pressed plants ; proj)er 
 art word description and modelling of same. De- 
 signs for fancy work. Copying, enlarging, and 
 changing of more difficult ornaments. Spirals. 
 Decoration with calyxes, rosettes, etc. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 XeedlcAvork, 2 hours. Cutting and sewing a 
 man's shirt. 
 
 Class III. Eeligion, 2 hours. Fourth and fifth 
 parts of Creed. Review first and second parts. 
 Christ's Sermon on the Mount. Thirty-five proverbs 
 and four hymns learned ; previous ones reviewed. 
 
 German, 4 hours. Review and continue syntax. 
 Most important portions of jirosody. Read standard 
 prose and poetry, including William Tell. Declama- 
 tion of selected poems (esj)ecially Schiller's). Twelve 
 compositions, as follows : 1. Woods of Leipzig in the 
 spring. 2. Advantages of country life. 3. An un- 
 lucky summer journey. 4. Theseus. 5. The duck's 
 festival. 6. The dragon of Rhodes. 7. Autumn 
 and its gifts. 8. Preparation for Christmas. 9. The 
 Cranes of Ibicus. 10. Snow. 11. Tell's imprison- 
 ment and liberation. 12. The Crucifixion (examina- 
 tion composition). 
 
 French, 5 hours. Reader No. Ill, lessons 13-28. 
 Memorize prose and poetical selections. Thirty-six
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 293 
 
 ■written exercises. Dictations, compositions. Eead 
 Recueil de Contes et Recits pour la Jeunesse, Vol. I. 
 Conversation. 
 
 English, 4 hours. Grammar : Etymology. Eead 
 from Victor and Dorr : 1. At home. 2. At school. 
 3. Farm, garden, fields. 4. Home life. 5. England 
 and the English. Fairy tales and stories. Numer- 
 ous poems and prose selections memorized and con- 
 versation exercises in connection with them. Most 
 of the instruction given in English. Pictures used 
 to give concrete illustrations. Thirty-four written 
 exercises in connection with the reading exercises, 
 consisting of grammatical exercises, dictations, trans- 
 lations, compositions. 
 
 History, 2 hours. Ancient history. 
 
 Geography, 2 hours. America. Brief survey 
 over Asia, Africa, Australia. Europe reviewed. 
 
 Natural history, 2 hours. Structure and life 
 processes of the human body. Text-book, Terks's 
 Outlines, § 1-28. Winter semester : Physics. Sim- 
 plest phenomena in the mechanics of heat, mag- 
 netism, electricity. 
 
 Arithmetic, 2 hours. Proportion, percentage, in- 
 terest, discount, alligation. Mensuration : square, 
 rectangle, cube, prism. Fifteen Avi'itten exercises. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Drawing from models : cube, 
 cross, pyramid in various positions. From Xature in 
 outline. 
 
 Singing, 1 hour. 
 
 Gymnastics, 2 hours. 
 
 Needlework, 2 hours. Various kinds of stitching, 
 as double-cross, box, and outline.
 
 294: SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Class II. Ecligion, 2 hours. Books of the Old 
 Testament. Church history to the time of Luther. 
 Eeview the catechism, hymns, and proverbs. 
 
 German, 4 hours. German literature from the 
 beginning to the time of Luther and Hans Sachs. 
 Read model prose and poetry. Xibelungen und 
 Gudrunlied. Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, 
 Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans. Declamations, 
 compositions. Siegfried in AVorms (in class). First 
 scene from William Tell in narrative form. The 
 Savage, a character sketch. The Burgundian on the 
 Danube (in class). Gudrun's Leiden und Errettung. 
 C*ontents of the prologue to the Jungfrau von Orleans. 
 Joan as a prophetess before the king (in class). Der 
 arme Heinrich as given by Ilartmann von Aue. Par- 
 zival bei Gurnemanz. Joan as a prisoner in the 
 tower (examination exercise). 
 
 French, 5 hours. Heading book finished. Other 
 prose and poetry. Memorize poetry and prose. 
 Thirty-five written exercises, consisting of themes, 
 impromptus, dictations, compositions. The instruc- 
 tion mainly in French. 
 
 English, 4 hours. Grammar according to Eauch. 
 English repetitional grammar. Eead Burnett's 
 Little Lord Fauntleroy; Evving's Story of a Short 
 Life ; conversations and oral rejoorts. Thirty-seven 
 written exercises. 
 
 History, 2 hours. Medieeval and modern history 
 to the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 ■ Geography, 2 hours. Most important portions of 
 mathematical geography. Asia, Africa, Australia. 
 America and Europe reviewed^
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 295 
 
 Nature lessons, 2 hours. Physics : Sound, light, 
 heat, magnetism, electricity. Fundamentals of me- 
 chanics of solids, liquids, and gases. Eeviews. 
 
 Arithmetic, 1 hour. Proportion, percentage, 
 profit and loss, interest, duties and customs, discount, 
 business calculations. Twelve written exercises. 
 
 Geometry, 1 hour. Computation of rectilinear 
 surfaces. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Technical exercises with 
 crayon and eraser. Shading the cylinder, fluted sur- 
 faces, sphere, and simple natural objects. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 Needlework, 2 hours. Darning in simple mesh- 
 work and tulle. Patching. 
 
 Class I. Eeligion, 2 hours. Books of the New 
 Testament according to origin and contents. Church 
 history from Luther to the present. The Sermon on 
 the Mount. Eeview the catechism, the hymns, and 
 songs. 
 
 German, 4 hours. Modern German literature, 
 with special consideration of the classical period. 
 Read Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm ; Schiller's 
 Maria Stuart, Wallenstein ; Goethe's Iphigenie ; Lec- 
 ture on Dichtung und Wahrheit ; Schiller's and 
 Goethe's poems. Poems memorized. Read also 
 model prose and poetry from reader. Every week a 
 report by the students on some self-selected topic. 
 Ten compositions. Themes as follows : 1. Severe 
 punishment (in the case of Maria Stuart). 2. Short 
 exposition of the rules for the French subjunctive. 
 
 3. The sightseer, a trip tlirough the Leipzig Messe. 
 
 4. A painting from the city museum. 5. What
 
 29G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 evidences of Minna's character are gained from the 
 Eiccaut scene ? 6. To what extent can one de- 
 termine from the German words of Riccaut that he 
 is French? 7. My favourite occupations. 8. My 
 favourite reading. 9a. My last hour in history. 9b. 
 My last lesson in chemistry (class exercise). 10. 
 Visit to a court. 11. Iphigenie's true love. 12. 
 Three themes selected from the Festspiel, Deutsches 
 Frauenleben. 13. The importance of hills and rivers 
 in German commerce. 14. What evidences of super- 
 stition do we find in Schiller's Wallenstein? 15a. 
 Too late (as given in Tennyson's Enoch Arden) ; 
 15Z>. Saved (as in Moret's Anarchiste). Shall we call 
 Thekla in Wallenstein a weak character ? 
 
 French, 5 hours. Grammar in connection with 
 reading. Eeading from reader; also Scribe, Mon 
 Ftoile, Choix de nouvelles III, and Scribe and Lc- 
 gouve, La bataille de Dames. Thirty written exer- 
 cises, dictations, translations, and compositions. 
 Conversation. Reports by the pupils on self-selected 
 subjects. 
 
 English, 4 hours. Grammar. The most im- 
 portant chapters of English syntax, with special at- 
 tention to verbs, infinitives, participles and gerun- 
 dives, prepositions and conjunctions, according to 
 Ranch's Repetitional Grammar ; thirty written exer- 
 cises (translations, dictations, compositions, letters). 
 Literature : Survey of the development of English 
 literature. Special stress on Chaucer, Spenser, 
 Shakespeare (short history of the English drama), 
 Milton, Scott, Byron, Bulwer, Tennyson. Lectures 
 and biographies are given in English. Read Ten-
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 297 
 
 nyson's Enoch Arden. Poems from Gropp and 
 Hausknecht's collection. Massey's In the Struggle 
 of Life. Bulwer's The Lady of Lyons. Conversa- 
 tion : Anglicisms. Phraseology from home, business, 
 and social life. Lectures by students in English on 
 self-selected themes. Eecitation of English poems 
 and memorizing portions of ShakesiDcare and Ten- 
 nyson. 
 
 History, 2 hours. History of Germany and the 
 other powers from the Thirty Years' War to 1870, 
 giving special attention to the Kulturgeschichte (in- 
 stitutional history). Elements of economics. 
 
 Geography, 2 hours. Mathematical and physical 
 geography. Germany. 
 
 Xature lessons, 2 hours. Chemistry and mineral- 
 ogy (text-book). 
 
 Arithmetic, 1 hour. Discount, business arith- 
 metic, alligation. 
 
 Geometry, 1 hour. Important theorems of pla- 
 nimetry reviewed ; cube, prism, cylinder, cone, and 
 sphere. 
 
 Drawing, 2 hours. Shading plaster ornaments ac- 
 cording to models. Painting simple natural objects 
 in water colours. 
 
 Singing and gymnastics, 2 hours each. 
 
 Needlework, 2 hours. Cutting and sewing; 
 coarse and fine work. Machine sewing. Embroid- 
 ery, fancy needlework, and painting upon cloth, etc. 
 
 As in the other schools of Germany, in the girls' 
 schools the system of departmental teaching is car- 
 ried out, except in the lowest three classes, which 
 have the same teacher during the entire day. This
 
 298 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 jolan is in vogue in nearly all German schools, and it 
 has manifest advantages over the American system, 
 which requires the same person to be teacher of all 
 subjects. There are some disadvantages, however, 
 from having so many dilTercnt teachers, especially 
 from the standpoint of authority and discipline, but 
 the advantages probably outweigh the disadvantages. 
 When all the teachers are thoroughly trained, and 
 the supervision of the entire course is thorough, the 
 danger from lack of balance and proper correlation 
 is not great. 
 
 3. DiSTRiBUTioisr OF GiELs' Schools. 
 
 At the end of this section will be found some 
 tables showing the distribution of girls' schools 
 throughout the whole Empire, with the number of 
 pupils in attendance and the number and sex of the 
 teachers in charge. 
 
 From those tables and the data here subjoined, 
 we notice some striking illustrations of the meagre 
 efforts toward higher education of women as com- 
 pared with those for men. Statistics for the entire 
 Empire are imperfect, and hence Prussian statistics 
 will in the main be quoted. 
 
 In the people's schools of Prussia, which are free 
 to both sexes, we find that in 1891 they were attend- 
 ed by 2,467,558 boys and 2,448,918 girls, or by nearly 
 as many girls as boys. It must be considered, how- 
 ever, that a large number of boys, and girls also, 
 were in the secondary schools, which begin with the 
 fourth year of school life, and hence we can not 
 estimate exactly the proportion that took advantage
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 299 
 
 of the public elementary training offered. During 
 
 the same year, 82,350 girls received instruction in 
 
 the intermediate and higher girls' schools, and 48,920 
 
 boys received instruction in the intermediate schools. 
 
 The entire number of pupils receiving secondary 
 
 instruction in Prussia during 1891 was distributed 
 
 as follows : 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Gymnasia, I'eal-gymnasia, real-schools, etc.. . . 13G,000 
 
 Vorschulen 21,000 
 
 Intermediate schools 48,920 
 
 In other private schools about 16,000 
 
 Total 221,920 
 
 Girls. 
 In public intermediate schools and higher. . . 82,350 
 In private intermediate schools 65,766 
 
 Total 148,116 
 
 These figures indicate two facts, viz. : (a) While 
 the numbers of boys and girls receiving elementary 
 instruction in the people's schools are nearly equal, 
 the number of boys receiving secondary instruction 
 is somewhere near seventy thousand in excess of the 
 number of girls, (b) That only about fifty-five per 
 cent of girls have higher training provided for them 
 in public schools, while about forty-five per cent must 
 receive their secondary training in private institu- 
 tions. Less than ten per cent of all the boys receive 
 their secondary instruction in private schools.* 
 
 * To be sure, the expense of attending a private school is not 
 much different from that of attending a public school, since 
 tuition must be paid in either case, but the public school grants 
 21
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 973 
 
 866 
 
 460 
 
 323 
 
 449 
 
 87 
 
 ,073 
 
 34 
 
 300 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Thus the higher education of girls in Prussia is 
 more the cure of private enterprise than of the state. 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to note the 
 relative proportion of male and female teachers in 
 Prussia, and also the means provided for their pro- 
 fessional training apart from the general training 
 received in the lower schools. 
 
 Public girls' higher schools — regular teachers. 
 
 Public intermediate girls' schools — regular 
 
 teachers 
 
 Public schools above grade of people's schools 
 111 the various forms above assistant teachers . 
 
 Total for girls' higher schools 2,955 1,310 
 
 Public people's schools, regular teachers and as- 
 sistants : men, G3,237 ; women, 8,494. This shows 
 that about thirty per cent of the teaching force in 
 all the public secondary schools for girls are women, 
 while in the public people's schools there are only 
 about twelve per cent of women. 
 
 Turning to the private schools for girls, we find 
 the conditions reversed, which would appear to in- 
 dicate that were the wishes of patrons consulted 
 more, and were the conditions not imposed by cen- 
 tral authority, the number of women teachers, es- 
 pecially in charge of girls' instruction, would be 
 much larger.* 
 
 privileges with its diplomas that the private schools are not 
 empowered to do. 
 
 * Miss Lange states (Entwicklung und Stand des hoheren 
 Madchenschulwesen in Deutschland, p. 13) that in the public 
 higher girls' schools from ninety-one to ninety-two per cent of
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 301 
 
 In the six hundred and forty-seven private higlier 
 girls' schools giving instruction to 57,943 girls, there 
 were during the same year, 1891 : 
 
 Men with permanent positions. . 112 i ^^^ 
 
 -.XT- vi <- -i- o ^o;^ - 2)599 regular teachers. 
 
 Women with permanent positions 2,4o7 ) 
 
 Men full assistants 18 
 
 Women full assistants 
 
 Men partial assistants 
 
 Women partial assistants 499 J 
 
 Women assistants in industrial work. . . 1,072. 
 
 ron ' 2'^^^ assistants. 
 
 Instead of the small proportion of women notice- 
 able in the public schools, we find about ninety-five 
 per cent of the regular teachers were women, while 
 those occupying the assistants' positions were about 
 seventy-eight per cent men. 
 
 The state does not seem to care to increase the 
 number of women teachers very rapidly, if we are to 
 Judge from the professional training jorovided for 
 them, as shown in the following schedule : 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Number yearly 
 graduates. 
 
 Costs to state. 
 
 Number positions 
 open. 
 
 Men ... 3 
 
 3,300 
 230 
 
 4,404,879 M. 
 503,602 M. 
 
 
 Women 2 
 
 550 
 
 This left three hundred and twenty of the neces- 
 sary women teachers to secure the requisite profes- 
 sional training in some private institution. The 
 above does not adequately represent the dispropor- 
 
 all teachers are men, and only eight or nine per cent women. 
 But in the private higher girls' schools eighty-seven per cent to 
 eighty-eight per cent of the teachers are women, and only twelve 
 to thirteen per cent are men.
 
 302 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERI\rANY. 
 
 tionate provision made for women to prepare them- 
 selves for the profession of teaching, since the uni- 
 versities were at that time all closed to women, 
 though practically all the men teachers in the sec- 
 ondary schools received their training there. More- 
 over, the gymnasial and other certificates from the 
 boys' schools give permission to take the examina- 
 tions for teaching, and the institutions provide more 
 adequate training than any of the girls' higher 
 schools.* 
 
 The following table showing the distribution of 
 girls' higher schools, teachers, and pupils, is com- 
 piled from various reports and tables given by Helene 
 
 Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Pupils. 
 
 Prussia. 
 Public higher girls' schools 
 Public girls' int. schools 
 
 Public mixed int 
 
 Privateliigliei' girls' schools 
 
 Other higher girls' schools. 
 
 Bavaria (ISOl). 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Wilrtemberg (ISOO). 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Baden (1800-'01). 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Hesse. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 "S 
 
 
 ■« 
 
 S 
 
 ~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 jj 
 
 *« 
 
 B 
 
 
 § 
 
 z 
 
 i^ 
 
 S. 
 
 (£ 
 
 s 
 
 iS 
 
 206 
 
 44.788 
 
 973 
 
 866 
 
 295 
 
 58 
 
 93 
 
 28,679 
 
 461 
 
 356 
 
 65 
 
 28 
 
 68 
 
 8,8(13 
 
 
 
 
 
 647 
 
 57.942 
 
 130 
 
 2,733 
 
 1,690 
 
 499 
 
 291 
 
 7,824 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 1 
 103)' 
 
 13,770 
 
 592 
 
 1,077 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1.8.53 
 
 62 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1,607 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 2,548 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2,172 
 
 58 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 2,500 
 
 138 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 368 
 353 
 
 1,073 
 
 * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1897, p. 03.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 303 
 
 Distribution of Schools, Teachers, and Pupils {continued). 
 
 Mecklenburg. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Oldenburg. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Braunschweig. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Saxe-Me.in.-Hildb. 
 
 Private (only) 
 
 Saxe-Altenburg. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Saxe- Coburq-Gotha. 
 
 Public and private 
 
 Anhalt. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Schwarzbnrg- Rudolstadt. 
 
 Public ". 
 
 Private 
 
 Schwarzburg-Sondershau- 
 sen. 
 
 Public 
 
 WaldecJc and Pyrmont. 
 
 Public 
 
 Reiiss. 
 
 Public and private 
 
 Lippe and Schaumbui-g-L 
 
 Public and private 
 
 Liibeclc. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Private (only) 
 
 Hambxn-g. 
 
 Public ." 
 
 Private 
 
 Alsace-Lorra inc. 
 
 Public 
 
 Private 
 
 4 
 
 .a 
 
 'Z. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 J3 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 i. 
 
 ;S 
 
 S 
 
 ta 
 
 i 
 
 ■3 
 
 B 
 
 r. 
 
 2,052 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 4,540 
 
 
 280 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 529 
 
 513 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 57a 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 8 
 
 1,144 
 
 4S4 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 39 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ],2'!4 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 rro 
 
 43 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 311 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 203 
 
 12 
 
 (i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 124 
 
 " 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 484 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1,200 
 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 102 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 125 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 " 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1:32 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 440 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 430 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 349 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1,335 
 
 To 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2,303 
 
 53 
 
 123 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.344 
 
 23 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 0,350 
 
 158 
 
 441 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 1,337 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 5.941 
 
 134 
 
 502 
 

 
 304 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Lange in Entwickkmg unci Stand tics hohercn Miid- 
 chenscliulwesen in Deutschland, It is only approxi- 
 mately correct, as the reports are from various years. 
 It is incomplete, since the materials necessary for 
 complete tabulation are not accessible. There are 
 so many kinds of girls' higher schools that it is diffi- 
 cult to classify them in any adequate manner. Even 
 the Statistisches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen 
 Deutschlands fails to do this. In all except Prussia 
 the regular teachers and assistants are enumerated 
 in the same column. A majority of the male teach- 
 ers are only assistants, while nearly all the women 
 are regular teachers. 
 
 4. Girls' Gymkasia. 
 
 The great desire of German women to study in 
 the universities has been met by the potent argument 
 that they had no adequate fitting schools to prepare 
 them for the new character of work which they pro- 
 posed to undertake, even though the university fac- 
 ulties should freely grant them admission. Tradi- 
 tion and popular sentiment were too strong to per- 
 mit the people even to entertain the idea that girls 
 might go to the boys' gymnasia, and receive the 
 same preparatory instruction as their brothers. It 
 was in response to this pressing demand that the 
 Allsemeine Frauen Verein conceived the idea of 
 opening private Miidchen gymnasia, where young 
 women might supplement the work of the higher 
 girls' schools by taking the languages, mathematics, 
 and history, as well as broadening in other essential 
 lines. With the important cause championed by
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 305 
 
 Frtiulein Helene Lange, of Berlin, who pleaded for a 
 chance to experiment, rather than to settle the ques- 
 tion summarily by logic, the women at last succeeded 
 in making a beginning. 
 
 A girls' gymnasium, with Frl. Lange as directress, 
 was first opened in Berlin in 1894. Almost con- 
 temporaneously one was started in Leipzig, and since 
 that, one each in Karlsruhe and Breslau. One is in 
 process of organization in Bremen, and in several 
 other cities they are contemplated. 
 
 The Bremen gymnasium was erected by the city 
 with the intention of having its graduation certifi- 
 cate recognised as a passport to the university. It 
 was opened in October, 1897, under the leadership 
 of Frl. Dr. Plehn.* 
 
 The one in Karlsruhe received permission from 
 the Minister of Instruction to have graduates from 
 its school, which was planned similar to the upper 
 real-schools, admitted to the study of natural sci- 
 ences and mathematics in the university, f Mann- 
 heim awaits the outcome of this to determine 
 whether a girls' gymnasium shall be erected there. J 
 Baden was reported about to follow the example of 
 other cities,* and Weimar is considering the matter. 
 The girls' gymnasium in Breslau is to be united with 
 the present girls' higher school. The first six years 
 of the course are to remain unchanged, while during 
 the last three years of the present course Latin will 
 
 * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, April, 1897. 
 
 f Academische Revue, January. 1896. 
 
 i Ibid., March, 1897. * Ibid., June, 1895.
 
 30G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 be taken. In addition, three years, corresponding 
 to Upper Secimda and the two years in Prima of the 
 boys' gymnasium, will be maintained.* 
 
 In 1895 the first woman was admitted to the 
 " Eeifepriif ung " or final gymnasium examination in 
 Prussia. f In 189G the first class finished the course 
 with Miss Lange in Berlin. The papers stated that 
 she was entirely successful (" Sie haben damit Beweis 
 ihrer Lernfilhigkeit vollgiitig erbracht").| About 
 the same time one woman took the examination with 
 credit in Diisseldorf.* 
 
 The old prejudice is passing away, and women 
 from the best families are taking up in earnest defi- 
 nite courses of study. The daughter of Dr. Bosse, 
 Minister of Instruction, is said to be studying phar- 
 macy. The Countess Helene Posadowsky, daughter 
 of the State Secretary, will this year take the scien- 
 tific examination for teachers. || 
 
 It is probably only a question of time when 
 women will be admitted regularly to the universities 
 and higher seats of learning. 
 
 The girls' gymnasium in Leipzig was organized 
 by the Allgemeine deutsche Frauenverein, under 
 whose patronage it is conducted and managed. It 
 was opened at Easter, 1894, under the leadership of 
 Friiulein Dr. K. Windschied, daughter of the late 
 Professor Windschied of the law department of the 
 University of Leipzig. Dr. Windschied was granted 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung-, 1896, p. 597. 
 f Ibid., 1895, p. 864. J Ibid.. 1896, p. 191. 
 
 « Ibid., 1896, p. 170. || Ibid., April, 1897.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 307 
 
 the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Heidelberg in 
 the fall of 1893.* 
 
 The course is one of four years of twenty-four 
 weekly hours of instruction. Pupils may take twelve 
 hours weekly instead, and extend the time twice as 
 long. Students must be at least sixteen years of 
 age, and are admitted only by an entrance examina- 
 tion. All admitted are under obligations to attend 
 at least one full year. The object of the course, as 
 with the other girls' gymnasia, is specifically to pre- 
 pare young women for entrance upon a course of 
 university study. The subjects of instruction in- 
 clude Latin, Greek, mathematics, German, Prench, 
 English, history, geography, and natural science. 
 The instruction is all given in the morning hours, 
 from eight to twelve. The tuition is 120 marks per 
 semester, or 240 marks yearly. f 
 
 The first year of its establishment there were ten 
 pupils, the oldest of whom was twenty-five years of 
 age. At the beginning of the second year ten joined 
 the first year's class, and two new ones, who had pri- 
 vately prepared themselves, the second year's class. 
 The first report of the director stated that the 
 " pupils had applied themselves with eagerness and 
 industry to their difficult task, but that the severe 
 exertions had had no detrimental influence upon 
 their health." This course, together with what is a 
 prerequisite for admission, is about equivalent to 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiu' weibliche Bildung, 1894, p. 21 ; Deutsche 
 Schulzeitung, November 33. 1893. 
 
 t Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1894 p. 27.
 
 308 SECONDARY SCHOOl- SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 the real-gymnasium courses for boys. The latter 
 contain considerably more higher mathematics and 
 some more science training. The real-gymnasium 
 also has more Latin but no Greek. The girls' gym- 
 nasium is not strictly comparable to any of the ex- 
 isting courses for boys, but its aims are most closely 
 allied to the one mentioned. Young women may 
 enter the same university faculties. Below is given 
 the detailed course of the Leipzig girls' gymnasium. 
 Those in other cities are quite similarly planned, so 
 that this may be taken as thoroughly representative 
 of the work pursued and the ends to be attained. 
 
 Course in the Girls' Gymnasium, Leipzig. 
 
 VI VII VIII Total. 
 
 Latin 5 
 
 Greek 
 
 Mathematics 4 
 
 German 3 
 
 French 3 
 
 English 3 
 
 Geography 1 
 
 History 2 
 
 Natural science 2 
 
 Phys., chem., and min. . . 
 Religion 
 
 19 
 13 
 16 
 
 8i 
 
 8* 
 
 8i 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 23a424aia4 24 2424 
 
 191 
 
 95i 
 
 * Semesters, not years. I is the first, VIII the last, semester of the 
 course. 
 
 T Total number of weekly hours on year basis. 
 
 FIKST YEAR. 
 
 Latin. Eegular and irregular etymology. Chief 
 rules of syntax. Eead in exercise book. In last 
 quarter of year, Caesar's Gallic War. Read text-books, 
 parts usually taken by Sexta and Quinta.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 309 
 
 Greek (begins second semester). Regular ety- 
 mological forms to the liquid verbs. Translations 
 and readings. 
 
 Mathematics. Four fundamental operations in 
 algebra. Equations with one unknown quantity. 
 Begin geometry. Geometric quantities ; their origin. 
 Straight lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, circles. 
 Constructions. Analytical methods of solving the 
 construction exercises. 
 
 German. Thorough consideration of elementary 
 sounds, etymology, and syntax. Oral and written 
 analysis. Compositions. Lectures by students. 
 Theory of style and structure of poetry. German 
 literature from earliest writing to the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 French. Review grammatical forms. Exercises 
 to aid in fixing syntactical rules. Translations, dicta- 
 tions. Read some author. Literature from earliest 
 period to the middle of the sixteenth century. 
 
 English. Review and extension of etymology 
 and syntax. Dictation, translations. Read some 
 easy author. Literature from the beginning to 
 1603. 
 
 History. Greece. Roman history to the year 
 476. 
 
 Geography. Fundamentals of mathematical ge- 
 ography. 
 
 l!s atural history. Botany : Review systematic 
 botany, and take the most important jaarts of anat- 
 omy and physiology of plants. Zoology : Represen- 
 tatives of the most important classes of the animal 
 kingdom.
 
 310 SECONDARY SCUOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 Latin. Complete the syntax of the verbs and 
 nouns. Ecad Cassar, and an easy work of Cicero. In 
 the last part of the year, introduction into prosody. 
 Selected portions of Ovid's Metamorphoses. 
 
 Greek. Liquid verbs. Irregular verbs. Syntax 
 of the noun. Chief rules of mode and tense. Eead 
 Xenoi^hon's Anabasis and Homer's Odyssey. 
 
 Mathematics. Proportions. Equations of the 
 first degree with several unknown quantities. Pow- 
 ers with positive and negative, integral, and frac- 
 tional exponents. Imaginaries and complex num- 
 bers. Easy quadratic equations with one unknown 
 quantity. Pol^'gonal surfaces. Similarity of tri- 
 angles. Harmonic points and lines. Constructions. 
 Eatios and measurement of polygons. 
 
 German. Connected grammatical and oral use 
 of constructions in connection with the reading. 
 Compositions. Dissertations by students. Litera- 
 ture from 1300 to 1748. 
 
 French. Continued exercises in speaking and 
 grammatical rules in connection with the reading of 
 some author. Literature from the middle of the 
 sixteenth century to 1700. 
 
 English. Exercises in speaking with reference 
 to certain grammatical rules in connection with the 
 reading of some author. Connected conversations. 
 Literature from 1603 to 1750. 
 
 History. Middle ages to the year 1517. 
 
 Geography. European states. Xon-European 
 geography.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 311 
 
 Xatural history. Elementary concepts of chem- 
 istry. Most important minerals. General proper lies 
 of matter, magnetism, frictional electricity. 
 
 THIKD YEAR. 
 
 Latin. Finish etymology and syntax. Eeview 
 most dilficult sections of tense and mode. Consid- 
 eration of style. Eead from Cicero, Livy, Ovid, 
 Virgil. 
 
 Greek. Continue tense and mode. S3mtax and 
 style considered in connection with the reading. Read 
 Xenophon's Hellenica ; Lysias. Easy dialogues of 
 Plato ; Herodotus ; Homer's Odyssfey and Iliad. 
 
 Mathematics. Quadratic equations with one or 
 two unknown quantities. Logarithms. Arithmetical 
 series of the first order. Geometric series. Calcu- 
 lation of circles. Plane trigonometry and goniom- 
 etry. Begin stereometry. 
 
 German. Prosody. History of German art. 
 Compositions. Lectures by students. German lit- 
 erature from 1748 to 1832. 
 
 French. Cofttinue work of the second year. 
 Literature from 1700 to 1830. Eeadings. 
 
 English. Continue second year's work. Litera- 
 ture from 1750 to 1830. Readings. 
 
 History. From the beginning of the Reformation 
 to the death of Frederick I of Prussia (1713). 
 
 Geography. Most important portions of physical 
 geography. Thorough consideration of important 
 geographical points and questions of the day, as the 
 Alps, Mediterranean Sea, the German colonies, etc. 
 
 Xatural science. Physics, galvanic electricity,
 
 312 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 heat, meclianics, most important parts of the theory 
 of wave motion. 
 
 FOURTH YEAE. 
 
 Latin. Reviews. Historical considerations (an- 
 tiquities, literature, and art history). Eead Tacitus 
 and Horace. 
 
 Greek. Eeview grammar. Consider sjmtax and 
 style in connection with the reading. Eead Demos- 
 thenes, Plato, Thucydides, Sophocles, Homer's Iliad. 
 
 Mathematics. Interest and rent. Binomial 
 theorem with positive integral exponents. Graphic 
 representation of functions. 
 
 Stereometry : Synthetic consideration of sections 
 of the sphere. Elements of co-ordinates. (Special 
 consideration of applications to mathematical geog- 
 raphy and circular surfaces.) Methods of solving 
 geometric constructions by algebraic analysis. Ee- 
 view and systematizing of mathematics previously 
 considered. 
 
 German. Eeview of previous work. Composi- 
 tions. Dissertations by students. Elements of psy- 
 chology and logic. German literature from 1832 to 
 the present. Eeadings. 
 
 French. Translation of a German author into 
 French. Systematic consideration of synonyms. 
 Style. Short dissertations by pupils. Literature 
 from 1830 to the present. Eeadings. 
 
 English. Translation of a German prose work 
 into English. Systematic consideration of synonyms. 
 Style. Short discourses by pupils. Literature from 
 1830 to the present time.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOME.V. 313 
 
 History. History of the eighteenth century ; 
 nineteenth century to 1870-'71. 
 
 Natural science. Physics : Acoustics, optics. 
 
 Eeligion. Eeview doctrines considered in pre- 
 vious training, proverbs, and hymns. Biblical history 
 and geograjihy. Reading and interpretation of Xew 
 Testament writings. Church history. 
 
 A course in pedagogics covering three years may 
 be taken as elective. 
 
 5. WoMEjf IIS" THE Universities. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the conservatism manifested 
 in this matter of women entering the higher schools 
 of learning in Germany, the most pronounced oppo- 
 nents can scarcely fail to recognise that women will 
 most assuredly soon — and it is only a question of 
 time — have admission at all the highest portals of 
 learning. Without much clamour or demonstration, 
 yet with most powerful and convincing appeals, 
 woman is demanding and securing the right to en- 
 joy all the privileges to be derived from acquaintance 
 with the best thoughts of the world's greatest mas- 
 ters. Unquestionably not a decade of the dawning 
 twentieth century will have passed ere the German 
 university lecture rooms, traditionally barred against 
 the weaker sex, v/ill all have swung wide their doors, 
 and coeducation will be a recognised feature of uni- 
 versity life. The German Herren Studenten, at first 
 indignant that woman should dare set foot within 
 the sacred portals of learning, next dazed that she 
 should be so audacious and persistent, will at last 
 yield gracefully, and will finally be ready to pay to
 
 314 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 the new woman dl that knightly homage tliat tho 
 German student with all his courtly formalities is 
 able to do. They at first dubbed the women " Mi- 
 nerva " or " Valkyre," but were never openly dis- 
 respectful. 
 
 Most of the German professors believe that the 
 craving of women for university training ought to 
 be satisfied. The older men naturally look askance 
 at any such encroachments upon traditional ways. 
 One says, " To deliver history to women is to declare 
 permanent revolution. "/ There are others who seem 
 to think that the male students will be distracted 
 from doing effective work. A certain professor is 
 said to have stated that " the face of woman is, of 
 all books, that which attracts most and teaches 
 least." Some of the professors stormed blusteringly 
 when the subject was first broached to them. It is 
 reported that Professor von Treitschke ordered the 
 University beadle to lead out in a summary manner 
 a woman who entered his lecture-room without per- 
 mission ; and that Professor Schmidt invoked the aid 
 of the Minister of Instruction against the Damen- 
 invasion (invasion of women).* 
 
 The new order of things in German universities 
 is commented upon by the Exefelder Zeitung, No- 
 vember 10, 189G, in the following manner : f 
 
 " Still and unostentatiously, yet full of signifi- 
 cance for the future, a new era has this winter 
 broken in upon our Ehenish university (Bonn). As 
 
 * Hochschule Nachrichten, December, 1895. 
 
 f See Zeitschrift f iir weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 589.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 315 
 
 in so many other occupations of life, the tender hand 
 of woman has knocked on the portals of the temple 
 of sober science. Hence we observe this year women 
 sweeping by us with long feathers and plumes as we 
 go into the halls and lecture rooms. The circle of 
 studies which they wnll choose is as incalculable as 
 the practical consequences which are to follow. 
 However, it is noAv safe to assert that it will not be 
 without a certain influence upon that select portion 
 of the youthful students avIio sit at the feet of the 
 docents upon the same benches with the fair sex. 
 Apart from a certain knightly courtliness, which is 
 peculiar in a remarkable degree to other nations 
 where coeducation exists, doubtless this common 
 striving after higher education will kindle greater 
 eagerness for learning, so as not to remain behind 
 the scientific accomplishments of the women stu- 
 dents. For that the women will take study serious- 
 ly, the 3Ii{sensdhne (students), who at first more or 
 less doubtingly opposed, must very soon become 
 aware of." 
 
 ^ That the women will have soon won the battle is 
 not a theory, but a fact, beginnings of which are 
 clearly discernible. At least one half of all the uni- 
 versities at the present time have admitted women 
 to the lecture rooms on conditions more or less satis- 
 factory. These include the largest and most prom- 
 inent universities. It is inevitable that the time 
 will come — and not long hence — when the remain- 
 ing universities will admit women, and all will grant 
 privileges satisfactory to the fair aspirants. 
 
 Whether it was a foreign woman or a German 
 23
 
 316 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 woman who first stormed the castle of opposition 
 and succeeded in gaining entrance to a German uni- 
 versity, I can not say. It is, however, probable that 
 the example of the achievements of their sisters in 
 America, England, Switzerland, France, Holland, 
 Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and even Eussia and 
 Austria, fired the German women with greater de- 
 termination to conquer the traditional prejudice 
 against the higher education of women. For several 
 years nunvbers of German women have been resorting 
 to the Swiss universities, where they have been reg- 
 ularly admitted to the same privileges and on the 
 same conditions as men.* 
 
 Many also attend the Swiss gymnasia to receive 
 the secondary training which has heretofore been 
 denied them at home. But through the importu- 
 nities of foreign women and by their own timid sup- 
 plications for their rights, women have succeeded 
 in initiating the movement toward establishing a 
 new order of things. There are now several gymna- 
 sia where girls may secure preparatory training ne- 
 cessary to university study, and, as above mentioned, 
 about one half of the universities grant certain priv- 
 ileges of instruction, while others (see below) have 
 surrendered tradition completely, and grant admis- 
 sion and the full privileges on the same conditions 
 as to men. 
 
 But, as in all European countries, conservatism 
 
 * Basel has but recently admitted women, and only as an 
 experiment; but in the four principal universities, Berne, Ge- 
 neva. Zurich, and Neuchatel, there is no distinction in the 
 laws between men and women.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 317 
 
 is exceedingly deep-rooted, and it is only after long 
 periods of struggle that they will be able to break 
 the bonds of tradition that have held them so long. 
 It will take long and earnest endeavours to bring 
 Germany into line with those countries that have 
 such a start in the race,* 
 
 The existing conditions with regard to the ad- 
 mission of women to the universities is given here in 
 detail for each of the universities that have admitted 
 them : 
 
 Berlin. Women are admitted (since 1895) only 
 as H'urerinnen (hearers), and have no academical 
 status ; their names do not even appear in the per- 
 sonal register; they possess no CollegienhucJi,^ and 
 are usually excluded from seminars and other special 
 work. They are not eligible to the degrees granted, 
 but may only profit as much as they can by listening 
 to the lectures. However, all who are admitted as 
 H'0rerin7ie)i or Hospitantinnen must go through 
 much formality to secure even this small conces- 
 sion. First, permission must be secured from the 
 Minister' cler geistliclien Unterrichts^ etc. ; second, 
 the rector of the university must give his consent ; 
 third, the professor or decent must be consulted, 
 
 * At the end of section 6 is exhibited in brief comparative 
 outlines the position of women in education in the principal 
 countries of the world. 
 
 f A book possessed by every matriculated student, in which 
 a record of the lectures, the receipt from the questor and from 
 the professor under whom the lectures are taken. For those 
 who do not receive a degree this is the only evidence of work 
 taken. The book has a greater traditional than real signifi- 
 cance.
 
 318 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 and if he is not an oj^ponent of the Fraueufrage^ 
 final permission is obtained to hear the respective 
 lectnres. Although no CoUrgienhuch is granted 
 them, fees for lectures are not omitted. Without 
 due permission they are even excluded from the 
 public lectures. Those who wish to be admitted 
 as hearers {Huro'innen), and not as visitors {Hospi- 
 tantinnen), must pass a preliminary examination, no 
 matter what their qualifications are, and even though 
 they possess a diploma from a gymnasium. This 
 causes a good deal of dissatisfaction, because they 
 say that all men from foreign countries who have 
 permission to attend in their home universities re- 
 ceive approval of attendance here. This, they claim, 
 ought not to be, in view of the variety of conditions 
 imposed upon candidates for entrance to American 
 universities. Foreigners even take degrees in the 
 medical faculty without having received classical 
 preliminary training, and this of all things is viewed 
 with disfavour with reference to German candidates 
 fo;? the medical profession. 
 
 It is impossible to determine the number of women 
 in the German universities by consulting the per- 
 sonal Verzeichnisse (registers) of the several institu- 
 tions, since their names do not appear as regularly 
 matriculated students; and among the number of 
 non-matriculated students given there are many 
 men (middle-aged men, mainly teachers, who have 
 not secured secondary-school diplomas). There are 
 probably one hundred and twenty-five to one. hun- 
 dred and fifty women in all the universities^ 'Berlin 
 alone having sixty ZuhOrerinnen in one semester.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 319 
 
 Eecently there have been several in the University 
 of Leipzig. Among all the lectures I attended in 
 the philosophical faculty, and one in the medical 
 faculty, I do not remember one which had not from 
 one to eight women among the hearers. The greatest 
 number are probably in the psychological and philo- 
 sophical lecture rooms, though the philological lec- 
 tures count several women as students. The majority 
 of these are Americans, but there are some Ger- 
 mans, Russians, Poles, and Roumanians. The men 
 sometimes look askance at them, and exchange 
 knowing looks among themselves, but the women 
 proceed unmindfully, and act as if they had always 
 belonged there and been allowed there. 
 
 Although the subject of social conditions enters 
 largely into the question of admitting women into 
 the universities of Germany, and not a few conserv- 
 atives combat them on the grounds of mental in- 
 capacity, and still others, alarmists, upon the hypoth- 
 esis that woman's womanliness is endangered by 
 cultivation of her higher mental faculties, yet the 
 Regierungs Kommission (government commission) 
 explain that the royal Government is not against the 
 admission of women to the universities ; the ques- 
 tion, in their estimation, is not within the province 
 of the educational commission to dispose of ; there 
 is a present lack of funds for any such measures, 
 and all efforts to change the existing conditions 
 should be directed toward the royal Landesbelwi'den 
 (department of finance) for adjustment.* 
 
 * Uochschule Xachrichten, May, 1896.
 
 320 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 In October, 1896, there were fort}'^ women in Ber- 
 lin University, all, with one exception, as hearers. 
 This one was regularly matriculated in the law fac- 
 ulty. It is thought that they will soon be admitted 
 to the medical, dental, and pharmacy departments. 
 During the same year one woman was even admitted 
 to the lectures in the agricultural department. A 
 daughter of the Minister of Education, Dr. Bosse, is 
 taking the gymnasial course preparatory to becoming 
 an apothecary. Frau Dr. Lucie Messnor, of Munich, 
 has given to the managers of the Berlin gymnasium 
 for women 20,000 marks, the interest of which is 
 to serve as stipendia for women to study in the 
 university.* 
 
 Bonn admits women as visitors, in each case re- 
 quiring evidence of adequate preparation, and per- 
 mission from the Kultus Minister, the rector of the 
 university, and the professor with whom the work is 
 contemplated. The first one was admitted in the 
 autumn of 1896. f 
 
 Breslau, in addition to admitting women as hear- 
 ers on the same conditions as in Berlin, has sprung 
 beyond all limits prescribed by tradition, and has a 
 woman assistant in the medical faculty. J More than 
 that, she is a foreigner, an American, Dr. Tillie Tie- 
 gel, of Illinois. Her work now lies in the Dermato- 
 
 * See Hochschule Nachrichten, August, October, 1895, April, 
 October, 1896. February, March. 1897. 
 
 f Ibid., August, September. 189G ; Zcitsehrift f lir weiblichc 
 Bildung, 1896, p. 427. 
 
 I Hochschule Nachrichten, March. 1897; Akadcmische 
 Revue, March, 1897.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEiN". 321 
 
 logical Institute, in the clinic for skin diseases and 
 diseases of women. 
 
 Freiburg has had some women students, and 
 in 1895 granted to Miss Blickworth of Cleveland, 
 Ohio, the degree of Ph. D. in zoology. In the fac- 
 ulty vote there was only one dissenting voice.* 
 
 Gottingen is quite a favourite place for women, 
 especially foreigners from America and England. 
 In the winter semester, 1895-'96, there were thirty- 
 one women reported in the various faculties, one 
 being in the medical and the rest mainly in the 
 mathematical, natural science, and modern lan- 
 guage depariments. As early as 1787 Dorothea 
 Schloze was granted the doctor's degree, her disser- 
 tation being upon a mathematical subject. In 1874 
 two women were honoured Vv'ith degrees, and after 
 that no more until recently. In June, 1895, Miss 
 Grace Chisholm, of London, carried away a doc- 
 tor's diploma, having passed the examinations, after 
 writing a thesis in mathematics on Gruppentheo- 
 retische Untersuchungen liber sphiirische Trigo- 
 nometric, f 
 
 Halle took tl>e lead in admitting women to the 
 medical faculty. They even exhibited some degree of 
 pride in announcing (November, 1896) that three 
 graduates of the girls' gymnasium in Berlin, who had 
 been denied entrance to the Berlin University, were 
 admitted to all courses of medical lectures in Halle. 
 They were even admitted to the dissecting rooms 
 and laboratories, the very places where the other 
 
 * See Hochschule Nachrichten, August, 1895. 
 f Ibid., August, December, 1895.
 
 322 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 universities objected most to their attending. Ber- 
 lin especially denied women admission to the medical 
 faculty and to the anatomical lectures and demon- 
 strations,* During 189G-'97 there were nine women 
 matriculated at Ilalle, and the faculty even jiut them- 
 selves on record with the Breslau faculty by selecting 
 Frilulein M. Griifin v. Linden as assistant in the 
 zoological institute.! 
 
 Heidelberg was the first university to grant, in 
 recent times, the degree of Ph. D. to women. Got- 
 tingen had granted the degree for the last time in 
 1874 (see Gottingen). On February 18, 1894, Frilu- 
 lein Kathie Windschied of Leipzig, daughter of the 
 renowned professor of law in the latter university, 
 was awarded the degree for the successful comple- 
 tion of a thesis and an examination in modern lan- 
 guages, her dissertation being a treatise upon Early 
 English Pastoral Poetry. 
 
 In 1895 Frilulein Mary Gernet secured a degree 
 in mathematics, her inaugural dissertation being 
 upon Eeduction of Hyperelliptic Integrals through 
 Kational Substitution. 
 
 It was reported from there in 1895 that, " as in 
 other German universities the question of women 
 studying in the universities has also found root 
 here.":]: In March, 1896, Misses Gebsen and Mor- 
 rill secured degrees from this university also. 
 
 Jena has recently swung into line, and now all 
 
 * Hochschule Nachrichten, November, December, 1896 ; 
 
 Akademische Revue, December, 189G. 
 
 ■f Ibid. 
 
 i Hochsclmle Nachrichten, August, 1895, March. 1896.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 323 
 
 courses of lectures and degrees are open to women 
 on the same conditions as to men. The vote, taken 
 in March, 1897, passed the faculty without a single 
 dissenting voice.* 
 
 The technical high schools (which are to all in- 
 tents and purposes universities) in Munich and Darm- 
 stadt have also admitted women to the lectures. 
 The German university at Vienna has begun to admit 
 women, and the first ones received the degree of 
 Doctor of Medicine in April, 1897. Berne, Switzer- 
 land, granted to eight women, in 189G, the degree 
 in medicine, and to one in philosojshy.f 
 
 6. CoNTiNUATioisr Schools for Teachers. 
 ( ForthildungsscMi len. ) 
 
 In addition to the concession to women in the 
 matter of entrance to the general courses of the uni- 
 versities, work of a professional nature has been 
 offered them in several universities. This arose out 
 of a growing demand made by women upon the 
 educational ministerium for some means of prepar- 
 ing themselves to occupy positions equal to men in 
 the secondary schools, especially in the schools for 
 girls, but also in the boys' schools. 
 
 Many of these courses, following the lead of 
 American universities, are summer school courses, 
 
 * Akademische Revue, March, 1897 ; also Hochschule Nach- 
 richten, same date. 
 
 f Akademische Monatshofto, December, 1890 ; Hochschule 
 Nachrichten, December, 1896, April, 1897.
 
 324 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 but several universities are now offering special 
 courses for women, which extend throughout the 
 entire university year. A specimen of the latter 
 type of course oflcred at Guttingen is appended 
 below. 
 
 Continuation or Forthildungs course for women 
 teachers in Guttingen as announced for the year 
 1896-'97 : * 
 
 1. Eeligion, G hours. («) S.f Church history : 
 From the Eeformation to the nineteenth century. 
 W. Church history during the nineteenth century. 
 {h) Systems of theology : S. Chief questions of dog- 
 mas. W. Fundamental problems of ethics, (c) Xew 
 Testament exegesis : 8. Eomans ; selected portions 
 of the epistles of Paul. W. Acts of the Apostles. 
 Eead selected parts of John's Gospel. 
 
 2. History of philosophy, 2 hours. S. Prominent 
 followers of Platonic philosophy. "W. Aristotle and 
 Kant. 
 
 3. Pedagogy to alternate with philosophy; first 
 course in 1897-98. 
 
 4. German, 6 hours. («) Historical grammar : 
 S. Theories of sounds and inflections of Gothic and 
 Old High German. Interpretation of Gothic and 
 Old High German texts. W. Middle High German : 
 Etymology, readings, and consideration of literary 
 productions. Prosody, (b) Literature : S. Litera- 
 ture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 Schiller's dramatic delineations in seminary. AY. 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1896, p. 156. 
 \ " S." and " W." mean summer semester and winter se- 
 mester.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 325 
 
 Literature of the nineteenth century. Goethe's 
 early poems in seminary. 
 
 5. French, 6 hours, (a) Historical grammar and 
 ancient literature : S. Fundamentals of phonetics 
 and pronunciation of French. Didactic and lyric 
 poems of Old French literature in connection with 
 reading and interpretation of Old French texts. W. 
 Historical syntax. Drama and prose of Old French 
 literature. Interpretation of Old French texts, (b) 
 Modern French language and literature : S. Recent 
 literature, from 1850 to the present. Readings and 
 written exercises. Translations. W. History of lit- 
 erature of the seventeenth century. Readings and 
 written exercises. 
 
 6. English, 6 hours, (a) Historical grammar and 
 older literature : S. Introduction to Old and Middle 
 English. Interpretation of Middle English texts. 
 W, Introduction to phonetics. Textual interpreta- 
 tion. Exercises and reviews of Old and Middle Eng- 
 lish, (b) Theory of sound and inflections of Gothic, 
 Old, and Middle High German. (This especially for 
 those who do not elect German.) (r) Modern English 
 language and literature : S. Literature of the first 
 half of the nineteenth century. W. Same continued. 
 Prose readings and written exercises. Translations. 
 
 7. History, 8 hours, (a) History of the middle 
 ages and of modern times : S. From the Westphalian 
 Peace to the French Revolution. W. Middle ages. 
 (b) Historical exercises. (c) Ancient history : S. 
 Civilization during the time of the Roman Empire. 
 W. Civilization of Oriental peoples and the Greeks 
 to the Persian wars.
 
 326 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GEEMANt. 
 
 8. Geography, 4 hours. To be more definitely 
 determined after candidates have matricuhited. 
 
 9. Natural science, G to 8 hours, (a) Botany : 
 S. Systematic botany of flowering plants and biol- 
 ogy of the same {Bliitexbiologie). Plant geography. 
 W. Elements of general botany. Microscopy of the 
 organs of higher plants, {h) Experimental physics : 
 S. Optics. W. Magnetism and electricity, {c) Ele- 
 ments of chemistry. 
 
 The students in the Gottingen course are divided 
 into two classes, {a) co-workers {Ilitarheitermnen) 
 and (b) listeners (Anhorende). The first comprises 
 all those who have already passed the state examina- 
 tion for teachers. Only the first class are permitted 
 to take the final examinations of the course, which 
 is of two years' duration. The course is limited to 
 the subjects taught in the girls' higher schools. The 
 diploma given at the close of the course for its suc- 
 cessful completion is not recognised as a teacher's 
 certificate, nor has it the value of a degree. The 
 course is not an end, but a means to an end. It 
 gives unqualified admission to the scientific exami- 
 nation for teachers, and the training is of a charac- 
 ter directly preparatory to the latter. Since 1894 
 only have women been allowed to take the scien- 
 tific examination securing them the rank of head 
 teachers {Oberlelirerinnen) and the right to become 
 directors of schools. In case they have taken the 
 Gottingen or Victoria Lyceum course, only two 
 years' experience in Prussian schools is required ; 
 all others must have had at least five years of 
 service. Since October 1, 1897, all women teachers
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 327 
 
 of whatever rank must be at least nineteen years 
 of age. 
 
 At the beginning of the year 1897 a class of 
 twelve women successfully passed the examination 
 in the Gottingen course. On June 29, 1895,* the 
 first examination {Oberlehr&riitnen Frilfung) of 
 women for the position of head teacher took place. 
 Five of the eight candidates were successful. Of 
 these, four had received preparation at Gottingen 
 and one in the Victoria Lyceum, Berlin. The three 
 who failed were prepared through private instruction. 
 
 The examination is conducted quite similarly to 
 that given to men. The examination is to be passed 
 before a commission named by the Minister of In- 
 struction. All candidates are examined in two sub- 
 jects, chosen from each of the following groups : 
 («) Eeligion, German, French, English ; {b) history, 
 geography, mathematics, natural science. The ex- 
 amination is partly oral and partly written, the 
 written examination consisting of a thesis in one of 
 the subjects selected. Six weeks, with a possible ex- 
 tension of four weeks, are given for its preparation. 
 The oral examination is to be passed before the 
 entire commission. Both subjects must be com- 
 pleted within a year, and in case of failure they may 
 be but once repeated. f 
 
 This whole movement, including the permission 
 of women to become head teachers and directors, 
 and the securing of continuation courses, as well as 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1895, p. 400. 
 f Ibid., 1894, p. 341 et seq.
 
 328 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 girls' gymnasia, owes much of its success to the 
 active efforts of Miss Lange. She, of course, is not 
 the sole cause of it all, but it may be said justly 
 that she has been the power that has united the 
 scattered forces tending toward innovation. The 
 nltimate cause is traceable to the general tide of 
 sentiment leading away from aristocratic tendencies 
 toward those more democratic. But, like all true re- 
 formers, she has had the insight to know when and 
 how to act after opjiortunity was rijie. She, with 
 four other Berlin women, petitioned * the Minister 
 of Instruction in 1893 to have women allowed a 
 greater share in the instruction of girls, especially in 
 the middle and higher classes. They desired partic- 
 ularly to have the German and religious instruction 
 placed in the hands of women. Those studies that 
 contribute most to shape the sentiments in morals 
 and religion they felt could be best intrusted to 
 those of the same sex, whose modes of thinking 
 and whose instincts would make them more sym- 
 pathetic with the impulsiveness and instability of 
 budding womanhood. The petition was' opposed in 
 an energetic manner and refused, however, chiefly 
 on the ground of the present lack of properly pre- 
 pared teachers. Since that, the women have won a 
 large part of what they sought, and the courses of- 
 fered by the Victoria Lyceum and the Guttingen 
 University have opened the way for the initiatory 
 supply of competent teachers. Miss Lange and her 
 
 * Unsere Lehrerinnen. Zeitschrift f. w. Bildung, 1895, p. 740 
 ff., article by Auguste Sprengel.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 329 
 
 co-workers demanded the employment of more 
 women in the schools upon moral and ethical 
 grounds, believing that only women should be in- 
 structors of girls in the above-named subjects. 
 Moreover, she claims that throughout all periods of 
 a girl's life a part, at least, of all her instruction 
 should be in the hands of women. 
 
 The girls' schools had not only suffered from a 
 lack of female instructional force, but they had been 
 obliged to employ the less capable men teachers. 
 Not being recognised officially as secondary schools, 
 the best prepared candidates were not required and, 
 of course, not secured. A large majority of the 
 teachers were from the normal schools instead of 
 from the universities — that is, their teachers were 
 on the same plane with the teachers of the people's 
 schools. In many respects they were not so highly 
 regarded. They could not even receive the title of 
 head teacher (Oherlehrer). Since September 28, 
 189-4,* however, they are recognised as head teachers 
 in Prussia, and may receive that title as soon as that 
 position in school is reached. Now, the directors, in- 
 structors in religion, foreign languages, and ethical 
 subjects, in so far as these do not come within the 
 province of women, are to be in charge of men who 
 have passed examinations for higher teaching posi- 
 tions. Thus, there is a distinct gain in the quality 
 of the female teaching force to be employed subse- 
 quently, although the female sex has not secured so 
 large a representation as they desired. With their 
 
 * Centralblatt, 1894, p. 743.
 
 330 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 better preparation assured, however, their future 
 brightens. 
 
 The Minister of Instruction long recognised that 
 the state hitherto had done too little for girls' in- 
 struction, which is explained by the fact that the 
 higher ediication of boys is deemed necessary for 
 their entrance to higher state positions, while girls 
 are by custom excluded from nearly all state posi- 
 tions except teaching. He further recognises that 
 girls' education is important for the state in many 
 directions. However, many. Dr. Bosse included, 
 maintain that the interests of the greater number 
 are not to be overlooked. Only a comparatively few 
 girls are to receive higher education or to enter 
 technical pursuits, while the masses find their life 
 callings in household pursuits. Hence it is deemed 
 best to shape education to the needs of the many. 
 
 7. Salaries of Women Teachers. 
 
 Women receive much lower salaries than men. 
 However, there is an effort being made to equalize 
 more nearly the salaries of the two sexes for the 
 same quality and amount of work. That is, of course, 
 a difficult matter to adjust, even though it were ar- 
 ranged so that there should be no discrimination 
 against women when they perform the same amount 
 of work as men; quantities could be estimated in 
 units of time actually spent in instruction, but the 
 amount of work really accomplished is difficult to 
 estimate. Still harder is it to compare in tangible 
 form the qutility of intellectual accomplishments. 
 One class of work may be better or poorer than
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OP WOMEN. 331 
 
 another, but it is difficult to establish a scale of 
 wages that shall represent equable compensation 
 therefor. 
 
 The main arguments proposed in Germany are 
 that men have to provide for the support of families, 
 while women seldom have this to think of. Against 
 this is then urged that men with families ought ac- 
 cording to such reasoning to be paid more for given 
 service than bachelors or men without children. 
 
 It is urged by opponents of the Emanciimtion 
 der Fraiien that the province of women lies within 
 the domestic circle, and that those who choose oc- 
 cupations outside of household duties are usurping 
 the rightful callings of men. Those, at least, who 
 are not driven by necessity to choose remunerative 
 work ought to leave the field clear for men. A 
 woman whose family is in moderate circumstances 
 and whose health is such that she may look forward 
 to marriage ought not to take away from men the 
 means of earning a livelihood. Such women, they 
 urge from social considerations, ought to leave the 
 bread-winning avenues free to men, and to content 
 themselves with necessary preparation for wise man- 
 agement of a household and intelligent and judicious 
 motherhood. A prominent teacher in a girls' higher 
 school related to the writer an instance of the daugh- 
 ter of a school director, a man earning (5,000 marks 
 a year, who entered the field of teaching, thereby, 
 as he considered, taking the bread away from some 
 worthy man who needed the money to bring uj) a 
 family. He considered it contrary to the social in- 
 terests of the country. 
 23
 
 332 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 From the social standpoint, also, there comes an 
 answer to the above arguments. ^Vhatever may be the 
 natural end to be attained by every woman, which 
 is assumed to be that of marriage and the care of 
 a family, the social conditions are now such that 
 it is unattainable. Statistics show that in 1890 of 
 all women of marriageable age (twenty-one to fifty) 
 33.7 per cent in Germany were single — that is, un- 
 married or widowed, and largely dependent upon 
 themselves for the means of support. In the upper 
 circles of society marriages are less frequent than in 
 the lower. A woman in the latter stratum can help 
 earn the living for a family by working in factories 
 or in the fields. In the upper classes no means of 
 earning is possible, and hence fewer men marry, be- 
 cause, alone, some earn inadequate support for a wife 
 and family. The proportion of single women among 
 the upper classes is said to be as high as fifty per 
 cent of the marriageable.* This makes the question 
 one of close connection with that of pay of women 
 school teachers, since it is from families of the better 
 classes, who are able to send their girls to the higher 
 schools, and hence from this stratum of society, that 
 the majority of women teachers come. 
 
 Saxony stands alone in placing women and men 
 on the same salary list in the people's schools. In 
 their statutes (6) they explained that " Unter Lehrer 
 im Sinne dieses Gesetzes sind auch die Lehrerinnen 
 zu verstehen." The Prussian law of 1885 prescribes 
 salaries of women equal to from seventy-five to eighty 
 
 * Cf. Zeitschrift flir weibliclie Bildung. Frauenberuf in 
 Diakouie vou Dr. C. Wander: also see Paulsen's Ethik.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 333 
 
 per cent of those received by men. According to 
 Frl. Helene Lange,* however, the salaries of women 
 in the city people's schools are 69.5 per cent of men's ; 
 in the girls' middle schools, 53.1 per cent ; and in the 
 girls' higher schools about 53.3 per cent. The only 
 compensation for the discrepancy is offered in the 
 smaller number of hours required of women. In 
 Berlin and Hanover, however, where the maximum 
 salary of women is 300 to 350 marks per year less 
 than that of men of the same training — i. e., semi- 
 nary training — there is not to be found a correspond- 
 ing difference in hours of work.f 
 
 The question of woman's pay and woman's work 
 is one which is pertinent in America as well as in 
 Germany. There are few, however, in America who 
 regard woman as a usurper in the field of teaching. 
 So few men care to fit themselves for the work with 
 its small compensation that the field is practically 
 free to women in all but the higher ranks. Although 
 there is nearly as great disparity between men's 
 and women's wages in America as in Germany, yet 
 the absolute compensation awarded to women who 
 are competent and thoroughly trained is much bet- 
 ter in America than in Germany. 
 
 * Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbiich d. Padagogik. 
 
 f Where the men have received university training and the 
 women only seminary (normal school), there is justice in the 
 discrepancy. Few women, however, could hope to receive as 
 much as men even though equal salaries were given for equal 
 training, since the universities are practically closed to women; 
 first, because the universities are opposed to their entrance, and, 
 second, because they have no means of preparing for the uni- 
 versities.
 
 334 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Capable women can earn salaries in America such 
 as are paid only to men in Giermany wlio liave under- 
 gone long courses of training and served long periods 
 in the teaching ranks. Both women and men are 
 much better paid in America than for equal service 
 in Germany. Many, if not most, Germans them- 
 selves recognise this fact. The words of Frl. Helena 
 Lange confirm this view.* 
 
 Below are enumerated the salaries paid to women 
 in the various grades of schools in some of the states 
 and a few representative cities. The list is intended 
 to be illustrative rather than exhaustive. The figures 
 mentioned in connection with the states show the 
 salary as prescribed by law. Many of the cities have 
 permission to enact their own regulations in this re- 
 gard as in others. Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck 
 are free cities, and act as independent states. 
 
 Baden. 
 
 
 Beginning 
 salary. 
 
 After 
 3 yrs. 
 
 After After 
 6 yrs. 9 yrs. 
 
 After 
 12 yrs. 
 
 Rent. 
 
 Head teachers, people's 
 
 l,100t 
 800 to 900 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,300 1,400 
 
 1,500 
 
 115-260 
 
 Under teachers, people's 
 schools 
 
 
 
 
 
 * " Weit besser wird freilich die deutsche Lehrerin, falls sie 
 wirklich etwas versteht, im Auslande bezahlt, besonders in 
 England und Amerika. Spricht sie die modernen Fremde- 
 sprachen gelanfig, hat sie tilchtige Leistungen in Malen und 
 Musik aufzuweisen, ist sie im Stande. in Latein und Matheniatik 
 zu unterrichten. so kann sie bei freier Station ein Gehalt bis 
 zu 2,700 und 3,000 Mark beziehen " (Rein's Encyklopadisches 
 Handbuch der Padagogik, i, p. 373). 
 
 f The amounts given are in marks.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
 335 
 
 Saxony. 
 
 People's schools, 40 pupils 
 in class 
 
 Pf()i)le"s schools, more 
 than 40 pupils 
 
 Be>;inning 
 salary. 
 
 After 
 6 yrs. 
 
 After 
 lOyre. 
 
 After 
 15yr». 
 
 After 
 20 yrs. 
 
 After 
 25 yrs. 
 
 1,000* 
 1,000 
 
 1,075 
 1,200 
 
 1,150 
 1,350 
 
 1,225 
 1,500 
 
 1,300 
 1,600 
 
 1,375 
 1.700 
 
 After 
 30 yrs. 
 
 1,450 
 1,800 
 
 Hesse. 
 
 People's schools, ordiuary teachers 900-1,200 and rent. 
 
 People's schools, ordinary teachers, large cities 1,200-1,400 " 
 
 Darmstadt people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,750 " 
 
 Mainz people's schools, ordiuary teachers 1,200-1,600 "' 
 
 AVorms people's schools, ordinarj^ teachers 1,200-1,600 " 
 
 Giessen people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,600 " 
 
 Bingen people's schools, ordinary teachers 1,000-1,400 " 
 
 In girls' higher schools 1,400-2,400 " 
 
 MecMenhiirg. 
 
 In girls' higher schools 900-1,500 and rent. 
 
 In peoi)le"s schools 600-1,200 " 
 
 Saxe- Weimar. 
 
 In people's schools 900-1,400 and rent. 
 
 In people's schools (cities) 1,000-1,400 " 
 
 People's schools . 
 
 A Isace-Lorraine. 
 . 720-900 Girls' higher schools. 
 
 Hamburg. 
 
 1,000-1,800 
 
 Ordinary teachers, people's 
 
 school's 
 
 Assistant teachers, people's 
 
 schools 
 
 Head teachers, girls' higher 
 
 schools 
 
 Ordinary teachers, girls' 
 
 higher schools 
 
 BeprinniDg 
 
 After 
 
 After 
 
 After 
 
 After 
 
 Ealary. 
 
 3 yrs. 
 
 6 yrs. 
 
 8 yrs. 
 
 lOjTS. 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,900 
 
 2,100 
 
 2,300 
 
 2,500 
 
 2,700 
 
 1,400 
 
 l.GOO 
 
 1,800 
 
 2.000 
 
 
 Allowed. 
 
 Allowed. 
 Allowed. 
 
 Bremen. . 
 Ordinary teachers, people's schools 1,000-1,500 and rent. 
 
 * The amounts given are in marks.
 
 33G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Karlsrnhe. 
 Oi'diuary teachers, people's schools 1.500-1,800 and rent. 
 
 Dresden. 
 
 Ordinary teachers, girls' higher schools 1,000-2,400 and rent. 
 
 Assistant teachers, girls' higher schools 1,400 and rent. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 
 Ordinary teachers, girls' higher schools 1.3.50-2,400 and rent. 
 
 Assistant teachers, girls' higher schools 1,X'00 and rent. 
 
 Luheck. 
 
 Beginning After After After After After After After After 
 s.ilary. 3 yrs. 6 jrs. 9 yrs. 12 yrs. 16 yrs. 18 yrs. 21 yrs. 24 yrs. 
 
 People's schools, ordi- 
 nary teachers 1,000 1.050 1,100 1,150 1,200 1,250 1^00 1,350 1,400 
 
 Girls' intermediate schools, ordinary teachers 1,200-1,600 
 
 Note.— See Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Piidagogik, i, 
 article Besoldung der Lehrerin. 
 
 Table showing Salaries of Women Teachers in Rejwesenta- 
 tive States and. Cities. 
 
 East Prussia 
 
 West Prussia 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Brandenburg 
 
 Pommern 
 
 Posen 
 
 Schlesien 
 
 Saxon Prussia 
 
 Schleswig-Holstein 
 
 Hannover 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 Hesse-Nassau 
 
 Kheinland 
 
 Hohenzollern 
 
 Average for Prussia : 
 
 (a) In cities 
 
 (6) In country 
 
 Av. for men in same positions. 
 (o) Cities 
 
 (b) Country 
 
 people's 
 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 
 Entire 
 
 Average 
 
 
 yearly 
 salary. 
 
 including 
 perquisites 
 
 670* 
 
 936 
 
 715 
 
 1.010 
 
 1.22'.» 
 
 1..5.38 
 
 801 
 
 1,089 
 
 669 
 
 992 
 
 727 
 
 1.026 
 
 916 
 
 1.160 
 
 788 
 
 l.O-oO 
 
 7S2 
 
 967 
 
 732 
 
 981 
 
 899 
 
 1.146 
 
 903 
 
 1.197 
 
 907 
 
 1,101 
 
 766 
 
 934 
 
 979 
 
 1,261 ) 
 
 793 
 
 1,171 ] 
 
 1,.359 
 
 1,814 1 
 
 911 
 
 1,271 f 
 
 Average 
 
 salary 
 
 higher 
 schools. 
 
 Average 
 
 frirls' 
 intern^edi 
 
 1,125 
 1.256 
 2,001 
 1,313 
 1.275 
 1.253 
 1,373 
 1.195 
 1.304 
 1.202 
 1.396 
 3.782 
 1,637 
 
 1,433 
 2,854 
 
 1.057 
 1,002 
 
 1.223 
 1,1.59 
 1.193 
 1,.395 
 1.126 
 1,152 
 1,230 
 1.175 
 1,.501 
 1,590 
 
 1,257 
 2,364 
 
 Averagft 
 income 
 inixed 
 intermedi- 
 ate 
 schools. 
 
 1,285 
 1.106 
 1.3.50 
 1.275 
 979 
 
 i'.OJS 
 1.200 
 1,850 
 
 1,131 
 1,991 
 
 * The amounts given are in marks.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 
 
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 338 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
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 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 339 
 
 
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 HJGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 341 
 
 8. The Higher Education of Women 
 considered. 
 
 That the German views concerning the education 
 of women differ very radically from those of most 
 Americans is well known. In Germany it has been 
 held by the majority that woman's activities ought 
 to be confined to household arts and the duties con- 
 nected with rearing a family. Besides this province, 
 when circumstances are straitened, she ought to be 
 the helper of her husband in agricultural or other 
 industrial pursuits. This is not a theory alone, but 
 hundreds of thousands of women daily perform heavy 
 manual labour such as falls only to men in America, 
 thus following the path which custom and popular 
 opinion has marked out for them. By the multi- 
 tudes women are not considered capable of receiving 
 higher education of the same quality and amount as 
 men. Some who hold no doubt of her educability, 
 however, believe that she would be transgressing her 
 naturally foreordained functions by receiving higher 
 education. //Helene Lange says:* "We frequently 
 meet in foreign and home journals the statement 
 that the German is the only and the last great nation 
 of culture which leaves its women under the oppres- 
 sion of the Middle Age fetters, keeping closed against 
 them the institutions of higher learning — that is, 
 the requisites of every higher professional activity — 
 and thus effectually preventing the solution of the 
 
 * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 1. Translated 
 by L. R. Klemm.
 
 342 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 burning question, which is only possible through 
 intellectual emancipation." 
 
 Thus within the last decade or two a few cham- 
 2:)ious of the " woman's cause " have appeared in Ger- 
 many who insist that all avenues of intellectual pur- 
 suits should be open without restriction to women 
 who are inclined to enter them. Moreover, they 
 should be aided and encouraged in accomijlishing 
 their end. Better provisions for instruction are de- 
 manded for them, that they may be enabled to grapple 
 with the newly arising conditions which a changing 
 industrial world is forcing upon them. It is these 
 very industrial changes which are the important fac- 
 tors in modifying the educational status of women. 
 They are of more force than any sentiment born even 
 of custom or tradition. They are the forces which 
 are reversing the sentiments based on mediaeval tra- 
 dition. Changing industrial conditions are rapidly 
 and surely forcing women, even in the face of a strong 
 and deep-rooted prejudice, to become educated as a 
 means of livelihood. In the days when women spun 
 all the yarn and made all articles of wearing apparel 
 by hand in the home women had sufficient work to 
 keep them employed, and they could earn enough to 
 support themselves. But with the introduction of 
 machinery many of the former channels of domestic 
 labour have been closed. Women have found it neces- 
 sary to seek a means of subsistence elsewhere, and 
 many of the newer occupations have necessitated 
 better educational preparation. A few have found 
 occupations as teachers in the lower classes of the 
 public schools, some in the girls' higher schools, and
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 343 
 
 still others as private teachers in families. This 
 last occupation is being displaced, however,by the pub- 
 lic and private girls' high schools that are every year 
 becoming more numerous. Because of the changed 
 industrial conditions, also, fewer women marry than 
 formerly. Competition in the business world is so 
 sharp that fewer men can support wives, and also 
 because the household duties have become so much 
 diminished that a man feels he has less need of a wife. 
 In the lower and middle classes, if the women marry, 
 they must necessarily work in the factories or in 
 some business as clerks, or tend small shops of their 
 own.* Thus the education of women is being forced 
 upon them from a practical subsistence standpoint, 
 and the demand is being supplied by education of a 
 utilitarian character largely. These changing senti- 
 ments and changing industrial conditions have with- 
 in the last ten years brought the so-called Frauen- 
 frage into considerable prominence in Germany. 
 
 A few women, prominent among whom is Frilu- 
 lein Helene Lange of Berlin, who are anxious to 
 promote the best interests of women in Germany, 
 have spared no effort to bring legislation and public 
 sympathy to contribute to the better establishment 
 and maintenance of all classes of higher schools for 
 girls. They are not seeking to elevate from present 
 conditions only, by educating from a utilitarian point 
 of view, but they maintain that woman, if given the 
 chance, would prove herself capable of receiving the 
 
 * Paulsen's Ethik, and Berlin hohere Madchenschule in 
 
 Zeitsclirit't fur weibliche Bildunp:.
 
 344: SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 same kind of education and in the same degree as 
 man. 
 
 The educational periodical literature, as well as 
 the daily press, is continually mooting the Frauen- 
 frage both 2^>'(> ^ud con. The discussions in many 
 respects remind one of the arguments to be found 
 in periodical literature in America in the middle of 
 the present century, when the higher education of 
 women was a debated question. In America the 
 question has been settled ; there are few who doubt 
 that woman may occupy positions in any of the 
 learned callings with credit to herself and to the 
 calling. The high schools, colleges, and universities 
 give daily proof that women may receive to advan- 
 tage the opportunities for the highest mental train- 
 ing which the land affords. Examination records 
 and honour lists give ample evidence that they do 
 not fall by the wayside nor lack in pluck and endur- 
 ance, nor fail to secure their due share of laurels. 
 Even in German universities, when accorded an op- 
 portunity, they carry off the doctor's honours with 
 credit. AVith these achievements of American and 
 English women in mind, some of the German women 
 have been spurred on to follow and compete with 
 American women in the higher intellectual callings. 
 However, many are so bitterly opposed to the so- 
 called Emancipation der Frauen that it is only by 
 severest efforts that they are able to gain any ground 
 at all. But, as Friiulein Lange says, what they need 
 in settling the question is not logic, but experiment. 
 
 But with all the activities looking toward the 
 higher education of women in other countries, espe-
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 345 
 
 cially in America, England, and Switzerland, it is 
 becoming imperative that some just measure of 
 recognition be taken of the women petitioners for 
 advantages equal to those offered in other countries. 
 Notwithstanding all that has been accomplished in 
 this direction in America, many of the German op- 
 ponents of the higher education of women will not 
 admit that the results are desirable ones. Dr. Sclione 
 wrote : " I believe we have no reason, if we observe 
 America's school organization, to wish for the higher 
 education of women. Moreover, to be continually 
 placing America as a pattern is only possible when 
 one has no knowledge of the conditions there, or 
 will purposely misrepresent them. Further, thor- 
 oughly educated women we need, but learned women 
 not. By a truly educated woman is to be understood 
 one who is prepared in the household arts. A learned 
 woman is of no use in that capacity." * Others look 
 upon the conditions resulting from higher education 
 of women in America as among the most desirable 
 attainments, and regard America as a Paradies der 
 Frauen. Dr. Emil Hausknecht, an opponent, says : 
 " If we should insist on expecting of our girls the 
 same amount of work we now require of the boys, 
 the girls would be physically ruined under the enor- 
 mous burden of work ; hence the advocates of clas- 
 sical secondary schools for girls will fail in their 
 endeavours." He has viewed the situation in Amer- 
 ica, and, although recognising at least j^artial success 
 
 * None Forderungen, in Zeitschrift f iir weibliche Bildung, 
 189r>, p. 53.
 
 34G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 iu the bystom as developed under American condi- 
 tions, he does not believe it could be applied success- 
 fully in Germany. He says : " Still it must be ad- 
 mitted that in a few of their colleges the Americans 
 have surpassed us, and that they have happily 
 avoided the dangerous rocks on which a higher sci- 
 entific education for girls is so often wrecked — the 
 dangers to health, diversions from the duties of do- 
 mesticity, the disappearance of womanly grace, and 
 the growth of the blue-stocking." * Upon what he 
 bases his former sweeping statements is difficult to de- 
 termine. The experiment has never been tried in 
 Germany, and the results in other countries would 
 not bear out his assumptions. It is simply the dog- 
 matic reasoning that so many alarmists have indulged 
 in. The European discussions remind us very strong- 
 ly of the prophecies made by such men as Dr. Clarke 
 in this country a generation ago. But, as Dr. Harris 
 l^oints out.f " Exjjerience has not, however, con- 
 firmed the theory. The differences of mind, on the 
 whole, when brought to bear on the subjects stud- 
 ied in college or university tend rather to help than 
 to hinder the progress of both sexes. Each jiarty 
 gains something from the other's views, and, although 
 the profit of higher study is not precisely the same 
 for women as for men, there is ample profit for each. 
 Hence coeducation in college work makes progress 
 continually, and the higher education of women in 
 
 * Report of the Commissioner of Education, vol. i, 1892-'93, 
 p. 532. 
 
 f Preface to Higher Education of \Yorac'n in Europe, by 
 Helen e Lange, p, vi.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 34Y 
 
 one of the two modes — in separate institutions or 
 in coeducating ones — is become quite a matter of 
 course." 
 
 Dr. Hausknecht is obliged to admit that "the 
 common opinion of physicians, educators, mothers, 
 and all women who themselves received a college 
 education in America, goes to confirm the state- 
 ment that the health of girls in colleges specially- 
 intended for their sex is not only not endangered, 
 but promoted by means of wise alternation between 
 intellectual and frequent physical exercises, such as 
 walking, cycling, gymnastics, swimming, bathing, 
 rowing, etc. The condition of college girls is gen- 
 erally better than that of girls of equal age who re- 
 mained at home." * But feeling that he must make 
 remonstrance, no matter how feeble, he maintains 
 that " coeducation is possible, however, in America 
 more than in Germany or elsewhere, because custom 
 and education have given to the girl and the woman 
 greater freedom and determination in their manners 
 and appearance, and have also given them strong 
 protection against encroachment and improprieties." f 
 Could we ask for a better testimonial of the benefits 
 of the" higher education of women or a more eloquent 
 plea for its universal extension ? The fact confirms 
 the theory that were women given higher education, 
 were coeducation the rule, and were more women 
 teachers employed in the German schools, the respect 
 and reverence for them would increase and elevate 
 them to their rightful position. 
 
 * Bureau of Education Reports, vol. i, 1893-'93, p. 532. 
 f Ibid. 
 
 24
 
 348 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 The present Empress, although opposed to " man- 
 nishness " in woman, would not countenance idleness 
 nor make woman simply an ornament or a drudge. 
 She conceives matrimony as the natural destiny of 
 woman.* She says : " My ideal is a wife who is 
 man's complement, who strengthens him, Avho in the 
 silent bosom of the family prepares him for life's 
 severe struggles. I am opposed to women's activity 
 in men's callings. I would permit women neither 
 in the factory nor in business houses. In the school, 
 in the hospitals and sick rooms, on the stage, in the 
 concert halls, in the studio, there is her sphere of 
 activity. Embroidery, fine needlework, all kinds of 
 feminine industrial activity, find in me an enthusias- 
 tic admirer. However, may woman ever hold in 
 mind that for her there is no more beautiful calling, 
 no more noble destiny, than the holy and important 
 duty — the foundation of every state — the moral and 
 bodily education of the child. In my estimation, 
 the mother of the Gracchi stands upon a higher plane 
 than George Sand or Rosa Bonheur. It is my view 
 that a woman fulfils her entire destiny only when 
 she is a wife and an intelligent mother." 
 
 The Emperor is also very strongly opposed to 
 bookish training and the over-intellectual develop- 
 ment of women. He is reported as saying that 
 women's interests should be completely absorbed in 
 the " three K's " — Kinder, Kiiche, unci Kirche. 
 
 The possibility, says Miss Lange, of having true 
 mothers can come only when the development of 
 
 * Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung, 1896, pp. 88, 89.
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOMEN. 349 
 
 woman's character is no longer liindered, her intelli- 
 gence chained and kept in darkness. The inflneuce 
 of the mother npon the first six years of a child's life 
 is almost continuous, and hence we must logically 
 conclude that any lack of mentality on the part of 
 the mother must act as a web around the child which 
 chains his whole being. To properly instruct chil- 
 dren, or even to intelligently develop their senses, the 
 average mothers are incapable. For the majority 
 this knowledge must first be awakened ; they must 
 first learn " to have more interest in the soul of the 
 child than for embroidered curtains." The influence 
 of mothers on all great men has been immense, 
 Avhile the lack of it in criminals' mothers is suffi- 
 ciently established.* 
 
 Miss Lange has made an eloquent appeal to se- 
 cure some panacea to relieve the discontent of the 
 modern girl. She is diametrically opposed to the 
 views of conservative Germans, that the admission 
 of women to higher spheres of activity will cause dis- 
 content. She has shown that " true happiness is to 
 be found in work ; there can be no leisure without 
 toil ; people who do nothing are unfruitful fig trees 
 which cumber the soil." \ Xot only must women be 
 allowed to work, but they must be helped and aided 
 in their work the same as men are. Moreover, as no 
 man is happy in a calling arbitrarily selected for 
 him by some one else, so women " must have the 
 right to choose according to their powers and talents. 
 
 * Zeitschrift fiir weibliche Bildung, 1890, p. 475. 
 
 t Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 122, Klemm's 
 
 translation.
 
 350 SECONDARY SCEOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Xobody chooses otherwise. Hence no field of labour 
 should be denied, not even the highest intellectual 
 labour. Those who intellectually hunger should be 
 offered the best intellectual food available in Ger- 
 many. No one in Germany should be denied oppor- 
 tunities to fill that inner desolate void, no one 
 obliged to stifle what is considered the highest sign 
 of superiority — a longing for serious mental and pro- 
 fessional work. Yet this murder of the mind is 
 committed daily in our country." * 
 
 Friiulein Haecker, of Coblenz, conceives the 
 "aim of the present women's movement to be the 
 highest and noblest thinkable, for that which we 
 women really strive for is not simply the permission 
 to enter this calling or that ; not simply the guarantee 
 of certain individual state or business privileges ; it 
 is the recognition of the highest rights of mankind — 
 the rights of inner and outer personality — the rights 
 of individuality." f 
 
 * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 128, Klemm's 
 translation. 
 
 •f- Zeitschrift fur weibliehe Biklung, 1894, p. 363.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 In" this chapter I shall attempt to summarize 
 briefly the most important features to which atten- 
 tion has been directed more in detail throughout 
 the foregoing pages. The summary will be more 
 critical than expository, and an attempt will be 
 made to point out the most significant lessons — 
 either for adaptation or avoidance — that the German 
 system has for us. A consideration of the school 
 organization, methods of examining teachers, quali- 
 fications of teachers, courses of study, education of 
 women, etc., has revealed many striking differences 
 between Germany's school system and our own. 
 Their system certainly possesses many features di- 
 vergent from America's ; some of these features are 
 highly commendable for all countries, others possess 
 advantages for Germany only, while still others seem 
 objectionable per se. To sift out and summarize 
 these several features is the aim of this chapter. 
 
 1. General Organization and Management. — The 
 entire system may be termed bureaucratic, for, al- 
 though there is local representation and a certain 
 degree of local option permitted, the initiative in all 
 
 351
 
 352 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 movements and the balance of power rest with the 
 state officials, who are virtually appointees of the 
 ruling monarchs of each state. Tlie cultus minis- 
 ter is a member of the king's cabinet. The king's 
 decree in educational matters is supreme, and all 
 appointments to official positions are indirectly in his 
 power. Local autonomy is unknown. True, a cer- 
 tain degree of option is given to cities as to what 
 type of school they will maintain by local taxation, 
 but the state may establish whatever schools it sees 
 fit and may support them from the public treasury. 
 The general administration of the school, selection 
 of teachers, fixing of courses of study, examination 
 of pupils, etc., are all directly or indirectly in the 
 hands of the central authority. The state may dele- 
 gate to the city certain functions, but in order to 
 secure ahiturienten privileges for its students the 
 city must conform to state regulations. 
 
 Methods of taxation and support need not detain 
 us. Our system is probably adjusted to our demo- 
 cratic form of government as Germany's is to its 
 monarchical institutions. Investigation of this de- 
 partment concerns state administration or sociology 
 rather than pedagogy. Germany's method of selec- 
 tion of teachers is incompatible with our thorough 
 faith in local autonomy. The more we can leave to 
 local option the greater the interest created and the 
 greater efforts toward self-education. Our system 
 tends to produce individuals rather than types. Ob- 
 servation leads me to believe that a stronger feeling 
 of interest concerning education is exhibited by par- 
 ents in America, especially of the lower and middle
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 853 
 
 classes, than in Germany, There the interest is 
 more concerned with the fulfilment of the law than 
 with active personal relations. 
 
 Certain features of a professional character can 
 be much more efficiently conducted by a central 
 body than when left to local autonomy. Among 
 these are the certification of teachers, preparation of 
 courses of study, etc. But with these, as with all 
 matters delegated to the state, the more satisfactory 
 and no less efficient manner, at least for a democratic 
 country, is to have a representative body rather than 
 one centrally appointed. To a certain extent we 
 have imitated Germany in the state certification of 
 teachers and in proscribing uniform state courses of 
 study. We might with great advantage to our edu- 
 cational system carry out the scheme in toto. Xofc 
 only should each State examine and certificate all its 
 teachers by some uniform method, but a given cer- 
 tificate in one State ought to be recognised at its face 
 value in all the States. It would seem also a great ad- 
 vantage were the high-school graduates' diplomas, like 
 the Reifezeugniss^ recognised in all sections, without 
 consideration of State boundaries. In Germany all 
 universities require the same qualifications for en- 
 trance. A boy educated in a Prussian gymnasium 
 or real-school can move to Saxony and enter a uni- 
 versity there as well as one in Prussia. We all know 
 the condition in the United States. It is gratifjing 
 that our A. B. degrees are almost everywhere ac- 
 cepted for entrance upon graduate study. The 
 university courses are more and more being planned 
 with some idea of general equivalence ; why may we
 
 354 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 not extend this to the high schools and to college-en- 
 trance requirements? The unqualified success in 
 Germany certainly affords a strong plea. It is im- 
 perative for the welfare of education that we attain 
 greater unity of aim in education. This can only be 
 done satisfactorily by the greater centralization of 
 the purely pedagogical and professional administra- 
 tion of education. The universities act as a great 
 unifying agent in education, but their influence is 
 largely hortatory. We need more binding legisla- 
 tion on the part of the States, and some, at least, ad- 
 visory body representing the different States, that 
 will tend to unify educational matters. In the in- 
 fluence of the Regierungs Kommissioji we have a 
 good example of the efficiency of such a body. 
 
 2. Position of the Secondary Schools 171 the Sys- 
 tem. — The secondary schools, like those of England, 
 form a class in almost no respect continuous with 
 the common schools, which in all countries do and 
 must contain the bulk of the school po]3ulation. 
 The people's schools and the secondary schools' over- 
 lap in several years of their courses. But although 
 this is true, the division of the work is such that a 
 boy from the people's school must begin near the 
 foot of the ladder again if he attempts a course in 
 the secondary schools. The masses are debarred by 
 the higher tuition from participating in the benefits 
 of the secondary schools which they are taxed to 
 support, f The system apparently Avorks without 
 much friction in European countries, but in a coun- 
 try founded upon and steeped with democratic prin- 
 ciples the system would be untenable. Even in
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 355 
 
 Germany there is not entire satisfaction with the 
 arrangement. The later reform movements indi- 
 cate that the people at least wish to secure some 
 form of instruction common to all the lower classes 
 (Binheitsschulen), which will enable all to pursue a 
 higher course subsequently if pecuniary conditions 
 permit. Kone wish to be excluded because of the 
 lack of continuity of the school courses. (See 
 Frankfort plan, etc.) 
 
 / The European system is distinctly a class sys- 
 tem, and in my opinion it militates directly against 
 the lower classes. Only those possessed of at least 
 moderate means can hope to secure the benefits of 
 higher education. The poor boy can never know 
 whether he has in him the requisites for scholar- 
 ship. Xewsboys, bootblacks, match venders, stable- 
 boys, farmer boys, and canal-boat boys can never hope 
 to rise above their station. | They will never be num- 
 bered among the college professors or among states- 
 men. Our own country can point to hundreds of 
 scholars and men of distinction in the various voca- 
 tions who, had they been born under and remained 
 under the German flag, would have gone down to 
 their graves unremembered. 
 
 The more we can do to strengthen the continuity 
 between primary and secondary schools, between 
 secondary and higher schools, the greater will be the 
 strength of our educational system. / The secondary 
 schools must be a fitting continuation of the primary 
 schools, and a natural road to higher education and 
 for life's duties. By extending the benefits of edu- 
 cation to all alike, as we are largely doing, we need
 
 35G SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 not be troubled with Germany's hallucinations of a 
 land filled with " hunger candidates," the result of 
 ov^r-education. 
 
 "We should seek through education to elevate 
 work, not to raise men by education above work. 
 How to adjust education to accomplish this better is 
 a pertinent question, but one beyond the province of 
 this work to enter upon. The solution, most as- 
 suredly, is not in withliolding higher education from 
 any who desire it. Such a system crushes out all 
 personal ambitions and aspirations of the lower 
 classes. 
 
 3. Classical and realistic instruction in entirely 
 separate institutions offer certain advantages. The 
 energies of the school are not dissipated in too di- 
 verse directions, and the result is that the highest 
 type of work is accomplished in the class represented. 
 There are some disadvantages, especially in smaller 
 cities that can afford only one type of school. This 
 would be avoided in a large measure by the Einlicits- 
 5c7i?;7e affording common instruction later, and hence 
 enabling pupils to remain longer at home before 
 removing to another place to complete the desired 
 course. Our own high schools suffer from a too 
 great dissipation of energy in attempting to offer 
 too many varieties of instruction. Similarly to the 
 new Frankfort plan, we need to offer a concentrated 
 course extended as late as possible, rather than to 
 induce too early specialization. The function of 
 the schools is to prepare men and women, not spe- 
 cialists, tradesmen, nor candidates for a particular 
 college. The schools have no right to assume the
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 357 
 
 classics as the chief end to be attained, nor is it 
 their sphere to assume that the realities make up 
 the sum of life. The preparation for life is the busi- 
 ness of the schools, and whatever best subserves that 
 purpose should be sought. Specialization, according 
 to biological and psychological laws, should be later 
 acquisitions. Entire devotion to the classics or to 
 the realistic studies undoubtedly is a form of special- 
 ization. Waste of energies from attempting too 
 many lines of work, it is true, should be avoided. "We 
 need concentration, and prolonged concentration upon 
 all lines attempted, but not ^ncialization, nor exclu- 
 sion of all except one given line of work. 
 
 4. Concentration in Studies. — We have seen that 
 the German plan is to make some grou]) of studies 
 the core of all the work in a given course. In the 
 humanistic gymnasium the classics form the core, 
 while in the realistic institutions studies in Xature 
 and mathematics receive the stress of work. The mul- 
 tiplicity of subjects and the dissipation of energy in 
 American schools are well known. Pupils dabble in 
 this and dabble in that, taste here and taste there ; 
 they flit about from subject to subject without a real 
 appreciation or understanding of any. . In nearly all 
 subjects attempted in Germany the course is con- 
 tinuous throughout the entire school life. 
 
 I believe that the arrangement of the courses of 
 study in American schools forms one of the most 
 pressing and important problems for our considera- 
 tion. The making of a course of study means more 
 than finding a place on the school programme where 
 all apparently necessary and desirable branches of
 
 358 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 human learning shall be represented ; also more than 
 a distribution of subjects in such a way as to avoid 
 conflicts. The curriculum as a whole and the pro- 
 gramme in detail should be so planned as to have 
 each subject presented at the period most adapted 
 to the psychical development of pupils. Unfortu- 
 nately, the purely external practical considerations 
 usually take precedence over the psychological. 
 
 The "final test by which to judge any plan of 
 culture," says Spencer, " is. Does it create a pleasur- 
 able excitement in the pupils ? " True intellectual 
 interest is more than mere transient pleasurable 
 emotion in that which is novel or striking. It is 
 dependent upon one's knowledge. Both the amount 
 of knowledge upon a given subject and the relation 
 it is made to assume toward other knowledge alfects 
 one's interests in the subject. IS'ow, studies that 
 occupy the attention of the learner for a short period 
 only are consequently viewed in only one general 
 aspect, and necessarily fail to produce deep or last- 
 ing interest in them. For the arousal of permanent 
 interests in a subject, it must be looked at in diverse 
 relations. This means that it must come before the 
 learner at difl'erent periods of his life, when he has 
 new data with which to link it, and when his stages 
 of development make it possible to use the subject 
 as an aid in bringing to complete maturity the awak- 
 ening instincts. Each phase of every subject should 
 be j)resented when the " nascent periods " of interest 
 in the different phases appear. " The great thing in 
 all pedagogy," says James, " is to strike when the 
 iron is hot."
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 359 
 
 To present the philosophy of history and gram- 
 matical abstractions when the chikl is in the nascent 
 period of concrete illustrations is to proceed counter 
 to all psychological laws. And when studies are 
 pursued for a limited time only, all phases must be 
 presented at one time, if presented at all ; hence 
 many phases are very inopportune. 
 
 "When a study is pursued for a single term, or a 
 year at most, and never reverted to, as is the case 
 with the majority of studies in our high schools, the 
 newly acquired knowledge has little chance of be- 
 coming an integral part of the unity of mental pos- 
 sessious. It is acquired as an isolated set of facts, 
 and all that does not " evaporate " remains largely 
 isolated through life. Although all pedagogues will 
 quote glibly the statement that discipline and train- 
 ing are of paramount importance, and the knowledge 
 of facts of secondary importance, yet how many 
 make any attempts, or even realize that an attempt is 
 necessary, to provide proper conditions for real train- 
 ing? It is usually lost sight of that discipline of 
 mind comes through acquiring and retaining knowl- 
 edge, and that these processes are dependent upon 
 the proper grouping of knowledge. It is not alone 
 the few facts which are logically or objectively 
 connected with a given fact, but the whole mental 
 content, that determines how new materials shall be 
 assimilated and retained. This necessitates a con- 
 sideration of the relation of all the parts of the cur- 
 riculum to each other and to the Avhole. 
 
 In the arrangement of our courses of study we 
 have been guided almost entirely by merely practical
 
 360 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 considerations. There has been altogether too little 
 psychological and pedagogical perspective. To have 
 pupils finish all the prescribed studies in a given 
 course has been the main desideratum. Whether 
 the knowledge of those subjects should be abiding, 
 and whether those studies should furnish real men- 
 tal grasp and ability, have been rather secondary con- 
 siderations. The pupils often pursue their subject 
 units with little else in mind than the "finishing" 
 of the subject. Ask most high-school graduates 
 whether they have had history or physics, etc., and 
 they will tell you, " Yes, we ' finished ' that " at such 
 a time. And because of the brevity of time through 
 which the subject was pursued and the single view 
 which they have obtained, they frequently neither 
 know nor care whether there is more beyond. In- 
 terests that have germinated have become dormant 
 from lack of exercise, or because they have been 
 choked out by the plethora of new and unrelated ma- 
 terials forced upon them. The American boy at the 
 close of his high-school career has seldom tasted 
 that inspiration which comes from deep and unified 
 knowledge, and which leads to the contemplation of 
 infinite possibilities. He is more apt to be dissatis- 
 fied, which is a natural result from the contempla- 
 tion of his own sense of completeness. 
 
 It is a hopeful sign that our universities have 
 been so thoroughly impregnated with the German 
 ideas of continuity and correlation. Their curricula 
 are being arranged upon a more psychological basis. 
 Xow, all great educational movements begin in the 
 higher institutions and work toward the lower. The
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 3G1 
 
 law may be termed tliat of " descending radiation." 
 According to this, the diit'usion of German ideals in 
 education must soon permeate the high schools and 
 grammar schools. 
 
 The Eeport of the Committee of Ten on Second- 
 ary Schools advocated many of the views which I 
 have maintained. The Reijort of the Committee of 
 Fifteen also advised the earlier introduction of some 
 of the secondary-school studies and the continua- 
 tion of nearly all studies through a much longer 
 time. More recently the Committee of Seven on 
 History Teaching have re-emphasized very strongly 
 the plea for greater continuity in education. Many 
 Avriters arc independently asserting the necessity for 
 prolonged continuous effort in some lines of work, so 
 as to give the j)upils a sense of mastery. It is only 
 thus that they can be brought to self-realization and 
 independence. Professor Hanus, in a recent work, 
 says that through the pursuit of " dominant groups 
 of ideas the organization of his knowledge and 
 thorough achievement are natural and inevitable. 
 Without them, desultory effort, sporadic exertion, 
 half achievement are sure to determine the nature 
 and quality of his work. The intellectual fiabbiness 
 and uncertainty, the want of enthusiasm and pleas- 
 ure in knowledge and the pursuit of knowledge, too 
 often shown by many a high-school pupil and by 
 too many high-school graduates, illustrate what is 
 meant. . . . Further, intensiveness and continuity 
 in the pursuit of individual subjects beyond their 
 barest rudiments, and of activities beyond their be- 
 ginnings, are essential to the development of power.
 
 362 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Sucli intensiyeiioss and continuity only can deter- 
 mine whether a pupil has a real or merely a transi- 
 tory or illusory interest in given subjects." * 
 
 One of the greatest of living educators has said : 
 " Only great, concentrated, and prolonged efEorts in 
 one direction really train the mind, because only 
 they train the will beneath it. Many little, hetero- 
 geneous efforts of different sorts, as some one has 
 said in substance, leave the mind like a piece of 
 well-used blotting paper, and the will like a rubber 
 band stretched to flaccidity around one after another 
 bundle of objects too large for it to clasp into unity. 
 ' In der Beschriinkung zeigt sich der Meister.' 
 All-sidedness through one-sidedness. The unity of 
 almost any even ideal jiurpose is better than none, if 
 it tends to check the superficial one of learning to 
 repeat again or of boxing the whole compass of 
 sciences and liberal arts, as so many of our high 
 schools and colleges attempt." f 
 
 5. Teachers' Training. — Germany's teaching force 
 has manifest superiority over ours in certain respects. 
 The thorough training that all must secure before 
 entrance upon their duties insures advantages appar- 
 ent to all. ' From the standpoint of mere subject 
 teaching thoroughly equipped teachers can better 
 and more quickly impart knowledge. Thus pupils 
 are enabled to master a greater range of knowledge 
 in less time and also to gain a firmer grasp of all 
 attempted. More than that, it is the added insight, 
 
 * Educational Aims and Values, 1899, p. 37. 
 t Dr. G. Stanley Hall, Moral Education and Will Training, 
 Ped. Sem., vol. ii, p. 88.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 303 
 
 enabling a more accurate estimate of everything at 
 its right -value, which places the trained teacher 
 above the unskilled novice. Then the moral stamina 
 which such teachers can infuse is of inestimable 
 value. 
 
 Means of Training. — The methods in vogue in 
 Germany for training secondary teachers offer many 
 points of comparison and interest for the solution of 
 this vital problem in America. The plan followed 
 there is entirely different from anything that we 
 have attempted. The plan, as has been shov/n in 
 detail, is {a) at least three years of university study; 
 {b) prolonged study of the special branches the can- 
 didate expects to teach as a prerequisite to exami- 
 nation; (c) philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy 
 must be one group of examination subjects; {d) the 
 setnifiar or professional year is required, which in- 
 cludes study, practice, criticism ; (e) the trial year is 
 required under conditions as near as possible to 
 actual future conditions. 
 
 The general end to be attained is one which we 
 need to make strenuous efforts to secure. The great 
 lack of professional equipment has long been one of 
 the vulnerable points in our system. We have had 
 either teachers with academic preparation but wholly 
 lacking in professional training, and during the first 
 years of their work without definiteness of aim, and 
 perchance through their whole career without philo- 
 sophical balance ; or teachers with so-called profes- 
 sional preparation without proper academic knowl- 
 edge of their subjects. Professional training can 
 only properly follow thorough academic study. This
 
 3G4 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 is Germany's plan. A new era, however, is in sight 
 in America, thougli not fully inaugurated, which will 
 demand for the high schools adequately prepared 
 teachers. The movement, like all great educational 
 movements, began at the to^i, and is proceeding down- 
 ward ; that is, the universities have demanded bet- 
 ter prepared students, which could only be met by 
 an invigoration of the teaching force where univer- 
 sity students are prepared. Then, again, the supply 
 of college-trained teachers is increasing so rapidly 
 that competition is driving the unfit to the wall. 
 
 The new movement to supply the deficiencies in 
 the strictly professional preparation of secondary 
 teachers and superintendents in some respects re- 
 sembles the German plan, though in other respects 
 there is a radical difference. I have reference to the 
 schools of education or schools of pedagogy * being 
 rapidly established in universities. Both the grad- 
 uate and the undergraduate dej^artments of these 
 schools have important functions. Such schools 
 possess important advantages over training schools 
 isolated from universities. The chief feature is that 
 students are in contact with high scholarship, ade- 
 quate libraries and appliances, and are apt to imbibe 
 aspirations for breadth of learning, and not to fall, 
 into mere so-called professionalism. The system 
 presents certain features superior to the German 
 plan. The consideration of educational history, 
 
 * For an outline of the earlier part of this new movement 
 see The Professional Preparation of Secondary Teachers in 
 the United States, Dr. F, W. Atkinson, Dissertation, Leipzig, 
 1893.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 365 
 
 philosophy, theory and its application, go hand in 
 hand. In Germany courses in systems of philosophy, 
 psychology, and in educational history are given in 
 the universities. But courses in current educational 
 problems, application of psychology to education, 
 child study, foreign educational systems, etc., are 
 wholly lacking. These subjects can be more profit- 
 ably presented by university professors who have 
 the scholarship, time, and libraries than by gymna- 
 sial instructors. We have not developed practice 
 schools or model schools to any extent in the uni- 
 versity schools of education, nor have we the Probe- 
 jahr. The functions of our new university training 
 schools are thought to be to lay the foundations of 
 education, to consider the broad principles of educa- 
 tion, to teach educational philosophy, and not to 
 spend the time in practising devices. 
 
 6. As tentative suggestions the following are 
 offered as an outline of minimum requirements that 
 should be made of all candidates for secondary- 
 school positions: 
 
 A. Teachers should have received a full uni- 
 versity or collegiate course, including (or in addi- 
 tion to it) at least one year of professional study, to 
 embrace {a) physiology, {h) psychology, (c) educa- 
 tional history and theory, [d) philosophy. 
 
 K state certificate may be secured by examination, 
 but at least two years of collegiate training should be 
 one prerequisite therefor. Xot only ability to answer 
 examination questions is necessary, but acquaintance 
 with men, apparatus, libraries, and appliances is 
 indispensable. The " self-made " man is only half
 
 3G6 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 made. The book learning he may have acquired, but 
 the no less important factors are apt to be lacking. 
 
 B. Principals and superintendents, both city and 
 country, should have a full collegiate course j)lus, at 
 least, one year of professional study. 
 
 This Avould relegate to the normal schools the 
 function of preparing teachers for the primary and 
 grammar schools, which is all tliey can hope to do in 
 time to come. In these each student ought to take 
 one line of intensive work (in connection with the 
 professional), so that graduates would be not merely 
 teachers, but teachers of something. While the man, 
 the woman, is above the subject, yet there need be 
 no sacrifice of character in prejDaring for a definite 
 thing. The character will then be enabled to assert 
 itself all the more strongly, 
 
 7. Teachers^ Exmninations. — The method of exam- 
 ination of teachers in Germany insures a fair test 
 of each candidate's powers. Xo mere memorizing 
 and cramming for a set of questions to be answered 
 at one sitting will suffice. The plan of prescribing 
 a thesis to be prepared in a given time is similar to 
 that followed in universities where a thesis in the 
 major studj^ is exacted of all asjiirants for degrees. 
 The teaching candidate is given a month to demon- 
 strate whether he knows how to use knowledge, how 
 to use books and libraries, and to show whether he 
 can assimilate, interjsret, and expound data which 
 he collects. In certain cases the doctorate disserta- 
 tion is accepted in place of a separate essay. This 
 is a very commendable feature. The oral examina- 
 tion of candidates singly gives a chance for the ex-
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 367 
 
 amiuers to estimate capability in diverse ways not 
 limited to the questions on the subject-matter. 
 Examiners acquire a personal knowledge of each 
 candidate during the various stages of the exami- 
 nation, which is invaluable. Lastly, the demonstra- 
 tion of actual teaching skill in conducting a class 
 before the examiners, which, although not so im- 
 portant, is of additional value in gaining a per- 
 sonal acquaintance with the candidate. I believe 
 we might to great advantage adopt almost every 
 feature of their plan of examination. Its thorough- 
 ness and rationality and its restriction to a few sub- 
 jects make it far surpass the methods commonly in 
 vogue in this country. By the solely written test 
 no personal acquaintance of the teacher is acquired. 
 Knowledge as shown in the power of writing ex- 
 aminations is by no means the most vital featiire to 
 be inquired into in admitting to the teaching pro- 
 fession. What we need to look for as well are ster- 
 ling character, personal magnetism, breadth of cul- 
 ture, and professional bearing. These can be better 
 determined by a thesis which requires time, patience, 
 perseverance, and breadth of reading and by an oral 
 examination which exhibits the candidate's strength 
 or points of vulnerability, mode of attacking ques- 
 tions, and manner of oral expression, all of which are 
 important considerations. By the acceptance of col- 
 lege and normal-school diplomas we virtually recog- 
 nise this as a superior method. Candidates who have 
 been long under the personal tutelage of trusted au- 
 thorities, and who have had long courses of instruc- 
 tion, may be considered as having passed through
 
 368 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 long periods of examination of which tliere is no 
 equivalent. Those who show their strength and 
 powers of endurance are admitted to certain jirivi- 
 leges without further formal examination. Such 
 procedure ought to be a guarantee that the psycho- 
 logical and pedagogical attainments have been 
 reached. Baccalaureates who intend eventually to 
 become barristers, clergymen, or prescribers of pills 
 and boluses, and who have never studied a peda- 
 gogical or psychological principle, ought not to be 
 allowed to enter the ranks of teachers without first 
 making adequate preparation. Those who are neither 
 born nor made for the profession should be excluded 
 therefrom. 
 
 8. Departmental Teachers. — Except in the lower 
 grades department teaching is the rule in Germany. 
 There is not, of course, the rigorous division of sub- 
 jects that there is in a university. But no teacher, 
 as was shown in the subject of Teachers' Examina- 
 tions, has more than one group of closely allied sub- 
 jects. The higher the grade of pupils a teacher 
 Instructs the smaller the range of subjects required 
 and the greater the depth of knowledge demanded 
 in the few. The great objection made against the 
 system is the anticipated lack of definite moral 
 training afforded to pupils. While there is validity 
 in the objection, especially for lower grades, yet the 
 difficulties may undoubtedly be overcome by judi- 
 cious grouping of subjects and wise supervision. 
 The objections grow less with advancing grades and 
 the advantages multiply. In this country there is 
 some difficulty in securing properly qualified special
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 369 
 
 teachers because of small salaries. Here the " teach- 
 ers are fewer, and must divide their time among 
 several subjects ; in such cases the first step is to 
 employ teachers with a good all-round training, with 
 some extended preparation on each subject they 
 undertake, in preference to those who have a smat- 
 tering of many subjects." * 
 
 This difficulty does not appear in Germany, since 
 the Government regulates the salaries, and schools 
 in small cities secure equally as good teachers as the 
 larger ones. The advantages that are secured by 
 receiving instruction from a master, an authority 
 rather than a mere echoist, are so apparent to a pro- 
 fessional eye that it would seem unnecessary to reit- 
 erate them. Yet school boards, and even some super- 
 intendents, exhibit a woeful lack of appreciation of 
 the fact. In Germany, teachers are encouraged and 
 even required to keep up with the progress of their 
 subjects. There, teachers as well as university men 
 must do original investigation if they would not fall 
 behind in the race. The yearly scientific disserta- 
 tion sent out by some member of the faculty of each 
 secondary school is an example of what is accom- 
 plished. This specialization insures a class of teach- 
 ers who are not only masters, but authorities ; it 
 raises them above all servility to text-book teaching. 
 They teach better, waste less time, better sift out 
 
 * Report of the Committee (of Ten) on Secondary School 
 Studies, 1893, p. 187. This committee dealt with tlie school 
 side of the question. I liave endeavoured to show how a reform 
 in examinations requiring fewer subjects and more extended 
 research would remedy some of these evils. (See topic Teachers.)
 
 370 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 the unessentials, give greater inspiration, and better 
 scholarship is the natural result. There is no appar- 
 ent disciplinary loss — in fact, the greatly increased 
 interest aroused is the initial impulse to greater jier- 
 sistence. Hence, will power is augmented. It has 
 been said that "above all, the teacher must keep 
 up with the times in books, methods, lines of thought, 
 and interest. . . . She must realize that the world is 
 always passing on, and that, like Alice in Wonder- 
 land, she must run as fast as she can to keep where 
 she is. . . . She must keep herself in connection with 
 the great teachers of her time." * 
 
 This is the especial need of keeping up in one's 
 special line of teaching. It is impossible to be " Jack 
 of all trades " and master of any one. Let us hope 
 for a Germanizing in this respect. The opportuni- 
 ties for securiiig adequately trained teachers are 
 such that every good high school should be properly 
 equipped. The supply of candidates is now, or soon 
 will be, such that no school board need put up with 
 incompetent teachers. The need of specially trained 
 teachers is not confined to the high schools. The 
 Committee of Ten have pointed out that " many 
 teachers are too unskilled to present in the elemen- 
 tary schools the beginnings of geometry, science, 
 history, or literature, and that the failures in this 
 work are due to the mechanical efforts of those who 
 have had no higher or special training." f 
 
 * Quoted in Report of Commission on Secondary School 
 Studies, p. 186. 
 
 f See Bureau of Educational Reports, vol. ii, 1892-93, p. 
 1476,
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 371 
 
 9. Tlie amount of work given German piqjils is 
 simply enormous. They have at least ten hours a 
 week more work than corresponding classes in our 
 schools. It would seem unwise to attempt to imi- 
 tate in this respect. There is little doubt that in 
 our climate serious consequences would result. Even 
 in Germany the cry of iXberiirdung (overloading) has 
 gone up from all j)a^rts of the empire. Many believe 
 that in the boys' higher schools pupils are being over- 
 burdened with work during school hours, still more 
 weighed down with obligatory home work, and occa- 
 sionally by the voluntary work which the pupils do for 
 the sake of praise. In many cases the work reaches as 
 high as eleven hours of obligatory school duties — some- 
 thing that mature men can not stand if continuously 
 kept up. The pupils do not secure sufficient sleep, 
 nervousness sets in, weak, spectacled eyes become 
 more common, and all forms of chronic diseases are 
 said to be more frequent among pupils of the sec- 
 ondary schools than among pupils of the burgher 
 schools, where less is exacted of the pupils.* 
 
 It has been said that English boys are two years 
 behind the Erench at eighteen, but at twenty-five 
 they have outstripped them. This is attributed to 
 the overcrowding of the French boys during their 
 adolescent years, and the comparative freedom from 
 mental overstimulation of the English boys. The 
 great devotion to all sorts of sports requiring bodily 
 activity in the open air, together with the immunity 
 from mental overexertion, gives to the English boy, 
 
 "" Zeitschrift fiir Sehulgesundheitspflege, Nos. 11, 12, 1897.
 
 372 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 although less precocity at eighteen, a vigour of mind 
 and body and staying qualities which insure his 
 being a winner in the race. 
 
 Better than to increase the quantity of work, an 
 improvement of quality is most desirable in American 
 high schools. The time above seven or eight hours' 
 close mental application would be better spent in 
 athletics and the manual arts. An increase above 
 this amount of intellectual application in adolescents 
 is suicidal to the race. Some writers who have made 
 close investigation of the subject claim that the 
 mental ability of German youth is decreasing and 
 that the results will be disastrous to future genera- 
 tions.* Let us take due warning. It would seem 
 as though the fact that we can not preserve sound 
 minds in unhealthy bodies is completely demonstrated 
 by physiology and psychology. Its reiteration seems 
 a mere platitude. Yet how persistently is it disre- 
 garded ! 
 
 10. Sex of Teacher's. — The great predominance of 
 men teachers in the upper grades is undoubtedly one 
 of the strong features of the German instructional 
 force. The men make it a life work, and there is 
 none of the " temporariness " usually incident to 
 woman's teaching. Then, undoubtedly, during ado- 
 lescence the firm and strong hand of man is neces- 
 sary to guide the restless youth aright. Women are 
 by nature too emotional and vacillating to have en- 
 tire guidance during this critical j)eriod. Best of 
 all, many of the men are fathers of families, and they 
 
 * Zeitschrift fur Schulgesundheitspflege, Nos. 11, 12, 1897.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 373 
 
 have that necessary knowledge of and sympathy with 
 adolescence to care judiciously for those intrusted 
 to them. A teacher who is a parent is the best of 
 counsellors. No young men or women are compa- 
 rable. To me this seemed one of the most admirable 
 features of the entire system. There is no injudi- 
 cious impulsiveness usual with young men, nor the 
 weakness, capriciousness, and sentimentalism apt to 
 be exhibited by young women. Older men exhibit 
 calmness, deliberation, firmness, yet fatherly consid- 
 eration. 
 
 On the other hand, the lack of women in the 
 primary grades and girls' schools is a defect in the 
 system. Women are the natural teachers of chil- 
 dren. What little lad or lassie would look instinc- 
 tively for sympathy and love from a bearded and 
 grizzled old man ? They need the gentle tones and 
 tenderness that only a sympathetic woman can bestow 
 upon them. Most little children know intimately 
 among grown people only their mother, and how can 
 it be expected that a strange man — the proverbial 
 schoolmaster most of all — will win their love and 
 confidence ? Without their confidence how can they 
 be taught the highest and noblest lessons of life ? 
 By all means have the loving hand of woman to guide 
 the tender years of childhood. 
 
 Dr. W. T. Harris says of woman's fitness for teach- 
 ing, that " her natural endowments of versatility 
 and alertness of mind fit her in a peculiar sense for 
 the sphere of teacher of children. Their arbitrari- 
 ness and caprice can be best watched and foiled by 
 her. Their feeble strength demands intermittence
 
 374 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 and periodicity, and their training must, above all, 
 be gentle." * When children become older and feel 
 the restlessness and impatience of youth upon them, 
 give them over, at least in part, to tliose whose 
 strength tliey will look upon with respect and admi- 
 ration. Even here woman's presence has a desirable 
 influence, and she should not be excluded therefrom. 
 In my opinion were there at least a small percentage 
 of women in the higher schools of Germany there 
 would be a distinct gain. It would manifest itself 
 in causing a higher and more wholesome respect for 
 woman, which would add much to German life. The 
 defect is the most deplorable in the lower schools. 
 If boys have not learned to api^reciate woman at her 
 just value before they reach the higher grades, it is 
 a difficult matter to alter their opinions. And cer- 
 tainly women ought to be employed in part in teach- 
 ing girls. 
 
 " A man can not have as clear a comprehension 
 of the nature of girls as a woman, a representative of 
 the same sex, undoubtedly has. He is more apt to 
 make mistakes in treating them. Furthermore, in 
 things essentially feminine in the education of girls, 
 such as fostering the sense of order, punctuality, 
 cleanliness, graceful carriage of the body, propriety, 
 and good manners, he can not nearly so well give 
 advice and exercise supervision as a female teacher, 
 with whom these things are matters of course. . . . 
 To employ young unmarried male teachers in classes 
 full of budding girls growing into maturity is objec- 
 
 * Report of Bureau of Education, vol. ii, 1891-'92, p. 813.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 3Y5 
 
 tionable from a pedagogical and even a moral point 
 of view. . . . Older teachers are often lacking in that 
 vivacity in instruction which girls need often in a 
 greater degree than boys and youths." * 
 
 11. The sejjciration of the sexes is complete in all 
 the schools of Germany excepting some of the pri- 
 mary classes. The advisability of this is a large 
 question, but by no means a settled one. Many ar- 
 guments may be advanced p7'0 and con. Germany 
 feels that she has the proper solution, while in Amer- 
 ica, with an opposite answer, we feel for the most 
 part satisfied. From the standpoint of discipline 
 there seems some advantage in separating the sexes. 
 Certainly discipline in German schools is most per- 
 fect, and the separation of the sexes seems to have 
 contributed in some measure to this end. There can 
 be no valid reasons on the score of incapability for 
 excluding girls from the pursuance of the same 
 studies as boys pursue. They have demonstrated 
 repeatedly their perfect ability to master as severe 
 mental tasks as boys. Candour would compel a 
 majority of teachers in schools and colleges to admit 
 that girls are among the best students. That girls 
 and women sometimes break down while pursuing 
 severe courses of study is no argument for their in- 
 feriority or incapability either mentally or physically. 
 The real cause is stupidly overlooked. Custom and 
 Dame Fashion prescribe that girls should take no 
 exercise, must dress unhygienically, and thus impair 
 
 * Ilclene Lan^e, Higher Education of Women in Europe, 
 translated by L. R. Klemm, p. 163.
 
 376 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 if not ruin their health. Give girls the same chance 
 for their physical well-being, and they will not evince 
 any more signs of nervous breakdown than their 
 brothers. 
 
 With reference to the moral effect npon the 
 school, the words of Jean Paul Richter (Levana) seem 
 pregnant with truth : " To insure modesty, I Avould 
 advise the education of the sexes together ; for two 
 boys will preserve twelve girls, or two girls twelve 
 boys, innocent amid winks. Jokes, and improprieties, 
 merely by that instinctive sense which is the fore- 
 runner of natural modesty. But I will guarantee 
 nothing in a school where girls are alone together, 
 and still less where boys are." Dr. Harris writes 
 of his large experience in the St. Louis schools when 
 coeducation was introduced : " Discipline has im- 
 proved continually with the adoption of mixed 
 schools ; . . . the rudeness and abandon which pre- 
 vails among boys when separate at once gives place 
 to self-restraint in the presence of girls. The pru- 
 rient sentimentality engendered by educating girls 
 apart from boys . . . disappears almost entirely in 
 mixed schools. In its place a quiet self-possession 
 reigns ; the consequence of this is a milder form of 
 discipline. Boys and girls, originating according to 
 Nature's plan, in the same family as brothers and 
 sisters, their culture should be together, so that the 
 social instincts may be saved from abnormal, dis- 
 eased action. The natural dependence of each in- 
 dividual upon all the rest in society should not be 
 hindered by isolating one sex from another during 
 the most formative stages of growth. . . . Intellectual
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 377 
 
 development is far more sound and healthy." * He 
 further writes, " I had noticed that the atmosphere 
 of mixed schools was desexualized, where that of 
 separate schools seemed to have a tendency to de- 
 velop sexual tension." f Dr. E. E. White writes in 
 the same symposium, " The fact that there is sex in 
 the mind does not necessitate sex in courses of study 
 and instruction." Dr. James McAllister's conviction 
 is that " boys and girls can be taught to better ad- 
 vantage in every way together." We might multiply 
 opinions of prominent educators and physicians who 
 have actually witnessed both phases of the experi- 
 ment, and Avho are unanimous in their declarations 
 of the feasibility and advisability of coeducation. 
 Germany would perhaps gain nothing from the stand- 
 point of intellectual instruction nor from mechanical 
 discipline by adopting coeducation. But there is 
 little question that the whole social position of 
 woman would begin to appear in a new light. 
 Woman would be seen at her true value, and greater 
 respect and affection for woman would be exhibited 
 in the coming generations. We have no reason to 
 abandon our growing sentiment of appreciation for 
 coeducation for the conservatism of Germany. 
 
 12. Higher Education of Women. — We in this 
 country are not confronted with the immediate 
 question whether women will receive higher educa- 
 tion. The women of this country have settled it, 
 for a time at least, in the aflBrmative. The ultimate 
 
 * Report of Bureau of Education, vol. ii, 1891-'93, jj. 807. 
 + Ibid., p. 806.
 
 378 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 question of whether this is the correct solution is 
 still a debatable one. Shall we lend our aid and 
 encouragement, or shall we take our stand with the 
 conservative element of Germany? The question is 
 one of far-reaching importance. The results will be 
 judged in the future more wisely than now. Great 
 tact is needed in dealing with it. Its solution will 
 affect all future civilization. Will the higher educa- 
 tion of women ultimately advance or retard the 
 best and highest interests of mankind ? AVliat will 
 be the effects mentally, morally, physically, upon 
 woman and upon the race ? It is beyond my prov- 
 ince to enter into an exhaustive discussion of the 
 subject. The question, it seems to me, is a bio- 
 logico-anthropological one, and I leave the discus- 
 sion to the expounders of those sciences. 
 
 However, I may set forth a few tentative opinions 
 that appear warrantable in the light of present 
 knowledge. The question has only just begun to 
 be freed from mere passing sentiment. When logic 
 has bedn applied, the past, the usual, the customary 
 has been taken as the major premise, with the result 
 of finding the new to be untenable. " The unusual 
 appears absurd." The subject involves several as- 
 pects, a part of which may be indicated in the fol- 
 lowing questions : (a) What is the result to woman's 
 health ? (b) Does the acquisition of a higher educa- 
 tion subject her to such strain that woman will be 
 less capable of bearing and rearing healthy children ? 
 (c) Does it produce aversion toward marriage and 
 the duties of motherhood? (d) Does higher educa- 
 tion unfit her for household duties, which from the
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 379 
 
 nature of the case must fall to her ? (e) Does higher 
 education tend to take away that peculiar charm of 
 femininity, usually termed " womanliness," which 
 has undoubtedly been potent in 23roducing the 
 highest and noblest types of sentiment? (/) Will 
 women become more masculine, and thus those finer 
 shades of sympathy, love, compassion, altruism — all 
 of which are conserved in the race through woman's 
 influence — become displaced by the grosser charac- 
 teristics which belong to masculinity ? 
 
 The last two questions can not be answered in 
 the present ; only long time can demonstrate the 
 answer. However, in the light of the present and 
 from our knowledge of the development of the sen- 
 timents, we can hardly conceive of danger from this 
 source. In discussing the effect of the study and 
 practice of medicine upon woman, which was looked 
 upon as the uUimatissimum of desexualiziug occu- 
 pations, we may quote Miss Lange's opinion concern- 
 ing English women jihysicians. According to her, 
 experience shows that the womanliness of women 
 physicians is in no danger. Xot only has woman 
 preserved unsullied her womanliness, but, " more 
 than that, the womanliness of a great number of 
 patients is spared." * 
 
 13. From the standpoint of health Ilae\ie\e there 
 is nothing to fear from the higher education of 
 women. Considered in the light of all available 
 statistics, few unfavourable results are directly trace- 
 able to this cause. Careful investigations have been 
 
 * Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 47. 
 2G
 
 380 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 carried out by inquiry concerning the health of 
 Avomen college graduates. The most exhaustive, 
 perhaps, was that instituted by a committee of the 
 Association of Collegiate Alumnae concerning the 
 health of female college graduates.* From this re- 
 port the statement comes that " the facts which we 
 have presented would seem to warrant the assertion, 
 as the legitimate conclusion to be drawn from a 
 careful study of the tables, that the seeking of a 
 college education on the part of a woman does not 
 in itself necessarily entail a loss of health or serious 
 impairment of the vital forces. Indeed, the tables 
 show this so conclusively that there is little need, 
 were it within our province, for extended discussion 
 of the subject." Further : " It is sufficient to say 
 that the female graduates of our colleges and uni- 
 versities do not seem to show, as the result of their 
 college studies and duties, any marked difference 
 in general health from the average health likely to 
 be reported by an equal number of women engaged 
 in other kinds of work, or, in fact, of women gener- 
 ally without regard to occupation followed." 
 
 From the same source it is shown that maternity 
 is equally as common, and infant mortality as low, 
 among women college graduates as among other 
 women of the same social strata. If the number of 
 children among the higher classes is smaller than 
 in the working classes, it is not necessarily due to 
 sterility. The cause may be attributable to per- 
 verted notions incident to the social demands made 
 
 * See report under this title, 1885, pp. 77, 78.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 381 
 
 upon society women ; or the proper regard for the 
 economical and educational possibilities may limit 
 the size of a family. Quality, and not quantity, is 
 most desirable. 
 
 Dr. Helen P. Kennedy has made a valuable con- 
 tribution to the medical aspect of the question in 
 her study of " The Effects of High-School Work upon 
 Girls during Adolescence." * She maintains that 
 " great intellectual demands are made ujaon young 
 girls at the time Xature is developing the female 
 organism. The whole nature of the girl at puberty 
 is undergoing a change that will fit her for mother- 
 hood. ... If the present system of education inter- 
 feres with this process, then a better system should be 
 devised. If the system as it is inflicts no harm, then 
 we must look to other causes for the existing ill 
 health of American girls. Till we know the present 
 state of health of schoolgirls we can not be sure that 
 the educational system is at fault, and therefore can 
 not demand its improvement." 
 
 From her thorough study of one hundred and 
 twenty-five cases she finds an improvement in forty- 
 eight per cent of the girls during their high-school 
 course, twenty-six per cent noticed no change, and 
 only thirteen per cent were aware of any increased 
 unfavourable symptoms. To her mind there was 
 " clear evidence that the girls were graduated from 
 the high school in an improved physical and mental 
 condition rather than the reverse." K^either were 
 the girls " stunted in physical development, being 
 
 * Pedagogical Seminary, vol. iii, 1894-'95.
 
 382 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 normal in height and well proportioned in other re- 
 spects." Alarmists are prone, as I have elsewhere 
 indicated, to call for application of the knife at the 
 wrong source. Schools are charged with endanger- 
 ing the health of children when the real source of 
 evil is in the home.* 
 
 14. Effect on Home Life. — It is only those who 
 have warped opinions concerning true housewifery 
 who look askance upon intellectuality in a wife or 
 mother. They have advanced little beyond the 
 seventeenth-century ideas in which the lower classes 
 of women were regarded as drudges and the higher 
 as ornaments ; intellectual culture was considered as 
 either useless or dangerous. I believe that affection 
 for and devotion toward woman has been greatly in- 
 creased by her conquests and victories in the vari- 
 ous departments of art and science that she has 
 entered. Concerning the genesis of love, Spencer 
 says : " Egoistic pleasures of all kinds are doubled 
 by another's sympathetic participation, and the 
 pleasures of another are added to the egoistic pleas- 
 
 * My purpose is not to minimize the evils due to unhygienic 
 conditions under which pupils work in schools. The grossest 
 ignorance of school-room hygiene, hygiene of work, hygiene of 
 the body and mind, are frequently exhibited by teachers who 
 should know better. Schoolhouses are also frequently almost 
 criminally constructed, and pupils are sometimes shamefully 
 overworked, though I do not think the last is general in America. 
 My aim is to show the need of proper diagnosis of situations, 
 Teachers are in a measure responsible for not causing necessary 
 knowledge to reach down more among the masses. Home peda- 
 gogy is a crying necessity, but its right to exist must be first 
 demonstrated by those who stand in high places.
 
 CONCLUSIONS. 383 
 
 ures." * How can " sympathetic participation " be 
 engendered save through knowledge of common in- 
 terests ? Added to the purely physical elements of 
 love " there is the sentiment of admiration, respect, 
 or reverence ; in itself one of considerable power, 
 and which in this relation becomes in a high degree 
 active." f 
 
 " I would protest against the superstition that 
 the housewife and the scientifically educated woman 
 are incongruities which threaten to rend German life 
 in twain. For the wife who does not understand the 
 great interests of her husband is not able to foster 
 and increase his idealism, which disdains material 
 for higher gains ; she will, on the contrary, endeavour 
 to drag him down to her own level." J 
 
 * Principles of Psychology, vol. i, p. 488. 
 
 + Ibid. 
 
 X Higher Education of Women in Europe, p. 157.
 
 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 
 
 W. Rein. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik, 
 Langensalza. (Probably 6 vols., 3 vols, ready. Begun 1895. 
 Alphabetically arranged.) " R. E." will indicate this work 
 throughout these references. 
 
 0. Altenberg. Abgangspriifung, R. E., i. 5-15. 
 
 P. Cauer. Suum Cuique, Fiinf Aufsatze zur Reform d. 
 hoheren Schulwesens, 1889. 
 
 A. Gopfert. Geographischer Unterricht, R. E., ii, 572-583. 
 
 A. Bauraeister. Die Einrichtung und Verwaltung des 
 hoheren Schulwesens, Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unter- 
 richtslehre fiir hohere Schulen, 4 vols., Munich, 1896. 
 
 H. Grosse. Biblische Bilder, R. E., i, 387-395. 
 
 S. Gunther, R. Menge, and others. Biblische, geographische, 
 historische, naturwissenschaftliche Bilder fiir den Kunstunter- 
 richt, R. E., i, 383-412. 
 
 R. Gotz. Gesetz iiber die Realschulen und Seminiire (Sach- 
 sen), 1877. 
 
 J. Horn. Das Zukunftsgymnasium, 1803. 
 
 J. A. Herzog. Die Schule und ihr neuer Aufbau auf natiir- 
 licher Grundlage, 1892. 
 
 0. Jager. Das huinanistische Gymnasium und die Petition 
 um durchgreifende Schulreform, 1889. 
 
 O. Janke. Arbeitszeit, R. E., i, 139. 
 
 Juling. Das Gymnasium init zehnjahrigem Kursus, 1893. 
 
 K. Knabe. Gyranasiallehrer, R. E., iii, 68-74. 
 
 O. Kohl. Griechischer Unterricht, R. E., iii, 1-63. 
 
 385
 
 386 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 n. Kefcrstein. Anschauungsunterricht; Botanik in hohercn 
 Schulen, R. E., i, 88-94, 489-498. 
 
 A. Lomberg. Excursioncn nnd Schulwanderungen, R. E., 
 ii, 117-126. 
 
 R. Menge. Abgang von der Schule, R. E., i, 15-16. Ab- 
 schlussprufung, R. E., i, 24. Anschaulichkeit des Unterrichts, 
 R. E., i, 94-102. 
 
 Meinhold. Lehr- und Priifungsordnung der siichsisehen 
 Gyninasien, 1893 ; Priifungsordnung flir die Kandidaten des 
 hoheren Lehrarats in Preussen vora Februar 1887 nebst der 
 Bestimmung iiber die praktische Ausbildung vom Marz 1890, 
 Berlin, 1891. 
 
 R. 3Ienge. Hospitieren an lioheren Lehranstalten, R. E., 
 iii, 733-741. 
 
 F. Nebauer. Geschichtsunterricht auf holieren Schulen, 
 R. E., ii, 765-801. 
 
 F. Paulsen. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, 2 vols., 
 1897. Das Realgymnasium und die humanistische Bildung, 
 1889. Uber die gegenwilrtige Lage des hoheren Schulwesens, 
 1892. 
 
 F. Palmie. Die socialen Frage und die Schule, 1890. 
 
 W. Preyer. Stand und Ziele der Schulreform-Bewegung, 
 1889. 
 
 G. Richter. Gymnasialseminar, R. E., iii, 126-136. 
 
 W. Rein. Encyclopadisches Handbuch der Pildagogik 
 (see above). Aus dem padagogischen Universittits-Seminar 
 zu Jena. Pamphlets on various subjects, 1888-1894. Am 
 Ende der Schulreforni (especially good, complete bibliography), 
 1892. 
 
 H. Schiller. Handbiich der praktischen Padagogik fiir 
 hohere Lehranstalten, 1894. Geschichte der Padagogik, 1890. 
 Padagogische Seminarien fiir das liuhere Lehramt — Geschichte 
 und Erfahrung, 1890. 
 
 Sallwiirk. Das Staatsseminar fiir Padagogik, 1890. 
 
 K. A. Schmid. EncyclopJidie des gesammten Erziehungs- 
 und L^nterrichtswesens, bearbeitet von einer Anzahl Schul- 
 manner und Gelehrten, 11 vols., 1876-1896. 
 
 Karl Schmidt. Geschichte der Padagogik, 1890,
 
 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 387 
 
 C. Rethwisch. Deutschlands hohercs Schulwesen im 19. 
 Jahrhundert, Halle, 1893. 
 
 W. Schrader. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre flir Gym- 
 nasien und Realschulen, 1876. 
 
 Uhlig. Das humanistische Gymnasium, 1890. 
 
 Schubert. Augenglaser und Augenkrankheiten, R. E., i, 
 199-213. 
 
 W. Siegert. Beleuchtung der Schulziramer, R, E., i, 302. 
 
 Steinbai-t. Bereehtigungen, R. E., i, 327-333. Besoldung 
 an hoheren Knabenschulen, R. E., i, 362-367. 
 
 J. Tews. Besoldung der VolksschuUehrer, R. E., i, 350- 
 360. Besoldung der Seminarlehrer, R. E., i, 360-362. 
 
 0. Willmann. Griechische Erziehung, R. E., ii, 916- 
 920. 
 
 Th. Ziegler. Geschichte der Padagogik, Band i, 1, Baii- 
 meisters Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir 
 hohere Schulen, 1896. 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE. 
 
 Academische Revue, Salvisberg, Munich. 
 
 Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzeitung. A. Berthelt and M. 
 Kleinert, Leipzig. 
 
 Allgemeine deutsche padagogische Rundschau, Berlin. 
 
 Bayerische Lehrerzeitung, Niirnberg. 
 
 Braunschweigisches Schulblatt, Braunschweig. 
 
 Blatter fiir das Gymnasialschulwesen, Miinchen. 
 
 Centralblatt fiir die Gesammte Unterrichts-Verwaltung in 
 Preussen, Berlin. (01!icial organ of the Department of Educa- 
 tion.) 
 
 Deutsche Schulzeitung, Berlin. (Central organ for all Ger- 
 many.) 
 
 Deutsche Schulpraxis, Leipzig. 
 
 Hamburgische Schulzeitung, Hamburg. 
 
 Hessische Schulzeitung, Hessen. 
 
 Jahresberichte liber das Hohere Schulwesen, Rethwisch, 
 Halle. 
 
 Lehrerzeitung fiir Ost- und Westprcussen, Konigsberg.
 
 388 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OP GERMANY. 
 
 Neue Bahnen. II. Schcror, J. IMeyer, Wiesbaden. 
 
 Piidagogische Studieii. W. Rein, Dresden. 
 
 Padagogisclie Zeitung, Berlin. 
 
 Piidagogische Blatter. C. Kehr, Gotha. 
 
 Piidagogium, F. Dittes. 
 
 Piidagogische Reform, Hamburg. 
 
 Lehrproben und Lehrgiinge aus der Praxis der Gymnasien 
 und Realschulen. W. Fries, R. Menge, Halle. 
 
 Piidagogischer JaLresbericht. A. Richter, Leipzig. 
 
 Siichsische Schulzeitung, Dresden. 
 
 Statistisches Jahi'buch der hoheren Schulcn Deutschlands. 
 B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir Gymnasialwesen. H. J. Miiller, Leipzig. 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir den deutschen Unterricht. Lyon, Leipzig. 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic und Piidagogik. 0. Fliigel, W, 
 Rein, Langensalza. 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir lateinlose hohere Schulen. Weidner, Leip- 
 zig. 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir das Gymnasialwesen. Miiller, Berlin. 
 
 ON WOMEN'S EDUCATION. 
 
 Die Lehrerin, Gera. 
 
 Zeitschrift fur weibliche Bildung in Schule und Haus. 
 Buchner, Leipzig. 
 
 From the last the following articles are taken : 
 
 Armbrustei'. Das erste und zweite Schuljahr ira Karls- 
 ruher Miidchengymnasium, 1895, pp. 345-353. 
 
 Barthels. Die Zukunft der hoheren Madchenschulen in 
 Preussen, 1894, pp. 419-427. 
 
 Buchner. Die neuen Regulative fiir die preussische Mad- 
 chenschulen, 1894, pp. 346-365. 
 
 Bestiramung iiber das Miidchenschulwesen in Preussen, 
 1894. pp. 317-325. 
 
 Das Miidchengymnasium in Bremen, 1896, p. 595. 
 
 Die Wirkungcn der Bestimmung vom 31. Mai 1894 auf die 
 ancrkannten hoheren Madchenschulen Preussens, 1896, pp^. 409- 
 419.
 
 AUTHORITIES CONSULTED. 389 
 
 Die Petition der akademisch gebildeten Lehrer preussiseher 
 hoherer Miidchenschulen an den Herrn Unterrichtsminister, 
 1895, pp. 1-6. 
 
 Hubert. Gymnasialkurse fiir Frauen in Leipzig, 1895, 
 pp. 458-464. 
 
 C. Miehe. Die hoheren Madchenschulen in Berlin, 1895, 
 pp. 62-83. 
 
 Die Antwort des Kgl. preussischen Ministers, auf die Denk- 
 schrift des Oberbiirgermeisters von Koln, 1895, pp. 225-236. 
 
 Goldbeck. Die Berliner Gymnasialkurse f lir Frauen, 1894, 
 p. 209 ; 1895, pp. 211-216. 
 
 Wunder. tJber die Altersversorgung der Lehrerinnen, 
 1894, p. 40. 
 
 Vorwerk. Wissenschaftliche Fortbildungskurse fiir Leh- 
 rerinnen, 1894, p. 64. Fortbildungskurse fiir Lehrerinnen in 
 Gottingen, 1896, pp. 156, 157. 
 
 Wunder. Neun- oder zehnstufiger Lehrgang fiir die iiffent- 
 lichen hoheren Madchenschulen Preussens, 1894, pp. 237-263. 
 
 A. Spi'engel. Unsere Lehrerinnen, 1895, pp. 447-458, 470-478. 
 
 OTHER LITERATURE. 
 
 Helene Lange. Frauenbildung, 1889. (Same, translated by 
 L. R. Klemm, Higher Education of Women.) Entwicklung 
 und Stand des hoheren Madchenschulwesens in Deutscliland, 
 1893. 
 
 Prom each one of the secondary schools there is issued 
 yearly a Bericht or report of the year's work accomplished. 
 There are nearly a thousand issued yearly. From these I have 
 gained a large amount of statistical matter, details of school 
 programmes, etc. 
 
 LITERATURE IN ENGLISH. 
 
 Dr. L. R. Klemm. European Schools. 
 
 M. E. Sadler. The Realschulen in Berlin and their Bear- 
 ing on Questions of Secondary and Commercial Education, 
 Spec. Rep., Ed. Dept.. Great Britain, 1896-'97. The Oberreal- 
 schulen of Prussia, ibid.
 
 390 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Catherine I. Dodd. The School Journey in Germany, ibid, 
 
 F. H, Dale. The Teaching of the Mother Tongue in Ger- 
 many, ibid. The Admission of Women to Universities in all 
 Countries of the World. 
 
 Report of the Commissioner of Education of the United 
 States. Contains nearly every year a rich fund of information 
 concerning education in various countries. For complete bib- 
 liography of articles on German education, see vol. i, 1894-'95, 
 p. 321. Special articles on secondai-y education consulted for 
 this work : 
 
 Bird's-eye View of the Schools in Central Europe, i, 1888-89. 
 
 The Higher Schools of Prussia and the School Conference 
 of 1890, Charles H. Thurber, 1, 1888-89. 
 
 School Gardens in Germany and Austria, 1888-'89, p. 308. 
 
 Attendance in Secondary Schools for Boys in Germany, 
 1893-'94, p. 298. 
 
 Is German Pedagogy in a State of Decomposition 1 1894- 
 '95, p. 329. 
 
 Comparison of the Schools of Germany, France, and the 
 United States, with diagrams, 1888-'89, p. 32. 
 
 The Training of Secondary Teachers in Germany, with Sug- 
 gestions for England, 1893-'9'4. 
 
 Coeducation of the Sexes, with bibliography, ii, 1891-'92. 
 
 Dr. J. E. Russell has a series of articles in the School Review 
 on the teaching of various subjects in the secondary schools of 
 Germany : German, 1894, p. 199 ; Mathematics, 1894, pp. 479, 
 549 ; Greek and Latin, 1894, pp. 585. 664 ; History and Geog- 
 raphy, 1897, pp. 257, 539 ; Natural Science, 1897, pp. 18, 65. 
 
 [Since this volume went to the printer. Dr. Russell's articles 
 have been gathered into book form and constitute the main 
 part of his work on German Higher Schools. Longmans, Green 
 &Co.] 
 
 E. J. Goodwin. Some Characteristics of Prussian Schools, 
 Educational Review, 1896, p. 453. 
 
 Dr. W. H. Burnham. The Higher Pedagogical Seminaries 
 in Germany, Pedagogical Seminary, 1891, p. 390.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abgangszeugniss, 57. 
 
 Abiturienten, certificate, S3 ; ex- 
 amination inaugurated, 134, ex- 
 plained, 269-276. 
 
 Abschlusspri'ifung, 157. 
 
 Abstract studies, often too early 
 introduced, 359. 
 
 Jisthetic culture, 167 ; in mathe- 
 matics, 232. 
 
 Ages, of secondary-school gradu- 
 ates, 13 ; of college graduates, 
 14 ; of students in Leipsic Gym- 
 nasitxm, 15; table of, 16. 
 
 Algebra, course in, 229. 
 
 Allgemeine Frauen Verein, 304. 
 
 Anschauungs njaterial, 83, 84 ; in 
 classics, 191 ; in natural science, 
 253. 
 
 Appliances, sclioolroom, 42, 45, 
 240, 253. 
 
 Appointment, of teachers, 22-28 ; 
 of provincial school boards, 21 ; 
 of provincial school inspectors, 
 22; of minister of education, 
 23. 
 
 Askanisches Gymnasium, mathe- 
 matical examination, 234. 
 
 Atkinson, Dr. F. W., on univer- 
 sity schools of education, 364. 
 
 Attendance, compulsory, 15. 
 
 Baden, general organization, 24; 
 tuition in, 27 ; number of pupils 
 in each grade (tables), 38, 39 ; 
 teachers' titles, 114, 116; teach- 
 ers' salaries, 120; changes made 
 by the Conference of 1890, 160; 
 programme in gymnasium, 171 ; 
 real - gymnasia, 175; real - 
 schools, 177 ; mixed school in 
 Baden-Baden, 179 ; progymna- 
 sia, 180; course in history, 244. 
 
 Bavaria, general organization, 23 ; 
 professional training, 80 ; teach- 
 ers' titles, 117 ; teachers' sala- 
 ries, 120 ; changes made by Con- 
 ference of 1890, 160 ; programme 
 in gymnasia, 172; real-gymna- 
 sia, 174; real-schools, 176. 
 
 Beiriithe, 24, 28. 
 
 Berechtigung, 30-37, 137. 
 
 Berlin, 20; climatic conditions in, 
 50 ; teachers' salaries, 124 ; Con- 
 ference of 1890, 130-158. 
 
 Boards, provincial school, 21. 
 
 Bosse, Dr., present Minister of 
 Education, 20. 
 
 Botany, teachers' examination in, 
 66 ; course in, 250-258. 
 
 Bremen, tuition in, 27 ; girls' gym- 
 nasium, 305. 
 
 391
 
 392 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Breslau, girls' gymnasium, 305. 
 Buildings, 43; lighting of, 44; 
 
 government inspection of, 51. 
 Bureaucracy (Schulbureaukratie), 
 
 22, 27, 138, 351. 
 Burgher schools, 6, 34. 
 Burnham, Dr. W. H., 146. 
 
 Calculu.s, 02. 
 
 Certification, of teachers in Sax- 
 ony, 50 ; State, in America, 
 365. 
 
 Chemistry, teachers' examination 
 in, 60 ; course in, 252. 
 
 Church, the, in establishment of 
 schools, 131. 
 
 Cities, growth of, 130. 
 
 City schools, rise of, 130. 
 
 Civic instruction, 166, 167, 191, 
 193, 232, 243, 246-250 ; Emperor 
 on, 153, ff. ; civic ideals, 245, if. 
 
 Civil service, 35. 
 
 Class distinctions, 117, 118. 
 
 Class exercises, critique of, 102- 
 104. 
 
 Classes of schools recognised since 
 1882, 140. 
 
 Classical schools compared with 
 non- classical, 9; comparative 
 table, 163. 
 
 Classics, core of instruction, 132, 
 189 ; end in teaching, 190 ; fu- 
 ture of instruction in, 192-196. 
 
 Clergymen, teachers of religion, 
 184. 
 
 Climate and education, 48. 
 
 Collegiate Alunmos, Association 
 of, 380. 
 
 Comenius Stiftung, 100. 
 
 Committee, local school, 21 ; of 
 Seven and of Ten, 361, 370. 
 
 Compulsory education, 15, 50. 
 
 Concentration, 83, 84 ; lack of, in 
 American schools, 357 ; Prof. 
 Ilaiius on, 361 ; President Hull 
 on, 862. 
 
 Conference of 1890, 130-158; call 
 for, 147; Emperors attitude to- 
 ward, 147, 148, 152-155; ques- 
 tions discussed, 148 flf. ; changes 
 effected by, 156-158, 160-164; 
 recommendations of, 158-161. 
 
 Conservatism, 34, 249, 313, 310, 
 377. 
 
 Continuity, German idea of, 360. 
 
 Correlation, German and history 
 centre of, 157 ; of history, lit- 
 erature, and geography, 190, 
 237 ; mathematics and art, 237. 
 
 Courses of study, historical basis 
 of, 129; reforms in, 129-164; in 
 the earliest secondary schools, 
 131 ; previous to 1882, 161 ; from 
 1812 to 1891, 162; outlined by 
 ministry, 165; similar through- 
 out Germany, 166 ; present, 165- 
 276 ; tabular programmes for 
 gymnasia, 168 ; for real-gym- 
 nasia, 168 ; for real - schools, 
 169; courses in religion, 182- 
 185; in classics, 185-197; in 
 modern languages, 197-215; in 
 mathematics, 215-235 ; in his- 
 tory and geography, 235-250; 
 in natural sciences, 250-200 ; in 
 German, 200-269 ; making of an 
 important problem, 357. 
 
 Crystallography, 252. 
 
 Curricula, changes throughout 
 Europe, 144-147 ; correlated, 
 359. See also Courses of Study. 
 
 Dameninvasion in universities, 
 314.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 December Conference. See Con- 
 ference. 
 
 Departmental teachers, 58-78, 3G8, 
 369. 
 
 Development, stages of, 358. 
 
 Differentiation of schools, 4. 
 
 Diplomas, university, not legal 
 certiticates, 56 ; value of sec- 
 ondary school, 30 ; prerequisites 
 for certain occupations, 31, 32; 
 chussitied list of values, 33-36; 
 recognition of, in America, 367. 
 
 Directors, appointment of, 40; 
 characteristics of, 40. 
 
 Discipline, 41, 42, 53 ; mental, 359. 
 
 Diseases, school, 371. 
 
 District inspectors, 22. 
 
 Doctorate degrees, value as 
 licenses, 70. 
 
 Dom and Kloster Scliulen, 130. 
 
 Dresden, salaries in, 27. 
 
 Drobisch, Prof. Martin, 95. 
 
 Education, Ministerium of, 20 ff. ; 
 social value of, 29, 30 ; and mili- 
 tary duty, 31, 36; of women, 
 297-350 ; general discussion of, 
 341-350, 377-383 ; schools of, in 
 America, 364. 
 
 Einheitsschulen, 142, 194. 
 
 Elementiirschulen, 7. 
 
 Emancipation der Frauen, 331. 
 
 Emperor, on school reform, 152 ff. ; 
 on education of girls, 348. 
 
 Empress on education of girls, 
 348. 
 
 English, qualifications for teach- 
 ing, 62; course in reading, 199; 
 in Leipsic real-gymnasium, 199 ; 
 general discussion, 206-211 ; 
 suggestive list in, 212; method 
 of teaching suggested, 216-218. 
 
 Examinations, of teachers, 50 ff. ; 
 .scope of, in various subjects, 01- 
 68 ; trial lesson a part of, 60 ; 
 groups of subjects in, 59 ; final, 
 in secondary schools, 269-276. 
 
 Eyesight, defective, 43, 44, 154, 
 155, 371. 
 
 Fatigue of students, 371. 
 
 Final examinations, purpose of, 
 269 ; how conducted, 271 ; stud- 
 ies included in, 271. 
 
 Francke, A. H., 82. 
 
 French, course in, 197-199 ; dis- 
 cussion of, 200 tf. 
 
 Frick, Dr., 148. 
 
 Fries, Frof. William, 94. 
 
 Geography, course in, 235-250; 
 correlation, 190. 
 
 Geometry, required of teachers, 
 62; course in, see Mathemat- 
 ics. 
 
 German, qualifications for teach- 
 ing, 05 ; in American schools, 
 73 ; course in, 200-269 ; maxi- 
 mum results in minimum time, 
 264-269 ; comparative statistics 
 on teaching, 205. 
 
 Giessen, pedagogical seminary, 83, 
 102. 
 
 Girls' schools, 5 ; classification of, 
 277 ; separate from boys', 278 ; 
 general regulations, 280 If. ; 
 courses of study in, 285 ff. ; 
 girls' gymnasia, 304 ; in Bre- 
 men, Breslau, Karlsruhe, 305 ; 
 Leipsic, 306 ff. ; course in, 308 ff. 
 
 Go.ssler, Minister von, 156. 
 
 Gottingen, pedagogy at, 91, 105; 
 Fortbildungs course for women, 
 324 S.
 
 394 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 Greek, qualifications tor teaching, 
 63 ; examination in, 64 ; course 
 in, 188. 
 
 Griffing and Franz, eye tests of, 44. 
 
 Gymnasia, characteristics of, 1, (J ; 
 salaries in boys', 20 ; progratiime 
 in Prussia, 171; in Baden, 171 ;in 
 Saxony, 172; in Bavaria, 172 ; in 
 Wijrteniberg, 173 ; in Frankfort, 
 181 ; girls', 304. 
 
 Gymnastics, 52. 
 
 Hall, President G. S., on concen- 
 tration, 362. 
 
 Halle, first real-school, 133. 
 
 Hamburg, tuition in secondary 
 schools, 27 ; salaries, 124. 
 
 Hanus, Prof. P. 11., on concentra- 
 tion, 361. 
 
 Harris, Dr. W. T., on education of 
 girls, 346. 
 
 Hartmann, Prof. Martin, 97. 
 
 Hausknecht, Dr. E., on education 
 of girls, 345, 347. 
 
 Hebrew, course in, 189. 
 
 Hecker, J. J., 133. 
 
 Held el berg,pedagogical seminary , 
 102. 
 
 Hesse,tuition in secondary schools, 
 27 ; distribution of schools, 38, 
 39. 
 
 High school the people's college, 
 11. 
 
 History, teachers' examination, 67 ; 
 civic ideals in, 243 ; Lehrziel in 
 Bavaria, 243 : in Baden, 244 ; 
 course outlined, 235-250 ; cor- 
 relation in, 157, 237 ff. ; Com- 
 mittee of seven on, 361. 
 
 Hofl'man, Prof. Franz, 96. 
 
 Humanism, 1. 
 
 Humboldt Gymnasium, 235. 
 
 Hunger candidates, 141, 154. 
 Hygienic conditions, supervised, 
 24 ; in schools, 382. 
 
 Inflexibility of method, 42. 
 
 Inspectors, district ( Kreisschulin- 
 spektoren), 22. 
 
 Instruction, oral, 41. 
 
 Instructors, number in a school, 
 40 ; maturity of, 40. 
 
 Intellectual flabbiness of high- 
 school graduates, 361. 
 
 Interest, factors determining, 358 ; 
 creating permanent, 358 ; killed 
 by overcrowding, 360. 
 
 James, Prof. William, on nascent 
 
 periods, 358. 
 Jena, pedagogical seminary, 92. 
 Journey, school, 24 tf. 
 Juling, Director, 13. 
 
 Karlsruhe, girls' gymnasium, 305. 
 
 Karzer (school prison), 42. 
 
 Kennedy, Dr. Helen, education 
 and girls' health, 381. 
 
 King, relation of, to school sys- 
 tems, 23. 
 
 Klemm, Dr. L. E., 44, 375. 
 
 Knowledge, meaning of proper 
 grasp of, 359. 
 
 Kreisschulinspektoren, 22. 
 
 Kuratorium, 25. 
 
 Laboratories, equipment of, 253, 
 
 258. 
 Lange, Helene, on education ot 
 
 Avomen, 110, 300, 305, 333, 334, 
 
 341, 343, 349, 379; Prof. Karl, 
 
 109. 
 Latin, teachers' examination in, 
 
 63; schools in England, 130 ; iu
 
 INDEX. 
 
 395 
 
 Gernumy,13-t; composition, 15S; 
 course in, 185-188; end iu view 
 in, 190 ; correlation, 192 If. Also 
 see Classics. 
 
 Lelimann, Prof. Ernst, 98. 
 
 Lehrplan, Prussian, 1S7, 190, 240, 
 2(58. 
 
 Lehrziel, in classics, 190 ; in his- 
 tory, 243, 244. See Civic In- 
 struction. 
 
 Leipsic, Royal Gynniasium, 15 ; 
 meteorological conditions, 48 ; 
 pedagogical seminaries, 9(j, 97, 
 106 ; higher girls' school, 285 ; 
 girls' gymnasium, 306. 
 
 Liberalism, growth of, 3. 
 
 London University, reform in, 145. 
 
 Maps and charts, good, 45. 
 
 Mathematics, qualitications for 
 teaching, 61, 69 ; course in, 215- 
 235 ; general discussion of course, 
 221 ; improved methods, cause of, 
 ^2; instruction better in Ger- 
 many than in America, 223 ; 
 great facility and accuracy at- 
 tained, 226, 227 ; unnecessary 
 parts omitted, fundamentals of- 
 ten applied, 224 ; nmch oral 
 work in, 225 ; general arrange- 
 ment of course, 228 ; in Ameri- 
 can schools poorly taught, 230; 
 spiral course, 230 ; correlation, 
 230 ; specimen final paper, 234. 
 
 McAllister, Dr. James, on educa- 
 tion of girls, 377. 
 
 Meteorological conditions in the 
 United States (table), 49. 
 
 Method, see Various Studies. 
 
 Military duty, compulsory, 28-31 ; 
 exemption from, 31 ; service, 36. 
 
 Minister of Education, 23, 24. 
 
 Ministerium, 20, 23, 24. 
 
 Mittelschulen, 8. 
 
 Modern languages, requirements 
 for teaching, 73 ; courses in, 197- 
 215 ; general discussion, 200 if. ; 
 natural method being adopted, 
 204, 206 ; oral work, 207 ; cor- 
 relation with geography, 209 ; 
 excellent results in, 211 ; in real- 
 schools and real-gymiuisia, 203- 
 210. 
 
 Mother tongue, time given to, in 
 Germany and iu Amei-ica, 264 ff. 
 
 Museums, school, 256. See also 
 Anschauung. 
 
 Na-sceut jJeriods, Prof James on, 
 
 359. 
 National system in Germany, no, 
 
 19. 
 Normal schools, 78, 81, 366. 
 
 Oberlehrer, 59, 114. 
 
 Oberrealschule explained, 6; pro- 
 grammes in, 177, 179 ; modem 
 languages iu, 204. ^ 
 
 Oberschulriithe, 24. 
 
 Oral instruction, 41. 
 
 Ordentliche Lehrer, 115. 
 
 Organization, outline of, 1 ff. ; re- 
 lation of schools to state and 
 city, 19 ff. ; general features of 
 inner, 40 ff. 
 
 Overwork, 47, 53. See Ucber- 
 bilrdung. 
 
 Paternalism of state, 28. 
 
 Paulsen, Prof. F., 129, 131, 141 ; on 
 modern languages and future of 
 classical studies, 195, 106. 
 
 Pedagogy, requii'ed of all teach- 
 ers, 75, 70 ; in the universities,
 
 396 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 104-112; courses in, 105; ex- 
 perimental, 109 ; in American 
 universities, 364. 
 
 People's schools, 2, 27, 100, 29S- 
 300. 
 
 Petersilie, Dr. A., 22. 
 
 Philology in language examina- 
 tions, 62, 64 fl". 
 
 Philosophy required of all teach- 
 ers, 59, 61, 74, 76. 
 
 Physics, qualitications for teach- 
 ing, 66 ; course in, 252 fif. 
 
 Planimetry, 228. 
 
 Play, too little, in Germany, 51. 
 
 Playgrounds, inadequate, 51. 
 
 Politeness, marked in pupils, 40. 
 
 Practice classes, 99 ; teaching, 
 points to observe, 102. 
 
 Precocity of Frencli boys, 372. 
 
 Preparation, of teachers, thorough, 
 SO, 40, 42, 55-105, 362, 364, 368 ; 
 suggestions for, in America, 365. 
 
 Preparatory schools, 17. 
 
 Preyer, Prof. William, 109, 155. 
 
 Privileges (Berechtigungen), 30 AT. 
 
 Probejahr, 78, 86, 89. 
 
 Professional training, defective in 
 America, 363 ; should follow 
 academic study, 364. 
 
 Progymnasia, Prussian and Ba- 
 den, 180. 
 
 Pronunciation of English poor, 
 211. 
 
 Prorector, 114. 
 
 Provincial boards, 21. 
 
 I'riifungskommission, 273. 
 
 Prussia, general organization, 22 ; 
 tuition, 27 ; value of diplomas, 
 33 ; number in grades, 38, 39 ; 
 number of recitations per 
 teacher, 53 ; training of teach- 
 ers, 81-85 ; type of all Germany, 
 
 81; seminary year, 86; trial 
 year, 89; teachers' titles, 119; 
 salaries, 120; few changes of 
 teachers, 119; birth of real- 
 gynniasium, 136 ; real-schools 
 without Latin, 140; develop- 
 ment of curricula (table), 162; 
 programmes in gymnasia, 171 ; 
 real-gymnasia, 173 ; real -schools, 
 175 ; higher real-schools, 177 ; a 
 mixed school, 178 ; real-pro- 
 gynmasia, 178 ; progymnasia, 
 180. 
 
 Psychology in education, 59, 64, 
 74, 76, 365. 
 
 Punishments, 41, 42. 
 
 Pupils, number of. in classes, 40, 
 158; distribution of, 8, 9, 38, 
 39; ages of, 13-16; continuous 
 course of, 12, 47, 118. 
 
 Pyramidal system, 1. 
 
 Qualifications of teachers, 68-75. 
 
 See also Various Studies. 
 Quadrivium, 130. 
 
 Ratschulen, 130. 
 
 Eeading, course in, 212-215. 
 
 Keal-gymnasia, origin, 136 ; pro- 
 grammes in, Prussia, 173; Ba- 
 varia, Saxony, 174 ; Baden, 175 ; 
 Frankfort, 181. 
 
 Eeal-progymnasia, in Prussia, 178. 
 
 Beal-schools defined, 2 ; main- 
 tained at local expense, 23 ; 
 origin, 133 ; without Latin, first, 
 140 ; programmes in Prussia, 
 175 ; Bavaria, Sa.xony, 176 ; Ba- 
 den, 177. 
 
 Reform, Association for School, 
 143 ; propositions for, 142 fiF. ; 
 accomplished by Conference of
 
 INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 1890, 150 ff. ; in other countries, 
 145, 1-16. 
 
 Keichsschulkoramission, 19. 
 
 Keife Zeu<rni.ss, 57, 353. 
 
 Eein, Prof. W. H., 93 ; on Ameri- 
 can progress, 110. 
 
 Keligion, in teachers' examina- 
 tion, 65 ; course in boys' school, 
 182-185 ; harmony among sects, 
 184. 
 
 Ecport, Committees of Seven and 
 Ten, 3(51. 
 
 Eethwisch, Prof. C, 26, 38, 142. 
 
 Bichter, Prof. Kichard, 97 ; Jean 
 Paul, 376. 
 
 Russell, Prof. J. E., 257. 
 
 Salaries, of men, 25, 119-125 (ta- 
 bles) ; of women. 330-336 (ta- 
 bles) ; regulated by state, 369. 
 
 Saxony, general organization, 23 ; 
 teachers' hours, 53; teachers' 
 examination and certification 
 (typical for Germany), 56; train- 
 ing of teachers, 79 ; teachers' 
 titles, 114; salaries, 120; pro- 
 grammes in gymnasia, 172; real- 
 gymnasia, 174 ; real-schools, 176. 
 
 Schiller, Prof. H., 83, 148. 
 
 Schools, distribution of, and pu- 
 pils, 8 ; boards, 21, 28 ; bureau- 
 cratic government of, 22 ; pris- 
 ons, 42 ; length of sessions, 46 ; 
 age, 50. 
 
 Schuldeputation, 21. 
 
 Schiilerballast, 139. 
 
 Schulinspektoren, 21. 
 
 SchulkoUegium, 21, 24, 28, 88. 
 
 Schulze, Johannes, 135. 
 
 Science, natural, 250 ff. 
 
 Seminaries, establishment of, 78; 
 with elementary schools, 82 ; 
 
 special theses in, 83 ; university, 
 91 ff. ; (Jena, 92 ; Leipsic, 95 ; 
 Strasburg, 101 ; Heidelberg, 
 102; ; gymnasial, 85-91 ; in Sax- 
 ony, 79 ; Bavaria, 80 ; Wurtem- 
 berg, 81 ; workings of, 81-112. 
 
 Semler, Christopher, 133. 
 
 Seven disciplines, the, 130, 131. 
 
 Sex of teachers, 40, 372. 
 
 Sexes, separation of, 375. 
 
 Special - department teachers, 59 
 il., 370. 
 
 Specialization should be a late 
 acquisition, 357. 
 
 Spencer, II., on test of value of 
 study, 358 ; on origin of love, 
 382. 
 
 Spiral plan of studies, 244, 358. 
 
 States independent of each other, 
 19. 
 
 Statuary, 192. 
 
 Stereometry, 229, 312. 
 
 Stimuli to higher education, 29. 
 
 Strasburg Seminary, 101. 
 
 Strumpell, Prof. L., 95, 105. 
 
 Studienrath, 114. 
 
 Studies, secondary, earlier intro- 
 duction of, desirable in America, 
 361. 
 
 Subjects, groups of, for teachers, 
 59 ; finished, 360. 
 
 Subordination a national trait, 41. 
 
 Support of schools, 25, 20. 
 
 Teachers, state officials, 24; ap- 
 pointments of, 28; long-tenure 
 of, 40, 118 ; daily hours of, 53 ; 
 freedom from discipline, 54 ; li- 
 braries for, 54 ; salaries (see Sal- 
 aries) ; examination and certifi- 
 cation, 55 ; university training, 
 I 55 ; aim of examination of, 58 ;
 
 398 SECONDARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY. 
 
 professional equipment, 58, YG ; 
 pliilosophy required of all, 59; 
 theses and trial lesson in exami- 
 nation, 60, 367; scope of exami- 
 nation in various subjects, GI- 
 GS; qualifications of, compared 
 ■with American teachers, 68 If. ; 
 titles, 112-118 ; specialized work, 
 59, 369 ; short-tenure, in Amer- 
 ica, 118; superior training in 
 Germany, 75, 362 ; social status 
 of, 160; general plan of ti-ain- 
 ing, 76 ft'., 363 ; suggestions for 
 training in America, 365. 
 
 Teaching, life work, 368. 
 
 Technical schools, 7. 
 
 Text-books, unimportant role, 41. 
 
 Theses, in pedagogical semina- 
 ries, 83 ; in examinations, 60 f., 
 366. 
 
 Thurber, Prof. Charles, 129, 148. 
 
 Training of teachers, 55, 76 If., 359, 
 
 Trigonometry, 61. 
 
 Trivium, 130. 
 
 Tuition, 2G, 27, 298. 
 
 Ueberbiirdung, 141, 146, 203. 
 
 Unity, mental, 359. 
 
 University, diplomas not teachers' 
 certificates, 5fi; conditions of 
 admission to, 33, 137 ; leaders in 
 pedagogical doctrine, 363: train- 
 ing schools in America, 365. 
 
 Values, standard of, in America 
 and Germany, 126. 
 
 Volkelt, Prof. J., 96. 
 Volksschulen, 1, 26. 
 Von Gossler, Minister, 147. 
 Vorschulen, 1, 17 ft".; course in, 
 
 182, 215, 235, 260. 
 Vorstand, 114. 
 
 Wliite, Dr. E. E., on education of 
 girls, 377. 
 
 Willmann, Prof., 101. 
 
 Windschied, Dr. Kathie, 306. 
 
 Women, higher education of, 276- 
 350; teachers, number of, 300; 
 state support of education of, 
 300 ; distribution of schools and 
 teachers, 802 ; in universities, 
 313 ; Fortbildungsschulen for, 
 823 ; salaries of, 330 ; emanci- 
 pation of, 331 ; education of, in 
 principal countries (tables), 337- 
 340 ; higher education of, con- 
 sidered, 341 ft'., 377 ; desirability 
 of, in girls' schools, 373 ft'. ; effect 
 of education on health and on 
 home life of, 379-383. 
 
 Wurtemberg, teachers' liours, 53; 
 professional training, 80 ; titles, 
 117, 118; salaries, 120; changes 
 made by Conference of 1890, 
 160; programme in gymnasia, 
 173. 
 
 Ziegler,Dr. T., 101. 
 Ziller, Prof. T., 95. 
 Zoology, teachers' examination in, 
 67 ; course in, 250 ft'. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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