WHIRLWINDS AND DUST-STORMS OF INDIA. 
 
 An Investigation into the Law of Wind, and Revolving Storms 
 at Sea; with numerous illustrations drawn from nature, bound separately; 
 and an Addendum on Sanitary Measures required for European Soldiers 
 in India. 
 
 BY 
 
 P. V. H. . 
 
 SURGEON, BENGAL ARMY, RETIRED LIST. 
 
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 1860. 
 
 LONDON. COLOGNE. 
 
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l AID BniT~lTO!Il 
 
 OF INDIA. 
 
 AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE LAW OF WIND 
 
 AND 
 
 REVOLVING STORMS AT SEA. 
 
 With an Addendum containing practical hints on Sanitary Measures 
 required for the European Soldier in India. 
 
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"Induction is a process of thought by which we rise 
 from particular facts to general truths relating to whole 
 classes of objects or events, and from these again to still 
 higher and more comprehensive generalisations., when two 
 or more classes are compared and found to resemble each 
 other in certain respects a process in which we are guided 
 in every instance by the perception of analogy between the 
 cases compared, and in which we must confine our conclusion 
 strictly within the limits to which the analogy is known to 
 extend. The conclusion may go far beyond the particular facts 
 which have been actually observed, but it cannot go beyond 
 their known relations and ascertained analogies; if it transcend 
 those, it is no longer an inductive inference, but a fanciful and 
 groundless imagination." 
 
 The North British Review. Aug. Numb. 1859. 
 
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Plal 
 
 The above representation of Storm Cards, PL 19, is drawn on the principle explained at 
 
page 21; the Cards are similar in size to the Horn Cards invented by Colonel Sir W m - Reid. 
 
PART I, 
 
. 
 
CUR SPIRENT 
 
 1 he present investigation is directed to the solution of a question 
 which has attracted the notice of philosophers in all ages, u Why the 
 winds blow?" Notwithstanding the attention and labour bestowed upon 
 the subject, it must be acknowledged, that this particular branch of 
 science is still in its infancy; and that much remains to be discovered, 
 before W T C can arrive at any certain conclusion respecting the laws 
 which regulate this complicated phenomenon. 
 
 The following remarks contain the result of a series of obser- 
 vations conducted between 1847 and 1853 in N. W. India, with the 
 intention of elucidating the law of storms. 
 
 A selection has been made of the important and interesting details 
 collected from actual observation during that period; and prominent 
 parts seized upon to serve as data in reasoning. Numerous plates have 
 also been introduced for the purpose of elucidating the Author's views, 
 and of affording an opportunity to lovers of science for studying the 
 phenomena which he has observed. 
 
 Most persons residing in India, must have noticed with feelings 
 of curiosity lofty pillars of dust traversing the surface during the day 
 time, and thought to themselves, - - What are they? From whence do 
 they come? Whither do they go? By what laws are they influenced? 
 Attempts have been made to answer these questions by saying generally, 
 that the pillars thus seen are mere eddies of dust, caused by conflicting 
 currents of air - - effects of rarifaction - - obstructions from terrestrial 
 bodies; &c. &c. But such meagre explanations, so far from solving 
 the difficulty, do but add to it, and must fail to satisfy any one who 
 seeks to dive into the mysteries of nature, and refuses to take for gran- 
 ted what cannot be proved by a careful reference to cause and effect. 
 
 1 
 
Ever since 1847, when I ascertained by experiment the electric 
 origin of Dust Storms and Whirlwinds, my attention has been con- 
 stantly directed to the phenomenon of wind; and 1 have been careful 
 to note every circumstance likely to throw additional light on a subject 
 imperfectly understood. In 1850 and 1851, when encamped with the 
 Lahore Artillery Division on the extensive plain of Meanmeer, near 
 Lahore, an opportunity was afforded for prosecuting the enquiry with 
 some hope of success. Accordingly I erected before the door of my 
 tent, a wind Vane and an Electrical Conductor, and watched the passage 
 of the dust whirlwinds as they swept by; and when the sun's rays were 
 not too overpowering, I followed them on foot, or on horseback, or 
 in a buggy, at the risk of being accounted mad; (for who could see 
 a man chasing the dust, and looking up towards the sky when nothing 
 appeared to be there, without some such conclusion,) note -book and 
 pencil in hand, noting and sketching as I went along, by which 
 means I shortly accumulated facts, which have enabled me to add to 
 the store of knowledge already acquired and perhaps, to form a true 
 theory respecting winds. 
 
 The most prominent facts then obtained, were published in the 
 Bengal Asiatic Journal for 1850 51 and at Lahore, in an Essay to which 
 the local governments of Calcutta, Agra, the Punjab and Bombay most 
 liberally subscribed. But as the facts then brought out, are not ge- 
 nerally known in Europe, I am induced after a lapse of nearly ten 
 years to offer them again to notice in a more comprehensive form, 
 feeling assured that the advances which science has made since then, 
 will not militate against the admission of truths, however opposed 
 they may be to long cherished theories. . 
 
Storms, Whirlwinds, and Waterspouts, and all kindred phenomena, 
 are caused by an electrical Meteor in the form of Cylindrical Columns, 
 working together in a spiral manner, and possessing rotatory and pro- 
 gressive motions, per se ipsos; emanating from the higher regions of 
 the atmosphere, and traversing the earth's surface. 
 
 The columns are in every instance the exciting cause of the phe- 
 nomenon, and of wind in general; the specific character of each, being 
 determined by the particular manner in which the phenomenon happens 
 to be developed. 
 
 They are endued with rotatory and progressive motions, which 
 have the effect of setting- in motion the air through which they pass, 
 causing thereby, currents of wind to blow towards the whirling body, 
 all round, and also in the track. 
 
 This theory is opposed to that which ascribes everything to rare- 
 faction, a theory at variance with facts; and which most scientific 
 men of the present day admit is inadequate to explain many of the 
 most striking phenomena attending storms and whirlwinds. In the 
 words of Sir Richard Phillips, "It is impossible to reconcile the force 
 of winds in .storms, and, in truth, to account for storms &c. &c. on 
 the theory which refers everything to mere rarefaction." 
 
 The meteor, as now defined, is compounded of a number of elec- 
 trically charged bodies of a columnar form, possessing, as was before 
 remarked, rotatory and progressive motions. 
 
 The simplest state in which these spiral bodies appear, is that 
 of a slender cylindrical pillar about 10 or 12 inches broad, extending 
 to an unknown height in the atmosphere, and capable of being lifted 
 up from, or brought down to, the earth's surface, as the case may be. 
 Plate 1. 
 
 This body may be considered the ultimate spiral of the meteor. 
 It is uncertain what these bodies are; for though they exhibit elec- 
 trical effects, as will be afterwards seen, they are clearly not mere 
 discharges of electricity: as Professor Faraday observed in 1850, when 
 replying to a communication made to him from Lahore, April 18 th 1850, 
 on the electric origin of Dust Storms. 
 
"I received your letter respecting Dust Storms not long since 
 anil read it with a great deal of interest. The quantity of Elec- 
 tricity which you obtain at the time is enormous, as is manifest 
 by your obtaining electric depositions from metallic solutions; 
 but then the intensity does not seem to have been very high, 
 for you must have been immersed in the Electrifical atmosphere. 
 I have never yet been able to obtain clear ideas of the manner 
 in which such electricity is supposed to be the cause of whirl- 
 winds, waterspouts, and tornadoes. In such waterspouts as I have 
 seen in the Mediterranean, they did not seem at all due to such 
 a cause. That it accompanies them, there is no doubt of, but 
 then, that may be as much in the way of effect as cause." 
 Not mere discharges of electricity on the contrary, certain facts 
 connected with their development, might lead to the belief, that they 
 are a permanent indestructible form of imponderable matter y hitherto 
 undescribed, occupying the higher regions of the sky, and liable from, 
 certain causes to l>e diverted downwards fo the earth, where we recognise 
 their existence by the various meteorological phenomena they give 
 rise to. 
 
 Sir John Herschel's account of the formation of the solar spots seems 
 applicable to the present case, and serves to explain what may take 
 place with regard to the matter of which the whirlwind is composed. 
 
 "The (solar) spots, in this view of the subject, would come 
 to be assimilated to those regions of the earth's surface, in 
 which for the moment hurricanes and tornadoes prevail. --The 
 upper stratum being temporarily carried downwards, displacing 
 by its impetus the two strata of luminous matter beneath (which 
 may be conceived as forming an habitually tranquil limit be- 
 tween the opposite upper and under currents) the upper, of 
 course, to a greater extent than the lower, and these wholly or 
 partially denuding the opaque surface of the sun below. 
 
 Such progress cannot be unaccompanied with vorticular mo- 
 tions which, left to themselves, die away by degrees and dis- 
 sipate; with this peculiarity, that these lower portions come to 
 rest more speedily than the upper, by reason of the greater re- 
 Distance below, as well as the remoteness from the point of 
 action which is in a higher region; or that their centre (as 
 seen in our waterspouts, which are nothing but small tornadoes) 
 
appear to retreat upwards" - and again: *It seems worth inquiry 
 whether hurricanes in tropical climates may not arise from por- 
 tions of the upper currents prematurely diverted downwards 
 before their relative velocity has been sufficiently reduced by 
 friction on, and gradual mixing with, the lower strata; and so 
 dashing upon the earth with that tremendous velocity which 
 gives them their destructive character, and of which hardly 
 any rational account has yet been given." Sir John Herschel's, 
 Outlines of Astronomy. 
 
 The dynamical effect exerted in the waterspout, whirlwind and 
 the storm, is due to a multiplication of the columnar bodies acting in 
 concert, in a concentrated form, more or less; just as muscular power 
 is the effect of the joint action of the fibres and fibrillae of the muscle. 
 Plate 2. 
 
 These spiral bodies, being invisible under ordinary circumstances, 
 pass unnoticed, and are only distinguishable when they become char- 
 ged with dust in passing over a sandy soil; or with watery particles, 
 when moving over water. Plate 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 
 
 Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to a clear under- 
 standing of the subject, to give a detailed account of the phcenomena 
 attending whirlwinds as exhibited in the tropics, and the facts on which 
 the present theory is based. 
 
 Dust whirlwinds are common in all parts of India (and it may be 
 inferred that they exist in all tropical climates) especially during the 
 dry season, and present a variety of appearances. 
 
 Sometimes, a sle-nder lofty cylindrical pillar of dust is seen, revol- 
 ving on its axis, or several such pillars moving on together in the 
 same direction, - - or revolving in a circle, or as a dense cloud of 
 dust, sweeping over the country like a tornado the cloud of dust 
 occasionally presenting to the view a distinctly columnar structure. 
 Plate 8. 9. 10. 
 
 In Northern India, about Lahore, where these observations were 
 made, the smaller whirlwinds always appear in dry windy weather, 
 and are most numerous about February, March and April and through- 
 out the hot dry months; dissappcaring for the most part during the 
 rains, when the earth and sky are moist; again appearing in the Autumn 
 and during the cold season, though much less frequently then. 
 
 They occur with singular regularity at certain periods of the day, 
 
commencing about three or four hours after sun rise, and continuing 
 till three or four in the afternoon, when they gradually disappear, 
 being most numerous about midday. 
 
 They are rarely noticed after sunset, or at night > though dust 
 storms frequently blow near sun- set, and sometimes during the night. 
 From this periodical variation, it may be concluded that the solar in- 
 fluence is at least a subordinate cause of their development. 
 
 They are Electrical* - - The fact was proved in 1847 at Lahore, 
 and has since then been verified by hundreds of observations continued 
 during the six succeeding years. *) 
 
 The question, how do the winds blow? may be answered by 
 attending to what occurs in the case of a small whirlwind, 3 or 4 feet 
 in diameter, moving briskly over a dusty plain, 10 or 15 miles an hour. 
 
 We take our stand, and observe in the distance several lofty 
 pillars .of dust moving towards us with a somewhat tortuous course, 
 and we plant ourselves so as to meet one of them. The air about us 
 is perfectly still up to the time of the whirlwind's approach; but the 
 instant it strikes us, we are encompassed with conflicting winds and a 
 cloud of dust. The whirl has passed; and we next notice a train of 
 dust broken into minute tortuous eddies following in its wake for se- 
 veral yards; and experience for a short time, during which the whirl- 
 wind may have progressed 100 or 200 yards, light fluttering winds, or 
 a calm; and then, all at once, a strong breeze blows steadily in 
 the direction of the whirlwind for some minutes, with, now and then, 
 a diminution or an increase in the strength of the blast. Afterwards 
 the wind veers and becomes unsteady, and finally subsides into a calm. 
 The same process is repeated over and over again, as long as the 
 whirlwinds last. 
 
 The strength and duration of the after breeze always depends 
 upon the velocity with which the spiral column is impelled through 
 the air. When it moves with great velocity, the after breeze may in- 
 stantly follow the passage, and continue to blow with violence for 
 some minutes after: when the progress is slow, a gentle breeze blows; 
 or there may be no sensible wind at all following. 
 
 We further remark, that the horizontal section of the whirling 
 
 *) Vide London Philos: Magazine for August 1850, pag. 155. The Bengal Asiatic 
 Journal for 18501851 and the addenda to "the .Sailors' Horn Book for the 
 law of Storms" by Mr. 11. Piddington 1851. 
 
column in contact with the earth's surface, is surrouded with centri- 
 petal streams of dust, which on one particular side, are prolonged to a 
 considerable extent, forming in some instances, a fan-shaped train, which 
 strikes the whirlwind obliquely, sometimes almost at right angles to the 
 line of its progression, keeping up with it as it whirls along, with a 
 degree of lagging behind, the further distant it is removed from the 
 whirling body - - like the tail of a comet. Plate 11. 
 
 A certain amount of rotative energy in the whirlwind, seems re- 
 quisite for the full development of this remarkable set of currents. 
 Repeated observation establishes the fact, that these lengthened currents 
 of wind are invariably formed on the side corresponding with the 
 working of the rotation, and the line of progression; or, the side 
 which is moving in its rotation in the same line with the track; which 
 side we shall call the side of progression. 
 
 In M r . Piddington's valuable work on the law of storms, page 293, 
 par. 407, an objection to the whole rotatory and progressive theory of 
 storms is started by some intelligent person, thus. - "How it is 
 accounted for, that the side which is moving in its rotation in the same 
 line with the track, has not the wind double or treble the force of 
 that in the opposite side? -- Since it must have, at the same time, a 
 double set of forces, i. e. that of the rotation and that of the pro- 
 gression acting upon it." In confirmation of this reasoning, we do really 
 find, that, in the case of the smaller whirlwinds, the wind does blow 
 with much greater force on that particular side; and that is probably 
 true of whirlwinds on a larger scale, subject, as they are, to the same 
 description of forces. 
 
 Another curious phenomenon is often observed in a slowly moving 
 whirlwind; instead of appearing as a simple column, the dust whirl in 
 contact with the ground, and for a few feet upwards, is found to be 
 composed of several distinct vortices, or spiral bodies 1 , each one rotating 
 on its axis as it revolves round and round the whirling circle. Each 
 separate vortex having attached to it in its horizontal section, the same 
 kind of fan-shaped train of dust, as was before remarked with regard 
 to the smaller whirlwind columns. Plate 2. 
 
 This remarkable sight gives the idea of a fairy dance round a 
 ring; -- and the motions are, from all accounts, exactly imitated by 
 the dancing Dervises of Turkey; one of their holy exercices being to 
 whirl round and round like a top; singly, or in company with se- 
 
8 
 
 vcral others ; performing at the same time a gyration round in a circle, 
 as if their dance originated in the very phenomenon now described. 
 We may sometimes watch this motion for a length of time, without 
 changing our position more than a few yards. 
 
 The smaller whirlwinds possess an independent power of motion; 
 are liable to sudden augmentation or diminution in their rotative energy, 
 and ascensive force; have been observed to change their direction sud- 
 denly without apparent cause; and also to expand and divide into se- 
 parate columns, like the strands of a rope before they are cut off, and 
 unite again; and, what seems most unaccountable, to reverse the ro- 
 tation instantaneously when whirling most rapidly. 
 
 The cause of the ascent of dust or water is owing to the combi- 
 ned action and reaction of the centrifugal and centripetal forces of the 
 whirlwind in a resisting medium, and may be explained in the follow- 
 ing words, quoted from my original communication made to the Bengal 
 Asiatic Society in 1851. 
 
 The Electrical spiral rotating and working like a screw from above 
 downwards, sets in motion by its centrifugal action a stratum of air 
 immediately surrounding it; - - outside this again, another circle of 
 winds are found blowing centripetally; and the two meeting, will, by 
 their mutual action and reaction, continuous throughout, form an ascen- 
 ding spiral current of air working a reversed spiral upwards; - - the 
 two motions being well represented by two coils of wire, wound in 
 opposite directions, laid one over the other. Plate 14. 
 
 This result of the two combined actions, may exactly illustrate 
 the force of aggregation or Gravitation as propounded by Sir Richard 
 Phillips in 1826 who remarks: - 
 
 "If a progressive motion acted alone on a mass, it would 
 form a train of the rarer parts, and disperse them. If a rota- 
 tive motion acted alone, it would direct the parts in tangents 
 and disperse them. Their combination directs the parts to the 
 centre, and the two become a force of aggregation, centripetal 
 force, gravity, or weight." 
 
 In the case of the whirlwind column, the progressive motion 
 acts from above downwards, in the line of the vertical axis of rotation 
 as well as in the track. 
 
 The cause of the centripetal currents may be further explained. 
 
 The constant transfer of dust and watery particles from below 
 
upwards, proves that an ascensive current does exist in the diminutive 
 whirlwind, requiring a continuous supply from the adjacent air, which 
 accordingly flows all round the whirling body in centripetal streams, 
 and upwards, with energy proportioned to the power exerted by the 
 centrifugal action -- the proximate cause of the upward motion. 
 
 We thus see, that the spiral columns are the cause of wind, and 
 they may therefore be justly termed, "the wings of the wind;" for, as 
 birds fly by their wings, so, the wind blows by the instrumentality of 
 the electro -magnetic spiral columns. According to this view, Gravitation 
 must be considered "the name of an effect" ; a result -- not a cause: 
 the proximate cause of gravitation having yet to be ascribed to a higher 
 principle some one of the great physical powers by which the Creator 
 and Preserver of the Universe carries on the operations of nature, of 
 which the spiral column may possibly be the symbol. 
 
 The above explanation of the double spiral movement in the 
 smaller whirlwinds, was published in 1851, and it is satisfactory to find, 
 that the late M r . Redfield of America entertained a similar opinion as 
 regards a double spiral movement "in opposite directions as regards 
 the interior and exterior portions of the revolving mass", in a paper 
 read before the American Association at Albany, August 1856, quoted 
 in the London Phil: Magazine for March 1857. 
 
 My a experience, however, does not exactly coincide with M r . R's 
 view (if I understand him aright,) of the conical nature of the whirl- 
 wind; - or, that "the horizontal areas of the higher portions of the 
 whirl exceed greatly those of the lower portions." 
 
 I have witnessed hundreds of whirlwinds, but never saw anything 
 resembling "an inverted cone" as M r . E. describes: on the contrary, 
 the phenomenon to which he seems to allude, viz. the "essential portion" 
 of the whirlwind, always appeared to me, in the plains of India, as 
 a lofty cylindrical pillar, preserving apparently the same diameter 
 throughout its entire height, for thousands of feet. 
 
 It may sometimes present a conical appearance, as is noticeable in 
 the waterspout at sea, from the circumstance of the watery vapour, 
 when raised to a certain height, spreading out from some cause con- 
 nected with gravity or atmospheric currents prevailing in those regions ; 
 but, the integrity of the column is, I am satisfied, preserved throughout, 
 to whatever height it may extend into the atmosphere. 
 
 The supposed analogy of aqueous vortices, referred to in the 
 
10 
 
 same paper, does not hold good in this case. If whirlwinds were, as 
 some suppose, caused by the meeting of two conflicting currents of air, 
 such an idea might be entertained; but as that is not the case, the 
 resemblance cannot be said to exist. 
 
 Though usually holding a definitive course with the prevailing 
 wind, and never going against it, the columns have been observed to 
 change their direction suddenly, and to undergo an increase and di- 
 minution in their rate of progress. 
 
 One of these bodies was once seen, during a calm ; moving across 
 an open plain at the rate of about three miles an hour, from E. S. E. 
 to the opposite quarter; as it approached, its speed diminished, till at 
 length, when within 60 or 70 yards from my position, it stood still, 
 whirling up, with increased energy, large volumes of dust for more 
 than a minute; when, suddenly, it set off with quickened spQed, six 
 or seven miles an hour, at an acute angle, with the former line of its 
 advance, going from W. S. W. to E. N. E. or thereabouts, and passed 
 over the same ground, and a range of barracks which intercepted its 
 course when it was lost to view. A similar kind of unexpected shift 
 has been observed during the advance of a slowly moving dust storm. 
 
 A few remarks on Dust Storms may now be given. 
 
 A Dust Storm or Tornado, is occasioned by an accumulation of 
 whirlwind columns moving en masse, or in rapid succession t over the 
 earth's surface in a direct or wavy line. It varies in breadth, from 
 several yards, to two miles and upwards; and in length may extend 
 over a space of ten, thirty, fifty miles and more. 
 
 The storm generally comes on very suddenly without any pre- 
 vious warning, or barometrical indications, proceeding from any point 
 in the compass. All that we may sometimes notice, is a low bank of 
 dark cloud in the horizon, which rapidly augments, and before we are 
 aware, the storm bursts upon us, and involves the whole scene in mid- 
 night darkness. 
 
 When it passes over the arid plains of India, it whirls high into 
 the atmosphere vast quantities of dust, which are rolled onwards in 
 huge volumes, forming at times quite a sublime spectacle. 
 
 The body of dust commonly appears, when at the distance of 8 
 or 10 miles, as a long, opaque, arched, continuous, cloudy line, rising 
 from the horizon and occupying a space of 6 to 8 points; and sometimes, 
 when at the distance of 4 or 5 hundred yards from the spectator, is 
 
11 
 
 observed to be broken into distinct columns, each one preserving its 
 position in the moving mass, and having a separate whirling on its own 
 axis, as in the case of the single columns. Plate 8. 9. 
 
 After the first sudden burst, violent gusts or squalls succeed one 
 another at intervals, becoming weaker towards its close; when the 
 wind gradually veers and subsides, or continues for a time to blow a 
 breeze in the same direction. Further observation however is required 
 about this latter point. 
 
 An insulated wire projected into the atmosphere, and brought 
 into the room, evolves no electricity, up to the time of the Dust 
 Storm's approach: but the instant it strikes the spot, vivid streams of 
 electricity, sometimes an inch in length, doubled or trebled, are emitted 
 with a crackling sound at the extremity of the wire presented to a 
 conductor communciating with the earth; the electric fluid continuing 
 to be discharged without intermission during the storm, and with 
 increased intensity at the recurrence of the gusts or squalls, which 
 mark the passage of a fresh batch of spirals. 
 
 On the least fall of rain, which not unfrequently terminates a 
 dust storm, the electric discharge instantly ceases or is much di- 
 minished. 
 
 Capt. Scoresby's inability to obtain at sea the least electrical 
 excitation from an insulated wire, fixed to the mast head in the Polar 
 Regions, may be accounted for by the humid state of the air, which 
 according to his account, is "generally in a state of dampness ap- 
 proaching to complete saturation," and becomes a conductor to prevent 
 its manifestation, exactly as is observed in a tropical climate during 
 damp weather, or rain occuring during a dust storm. 
 
 Peculiar states of the atmosphere have been observed, when not- 
 withstanding the heat and dryness of the air, no electricity is developed 
 during the passage of the whirlwind columns. An instance of this oc- 
 cured at Lahore in the Autumn of 1850, when from the 19 th of August 
 (the day on which the first observation was registered on the subject,) 
 till the 12 th of October, little or no electrical excitement was apparent 
 from the insulated conductor; and a gold leaf electrometer was with 
 difficulty affected even by artificial means, and then only for an in- 
 stant; yet during this time, the spiral columns swept by as usual on 
 certain days. This seems to confirm Professor Faraday's observation 
 already referred to, that electricity, though usually an accompaniment, 
 
12 
 
 may not be reckoned a cause of the phenomenon of the waterspout &c. &c.; 
 and it may likewise be said so of wind. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, as tending possibly to connect a cause with 
 the effect, that a considerable amount of sickness from intermittent and 
 remittent Fevers and Dysentery prevailed during the period referred 
 to, which sickness commenced about the first week of August, and 
 continued all September and the greater part of the following month. 
 
 As some interest is supposed to attach to the Meteorological Jour- 
 nal kept during that season, it is here introduced. See extracts from 
 Meteorological Journal. 
 
 But the regular meteorological monthly tables kept at Lahore, 
 Meeanmeer and Peshawar, during 1850, 51, 52, 53 & 54 are not in 
 my possession, but were forwarded in duplicate to the Medical Board 
 at Calcutta. 
 
 The air is usually calm and sultry previous to a Dust Storm. On 
 its near approach, a vane, before unaffected by any wind, turns slowly, 
 and points towards the advancing cloud; \vhich may possibly be ac- 
 counted for by the storm pushing before it a wave of air. 
 
 As the gusts pass, the vane sways to and fro rapidly, 4 to 6 points, 
 just as it does when the smaller whirlwinds sweep by; which oscillation 
 is caused by conflicting currents of wind, some in the direction of the 
 track, others blowing obliquely, from the centripetal streams. The 
 atmosphere on such occasions is so highly charged with electricity, that 
 a constant succession of sparks is given off from an insulated wire 
 for hours together; and the air is so dry, that it is impossible to obtain 
 the dew point by Daniell's hygrometer, even by Chloroform, which 
 reduces the temperature 35 to 38 Farh. below that of the surrounding 
 air. The dew point has sometimes been obtained under these circum- 
 stances, by first lowering the temperature of the black bulb by means 
 of ice, and then using chloroform. 
 
 Evaporation also is, at those seasons, greatly accelerated: upwards 
 of an inch having been registered in the 24 hours during dry windy 
 weather in the hot season. 
 
 Lightning does not usually accompany dust storms: when it does, 
 it is (as far as I recollect) of a dull reddish hue, flickering and thready, 
 running in a spiral form over a large portion of the sky at the same 
 instant - - lingering on the sight a few seconds, (2 or 3) quite un- 
 like the sudden vivid flash from the cloudy nimbi, and generally 
 
13 
 
 speaking, unaccompanied by thunder; or it may appear as a diffused 
 gleamy flash. 
 
 The passage of the whirlwind column is not attended with any 
 peculiar sounds in the open air, as far as my recollection serves, and 
 is not noted in my journal: though hollow whistling moaming sounds, 
 elevated sometimes to roaring or screaming, are always heard from 
 within doors on such occasions; from which it would seem that pe- 
 culiar sounds do accompany the passage, and may be conveyed to the 
 ear in advance of the whirlwind itself, as the velocity of sound is so 
 much greater than that of the swiftest moving hurricane. 
 
 The sound of a blast at any given moment, rushing with the velo- 
 city of 80 miles an hour, might be heard 340 yards in advance of the 
 spiral column causing it. Thus Capt. Scoresby relates an instance 
 where a noise in the upper regions of the air announced the immediate 
 approach of the gale. 
 
 "My father," he says, "once removed his ship from a most 
 dangerous bight in the main ice, where she would probably 
 have been lost, had she remained a few moments longer, in 
 consequence of his having heared the rushing of a storm in the 
 air, while at the mast head. Before the ship was out of danger, 
 a heavy gale commenced, but the sails being set, and the ship 
 under command, she was extricated from the perilous situation. 
 From this circumstance, he imagined that sudden storms 
 frequently commence at some height in the atmosphere, and 
 gradually descend to the surface." 
 
 The sound is supposed to be caused by the closing of the air 
 after the swift passage of the spiral body; affecting it precisely as when 
 the air is sharply struck with a cane. 
 
 A very slight clinking sound has been noticed in the open air 
 during a dust storm, when the velocity of the wind is not very great, 
 and yet sufficient to keep suspended vast quantities of fine sand mixed 
 with minute particles of mica, of which much of the soil of the Punjab, 
 is composed. The sound may be caused by an infinity of gentle con- 
 cussions produced by friction of the particles of dust in the air. 
 
 The electrical discharge from an insulated copper or brass wire, 
 the size of a small kite string, is not attended with any danger, (as far 
 as my experience goes,) however violent the dust storm. 
 
 The strength of the discharge seems to depend upon the size of 
 
14 
 
 the wire, and the height, under certain limitation, to which it projects 
 into the air, as will be seen by reference to Capt. Geldhart's ex- 
 periment. 
 
 Two magnetised sewing needles stuck through a straw with rever- 
 sed poles, and suspended by a silk fibre within a wire helix, the ex- 
 tremities of which were connected with the two terminations of the 
 insulated wire are deflected during the passage of the gusts, in pro- 
 portion to their violence. 
 
 The American Missionaries at Lahore were accustomed to amuse 
 their pupils by giving them electric shocks from a Leyden jar, charged 
 with electricity during the passage of a dust storm. 
 
 Though immersed for hours in an atmosphere of electricity, the 
 body experiences no particular sensations, except it be, perhaps, an 
 unconsciously increased nervous energy in spite of the debililating in- 
 fluence of the climate'. In some persons, the hair becomes electrical 
 when combed, and elicits sparks, accompanied with a crackling sound, 
 
 and a slight shock has been experienced from stroking a horse's 
 
 neck, when seated on the saddle. 
 
 Iodised starch exposed to the open air (and even in the house at 
 times) is almost immediately discoloured when the whirlwinds are 
 passing: other electro -chemical changes have likewise been observed. 
 
 It is impossible to say from whence Dust Storms originate. It may 
 however be confidently affirmed, that they are not caused by conflicting 
 currents of air or, from the effect of mere rarifaction. 
 
 Most probably they emanate from the higher regions of the atmo- 
 sphere, where a stratum of the Eletro- Magnetic beams or spirals may 
 exist; whence under certain circumstances they are diverted downwards 
 to the earth, and there give rise to all the varied phoenomena of wind. - 
 The above facts tend to confirm the opinions expressed by Professor 
 Oersted, M r . Piddington, and Colonel Sir W. Reid, that the water spout 
 and whirlwind is surrounded by an invisible column of air which is 
 also a whirlwind: and they likewise harmonise with certain results 
 deducible from the experimental researches of M r . Peltier on the causes 
 that concur to form the whirlwind and water spout: such as, their supposed 
 connection with electrical action and the existence of outward circu- 
 lar currents of air occasioned by the gyratory movements of the Meteor 
 as referred to in M r . Piddington's work on the law of storms, p. 278. 
 Though strictly speaking, circular currents do not, and cannot exist, 
 
15 
 
 either in water or air, the eddy in every case being formed by currents, 
 moving in what might be termed curved or involute tangents to a 
 central axis; the same being true in revolving storms; only there, 
 right lined winds blow round a central calm space, becoming more and 
 more involute, the nearer they approach its verge: so that the trans- 
 parent storm cards in general use by sailors, which are drawn in con- 
 centric circles, as if founded on the idea of the wind blowing in that 
 manner, do not truly represent the way in which the wind comports 
 itself in revolving storms, and are therefore liable to lead to error, 
 besides puzzling the unexperienced, and giving a false conception of 
 the working of the winds. 
 
 The error, however, becomes less appreciable the nearer we ap- 
 proach the margin of the calm centre, where llle rapid convergence of 
 the winds may sometimes produce almost the same effect, as if they 
 blew in circular currents. 
 
 This difficulty is acknowledged both by M r . Redfield and M r . Pid- 
 dington, who refers to it in his work on Storms at page 88 and 89, un- 
 der the head of "probability of the incurving of the winds in a Cy- 
 clone." 
 
 "I should mention here, that, though for convenience sake 
 I have spoken of the wind as blowing in a circle, and the fore- 
 going tables are calculated on that supposition, yet, it is by no 
 means certain that it is a true circle, or that even if the whole 
 body of the storm be circular, that the winds within it, blow 
 every where in exactly concentric circles. M r . Redfield on this 
 subject says, in a recent memoir, American Journal of Science 
 and the Arts, Second series, N. 1. p. 14. "I have 
 never been able to conceive that the w^ind in violent storms 
 moves only in circles. On the contrary, a vorticular movement, 
 approaching to that which may be seen in all lesser vortices, 
 aerial or aqueous, appears to be an essential element of their 
 violent and long continued action, of their increased energy 
 towards the centre or axis, and of the accompanying rain. 
 
 In conformity with this view, the storm figure on my Chart 
 of the storm of 1830, was directed to be engraved in spiral or 
 involute lines, but this point was yielded for the convenience 
 of the engraver." And, again M r . Redfield remarks - 
 
 "The common idea of rotation in circles, however, is suf- 
 
16 
 
 ficiently correct for practical purposes, and for the construction 
 of diagrams, whether for the use of mariners or for determining 
 between a rotative and a general rectilinear wind, on one hand, 
 or the lately alleged centripetal winds on the other. The de- 
 gree of vorticular inclination in violent storms must be subject, 
 locally, to great variations; but it is not probable that on an 
 average of the different sides, it ever comes near to forty five 
 degrees from the tangent of a circle, and that such average in- 
 clination ever exceeds two points of the compass, may well be 
 doubted." 
 
 The facts now mentioned, confirm Mr. Espy's and Professor Hare's 
 theory of the true motion of the wind in revolving storms, as I under- 
 stand it from M r . Piddfhgton's work, the only one I have had access 
 to; that Cyclones and Whirlwinds are surrounded by centripetal currents, 
 i. e. straight lined winds, rushing to a central space, around which they 
 blow in tangents. 
 
 Admitting the analogy between the smaller whirlwinds, and re- 
 volving storms, or Cyclones properly so called, we might expect to find 
 in both cases the air disturbed to a considerable distance beyond the 
 actual circle of gyration or limits of the active portion of the storm; 
 and that such disturbance would be marked by currents of wind con- 
 verging towards that particular point. This is known to be the case 
 with regard to the smaller whirlwinds; and the following instances 
 seem to illustrate the same fact on a much larger scale. 
 Extract from a Meteorological Journal: 
 
 Lahore, April 21 th 1851, Last night the sky being clear and 
 air still, a great display of shooting stars was observed from 
 9 to 10, and shortly after, the general direction of which was 
 from N. E. to S. W. Many hundreds passed during that time. 
 3 A. M. Air still. No shooting stars visible now. Moon 
 shines bright to S. E. Light masses of Cirri to the N. E. and 
 S. W. hemispheres, stretching in parallel strata or lines S. E. 
 and N. W. which seemed to have moved from the N. E. The 
 Zenith nearly clear. 
 
 7 h . 30 m . A. M. Air still. Overcast sky. Nimbi arches to 
 the S. W. Vane unsteady. 
 
 10 h . 30 m . A. M. Air still. Bar: 29.022 att. Ther. 76, air 80. 
 To the N. E. hemisphere, large masses of cumulo - strati, 
 
17 
 
 fringed with feathery cirri appear. A few patches of light 
 cirrous scud are seen moving from West to East. 
 
 l h . 30 m . P. M. Air still. Vane points to N. E. Whole sky 
 covered with cirro-cumuli and strati. Overhead the clouds 
 in commotion. Three layers of the same description of cloud 
 are observed overlying each other. No lower one, a light scud, 
 at a considerable elevation, two miles or more, moves from 
 West to East. A little above, a bright more massive strata, 
 moves almost equally fast from East to West, while through 
 them is seen, at intervals, a thin layer of white cumuli with 
 no perceptible motion (ow r ing probably to its high elevation). 
 
 3 h . 45 m . P. M. A light unsteady wind sprung up from the 
 N. W. veering to the N. Sky cloudy. 
 
 4 h . 15 m . P. M. Wind North, rising suddenly, blows in gusts, 
 from the passage of dust whirlwinds. Atmosphere electrical 
 (shewn by sparks from the atmospheric conductor), Sky over- 
 cast with nimbi and strati. 
 
 6. P. M. Very stormy looking to the Northern hemisphere. 
 Clear to South. A storm appears in the Northern horizon, distant 
 ten or fifteen miles, the centre of which, bearing about north 
 of the observer, is marked by a dark columnar patch of nimbi, 
 occupying in breadth a space, as far as can be recollected (for, 
 this mode of gauging is not entered in the journal) which would 
 be covered by a finger held before the eyes, at the distance of 
 29 or 30 inches, whence proceed vivid flashes of thready, forked, 
 very irregular lightning. The dark patch, which seems to be 
 the centre of the storm, advances steadily along the distant 
 horizon, and in the course of an hour and half has reached 
 almost to Eastward, and by half past eight, when the sky was 
 clear, the storm was out of sight, though distant lightning still 
 appeared in the East. During the first hour and half, viz. 
 from 6. P. M. to 7, 30, while a light unsteady wind, sometimes 
 increasing in strength, blew from N. by W. and N. N. E., as 
 the storm progressed, a scud cloud in light patches, over head 
 a mile or more high, moved rapidly in an opposite direction, 
 viz: from South to North, towards the body of the storm, in a 
 line apparently tangent to the outer or advancing verge of the 
 
 stormy patch, preserving throughout the period h'ere mentioned 
 
 3 
 
18 
 
 the same relative position - - shifting the line of motion as the 
 centre of the storm progressed. Plate 13. 
 
 7 h . 45 m . P. M. A light wind from N. and N. N. E.; some- 
 times blowing rather stronger. 
 
 8 h . 35 m . P. M. - - Whole sky clear, with the exception of a 
 bank to the N. E. whence lightning continues to play. Light 
 wind from the N. E. One of Jupiter's satellites visible to the 
 naked eye. 
 
 It may here be remarked, that the nucleus of the storm, 
 if one of the revolving kind, rotated probably from right to 
 left, and in accordance with the fact observed with respect to 
 the smaller whirlwinds, the direction of the clouds above during the pro- 
 gress from West to East, may have represented the lengthened centri- 
 petal currents of wind, which are believed to blow with increased 
 energy on the side corresponding to the working of the rotation and the 
 line of progression; which set of currents, it may be suggested, when 
 at certain distances from the centre of motion, occupy an elevated posi- 
 tion in the atmosphere, overlying a surface current of wind blowing 
 sometimes in an opposite direction, from some cause unexplained. 
 
 Capt. Scoresby in describing the variable nature of the winds in 
 the Arctic regions, mentions a case which seems to bear upon this 
 point, and affords an illustration of the rotatory character of such 
 winds, and the direction they assume towards a particular point of 
 excitement. 
 
 He remarks: "The phenomenon that is most calculated to 
 excite surprise is, that several distinct and even opposite winds, 
 with the force, in many instances, of a fresh gale, will occasio- 
 nally prevail at the same moment of time, within the range of 
 the horizon." He continues: "It sometimes happens, that ships, 
 within sight of each other, will, at the same period of time, 
 experience every variety of weather, from calm to storm, from 
 fair weather to thickest snow, together with several distinct and 
 contrary currents of wind. On the morning of the 30 th of 
 April 1810, the ship Resolution, in which I served in the ca- 
 pacity of Chief mate or harpooner, was, during thick showers 
 of snow, sailing by the edge of a stream of ice, with the wind 
 from the North- Westward. About ten, A.M., the snow abated, 
 and several ships were seen within the distance of three or 
 
19 
 
 four miles. As all of these ships were sailing "on a wind", it 
 was easy to ascertain the direction of the wind where they 
 were, and curious to observe its variableness. 
 
 Two ships, bearing North-East from us, had the wind at 
 North-East; two, bearing East, had East or East -North -East, 
 two bearing South-East, had the wind at South-East; while, 
 with us, it blew from the North -West. In each of these 
 situations, a fresh breeze prevailed; but in some situations, 
 where there happened to be no ships, there appeared to be no 
 wind at all. The clouds above us, at the time, were constantly 
 changing their forms - - showers of snow were seen in various 
 places at a distance." 
 
 The accompanying diagram drawn to scale is intended to illustrate 
 this description. Plate 15. 
 
 A small roundish dense white cloud, occasionally presents itself 
 suddenly on a clear sky. 
 
 On first witnessing it at Lahore, I supposed it to be a shrapnell 
 shell burst in midair, and waited to hear the report. Its gradual en- 
 largement soon shewed what it was. Another time, the cloud trailed 
 along with it to the earth, a faint slate grey streamer. Its true na- 
 ture was then apparent, viz, an Electrical column passing over water 
 and forming, for the time, a diminutive Water spout. 
 
 Capt. Scoresby relates a case somewhat analogous, which may be 
 taken to show, that partial and sudden gusts of wind, which we now 
 know are occasioned by the passage of the Electrical spiral through the 
 air, are not confined to the earth's surface, but are met with blowing 
 with equal force in very elevated regions. His father w r hile 
 
 "engaged admiring the extensive prospect from an eminence 
 in Charles' island, of about two thousand feet, scarcely noticed 
 the advance of a very small cloud. Its rapid approach and 
 peculiar form (having somewhat the appearance of a hand) at 
 length excited his attention, and when it reached the place 
 where he was seated in a calm air, a torrent of wind assailed 
 him with such violence, that he was obliged to throw himself 
 on his body, and stick his hands and feet in the snow to pre- 
 vent himself from being hurled over the tremendous slope which 
 threatened his instant destruction. The cloud having passed, 
 the air, to his great satisfaction, became calm, when he im- 
 
20 
 
 mediately descended by sliding down the surface of snow, and 
 in a few minutes reached the base of the mountain in safety." 
 
 In 1851, a Storm Card, founded on the presumption that the winds 
 in a Cyclone blow round a central space in tangents, was proposed, 
 and a brief description of it published in the Bengal Asiatic Journal. 
 
 Mature consideration favours the belief, that this is the true prin- 
 ciple on which such a card should be drawn. But in as much as the 
 size of the central space in Cyclones is liable to endless diversity the 
 circle at one time expanding at another contracting subject also to 
 an acceleration and retardation in the speed it is evident that no one 
 card could be constructed so as to meet every case : the seaman 
 should, therefore, make his own cards to suit the emergency, which he 
 may easily do with tracing paper. 
 
 To meet the difficulty, I now propose, by way of illustration, to 
 draw a card with three circles, representing the respective diameters 
 of three different sized Cyclones - - each one surounded by its own 
 tangent winds, delineated so as to avoid confusion -- the true direction 
 of the winds, in each circle of tangents, being marked on a correspon- 
 ding marginal rim. One card, if need be, is applicable to both hemis- 
 pheres, by reversing it. The accompanying figure of a Storm Card, 
 is drawn to scale, with circles of 50, 84 and 124 miles in diameter 
 respectively, to suit the chart of the Charles Heddle Cyclone in 1845, 
 so skilfully worked out by M r . Piddington, and published in his Horn, 
 Book, as also in the Nautical Magazine of 1846, which chart is here 
 introduced, marked with some of the ship's courses prolonged in tan- 
 gent lines, to shew the direction of the winds, as they occurred in 
 successsion, while the vessel was carried round and round several ti- 
 mes in the vortex. 
 
 As this chart is supposed to give an admirable illustration of the 
 working of a Cyclone in the Southern Hemisphere, it may be gran- 
 ted, that the value of the proposed card will be fairly tested by being 
 made to apply to it, due allowance being made for slight errors in the 
 construction of the original chart, and for the possibility of the centre 
 of the Cyclone not having been laid down with perfect accuracy bet- 
 ween the 22 nd and 25 th , and also on the 27 th . The ship's courses in 
 consequence being marked somewhat out of their proper places. 
 
 During the first 24 hours, the Cyclone appears to have been al- 
 most stationary, progressing at the rate of about a mile an hour. After 
 
that it moved more rapidly, and by the 25 th had contracted its diameter 
 considerably, and continued its rotation with more uniformity. 
 
 The Card, it will be observed, is constructed on the supposition 
 that the Cyclone, when perfectly formed, preserves the integrity of its 
 circular or cycloidal gyration throughout -- though, as before mentio- 
 ned, the active forces of the storm are augmented on the side of pro- 
 gression, which it is manifest they were in this case, by the longer 
 courses swept by the ship, when drifting in that particular portion of 
 the storm; a circumstance that seems to favour the correctness of the 
 principle upon which the Card is constructed but it is safer to leave 
 its further elucidation to those acquainted with Nautical science. 
 
 A Cyclone Compass was also constructed and a description of 
 it given in 1851 - - but, as that, though made on correct prin- 
 ciples, is of no practical use to the mariner, no further notice 
 will be taken of it. 
 
 On inspecting the Card, it will be observed that the tangent lines 
 representing the winds blowing round the Cyclone, differ considerably, 
 both in direction, and in their duration or length, according to the 
 areas described by the circles of gyration, - - and that the length of 
 the lines are made to differ, in order to accord with the supposition, 
 that the voiticular power of the whirlwind is generally increased in 
 proportion to its concentration and consequent diminution, under cer- 
 tain limitations; the concentration being usually accompanied with in- 
 creased and extended influence on the surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 The lines may, therefore, serve to mark the comparative stength 
 and prolongation of the winds blowing round the area of storms of 
 different magnitudes but in using the diagram, due regard must be 
 had to what has been frequently dwelt upon, viz: that the forces of 
 the whirlwind are greater on the side of progression, and the winds, 
 therefore, on that side of the storm are greatly prolonged and their 
 power augmented. 
 
 Plate 17 represents transparent Horn cards for the Northern and 
 Southern hemispheres, with tangent wind lines marked for two different 
 sized Cyclones only, to avoid confusion from intersecting lines. 
 
 A representation is also given of ships standing on their proper 
 tacks to escape running into the centre. 
 
 It is supposed, that this so completely simplifies the thing, as to 
 afford to the sailor at a glance , a knowledge of where abouts he is, 
 
22 
 
 .mil what In* lias to do, when involved in a. storm of the kind; which 
 cannot bo said of the Horn^Carrls now in use , which air drawn as it' 
 on the erroneous supposition, that the wind in i\ revolving storm blew 
 round and round in concentric circles. 
 
 Much interest is connected -with an inquiry into the origin ami 
 termination of Cyclones. The cause of their rotations ami progressive 
 motions; - - what , can become of the enomous volume of air, which 
 is driven in all round the vortex; and how the mysterious calm centre 
 is to be explained. 
 
 According to the testimony of M r . Piddington in 1851, none of 
 tho>o pho-noineiia have been satisfactorily accounted for: and the diffi- 
 culties attending their explanation are best known to those who have 
 devoted most attention to the study. 
 
 M r . Piddington, at pag. 279 of his book on Storms for 1851, refer- 
 ring to how Cyclones begin and end, remarks: 
 
 "we are yet involved in utter mystery as to these two es- 
 sentials to the history and right understanding of Cyclones." 
 None of our researches have as yet disclosed to us anything 
 on this subject beyond remote conjectures" 
 and, referring to the cause of their rotations he says: 
 
 u there is another great law, which is wholly unaccounted 
 for by either of them, and this is the: Law of their rotation; 
 so invariable in each hemisphere, that wo find nothing Approa- 
 ching to a doubt of it in all the numerous investigations which 
 have been made;" 
 and as to their progressive motions, pag. 71: 
 
 "We are thus as yet entirely in the dark as to what causes 
 their progressive motion, as we really are as to what gives 
 them their violent gyrations; and we are still more so, if we 
 consider that like sand-storms or dust whirlwinds, some of them 
 appear to remain comparatively stationary for hours, or a day 
 or more (vide pag. 37) moving at a rate of l ! / s or 2 miles an 
 hour, and then to start off, as it were, on a track upon which 
 their size and velocity gradually increase 1 We find them also 
 usually much diminished in their velocity when they pass over 
 land, especially if it bo high, and it would appear too that 
 
23 
 
 storms sometimes decrease in size and in rate of travelling 
 but augment fearfully in so doing, their violence; and this, 
 when passing over the open ocean. It is then quite impossible 
 to say to what their progression is owing." 
 
 There is no explanation given to account satisfactorily for, what 
 is commonly called, the calm centre', nor what becomes u of the huge 
 volume of air which must be every moment poured in to supply the 
 forces of the Cyclone;" pag. 290. 
 
 Without attempting a lengthened discussion, which must be left 
 to others more competent to do justice to the subject, I shall confine 
 my attention to certain facts and principles, upon the right interpre- 
 tation of which, most of the phenomena now before us, may admit of 
 solution. And first I would point to the Electro-Magnetic Spiral Column 
 which seems to be a key to the whole; representing, as it does, a 
 mysterious presiding agency - - we might almost say, animated - - it- 
 self endued with motion, and capable of imparting it to other matter 
 with which it may be brought into contact; involving it, and bodies 
 of a similar nature to itself, in its own vorticular revolutions. 
 
 This property of matter has been ably set forth by the late Sir 
 Richard Phillips in certain axioms, as they may be called, on the 
 cause of circular motion, (ascribable, as he asserts, to action and re- 
 action in opposite directions in a medium; which thus becomes a 
 tf transmitter of the forces,") some of which are here quoted. 
 
 1. u Action and reaction are always equal, and in directions 
 varying as the angle of impulse." 
 
 2. u Small bodies are moved by large ones, because invol- 
 ved in their motion." 
 
 3. "It is a principle never to be lost sight of, that circular 
 motion is a necessary result of equal action and reaction in con- 
 trary directions." 
 
 4. "It would be the effect of the reactions of such media 
 (air, water &c.) to make bodies of certain sizes and distances 
 go round each other, when moving contrary ways, and appro- 
 ximately only when 'moving the same way. 1 ' 
 
 5. "There cannot be a reasonable doubt that all circular 
 motion in nature is the effect of action and reaction." 
 
 6. "If a progressive motion acted alone on a mass, it would 
 form a train of the rarer parts, and disperse them. If a rotative 
 
24 
 
 motion acted alone, it would direct the parts in tangents and 
 disperse them. Their combination direct the parts to the centre, 
 and the two become a force of aggregation, centripetal force, 
 gravity, or weight." 
 
 7. "In the gaseous state, the atoms are projected, and then 
 repelled into orbits by the atmospheric pressure, and maintain 
 a space or volume by re -action; for all projectiles, uniformly 
 re -acted on, are converted into orbit motions." 
 
 8. "When one body moves another body, their subsequent 
 velocity is lowered as their joint mass is increased. Large bo- 
 dies move small ones by division of velocity, often miscalled 
 re -action." 
 
 9. "Bodies have no force or momentum but what they derive 
 from some transferred motion of another body in motion." 
 
 Bearing in mind, therefore, the facts already detailed concerning 
 the physical properties of the whirlwind column, and applying to it 
 the above fundamental rules of science, as far as they will go, we per- 
 ceive one way in which the Cyclone sometimes does commence. 
 
 A few spiral columns descend from the sky to the surface in the 
 form of water spouts or dust whirlwinds which, by degrees, exert an 
 influence on the adjacent air, above and below, - - causing by their 
 rotatory movements, vorticular currents all around, involving by that 
 means, other bodies of a similar nature; - till, at length, by fresh 
 accessions, the area of revolution is so enlarged, that from a whirl of 
 only a few yards in extent, it comes to measure many miles. 
 
 Another way. A Tornado or Dust-Storm, which we know to be a 
 right lined tempest, may gradually, by means of friction, be deflected, 
 and finally converted into one of a revolving character, increasing in 
 size, as it acquires a revolving motion, by fresh additions from the sur- 
 rounding atmosphere. Again - - Numerous spiral columns, thousands 
 of which, during 6 or 7 hours of the day, are continually passing, and 
 on other days repassing, as if a host was mustering for the battle, - 
 after accumulating somewhere and somehow, may return, as a compact 
 body, and "rank upon rank, rank upon rank", like an army in motion, 
 rush swiftly over the ground, as a Tornado or Dust-Storm, and become 
 converted, as in the former case, into a Cyclone or revolving storm. 
 
 As regards the Calm Centre, the case is plain. What is true of 
 the whirlwind of small diameter, is equally true of one of much 
 
2f> 
 
 greater dimensions; both are influenced by the same laws, and a central 
 space, devoid of wind, is a necessary effect of centrifugal forces and vorti- 
 cular movements of the Tempest, but, not, as some suppose, by reason of 
 the conflicting, and opposing winds neutralizing one another, .thereabouts. 
 The cause of the opposite rotation of the Cyclones in the two he- 
 mispheres is explained (to my notion) in Part 2, where it is ascribed 
 to the configuration of the Earth, and the two motions it is subjected 
 to, - - the diurnal, on its axis, and the impetus with which it is car- 
 ried on in space; directing the motions or currents of the atmosphere, 
 and matter floating in it, of which the whirlwinds are composed. 
 
 The idea is supported by the analogy of two vortices in a fluid, ro- 
 tating in opposite directions when disturbed by a body moved in it in 
 a definite direction; especially when that body is convex; the two vor- 
 tices will then, acquire a curve left and right, corresponding to what 
 we conceive may be the effect of the first impetus, communicated to 
 the Cyclones in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, before they 
 recurve backwards N.W. and S.W. 
 
 The ascensive power, or upward spiral movement of the whirlwind 
 column, as displayed in a continual transference of dust or watery par- 
 ticles from the earth to the sky, enables us to explain what becomes of 
 the immense influx of air, which continues to press in from all sides 
 around the vortex. 
 
 The vast body of air driven inwards, does not, I conceive, move 
 like & huge moving chimney -like column," though the effect may be 
 nearly the same but is got rid of, by the instrumentality of the in- 
 vidual spirals, - - each spiral column disposing of its own air. 
 
 What becomes of the Cyclones, is a more difficult question to 
 answer. As they descend, so in like manner, they may again ascend 
 to their own elevated region; - - not bodily, perhaps, but possibly by 
 degrees, as we have seen them form; and, as we know, the smaller 
 whirlwinds have been seen to decrease. Or, they may (after running 
 their accustomed parabolic tracts, N. West, and then in continuation 
 wheeling to N. East, in the Northern Hemisphere, acording to M r . Red- 
 field, Col. Sir W. Reid, M r . Milne &c. or in the Southern Hemisphere 
 - S. West, and whirling round again to S. East, according to Reid, 
 D r . A. Thorn, M r . Bousquet, M r . Piddington and others) on approaching 
 the poles, become absorbed into the beautiful Aurora. 
 
26 
 
 It may be asked are the whirlwind columns confined to Tropi- 
 cal climates, since they are not observed in these more Northern lati- 
 tudes. In answer to such an inquiry, I may confidently affirm that they 
 do exist equally in these temperate climes, as well as in the Tropics; 
 though from the humid state of the atmosphere, and cultivated soil, and 
 the subdued power of the sun's rays, the conditions favourable to their 
 visible development are not present, and accordingly they pass us unnoti- 
 ced. Still, there they are; and not a change of wind or weather occurs, 
 but it is accompanied by a manifestation of these very spiral columns, 
 unseen, however, save at the moment of their passage, when the dust 
 whirls along the ground in eddies hither and thither, and marks as it 
 were the foot print of the spiral column. 
 
 To an unpractised eye, these eddies convey little or no meaning; 
 but to those who have been continually exercised in observing such 
 phenomena, under every aspect, they are full of meaning and lead 
 to the conclusion, that the self same causes of wind exist all over the 
 world. 
 
27 
 
 On viewing Plate 2 & 11, which are intended to illustrate the cur- 
 rent of air drawn into the vortex of the whirlwind column, we cannot 
 fail to be struck with the resemblance they bear to the figures of comets. 
 
 So striking indeed is the resemblance, that it well might lead to 
 the supposition, that the two phcenomena were influenced by the very 
 same laws ; and that the tail of the comet was due to the same kind 
 of action and reaction on a surrounding medium, through which it passes, 
 as in the case of the whirlwind column. 
 
 On a closer inquiry, the analogy is still more marked. 
 
 Both possess rotatory and progressive motions in a medium; and 
 the whirlwind, under certain favourable circumstances, throws out a tail, 
 as the comet does, on the side of progression, which points away from 
 the centre round which it would revolve; (that is, when the direction 
 of its progress is the same with that of the rotation) always preserving 
 the rotative position in whatever part of the circle it may occupy. If 
 the rotation is the contrary way, the tail is developed on the opposite 
 side. 
 
 To what distance these side currents of the whirlwind extend, is 
 not known. That seems to depend upon the velocity and rotative energy 
 of the spiral column, as is said to be the case with comets; the dust, 
 however, has been observed to be strongly affected at right angles to 
 the line of progression, to the distance of 50 yards or more, I think, 
 when the area of the vortex, or whirling circle, has been about 3 or 4 
 yards in diameter - - but the air may be affected to a much further 
 extent. 
 
 It may, therefore, be suggested, that the tail and luminous atmos- 
 phere of comets is occasioned by the effect of the rotatory and pro- 
 gressive motions of the body, in the ethereal medium: and the influx 
 of matter, which must necessarily take place, as in the case of the 
 whirlwind, may be disposed of in something of a similar Avay, and give 
 rise to the appearance of concentric coats, clearly marked in some cases. 
 
 Sir John Herschel's description of some of the most remarkable 
 characteristics of comets, will be read with increased interest. 
 
28 
 
 "Par. 561. Their variations in apparent size during the time 
 they continue visible, are no less remarkable than those of their 
 velocity; sometimes they make their first appearance as faint 
 and slow moving objects, with little or no tail; but by degrees 
 accelerate, enlarge, and throw out, from them this appendage, 
 which increases in length and brightness till (as always happens 
 in such cases) they approach the sun, and are lost iu his 
 beams. It is for the most part after thus passing the sun, that 
 they shine forth in all their splendour, and that their tails ac- 
 quire their greatest length and development; indicating, may 
 be, the increased action that has been communicated to them by 
 their close approximation to that luminary." 
 
 "As they continue to recede from the sun, their motion 
 diminishes, and the tail dies away, or is absorbed into the head, 
 which itself grows continually feebler, and is, at length, alto- 
 gether lost sight of, in by far the greater number of cases 
 never to be seen more." 
 
 "Par. 599. It is, however, in a physical point of view that 
 these bodies offer the greatest stimulus to our curiosity. There 
 is, beyond question, some profound secret and mystery of na- 
 ture concerned in the phoenomena of their tails. Perhaps it is 
 not too much to hope, that future observation, borrowing every 
 aid from rational speculation, grounded on the progress of 
 physical science generally, (especially those branches of it 
 which relate to the etherial or imponderable elements) may 
 ere long enable us to penetrate this mystery, and to declare 
 whether it is really mattery in the ordinary acceptation of the 
 term, which is projected from their heads with such extravagant 
 velocity, and if not impelled, at least directed in its course by 
 a reference to the sun, as its point of avoidance. In no respect 
 is the question as to the materiality of the tail more forcibly 
 pressed on us for consideration, than in that of the enormous 
 sweep which it makes round the sun in perihelio, in the man- 
 ner of a straight or rigid rod, in defiance of the law of gravi- 
 tation, nay, even of the received laws of motion, extending (as 
 we have seen in the comets of 1680 and 1843) from near the 
 sun's surface to the earth's orbit, yet whirled round unbroken; 
 in the latter case through an angle of 180 in little more than 
 
29 
 
 two hours. It seems utterly incredible that in such a case it is 
 one and the same material object which is thus brandished. If 
 there could be conceived such a thing as a negative shadow, 
 a momentary impression made upon the luminiferous cether be- 
 hind the comet, this would represent in some degree the con- 
 ception such a phenomenon irresistibly calls up. But this is not 
 all. Even such an extraordinary excitement of the cether, con- 
 ceive it as we will, will afford no account of the projection of 
 of lateral streamers: of the effusion of light from the nucleus 
 of a comet towards the sun; and its subsequent rejection; of 
 the irregular and capricious mode in which that effusion has 
 been seen to take place; none, of the clear indications of al- 
 ternate evaporation and condensation going on in the immense 
 regions of space occupied by the tail and coma, none, in 
 short, of innumerable other facts which link themselves with 
 almost equally irresistible cogency to our ordinary notions of 
 matter and force." Sir John HerscheVs Outlines of Astrony. 
 
30 
 
 The following interesting account of a remarkable natural phoeno- 
 
 menon bears upon the subject under discussion. 
 
 The writer is a M r . M c + Murray, a gentleman employed as an 
 
 Agent of the British & Foreign Bible Society in the West Indies and 
 
 South America. 
 
 "On the twenty- seventh of April we had passed a pleasant 
 day, and were beginning to guess at the probable time of our 
 arrival at the mouth of the Delaware. In the afternoon of that 
 day, the sky became suddenly overcast, and presented a con- 
 flicting and angry appearance, which led me to express my 
 fears to the Captain that we were going to have a "blow." He 
 thought otherwise, but continued to gaze on the various strata 
 of clouds which seemed to be meeting, and circling, and mu- 
 stering, as if preparing for the display of some extraordinary 
 phcenomena. Soon after this, our attention was called to two 
 large water-spouts, which were approaching us with a speed of 
 from fifteen or twenty miles an hour, while our progress at 
 the time did not exceed two. With feelings of delight, we 
 gazed upon them,' as they crossed our bows within pistol shot, 
 making the surface of the water as they passed, for a space of 
 a hundred square feet, boil and steam like an immense furnace. 
 Soon after this, the air was completely darkened, and night 
 came on. 
 
 The wind was now so light and changeable, that the Cap- 
 tain ordered most of our sails to be furled. The thunder was 
 terrific, and the flashes of lightning so frequent, and so vivid, 
 as completely to illumine the thick darkness in which we were 
 enveloped. The water spouts that we beheld and admired, 
 with the light of the day, were but the prelude to the awfully 
 grand scene that now opened to our view. The rushing noise 
 of the water spouts around us, was appalling, whilst their po- 
 sition and progress were revealed to us by the lurid glare 
 of the lightning, and by flaming meteors, which like blazing 
 cannon swept a curve in the distance. The columnar form 
 of the spouts thus exhibited, perpendicular, or slightly inclined, 
 as they were stationary or progressive, seemed to support the 
 canopy of blackness, that was spread over and around us. The 
 scene, could it have been viewed without feelings of the utmost 
 
31 
 
 apprehension, was one the most magnificent, that language could 
 describe, or the imagination could paint. But having no other 
 cargo, than seventy five tons of iron, which was hardly suffici- 
 ent to balast our flat -bottomed barque, we expected every mo- 
 ment to be struck by the lightning or to be capsized by a 
 water spout. 
 
 In the midst of these trying circumstances, the attention of 
 all on board was called to five or six water spouts, on our star- 
 board quarter, and by the aid of the lightning's glare, we en- 
 deavoured to mark their progress, and their path. Instantly the 
 alarm was given, that one was close to us on the other side, 
 which was approaching us with a speed and a rushing sound, 
 that threatened instant destruction. The Captain at the top of 
 his voice called out : "Let go the halliards !" "Haul down the 
 jib !" the men were at their post, and yet before they could 
 obey the order, the water spout was upon us; it struck us mid- 
 ships and gave us such a lift, we thought we were gone. What 
 an anxious moment! The past, the present, and the future 
 crowded on the mind with a force, that to be comprehended 
 must be experienced. As the spouts have a rotatory as well 
 as. a progressive motion, by the former having crossed us, it 
 struck the ship on the lee side, and assisted us to right again. 
 
 For four anxious hours we were in this helpless and pitiful 
 condition," deep calling unto deep/' at the noise of the water- 
 spout" (pipes) during which time no fewer than twenty-five were 
 made visible to us by the lightning's flash. It was with the 
 feelings of the liveliest gratitude to God c that I read on the 
 following morning the 107th Psalm. Scarcely had I finished 
 the reading of my daily portion, when our attention was ar- 
 rested by the appearance of the clouds, and in a few minutes 
 after, six huge water spouts formed, the largest of which was 
 nearest to us, and all but stationary; it was about three fur- 
 longs off. Had we been visited, becalmed as we were, by one 
 so large, and whose progress was so slow, we could not have 
 escaped a watery grave." 
 
 "I may just mention, that these electrical phoenomena so 
 frequently witnessed by mariners in the Gulf stream, are no 
 
32 
 
 doubt in a great measure to be accounted for by the fact, that 
 the waters of the stream heated within the tropics, are of a 
 temperature of 8 to 10 Fahr. above those on either edge" 
 
 Calcutta Oriental Baptist, for April, 1850. 
 
 The following communication made to me in 1853 by Capt. Geld- 
 hart, of the Bengal Army, on the Electricity developed in Dust 
 Storms, with a description of an arrangement used by him for the 
 purpose of testing the phoenemenon is here introduced. (See Plate 16.) 
 
 A 30 foot pole, was fixed on the flat roof of a house, in which 
 he resided, which carried a 5 pronged insulated brass fork, to which was 
 attached an atmospheric exploring wire, which was brought through the 
 roof into his sitting room, and there connected with several unmag- 
 netized needles suspended in coils and a table on which were placed 
 cups containing saturated solution of zinc, copper, and acidulated wa- 
 ter -- all connected together and terminating in a conductor con- 
 nected with the earth. 
 
 Capt. G. states: 
 
 "one evening about half past five, a violent Dust Storm blew 
 from the N. & N. W. The rod of my apparatus being down, 
 no Electricity was at first perceptible. On raising the wire a pro- 
 ceeding from M. and its opposite wire, and plate ?>, to ascertain 
 if any deposit had taken place, and finding none, I approximated 
 a and 6, when instantly the angle of b was fused Avith a hissing 
 noise. Not knowing what might happen next, I quickly immer- 
 sed each wire again in the cup and broke the circuit at M. 
 A stream of vivid blue, the thickness of a crow quill, and */ 9 
 an inch or more in length, now passed between M. and the 
 wire a, which I held in my hand. I united them without delay, 
 fearing an accident, being warned of the enormous quantity 
 of Electricity that was passing at the time, by observing the 
 heliacal coil and frame G. covered with a lambent flame, while 
 occasional sparks sprung from the wire C. 
 
 Having placed H. about */ an inch from the ball on /. and dis- 
 connected M. with N. 0. P. Q., I retreated into an inner room, and 
 there sat watching. From time to time, sparks flew about the 
 room, particularly in the direction of an Iron rod suspended from 
 
33 
 
 the ceiling by ropes, over the table, which was used to hang 
 clothes upon. - - Very large sparks passed at first at intervals; 
 the balls being kept far apart, it took some quantity of Elec- 
 tricity (or time) to charge the brass rod and ball H. (which was 
 of some thickness) before the discharge took place. During the 
 time the stofm was passing over the house, the sparks become so 
 frequent, and the apparatus so highly charged, 
 that the electrical discharge finally settled into 
 a most vivid star brush which lasted nearly an 
 hour. - - From the point of the needles, which 
 together with the piece of soft iron suspended in the Helices, 
 remained unmagnetized, issued a sharp wind or Aura, with a 
 hissing noise, which pierced the hands on approaching them, 
 like needles, and which lasted throughout the storm, increasing or 
 diminishing according to the intensity of the electrical discharge. 
 
 The needles were attracted to the sides of the helix; but, the 
 soft iron was unaffected, while a new steel file lying on the table 
 at the distance of several feet, was afterwards found magnetized. 
 
 When the storm had nearly blown over and a comparatively 
 small Electrical discharge was passing, I made the current pass 
 through a coil machine, with and without the bundle of wires, 
 yet no effect was produced on an Electrometer. 
 
 The spark that then issued, was considerably greater than 
 what is elicited from my battery of 6 oz. cells, affording a 
 surface of metal amounting to 216 square inches. 
 
 Another time, in presence of Capt. Gastrell, I placed a horse- 
 shoe of soft iron in a Helix, and made it form the circuit of 
 the atmospheric wire when I found, that throughout the day 
 it was magnetic and would lift 2 or 3 ozs. Its greatest po- 
 wer was found to be about 2 & 3 P. M. after which it decrea- 
 sed; and by 7, 8 'and 10 P. M. it would with difficulty carry 
 the armature a very small piece of iron 2 inches long, by -*/ 9 
 of an inch square. 
 
 The amount of Electricity developed, was found to be in 
 proportion to the height of the atmospheric wire." 
 
34 
 
 The explanation of the cause of wind now advanced , differs so 
 entirely from any received theory on the subject, and is so little known 
 in Europe, that it seems necessary in the present essay, as a kind of 
 guarantee to its notice, to furnish the scientific opinions already expres- 
 sed in India concerning it; at least concerning the first part of the 
 investigations, having reference chiefly to the electric origin of Dust 
 Storms. 
 
 In the addenda to Mr. Piddington's work on the Law of 
 Storms, Ed. 1851, is the following remark: 
 
 ^In the Philosophical Magazine for August 1850, N. 248, is a 
 highly interesting paper by Dr. P. Baddeley H. C. S. dated from 
 Lahore, shewing conclusively, by electric experiments extending 
 over the hot seasons of 1847, 48, 49 and 50, that the Dust Storms 
 so prevalent in all the North- Western Provinces of India in the 
 dry months are purely electrical. The passages marked in italics 
 are so by myself, as exactly coinciding with the views I have 
 submitted since the first edition of this work." 
 
 "D r . Baddeley 's observations, however, do much towards the 
 advancement of the theory of an electric origin for Cyclones 
 of all sizes and classes, and I trust they will be continued." 
 
 In the Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal for 1851, is the following 
 notice: 
 
 The Editor reprints this paper with great pleasure; not only 
 as another of those triumphs of Indian research, which have so 
 often adorned the pages of this journal, and so well demonstra- 
 ted to the scientific world what the energy of English minds 
 alone can perform, under all the discouragements and difficulties, 
 which the experimental sciences particularly must meet with at 
 every step in a state of society so peculiar as that of India, but, 
 moreover, as a solution of a great meteorological problem which 
 opens a new page of the Book of Nature, in that vast and yet 
 unwrought mine of Science. We trust that D r . Baddeley will 
 continue his valuable researches in the great field which he 
 has before him > Ed. Jour" - - of the Bengal Asiatic Society 
 for 1851", and again 
 From the Delhi Advertiser, March 4. 1853. 
 
 "We were led to take up the book, desiring to gain some in- 
 formation on a subject which, though so worthy of investiga- 
 
35 
 
 tion, would appear hitherto to have been entirely overlooked 
 by all philosophical and scientific men. 
 
 We have perused the volume with extreme pleasure and 
 trust with profit too. The new theory of the origin of winds 
 propounded by D r - Baddeley which we fancy has never be- 
 fore been so much as even surmised, will not, in all probabi- 
 lity, be received at first with that degree of consideration to 
 which it is most undoubtedly entitled since it militates so com- 
 pletely against all accepted theories on the subject. The author 
 states his opinions clearly and concisely; and we do hope his 
 researches, which are so eminently praiseworthy will stimulate 
 others equally zealous of promoting science, to prosecute 
 enquiries into this new field of nature's handiwork &. &." 
 
 The following note is from the late Dr. Fred. Corbyn (of revered 
 memory) superintending Surgeon of the Punjab formerly Ed. of the 
 Indian journal of Medical and Physical Science to whom might be 
 justly applied the saying - - "an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile." 
 
 Jullundar, 5. Nov. 1850. 
 My dear B. 
 
 Your first communication regarding electric currents in Dust 
 Storms was first received by me in your Annual Keport from 
 Ferozpore 1847, to which I called particular attention in my 
 official report. You have maintained and dwelt upon the views 
 ever since indeed, the apparatus you had subsequently placed 
 in your quarters at Lahore, I understood from you, was with 
 the view of ascertaining, or rather, confirming the influence of 
 electricity in these storms. 
 
 Believe me, sincerely Yours 
 
 Fred. Corbyn. 
 
 The following passage appears in a letter from Mr. Piddington, 
 Author of ,,the Sailor's Horn Book for the Law of Storms" 
 
 Calcutta 22 Oct. 1850. 
 
 I take the liberty of congratulating you most heartily on the 
 splendid discovery you have made, and do so the more earnestly, 
 as you will see, that 11 years ago, I tried to direct the attention 
 of Mofussil Residents to whirlwinds in general, and to their 
 probably electrical origin; and that in 1848, I published in the 
 Sailor's Horn Book the hypothesis, that the Cyclone, is an electric 
 
36 
 
 meteor composed of one or many close and nearly horizontal, 
 but yet slightly spiral streams of electric fluid, descending thus 
 from the higher regions, and in its (or their) descent, giving rise to 
 currents in all the air it necessarily passes throughout not carrying 
 this same air along with it. Perhaps, however, you have the book? 
 but in the mean time, allow me to thank you very earnestly for 
 the great step you have made for us." 
 
 * Mr. Piddington's work had not been seen, nor any other one on Storms, 
 till M r . P. did me the kindness to send me a copy of his last Ed. 
 for 1851. 
 
PART II. 
 
Part 2 consists chiefly of a reprint, with some corrections, of ori- 
 ginal papers, and exhibits the progressive steps pursued in the present 
 inquiry, and furnishes data upon which the theory of Wind, now pro- 
 posed, is founded. 
 
 The substance of the following letter, (the first of its kind) was 
 published in the London Philosophical Magazine for August 1850. 
 
 Lahore, April 18 th - 1850. 
 
 "My observations on Dust Storms, which are very prevalent in 
 this part of India during the dry months, April, May, and June, before 
 the setting in of the rainy season, have extended as far back as the 
 summer of 1847, and the result is as follows. 
 
 Dust Storms or Whirlwinds, are caused by spiral columns of the 
 electric fluid *) passing from the atmosphere to the earth; they have 
 an onward motion, a revolving motion, and a particular spiral motion 
 from above downwards, like a corkscrew. 
 
 It seems probable that in an extensive Dust Storm there are many 
 of these columns moving on together in the same direction; and during 
 the continuance of the storm, sudden gusts take place at intervals, at 
 which time the electric tension is at its maximum. 
 
 Precisely the same phenomena, in kind, are observable in all 
 cases of Dust Storms and Whirlwinds; from those of a few feet in 
 diameter, to those that extend for 50 miles and upwards, the phenomena 
 are identical. 
 
 It is a curious fact, that some of the smaller Whirlwinds occasio- 
 nally seen in extensive and arid plains, both in this country and in 
 Affghanistan, appear stationary for a long time during which, the 
 
 *) The supposition has been modified since this was written in 1850. 
 
40 
 
 dust and light bodies on the ground are kept whirling above into the 
 air. Sometimes, these small Dust Whirlwinds are seen slowly ad- 
 vancing, and when numerous, usually proceed in the same direction. 
 Birds, such as Kites and Vultures, are often seen soaring high up, 
 just above and around these spots, apparently following the direction 
 of the column, as if enjoying it. 
 
 My idea is, that the phcenomena connected with Dust Storms, are 
 identical with those present in water spouts and squalls at sea, and 
 revolving storms and tornadoes of all kinds, and that they originate in 
 the same cause, viz, in moving columns of electricity. 
 
 In 1847, at Lahore, being desirous of experimenting on the elec- 
 trical state of the atmosphere, I projected into the air an insulated 
 copper wire on a bamboo on the top of my house, and brought the 
 wire into my room, and connected it with a gold-leaf electrometer and 
 a detached wire communicating with the earth. A day or two after, 
 during the passage of a small Dust Storm, I had the pleasure of ob- 
 serving the electric fluid passing in vivid sparks from one wire to 
 another, and of course, strongly affecting the electrometer. The thing 
 was now explained; and since then, I have, by the same means, observed 
 at least sixty Dust Storms of various sizes, all presenting the same 
 phcenomena in kind. 
 
 I have commonly observed that towards the close of a storm of 
 this kind, a fall of rain suddenly takes place, and instantly the stream 
 of electricity ceases, or is much diminished; and when it continues, it 
 seems only on occasions, when the storm is severe and blows for some 
 time after. 
 
 The sparks, or the stream of electricity, as it is seen passing from 
 one wire to the other, is in some cases, and during high tension, doubled 
 or trebled and is never straight, but invariably more or less crooked. 
 
 Various kinds of sparks are seen; at times, one end of the wire 
 has a star; and from the wire, when held just beyond striking distance, 
 a luminous brush is seen curved, which, when viewed through a lens, 
 seems composed of a stream or cascade of bright globules, like a 
 shower of mercury when pressed through leather. 
 
 The electric fluid streams down the conducting wire, unremittingly 
 during the continuance of the storm ; the spark is oftentimes upwards of 
 an inch in length, and emits a crackling sound; its intensity varying 
 witli the force of the storm, and most intense, during the squalls or gusts. 
 
41 
 
 The instant the insulated wire is involved in the electric current, 
 marked by the column of dust, down streams the electricity. 
 
 One day I caused the current to pass through a solution of 
 cyanide of silver, so as to affect a small flat piece of copper wire, 
 which was rapidly covered with a coating of silver, which upon drying, 
 peeled oif. In this case, tlie cyanide of silver was pure, formed by 
 the precipitation of ' the nitrate of silver by prussic acid, and the pre- 
 cipitate redissolved in the same menstruum. 
 
 In subsequent attempts to silver a wire or coin in this way, I 
 have not succeeded ; only a; very slight deposit taking place, which was 
 not increased by long exposure to the influence - - but it must be noticed 
 that in all other trials, the cyanide of silver was dissolved in cyanide 
 of potassium: In the course of time, minute whitish bright crystals 
 formed on the surface of the metal." 
 
 The small insulated copper wire used on this occasion, was found 
 some weeks after, to have undergone a curious change, whereby it had 
 become brittle and crystalline the fractured extremities presenting 
 the same appearance as is exhibited when same kinds of iron are 
 broken short off. 
 
 The mean height of the Barometric column at Lahore, obtained by 
 summing up the mean monthly result for the month of May, June, 
 July, August, September and October 1851, from daily observations 
 at 10 A. M. and 4 P. M. - - the periods of Max, and Mini m . and 
 taking the mean of that, when corrected for temperature &c. was, 
 28,966; from which the height of Lahore above the level of the sea 
 may be estimated *) - - vide Meteoro 1 . Table. 
 
 During February and March 1851, while engaged in the investi- 
 gation of Dust Whirlwinds, I twice witnessed a curious fact, which seems 
 to throw considerable light upon the complicated phenomena of storms. 
 
 In following upon horse back, a Dust Whirlwind, I observed that 
 as it passed various objects in its progress, such as tents, horses &c. it 
 gradually diminished in size, till at length, instead of a whirling circle 
 of 5 or 6 feet in diameter, composed of several rotating eddies or spi- 
 rals of dust, as before seen, it terminated in a single cone, the apex 
 
 *) In the original communication published in the Phil. Magazine in August 1850, an 
 error occurs in the estimation of the height of Lahore , owing to the use of a de- 
 fective Barometer. 
 
 6 
 
42 
 
 of which, in contact with the earth, rotated briskly like atop, from left 
 to right, as did the whirling circle before, of which this was a portion. 
 
 From the cone of dust, a long ribband-like band, about 12 inches 
 in diameter, of equal dimensions throughout, as far as the eye could 
 reach, was seen to extend into the atmosphere, and from the circum- 
 stance of its sides presenting a greater opacity than the central portion, 
 I concluded it was cylindrical. This band was rendered faintly visible 
 by the dust it had whirled up, which by the light of the sun that 
 shone through it, exhibited a kind of vermicular spiral motion. At the 
 height of several feet above the surface of the ground, the slender 
 column formed a spiral turn, still preserving unimpaired its cylindrical 
 appearance, and extending upwards and forwards in advance of the 
 whirling cone. Plate 1. 
 
 Suddenly the cone, which had to the last continued to rotate, 
 vanished from the earth, and the whole column then slowly receded 
 upwards and onwards out of sight. 
 
 The diminutive Whirlwind is, I conceive, a miniature representation 
 of a Cyclone, and this slender column or pillar seems to indicate the 
 ultimate thread, as it were, of the electrically charged spiral body of 
 which it is composed. 
 
 Whirlwinds of all sizes, appear to be composed of a number of 
 electrically charged spiral threads, placed singly, or in fasciculi, each and 
 all rotating independently, as the whirlwind circles onwards in its course; 
 and the incurving of the dust, observable when the body passes over 
 a light dry soil, is occasioned by the rotation of these separate threads. 
 Plate 2. 
 
 The rotation of the spirals, may now enable us to comprehend 
 a singular appearance sometimes observed in an approaching Dust-Storm. 
 
 A rounded mass, or cloud, of dust, extending high into the atmos- 
 phere, is seen to be composed of a number of large vertical columns, 
 each column preserving its respective position in the moving cloud, 
 and rotating on its own axis. 
 
 This extraordinary appearance is doubtless occasioned by i In- 
 advance of a large body of electrically charged whirlwind columns, 
 impelled onwards with the jbody of the storm: and it may actually 
 represent the exciting element of a Huricane or Cyclone. Plate 8 & 9. 
 
 The gusts or squalls that occur from time to time during a storm 
 of this description, may be accounted for by supposing the passage of 
 
43 
 
 a succession of these electrically excited whirling columns; for it has 
 been repeatedly proved, that during the squalls that mark these storms, 
 the electrical tension is at its maximum, since the Electric current 
 streams most furiously down the insulated wire, exactly in accordance 
 with the violence of the wind or gusts passing at the time. 
 
 The passage of the electrical column or spiral, through the air, 
 sets it in motion, and causes a wind to blow in the direction of its 
 track, with more or less velocity, depending, seemingly, upon the 
 rapidity of the passage, and the electrical tension of the spiral itself. 
 Hence , I conceive, that the spirals are the exciting cause of wind in 
 storms; of the gusts or squalls in particular; and of wind generally. 
 
 The motive power in the Cyclone, therefore, may be a zone of 
 whirlwind columns, composed of innumerable spiral bodies single and 
 compound, placed at intervals, and rotating with the body of the 
 storm; first, from above, downwards; secondly, on meeting the 
 
 earth's surface, whirling their cycloidal courses, with the vortex of 
 the storm, in conformity to laws regulating the motions of fluids in a 
 resisting medium. 
 
 Outside this whirling zone, or vortex, centripetal winds exist, 
 blowing from a circumference more or less extended, to the edge all 
 round, as in the case of the smaller whirlwinds. 
 
 These centripetal winds, may, to all intents and effects on ships 
 at sea, be considered straight -lined winds, though they are doubtless 
 more or less involute, and the nearer they approach the vortex, the 
 more marked these incurving currents become. 
 
 They blow, I believe, with greater regularity, force, and longer 
 duration on the side of the storm's progression; having on that side, 
 a double set of forces acting upon the atmosphere the progressive 
 and the rotatory. 
 
 This side, so important to be determined with certainty, may be 
 known, when the direction in which the storm is moving has first been 
 ascertained, by attending to the law of rotation that prevails in the two 
 hemispheres, viz, that storms North of the Equator, rotate from right to left,, 
 
 ) and those South of the Equator, from left to right. 
 Having therefore discovered the probable track of a storm, face 
 
44 
 
 the point to which the storm is supposed to be travelling; the stronger 
 centripetal winds will then be found blowing on the right hand in the 
 Northern Hemisphere - - and on the left hand in the Southern. 
 
 These stronger centripetal winds on the side of progression, must, 
 lor the reason stated, blow more or less in the same direction as the 
 storm; while those on the opposite side of the vortex, will be opposed 
 to it, and much limited in extent. 
 
 To illustrate the motions of progression and rotation as observed 
 in the Cyclone, spin a Tee -to -turn provided with a glass tube 
 drawn to a fine point, containing ( ink, to the right hand or to left, 
 on paper laid perfectly flat on the table. The toy will be found to 
 describe a variety of cycloidal courses, imitating exactly the rotations 
 of the whirlwind in the two hemispheres, as also its onward move- 
 ment in some definite course. 
 
 An attempt may be made to explain the law of rotation of the 
 two hemispheres, thus Owing to the spheroidal figure of the earth, 
 and the two motions it is subjected to, - - rotation on its axis, and 
 translation in space, its centrifugal action gradually declines from the 
 Equator (where alone it is uniform) to the Poles, and matter floating 
 in the atmosphere, will be influenced from this cause, and have com- 
 municated to it, especially when approximating the earth's surface, a 
 tendency to deviate from the direct parallel line with the Equator North- 
 ward and Southward, which line, if traced, would form a left hand 
 spiral figure to the North Pole, and a right hand spiral to the 
 South; conciding with the known revolutions of these storms on either 
 side of the Equator. 
 
 The above explanation may exhibit something of the principle 
 which gives to the Cyclones their respective rotatory motions, but their 
 impetus and subsequent direction, may depend upon some inherent 
 energy possessed by the matter constituting the essential element of the 
 whirlwind. 
 
 The vorticular motions imparted to water by moving a body through 
 it in a definite course, supplies a curious illustration of the two oppo- 
 site rotations in the two hemispheres. 
 
 The experiment may be performed at the breakfast table, with a 
 cup of tea, made with curdy milk and a tea-spoon. 
 
 Two eddies thus formed, revolve side by side in opposite directions, 
 and progress on either side of the line of motion, with a tendency 
 
45 
 
 (when a convex body is used, such as a phial,) to be deflected into 
 curves, to left and right. 
 
 When the concave surface of the spoon is used, or a flat surface, 
 the eddies revolve nearly side by side along the line of motion. These 
 eddies originate behind the moving body. 
 
 We have here three things : a fluid] motion imparted to it in a 
 certain direction; and a resisting medium; the result being two vor- 
 tices revolving in opposite directions in the fluid; a motion seemingly 
 of the very character of that which influences the revolutions of the 
 Cyclones in the two hemispheres. Corresponding to these, we have - 
 the Atmosphere, in which float the electro -magnetic beams or spirals of 
 which the whirlwind is composed: -- secondly the centrifugal action 
 of the earth's rotation from West to East, - - greatest at the Equator, 
 and uniform only on that line: - - and, thirdly, the earth's translation, 
 o-r the impetus with which it is carried forward in space, reacting 
 and producing the effect of a resisting medium: the very conditions 
 requisite, perhaps, for giving these peculiar motions to the air at a 
 certain height, and communicating the same to the matter composing 
 the Whirlwind, as it descends to the earth: -- and once imparted, the 
 rotatory movements will continue till friction or other counteracting 
 effects cause the cessation. 
 
 Whirlwinds may be the means by which accumulated electricity 
 in the Atmosphere is insensibly discharged; they are doubtless powerful 
 means by which evaporation is effected all over the earth, and rain 
 produced and we may imagine, that the Electro-magnetic spirals having 
 discharged their electricity and water, may be again lifted up to the 
 higher regions of the Atmosphere. 
 
 The marked fall of the Barometer as the vortex of the storm is 
 approached, may possibly be accounted for by the upward whirling 
 motion imparted to the air by the action of the Electrical spirals, which 
 thereabouts are presumed to be highly concentrated; and the modus 
 operandi may be thus explained. 
 
 The electrical spiral rotating and working like a screw from 
 above, downwards, sets in motion, by its centrifugal action, a stratum 
 of air immediately surrounding it; outside this again, another circle of 
 winds will be found blowing centripetally ; and the two meeting, 
 will, by their mutual action and reaction, continuous throughout, form 
 an ascending current of air working a reversed spiral upwards, the two 
 
46 
 
 motions being well represented by two coils of wire wound in opposite 
 directions, laid one over the other. Plate 14. 
 
 This peculiar upward spiral motion, is probably the cause of 
 the ascent of dust in the Whirlwinds passing over a dry sandy soil; 
 and of water in the Waterspout. The enormous height to which the 
 dust ascends, may satisfactorily account for the occasional fall of dust, 
 containing microscopic animalculae and vegetable organisms. 
 
 The dust has doubtless been transported from its original bed by 
 Whirlwinds sweeping over land once under water, now dry; carrying 
 up into the higher regions, the lighter portion of the soil containing 
 these miscroscopic remains. 
 
 This seems to offer a simple solution of the enigma; but a more 
 curious question is, what becomes of the enormous amount of dust, 
 which, over a broad band of the Earth's surface, far beyond the limits 
 of the Ecliptic, is continually being whirled up into the atmosphere by 
 Whirlwinds: where does it go to; and what becomes of it? 
 
 Regarding the precise nature of the spiral columns, it is impossible 
 at present to say what it is; perhaps the columns represent some mo- 
 dification of matter hitherto unnoticed; or they may be identical with 
 the electro -magnetic -cylindrical beams, supposed by the late D r . Dalton 
 to compose the Aurora. 
 
 As they are transparent, their existence can only be inferred by 
 the effect produced on matter over which they pass, as in the case of 
 the Waterspout and Dust Whirlwind, which are familiar examples of 
 their effects when moving over water, or a dry sandy soil: but during 
 a storm, when the whole atmosphere may be filled with dust, or aqueous 
 vapour, no marked indication of their presence is perceptible. 
 
 On such occasions, however, the peculiar motions of a vane, oscil- 
 lating as it constantly does, 4 to 8 points during the gusts, marks 
 plainly the action of the spiral body in passing. 
 
 This motion of a vane during a storm, may be accounted for, by 
 supposing that the whirling body in transit, strikes the vane in opposite 
 directions almost at the same moment the oscillating movement 
 being kept up for a time by conflicting currents of wind following 
 the whirling body, caused by its action upon the air through which it 
 has passed. 
 
 The same motion invariably attends the passage of a whirlwind 
 column over a vane, or close to it hence, in a storm, when we 
 
47 
 
 observe the oscillation of a vane, we recognise the cause, though we 
 may not be able to discern any distinct appearance of a whirlwind 
 column. 
 
 The combined forces of the storm, progressive and rotatory, must 
 produce in the immediate vicinity of the vortex, a powerful incurving 
 motion in the winds, as described by Colonel Sir W. Reid and M r . 
 Piddington; and ships caught in it, may be impelled round and round 
 in the body of the storm, as was the case with the u Charles Heddle" 
 in the Mauritius hurricane of 1845. Plate 20. 
 
 Such considerations enable us to understand in some degree the 
 cause of the danger incurred the nearer we approach the centre of 
 Action ; and why the incurving winds and powerful spiral vortices, so 
 marked thereabouts, render the condition of a ship so situated at sea, 
 perilous in extreme especially if once involved in the fatal calm centre. 
 We may also assign a cause for the horribly confused pyramidical 
 masses of raging waters driven by the fierce impetuosity of opposing 
 winds, one against the other, shooting up into the sky and how a 
 Whirlwind passing over a country, may prove a desolating hurricane, 
 sweeping it literally with the besom of destruction. 
 
 We cannot even conjecture, to what height the spiral co- 
 lumns extend into the sky; we must not estimate their height by 
 the storm cloud, which is confined to a few thousand feet above the 
 surface. Most probably, they pierce the heavens to a very great height, 
 and when a storm rages, influence all the overlying strata, which are 
 constantly observed through a break in the clouds over head, to be in 
 commotion, affected with varied and opposite (zigzag) movements, evi- 
 dently influenced by the self same cause that sets the storm in motion 
 below. Lahore, August 1851. 
 
48 
 
 RECAPITULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL FACTS UPON WHICH 
 THE THEORY OF WINDS NOW PROPOSED, IS BASED. 
 
 NOTES OF 1851. 
 
 1. My experience of the smaller dust Whirlwinds , leads me to 
 believe, that they travel uninfluenced by the direction of the prevailing 
 surface wind, which may have been blowing prior to their appearance, 
 and indeed, they often come up from an opposite point of the compass. 
 
 If they are, as I am certain is the case, themselves the exciting 
 cause of wind, the reason of this is obvious. 
 
 2. They rarely deviate materially from their original course, 
 though they commonly progress more or less in a wavy line now on 
 one side of the path, and now on the other. 
 
 3. They turn indifferently from left to right, or from right to 
 left, and their rotatory motion sometimes seems suddenly reversed; 
 though that may be only an optical illusion. 
 
 4. - - During strong winds , and in stormy weather , the spiral 
 columns, though in full force, are not easily recognisable even when 
 passing over a light dry soil, and would be entirely unnoticed by most 
 persons. 
 
 5. When numerous, they are frequently observed advancing in 
 a line, and after passing the observer, an interval of some minutes 
 may elapse, before another set is seen in the distance, and so they 
 continue, one set succeeding another, giving rise to squalls and lulls, 
 or rising and falling of the wind. 
 
 6. Their rate of progression is liable to great variety; being 
 sometimes retarded, and then again accelerated without apparent cause; 
 but in a brisk wind, their progress is more uniform. 
 
 - 7. They appear with great regularity between, though some- 
 times a little before and after, the hours of 10 A. M. and 4 P. M. 
 increasing in frequency with the heat of the day, and declining as the 
 sun approaches the Western Horizon; ceasing altogether before sun-set, 
 when the wind drops. From the fact of their appearing in greatest 
 numbers during the hottest hours of the day, it would seem that the 
 
49 
 
 solar influence may be considered at least a subordinate cause in 
 bringing them into action. 
 
 8. - - The winds caused by the passage of whirlwinds, or electro- 
 magnetic spirals through the air, are characterized by gusts, or flaws, 
 succeeded by lulls, and are of a totally different description from the 
 winds caused by variations in temperature. 
 
 9. The dust Whirlwinds are usually composed of many single 
 spirals joined together, which may separate, and re-unite again with 
 augmented power. 
 
 10. They preserve a distinct columnar form to the height 
 of three thousand feet and upwards, and terminate in a cloud of 
 dust, which still possesses a gyratory motion, ascending higher and 
 higher. 
 
 11. A dust column or pillar of considerable height is, sometimes 
 observed broken in its ascent, into two or three lengthened irregular 
 patches of dust, with perfectly clear intervening spaces; the dust all 
 the while ascending with rapidity into the higher regions, as if the 
 electrically charged pillar, were endued at times with an increased cen- 
 trifugal force. It might be supposed that this alternate increase and 
 diminution of the volume of dust whirled up into the air, was owing 
 to different kinds of soil over which the whirlwind then rotated; but 
 attentive observation showed that it took place indifferently, whether 
 the body continued to whirl over the same spot, or moved onwards: 
 and it seemed to be occasioned by the alternate increase and diminution 
 of the rotative energy of the interior column; that in proportion to the 
 activity of its spiral descent, so was there a corresponding energy of 
 ascent established between the earth and the heavens. 
 
 12. - Their rate of upward ascent is subject to variation, as 
 well as that of their onward motion. 
 
 13. - - A lofty dust column, moving slowly, may sometimes be 
 seen to assume, in the course of a few seconds, a wavy and slightly 
 contorted appearance in its vertical section, while still preserving its 
 exact cylindrical form; the change being effected simultaneously, through- 
 out its entire height. 
 
 14. Kites, which are numerous in this part of the country, 
 often follow dust Whirlwinds for some distance, soaring about and around 
 them, diving at each other as if in sport, keeping pace with them, 
 seemingly, with no other purpose than that of enjoyment. 
 
50 
 
 15. Evaporation is much increased when the Whirlwinds are 
 frequent and the wind brisk. 
 
 16. - - In damp weather, the passage of the electrical spirals over 
 an insulated wire, fails to affect the gold-leaf electrometer; and during 
 this humid state of the atmosphere, the electrometer can only be exited 
 with difficulty, and loses that power, the moment the excitement is 
 removed. 
 
 17. Once, when observing the peculiar motions of a well defined 
 slender dust pillar, rotating briskly, but at the same time remaining 
 almost stationary on the one spot, and while looking upwards at the 
 body of the column with the view of understanding the particular 
 course the dust was taking in its ascent, the pillar was suddenly with- 
 drawn, or lifted upwards, and carried out of sight: and this occured 
 so suddenly, as to give the impression of its having been divided 
 asunder; particularly as the outer stratum of dust remained for a few 
 moments suspended in the air: but on again directing the eye to 
 the earth, the absence of the rotatory motion and of the cone of dust, 
 at once explained the real state of the case. 
 
 18. In March last, during unsettled stormy weather, my atten- 
 tion, was directed to a large mass of dust Whirlwinds to the North- 
 ward, moving from west to eastward: all at once, their course was 
 entirely changed; and they were seen coming back from N. E. to S. W. 
 This strange and sudden shift, may perhaps be explained, by supposing 
 that the mass of Spirals moving in a zigzag course, recurved at that 
 particular time. 
 
 19. I once followed, for more than a mile, a dust 
 Whirlwind of about 4, or 5 feet in diameter, travelling 
 at the rate of 7, or 8, miles an hour, and rotating from 
 right to left. 
 
 After a time, its progress was retarded, so as to enable me to 
 penetrate to the centre and to walk slowly with it for a short distance: 
 The centre was perfectly calm, while round about, the winds were 
 blowing in every direction: Though surrounded by dust, I was enabled, 
 by keeping my eye fixed upon the whirling line of dust at my feet, as 
 it continually swept past me on the right, (the side of progression) to 
 preserve my position in the central calm space, for some little time, 
 without being inconvenienced by the dust. On the left hand sid e o f 
 the whirl, the dust was not so well defined, but cloudy and confused. 
 
51 
 
 There was in this case, as in all others of a similar kind , a train 
 of dust closely following, occasioned by the action of the Whirlwind 
 upon the air. 
 
 20. Westerly winds, or rather West South West, seem 
 almost invariably to prevail at Lahore, at the height of 3 or 4 miles 
 above the earth's surface, in the region of the Cirro - Stratus or 
 Cirrous. 
 
 When clouds prevail with fine weather, they usually clear off about 
 sun -set with the greatest regularity, at which time they are observed 
 progressing Eastward, from the West, with considerable velocity; which 
 would lead to the supposition that at this height, the prevailing cur- 
 rents, when not disturbed, are always in that direction. The same 
 thing is often observed at sun rise. 
 
 21. The peculiar- manner in which the winds blow after a 
 Whirlwind of small diameter and swift progressive motion, is some- 
 what remarkable, and deserves attention. 
 
 Plant yourself in the direct line of an advancing Whirlwind, and 
 allow it to blow over you. After it has passed, there will generally be 
 perceived more or less of a lull, or the winds blowing in the direction 
 of the track will be found light and unsteady. 
 
 This may continue for a minute, more or less, by which time the 
 Whirlwind may have travelled onwards 150 or 200 yards. 
 
 All at once, the breeze freshens, and blows steadily and with 
 increased force for a lengthened period; after which, it may drop and 
 then again revive for a shorter period, becoming again unsteady, and 
 by degrees fainter, and then ceasing altogether. Though I have fre- 
 quently remarked the fact, I am not prepared to account for it, further 
 than to remark, that the light unsteady winds, at first, may be occa- 
 sioned by eddies caused by the rotatory action of the Whirlwind on 
 the Air more immediately adjacent: while, the stronger winds, may be 
 the oblique currents on either side of the track, meeting on the line, 
 and combining to produce increased power and velocity. More exact 
 observations, however, are requisite to enable us to determine the real 
 cause of this striking phenomenon. 
 
 22. When Whirlwinds are moving about, white patches of 
 Cirro-cumuli are frequently seen on the clear blue sky, exactly resem- 
 bling flakes of teaseled cotton, having rotatory motions throughout, 
 forming, and then rapidly dissolving or ascending with whirling motions 
 
52 
 
 into the higher regions, becoming more and more faint, as they recede 
 from the sight. 
 
 23. -- Peculiar effects of Wind. During a brisk wind, blowing 
 over a dry sandy soil free of vegetation, trains of dust are observed 
 constantly passing in the direction of the wind, and preserving more or 
 less a wavy course. 
 
 These trains of dust are remarkable for always being subdivided 
 into narrow streamlets of dust 2 or 3 inches, or more, apart, running 
 parallel, and following the same kind of wavy course, as if affected 
 by some general law. 
 
 An explanation of this may be attempted, by supposing that the 
 stream of air, following the electrical spiral, and excited by it, becomes 
 affected, throughout, by minute eddies, which being carried onwards 
 with the general current at a rapid pace, lose their circular form and 
 become converted into wavy lines, rendered visible by the dust they 
 carry along with them. 
 
 This wavy course, assumed by the currents of air, explains, in a 
 very satisfactory manner, the cause of the oscillation of a vane during 
 stormy weather. 
 
 24. When the whirlwind sweep is rather considerable, that is 
 several yards in diameter, the surface of the ground over which it has 
 just passed, is marked with many points of eddies, shooting here and 
 there in different directions, in a most complicated manner the 
 streams of dust becoming eventually more regular as the after currents 
 prevail and influence them. 
 
 25. - - When the whirlwind column meets an obstruction, such as 
 a wall or building, it goes right straight over it, without being deflected: 
 while the after currents, and dust eddies that follow, are deflected and 
 reflected by any object opposing the passage, just as a stream of 
 water might be supposed to do. For instance, an after current, 
 charged with dust, when meeting a wall with an open gate way, 
 was deflected along the wall; but on meeting the open gate, it 
 passed through it, as water would have done. 
 
 26. When the gusts sweep over still water, or water with a 
 slight ripple on the surface, a very peculiar appearance is produced 
 as if a body of smoke, or a dark shadow, passed rapidly over, pro- 
 gressing in a wayy form, precisely similar to what is observed of the 
 dust on land. 
 
53 
 
 This curious appearance seems to be occasioned by a sudden im-> 
 pulse given to the crests of small waves by the passage of the minute 
 currents of wind, which producing at the same instant a sulcated or 
 furrowed surface of the water in advance of the wave crests, cause the 
 surface to be thrown momentarily into strong light and shade, and give 
 it the peculiar appearance described. 
 
 
 The following account, by Captain Gastrell, of the effects pro- 
 duced upon an Electro - magnetic battery in action during the passage 
 of a Dust -Storm, will be read with interest. 
 
 "I have the pleasure to send you a Memorandum of the pheno- 
 menon I mentioned to you, as observed by me, at Cawnpore, 
 with the Electro -magnetic machine, during the passage of a 
 Dust- Storm. 
 
 In the hot weather of 1847, I was experimenting one day 
 at about 11 A. M. with an Electro - magnetic Machine. It was of 
 small size. The wire coil about 300 yards in length and 
 fine. The battery I was using to impel the magnet in the 
 break cup, was one of 12 or 16 pairs of zinc and copper 
 plates, each plate about 4 inches square, and was charged with 
 diluted sulphuric acid and water. Shortly after the Battery and 
 Magnet were in action, and sparks passing freely, a dust storm 
 came up from the West, passing directly over the house I was 
 in, towards the N. E. or E. N. E. 
 
 On its approach, I observed the action of the Magnet decrease 
 gradually until, in the dead lull or calm that usually precedes 
 such storms, it ceased revolving. 
 
 The action of the Battery during the same period, increased 
 in intensity, (and apparently in proportion to the decreased 
 revolutions of the Magnet. 
 
 It was at its Maximum of intensity, about the time the centre 
 of the storm was passing. Supposing the stoppage of the Magnet 
 might be owing to too much energy in the Battery, I discon- 
 nected the coil, and placed it in connection with a single cell 
 Battery with platina plates. 
 
 This I charged with a solution of sulphuric acid and water, 
 decreasing the strength of the solution with more water, from 
 
54 
 
 time to time, but with no effect on the Magnet. I then emptied 
 the cell, and charged it with a solution of common salt and 
 water with the same unsuccess. I then removed the single cell 
 Battery, and reconnected the Coil with the 12 plate Battery, 
 and left it. 
 
 No sooner had the storm of dust passed, and light rain began 
 to fall, than the action of the Battery became quieter, until 
 the hissing sound ceased, and the Magnet again began to re- 
 volve; sparks of course passed, and shortly, the Magnet revolved 
 as quickly as it did previous to the storm. 
 
 I mentioned the circumstance to my Cousin, Colonel Wilcox, 
 astronomer at Lucknow, and asked him, if he had ever seen 
 a similar circumstance mentioned; or, if he had ever observed 
 his Magnets in the Magnetic observatory at Lucknow, in any 
 wav affected, during the passage of a dust storm. He replied 
 he had not, and could not account for it in any way. Quere? 
 Is there any point in the track of the dust storms, (which are 
 undoubtedly of the Nature of Cyclones,) in which, if a Magnet 
 happened to be, it would lose its polarity for the time, ceasing 
 to be a Magnet? 
 
 If so, the cause would be clear; this did not strike me at 
 the time, or I might have easily tested it. 
 
 I recollect another Phenomenon observed in one of these 
 storms. It occurred during the march of my Regiment up 
 country to join the Army of the Punjab. We had left our 
 ground long before day light, and were caught in a dust storm, 
 followed by very heavy rain and vivid lightning. When the 
 rain fell, the muzzle of the men's muskets and the peaks of 
 the Officers' caps , were seen tipped with that well known Electri- 
 cal appearance, called St. Elmo's -light, and this appearance 
 continued for some minutes, a quarter of an hour perhaps. I am 
 not quite sure now, whether I ought not to sav, the tips of 
 the Bayonets, and not the muzzles, as we were marching with 
 treasure, and I think Bayonets fixed." 
 In NoacPs Lectures on Electricity, page 337 , is the following; - 
 
 "It is an admitted fact, that the Aurora borealis is a powerful 
 source of magnetism, and that the South pole of the needle 
 has a distinct connexion with it. Dr. Dalton, in a work 
 
55 
 
 published in 1793, lias advanced several ingenious hypothetical 
 views, respecting the cause of the Aurora, and its magnetic 
 influence. He says: "the region of the Aurora is one hundred 
 and fifty miles above the earth's surface. Immediately above 
 the earth's surface is the region of the clouds, then the region 
 of the meteors, called falling stars and fire-balls, and beyond 
 this region is that of the Aurora. Again: 
 
 "We are under the necessity of consindering the beams of 
 the Aurora borealis of a ferruginous nature, because nothing 
 else is known to be magnetic; and consequently that there exists 
 in the higher region of the Atmosphere , an electric fluid parta- 
 king of the properties of iron, or rather of Magnetic steel; and 
 that this fluid, doubtless from its magnetic property, assumes 
 the form of cylindrical beams. With regard to the exciting cause 
 of the Aurora, I believe it will be found in change of tempe- 
 rature. Nothing is known to affect the magnetism of steel: heat 
 weakens and destroys it; electricity does more; it sometimes 
 changes the pole of one denomination to that of another, or 
 inverts the magnetism. Hence we are obliged to have resource 
 to one of these two agents, in accounting for the mutations 
 above mentioned. As for heat, we should find it difficult, 
 I believe, to assign a reason for such sudden and irregular 
 productions of it in the higher regions of the atmosphere, 
 without introducing electricity as an agent in these productions; 
 but rather than make such a supposition, it would be more 
 philosophical to suppose electricity to produce the effect on 
 magnetic matter immediately. The beams of the Aurora being 
 magnetic will have their magnetism weakened, destroyed, or 
 inverted, pro tempore, by the several shocks they receive during 
 the aurora." In another place he says: "I conceive that a 
 beam may have its magnetism inverted, and exist so for a 
 time, &c." Again: 
 
 "as the beams are swimming in a fluid of equal density 
 with themselves, they are in the same predicament as a mag- 
 netic bar or needle swimming in a fluid of the same specific 
 gravity with itself; but this last will only rest in equilibrio , when 
 in the direction of the dipping needle, owing to what is called 
 the earth's magnetism; and as the former also rests in that po- 
 
56 
 
 sition only, the effects being similar, we must, by the rules of 
 philosophising, ascribe them to the same cause. Hence then it 
 
 follows, that the Aurora Borealis is a Magnetic Phenomenon, 
 and its Beams are governed by the earth's Magnetism. I am 
 
 aware that an objection may be started to this; if the beams be 
 swimming in a fluid of equal density, it will be said they 
 ought to be drawn down by the action of the earth's magnetism. 
 Upon this I may observe, that it is not my business to shew 
 why this is not the case, because I propose the magnetism of 
 the beams as a thing demonstrable, and not as a hypothesis. 
 We are not to deny the cause of gravity, because we cannot 
 shew how the effect is produced. May not the difficulty be 
 removed by supposing the beams of less density than the sur- 
 rounding fluid?" 
 
 A copy of the chart of the Charles Heddle in the Mauritius 
 Hurricane of 1845, as delineated by Mr. Piddington, in his 
 13th Memoir, and published in the Journal of the Asiatic So- 
 ciety of Bengal, Vol. XIV. P. 703, is here introduced, as it 
 seems to afford a remarkable confirmation of the theory of the 
 motions of Cyclones here proposed. At page 156 of "Pidding- 
 ton's Sailor's Horn Book," is the following brief account of the 
 Charles Heddle 1 s Manoauvres. 
 
 "In the Southern Indian Ocean, the Brig, Charles Heddle, 
 to which I have before alluded (P. P. 40 and 89) between the 
 22nd and 27th of February, scudded round and round on the 
 track of a Cyclone for five successive days! When her log was 
 carefully worked up, it was found that by it alone her course 
 and distance was North 42-, East, 111 miles, while by good 
 latitudes and Chronometer sights, before and after the Cyclone, 
 she had really made good in these few days a course and 
 distance by observation of South 55' West, 366 miles; giving 
 her thus, a current (the Storm wave,) of South 52- West, 476 
 miles, or in round numbers (which would require 480 miles,) 
 four miles per hour for the 120 hours, or five days. 
 
 The average distance from the centre at which she scudded 
 round it, is about 42 '/s miles; the greatest being 62 miles, and 
 
57 
 
 the least 25 miles. There is no doubt of the carefulness and 
 authenticity of this vessel's log, which was procured for me by 
 the Master attendant at the Mauritius, Capt. Royer, and of her 
 position being nearly correct, for she had just left the Mauritius 
 and returned to it after the Cyclone; it is thus clearly an un- 
 questionable instance of the Storm Wave. 
 
58 
 
 ON THE FORMATION OF HAIL. 
 
 A violent hail -storm from the N. N. E., with vivid lightning/ 
 occurred at Meean Meer, near Lahore, on the evening of the 24 th of 
 March last, three quarters of an hour after sunset, which lasted about 
 20 minutes: and early the following morning, before sun rise, 
 another hail -storm occurred, accompanied with thunder and lightning, 
 and violent squalls from the North -West. 
 
 Showers of hail, as I afterwards learned, prevailed in other parts 
 of the Punjab about the same time. 
 
 The weather, previous to this, had been unsettled and stormy for 
 many days, and the night before, heavy rain fell. 
 
 On the afternoon of that day, the weather cleared, but heavy 
 masses of Cumulo- stratus collected over the sky, particularly to North- 
 ward, in which direction, and to West, a dense voluminous cloud of 
 this description occupied a large portion of the heavens up to the 
 zenith, and continued stationary a long time, its margins lighted up 
 by the sun, all the while in slow vermicular motion, like huge curling 
 wreaths of snow. At sun set and after, the cloud occupied nearly the 
 same position, but more to Westward; and tortuous thready lightning 
 played through it, and over it, incessantly, and distant thunder rolled. 
 The sky at this time presented a very stormy appearance to Northward; 
 all round from E. to W. and rainy looking clouds approached rapidly 
 from the N. N. E., and an occasional drop of rain, from the clouds 
 above, seemed to threaten an instant deluge. Some time after, the hail 
 fell: at first slow, then quickly followed a rattling shower of hail- 
 stones the size of musket bullets, and 10 minutes after a tremendous 
 volley of them, nearly as large as walnuts, which continued many 
 minutes, and terminated in rain and showers of small hail. The Baro- 
 meter was not all affected during this shower of hail. 
 
 The lightning of hail -storms, which in this case, continued almost 
 incessantly, may be caused by the enormous evolution of caloric emitted 
 at the instant of congelation of the rain drops. It is therefore an effect; 
 
59 
 
 and though practically simultaneous with the consolidation of the hail, it 
 might, were it possible to measure such a fraction of time, be said to 
 occur after the consolidation; which may likewise be true of the con- 
 densation of aqueous vapour into rain, as well as of the rain drops 
 into hail. 
 
 This view of the case is strengthened by the phoenomena attending 
 the sudden freezing of water and rapid crystallization: as Mrs. Somer- 
 ville says, "Prodigious quantities of heat are constantly becoming 
 latent, or are disengaged by the changes of condition to which sub- 
 stances are liable in passing from the solid to the liquid, and from the 
 liquid to the gaseous form, or the contrary," and, "water at the tem- 
 perature of 32, must part with 140, of caloric, before it freezes," and 
 Sir R. Phillips, "M. Pontus, of Cahors, in freezing a phial of water, 
 with a small tube, joined to it by ether, under an exhausted receiver, 
 found that at the moment of congelation, a spark of light proceeded 
 from the small tube." And: "when a capillary tube of water is 
 fitted into a phial of water, and both are frozen, a flash of light 
 proceeds from the capillary tube. When crystals are formed, flashes in 
 like manner proceed from them. When water is frozen into hail in the 
 atmosphere, great electrical phoenomena take place, and the hail is 
 usually occompanied by flashes of lightning." And Dr. Thompson's 
 experiments, detailed by Mr. Edwin Sidney, of Norwich, "if a vessel 
 of water be carefully covered, kept free from agitation, and exposed 
 to a temperature of 22, it will gradually fall to that temperature, still 
 remaining in the liquid state; but if a tremulous motion be communi- 
 cated to it, or a particle of ice or other solid substance dropped into 
 it, its temperature will suddenly rise to 32, and a portion of it will 
 be converted into ice. The cause of this singular effect is easily explained; 
 a portion of the liquid which is suddenly solidified, gives out a quantity 
 of heat, which is in part communicated to the water which still remains 
 liquid, and raised it from 22 to 32, and 'the remainder of it becomes 
 sensible, instead of being latent, in the ice itself, and likewise raises 
 its temperature to 32." 
 
 The smaller hail was globular, about the size of a musket bullet, 
 and nearly smooth externally, and contained a snow-white nucleus. 
 
 The larger hail -stones were mostly of an oval form, sometimes 
 flattened; the surface of all being rough, like a mulberry calculus, or 
 covered with angular projections of ice, as if stuck over with crystals. 
 
60 
 
 They also contained a white nucleus, which seemed to be of precisely 
 the same size in all. Small amorphous masses of ice also fell, but they 
 were rare, and the only one I saw, contained no nucleus, but appeared 
 homogeneous. -- Fig. 5, Plate 12 and Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7. 
 
 On splitting the larger hail stones in their longer diameters, a 
 radiated and cellular structure was visible , surrounding a white nucleus. 
 Figs. 4, 6. 
 
 The nucleus itself was composed of two parts; a central spot of 
 pellucid ice, a, one- third of its diameter, enveloped in a porous snow- 
 white layer 5, which peculiar appearance was due to the presence of 
 minute air bubbles. 
 
 Next in order, were one or more thin concentric layers of ice free 
 from air bubbles, delicately marked like the lines in agate, c, beyond 
 which, the radiated and cellular structure became most apparent, d. 
 
 The rings surrounding the nucleus, and the radiated and cellular 
 structure, were all marked by the interposition of microscopic air 
 bubbles, which, by the aid of a lens, were observed to be arranged 
 in transverse lines with some regularity. Fig. 10, g. 
 
 The division into cells was best seen when the hail- stones began 
 to melt, and the surface became smooth. Fig. 7, 11. 
 
 Air bubbles, of a larger size, were also found interspersed, here 
 and there, through the body of the hail -stone, e. 
 
 In one hail -stone I examined, a few minute air bubbles were 
 discovered in the centre of the pellucid spot of the nucleus, Fig. 8 
 which might be the included air of the few central rain drops, as in 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 A consideration of the peculiar structure of hail -stones, as now 
 described, the uniformity of their appearance, but especially their 
 cristalline and radiated structure, leads me to suppose, that the forma- 
 tion is effected by the sudden agglomeration of the rain drops formed 
 in the higher and colder regions of the atmosphere, and that it is 
 instantaneous. The rain meeting in its descent a colder stratum of air 
 in motion, parts with more of its caloric, and instant congelation ensues, 
 with the simultaneous evolution of light. 
 
 The hail -stone, when thus uniform, undergoes, as I suppose, no 
 increase in size during its descent, by the attraction of frozen particles, 
 but on the contrary, its form and bulk seems to be determined by the 
 number of the rain drops at the instant of its formation. 
 
61 
 
 We may imagine that a stratum of rain is cooled down in its 
 descent below freezing, when on a sudden, the whole sheet becomes 
 simutaneously affected by the laws of crystallization or the freezing of 
 water, and points of convergence forming, the rain- drops in the act of 
 congelation, rush as to a centre and arrange themselves. 
 
 A few drops of rain, at the point of convergence, coalesce and 
 constitute a nucleus, round which all the others pack themselves in 
 exact order according to their distance from the centre of that particular 
 point, giving rise to concentric layers, and to the radiated and cel- 
 lular structure apparent throughout. Fig. 12 illustrates the idea. 
 
 This molecular arrangement is so rapid, that the film of air sur- 
 rounding each rain drop, is enclosed and becomes fixed, marking the 
 partitions: the drops originally spherical, assuming sided, or geometrical 
 figures by the compression they are subjected to at the moment of con- 
 gelation; and the porosity of the ice about the nucleus, may be accounted 
 for on the same principle, by the simultaneous convergence of the 
 drops of rain, causing a body of air to be driven before them to the 
 centre with great velocity, and there fixed. 
 
 Shooting stars, fire balls and meteoric stones may , like hail, owe 
 their development to molecular attraction, and be sometimes of telluric 
 or atmospheric origin. 
 
 Their constituents are, probably, all derived from the earth's sur- 
 face, and in the case of the meteoric stones, this would seem indubitably 
 so: silica, iron, and magnesia, being their chief components, besides 
 which, according to Baron Humboldt's Cosmos, they also include nickel, 
 cobalt, maganese, chrome, copper, arsenic, tin, potash, soda, sulphur, 
 phosphorus and carbon, and sometimes perfectly formed crystals of 
 olivine, labradorite and pyroxene, some being almost entirely metallic, 
 while others consist of earthy materials. 
 
 Baron Humboldt also remarks, "they exhibit, on the whole, a 
 general unmistakeable resemblance to one another in their external form, 
 in the nature of their crust, and in the chemical composition of their 
 principal constituents; and this resemblance is traceable when and 
 wherever they have been collected, at all periods of time and in all 
 parts of the earth." 
 
 These substances arc doubtless volatilized in large quantities from 
 volcanoes, and other sources, and may form a stratum of mineral matter 
 in a gaseous state, circulating in the higher regions of the atmosphere, 
 
62 
 
 whence, as from a magazine, portions may, from time to time, be 
 diverted downwards, and then, under certain conditions, electrical or 
 other, become suddenly condensed into a solid, as in the case of hail, 
 and fall to the earth with great velocity: such condensation being 
 necessarily accompanied with the development of intense heat, which 
 again expanding the elastic vapours contained within some of them, 
 may cause their explosion, and the scattering of the fragments to the 
 earth. 
 
 This idea is strengthened by the fact, that some possess a distinct 
 radiated structure ; and fragments of others have been observed, 
 "remarkable for a highly regular prismatic figure, suggesting the idea 
 of a portion of a basaltic column, and of its having once formed part 
 of some extensive formation." Vide American Journal of Science &c. - 
 Vol. II, No. 31. 
 
 A remark by Sir R. Phillips, tends also to confirm this view of 
 their origin: "on October 8th, 1827, a shower of aerolites fell near 
 Belostok, between 9 and 10 in the 'morning. An extraordinary noise, 
 which proceeded from a large black cloud, and continued for 3 or 6 
 minutes, resembling a running fire of musketry, was succeeded by a 
 shower of stones of which only 4 were picked up: the largest weighed 
 4 Ibs, the smallest three quarters." And Baron Humboldt again 
 remarks "Meteoric stones sometimes fall from fire-balls with a force 
 which causes them to sink to a depth of from ten to fifteen feet into 
 the earth," and, "in other instances, a small and very dark cloud 
 forms suddenly, in a perfectly clear sky, and the stones are hurled 
 from it with a noise resembling repeated discharges of cannon. Such a 
 cloud, moving over a whole district of country, has sometimes covered 
 it with thousands of fragments, very various in size, but similar in 
 quality." 
 
 "A phenomenon of still more rare occurence took place on the 
 16 th September, 1843, when a large aerolite fell at Kleinwenden, not 
 far from Mulhausen, accompanied by a thundering noise, but with a 
 clear sky, in which no cloud was formed. As further evidence of the 
 affinity between fire-balls and shooting stars, it should be noticed that 
 fire-balls, from which meteoric stones have descended, have sometimes 
 been seen, as at Angers, on the 9th June, 1822, of a diameter hardly 
 equal to that " of the small Roman candles in fire works." Again "we 
 have as yet scarcely any knowledge in regard to the physical and 
 
63 
 
 chemical processes which contribute to the formation of these pheno- 
 mena." 
 
 The American Journal also, "on the infusoria and other micros- 
 copic forms in Dust-showers and Blood-rain, by Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg," 
 remarks, "A simultaneous occurence of Dust-showers, and falls of me- 
 teoric stones, has been observed probably eighteen instances before the 
 Christian era; during the Christian era,, fourteen coincidences have been 
 observed, making thirty-two in all." 
 
 Shooting Stars and Aerolites may therefore be subjected to one 
 rule and, like hail, owe their formation to the sudden condensation of 
 matter in a state of minute division. 
 
 The shooting stars appear to be of a more volatile nature than 
 the Aerolites, and are unattended with the violent action, that usually 
 characterizes those of a mineral origin. 
 
 Their height in the atmosphere varies much, some having been 
 seen below clouds, while others are imagined to have been projected 
 from a distance beyond the supposed limits of our atmosphere. 
 
 The Shooting Stars, sometimes, leave a phosphorescent train of 
 light along their path, visible for more than a minute, the luminous 
 track occupying apparently the same spot, and becoming fainter and 
 fainter, and at times slightly wavy, as is affected by the atmospheric 
 currents, not far remote from the earth's surface. 
 
 On the 15th of August, 1851, at 10 p. M., while in company with 
 Lieut. C., we noticed a shooting star of some brilliancy sweep across 
 the Northern Hemisphere, from East to West, beneath the sheet of 
 Ciro-Cumuli which then covered the entire heavens, and was probably 
 from two to four miles abovo the earth's surface. The star was first 
 noticed when 40 or 50 above E. Horizon. It then crossed the sky 
 below the zenith, and seemed to enter the cloud for an instant, then 
 shot out again, and vanished 10 or 15, above the horizon to West, 
 taking more than three seconds to run its course. The first part of its 
 flight was much the longest, and it left a luminous train visible for a 
 few seconds. 
 
 I have, on several other occasions, witnessed shooting stars below 
 clouds, but none so distinct as this. 
 
 Dust-rain, which may be of more frequent occurrence than the 
 fall of Aerolites, probably owes its origin, as before suggested, to the 
 dust raised by Whirlwinds, and kept suspended in the atmosphere by 
 
64 
 
 the upper currents, whence it may again descend as dust-rain, either 
 alone, or, as sometimes happens, with a fall of meteoric stones. 
 
 The chief objection to the theory of the atmospheric origin of 
 Aerolites appears to be, their planetary velocity, and the direction they 
 take, being for the most part diametrically opposite to the motion of 
 the earth in its orbit, the same objection that is urged against the idea 
 of their coming from the Moon: on this point, Baron Humboldt says in 
 his Cosmos: 
 
 u TJie planetary velocity, and the retograde, or opposite directions 
 of the paths of the Meteors to that of the earth, the principal grounds 
 which are considered subversive of that hypothesis, which attributes the 
 origin of Aerolites to the supposed active volcanoes of the moon," and 
 again in note 69, Vol. I of his work, a remark appears as follows; - 
 "on the improbability that Aerolites formed from gas, holding in solu- 
 tion metallic substances, which, according to one Fusinieri, exist in 
 the Upper strata of the atmosphere, and which suddenly aggregate from 
 a state of extreme dispersion, &c." 
 
 Some Aerolites, thus formed at a great height in the atmosphere, 
 may at the instant of their condensation, be attended with such violent 
 action in opposite directions, as to annihilate for the time, all motion 
 and the Aerolite, thus suspended as it were in mid-air is met by the 
 earth, advancing in its course, and dashed to the ground with planetary 
 velocity; appearing to fall, while in reality, the body itself is passive; 
 just as a traveller, speeding at the rate of 60 miles an hour, sees the 
 objects at rest close along side as if they were in rapid motion, while 
 he himself is not conscious of moving. 
 
65 
 
 ECCENTRIC MOVEMENT OF A STAR. 
 
 Three officers of the Bengal Artillery relate as follows; "One 
 evening, during the last week in April, an hour and half after 
 sunset, the atmosphere being perfectly clear and without clouds, 
 and no moon shining, a little haze only, low in the horizon, 
 three of us, Lieuts. Machell, Turnbull and myself, saw a star 
 in the west move and undergo sundry eccentric motions. 
 
 When first noticed, it was at an elevation of about 12 above 
 the horizon, and its direction from us was about W. 10 S. 
 
 We imagined it must be merely an optical illusion, but each 
 of us then looked at it from a fixed position, and brought it on 
 a line with some fixed object. 
 
 M. reclined his head against a wall, and brought it in a line 
 with a string held vertically, as in laying a mortar. I also 
 adopted a plan, and brought the Star in a line with the two 
 posts of my bed, and we each remarked that the Star moved a 
 good deal to the left of us, that is, in a Southerly direction, 
 though not in a direct line, South. 
 
 It sometimes dropped down some distance and went off in 
 a zig-zag direction, then rose again, and at times remained 
 stationary. It also varied much in brilliancy and in colour, 
 sometimes becoming quite bright, at other times scarcely percep- 
 tible. When it approached the horizon, we generally lost sight 
 of it altogether, which may possibly be accounted for by its 
 getting obscured in the haze. The Star once or twice moved 
 to the right, but during the half hour we continued to observe 
 it, it had moved considerably to the left of our position, or to 
 the South, over a space perhaps of 8 or more. It described 
 no regular motion, and went off by fits and starts, and varied 
 from its original position in the heavens considerably, as I 
 tested by forming a triangle with it and two other fixed stars. 
 
 Its velocity too was different at different times. 
 
 My decided opinion is that it was not a meteor, but one of 
 the fixed stars, though I confess I have not been able to iden- 
 tify it with any one of them since that night." 
 Meean Meer, Lahore, 3rd July, 1852. 
 
66 
 
 "I have not been able to refer to my journal for the date 
 of the evening when I saw the star making its eccentric 
 motions; of which you wish me to give you an account. As 
 well as I can remember, it must have been at the end of April 
 or beginning of May last, and I suppose between about 7% 
 and 8Vs in the evening, that I remarked the star in question. 
 It first attracted my observation by falling rather rapidly for 
 some little distance, say a distance of 1 or 2 degrees: I say 
 rather rapidly, for so it was in comparison to its subsequent 
 movements; but it was not so fast at the descent of a "shooting 
 star," but it was much like one in appearance when it commences 
 its descent; or if my observations be correct "falling stars" in- 
 crease their velocity very considerably as they progress in 
 their fall. 
 
 After looking at the star, for a second or so, I pointed it 
 out to one or two friends, who were sitting with me in front 
 of my house, and we observed its movements together. I think, 
 after its first fall, it again fell, but not so rapidly, nor so far. 
 It then, I think, ascended slowly and steadily, but still very 
 perceptily. It ascended to near its original position, and then 
 again I think descended to the right, after which it seemed to 
 travel about without any apparent law, to right and left, and 
 up and down, and also with variable velocity and with different 
 degrees of brilliancy: at times it was rather brilliant, much 
 more so than most of the stars then visible, and also, I think, 
 it appeared larger. Its color was reddish; at times it became 
 less brilliant, and at one time scarcely perceptible, and once 
 (or twice) only, I think, before we finally lost sight of it, it 
 became imperceptible. If there was any law in its velocity, it 
 was, that its descents were more rapid than its ascents, or than 
 its motions to the side, but sometimes its descents would be as 
 slow and steady as its ascents; sometimes its movements were 
 so slow and steady that it was difficult to perceive which way 
 it was going. 
 
 Supposing the part marked N., to be the spot in the heavens, 
 where I first saw it, its movements were thus : - - N., where it 
 first started and fell to P., then again to C, then it rose to N, 
 then travelled to E, then to F, after which, I forget its course, 
 
67 
 
 N 
 
 but I remember it returned 
 once or twice to near its ori- 
 ginal position N, and finally 
 disappeared, towards the point 
 S: at least, finally to our view, 
 for we then ceased to watch 
 it, after watching a short time 
 for its re-appearance. We 
 
 / T 
 
 waited for its re-appearance 
 
 a longer time than we did when it disappeared on the 
 former occasion, though we did not, I suppose, wait above 
 a minute or two. The whole time we were looking 
 at it was not above a J / 4 of an hour, more or less, 
 but I cannot be certain of that; the position of the star 
 by the compass was about a little more West than S. W., may 
 be, 5 Wi of S. W. Its height in the heavens, when at the 
 highest, was 20, or so." 
 
 (Signed,) S . . . ., Lieutenant, 
 
 5th July 1852. Artillery. 
 
 ECCENTRIC MOVEMENT OF STARS. 
 
 OPTICAL PHCEKOMENON. 
 
 At Meean Meer, near Lahore, on the night of the 10th September, 
 1852, about half- past nine, the atmosphere being perfectly clear, and 
 no moon shining, I observed the planet Saturn, then about 12 or 15 
 above the horizon to the E., in motion, and watched it, for near two 
 hours, undergoing sundry eccentric movements. 
 
 It was seen to move up and down, to the right and left, obliquely, 
 in a horizontal line, sometimes with slow wavy motions, at other times 
 
68 
 
 with a circling movement, now lingering for some seconds, or remaining 
 stationary for a longer time; preserving, notwithstanding the apparent 
 changes, its general position in the sky, and all the movements being 
 conducted so leisurely, that it was easy to follow them. 
 
 A fluctuating motion was also perceptible, occasionally, suggesting 
 the idea of a luminous body being drifted by a current. 
 
 The planet seldom shifted more than 2 or 3 from its general 
 position in the ecliptic, though, at times, it seemed to move further; 
 but I was unable to determine this point. 
 
 No marked change was perceptible in its appearance during the 
 movements; but it was noticed that the movements were limited in 
 proportion as the star ascended in the sky, and by the time I ceased 
 to observe, though still distinct, they were much less remarkable than 
 at first. 
 
 Some minutes after my attention was first attracted to the pheno- 
 menon, I was joined by Lieutenant Carnegie, and we both sat watching 
 the star for nearly an hour. I next turned my eye to a fixed star, 
 shining with considerable brilliancy, above 12 above the horizon to 
 the N. E., and discovered that it was affected much in the same manner 
 as the planet; and that it underwent increase and diminution in size, 
 and in the resplendency of its prismatic colours as it rose and sunk. 
 
 Having satisfied myself here, I turned to the opposite quarter of 
 the sky, and found that two or three of the brightest fixed stars there- 
 abouts seemed to move. I afterwards remarked a fixed star with a 
 reddish tinge which rose in the East some time after Saturn, when it 
 had attained to the height of 10 or 12 above the horizon, undergo 
 precisely the same kind of motions. 
 
 The atmosphere was probably more humid than usual, for the 
 day had been cloudy, and between two and three in the afternoon a 
 storm of wind and rain from the S. E. occurred; but the clouds dissolved 
 away soon after sun- set, and the sky became clear. 
 
 Small shooting stars swept the heavens now and then distant 
 lightning in the north from a low bank of clouds near the horizon. 
 
 The air was almost still a light breeze from the eastward passed 
 occasionally by. 
 
 On the 13th a similar appearance was observed. Shortly before 
 9 P. M. the sky being clear, a fixed star, 12 or 15 above the horizon 
 to the west, was observed by myself and Lieutenant Carnegie to move 
 
69 
 
 and undergo the same kind of irregular movements as before described : 
 and the following morning, at dawn, I observed the planet Venus, 
 then above 33 above the horizon to the east, to be affected in like 
 manner; and now that my attention is directed to the subject, I perceive 
 the phenomenon, with more or less distinctness, on every clear night; 
 and it only astonishes me that it was never remarked before. 
 
 The apparent motions probably depend much upon the degree of 
 moisture in the atmosphere, and upon the height of the star above the 
 horizon for stars seen in the zenith do not appear to move at all, 
 while those near the horizon do move considerably. I conclude, there- 
 fore, that the apparent motion of the star is due to a humid state of 
 the atmosphere, or to rarefaction like the mirage, - - a purely local 
 cause; and that the laws of refraction will afford a satisfactory and 
 complete explanation of the nature of this singular phenomenon. 
 
 Meean Meer, 29th Sept, 1852. 
 
 The following account is quoted from the Year- Book of Facts, 
 1852, to shew the interest attached by scientific men to the above 
 subject: 
 
 Eccentric Movement of the Fixed Stars. 
 
 "At a meeting of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, held on 
 May 31 last, the venerable Alexander Humboldt made an inter- 
 esting communication upon some observations of singular Move- 
 ments of the Fixed Stars. It seems that at Trieste, Jan. 17, 1851, 
 between 7 and 8 o'clock, P. M. before the rising of the moon, 
 when the star Sirius was not far from the horizon, it was seen 
 to perform a remarkable series of eccentric movements. It rose 
 and sank, moved left and right, and sometimes seemed to move 
 in a curved line. The observers were Mr. Keune, a student in 
 the upper class of the Gymnasium, and Mr. Thugutt, a saddler, 
 both certified to be reliable persons. The family of the latter 
 also beheld the phenomena. Mr. Keune, with his head leaned 
 immovably against the wall, saw Sirius rise in a right line 
 above the roof of a neighbouring house, and immediately again 
 sink out of sight behind it, and then again appear. Its motions 
 were so considerable that for some time the beholders thought 
 
70 
 
 it was a lantern suspended by a kite. It also varied in brilliancy, 
 growing alternately brighter and fainter, and now and then 
 being for moments quite invisible, though the sky was perfectly 
 clear. As far as it is known, this phenomena has been remarked 
 but twice before: once in 1799 from the Peak of Teneriffe by 
 Von Humboldt himself; and again nearly fifty years later, by 
 a well-informed and very careful observer, and by Prince Albert 
 of Prussia." 
 
 ON THE MOTIONS OF THE SEA IN A STORM. 
 
 In attempting to give a general idea of the complicated movements 
 of the waves in a storm, and the exciting causes, we must commence 
 by supposing a dead calm at sea, the surface of the ocean still, and 
 smooth as a looking glass, and not a breath of wind stirring. 
 
 The wind rises, and comes at first in light puffs, ruffling the sur- 
 face of the water into crescent shaped undulations of small size, directed 
 forwards with the wind, and moving at a slow pace, about a mile or 
 two an hour. These undulations, when on a small scale, may be seen 
 to diverge as from a centre, and there being many points of origin, 
 the curves of undulation cross or intersect, counteracting each other's 
 effects at those particular points and causing the waves to assume 
 something of a lozenge shape, which general figure is preserved for a 
 time, while their size is increased, and their velocity accelerated by 
 every succeeding gust of wind. 
 
 The influence extends at first only to the surface; but soon as the 
 breeze freshens, the size of the waves is proportionably increased, and 
 their onward motion quickened; till at length, the whole body of water 
 over which the influence of the storm extends for the time, to the 
 depth of several feet, partakes of the violent motion imparted to it by 
 the wind; and now the form, which marked the waves at first, is no 
 longer discernable, but is merged into lengthened undulations, which 
 thus present a more direct surface to the action of the winds, and are 
 propelled with an increasing impetus. 
 
71 
 
 The furious blasts which sweep along from time to time during a 
 storm, plough up the ocean, and drive on the mass of waters with 
 augmented speed, causing their influence to be extended to a great 
 distance in front, by reason of the centrifugal forces on the side of 
 progression, acting with greatest energy, and more or less in the 
 direction of the storm's track. 
 
 In this manner, waves of undulation and progression are propelled 
 in advance of the storm, (when that is not too rapid to overtake them,) 
 which are often noticed as heavy rollers, at a considerable distance from 
 the source of action, while the sea is smooth, without being driven by 
 any wind. 
 
 The Storm Wave, said to be sometimes particularly noticed, during 
 the passage of the centre, may be due to the combined forces of a 
 swiftly moving Hurricane acting on the waters confined within the 
 central area, chiefly in one direction, as the Spirals recurve simultaneously, 
 and sweep a more direct course forward on the side of progression^ 
 every one in his path, the effect of which may be to heap up a mass 
 of waters thereabouts, and impell it onwards in the storm's track. 
 
 The central spirals, near the vortex,, while they may revolve on 
 their axis more rapidly, will be, I presume, retarded in their progress 
 in proportion as they approach the looped side of the Hurricane, and 
 sometimes appear to remain almost stationary. 
 
 The Storm Current is chiefly confined, I imagine, to the body 
 or vortex of the storm, and may be due to the local effect of the winds 
 upon the water, and to the centrifugal action of the storm; and on the 
 side of progression, to a constant current or set, flowing in that direc- 
 tion, from behind, forwards, arising from the same cause. On the 
 looped side of a Cyclone, the sea, though impelled with great power, 
 can have but little progressive motion in any one direction , as the 
 conflicting forces there in full operation, destroy or counteract each 
 other's effects, and change the current continually, producing the confused 
 outrageous cross sea often mentioned by Mariners, which is the principal 
 danger to be apprehended, and which tumultuous state of waters con- 
 tinues, as might be expected, for many hours after the storm itself has 
 passed away. 
 
 But who can describe the awful scene at the centre, where all the 
 powers of the Hurricane are concentrated, and the hapless ship, caught 
 in the vortex, seems doomed to inevitable destruction. 
 
72 
 
 There, the rapid veering of the wind, and fierce spiral blasts, 
 following one another in quick succession, lash on the foaming sea most 
 furiously, now in one direction, then in another; and mountain waves, 
 tossing their crests on high , dash together in the raging conflict of 
 mighty waters. 
 
 The darkness, the fitful gleam of lightning, the roaring wind, and 
 deafening thunder, all conspire to fill the mind with dreadful apprehen- 
 sions of impending destruction; and man reels to and fro like a drunkard. 
 ' Q! for a Voice at such an hour, to say with effect, "Peace, be stitt"l 
 
PART III. 
 
 10 
 
EXTRACTS FROM A METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL 
 
 AND 
 
 FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE PHCENOMENA OF WIND, UPON WHICH 
 THE PRESENT THEORY IS FOUNDED. 
 
 The following extract from a Meteorological Journal kept at 
 Lahore in 1850, embracing a period of about two months, is intro- 
 duced for the purpose of shewing that the passage of the spiral co- 
 lumns is not always attended with electrical excitement* 
 
 Lahore, Aug. 19 th - 1850. 
 
 Day sultry. No wind either to day or for some days past, and 
 the stagnation of the air, night and day, is most oppressive. An 
 unusual amount of sickness now prevails in the city and at Meanmeer 
 the fever is of the Intermittent and Remittent types, accompanied 
 with much prostration, and is of a more intractable form than usual. 
 Dysentry also prevails. The wind if any there be, is from the 
 S. W. The nights are clear and star light nothing remarkable about 
 the atmosphere at night - - Meteors are rare. 
 
 20 th Very sultry all day and night cloudless sky, and hazy 
 stagnation of the atmosphere much fever. 
 
 21 st - Sky clear at sunrise. - To the N. N. W. quarter, 30 
 elevation, light Cirro-strati and sky somewhat hazy towards the Ho- 
 rizon, so as almost to obscure the sun at sunrise vane points to S. 
 by E. light air, which soon rose, and at 8. 30 A. M. it was 'blowing 
 a pleasant breeze at times from the West. The vane veering 
 slightly to Southward. 
 
 10 A. M. Air still - - vane points to W. whole sky covered 
 with hazy Cumuli ; through a break in the clouds over head, the clouds 
 seem to be moving in opposite directions. Dew point 80: Temp, of ext. 
 air 91. 5 Farht. 
 
 12 M. Noon. Wind rising. 
 
 12. 20 Noon. Wind increasing and blowing a moderate breeze 
 from the N. N. E. Constant passage of dust whirlwinds, from N. 
 N. E. to S. S. W. Vane oscillating as usual during their passage. 
 
76 
 
 No electricity is developed from the insulated wire; nor is the 
 gold-leaf Electrometer at all affected, even during the passage of the 
 electrical whirls. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. Stormy. Dust blowing in whirling sweeps from 
 N. N. E. to the opposite quarter. Gusty vane oscillates strongly as 
 the gusts pass. No indications of Electricity, which is remarkable. 
 The wind is cool, blows a moderate breeze of 25 miles an hour or less. 
 
 4. P. M. Dust blows strongly from N. N. E. to S. S. W. - 
 Sky clear, and covered with a thin stratum of Cumulo - strati moving 
 from West to East. 
 
 5. P. M. Wind subsiding. 
 
 5. 10 m Blows a pleasant breeze from the same quarter. 
 
 At sun set, a distant bank of cloud was observed all round to 
 the Western Hemisphere from N. to S. 
 
 7. P. M. An occasional faint flash in the direction of the bank : 
 so faint as to be scarcely noticeable. 
 
 9. P. M. Strong breeze suddenly rose from the North, with 
 dust blowing, and lasted 10 or 15 minutes and then nearly subsided; 
 distant lightning is seen extending 10 or 15 above the Horizon, which 
 dimly reveals a distant bank of cloud to the N. and N. W. Cool 
 wind all night no storm. 
 
 Aug. 22 nd Sun rise. Cool wind blew all night and continues this 
 morning from N. N. W. Gusts at times, but no dust-whirls observed, 
 vane oscillates 2 or 3 points. The whole sky covered with two layers 
 of Cumulo - strati and Cirro-cumuli. The one below, moves from West 
 to East. The upper strata lighted up by the sun. 
 
 9. 30 A. M. Light breeze from E. N. E. sky nearly clear. 
 A few Cirro-strati patches. 
 
 10. A. M. Sky clear, slightly hazy; a light air from N. E. Ex- 
 ternal air 91. Dew point 70. 5. min: of self-regist Thermometer 75. 5. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. Sky clear. Light breeze from N. W. vane oscil- 
 lates slightly at times. 
 
 4. P. M. A slight air from N. W. Sky clear. Night clear. 
 23 rd August. Sky clear at sun rise and after a light wind 
 
 from the West, scarcely perceptible. 
 
 24 th August. At sun rise wreaths of Cirri over sky, extending 
 longitudinally, with the meridian. A few white cottony clouds during 
 the day, on a clear sky. 
 
77 
 
 A hot wind blowing at times night fine. 
 
 Aug. 25 th Sky covered with a sheet of fine Cirri, especially to 
 the Eastern Hemisphere up to the Zenith. West Hemisphere nearly clear. 
 The whole field seemed to move from W. to East, though the motion 
 was indistinct by reason of the great height. A light air from E. S. E. 
 
 10. A. M. Sky clear. Air still. Vane oscillates slightly. Temp, 
 of air 96. 5. Dew point 77. Vane unsteady pointing W. by N. 
 then S. N. and then N. by E. 
 
 10. 15. AM. Vane points to N. E. 
 
 Day sultry at sun set Cirri over sky. Night clear and cool. 
 Aug. 26 th At sun rise a light cool wind from E. by S. Sky covered 
 with Cirri in large contorted streaks moving from S. to North, denser 
 to the Eastern Hemisphere. 
 
 About 7 A. M. Frequent passage of dust whirls, all moving 
 from S. E* to N. W. No distinct columnar appearance, but on the 
 surface the dust follows the whirl in a broad train. 
 
 10 A. M. and before light wind from S. E. or E. S. E. - 
 passage of dust whirls. Sky covered with irregular patches of Cirri 
 moving from S. to N. 
 
 Temp, of air 93. Dew point 80. 
 
 1. 30. P. M. and before. Masses of white Cumuli collecting to 
 the South and East and around Horizon moving seemingly from N. to 
 South, and as they pass over head, are seen to be in rotatory motion 
 above this was observed a layer of Cirri in small streaks irregulary 
 arranged. Vane unsteady, points generally to N. E. and oscillates 
 gently to N. N. E. Clouds in Zenith in vermicular motion, dissolving 
 and forming again. 
 
 Kites are seen soaring high up, above a mile, sweeping large 
 and rapid circles beneath the masses of Cumuli. 
 
 Cumuli vanish rapidly, and seem to be whirled up into a higher 
 region out of sight, as the blue sky is not clear, but hazy. 
 
 3 or 4 P. M. Sky overhead clear, Cumuli all round Horizon. 
 A light unsteady wind from the N. by West. Night clear. Air stinking 
 all night. 
 
 August 27 th Sun rise gentle wind from E. S. E. Sky covered with 
 Cirri and Cirro-cumuli and Cumulo- strati, the lower stratum moving 
 from N. to S. The Cirri above feathery and cortorted. 
 
 10 A. M. Light wind from East; Cirro-strati and Cumuli. 
 
78 
 
 Passage of Electric whirlwinds from E. S. E. and S. E. to N. W. or 
 W. N. W. not very strong. Sky mottled with Cirro- cumuli , which 
 move from S. to N. 
 
 1. 15. -- P. M. -- gentle wind. 
 
 Large dense masses of Cumuli all round Horizon, particulary to 
 the West n - Hemisph 6 - light cottony Cumuli moving quickly from 
 South to North. A few minutes after vane points to N. Gloomy looking 
 all round from W. to N. E. Dust blowing from N. suddenly. A lower 
 Cumulus scud flying from N. to South with the wind - - distant thun- 
 der to West. On looking up to zenith several (3 or 4) strata of clouds 
 almost of a similar character move from N. to South or from South 
 to North. Above and beyond, mottled Cirro-cumuli appear quiescent - 
 but the glare and heat too great to observe this long. 
 
 This puff of storm lasted for a few minutes only, and left a still- 
 ness in the air. 
 
 1. 50. P. M. - - Storm over. 
 
 3. 20. P. M. - - fine. Vane oscillating N. and N. N. E. Clouds 
 gathering more to N. E. N. and E. Hemispheres and to South : 
 gloomy overcast to South. 
 
 Night clear. 
 
 August 28 th 10. A. M. - - Temp, of air 92. Dew point 77. Sky 
 clear. A light wind veering from N. E. to N. small patches of Cumuli 
 about the Horizon to E. and West. 
 
 12. Noon Light air from West. Sky covered with mottled Cirro- 
 cumuli moving from S. by N. to N. N. E. or N. by E. 
 
 4. P. M. Cloudy Cumulo - strati and Cumuli moving from 
 N. N. W. to S. S. E. and in rolling motion. 
 
 Sun set cloudy. 
 
 Night still and very oppressively close, especially about 9 and 10. 
 
 August 29 th Time much occupied with the sick. 
 
 3. P. M. - - Suddenly gusty, and the dust blowing in whirls from 
 the S. W. to N. E. Vane oscillating as usual. Sky covered with large 
 masses of Cumuli moving from N. N. W. to S. S. E. Sky seen 
 beyond, clear and blue. Sky generally gloomy all round Horizon. 
 No Electricity developed during the passage of the whirls. A gold- 
 leaf Electrometer is not in the least degree affected, which is remar- 
 kable; the same thing has been observed for some time past. 
 
 On rubbing the Electrometer with a silk handkerchief, the gold- 
 
79 
 
 leaves were after several rubs, and sudden withdrawals slightly affected 
 but the leaves almost immediately collapsed, showing an absence of 
 Electricity in the atmosphere. During the dry weather, before the 
 rains, the slightest rub of a silk handkerchief is sufficient to affect 
 strongly the leaves. - - From this, the inference is, that the Electro- 
 magnetic beams or spiral columns, are not necessarily electrical, though 
 they conduct it at times. This fluid is not now developed, though the 
 spirals are present, and their effect upon the air the same as usual; 
 producing currents of wind. Night clear, a few light clouds about 
 Close -- air still vane points to S. cooler than the night before. 
 
 Aug. 30 th Sun rise. Light air from E. contorted Cirri in long 
 tortuous lines extending Meridian wise N. and S. Below are seen 
 patches of Cumulo - strati moving from N. W. to S. East. Northern 
 quarter nearly clear. Clouds accumulating to Southward. 
 
 August 31 st Post Scriptum. 
 
 At sun rise lengthened cirrous bands stretching E. and W. and 
 in some parts, small patches of Cirro-cumuli. 
 
 About 3 P. M. A sudden dust storm from the S. E. to N. W. 
 which continued with occasional lulls and increasing gusts for some 
 minutes - - 15 or 20 during which time the gold leaf Electrometer 
 was not affected, and no Electricity was seen to proceed from the insu- 
 lated wires. 
 
 The wind was cool and produced a very decided effect in reducing 
 the temperature. 
 
 Driving home about 8 P. M. , observed occasional gleams of very 
 distant lightning to S. E. 
 
 Septemb. 1 st about 2. 30. A M. this morning a storm from S. E. 
 with rain, thunder and lightning. The rain heavy and wind blowing a 
 strong breeze from that quarter. The lightning very vivid and near. 
 Sky overcast with light hazy cloud. Stars occasionally seen in the Zenith. 
 
 About 5. A. M. Wind to Northward. 
 
 5. 25. A. M. Wind N. W. and veering to Westward vivid 
 lightning and rattling thunder to West. 
 
 5. 40. A. M. Wind S. E. and S. S. E. At this time, frequent 
 rolling thunder at short distance. Sky then overcast. At sun rise, 
 rain continues. 
 
 5. 50. A. M. Air nearly still vane points to W. N. W. 
 distant thunder. 
 
80 
 
 5. 55. A. M. Vane points S. E. Rain increasing. Thunder near. 
 
 6. 10. A. M. Vane to South. Vivid lightning occasionally, with 
 rattling thunder. Clouds breaking. 
 
 6. 20. A. M. Vane to N. E. light air -- rain nearly ceased. 
 
 Thunder and ? lightning ceased. Lowest Temperature min. 
 Therm r - 69. Day continued cloudy. 
 
 Rain measured 2. 35 inches. 
 
 Sept. 3 rd Light air from E. by S. Sky covered with large 
 feathery masses of contorted Cirri, moving rather quickly from South 
 to North, beneath which in small patches, distributed here and there, 
 to N. and South, are Cumulo - strati. 
 
 The cirrous cloud was denser to E., so as to obscure the sun at 
 rising. This appearance gradually cleared off and by 
 
 10. A. M. The sky was almost clear, only a whitish haze. 
 Temp, of air 93. Dew point 79. 
 
 Since the rain, the sun's rays hot and penetrating - - the air close 
 and muggy. 
 
 4. P. M. Whole sky covered with Cirro-cumuli and Strati and 
 a lower scud moving from N. N. W. to S. S. E. with the direction of 
 the wind. Low sound of thunder. 
 
 October 8 th No entry appears further, during September - 
 probably on account of the severe sickness that then prevailed among 
 the troops. 
 
 During the whole of September, the wind has been from a 
 Westerly direction, - - generally S. Westerly and the weather fine 
 and sky cloudless without indications of Electricity. No rain 
 occured. 
 
 The winds were very light and uncertain , occasionally, the passage 
 of a few dust whirlwinds of small size, but very rare. And it is worthy 
 of remark, that during their passage, no development of Electricity 
 appeared on connecting the gold-leaf Electrometer with the insulated 
 atmospheric wire - - though the gold -leaves were expanded on whipping 
 its top with woollen fur. 
 
 The atmosphere was but feebly charged with electricity, which 
 state continues up to the present date. 
 
 13 th October. Monday. The weather continues fine and cloudless - 
 with gentle wind from S. W. veering sometimes to E, and South. 
 A change occurs. The air was accidentally observed yesterday to be 
 
81 
 
 electrical and the hair of an Officer when combed, exhibitecKElectrical 
 excitation. And the comb, when applied to the gold-leaf Electrometer, 
 caused the leaves to expand. Lightly rubbing the glass bottle with any 
 linen or cotton substance, caused immediate electrical excitement. The 
 air is electrical to-day, but not to a like extent. The air has been 
 hitherto, since the setting in of the rains, quite free from Electrical 
 indications - so that the ordinary means of procuring that kind of 
 excitation, failed or when it did affect the gold-leaf Electrometer, 
 the leaves instantly collapsed. 
 
 The last two days it has been remarked that a solution of starch 
 and Iodide of Potassium, on white earthen- ware, rapidly became 
 discoloured when exposed to the sun, and this was the case yesterday 
 with some kept in the room, out of the sun's rays. 
 
 Temperature of Dew point 47; minimum Temp. 65*) 
 
 The spirals must be a permanent, peculiar form of matter they 
 cannot be themselves the electrical fluid but may possibly be conductors. 
 
 October 14 th About 2. 20. P. M. - - A Dust Whirlwind of some 
 size passed over the house from W. S. W. to Eastward, followed by 
 a train of a few smaller ones. This one appeared, when at the distance 
 of 400 yards as two columns of some size and height, but not very 
 distinct. The Electrical conductor not affected at the time, though the 
 air is dry and somewhat charged with Electricity; as the bottle (con- 
 taining the gold -leaves) slightly rubbed with linen or cloth, is imme- 
 diately attended with the expansion of the gold -leaves. 
 
 This column followed the direction of the light wind blowing at 
 the time from the S. W. or S. S. W. (or, more properly speaking, 
 the wind followed it). 
 
 The vane was not much affected after the whirl had passed, and 
 no strong breeze was experienced. 
 
 Note: The existence of crossing currents at different heights in 
 the atmosphere, is indicated by the opposite courses of the various 
 cloud strata. 
 
 *) About this period of the year a very sudden and marked reduction of the tempera- 
 ture is remarked in the Dew point, and the nights become sensibly colder, 
 which change requires to be carefully guarded against, by the adoption of warmer 
 clothing, and avoiding exposure to the night air; and for troops, early morning pa- 
 rades should be discontinued. 
 
 A neglect of such precautions often leads to sickness. 
 
82 
 
 October 27 th Sun rise, clear, except to Westward from S. West 
 to N. E. where Cirro-strati contorted are seen to the height of 20 or 
 30 moving from S. W. to N. E. with the general direction of the air 
 at the surface Day hot. During the day, light cool inconstant breeze 
 caused by the frequent passage of the dust whirls; all moving in 
 the general direction of the surface wind from S. W. to N. E. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. The vane points to S. W. but the wind nearly 
 dropped. 
 
 In the Northern hemisphere lines of Cirro-strati and Cumuli are 
 seen as high as 35. 
 
 The air dry: the temperature of Dew point 47 and the gold-leaf 
 Electrometer is easily excited. 
 
 October 29 th 1. 30. P. M. Several small Dust Whirlwinds 
 
 moving about, some of which were very distinct as the air was almost 
 still. They all progressed very slowly, about I 1 /* or two miles an hour, 
 some remaining almost stationary for a time. 
 
 Observed one moving from S. W. to N. E. composed of 6 or 8 
 smaller whirls, all rotating briskly small, but distinct, and the whole 
 revolving from right to left, the side of progression having 
 the dust thicker. The centripetal currents of wind not percep- 
 tible, nor a train, as its progress was too slow for these 
 to be formed, with any distinctness. 
 
 About this time, took notice of a single contorted column, which 
 presented a distinctly columnar aspect to a considerable height, as far 
 as the eye could reach, precisely similar to what had been witnessed 
 before. 
 
 Nr. 1. 
 
 Uniform columnar appearance of the diminutive Whirlwind preserved 
 throughout its entire visible height. 
 
 April 11 th 1851. At 1. 35. P. M. A Dust Whirlwind, several 
 feet in diameter, of considerable height and distinctness, whirling from 
 left to right passed over the .house slowly at the rate of 
 2V2 miles an hour from S. W. to N. E.; which course it 
 pursued for about 4 or 5 hundred yards, when it deviated 
 somewhat to the East. White masses of Cumuli, almost 
 stationary, appear in the Zenith on a blue" sky, above which is a 
 
83 
 
 stratum of cottony Cirri stretching in lines from N. to East and moving 
 rapidly to Eastward from the West. A surface zephir from the West, 
 scarcely affecting the vane. The column whirled up large volumes of 
 dust high into the atmosphere, and preserved a distinct columnar form 
 and whirling motion, throughout its entire height, as far as the eye 
 could reach, which was supposed to be about a mile at which 
 height, it joined a large white cottony cloud in motion, progressing in 
 the same direction with the whirlwind. 
 
 When at the distance of about 300 yards, the column seemed to 
 subtend an angle of 60 or more, and was judged to be about a mile 
 high from the appearance of the Kites that soared above and around it. 
 The surface wind was scarcely at all affected when once the whirl had 
 passed which is accounted for by the slowness of its progress. 
 
 This method of judging distances by the appearance of Kites and 
 Crows, which are very numerous in India, and which (viz. the Kites) 
 usually follow and soar above and around a Whirlwind column, as if in 
 sport, was found to be very convenient and accurate. 
 
 ]Vr. 3. 
 
 Peculiar rotatory action and ascensive force of the Whirlwind 
 
 Column. 
 
 Mean Meer, March 24 th - 
 
 Numerous Dust Whirlwinds of all sizes passing from N. N. W. to 
 S. S. E. and S. E. from 11 A. M. till 3 P. M. - - Many were seen at 
 the same time following close upon one another that is, in the same line. 
 Their rate of progress was about 9 or 10 miles an hour, as fast 
 as a horse could gallop: some turned one way, some another many 
 exhibited a continuous column of dust to the height of two and three 
 thousand feet; the column was more or less wavy, and usually appeared 
 broken for want of continuity of the dust in consequence of the rapidity 
 of progress. As they passed along, they whirled up dust into the 
 atmosphere with great force, for a minute or so, then ceased for a 
 while, the dust already raised, still ascending, and preserving its col- 
 nar wavy form as if influenced by some power which worked from 
 below, upwards; then, after a lapse of half a minute or more, the whir- 
 ling motion would recommence as furiously as ever, the dust ascending 
 like smoke from a furnace then again it would cease, the body of dust 
 
84 
 
 meanwhile ascending rapidly as before; the same thing being repeated 
 again and again as the whirlwind travelled onwards. 
 
 In the course of two or three minutes, the dust would have, to 
 all appearance, ascended two thousand feet and upwards, when it 
 became diffused, and was carried onwards in advance of the extremity in 
 contact with the earth, a general whirling motion being perceptible in 
 the cljoud of dust above, as it passed over head. 
 
 At the height of two or three thousand feet, the whirling body 
 loses its columnar form, and the dust is dispersed in the form of 'a 
 cloud, still ascending higher and higher, till completely out of sight. 
 Numbers of Kites follow these whirlwinds 20 or more are frequently 
 seen soaring about and around one of them at different heights, in sport. 
 
 \ r. 3. 
 
 Electricity developed in Dust- Storms; comparative conducting power 
 of Brass and Zinc wires. 
 
 Mean Meer, March 25 th . 
 
 2. 10. P. M. Storm coming up from the N. N. W. Cloudy 
 and stormy looking to the North clear to South. High wind. Lower 
 scud cloud moving rather rapidly from W. S. W. to the opposite quarter. 
 
 2. 20. P. M. Bar. 29. 240. Att. Ther. 78. Wind N. Vane 
 constantly oscillating from N. to N. N. W. Clouds of dust in the 
 Horizon, and to South, to which point it is all blowing. 
 
 2. 30. P. M. Electricity developed from the atmospheric wires 
 in sparks */4 of an inch long or more. 
 
 2. 37. P. M. Bar. stationary. Surface slightly convex. 
 
 The electric fluid now streams furiously down the principal brass 
 wire in sparks % of an inch long. 
 
 The zinc wire gives but feeble indications of Electricity. 
 
 2. 40. P. M. Comparative lull. Sparks less - '/4 inch long. 
 Wind N. N. W. and veering 3 or 4 points. 
 
 Zinc wire gives no indication of Electricity, while the length of 
 the spark from the two brass wires, is ! /4 of an inch. 
 
 2. 50. P. M. Bar. 29. 240. Att. Ther. 77. 5. Surface convex. 
 High wind from N. W. by N. Dark lowering arched overcast to the 
 North wind steady from the North. Nimbi appear. Air damp. Cessation 
 of Electricity. Three birds flying from N. W. to S. E. were observed 
 
85 
 
 as they passed to halt and turn about in the air - - then whirl round 
 again, and after taking a short flight, to turn as before, repeating this 
 so long as they continued in sight. 
 
 The lower scud a mile high or more, moves from S. W. to N. E. 
 
 3. P. M. Bar. same. Surface convex, a lull. Light rain. Gloomy 
 appearance to N. much less marked. 
 
 3. 15. P. M. - - Scud cloud still coming up from the S. W. to 
 N. E. Surface wind N. and veering to N. N. W. and back again. 
 Wind subsiding. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. - - Bar. 29. 320. Att. Ther. 73. Surface flatter. 
 Storm passed off. After sun -set stormy looking to the N. W. hemisphere 
 all round. Clouds passing rapidly to the East from West. A few stars 
 dimly visible in the breaks. Clear to South, with Cirro-strati and 
 Cumulo- strati. A pleasant breeze blows from the North. 
 
 9, 45. P. M. Heavy clouds all round from S. W. to N. E. 
 A clap of thunder. Air still. Shortly after, heavy rain. 
 
 10. P. M. Bar. 29. 228. Att. Therm. 68. 8. Vivid lightning, 
 quickly followed by loud thunder and heavy rain. Another flash, and 
 thunder followed by pouring rain, which continued for half an hour. 
 
 In this case, an insulated brass wire was fixed to a tall bamboo 
 outside, and brought into the tent through a glass-tube, the wire at that 
 part being further insulated by being wound with silk covered with 
 resinous cement. 
 
 A few feet below the top of the pole, a cross-bar was fixed, to 
 either extremity of which was attached the neck of a glass bottle, and 
 a brass wire on one side, and a zinc wire on the other, which were 
 in like manner conducted into the tent, and all bound together. 
 
 Notwithstanding the insulation of the wires , strong electrical 
 sparks passed from the side of one wire to the other during the height 
 of the storm. 
 
 The effect of the passage of the smaller Whirlwinds on the air 
 through which they pass. 
 
 In watching the variations of the wind during the passage of a 
 Dust Whirlwind of moderate size (4 or 8 feet in diameter) progressing 
 7 to 10 miles an hour, we notice the following particulars. 
 
86 
 
 Directly in front, a vane is unaffected till the whirl is within a 
 few yards or feet of it. The vane then commonly points towards it, 
 though we seldom experience any draught of air in that direction. 
 "When the whirl passes, the vane sways to and fro several points, impel- 
 led by contrary currents - - after which a light, unsteady wind may 
 blow in the direction of the track for a minute or so, while the column 
 has progressed 150 to 200 yards. The wind then rises, and continues 
 to blow with increased strength, during which it has progressed 100 or 
 200 yards further. 
 
 A short lull may then take place, succeeded by a fresh breeze, 
 which soon becomes light and unsteady and finally drops, and may rise 
 again for a short interval. One of 3 or 4 feet in diameter, moving from 
 N. to S. at 6 or 7 miles an hour, passed about 20 yards to East of the 
 portable vane. When opposite, the wind blew rather strongly towards 
 the moving column when passed, a lighter wind blew in the direction 
 of the whirl, and continued pretty steady till it had gone about 200 
 yards - - when the breeze freshened to a pleasant breeze, and blew 
 till it had made a further advance of 150 or 200 yards at an angle - 
 not in the direct line - - but as that went S. by W., the wind blew 
 from N. N. W. After this, the wind dropped, and blew more gently 
 from N. W. which continued nearly as long as the former one, when the 
 wind again freshened for a short time, I think. But much difficulty 
 attends an accurate registry of the currents under these circumstances, 
 without the assistance of another: and repeated observation is the only 
 way to obtain accuracy. 
 
 Xr. 5. 
 
 The Whirlwind usually composed of several separate spiral co- 
 lumns, each one rotating on its own axis affects the air through which 
 it passes, causing currents to blow in the track, - - without which the 
 air would be still. Alternate gusts and lulls caused by the passage of 
 a succession of Whirlwind-columns moving in same direction at inter- 
 vals. Strength of wind depends upon the velocity and rotatory energy 
 of the spiral column. 
 
 Mean Meer. March 1851. 
 A Dust Whirlwind was noticed, 20 feet in diameter, moving at the 
 
87 
 
 rate of 6 or 7 miles an hour, from N. W. to S. E., composed of se- 
 veral spirals, each one of which whirled on its own axis. 
 
 A vane in front became slightly affected when within a few feet 
 of it, and pointed towards it, and when the vortex passed, was twisted 
 about violently. 
 
 A light wind then blew for 150 yards, followed by a lull. It 
 then freshened and blew stronger and stronger for 200 yards further, 
 or more - - then followed a complete lull, and then again, it blew as 
 strong as before this being repeated more than twice, without the 
 passage of another spiral in the interim. It turned from right to 
 left and as it passed, the curved lines of dust on the side of progession 
 were distinctly seen. 
 
 Sky covered with large masses of Cumulo-strati. Numerous 
 Dust Whirlwinds passing in the same direction. No wind perceptible 
 but that caused by the passage of the Whirlwinds. 
 
 They are observed to come on at intervals; and then there is a 
 period of complete cessation. 
 
 \ r. G. 
 
 Mean Meer. March 28 th 1851. 
 
 A Whirlwind of small diameter passed East by S. from the oppo- 
 site quarter. It turned from left to right. When at the distance of 
 200 yards wind blew strong then a lull 
 400 strong 
 600 and gusty 
 800 j, strongest 
 900 gusts and veering 
 1000 still strong ,, gusty 
 1200 strong 
 
 1500 veering several points 
 latterly wind blew from the S. W. and veered about 4 to 8 points. 
 
 Nr. 7. 
 
 March 15 th 1851. 1. 15. P. M. Numerous Dust Whirls all 
 moving rapidly 10 or 25 miles an hour, with the wind, which blows 
 from N. by West. 
 
 1. 45. P. M. A constant succession of Dust Whirlwinds passing 
 rapidly, 15 miles an hour, from N. N. W. to S. S. E. 
 
There are intervals of a few minutes free from the Whirlwinds - 
 the whole extent of the horizon whence they come ; is filled with a line 
 of them, advancing together. 
 
 When they progress as rapidly as they do to-day, little can be 
 perceived of their peculiar nature; as the dust they whirl up is diffu- 
 sed into an irregular cloud, and left behind, as the W. Wind advances. 
 Sky covered with a mass of Cirri. 
 
 Memo: The rising and falling of the wind in storms, is perhaps 
 attributable to the passage of a number of these Electrical spirals, or 
 Whirlwinds, now moving before us, which come at intervals and are 
 attended by a marked rising and falling of the wind. 
 
 The cirrous cloud in rapid motion, coming up from the S. W. 
 and is carried to the opposite direction. 
 
 2. P. M. and after. Dust Whirlwinds continue to blow from 
 the same quarter and increase in size and number. 
 
 Nr. 8. 
 
 February 8 th 2. 15. P. M. - - A light breeze blows. A few small 
 indistinct Dust Whirlwinds are moving with the wind most of them 
 going 7 or 8 miles an hour. 
 
 3. P. M. Followed one on horse back for half a mile, going 
 about 7y 2 miles an hour several Kites following it, soaring at the 
 height of 3 or 5 hundred yards above the earth, as if in sport. The 
 whirl rotated from right to left, and as it progressed, drew into its 
 vortex lines of dust in tangents very distinctly. 
 
 Nr. 9. 
 
 Another day. Six or eight Vultures or Kites are seen soaring a 
 mile overhead in the cloud of dust raised by a Whirlwind. 
 
 The wind rises and falls during the passage of these Dust Whirlwinds. 
 
 The wind freshens to a pleasant breeze for a few minutes and 
 then lulls. One was observed going at the rate of 12 miles an hour - 
 as it passed, it divided, and continued to progress in a smaller whirl 
 of dust. 
 
 \r. 10. 
 
 To day, they all follow the direction of the surface wind from 
 South to North, some at the rate of 15 or 20 miles an hour, others 
 
89 
 
 much slower, 6 or 12 only - - but most of them travel about 10 miles 
 an hour. They do not always preserve the same pace throughout their 
 course. There are intervals when none are to be seen: then, after a 
 few minutes, several are seen, advancing together from the same direc- 
 tion a few smaller ones sometimes going in advance. This disposition 
 of the columns, may account for the alternate gusts and lulls, that 
 constantly occur during a storm. 
 
 The wind seems to blow more forcibly and steadily after the 
 whirls have moved on 2 or 3 hundred yards; or, from 40 seconds to a 
 minute, according to the rate of progress. After passing, a short lull 
 takes place, followed by a gradual increase of wind, till at the 
 distance of 2 or 3 hundred yards, the wind blows strongest. 
 
 \r. 11. 
 
 At 1. P. M. Another day. Six dust columns of various sizes are 
 
 seen at 2 miles distance, coming up from the same direction 
 N. W., from which quarter a pleasant breeze blows the 
 wind is too high to notice distinctly their revolutions and 
 they for the most part exhibit merely a train of dust impelled 
 by the wind, the columnar form being in a great measure 
 obscured. 
 
 Followed one for a mile and a half, which kept in advance, 
 as it went steadily 10 or 11 miles an hour. It was a column 
 of irregular form, the dust of which was carried up into the 
 atmosphere to the height of 14 or 17 hundred yards. 
 
 \r. 
 
 The small Whirlwinds are composed of several eddies, which, on close 
 inspection, are found to be distinct spiral columns, each one a 
 miniature Whirlwind , rotating on its own axis , round and round 
 the Whirlwind Vortex. 
 
 14 March 1851. A Whirlwind 30 or 40 yards in diameter, rotating 
 from right to left,, contained in its circle many distinctly formed spiral 
 eddies, each eddy having attached to it a curved stream or tail of 
 dust which, whatsoever position of the whirling circle it occupied, 
 retained its relative position as regards its own individual rotatory and 
 
90 
 
 progressive movements. On the right side or side of progression, the 
 dust accumulated, and obscured the eddies. Plate 2. Fig. 1. 
 
 Another Whirlwind, 10 or 12 feet in diameter, going at the rate of 6 or 7 
 miles an hour, was observed to be composed of distinct columns. 
 
 \r. 14. 
 
 Mean Meer, Oct. 29 th 1852. 
 
 12. 30. P. M. The air still. Sky clear. A ring of spiral columns 
 are seen rotating from left to right - - consisting of 15 or 20 
 separate spirals, forming together a distinctly whirling ring - 
 they progressed at a very slow pace, at one time, not faster 
 than a mile an hour. Became very distinct, while moving over 
 a light dust soil. The separate spirals cannot be traced to a 
 greater height than a few feet above the surface, - - one of 
 them would occasionally shew more distinctly to 8 or 10 feet. 
 Plate 2. Fig. 2. They were all exactly the same size, in the 
 horizontal section and it may be remarked, that whenever 
 the ultimate spiral column has been seen, it has invariably 
 presented the same aspect as to size and columnar form. 
 
 \r. 15. 
 
 April 16. 9. A. M. A Dust Whirlwind of considerable size, 5 or 
 6 hundred yards in diameter, suddenly made its appearance from 
 W. S. W. and passed on to the N. E. after progressing 2 or 3 
 hundred yards, the South whirl recurved and skirted the house. 
 The rotation was from left to right. 
 
 At the same time, several small whirlwinds swept pass. 
 The main whirl was, when at the distance of 5 or 6 hundred 
 yards, divided into two principal columns of dust; one to the 
 N. the other to the N. E. 
 
 During the passage of the whirlwind, the vane continued 
 to oscillate in every direction, from E. round to W. by South. 
 
 The wind not affected beyond the immediate vinicity of 
 the whirl, or beyond the distance of 2 or 3 hundred yards. Two 
 other dust columns observed to the South, 3 / 4 of a mile distant. 
 
91 
 
 \ r. 16. 
 
 Electrical state of the atmosphere during the passage of a Dust Storm 
 of moderate dimensions and energy. Wind in the storm proved 
 to be occasioned by the passage of the whirlwind columns. A 
 display of shooting stars on the night of 20 th April 1851. 
 
 April 16. 1851. 10. 25. A. M. - - Wind rising to a pleasant breeze 
 from W. N. W. and veering to N. W. Stormy to N. and overcast all 
 round. 
 
 1. 10. P. M. Light wind from W. S. W. overcast and arched 
 to North and N. E. Nimbi and Cumulo- strati. Light rain commences. 
 
 3. 45. P. M. Moderate breeze from N. E. Arched overcast with 
 Cumulo - strati and Nimbi. Frequent gusts from N. E. Vane oscillated 
 4 points or more from E. to N. as they passed. 
 
 The gusts are observed to be accompanied with dust whirls, 
 which traverse the earth from N. E. to N. W. No columns are seen, 
 only a little scattered dust. 
 
 5. 50. P. M. < Dust storm from N. E. and Electricity developed 
 from the atmospheric wire. Gusts pass. A constant succession of dust 
 whirls from N. E. to S. W. which cause the vane to oscillate strongly 
 from E. to N. Horizon to N. E. obscured by dust. High wind and stormy. 
 
 The clouds high up, overhead, move from West to East. 
 
 Memo: It is clear, the gusts in storms are occasioned by the 
 passage of a succession of Electrical spirals. It was observed on this 
 occasion, that the Electricity was but feebly developed from the two 
 wires one of brass, the other of zinc, connected with the cross-bar 
 placed at right angles to the upright pole, carrying an insulated brass 
 wire , which latter gave a constant stream of Electricity y a an inch long, 
 while the other two wires, placed below it, gave only a feeble spark. 
 
 9. P. M. Pleasant breeze from E. N. E. The whole sky covered 
 with Cumuli in broken masses, moving from West to East. 
 
 April 17 th . 6. A. M. At sun rise, the whole sky overcast with 
 Cirro-cumuli and Strati, with banks all round. 
 
 The foggy Cirro-cumuli in the zenith, examined attentively, are 
 observed to move slowly from South to North. A light wind blows 
 from N. by W. 
 
 10. A. M. Bar. 29. 004. Att. Ther. 78, very low and falling. 
 Sky overcast. A light unsteady wind from N. W. 
 
92 
 
 10. 50. A. M. Rain. Unsteady wind from N. Sky overcast to 
 E. and N. 
 
 11. 5. A. M. Rain continues. Electricity developed in the 
 insulated wire ever since the rain. Sparks % of an inch or more at 
 times. Wind N. by E. and veering 2 points. 
 
 11. 7. A. M. Electricity ceased. Rain continues. Thunder 
 occasionally heard. 
 
 11. 15. A. M. Rain ceased. 
 
 11. 35. A. M. -- Bar. 28. 976. Att. Ther. 80. Light wind from 
 N. by W. overcast. 
 
 1. 20. P. M. Bar. 28. 952. Att. Ther. 80. 5. Atmosphere 
 obscured with dust in the N. Hemisphere. A light uniform overcast 
 pervades the sky. Moderate breeze from N. Vane constantly oscillating 
 from N. by E. to W. N. W. 
 
 2. 30. P. M. Bar. 28. 930. Att. Ther. 81. 5. Gusty. Wind 
 N. N. W. oscillating from that to West. 
 
 3. 15. P. M. - - or about then. Wind west, rising in gusts, during 
 which Electricity appears at the extremity of the wires. Vane oscillating 
 rapidly to West. 
 
 Electricity manifested in proportion to the violence of the gusts. 
 Atmosphere much obscured by dust to the N. E. 
 
 Memo: The two wires on the cross-bar were taken down from the 
 pole, and now lie on the roof above. Minute sparks f / S o of an inch are 
 given off from them, while the sparks proceeding from the pole wire, 
 are half an inch long. 
 
 3. 40. P. M. Bar. 28. 926. Att. Ther. 81. 5. Wind gusty, 
 oscillating from W. by S. to N. N. W. Electricity continues to pass 
 down the conductor uninterruptedly. 
 
 3. 50. P. M. Temperature of air 84. Dew point by Daniell's. 
 Hyg. 60. Gusty. Electricity continues to stream down the wire. 
 Vane from W. to N. N. E. 
 
 Atmosphere filled with dust to Eastward; much clearer to West- 
 ward. Cirri and Cumuli seen overhead. , 
 
 5. P. M. and after. Wind gusty and electrical. The electrical 
 spirals are seen at times distinctly as they whirl up the dust in passing 
 from N. W. to S. E. The hollow whistling sound heard within doors, 
 is not heard without in the open air; scud cloud high in the zenith 
 moves rapidly from West to East. Horizon to the Eastward and N. E. 
 
93 
 
 dusty. Sky covered as with a veil of cirrous cloud, giving it a pale 
 whitish blue; below that are light masses of Cumuli. 
 
 About 5. 30. P. M. No Electricity from the wires. A partial 
 lull. Wind blowing from N. W. and vane still oscillating from "W. by 
 S. to N. W. 
 
 6. P. M. - - and after. This storm cleared off before sun -set and 
 the wind dropped. 
 
 9. P. M. Air still. 
 
 April 18 th Light Cirro -strati overcast at sun rise. Pleasant breeze 
 from N. N* E. raining to Eastward. Bar. rising. 
 
 9. 30. A. M. to 10. A. M. Bar. 29. 082. Att. Therm. 76. 5. 
 Air 77 (Min. Regist. 68). Light wind from S. E. Vane oscillating to 
 S. and S. S. E. About 10 A. M. in the Zenith at an altitude of 3 or 4 
 miles, a thin stratum of cottony Cirri spread out, moves from S. W. 
 to N. E. Above that is seen more opaque contorted cirrous masses, . rolled 
 up in feathery branches, apparently still, but more attention shews that 
 the whole is carried onwards from West to East. Weather fine. A light 
 surface wind from S. to East. 
 
 Memo: The rolled whirls of Cirri, are similar in appearance to 
 those that have been observed crowning the summit of a dust column. 
 
 Five minutes after, these light scud clouds were observed to be 
 moving rapidly from N, W. to S. E. Surface wind at the time being 
 from S. S. E. In the N. E. Hemisphere arched strati, and banks of 
 clouds. 
 
 10. 10. A. M. Lower light scud moving rapidly as before from 
 S. S. E. to N. N. W. A light stratum of scud above moves in an 
 opposite direction, viz., from N. N. W. to S. S. E. and at the same 
 rate. The two strata being probably nearly on the same plane, not 
 more than l /z a mile apart. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. - - Light air from South. 
 Whole sky covered with Cumulo- strati. 
 
 7. P. M. Cloudy and stormy looking all round, especially to 
 the W. Hemisphere, distant lightning to S. W. Unsteady Wind from W. 
 by S. veering round to N. Wind rising Storm coming up from S. W. 
 A smart shower fell between 7. & 9. P. M. 
 
 10. P. M. Rainy looking all round.. Light air from West. Distant 
 lightning from S. W. Sky overcast with Nimbi. Thunder, lightning and 
 rain during a great part of the night, from 11. P. M. till about 3. 30. A. M. 
 
94 
 
 April 19 th . Heavy rain, thunder, and lightning seen to Westward. 
 Sun-rise, sky clear save in the N. E. Hemisphere, where a bank of 
 clouds appears 15 or 18 above the Horizon. The body of the 
 storm has passed. Bar. 29. 122. Att. Ther. 73. 5. Gentle breeze 
 from N. E. 
 
 8. A. M. Fine weather. A light stratum of Cirro-cumuli, 4 or 
 5 miles high, moves rapidly from South to North. Light surface air 
 from N. E., in which direction the chief mass of cloud ;s seen. 1 inch 
 of rain fell last night. 
 
 9. 30. A. M. Light air from S. E. the Cirro-cumuli stratum 
 still moves to N. 
 
 10. A. M. Bar. rising. Temp, of air 77. Dew point 65. Light 
 easterly wind. Clouds moving as before from S. to N. 
 
 3. 55. P. M. Light N. W. wind; vane oscillates slowly to N. 
 and back to N. W. Whole sky covered with Cirri much contorted and 
 brushed up. Banks of Cirro-strati and Strati all round. Upper Cirri 
 move from S. to N. 
 
 About sun- set, cloudy, distant lightning to S. E. as yesterday. 
 
 9. P. M. Thunder audible in the distance. 
 
 9. 30. ?. M. Distant lightning to the E. by S. Dark clouds in 
 the zenith, and occasional flashes of lightning and thunder from that 
 part of the sky. Light rain. Vivid thready lightning in the N. W. - 
 flickering and lingering for a second or more on the sight, followed in 
 10 or 11 seconds by loud thunder. Distant lightning to East. 
 
 10. 10. P. M. Distant lightning to E. by N. No thunder audible 
 from that quarter. To the S. W. and W. by S. vivid thready lightning 
 at intervals of 5 or 10 minutes, low in the horizon, distant 64 seconds, 
 showing a distance of about 13 miles. Gentle breeze at times. 
 
 At 9. 30. P. M. - - Electrometer not affected. 
 
 20 th April 1851. Sunday. 
 
 21 st on the night of the 20 th a great many shooting stars appeared 
 at 9. or 10. P. M. every few seconds, in all directions. Their course, 
 with rare exceptions, was from North to South, the general direction 
 being from N. E. to S. W. They described a perfectly straight course, 
 and in some instances, slow so that 2 or 3 seconds elapsed, ere they 
 had run their track over an extent of 80 or 90, which would lead to 
 the supposition that they were not far removed from the earth. 
 
 Some of them were like Roman candles, and left a luminous 
 
95 
 
 train, which lingered for many seconds ; - - in two instances that were 
 noticed, a minute or more; becoming gradually fainter and fainter, and 
 in one case, the faint luminous track became wavy. 
 
 This lingering of the train, was observable more or less in most 
 of them: in some, it was more marked. 
 
 A very few small stars, shot across the sky in an opposite direc- 
 tion or athwart the general direction. Sky cloudless. A faint whitish 
 appearance to the N. E. horizon, which may have been the cirrous 
 cloud that afterwards appeared in the morning dawn. 
 
 These shooting stars seemed to be in the region of the Cirri, but 
 not higher than from 2 to 5 miles. 
 
 3. A. M. Moon shining. Cirrous clouds visible. No appearance 
 of shooting stars now. Air still. 
 
 Memo. The air was still last night. A vane pointed to N. by E. 
 
 Several hundred shooting stars must have passed within sight in 
 the course of an hour; from past 9 till after 10 P. M. they were seen 
 from every quarter of the heavens more frequently at first from a 
 point 30 above the N. E. horizon. They afterwards shot out from 
 every part of the sky. Almost all had a Southerly course. Light 
 masses of Cirri are now seen to the N. E. and S. W. hemispheres. The 
 Zenith nearly clear of them. Those to N. E. are faint and in detached 
 masses a larger body of them to the S. W. They stretched in parallel 
 lines S. E. and N. W., and seemed to have moved from the N. East. 
 
 Wr. 17. 
 
 Centripetal currents surrounding a Whirlwind, are sometimes seen to 
 
 be considerably prolonged on the side of progression, that is, the side 
 
 corresponding to the working of rotation and of progression. 
 
 Mean Meer, March 31 st , 1851. 
 
 Day sultry. A light Wind from N. W. At Noon and after, nu- 
 merous Dust Whirlwinds appear, all progressing in the same direction, 
 from N. W. to S. E. 
 
 1. P. M. Sky clear. A low white bank of cloud to S. E. 12 
 
 above the horizon. 
 
 A Kite is seen soaring above at the height of at least 1500 yards, 
 under the cloud of dust, raised by a Whirlwind, which cloud is seen 
 far above it. 
 
96 
 
 The cloud is diffused, and in rotatory motion, just like the white 
 masses of cottony cloud, so frequently seen to form and then speedily 
 dissolve and vanish, and become transparent. A small Whirlwind, going 
 at the rate of 8 or' 10 miles an hour, slightly affected a vane at the 
 distance of 10 paces when opposite to it, and raised a gentle current of 
 air, unsteady and veering 2 or 3 points, till it had passed to the distance 
 of 400 yards, when it suddenly blew a strong breeze from N. W., 
 in the direction towards which the whirlwind column was moving, and 
 continued to blow steadily for some minutes longer, when it veered, 
 became unsteady, and finally dropped. 
 
 About 4. P. M., at which time the whirlwinds usually 
 subside at this season, -- one, four or five feet in diameter, 
 swept by rather rapidly from N. W. to S. E. rotating from 
 right to left. 
 
 On the north side (whence I viewed it from my buggy at the 
 distance of a few paces,) no streams of dust were perceptible though 
 the whirling ring of dust was perfect, while on the opposite side, cor- 
 responding to the working of rotation and of progression, strong con- 
 verging currents of dust, extending to a considerable distance (that is, 
 several yards) from the whirling body, blew almost at right angles to 
 the line of progression, continuing to do so, till out of sight; and what 
 was most remarkable, the train of dust kept up with it as it moved 
 rapidly onwards in its course. Plate 11. Fig. 1. 
 
 The unequal duration of the opposite sides of a Cyclone, may 
 thus admit of explanation. 
 
 ]Vr. 18. 
 
 The whirling circle or ring of dust formed by the smaller 
 Whirlwinds at the earth's surface, is often seen to be composed 
 of a number of eddies of uniform size, which appear to be 
 separate Spiral Columns, each one rotating on its own axis, and 
 performing a gyration with the body of the whirl. 
 
 14 th . March 1851. Cirrous scud, high in the atmosphere, passing 
 rapidly from West to East. Two Kites seen soaring together at the 
 height of 14 hundred yards. Cirri are observed far above them. 
 
 This lower bright scud, 'which possesses a rotatory motion, is 
 considerably below another stratum of contorted Cirri. 
 
97 
 
 A constant succession of Dust Whirlwinds, all moving with 
 the wind, at the rate of 8 miles an hour. One of them, rotating 
 from right to left was observed to be most distinctly formed of a 
 number of separate whirls or spirals, and on the side of progression, 
 the dust accumulated, while the opposite side was comparatively free 
 from it. 
 
 Each spiral rotated on its axis as it went round and round the 
 whirling ring or cycloid, and had attached to it a small curved train 
 of dust, which always preserved its relative position being aifected 
 precisely in the same way as the Whirlwind itself is. 
 
 It was curious to observe that as each spiral eddy came in suc- 
 cession to the rear towards the side which was moving in its rotation 
 in the same line with the track, is seemed endued with increased 
 rotative energy, shewn by a larger train of dust and swifter motion. 
 Plate 2, Fig. 1. 
 
 Memo: This phenomenon has often been witnessed with more or 
 less distinctness. 
 
 \r. 19. 
 
 Two Dust Storms of moderate powers, but not very characteristic; and 
 the electrical condition of the atmosphere during the time. A 
 slight shock of an earthquake experienced on the 11 th of May 
 1851 and on the 13 th a dark spot seen by the naked eye, on 
 the sun's disc (upper limb) at sun rise. 
 
 Lahore, May 10 th -, 1851. 
 
 Last night the air still. The clouds in the Zenith noticed at 6. 7. 
 and 10 P. M. to be moving slowly from South to North. At sun rise 
 this morning, the sky overcast with Cumulo- strati, denser to the 
 N. N. W. Clouds moving slowly from S. S. E. to N. N. W. 
 
 Sun in rising pale and white, emerging from out of a thin hazy 
 bank. Swallows flying at a considerable height. Air still. Vane points 
 to N. by W. 
 
 7. 30. A. M. - - Whole sky overcast. Nimbi to the N. W. broken 
 to Eastward and South, but more uniform to W. and N. N. W. Air 
 still. Vane points to N. and slowly veers to N. N. W. 
 
 A light shower of 2 or 3 minutes duration occured about this time. 
 
 10. A. M. Air still. Vane to N. W. hazy overcast. Sun shining. 
 
 13 
 
98 
 
 1. 30. P. M. - - Vane veering slowly round to South. 
 
 2. 5. P. M. A. Dust Storm coming up from the S- S. E. not very 
 rapidly. It occupies abont 6 points of the horizon, with dust driven to 
 the height of 50 or 60 degrees. Wind light and unsteady. Plate 8. 
 
 2. 10. P. M. - - Electricity developed from all three wires. Sparks 
 issue y 4 of an inch long, accompanied with a crackling sound. The 
 atmosphere filled with light dust. Vane oscillates a good deal from 
 South to S. S. W. and S. by E.; high Cumulo -strati to the S. and 
 N. W. Gentle wind from S. W. veering. 
 
 2. 30. P. M. Sparks more than *' an inch long, and jagged 
 as usual. Moderate breeze oscillating much to E. by South. 
 
 2. 45. P. M. Atmosphere more obscure. Gusty - - vane oscil. 
 lates to S. E. and back to South. Sparks 3 4 of an inch long. 
 
 2. 50. P. M. - - clearing. 
 
 3. 15. P. M. The storm has cleared off in a great measure. 
 Wind S. by W. or S. veering slightly. Electricity still apparent, but 
 much diminished. 
 
 4. P. M. Storm passed off to N. N. E. Sky covered with hazy 
 Cumulo- strati. Light wind from S. E. At sun -set, Cumulo - strati col- 
 lected about the N. Hemisphere and other parts. 
 
 9. P. M. Sky covered with Cumulo - strati moving slowly from 
 S. S. W. to N. N. E. A light wind blows from E. N. E. 
 
 11 th May. 3. 19. A. M. A slight shock of an earthquake which 
 lasted about 10 seconds. 
 
 12 th May. Monday. Sky clear at sun rise. Air cool from yesterday's 
 Dust Storm, which came from the S. W. about 2 P. M. and lasted for 
 half an hour or more, during which time, the Electrical fluid passed 
 down the insulated wire uninteruptedly, the sparks being 3 /4 of an 
 inch long at times. 
 
 The two other wires, brass and zinc, placed a few feet below the 
 main wire, gave comparatively feeble sparks, never more than J /4 of 
 an inch long, and both much the same. 
 
 The vane oscillated a good deal as usual, especially during the 
 gusts. Suddenly all Electricity ceased, on the fall of a few drops of 
 rain , about which time, low thunder was heard and after that, several 
 times, when more rain fell. 
 
 After this the wind shifted to East and then to N. E. During the 
 storm, the sky was overcast with light Cumulo scud. 
 
A delightfully cool refreshing breeze accompanied this storm, and 
 continued all night. 
 
 10. A. M. Bar. 28. 864. Att. Ther. 81. 5. Air 88., light wind 
 from W. Sky clear. A few contorted Cirri to the N. low in the horizon. 
 Occasional passage of Dust Whirlwinds. 
 
 Noon. Sky clear. Wind rising in gusts from the West. A few 
 small white detached clouds in various parts of the sky, especially to 
 the W. horizon. 
 
 4. P. M. - - Pleasant breeze blows from West. Sky clear, save 
 a few small white detached clouds. 
 
 May 13 th - Soon after sun-rise, a dark spot was seen on the sun's 
 disc, about the midde of the upper limb, midway between its Equator 
 and pole. 
 
 Memo: A similar appearance has often been seen before on the 
 sun's disc, when low in the horizon, at sun rise or sun -set, and its 
 rays are partially subdued by the prevalence of fine dust in the atmos- 
 phere, which is of frequent occurence during the dry months. Indeed 
 so frequently has this been witnessed, that the eye naturally looks for 
 it whenever the sun is visible under the same circumstances. 
 
 Memo: During the continuance of some storms, when thunder and 
 lightning occur, a gold-leaf Electrometer connected with an insulated 
 wire, comports itself as usually described in books. The leaves expand 
 but a flash -- and instantly they collapse, and remain so: presently, 
 we see them gradually, or suddenly, unfold and expand as before - 
 and we wait in expectation for the flash - - when they again instantly 
 collapse. 
 
 \r. SO. 
 
 May 20 th - 2. 27. P. M. A Dust Whirl some yards in diameter passed 
 from S. S. W. to N. N. E. at the rate of 7 or 8 miles an hour, 
 which, as it swept over the house, strongly affected the con- 
 ductor, which elicited sparks '/ID or y 8 of an inch long. The 
 column was very lofty and wavy, but could not be distinctly 
 observed on account of the extreme heat and glare. Tempe- 
 rature 108 in shade, 138 in the sun. Several Dust Whirls had 
 passed before, but were not so marked or so large as this one. 
 
100 
 
 Sky covered with patches of white cottony clouds. This 
 Whirlwind, while in the act of passing, caused the vane to 
 veer about; and after it had passed to the distance of 2 or 3 
 hundred yards, the vane oscillated from S. S. E. to S. S. W. 
 affected by the after -currents. 
 
 Nr. 81. 
 
 The smaller Whirlwinds seem sometimes to reverse their rotation, and 
 to be subject to other remarkable changes in their rotatory 
 movements. 
 
 Mean Meer, Januar 21 st 1853. 
 
 About noon, observed a few Dust Whirls of small size, moving 
 rather slowly, but varying in velocity; now, nearly stationary - - then, 
 starting forwards at the rate of from 3 to 6 miles an hour: sometimes 
 working in a condensed form of 3 or 4 feet in diameter or less - 
 then the same one would spread out, and form several distinct small 
 Whirls, preserving a cycloidal gyration and progression in the original 
 direction, which was from N. W. or N. N. W. to S. E. or S. S. E. 
 
 One was observed when in a condensed form, to make several 
 changes in its rotations, - - from left to right, and from right to left, 
 in the space of 2 or 3 minutes, while I was driving towards it over 
 dry dusty ground, covered with scanty vegetation. 
 
 The phenomenon had never been seen so distinctly before, and 
 doubts were entertained whether the appearance of reversing the rotation 
 (which is seen to take place suddenly) were not an optical illusion; 
 there was in this case, seemingly, no mistake. 
 
 The day was fine, with Cumulo - strati on a clear sky. No wind 
 blowing at the time. 
 
 ZODIACAL LIGHT. 
 
 \r. 53. 
 
 The Zodiacal Light may be seen at Lahore night after night in the South 
 Western Horizon, about an hour or more after sun- set, when 
 the moon is not shining, during the early part of the year and 
 
101 
 
 late in Autumn from that time forward, and sometimes in the 
 opposite quarter of the heavens before the early dawn. 
 
 It presents the same appearance as described in books. 
 A faint lenticular spear - shaped pyramid of nebulous 
 light, like that of a comet's tail, rising obliquely at an angle 
 of 70, or less, by a broad base, from the South Western Ho- 
 rizon, pointing to Pleiades and extending sometimes up to the 
 very Zenith. 
 
 It is seen in the evenings with most distinctness, as far as 
 memory serves, during January, February and March, following 
 the sun in annual course, North and back again to South, 
 according to the seasons, becoming, as summer advances, 
 gradually merged in the twilight. 
 
 The general direction of the axis seems to pass through 
 the sun, "suggesting", as others have said, "the idea that if is 
 something attached to that luminary, having an apparent mo- 
 tion due to the same cause, viz. the motion of the earth in its 
 orbit." 
 
 Mean Meer, 14 th . Sept. 1853. 
 
 4. A. M. The sky being perfectly clear, and no moon visible, 
 the Zodiacal light was very distinctly seen in the E. N. E. rising with 
 slight obliquity to South towards the Zenith, and pointing nearly to 
 Pleiades, which are at this time a little South of the Zenith, and to 
 Westward. 
 
 It may be distinctly traced up as high as 40 or 50 degrees, when 
 it meets the Milky -'Way, and is lost. 
 
 It rises by a broad base, but soon tapers; precisely of the same 
 character as was noticed in the Spring in the opposite quarter of the 
 heavens, after sun -set. 
 
 The Zodiacal light was still distinctly visible half an hour after 
 this; but then rapidly merged into the dawn. 
 
 Seems to be on a plain with the Sun's axis. 
 Was looking for the Comet in this quarter, without success. 
 September 15 th . 4. A. M. Night clear. The Zodiacal light is 
 seen very distinctly rising at an angle with the horizon to the E. N. E. 
 and extending up to the Milky -Way to about 60 or more. 
 
 Appearance precisely similar to what was observed on the previous 
 morning. 
 
102 
 
 On the way to Peshawar in November 1853, the Zodiacal 
 Light was most distinctly seen in the South Eastern Horizon 
 before the early dawn, rising to a great height in the sky. 
 Kalabag. R. Indus. Dec. 14 th . 1854. 
 
 7. P. M. The Zodiacal Light seen rising from the S. W. Horizon, 
 by a narrow line of nebulous light reaching nearly up to the Zenith. 
 Jupiter, or one of the larger Planets, is now exactly within the body of 
 this light. 
 
 Jan. 6 th . 1855. Beyond Sewan, B. Indus. 3 / 4 of an hour after sun- 
 set, the Zodiacal Light seen in the S. W. very distinctly. Appears 
 unusually slender, the base being not much broader than the body; 
 and extends nearly to the Zenith. 
 
 Jan. 9 th . One and a half hour after sun-set. Zodiacal Light distinctly 
 seen rising from the W. S. W. by a broad base of diffused light 
 which tapered to a narrow band rather abruptly? 
 
 The above meagre account is chiefly from memory, most of 
 my notes having been torn up, under the impression, that the 
 observations being conducted without instruments, and described 
 in plain English, were without interest to Science. 
 
 POSSIBLE CAUSE OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 
 
 If it might be allowable to risk an opinion as to the possible 
 cause of the Zodiacal Light, I would say, it was produced by the rota- 
 tory and progressive motion of the sun in space, acting upon the 
 ^Etherial medium, and causing, on one side especially, luminous cen- 
 tripetal currents towards that luminary \n its Equatorial plane, just as 
 we see the air is set in motion round about, by the action of the 
 Whirlwind. The principle on which this idea is based, may be appli- 
 cable throughout the universe of matter. 
 
 \r. 23. 
 
 Memo: A simple and expeditious method of obtaining the Dew Point 
 when Ice is procurable, (as it generally is at most of the large 
 Indian stations) is to plunge a common thermometer in a little 
 pounded ice, let it run down 30 or 40 take it out, 
 wipe it dry with a soft handkerchief, quick; hold it up to 
 
103 
 
 the ligM, and observe the bright spot on the bulb, - and 
 continue wiping off the film of dew so long as it forms, and 
 dulls the spot. The instant it clears, mark t'\e temperature. 
 
 This has been frequently compared with Daniell's hygrometer, 
 cooled by chloroform, the only fluid that can be employed with ad- 
 vantage in India during the hot weather, and found to correspond with 
 considerable accuracy. 
 
 The greatest depression of the dew-point, obtained by Daniell's 
 hygrometer, was never (at Lahore) more than 35 to 38 Far. below the 
 temperature of the surrounding air, within a room into which the ex- 
 ternal air had free access. 
 
 Indeed it is impossible to reduce the temperature of the black 
 bulb lower than that by means of chloroform, much less by aether. 
 
 This great depression occasionally takes place during the hot dry 
 months preceding the rain. 
 
 \r. 34. 
 
 The amount of Daily Evaporation was obtained by the following 
 
 method. 
 
 A white earthen -ware cylindrical blood -porringer was filled with 
 water to a certain point, which was accurately marked, and them coun- 
 terpoised. One inch was now measured from the surface of the fluid, 
 and marked all round on the inside. 
 
 It was then filled with water up to that point, and again weighed; 
 the weight of the inch of water was noted, and divided into a hundred 
 parts, and a table constructed for the convenience of daily reference, 
 thus. The inch of water weighed, suppose 5050 grs, which divided 
 by hundreds gives 50 grs for each hundreth of an inch, and the rest 
 tells its own tale. 50 grs deficient, shewed that the evaporation had 
 been y^o of an inch. 
 
 250 grs = Vioo == 0,05 
 1262 = ", oo = 0,25 
 2525 = 60 100 = 0,50 
 
 The meteorological table in the book of Plates, exhibits the mean 
 monthly amount of Evaporation for 12 months, at Lahore and Mean 
 Meer (7 miles distant) obtained by this method. 
 
104 
 
 \r. 35. 
 
 Memo: Being without a Sextant, recourse was had to the following 
 expedient, for determining approximately the height to which 
 the dust was carried into the atmosphere by the Whirlwind 
 in a columnar form. 
 
 The eye became familiarised with the appearance of Kites and 
 Crows at different distances, by which means, I was enabled to deter- 
 mine to what height in the air they soared, when following a Whirl- 
 wind column, as they constantly do in sport whirling round and round 
 about it, at a high elevation, enjoying, may be, the opposite currents of 
 wind to which they are thus exposed. 
 
 \r. 36. 
 
 How Volcanic Eruptions may cause Storms. 
 
 Many observers of note, are of opinion that Volcanic Eruptions are 
 often accompanied by violent storms and heavy falls of rain. 
 
 If we admit the existence of a stratum of Electro-magnetic spiral 
 bodies floating in the higher regions, violent volcanic concussions of the 
 atmosphere at great elevations, would necessarily cause the upper cur- 
 rents to be diverted downwards, towards the point of excitement, and 
 bring with them the spiral bodies of which the Whirlwind is composed. 
 
105 
 
 VARIOUS MATTERS RELATING TO THE WHIRLWIND COLUMN -- ITS 
 CONNECTION WITH WIND AND STORM. 
 
 March 28 th , 1851. 1. A. M. - - Sky to S. Eastern Hemisphere 
 beyond the Zenith, covered with Cumulo - strati , which have spread 
 from S. E. where clouds are heaviest. Only part of sky clear, is 8 or 
 10 points to N. W. Air still - - vane points to N. N. E. 
 
 About sun-rise. A bank of Strati to S. E. occupying 14 points of 
 Horizon N. N. E. to South light air from N. E. This bank of cloud 
 continued stationary till about 8 A. M., when it began to extend itself 
 towards the Zenith. 
 
 8. 30. A. M. - - Light air from South - - sky nearly clear. Temp, 
 of air 82 Farh. Dew point 57. 
 
 Noon. Dust Whirlwinds moving from W. N. W. to E. S. E. at 
 the rate of 8 miles an hour. Pleasant breeze from W. and W. N. W. 
 Sky clear, with bright, scattered Cumuli, and all round Horizon, Cumulo- 
 strati, specially to Western Hemisphere. Some Dust Whirlwinds are 
 seen 1000 yards off, subtending an angle of 45 it was supposed. The 
 mirage distinct. The clouds have a motion throughout and move from 
 W. by S. to the opposite quarter. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. Thunder. Five minutes after, another rolling 
 thunder clap, followed by others. Light air from S. W. Sky covered 
 with Cumulo - strati , and several strata of clouds rather low. Numerous 
 Dust Whirlwinds of various sizes passed since noon, all moving much 
 in the same direction first from N. W. to S. E. Latterly to E. 
 and after that again North of E. Thunder proceeds from a large mass 
 of cloud to the N. W. 
 
 3. 45. P. M. thin lower stratum of cloud passes from S. to N., 
 above that, a light cloud curling at the edges moving from N. to 
 South. Vane points to N. W. Is raining in that direction. Several 
 small dust columns seen in that direction in the distance. 
 
 4. 10. P. M. - - The distant storm moving Eastward, round by 
 N. W. - numerous Dust Whirlwinds to the North, preceding it; 
 low thunder. 
 
 4. 20. P. M. Vane points to N. W., oscillating. Storm coming, 
 on with numerous Dust Whirlwinds, filling the whole Horizon to N. W. 
 
 Storm occupies 8 or 10 points of Horizon. 
 
 14 
 
106 
 
 4. 23. P. M. - - Dust storm: Electricity in sparks from the insula- 
 ted wire. 
 
 4. 25. P. M. Suddenly all the crows in camp, (hundreds of 
 them) fly off to N. W. Wind rising and blowing from N. W. heavy 
 clouds in that direction and Dust Whirlwinds all about, filling the air 
 below and under the storm. 
 
 4. 30. P. M. Lower clouds move from N. W. to S. E. the 
 mass of Cumulo - strati above, move from S. E. to N. W. Atmosphere 
 to S. E. filled with Dust Whirlwinds 
 
 4. 45. P. M, Storm has passed on the North of the camp. 
 Clouds moving in that direction. Wind N. W. rising at times and gusty. 
 
 5. P. M. - - Rolling thunder to N. E., light breeze to N. W. 
 
 5. 18. P. M. Wind N. veering to N. by W., pleasant breeze, 
 with occasional gusts. Rolling thunder continues. 
 
 5. 30. P. M. - - Sudden shift of wind to N. E. and dust blowing 
 now in that direction. 
 
 At sun -set, stormy to the N. E. and lightning indistinctly seen - 
 no thunder audible. The storm continues to travel round to E. and to 
 South and the Nimbi soon spread from N. to South. Lightning 
 along the line in several points. 
 
 7. P. M. Lightning to the S. E., which now appears to be the 
 position of the storm, having travelled 8 points Southerly since sun -set. 
 No thunder heard, though the lightning is vivid and of the forked kind 
 but distant. Air still, vane points to N. South, Western quarter clearer; 
 Star-light over head. Lightning continues to S. E. Zenith clear -- stars 
 shine with peculiar brilliancy. Cloudy all round the Horizon. 
 
 7. 40. P. M. Pleasant breeze from N. E. - - storm travelling 
 round to South. 
 
 Thunder faintly audible. 
 
 8. 20. P. M. Wind rising from E. veering to South. Dark masses 
 of cloud coming up from S. E. 
 
 8. 30. P. M. Wind rising. - Brisk gale. Bar. 29. 124. Att. 
 Ther. 73. Surface convex. 
 
 9. 10. P. M. Bar. 29. 142. Att. Ther. 72. Surface convex. 
 Wind S. E. 
 
 9. 27. P. M. - Wind increasing to a brisk gale - - from S. E. 
 oscillating to S. and back again. Zenith with light cloud ; very gloomy 
 to S. E. nearly clear elsewhere. 
 
107 
 
 10. 30. P. M. Air still. Storm passed off remainder of the 
 night, still. 
 
 29 th March. Sky clear. A gentle breeze from S. by E. A low 
 bank of Strati to the N. W. and smaller ones to S. by W. 
 
 9. A. M. Dew point 56. Temp, of air 75. Sky clear gentle 
 breeze from N. 
 
 Noon. Sky perfectly clear. Not a cloud to be seen pleasant 
 breeze from N. No Dust Whirlwind observed as yet. Mirage obser- 
 vable. The motion of the air over such, places very perceptible 
 transparent and tremulous, like rarified air over a furnace, or brick-kiln, 
 impelled by the wind in almost horizontal streams along the ground. 
 
 12. 50. P. M. - - Two Dust Whirlwinds passed to S. S. W. about 
 2 miles distant from each other. 
 
 The one passed swiftly by the tent, at the rate of 15 or 16 miles 
 an hour, and the circle it formed, was from 6 to 12 feet in diameter. 
 It passed with a rushing noise. A few minute clouds to the S. E. 
 20 to 30 above the Horizon, the size of a hand, apparently. 
 
 1. 30. P. M. The small scattered patches of cloud passing to 
 South from E. to W. are extending rapidly. 
 
 About this time Dust Whirlwinds more numerous, all proceeding 
 in the same direction and following the course of the wind from N. to 
 South. Many were observed between 2 and 3. 30. P. M. 
 
 Five or six were sometimes observed at the same time following 
 one another, and extending to a considerable height in the atmosphere 
 as may be inferred by the fact, that one was supposed to be distant 
 700 yards at least; and the distinct columnar appearance was visible to 
 the height of 35 or 40. Another, 1000 Yards distant, subtended an angle 
 of 60 or more *) 
 
 It was again observed, that there were times, when the power by 
 which the dust was whirled into the atmosphere, was much greater than 
 at others - - and then a considerable interval would elapse before this 
 was again called into play. 
 
 A column faintly visible would be observed all at once to whirl 
 up the dust with great energy, like smoke ascending from a furnace. 
 This .would continue for a minute or two -- then cease in a great 
 
 *) It must be remarked, however, that as no instrument was used on the occasion, 
 this estimate may be erroneous. 
 
108 
 
 measure, and while the mass of dust was ascending in curling volumes, 
 the column below would be only faintly visible. Then after the same 
 period or somewhat longer, this furions whirling would again commence 
 and continue 2 or 3 minutes then again cease as before, and remain 
 perhaps a longer interval before it recommenced with like violence. 
 All the time, the two masses of dust, one below the other, separated 
 by an interval of fainter dust, or none at all, would continue to rise 
 higher and higher into the air, and when at a considerable height, the 
 masses of dust would become diffused into a faint cloud, and gradually 
 vanish out of sight. 
 
 Two other Dust Whirlwinds were observed, apparently within a 
 short distance of one another, but more than a mile distant, of a slen- 
 der wavy columnar form, towering into the sky 2 or 3 thousand feet. 
 The whole column would at times undergo an almost instantaneous 
 change of form, becoming more curved or wavy in an opposite direc- 
 tion; and it was curious to observe on such occasions, the simultaneous 
 movement of the whole column sometimes it would be seen to slope 
 in advance, or it would assume the form of the letter /, then become 
 arched and undergo several changes of that kind in the space of a 
 short time. As these dust columns moved along, the cloud of dust 
 high in the atmosphere, was always in advance, as if the column in 
 contact with the earth was being trailed along. 
 
 This cloud of dust, though indistinct as to form, is always seen 
 to be in motion, rolling on like smoke. During all this time the sky 
 was clear, with detached patches of light foggy cloud, forming and 
 again quickly disappearing. This peculiar cloud has been often noticed 
 when the Dust Whirlwinds are frequent. On attentively observing the 
 cloud, which is probably two miles high or more, a rotating motion is 
 observed in its fimbriated edges throughout. 
 
 They are in circular motion, and the cloud dissolves and vanishes 
 rapidly, while this is going on, which was observable in all the clouds 
 that were near enough to be accurately noted. The clouds commenced 
 in the S. E. and accumulated to South, leaving the N. Hemisphere 
 nearly clear. I am inclined to think, that the cloud is influenced by 
 the same force, as acts upon the dust at the surface of the earth - 
 since these particular clouds are commonly noticed when the whirlwind 
 columns are frequent, and during the hottest part of the day. 
 
 The dust columns to-day moved at the rate of 6, 7 or 8 miles 
 
109 
 
 an hour, and the wind was only a gentle breeze. They came on at 
 intervals, and ceased for a time and again, are seen advancing. This 
 enables us to comprehend the cause of the gusts or squalls that take 
 place in a storm, and the intervals of lull. 
 
 Towards sun- set, the clouds gradually passed of, as is usual. 
 
 The sun- set at 6. 30. P. M., on a cloudless sky, beaming through 
 a golden atmosphere, which -was diffused around the setting orb 
 to some distance, occasioned by the atmosphere being impregnated 
 with dust. 
 
 State of the atmosphere daring the latter end of April and May. 
 Opposite direction of clonds and surface wind. 
 
 April 24 th , 1851. Sun-rise. Light air from N. E. Sky covered with 
 small detached masses of Cirro-cumuli, like scud cloud, moving from N. 
 to East. Sun in the Horizon lighting up all the clouds down to 15 West. 
 
 4. P. M. Bar. 28.916. Att. Th. 81. 5. Air 94. Dew point in 
 house 58. Sky covered with Cumuli and Cumulo - strati coming up 
 Trom the South (a brief shower of rain). Wind, gentle; had just before 
 shifted from South to N. 
 
 9. 45. P. M. Gentle breeze E. Cloudless sky. Stars shine dimly. 
 
 April 25 th . At sun -rise, sky clear, a few light scud clouds (Cirri) 
 seen in Zenith and to N. W. moving from West to East, with a Nor- 
 therly direction forming and vanishing f with a rotatory motion 
 throughout. Bar. 28. 812. Att. Th. 80. Air 77. Min. Temp, 
 registered 72. 
 
 9. 40. A. M. Wind rising and falling, with a hollow sound in 
 doors, from S. W. and oscillating 4 points or so. Sky clear; prospect 
 of storm, as the Barometer is low. 
 
 10. A. M. - - Bar. 28. 820. Att. Ther. 81. Air 91; light breeze 
 from S. W. Vane oscillating a little. Sky clear. 
 
 1. 10. P. M. Temperature in sun's rays 120. Air suddenly 
 Electrical, and passage of Dust Whirlwinds from South to North. 
 Wind oscillating a good deal from South to S. West; general direc- 
 tion S. S. W. Sky obscured with dust to the Horizon. 
 
 1. 35. P. M. A succession of gusts, caused by the passage of 
 Dust Whirlwinds proceeding from South to North. Wind at such times, 
 moderate breeze or higher. Vane oscillates from S. by W. to W. S. W. 
 
110 
 
 general direction being S. S. W. During the passage of these gusts, 
 the Electrical sparks pass from wire to wire at present about Yi 2 
 of an inch long. 
 
 1. 38. P. M. - - A lull and cessation of Electricity. 
 
 1. 39. P. M. Electricity commenced again; goes on Tic-tic-tic for 
 two minutes, then ceased. 
 
 1. 45. P. M. Electricity again then ceased. 
 
 1. 50. P. M. Electricity again in tick -sparks */4 inch, lasted 4 mi- 
 nutes, then ceased and a lull, during which time, vane oscillated as 
 before. Temp, in the sun 122. 
 
 2. P. M. Slight Electricity and lulls. 
 
 2. 10. P. M. Electricity again and gusty for one minute. During 
 this time, though the sparks from the highest brass wire were vivid, 
 the zinc wire placed some feet below it, and 3 yards or more on one 
 side, gave no indications whatever; and the brass wire placed below 
 the lofty one, gave but a slight spark at times. 
 
 2. 20. P. M. Electricity again and gusty. Zinc wire slightly 
 affected, lasted for a minute and a lull. 
 
 3. P. M. Electricity stronger. 
 
 3. 15. P. M. Again stronger Electricity appears. 
 
 4. P. M. - - Still gusty. Wind S. W. Electricity. Temp, of ex- 
 ternal air in shade 96. Dew point 51 5. 
 
 6. P. M. Before sun- set, this Electrical state of the atmosphere 
 had passed on^ and the night was clear. 
 
 April 26 th . Sky clear, a light cool breeze from N. 
 
 April 27 th . After notes. Wind all day from N. N. E. aud N. E. 
 and veering in that direction. From about noon, was gusty and Dust 
 Whirls. Air electrical all afternoon till sun-set and after. Night fine a 
 gentle cool breeze. Distant lightning to Jl. E. during the early part of night. 
 
 April 28 th . Morning clear. Light air from N. Bar. rising. 
 
 10. A. M. Bar. 29. 032. Att. Ther. 79. 5. Air 85. 5. Dew point 
 53. 5. Min. Temp. Reg. 67. 
 
 May 5 th . Very sultry yesterday. Sun rises pale, behind a low 
 bank of Cumuli. Sky covered with a thin veil of Cirri, obscure and 
 undefined, which marked the beams of the sun in rising. WindE. soon 
 after, frequent passage of Dust Whirlwinds from E. S. E. to opposite 
 point. Vane pointing to E. by S. and oscillating as the gusts pass. 
 Morning sultry. 
 
Ill 
 
 9. 15. A. M. - Frequent passage of Dust Whirlwinds from E. 
 S. E. Sky covered with haze and Cirro-cumuli. Great evaporation 
 during the last 36 hours in the sun. Not taken, but there must have 
 been upwards of an inch during that period. 
 
 9. 30. A. M. - Masses of light cottony Cumuli moving from S. 
 to N. Wind at times E. S. E.; whole atmosphere, obscured with dust, 
 air Electrical. 
 
 10. A. M. Bar. 28. 892. Att. Ther. 85. External air in shade 99. 5. 
 Dew point not taken. Temperature could not be reduced below 
 
 52, at which point, no ring of dew was apparent. Air Electrical and 
 sultry. Frequent passage of Dust Whirlwinds from E. by S. Day still 
 and sultry. Air still. 
 
 6. P. M. Air obscured with dust. Sky covered with Cumuli, 
 moving slowly from W. to E. 
 
 May 6 th . Sky so hazy at sun-rise, as completely to obscure the sun. 
 
 10. A. M. -- Hazy to S. E. Wind veering several points towards 
 the South. 
 
 11. 15. A. M. A light wind from W. by S. and oscillating. 
 Sky hazy. 
 
 May 8 th . Cloudless sky at sun-rise, save to the Southern He- 
 misphere, where are Cumulo- strati up to 30. The blue of the sky ob- 
 scured as by a thin veil, which to E. is made evident by the sun's 
 beams showing in light hazy arches in that direction. 
 
 10. A. M. Sky cloudless and clearer. Light wind from W. by 
 N. and oscillating. 
 
 3. 30. P. M. - - Light wind S. W. unsteady. 
 
 6. P. M. Cumulo -strati moving up from S. by W. to N. N. E. 
 The N. Hemisphere clear of clouds. Soon after, light clouds of dust 
 here and there, which continued to increase and by 7. P. M. were 
 frequent and larger, travelling from N. N. E. to S. S. W. while the 
 clouds were coming up from the South - - 'and to W. S. W. were 
 Nimbi -looking clouds which passed to W. and soon become blended in 
 the sky, forming a haze. 
 
 About 7. 15. and 7. 30. P. M. a lull, and no Dust Whirls, but 
 Cumulo -strati still moving up from S., while a light irregular wind 
 blows from N. N. E. Vane oscillating to E. N. E. and N. 
 
 7. 40. P. M. . Sky clear, clouds still moving. 
 
 8. P. M. Sky almost clear to S. a few detached clouds moving 
 
112 
 
 to N. clouds to N. occupying 6 points; a light unsteady wind from 
 N. N. E. 
 
 8. 15. P. M. Sky nearly clear. A few light cottony scuds 
 passing from S. S. W. to N. N. E. Light wind from N. N. E. and 
 oscillating to E. 
 
 8. 25. P. M. -- Sky clear. 
 
 9. 30. P. M. A few light clouds moving from S. S. W. to 
 opposite point while surface wind is same. 
 
 The night continued clear. 
 
 May 9 th . Sky clear of clouds at sun -rise. 
 
 Sun's disc at sun- rise almost obscured by a fine white haze. 
 
 Air still. Yane points to N. N. E. 
 
 12. 5. Noon. A Dust Whirlwind of some extent passed from 
 S. S. W. to S. S. E. filling the air with dust. 
 
 Wind S. S. W. oscillating to S. and S. by E. 
 
 12. 5. P. M. Passage of Electrical currents from S. S. W., 
 affecting the wire and giving a spark */ of an inch. Wind rising and 
 falling at such times, with moaning noise heard within doors, but not 
 without. Vane oscillating at such times 4 points from S. S. W. to 
 S. and S. by E. 
 
 2. 15. P. M. Frequent passage of Extensive Electrical currents 
 from S. to N. 
 
 These currents, it may be remarked, now move in exactly an op- 
 posite direction to what they did last evening at sun-set and shortly after. 
 
 4. 30. P. M. A light breeze from S. S. W. veering to S. W. 
 Sky cloudless all day. Air still Electrical at times. 
 
 6. P. M. A light air from S. W. A few light cottony scud 
 clouds nearly at rest in the Zenith and scattered to the N. W. On 
 attentively observing those over head, the vapour is seen to be in 
 whirling motion, expanding and diminishing. 
 
 6. P. M. and after. Sun setting behind a light hazy bank of 
 cloud. The detached masses of Cumuli spreading over the heavens, 
 particulary to N. Westward. Air still now and at 7 P. M. The clouds 
 in Zenith move slowly from S. to N. Yane points to S. S. W. 
 
 10. P. M. Light clouds to W. Hemisphere moving slowly from 
 S. to N. Air still. Yane points to N, Eastern Hemisphere free from 
 clouds. 
 
113 
 
 Monthly means of 
 
 BAROMETICAL Observations at MEAN MEER for twelve months 
 corrected for Temperature and Capillary action. 
 
 
 10. A. M. 
 
 4. P. M. 
 
 
 November 1851 
 
 29. 439 
 
 29. 360 
 
 
 December 
 
 .394 
 
 .306 
 
 
 January 1852 
 
 .325 
 
 .306 
 
 
 February 
 
 .324 
 
 .212 
 
 
 March ., 
 
 .208 
 
 .101 
 
 
 April 
 
 .103 
 
 .083 
 
 
 t Ma 7 
 
 .002 
 
 28. 912 
 
 
 June 
 
 28. 734 
 
 .703 
 
 
 .My 
 
 .804 
 
 .732 
 
 
 August 
 
 .933 
 
 .842 
 
 
 September 
 
 29. 028 
 
 .933 
 
 
 October 
 
 .217 
 
 29. 135 
 
 
 Sums 
 
 109. 511 
 
 108. 525 
 
 
 Yearly means 
 
 29. 125 
 
 29. 043 
 
 
 15 
 
114 
 
 A SPOT ON THE SUN'S DISC SUPPOSED TO BE THE NEW INFERIOR 
 
 PLANET. 
 
 Mean Meer. June 14 th ., 1853, shortly after sun-rise, a round, dark, 
 well defined spot appeared, visible to the naked eye on the lower limb of 
 the Sun's disc, about midway between the South pole, and the Sun's 
 transverse diameter. Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 
 
 S. Rise 
 
 Mean Meer. June 14 th , 1853. 
 
 Near sun -set, the spot was still visible, on the lower limb, nearer 
 the Sun's transverse diameter, more to the left, as at Fig. 2. 
 
 The following morning, soon after sun -rise, the spot was again 
 visible on the lower limb of the Sun's disc, to the right of the mesial 
 line, and a little below the Equator, as at Fig. 3. 
 
 Fig. 4, represents the position of the spots during the 24 hours, 
 from sun -rise on the 14 th , to the corresponding time on the following 
 day; and the chord described by the planet during that period. 
 
 A similar spot was seen on the Sun's disc at sun- rise on the 13 th 
 of May, 1851, which was situated on the upper limb, nearly on the 
 Polar axis, midway between the N. pole and the Sun's transverse 
 diameter. 
 
 In 1839, in the first week of August, as far as memory serves, 
 travelling between Candahar and Girisk on the R. Helmond, I observed 
 a round, sharply defined, black spot on the Sun's disc, both at sun-rise 
 and at sun -set, but cannot recollect whether it was seen the following 
 
115 
 
 morning, nor the exact place it occupied on the Sun's disc, viz. whether 
 at sun-rise it was on the upper or the under limb. This only I do seem 
 to recollect, that at sun -set the position of the spot seemed reversed; 
 from which it would appear that it occupied nearly the same position 
 as 'in the morning. 
 
 The spot was much larger and darker than that seen on the 
 13 th of May 1851, and on the 14 th and 15 th of June 1853. 
 
A GOLD REGION ON THE RIVER INDUS. 
 
 At Attock, the river Indus, joined by the large Caubul river, 
 commences its course through a rocky defile, which extends upwards of 
 90 miles to Kalabag, with scarcely a tree and only a few scattered villages 
 to vary the scene, where the mountains terminate abruptly, and the river 
 debouches into the open plain of the Dooab. 
 
 The first 65 or 70 miles of this passage is rendered dangerous to 
 navigation, by the tortuous windings of the river through dark rocks 
 jutting into the stream, or rising from the midst of it, past which, the 
 waters rush with great impetuosity, requiring the greatest eiforts of ten 
 rowers to keep the boat in perfect command, and prevent its being 
 dashed against the rocks. 
 
 In December 1854, when I took this route homewards, the river 
 was low, and a well manned boat stemmed the rapids without much 
 danger ; - - just sufficient, however, to make one feel thankful to a kind 
 Providence for guiding us through safely; but during the rainy sea- 
 son, or at the freshets, a vast body of water, pent up in this narrow 
 channel, rushes furiously down the gorge, putting a stop to all commu- 
 nication with the opposite shores, except at great risk. The rocks about 
 Attock, (as far as a mere passing glance permits me to speak) appear 
 to be, Slate, Clay slate, Trap, Lime -stone, some of which are continued 
 down the stream for some miles, and are succeeded by stratified rocks, 
 highly inclined and sometimes much cortorted, and lower down, a va- 
 riegated magnesian Lime-stone, Brick red and grey, in a state of par- 
 tial disintegration, and Sand -stone conglomerate, at first very coarse, 
 becoming gradually finer, and terminating near Kalabag in lofty preci- 
 pitious cliffs of fine grained Sand -stone. 
 
 At Kalabag the variegated clay hills of the salt range appear, 
 which contain Gypsum, Quartz crystals, and rose coloured rock salt in 
 veins worked by Government; and in its immediate neighbourhood is 
 
118 
 
 found aluminous Shale, used at the small alum works at that village, 
 to make alum, as well as a non - descript, highly mineralized friable 
 coal, the composition of which is (at least the specimen I procured 
 from the boatmen, which they sometimes munched, and valued on account 
 of its alleged medicinal virtues) as follows: 
 
 Volatile matter, inflammable 42. 66 p. c. 
 
 Carbon, or Coke 56. 49 
 
 Peroxide of Iron, to be estimated as Sulphuret. 0. 85 
 
 100. 00 
 
 This differs from another specimen obtained in the same range, more 
 to Eastward, in Sand-stone, which contained 24 p. c. of inflammable 
 matter, an equal amount of Carbon, or Coke, and the remainder, a fine 
 white sand and ash. 
 
 Above Attock, at the conflux of the two rivers, looking Northward, 
 the country opens out flat, right and left to some extent, and the widely 
 spread sandy beds of the streams are, in the, immediate neighbourhood 
 of Attock, and probably elsewhere, thickly strewed with boulders, and 
 pebbles of every description of primary and transition rock. 
 
 Among those noticed, were Granite, Gneiss, Quarz-rock, Quarz, 
 Mica slate, Clay slate, Hornblende, Green stone, Porphyry, Corundum, 
 Lime-stone, Sand-stone, &c. &c. Similar pebbles are found along the 
 river bank nearly to Kalabag, and also in the Sandstone - conglomerate 
 which, low down the stream, forms a principal part of the rocky cliffs 
 on either side of the gorge from about 15 or 20 miles below Kooshal- 
 gur, near to its termination. 
 
 Viewing the country from this point Northward, the conviction 
 arises, that large tracts of mountain districts have been, during the course 
 of ages, subjected to the disintegrating influence of water and weather, 
 swept away, leaving nothing but their debris to mark their previous 
 existence. 
 
 Tkis, 1 believe, is an extensive Gold Region; as gold is found in 
 
 sands and shingle, both at Attock, and along the entire distance to 
 Kalabag. 
 
 On my way down, several small parties of gold -washers were 
 seen washing the sand and gravel for gold at the water's edge. 
 
 They were observed 2 or 3 miles above Kooshialgur again, a 
 few miles above Mackud, at Mackud, again, twice, midway 
 
 between the latter place and Kalabag, -** and opposite Kalabag. 
 
119 
 
 They used a shovel- shaped wooden trough, and a coarse square 
 sieve made of reeds, on which was heaped the sand and gravel, and the 
 washing was effected by pouring over it water, from a boat- shaped ladle 
 of wood with a transverse handle in the middle. 
 
 The Gold is found in minute grains associated with a large quan- 
 tity of magnetic Iron-sand; and the final separation is effected by agi- 
 tating the previously washed sand in a shallow cone-shaped wooden dish, 
 and then using mercury the amalgam being made into a pill, and 
 the mercury driven off by heat. Two of these gold pills, each weighing 
 about 25 grains, were purchased of the gold washers, and some of their 
 ready washed sand containing particles of gold. 
 
 We may readily conceive that the scanty amount that these poor 
 people obtain by dint of hard labour, is no test of the stores of the 
 precious metal which may lie hidden beyond the reach of their minor 
 operations; and it may not be extravagant to suppose that this part of 
 India, now lying barren and almost desolate, with but few inhabitants, 
 may eventually become occupied by an industrious population attracted 
 to the spot by the unexplored mineral riches of the country, and the 
 salubrious climate of the adjoining hills; and thus may our political 
 relations be strengthened, and the elements formed by which the bles- 
 sings of civilization and religion may be introduced to countless neigh- 
 bouring tribes, which have hitherto remained unknowing, and almost 
 unknown to the rest of the world, and there an opportunity be given 
 
 - "to blow 
 
 The trump of freedom", and 
 "To tell the bruted slave his manhood high, 
 His birthright liberty, and in his hand 
 To put the writ of manumission, signed 
 By God's own signature; to drive away 
 From earth the dark, infernal legionary 
 Of superstition, ignorance, and hell; 
 High on the pagan hills, where Satan sat, 
 Encamped, and o'er the subject kingdoms threw 
 Perpetual night, to plant Immanuel's cross, 
 The ensign of the Gospel, blazing round 
 Immortal truth; and in the wilderness 
 Of human waste, to sow eternal life; 
 And from the rock where sin, with horrid yell, 
 Devoured its victims unredeemed, to raise 
 The melody of grateful hearts to heaven." 
 
120 
 
 The only means of communication between the opposite banks of 
 the river Indus, at Attock, in 1855, was by ferry, and a bridge of boats, 
 which had to be removed during the floods. Since then a suspension 
 bridge has been erected at Attock. 
 
 Some miles lower down, below Kooshialgur, the stream narrows 
 in several places, and the rocks seem to approach within 40 yards. 
 
 At such points it might be comparatively easy to throw over an 
 iron tubular bridge, and form a permanent communication from India 
 into Affghanistan. 
 
ADDENDUM. 
 
 A few remarks on Sanitary Measures required for the European Soldier in 
 
 India are offered to notice; some of the same being equally 
 
 applicable elsewhere. 
 
 1. Much difference of opinion prevails among Indian Officers on 
 the necessity of adopting Sanitary Measures in and about Cantonments 
 and Camps occupied by Soldiers. 
 
 Some few have supposed that it was healthy rather than other- 
 wise, or at any rate, innocuous, to breathe putrid odours, and the offen- 
 sive and unwholesome efduvia of Brick-Kilns and Potteries, which are 
 so frequently allowed to taint the air in the immediate vicinity of Can- 
 tonments and Towns; while others are either indifferent, or have no 
 clear idea of the importance of strict attention to such matters. 
 
 2. Those best aquainted with the laws of health, are fully satisfied, 
 that the welfare of the community is materially affected by the manner 
 in which these things are attended to, or disregarded : - - that disease 
 is constantly augmented by the general neglect of cleanliness and by 
 impure breathing. 
 
 3. Eefuse matter should be speedily buried and a prohibition issued 
 against Brick-Kilns and Potteries within a mile and a half of Military 
 Cantonments. 
 
 4. I have noticed with surprise the difficulty experienced by some 
 who have the management of such concerns, to comprehend the require- 
 ments for a large body of Soldiers. 
 
 16 
 
122 
 
 The most inadequate means are oftentimes provided; and most of 
 the buildings in question, though generally situated at a considerable 
 distance from Barracks and Hospitals, are usually unprovided with co- 
 vered ways; so that the men, and the families of Soldiers, are compelled, 
 to pass to and fro exposed to the scorching rays of a tropical sun 
 without shelter. 
 
 5. The very few covered ways I have seen in the Punjab, were 
 introduced by Colonel, now Major General Treminhere: most others 
 who have had the ordering of these buildings, have not been so fully 
 alive to the necessity of the thing as he was, or, covered ways would, 
 doubtless, have been more generally introduced. 
 
 6. Th'e above mentioned buildings that have come under my own 
 observation in the Punjab, were from 50 to 60 paces from the Barrack 
 Hospital without a covered way; and in one instance, the distance was 
 about 250 paces, if I mistake not, from the furthest extremity of the 
 Barrack, and 90 paces from the nearest point of approach. 
 
 7. In a temperate climate this would be bad enough; but in India, 
 it must prove. most detrimental to health, not to mention the painful in- 
 convenience and annoyance to which such an arrangement continually 
 exposes the Soldier. 
 
 It is a mistake to imagine, that the European gets inured to such 
 repeated exposure. The baneful influence may be resisted for a time; 
 but, sooner or later, it tells most injuriously upon the health, and may 
 end fatally. 
 
 8. Much benefit would result to the service, if young men, destined 
 for the Engineer department were required, before going out to India, 
 to attend a course of study on Sanitary Reform ; and were instructed in 
 practical building, so as to render them thoroughly conversant with 
 all its mechanical details, which a mere theoretical knowledge can 
 never give. 
 
 9. Hospital and Barrack Ventilation by Fan Blowers, or Therman- 
 tidotes, as they are called in India, in connection with wetted Cuscus 
 Tatties, is the most efficient means for reducing the temperature within 
 
123 
 
 doors, and securing the health and comfort of the European Soldier in 
 India during the hot season. 
 
 For Hospitals especially this method of ventilation is valuable. 
 
 10. Though commonly used by Officers to cool and ventilate their 
 Houses and Offices in the hot weather, they are, to this day, almost 
 unknown for Hospitals and Barracks. 
 
 11. In 1850, in consequence of a favourable report having been 
 made to Government concerning them, a few were ordered for the use 
 of the Hospitals at Lahore by way of experiment, and their success in 
 the Artillery was perfect, as had been the case the previous year; so 
 much so, that, during the unusually sickly Autumn of 1850, when the 
 Artillery Hospital was crowded to excess by fever patients, the air of 
 the building was pure, and entirely free from disagreeable effluvia, 
 and the sick speedily recovered. 
 
 It was satisfactory to mark the reviving influence of the cool blast 
 upon some of the worst cases. 
 
 12. The Thermantidotes then supplied, were 5 feet in diameter, 
 made of planking, with four fans inside fixed to an iron axle, which 
 worked on antifriction rollers, and was turned by one man by means 
 of a rope attached to a winch. 
 
 The instrument was boxed up in the Veranda by means of a thin 
 brick or canvass partition, and the mouth made to open through an 
 inner door way, which' was planked up for the occasion, the outer door 
 way being closed by a grass Cuscus Tattle, sloped against the door 
 plate, and the two sides of the Tattie were, closed by means of small 
 butresses jutting out from the wall on either side 2 J /2 or 3 feet. 
 
 13. The grass Tattie was kept constantly wet, night and day, by 
 water trickling over it from a metal trough 5 inches broad, the length 
 of the Tattie, supported above upon the buttresses, which was perforated 
 along the bottom by a line of small holes, punched from within out- 
 wards, like a nutmeg -grater, along the inside of which was laid 
 a strip of cotton cloth, and the trough was half filled with sand. 
 
 Into this trough, a constant stream of water flowed from a cistern 
 and stop-cock supported on one of the buttresses, by which contrivance 
 
124 
 
 the Tattie was kept continually wetted, night and day, without much 
 trouble, and a constant blast of cooled air containing watery vapour 
 was thrown into the building continually. 
 
 14. One such instrument properly worked, was found sufficient 
 for 40 or 50 men: but in order to render this plan of ventilation ge- 
 nerally applicable, and successful, it would be necessary to use an im- 
 proved blower of smaller dimensions, made of lacquered sheet -iron, 
 and portable, with a fly wheel; every part of the instrument, when in 
 use, being concealed from view for fear of accidents. 
 
 In order to complete the circulation of air from below and the 
 discharge of foul air, a few apertures in the roof are required, or top 
 swing windows. 
 
 15. Delirium Tremulens, from excess in drink, is best treated by 
 frequent warm water enemas; warm water sponging; effervescing salines, 
 the Acetate of Potass, Ammonia &c. &c. together with moderate doses 
 of Compound Tinct. of Camphor; and sinapism to the epigastrium; with a 
 diet of highly spiced broth, eggs, and strong coffee. This plan was 
 adopted for several years with the best results, the patients rapidly re- 
 covering under the treatment. 
 
 16. It is a mistake to continue giving to such a patient spiri- 
 tuous liquor of any kind, under the impression that it would be injurious 
 to withdraw it altogether : or because he urgently demands it. A sti- 
 mulant of a different kind may be given with advantage, without ad- 
 ding fuel to the flame. 
 
 17. Most soldiers in India acquire the habit of dram - drinking ; 
 and from spirits being presented to them as part of their daily rations, 
 they soon come to regard it as a necessary of life, and too often 
 lapse into settled habits of intemperance. 
 
 18. Nothing is more injurious to the constitution than this daily 
 potion: medical men are unanimous on this point, and have urged the 
 Authorities agaia and again through their Hospital reports, to abolish 
 this pernicious custom, and the Canteen system altogether, and to sub- 
 stitute in its place wholesome beverages adapted to the Climate, and an 
 improved kind of refreshment room. 
 
125 
 
 But nothing is done. Imaginary fears, and rooted prejudices com- 
 bine to promote the evil, and scores of men die yearly from this cause 
 alone : 
 
 On this subject Colonel Dawes of the Bengal Artillery writes 
 April 1860. 
 
 19. "My experience is that nearly all the crime affecting our 
 European Troops in India, has originated in the use of spirituous 
 liquors. 
 
 20. By the discontinuance of the morning dram, which was for- 
 merly given to the Soldier before breakfast on an empty stomach, and 
 its issue at noon instead, a great advance was made in the cause of 
 temperance in the Indian Army: and this was still further promoted, 
 by the introduction of malt liquor by Lord Dalhousie's order, intended 
 to supersede the use of spirits. 
 
 21. I consider abstinence from spirits, a turning point in the life 
 of many a Soldier. The man becomes quite an altered character when 
 he drops this pernicious stimulant; more cleanly in person, respectful 
 to his superiors, and respectable in character; and from the increased 
 dependence that may generally be placed upon him, he becomes alto- 
 gether a more valuable man, both in the field, and in quarters. 
 
 I have seen many a bad character converted by abstinence from 
 spirits, into a steady, able-bodied, hard working, courageous Soldier. 
 
 On the other hand, I have remarked, that the best men have, at 
 times, become next to useless from indulgence in liquor. 
 
 22. My conviction is, that the less liquor the European gets, the 
 better; but I am not prepared to say that the allowance of a Quart of 
 Beer or Porter is injurious; though many, I am sure, do better with- 
 out it. 
 
 As you are aware, the soldier can do well without liquor, as has 
 been proved on many occasions. 
 
 At Jellalhabad this fact was well illustrated. The 13 th Light In- 
 fantry beleaguered there, was not supplied with spirits during the siege,, 
 which lasted Jive months. 
 
126 
 
 The men were nevertheless remarkably healthy during the whole 
 period, notwithstanding incessant hard work, which was carried on with 
 great alacrity and cheerfulness, the men being always well behaved, 
 and good tempered. 
 
 24. After the Garrison was relieved, liquor was again issued, 
 and the difference in the conduct and appearance of the men, was very 
 marked. 
 
 At Caubul too, in a fine climate, the Regiment was not nearly so 
 healthy as before, from the same cause, and lost many men during the 
 winter months. 
 
 25. A great advantage will be gained, when once spirituous 
 liquor is abolished entirely. The Soldier's life in India will then be 
 both a happier and a longer one. 
 
 26. The free introduction of Malt Liquor, would enable the 
 change to be effected without difficulty. 
 
 Care should be taken, however, to have good coffee and tea pro- 
 vided regularly in every troop and company; and .the first thing in 
 the morning, each man should have some offered to him before going 
 out to duty; and also in the evening, as he may desire it. The men 
 soon learn the value of this, and when properly managed, it is alike 
 beneficial to health and morals. 
 
 27. I have been assured by one of the ablest of our surgeons in 
 India, that he attributed the remarkable healthiness of a portion of the 
 Troops, in a large station, at a time of great sickness prevailing among 
 the rest of the Troops, to nothing else but the early morning cup of 
 coffee. 
 
 28. A man should be selected from each company to superintend 
 the proper supply of good coffee, and be allowed a small profit for 
 his trouble. I believe the men will, in almost every case, willingly 
 join these coffee clubs. 
 
 29. With the abolition of the spirit ration, and the general use 
 of coffee instead, I am fully persuaded the average life of the European 
 Soldier in India would be largely increased." 
 
127 
 
 30. My own experience corresponds entirely with what Colonel 
 Dawes says. The arrangement (28) he recommands, is essential to 
 success: when the tea and coffee is bad, or its preparation is left to 
 cook-boys or Native Servants, the beverage is not drinkable, and the 
 men would reject it with disgust, and again have recourse to spirits, 
 or intoxicating liquors. 
 
 31. Before commencing hospital work in the early morning du- 
 ring times of prevailing sickness, I have made it a practice to take hot 
 tea or coffee, by which means the constitution has been invigorated, 
 and rendered capable of resisting atmospheric influences, which other- 
 wise, there is reason to believe, would have produced injurious effects; 
 I have thus repeatedly escaped sickness. 
 
 Capt. Scoresby on the Arctic Regions remarks: " Whenever I have 
 
 had occasion to expose myself to severe cold, I have found that the 
 more I am heated, the longer I can resist the cold without inconvenience. 
 The warmth produced by simple fluids, such as tea or soup, is prefe- 
 rable to that occasioned by spirits. After the liberal use of tea, I have 
 often sustained a cold of ten degrees at the mast-head for several 
 hours without uneasiness. 1 have frequently gone from the breakfast 
 table, when the temperature was 50 or 60, to the mast-head, where 
 it was 10, without any other additional clothing except a cap, yet I 
 never received any injury, and seldom much inconvenience, from the 
 uncommon transition." 
 
 The beneficial effects of tea or coffee are permanent; whereas 
 those of spirituous liquors, including malt liquor, are very evanescent, 
 and leave a corresponding depression of the vital powers, which renders 
 the body more than usually suspectible of fatigue and cold. 
 
 Soldiers have informed me, that they have been enabled to undergo 
 long continued fatigue, by only taking tea or coffee, or even water, if 
 I recollect right; while others, who drank Spirits, or Beer, were soon 
 knocked up, and rendered incapable of much further exertion. 
 
 Every sportsman, pedestrian, or prize-fighter, must have remarked 
 the same thing with regard to himself. 
 
 32. Such truths have been so repeatedly brought forward by me- 
 dical men, and the advocates of the temperance cause, that one would 
 think there could be no occasion for reiterating them, did not experience 
 
128 
 
 convince us of the necessity of doing so, and of endeavouring by every 
 means to convince those who differ on this point, of the advantages to 
 be expected by adopting the plan proposed for the European Soldier 
 in India, viz. that of total abstinence from wine or spirit. 
 
 33. As connected with dram drinking, the ulcerative Dysentery 
 common to Soldiers in India may be mentioned, which I believe is 
 often produced, and always aggravated by the use of spirituous liquors. 
 
 The extensive disorganization of the Colon exhibited in these 
 cases after death, is rarely witnessed except in Tropical Climates, and 
 is awful to contemplate. 
 
 The impression produced upon the mind when viewing the terrible 
 effects of the disease is, that the unfortunate individual had laboured 
 under it several days before admission into hospital; and that, under 
 blunted perceptions, occasioned by the continuance of spirituous potations, 
 often drugged, he had allowed the disease to make fatal progress be- 
 fore applying for medical relief. 
 
 34. When the ulcerative process has proceeded thus far, little 
 hope can be entertained of recovery. 
 
 35. When, however, the complaint is of a milder form, consider- 
 able relief has been afforded by simple hot water enemata, as recom- 
 mended by Dr. Hare of the Bengal Army; and by fomentations to the 
 abdomen, hip bath, and flannel swathe; combined with counter irritation 
 by bags of hot Salt, Tartar -Emetic ointment, covered by a plantain leaf 
 to make it take quickly; or by Galvanic plates of Copper and Zinc, ap- 
 plied over the region of the Colon, and moistened with salt and water 
 and a diet, partly farinaceous, and partly consisting of raw or soft- 
 boiled eggs, chicken or mutton broth, tapioca, sago, or arrow-root, jelly 
 or puddings. 
 
 36. The medical treatment must be regulated by symptoms; but 
 mild opiates should probably form a chief ingredient in most of the 
 remedies prescribed. 
 
129 
 
 37. One of the most distressing and mysterious affections to which 
 the Soldier is liable in India, is Coup de Soleil. 
 
 A man previously in perfect health, is suddenly struck to the 
 earth from exposure to the sun's rays, and brought before us insensible, 
 and breathing out his life in Apoplectic stertor. 
 
 38. How to act under the circumstances nobody knows for cer- 
 tain. What has to be done, must be done quickly. Copious bleeding, 
 which is generally resorted to, hastens death. A continued stream of 
 cold water over the head, though highly useful, often fails to produce 
 any beneficial effect. The same may be said of blisters, and such like. 
 Yet these are, I may say, the only remedial measures available, or 
 usually practised by the profession. 
 
 39. Without disregarding "any one of them, used with judgment, 
 (with an especial proviso, however, against copious bleeding) I would 
 suggest a trial of Galvanism, applied by means of Pulvermaeher's 120 
 linked chains excited by vinegar; the positive pole, or gold, or copper 
 extremity being applied to the nape of the neck; while the negative 
 pole, or silver or zinc end, is brought into contact with the pit of the 
 stomach, or to the moistened palm of the hand, and there retained for 
 some time. 
 
 M r . P. is of opinion that this mode of exciting the nervous energy 
 would probably prove highly beneficial in such cases. 
 
 40. The expressed juice of the unripe Mangoe has been reco- 
 mended as a preservative against Coup de Soleil, and deserves trial; and 
 it might, by way of experiment, be given to a patient already so affected 
 by means of the stomach pump. 
 
 Lt. Colonel Wakefield, of the Bengal Army, states, that the Na- 
 tives of India, consider the expressed juice of the green mangoe mixed 
 with salt, in doses of a table spoonful occasionally, a cooling remedy, 
 and a preservative against the bad effects of exposure to the sun. 
 He himself has experienced decided benefit from taking it with this 
 view. 
 
 41. During the late Indian Rebellion, the Rev d . Gobenath Nandy, 
 a Native Ordained Missionary, compelled to flee from tlje fury of his 
 
130 
 
 countrymen, relates that his child fell sick on the road from exposure 
 to the heat, and became almost comatose, and ready to die, but was 
 recovered by being made to swallow some decoction, or the expressed 
 juice of the unripe mangoe. 
 
 42. I have had no experience of the medicinal properties of the 
 Mangoe: the unripe seed and the pulp seem to contain a large amount 
 of gallic acid, and citric or malic acid exists in the pulp and the peel, 
 with terebinthinous matter. 
 
 43. A still more mysterious form of Apoplexy, is that which 
 occasionally attacks patients in Hospital, undergoing treatment for some 
 trifling affection, quite unconnected, may be, with any nervous affection. 
 I cannot, at present, writing from memory, give any definite account 
 of premonotory symptoms; but my impression is, that the individual, 
 without apparent cause, becomes, rather suddenly, incoherent, stares 
 wildly, and soon lapes into a comatose state, and dies in a few hours. 
 
 A sure sign of approaching dissolution in these cases, is a sudden 
 accession of the animal heat in an exalted degree, which might be con- 
 strued by the inexperienced favourably: but is the vital flame kindling 
 up just previous to its final extinction. 
 
 This form of the complaint may be connected with some previous 
 nervous debility; a post mortem examination reveals no marked evidence 
 of cerebral congestion, or serous effusion, and one feels quite at a loss 
 how to prescribe for the complaint. Bleeding hastens death. It might 
 be relieved by stimulants, and galvanism, as before mentioned. 
 
 44. The means provided in the Bengal Presidency for Soldier's 
 washing and bathing has always been quite inadequate for the require- 
 ments of men in such an oppressive climate as that of India; though 
 some improvement in the arrangements took place under the administra- 
 tion of Lord Dalhousie, and Sir Chs. Napier, when spacious barracks 
 on an improved plan were built in many of the Punjab Stations under 
 the superintendence of Colonel, now Major General, Treminhere. 
 
 45. Plunge baths have occasionally been built to barracks, but 
 they are not. at all adapted for the use of Soldiers. 
 
131 
 
 46. Spacious washing houses adjoining the barracks are best 
 suited to their wants; with cisterns, and stopcocks raised a few feet 
 from the floor, where men may wash and refresh themselves after the 
 exhausting heat of the day; a thing so necessary for health and clean- 
 liness. 
 
 47. The steam bath has been found useful in acute and chronic 
 Rheumatism, and as a substitute for the warm bath, which can rarely 
 be given in the army. 
 
 48. A small tin kettle, tube, and spirit lamp, is all the apparatus , 
 requisite. 
 
 The patient being seated in a chair, or lying on his cot, is covered 
 with blankets, and a small frame work of bamboo, and the steam intro- 
 duced under the clothes for half an hour, or more, when after being 
 well rubbed down and dried, he is furnished with fresh clothes. 
 
 49. Once, when marching in Sinde, in the cold season, a fine 
 Native Soldier was brought to me bent double and crippled from a 
 stroke of the wind, as it is called in India, in consequence of exposure 
 to the keen morning air. 
 
 On being immediately submitted to the process of steaming, he 
 was at once restored. Had it not been for this timely remedy, he 
 might have, if subjected to the usual treatment, lingered a long time 
 and become completely crippled. 
 
 50. About the same time, a large Greyhound affected in the same 
 way, and dragging his lower extremities, was restored to strength, and 
 enabled, if I remember right, to make a long march the following day, 
 by being steamed. 
 
 A trench was dug inside the tent, in which the dog was laid, and 
 covered with horse blankets, and the steam allowed to play upon him 
 for an hour ; when he was enabled to stand, and had no untoward symp- 
 tom after. 
 
 51. Owing to defective hospital arrangement, the hot bath is rarely 
 procurable for Troops in India, and the steam bath on such simple 
 principles Becomes the more valuable. 
 
132 
 
 52. It may well excite surprise, that large European Hospitals 
 should generally lack the means for procuring an abundant supply of 
 hot water for the use of the sick, and for heating bricks, salt &c. so 
 urgently required at times. 
 
 The consequence is, that when Cholera rages, or any disease pre- 
 sents itself requiring instant means for restoring the diminished heat of 
 the human body, this valuable therapeutical agent is absent, or available 
 only in a limited degree, and after considerable delay. 
 
 53. No good reason exists why European Hospitals should not 
 ' be provided with large boilers, and sand bath, set in masonry, over a 
 
 fire place, in the Veranda of the building, where it would occupy but 
 a small space, and be most convenient for all purposes for which heat 
 was required, 
 
 54. My experience enables me to say that Hot water sponging of 
 the body, affords the greatest relief in Fevers, and alleviates the hot 
 dry skin, and excruciating pains in the back and limbs, more than any 
 thing I ever tried, and is most agreeable to the sensations; while cold 
 water is often disagreeable, and sometimes aggravates, rather than soothes, 
 the symptoms. 
 
 55. Sprains and severe contusions with or without lesion, are 
 best treated from the first by scalding -hot water fomentations continued 
 for half an hour, or more, followed instantly by a stream of cold water 
 poured over the parts for a minute: then a bandage, or a damp cloth, 
 as the case may require. To be repeated from time to time, (that is, 
 three or four times at least) in the 24 hours. 
 
 The relief afforded is immediate, and the injured parts speedily 
 acquire a healthy tone, without the aid of local bleeding; though that 
 may be sometimes used in 'conjuntion with advantage, when the deep 
 seated parts are injured. 
 
 This is also a good method for procuring relief in strangulated 
 hernia, and for relieving certain forms of congestion of the brain. 
 
133 
 
 56. A Freezing mixture of pounded ice and salt, as recommended 
 by an army Surgeon in a pamphlet published some years ago, is a 
 valuable means for arresting haemorage; relieving congestion of the 
 brain; removing puffy tumours of the burso3; some forms of Aneurism, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 About a cup-ful of the mixture, in the proportion of 3 of ice 
 to one of salt, is tied up in a piece of gauze and applied from 
 one to three minutes till the integuments are frozen and white; when it 
 should be removed, and the part allowed to regain its natural condition, 
 which it speedily does, leaving a slight blush, and sometimes a smarting, 
 generally followed by desquamation of the cuticle. It should not be 
 reapplied over the same spot, till after the part has regained its healthy 
 aspect, but may be applied in the vicinity. 
 
 57. A European Soldier had a small tumour on his forehead, 
 which proved to be a circumscribed false Aneurism of the frontal ar- 
 tery which seemed likely to extend and involve the neighbouring parts. 
 The freezing mixture applied to the tumour occasionally, together with 
 moderate compression, soon effected a cure. 
 
 58. Diseased Bursoe have been removed by the same means, used 
 sometimes in conjunction with acupuncturation and the injection into the 
 sack, previously emptied of its contents, of a few drops of compound 
 Tincture of Iodine, squirted into the puncture, by means of a finely 
 pointed tube of hard glass made into a little syringe. 
 
 No bad effect ever resulted from the introduction of a few drops 
 of the diluted Tincture into the diseased bursce of the wrist and ankle. 
 
 Slight inflammatory action arising therefrom, was always subdued 
 by the application of chloroform or an evaporating lotion and, when 
 need was, by a small blister placed above the affected part. 
 
 59. Punctured wounds of all descriptions, including snake bite, 
 are best treated by introducing without delay into the wound, --to the 
 very bottom if practicable, a pencil of caustic, so as freely to destroy 
 the sensibility of the wounded nervous tissue (as recommended many 
 years ago by some one) or by carrying a pointed glass tube charged 
 with one of the mineral Acids, into the bottom of the wound; then 
 
134 
 
 placing a narrow strip of blister above, between the wound and the 
 body, so as to confine the inflammatory action to the locality, and 
 prevent absorption into the system. 
 
 60. In this way, the bad effect of punctured wounds, threatening 
 lock jaw, which might have involved the life of the individual, have 
 frequently been arrested, and the wound converted, more or less, into 
 a simple local injury, which chloroform and warm or cold water appli- 
 cations, with salines, speedily cured. 
 
 61. Many Neuralgic affections, chronic inflammation of the Eye, 
 tooth ache &c. have been removed as if by magic, by the use of small 
 plates of zinc and copper excited by salt and water, or by Pulver- 
 macher's chains. 
 
 62. Acute and chronic dysentery have also been benefited by the 
 application of the plates over the colon used as a counter irritant; care 
 being taken not to leave the zinc plate over the same spot longer 
 than 24 hours together; otherwise, points of ulceration form, difficult 
 to heal. 
 
 63. An excruciating and sudden attack of neuralgia of the eye, was 
 speedily removed by the application of a copper plate over the eye, 
 connected, by means of a strip of metal, with a zinc plate applied to the temple. 
 
 64. In a case of chronic inflammation of an Eye, connected with 
 incipient c.apsular cataract, the acute sensibility of the organ, which had 
 resisted a course of alterative treatment and leeching &c. was removed 
 in a few hours by wearing a platinum plate over the affected eye, 
 connected with a zinc disc applied to the temple and excited with salt 
 and water. 
 
 65. The external application of hot salt in a flannel bag or 
 stocking, as a counter irritant, in cases of inflammatory sore throat, and 
 pulmonary affections, acute or chronic, is strongly recommended, espe- 
 cially for children and persons of delicate habit. 
 
135 
 
 66. When the tonsils are much swollen, the solid caustic (argenti 
 nitrasj passed freely and quickly over the surface, followed by hot 
 water gargles, ammoniacal salines &c. has generally been found 
 adequate to arrest the progress of the complaint without depressing 
 the nervous energy. 
 
 67. Poisoning is frequently practised by the natives of India 
 against each othe^ and occasionally against Europeans. 
 
 The difficulty of detection encourages the crime. 
 
 68. Army surgeons are seldom qualified to undertake the delicate 
 chemical manipulation required in such investigations; and if they were, 
 there is no means provided or procurable at military stations or medical 
 Depots, to enable them to do so. 
 
 69. In cases of suspected poisoning it has been customary in 
 Bengal Presidency to have portions of the viscera forwarded all the 
 way to Calcutta from the most remote districts, to the chemical Exa- 
 miner there, for his opinion. 
 
 The delay and inconvenience thus occasioned, greatly defeats the 
 ends of justice. 
 
 70. Medical men before going out to India, should qualify for 
 this duty, and avail themselves of every opportunity for bringing mis- 
 creants to justice, and putting a check to this form of murder. 
 
 71. At the close of Autumn, a sudden fall of the thermometer 
 takes place in the Punjab at night and morning, as is noticed in the 
 meteorological notes; and the body, previously relaxed by the heat of 
 a tropical summer, is rendered highly suspectible to atmospherical in- 
 fluences; and the European Soldier is liable to Fever and Dysentry 
 unless guarded against the vicissitudes of the season, by a timely issue 
 of warm clothing, and avoiding exposure to the night air, and early 
 morning parades. 
 
 The clothing requires to be at some of the stations of the Punjab, 
 as for instance, Peshawar, of a warmer description even than that con- 
 sidered necessary in Europe. 
 
136 
 
 72. Want of employement is the bane of the European Soldier in India. 
 
 The heat of an Indian climate obliges him to remain in Barracks 
 during the greater part of the day, month after month; and this ne- 
 cessary restraint is rendered beyond measure irksome by his having no 
 rational employment provided for him. The habit of indolence thus 
 engendered, is a fruitful source of evil, and must have a tendency to 
 enervate body and mind. 
 
 Most of the men have been artizans, labourers, or clerks, and 
 might be employed with advantage in some of their former trades, or 
 be taught some useful occupation. 
 
 Scientific men would doubtless be found able and willing to or- 
 ganize such a plan if it met the sanction of Government. The attempts 
 that have hitherto been made to introduce trades into regiments for the 
 employment of the soldier have not met with much success, owing doubt- 
 less to the absence of proper organization. 
 
 Outdoor occupations, as gardening, to which many Soldiers are 
 partial, can only be followed during the cold season; and there are 
 sometimes insurmountable local obstacles to its adoption. 
 
 73. What has hitherto been attempted by Government has (Co- 
 lonel Dawes remarks) not been cordially responded to by the men; 
 and his experience goes to shew, that when employed as tailors, shoe- 
 makers, and such like, they generally squander their earnings in liquor, 
 or accumulate them to purchase their discharge. 
 
 74. One thing is certain, that nothing can be done to benefit the 
 soldiers' condition permanently until the spirit ration is abolished, and 
 most stringent measures enforced against the sale of liquor to the Eu- 
 ropean Soldier; and the daily allowance of Beer limited to a quart 
 bottle. 
 
 75. An extraordinary waste takes place in India, year after year, 
 from the condemned clothing and bedding of military Hospitals being 
 burned by orders of Government in the presence of the Medical officer, 
 who is required to furnish a certificate to the Commissariat, that the 
 clothing and bedding was burned in his presence. Many hundred 
 weight of valuable cotton, rags, and hemp, are in this manner destroyed 
 yearly, which might be converted into paper. 
 
137 
 
 76. While writing the above, I have been favoured with the 
 opinion of Major General N. Wyllie C. B. of the Bombay Army, re- 
 garding the abolition of the spirit ration 
 
 "I quite concur," he remarks, "in the opinion expressed by Colonel 
 Dawes of the Bengal Artillery in Paras, 19 to 21, that it is very desi- 
 rable to abolish the Spirit Ration in the Indian Army, because it 
 appears to me to foster a habit of dram drinking leading to much evil. 
 
 Some years ago when serving in Scinde and Affghanistan, I re- 
 marked that little or no crime was committed by our European Soldiers 
 while quartered in those countries, chiefly owing to their inability to 
 procure spirits with the same facility as in India, 
 
 On our return to India many of the Non-Commissioned Officers 
 of one of the same well conducted Regiments, were reduced to the 
 Ranks in consequence of indulgence in spirituous liquors at a Station, 
 where as usual, it was easily procurable. 
 
 As to its connection with disease, I have been informed on the 
 best authority, that the intestines of men who have been addicted to 
 drink, are generally found, on post mortem examination, extensively 
 ulcerated. 
 
 My own observation and experience incline me to assert, that in- 
 dulgence in spirituous liquor in a climate like India, shortens life to an 
 alarming extent. 
 
 A certain quantity of Beer or Porter, without spirits, seems to me 
 quite sufficient stimulant for a healthy man good coffee and tea, 
 properly prepared, should also be freely supplied morning and evening. 
 
 Want of employment is doubtless a source of great evil in the 
 Army. 
 
 In addition to the usual privilege of being permitted to work at 
 their respective Trades when off duty, on the Western Side of India^ 
 the men have ground allotted to them at the different European Stations 
 for the purposes of gardening; which plan, as far as it goes, has been 
 found to answer remarkably well." 
 
 N. W. 
 Bonn, 30 May 1860. 
 
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