Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN
Ql
H
,M
THE
GAS MANAGER'S
HANDBOOK.
FIFTH EDITION.
HANDBOOK
FOR
GAS ENGINEERS
AND
MANAGERS.
THOMAS NEWBIGGING,
Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
FIFTH EDITION, ENLARGED.
Bonbon :
WALTER KING,
OFFICE OF THE "JOURNAL OF GAS LIGHTING," &c.
ii, BOLT COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.
1889.
6
PRINTED B?
KING, SELL, AND BAILTON, LTD.,
12, GOUGH RQUAKE, AND 4. BOLT COURT,
FLEET STREET, LONDON"/ E.C.
Stadk
151
PREFACE
TO THE
FIFTH EDITION.
I AM gratified with the reception which has been accorded to each
successive Edition of the HANDBOOK. It has been my earnest desire
to make the work of the utmost possible use to those for whom it
is specially intended. The Book is the fruit of long experience,
and of much reading and thought. My ambition is that it may
be referred to by the members of the profession, especially the
younger members, and that it may afford them valuable assistance
on occasions of difficulty and doubt.
I have reason to believe that the present Edition marks an im-
portant advance on those that have gone before. Considerable
additions have been made to the text, and much of it has been
re-written and otherwise improved.
T. N.
MANCHESTER, December, 1889.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS.
[For Alphabetical Index, see_end.}
PAGE
Coal and Cannel ..:,.: 1 ' 58
The Storage of Coal . . . . ' . . ' ." . . . . .... - 53
Spontaneous Ignition of Coal . . 54
The Gases Occluded in Coal 55
Testing Coal for its Producing Qualities 56
Retort House, Retort Benches, Retorts and] Mountings . . 59-96
The Slaking of Hot Coke . . . .'.'.'. . . . 73
Fuel for Carbonizing 73
Generator Furnaces and Regeneration 75
Scarfing Retorts 78
The Dinsmore System of Gas Making 81
Charging and Drawing Retorts by Machinery .... 84
Temperature of Gas in the Retorts 93
Condensation and Condensers 96-111
Naphthaline . . ', ' \" 109
Exhausters .... ' . T'' i'' . . . .^ . . . 111-115
Steam Boiler and Engine . 115-117
Washers 117-119
Scrubbers . 119-126
Bye-Pass Mains and Valves .'.'/.,.. 126
The Tar Well . . . . .' . . . . .' . .^ . . 126-128
Purification and Purifiers 129-146
Tests for the Detection of Impurities 1^6-100
>ii CONTENTS.
PAGE
Station Meter House and Meter 160-162
Pressure Gauges 162-163
Pressure and Exhaust Registers . . 163-164
Gasholder Tanks . . . . '. 0- v * . 165-190
Gasholders -. . 190-213
Station Governor and District Governors. ...',. 214-217
Main Pipes and Distribution ......... 218-259
Discharge of Gas, in cubic feet per hour, through Pipes of
various Diameters and Lengths, at different Pressures . 247-259
Service Pipes and Fittings . ...-....'. . 260-268
Public Lighting 269-274
Consumers' Gas Meters 275-292
Testing Meters. . . . . . . 277-292
Internal Fittings . . 293-306
Bronze for Fittings 303-304
Lacquer and Varnish . ". 304-307
Public Illuminations 307-329
Coloured Fires 311-313
Devices for Illuminations 314-329
Illuminating Power 330-355
Various Standards of Light ......... 345-349
Jet Photometer 351-352
Specific Gravity of Gas. . . . .;'"'."..''. . 355-361
The Use of Gas for Cooking, Heating, Ventilating, and
Motive Power 362-366
The Residual Products . . . . . .... . . 367-394
Applications of Sulphate of Ammonia, &c., in Agriculture . 376-880
Coal Products 881-394
Chemical and other Memoranda 395-409
Relative Value of different Illuminating Agents .... 401-40 2
Calorific Power of Gases and other Substances . 408-405
CONTENTS.
PACK
Specific Heat of Substances 406-407
The Gas Industry of the United Kingdom 407-412
The Capital Employed in Gas-Works 412-416
Sundry Useful Notes 417-421
Co-efficients of the Cost, &c., of the Buildings, Apparatus,
Machinery, and Plant of a Gas-Works 422-428
Miscellaneous 428-448
Office Memoranda 448-455
Epitome of Mensuration 456-458
Arithmetical and Algebraical Signs 459
Approximate Multipliers for Facilitating Calculations . . 460-461
Table of Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas of Circles,
and Sides of Equal Squares 462-465
Weights and Measures 466-471
French Weights and Measures, Decimal System. . . . 472-476
Money Tables 477-478
Alphabetical Index 479
ILLUSTKATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
1 Specific Gravity Balance 50
2 Coal Testing Apparatus 57
8 Stage Floor Eetort House 60
4 Ground Floor ditto 61
5 Bench of Retorts 62
6-9 Sections and elevations of Buckstaves ..... 63
9 Coke-slaking Apparatus 63
10 Retorts Bound, D- shaped, and Oval 65
11 Furnace Ash-pan 68
12 Brick Retort and Tiles, section 71
18 Fraser's Ribbed Iron Retort, section 72
14 Tar Furnace 74
15-18 Retort Mouthpiece Lid and Fittings 81
18 Lug for Retort Mouthpiece 81
19 Price's Coke and Coal Barrow 84
20 Cockey's Charging Barrow 84
21 Charging Scoop 85
22 Discharging Rake 85
28 Ash-pan Rake .,.,.. ,..'.,. . . 85
24 Ditto Shovel 85
25 Pricker 85
26 Auger 85
27 Fire Tongs -t; ^ ,". 85
28 Bridge and Dip Pipes 87
29-32 Hydraulic Main various sections 88
82 The " Livesey " Hydraulic, section 88
xii ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
33 Atmospherical Vertical Condenser 100
34 Kirkham and Wright's Annular Condenser .... 100
35 Horizontal Condenser 101
36 Horizontal Condenser for Small Works 102
37 Tubular or Battery Condenser 103
38 Beale's Exhauster 112
39 Jones's ditto t 112
40 Laidlaw's ditto . . . . . ." . '^"\ ! ' ; "1 ' . 112
41 Anderson's ditto 113
42 Cleland and Korting's Steam- Jet ditto '.''.'"'. . . 114
43-44 Gwynne's Exhauster 114
45 Exhauster Governor 115
46 The Tower Scrubber 120
47 "Standard" Washer- Scrubber . . . . ' V J I' . 124
48 "Eclipse" ditto . . . ."". ~. ! . 125
49-50 Separator for Tar and Ammoniacal Liquor, section and
plan . . . .' . ; '. 127
51 Purifiers and Centre and Four- way Valves . . . . 141
52 Tray or Grid for Purifiers 144
53-55 Drory's Main Thermometer 146
56-57 Sheard's Apparatus for Estimating Carbonic Acid . . 148
58 Eeferees' Sulphur Test 150
59 Harcourt's Colour Test 151
60 Sulphuretted Hydrogen Test 155
61 Station Meter Cylindrical 161
62 Ditto Rectangular 161
68-66 Pressure Gauges 163
65 King's Pressure Gauge 163
66 Differential Pressure Gauge 163
67 Crosley's Pressure and Exhaust Register 164
68 Weight's Pressure Register 164
ILLUSTRATIONS. xiij
FIG. PAGE
69 Gasholder Tank Brick and Paddle 165
70 Ditto Cast-iron .' ; . u* . . 165
71 Ditto Annular 165
72 Natural Slope of Earths .... . :-. ... 166
73 Trammel for Gasholder Tanks 167
74-75 Inlet and Outlet Pipes . . . .... . . 168
76 Gasholder Single Lift . ;*'r: . -,*\& -,y -.-.: -^ . . 191
77 Ditto Three Lift (telescopic) 191
78 Livesey's Hydraulic Seal 193
79 Braddock's Station Governor 215
80 Cowan's Station Governor 216
81 Peebles's District or Differential Governor .... 217
82 Turned and Bored Joint, with recess 221
83 Ditto Ditto without recess 221
84 Ditto 223
85-86 Open Joints 224
87 India-rubber Joint 226
88 Ball and Socket Joint 226
89 Expansion Joint 226
90 The "Kimberley" Collar. . 228
91-92 Syphons or Drip Wells 230
93 Bag for Plugging Mains 231
94 Lyon's Main Testing Arrangement 234
95 Hulett's Service Cleanser 261
96 Service Pipes and Fittings 268
97-98 Street Lamp Posts . . . ... .<'. . : . . 270
99 Sugg's Street Lamp and Burners 271
100 Bray's ditto ditto 271
101 Bray's ditto ditto 271
102 Siemens' ditto ditto 271
103 Parkinson's Motive Power Meter . . 277
ILLU3TBATIONS.
FIG.
104 Apparatus for Testing Meters 278
105 Cowan's Ventilating Globe Light 296
106 Strode's Ventilating Sun-light . 296
107-175 Devices for Illuminations 314-329
107-120 Brunswick Stars Bee Hive and Scroll Prince of
Wales' Feathers, Elephant and Castle Compass and
Square Rosette, Shield, and Cross Shield and Bars
Crown, Coronet Eight and twelve pointed Stars . 314
121-122 The All-seeing Eye Three Legs of Man .... 315
123-134 Rosette and Circle Star Bird and Shield, Star-
Maltese Cross Bible, Sceptre and Sword of State
Globe and Cross Crown Aureole Maltese Cross
with Queen's Head Cross Keys, Anchor. . . . 816
185-136 Head of Britannia and Legend Britannia Rules the
Waves 817
187-143 Maltese Cross Crescent with Rays Windmill, and
Legend Hour Glass Mitre, Lion Rampant
Masonic Emblem 818
144-145 Medal with Legend Rising Sun . . i . ., . , . 819
146-152 Harp Hose, Shamrock, and Thistle Lighthouse and
Legend Crescent Star and Circle Anchor and
Cable Anchor, Heart, and Cross 320
158-154 Honey Bee Basket of Fruit with Legend .... 321
155-160 Star Star of India Hand and Heart Finger Post
and Globe Star and Circle Crown, Circle, and V.R. 822
161-162 Spider's Web Horse Shoe with Legend .... 823
163-165 Union Jack Coronet with Legend The All-Seeing
Eye . . . :. ; C 324
166-167 Star of the Bath Star of the Garter 325
168-170 Lion and Unicorn John Bull True Lovers' Knot . 326
171-172 Star of St. Patrick Star of the Thistle . 327
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAOE
173-174 Justice Angel and Trumpet with Legend .... 328
175 Illuminated Arch and Columns 329
176 Letheby-Bunsen Photometer 330
177 Sugg's " London " Argand, No. 1 335
178 The Eeferees' Cubic Foot Measure 339
179 Ditto Pressure Gauge 342
180 Harcourt's Aerorthometer 344
181 The Carcel Lamp 346
182 Methven's Standard 347
183 Methven's Carburetter 347
184 Harconrt's Pentane Standard Lamp 348
185 Lowe's Jet Photometer 351
186 Scale for ditto .' 352
187 Sugg's Illuminating Power Meter 353
188 Thorp and Tasker's Jet Photometer 354
189 Letheby's Specific Gravity Apparatus 356
190 Wright's Specific Gravity Balloon 359
191 Lux's Specific Gravity Balance 360
192 Coke-breaking Hammer 368
193 Stephenson's Apparatus for Testing Spent Oxide . . 378
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK
FOR
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
THE CHIEF KINDS OF COAL.
( .'unnt-l or Pairot Coal. The richest Gas-producing Coal, well-known
by its hard smooth texture. The best varieties are found in
different parts of Scotland, and at Wigaii and Newcastle. The
two latter yield Coke of fair quality ; that from the former is less
valuable, and much of it useless as fuel.
Jiitttniinous Coal. For Gas-producing purposes the Coal most suitable
is the bituminous class, which includes caking, splint, cherry, and
other Coals containing bitumen. It is found widely distributed
throughout the Kingdom ; the better kinds being those found in
Northumberland, Durham, Lancashire, Yorkshire, portions of
Scotland, and to some extent in Wales. It yields Coke generally
of excellent quality.
Anthracite ur Glance Coal. Chiefly Welsh, containing a large propor-
tion of fixed carbon, but little volatile matter, and almost smoke-
less in burning. Excellent for steam purposes ; but quite useless
for the production of Illuminating Gas.
Lignite or JJrou-n Coal. Found at Bovey Tracey, in Devonshire, in a
small field near Lancaster, and near Lough Neagh, in Ireland.
Of no great interest to the gas maker. Yields but little Gas and
that of a low illuminating power, and a very unpleasant odour.
Gives off a large quantity of water charged with acetic acid.
Coke valueless as fuel.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
TABULAE VIEW OF THE
TRIAS, PERMIAN, AND CARBONIFEROUS SERIES
IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
(PROFESSOR HULL.)
(Red marl.
New red sandstone or trias
Permian rocks
Upper
carboniferous
IKeuper ,
(Lower Reuper sandstone.
.1 Upper mottled sandstone.
Bunter J Conglomerate beds.
[Lower mottled sandstone.
Upper red sandstone of St. Bees, &o.
Upper and lower magnesiau limestones and marls of
the Northern counties.
Lower red sandstone of Lancashire, Cumberland,
and Yorkshire, &c. (on the same horizon with)
Red sandstones, marls, conglomerates, and breccia,
of the central counties and Salop.
Upper coal-measures with lime-
stone, and thin coal seams.
Middle coal-measures with thick
coal seams.
/Lower coal-measures, or Gannister
series, with thin coal seams and
lower carboniferous fossils.
Millstone grit, with thin coal seams.
Upper limestone shale, or Yoredale
rocks.
Carboniferous limestone with
shales, sandstones, and coal in
the Northern counties and Scot-
land.
Lower limestone shale.
Old red sandstone and Devonian rocks.
Carboniferous _,
rocks
Si
Lower
carboniferous
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS.
TABLES
SHOWING THE CHIEF SUBSTANCES OF WHICH COAL
is COMPOSED.
Pen-en tage Composition.
NEWCASTLE COALS.
Name of Coal.
P, e -
cific
Gra-
vity.
Car-
bon.
Hy-
dro-
gen.
Nitro- i Snl-
gen. phur.
Oxy-
gen.
Ash.
Coke.
Willington
1 : 26
1 ! 28
1-29
1-31
1-25
1-26
1-25
1-25
86-81
85-58
84-92
83-47
81-81
80-26
80-61
81-85
81-18
82-12
4-96
5-31
4-53
6-68
5-50
5-28
5-26
5-29
5-56
5-31
1-05
1-26
0-96
42
28
16
52
69
0-72
1-35
0-88
1-32
0-65
0-06
1-69
1-78
1-85
1-13
1-44
1-24
5-22
4-39
6-66
8-17
2-58
2-40
6-51
7-53
8-03
5-69
1-08
2-14
2-28
0-20
7-14
9-12
4-25
2-51
3-07
3-77
72-19
65-13
69-69
62-70
64-61
72-31
59 : 20
58-22
60-67
Tanfield
Bowden Close
Haswell Wallsend . . .
Newcastle Hartley.
Hedley's Hartley . . .
Bates's West Hartley . .
West Hartley Main . .
Original Hartley ....
Average of eighteen samples
from different mines
LANCASHIEE COALS.
Ince Hall Company's Arley .
Haydock, Bushey Park . .
Blackbrook, Little Delf . .
Wigan four feet ....
,, Cannel
1-27
1-32
1-26
1-20
1-23
1-27
1-27
82-61
77-65
82-70
78-86
79-23
75-40
77-90
!5-86
5-53
5-55
5-29
6-08
4-83
5-32
1-76
0-50
1-48
0-86
1-18
1-41
1-30
0-80
1-73
1-07
1-19
1-43
2-43
1-44
7-44
10-91
4-89
9-57
7-24
19-98
9-53
1-53
3-68
4-31
4-23
4-84
5-95
4-88
64-00
59-40
58-48
60-00
60-33
54-20
60-22
Caldwell and Thompson's
Higher Delf
Average of twenty-eight sam-
ples from different mines .
DEEBYSHIEE COALS.
Earl Fitzwilliam's Elnecar .
Holyland and Go's Elsecar .
ButterleyCompany's Langley
Staveley
Average of seven samples
from different mines
l-296i 81-93J 4-85
1-31?: 80-05 4-93
1-264' 77-97 5'58
1-270J 79-851 4-84
1-292J 79-68J 4'94
1-27
1-24
0-80
1-23
1-41
0-91
1-06
1-14
0-72
1-01
8-58
8-99
9-86
10-96
10-28
2-46
3-73
4-65
2-40
2-65
61-60
62-50
54-90
57-86
59-32
GLOUCESTERSHIRE COALS.
Coleford High Delf (Forest of
Dean) .
Trenchard
New Bowson, Cinderford
Parkfield.
Hanharn .
\Varmley .
I I
1-21978-810, 5
313I76-502 1 5
33174-410: 4
35474-464 5
35480-7091 5
33276-860 5
30779-310 5
1-37482-069 5
1-277 75-340 1 4
1-30482-410! 4
303' 1-750
380: 1-090
470i 0-700
292 0-511
4251 0-735
430 1-680
250! 1-260
613J 0-940 _
630 0-630 2
870 0-770
9-055
3-659
370 8-840
667! 6-831 10
an 7-oeo
9401
1
1
0-8501 9-100
1
457| 6-
440i 5-48011
870| 5-230 5
020! 63-97
700! 62-60
210 : 59-76
235 ! 60-36
800 63-38
760: 58-24
230 59-22
530' 60-97
480! 58-86
850) 71-15
B 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
SOMERSETSHIRE AND OTHER COALS.
Name of Coal.
*?c-
Gra-
vity.
Car-
bon.
Hy-
dro-
gen.
Nitro-
gen.
Sul-
phur.
Oxy-
gen.
Ash.
Coke.
302
303
290
320
286
120
302
271
291
1-269
84-066
84-912
82-470
82-270
77-249
74-720
78-905
74-346
77-184
78-680
6-463
4-976
5-008
5-640
5-513
4-970
5-436
6-2S5
5-517
1 5-872
1-020
0-840
1-190
0-910
1-120
0-910
0-840
,0-350
0-770
0-700
1-053 3-230
l-586j 4-166
1-039! 6-842
2-370 5-130
1-66711-195
0-720J 7-310
1-47110-928
1-31814-201
1-251 12-518
0-690] 9-378
1
4-168
3-520
3-451
3-080
3-256
11-370
2-420
3-500
2-760
4-680
79-60
79-29
79-87
66-29
56-01
64-95
55-40
54-75
60-04
56-64
Xailsea '.
Derbyshire Gas Coal . . .
',', Can'nel . . .
Bulwell Nottingham Gas Coal
Cannel .
SCOTCH COALS.
1
Boghead
1-218(63 -930
8-858i 0'962
0-320 4-702
21
222
31-70
Wallsend Elgin
1-200:76-090
5-220 1-410
1-530 5-050
10
700
58-45
Grangemouth
1-29079-850
5-280 1*860
i 1-420 8-580
;VO
56 ' 60
Egliuton
1-250J80-080
6-500 1-550
1-380 8-050
1
8
54-94
WELSH COALS (FIDDES).
Aberanian, Merthyr . . .
30090-940 4-280 1-210
1-180
0-940! 1
450
85-00
Aberdare Co., Merthyr . .
31088-280 4-240 1-660
0-910
1-650
a
260
85-83
Anthracite (Jones and Co.) .
37591-440 3-460 0'210
0-790
2-580
i
520
92-90
Coleshill ....
290;73-840, 5'140! 1-470
2-340
8-290
8
\ !'*()
56-00
Llantwit ....
273;77'410 5-5531 0'560
2-365
1-2 -Of 52
2
050
64-70
252:77-310 5 '642
0-420
2-037
10-366
4
O.)-,
58-8'2
Xantgarw Llantwit
32679-130
5-610
0-700
3-450
7-330
3
780
61-67
llhos Llantwit . .
282:76-995
5-455
0-700
1-643
12-875
2
")',*,->
63 ' 30
30275-452
5-497
0-840! 2-312
13-023
2
876
63-03
302,73-410
5-507
0-350
2-414
14-276
4
0-13
65-32
Holly Bush . '. '. '.
26980-134
5-045
0-518
2-279
8-522
3
74-42
Tyr Filkons ...
36882-117
5'054
0-595
2-537
5-794
3
'.!(,: 5
64-86
Llanhilleth ...
27487-640
6-085
1-120
1-636
2 "209
1
310
70-39
Aber Khondda . .
32080-675
5-082
0-910
3-675
2-763
6
8! If,
70-81
Poutypridd ...
311 ! 79-820
5-470
0-700
3-950
3-750
6
810
65-80
Wallsend. ...
317,78-270
5-380
0-770
1-860
8* 900
4
820
66-00
Knerplyn
'312'83'120
5 "840
0'980
1*870
5 ' 890
a
300
71 "30
Hock Vawr
1-29077-980
4-390
G'570
0'960
8 '550
7
550
62 '50
ANALYSIS OF THE ASH OF A GOOD NEWCASTLE
COAL (TAYLOR).
Per C<
HI.
Silica . .
59 ' 5
I
Alumina
.' . 12-19
Peroxide of Irou
. . 15-9
3
Lime
9*9
a
Magnesia
.' .' 1-13
Potash
. . 1-17
100-00
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLE
SHOWING THE TOTAL AREA OF COAL MEASURES IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM.
Area of Coal Measures.
Entire Area of Country.
Coal to the
aSS*
Acres.
Acres.
Square
Miles.
whole.
In England ....
In Scotland & Islands, )
exclusive of Lakes . i
6,039
1,720
3,864,960
1,100,000
31,770,615
18,944,000
49,643
29,600
l-8th
l-18th
In North Wales. . .
In South Wales. . .
210
950
134,400 )
608,000 }
4,752,000
7,425
l-6th
In Ireland ....
In British Isles . . '
2,940
1,881,600
20,399,608
1,119,159
31,874 ; 1-llth
1,748 i
Total . . .
11,859
7,588,960
76,985,382
120,290
Exclusive of wood-coal and lignite formations, and some small undefined areas.
ANALYSES OF COALS.
The following tabulated results of the analyses of the different kinds
of Cannel and Bituminous Coals, by Mr. Lewis Thompson, though
published as early as the year 1851, still constitute the most compre-
hensive and useful series of experiments (if we except those of Mr.
James Paterson) that have appeared in this department of the science
of Gas Lighting ; and their general correctness and consequent value
have frequently been proved.
It is to be noted that dry samples of coal were employed in each
experiment. The importance of using dry material will be apparent
when it is remembered that when coal in a wet or moist condition is
placed in the retorts, the results are unsatisfactory in several respects. .
In the first place, the temperature of the retorts is reduced, and, as a
consequence, extra fuel is consumed in restoring the temperature, and
in drying the coal by evaporating the moisture and driving it off as
steam before the coal is in a fit condition to undergo destructive dis-
tillation. Again, a portion of the moisture or steam is decomposed
in contact with the sulphide of iron produced by decomposition from
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
the bisulphide of iron or iron pyrites contained in the coal.* The
oxygen combines with the iron, forming the oxide of that metal, and
the hydrogen with the sulphur, producing sulphuretted hydrogen.
Bisulphide of carbon and other sulphur compounds are also formed in
considerable volume. In this way the whole of the sulphur present
in the coal is caused to pass off into the gas, and has to be subse-
quently removed in the process of purification, thus increasing the
cost of manufacture. On the other hand, when the coal is distilled in
the dry state, rather more than one-half of the sulphur present is left
behind in the residuary coke.
* Sulphur exists in Cannel in a free state, and in Bituminous Coals chiefly in
combination with iron, as pyrites or bisulphide of iron, FeS2, and this in the retort is
converted into sulphide or protosulphuret of iron, FeS.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
ANALYSES OF COALS.* (THOMPSON.)
CANNEL COALS.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
General Character of
Cannel.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Nature
of
Ash.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
ABNISTON. Resem bling lig-
45-5
54-5
4-18
7-66
Silicate
1-70
95
75
nite, and containing crys-
tals of carbonate of lime,
of lime,
alumi-
with impressions of leaves
na, and
and deposits of iron py-
oxide
rites. Compact. Principal
of iron.
fracture, slaty; cross frac-
ture, irregular. Streak,
dull brownish black.
Thrown on the fire, it
decrepitates, but does not
fly. Colour of ash, a dirty
grey ; with nitrate of co-
balt, greenish black. Spe-
cific gravity of coal, T1967
BOGHEAD. Brown, com-
68-4
31-6
22-8
72-15
Silicate
53
08
45
pact, and massive, con-
of alu-
taining a few impressions
mina.
of sigillaria. Principal
fract., slaty, conchoidal;
cross fracture, irregular.
Streak, yellow. Thrown
on the fire, decrepitates
slightly, does not fuse,
but splits. Colour of ash,
j
white; with nitrate of
cobalt, blue. Specific
gravity, 1-221.
CAPELDKAE. Massive, dull
54-5 ; 45-5
10-5
23-07
Silicate -65
20
45
black, impressions of si-
of alu- 1
gillaria, with deposits of
mina.
carbonate of lime and
pyrites. Principal fract.,
conchoidal and slaty ;
cross fracture, distinctly
conchoidal. Streak, yel-
lowish brown. Thrown
on the fire, decrepitates,
splits, and flies, but does
not fuse. Ash, white;
with nitrate of cobalt,
blue. Specific gravity,
1-2275.
From the Journal of Gas Lighting, Vol. II., pp. 203, 223, 243, 262.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOK
Ash per Cent.
Nature
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
tile
Coke.
of
Vola-
Cannel.
Matter
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Ash.
Coal.
Coke.
tile
Matter
KIBKNESS. Massive and fo-
60-
40'
13-5
83-75
Silicate 1'40
58 | -82
liated, free from foreign
of aln- !
matters. Dull brown.
luina.
Principal fracture, slaty ;
cross fracture,conchoidal.
lime and
oxide of
Streak brown. Scarcely
iron.
decrepitates on the fire.
Colour of ash, whitish
grey ; with nitrate of
"*
cobalt, dull dark blue.
Specific gravity, 1'208.
KNIGHTSWOOD. Compact,
dull, black, massive, with
48-5
51-5
2-4
4-66
Oxide of j 1-10
iron and 1
61
49
deposits of carbonate of
silicate
lime and iron pyrites.
of lime,
Principal fracture, slaty,
with a-
conchoidal ; cross fracture,
lumina.
conchoidal. Streak, shin-
ing black. Thrown on the
fire, decrepitates and flies,
j
but does not fuse. Colour
of ash, pale umber, with
nitrate of cobalt, dull
black.
LESMAHAOO. Massive, dull
49-6
50-4
9-1
18-05
Silicate
2-23
1-14
1-09
black. Principal fracture,
of alu-
slaty, conchoidal ; cross
mina
fracture, conchoidal and
and ox-
angular. Streak, black
ide of
and somewhat shining.
iron.
Thrown on the fire, de-
crepitates slightly, does
not split or fuse. Colour
of ash, white; with ni-
trate of cobalt, dirty blue.
Specific gravity, T222.
LOCHOELLY. Colour, dull
33-5
66-5
13-1
19-7
Silicate
75
25
50
black and slaty. Frac-
of alu-
ture, inclining to slaty;
cross fracture, irregular
mina.
conchoidal. Streak, shin-
ing black. On the fire,
decrepitates and flies.
Ash, white; with nitrate
of cobalt, blue. Specific
gravity, 1 - 320.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Cannel.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Nature
of
Ash.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
OLD WEMTSS. Compact,
52-5
47-5
15-1
31-78
Dxide of
1-30
60
70
dull brownish black ; free
iron and
from foreign matters.
silicate
Principal fracture, slaty ;
of alu-
cross fracture, angular,
mina.
inclining to conchoidal.
Streak, dull brownish
black. Thrown on the
fire, decrepitates and
splits, but does not fly.
Colour of ash, dull white ;
with nitrate of cobalt,
olive green. Specific gra-
vity, 1-3256.
WIG AN. Compact, black
37'
63-
3-
4-76
Oxide of
1-25
60
65
and shining. Principal
iron and
fract. conchoidal ; cross
silicate
fracture, conchoidal and
of alu-
cubical. Streak, shining
mina.
black and waxy. Thrown
on the fire, decrepitates,
flies, and slightly fuses.
Colour of ash, yellowish
brown, inclining to red ;
with nitrate of cobalt,
olive black. Specific gra-
vity, 1-271.
RAMSAY'S NEWCASTLE.
36-8
63-2
6-6
10-44
Oxide of 1-75
- -94
81
Compact and massive,
iron and
slightly tinged with oxide
of iron. Black and shin-
silicate
of lime,
ing. Principal fracture,
with
highly conchoidal and
alumina
resinoid ; cross fracture,
conchoidal and cubical.
Thrown on the fire, de-
crepitates and flies to
pieces, inclined to fuse.
Colour of ash, reddish
brown; with nitrate of
cobalt, dull black. Spe-
cific gravity, 1' 290.
BAND OF CANNEL IN
30-8
69-2
9-35
13-51
Oxide of
1-00
50
50
Leverson's Wallsend
iron and
Coal. This is a dull
silicate
black band, which runs
of lime,
through the mass of the
with
coal. Fracture, slaty, con-
alumina
choidal ; cross fracture,
10
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Vola-
' tile
Coke.
of
Vola-
Cannel.
Matter
Coal.
In
Coke.
Ash.
Coal.
Coke.
tile
Matter
cubical and conchoi-
dal. Streak, black and
shining. On the fire,
I
splits, but does not fly or
fuse. Ash, dull white,
with shade of pink; with
nitrate of cobalt, dull [
black. Specific gravity,
i
'*
BAND OF CANNEL IN Pelton
31-5
68-5
9'4
13-72
Oxide of
95
49
46
Main Coal. Colour dull
iron and
black, with a shade of
silicate
brown. Structure, com-
of lime,
pact and uniform. Frac-
with
ture.conchoidal and slaty;
cross fracture, irregular,
alumina
conchoidal, with deposits
of iron pyrites. Streak,
black and shining. On
the fire splits, but does
not fly ; agglutinates and
intumesces slightly. Ash,
dirty white, with shade of
pink ; by nitrate of cobalt,
black. Specific gravity,
1-320.
BAND OF CANNEL IN Wash-
27-4
72-6
9'37
12-9
1-10
56
54
ington Coal. This re-
sembles Pelton and Lever-
son's bands. Colour, dull
brownish black. Frac-
ture, irregular, con-
choidal ; cross fracture,
cubical and conchoidal.
Streak, shining black. On
the fire, splits and fuses
slightly. Ash, dirty white,
with shade of pink. Spe-
cific gravity, T326.
STAFFORDSHIRE. Compact
and uniform. Fracture,
50-
50-
2-9
5'8
1-30
52
78
in all directions con-
choidal, with deposits of
carbonate of lime. Streak,
Bhining black. On the
fire,decrepitates and flies,
but does not fuse. Ash,
dirty white. Specific
gravity, 1'220.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
General Character of
Coal.
tile
Matter
Coke.
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
NEW BRUNSWICK. Jet black, and
66-3 33-7
6 1-78
07
None.
07
pitchy looking. Fracture, highly
conchoidal and resinoid in all
directions. Streak, dull and
pitchy. On the fire cracks and
splits, then fuses and boils up with
strong intumescence. Largely
soluble in naphtha, oil of turpen-
tine, and bisulphuret of carbon.
Specific gravity, 1 098. The coke
is light and friable, like that from
pitch.
BITUMINOUS COALS.
CHESHIRE : Harecastle. Structure,
31-5
68-5
5-
7'3
2-10
1-10
1-00
laminated, with numerous black
bands. Principal fracture, slaty,
inclining to angular; cross frac-
ture, cubical, with deposits of car-
bonate of lime and iron pyrites.
Streak, dull black. On the fire,
agglutinates a little. Ash, dirty
red. Specific gravity, 1 230.
CUMBERLAND, No. I. Dull black,
25-5
74-5
2-1
2-81
1-30
70
60
and coarse grained. Fracture,
rough and hackley, inclining to
cubical; cross fracture, slaty, and
angular. Streak, dull black. On
the fire, agglutinates and swells
a little Ash, dirty white. Spe-
cific gravity, 1 294.
Cumberland, No. 2. Coal black,
25-6
74-4
1-4
1-88
1-10
60
50
with dull laminae. Fracture, irre-
gular, inclining to cubical; cross
fracture, rough and angular, with
charcoal deposits. Streak, black.
On the fire, swells and fuses
slightly. Ash, grey. Specific
gravity, 1'275.
Cumberland, No. 3. Coal black,
30-9
69-1
4-
5-8
1-70
80
90
and coarse grained, semi-crystal-
line. Fracture, hackley and angu-
lar, with layers of charcoal ; cross
fracture, irregular and angular.
Streak, brownish black. On the
fire, swells and agglutinates. Ash,
yellow white. Specific gravity,
1-290.
Ifl
KEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Vola-
tile
Coke.
Vola-
Coal.
matter
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal-
Coke.
tile
Matter
DERBYSHIRE : Staveley. Colour, jet
40-9
59-1
2-7
4'57
1-20
80 I '40
black. Structure, splintry and
prismatic. Fracture, slaty and
columnar ; cross fracture, irregu-
lar and cubical, with deposits of
carbonate of lime and iron pyrites.
Contains several black bands
with charcoal. Streak, black. On
the fire, crackles and splits ; fuses
o
slightly. Ash, dirty pale red.
Specific gravity, 1-275.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE : Coal-Pit Heath.
30-1
69-9
5-8
8-3
4-10
2-20
1-90
Colour, coal black. Structure,
granular and crystalline. Frac-
ture, coarse grained and irregular
in all directions, with numerous
layers of charcoal and iron pyrites,
and traces of carbonate of lime.
On the fire, swells and fuses
slightly. Ash, brick red. Specific
gravity, 1-370.
Whitecroft, near Lydney. Coarse
34-3
65-7
ll-l
16-89
3-10
1-90
1-20
grained and fibrous. Principal
fracture, hackley and slaty, with
deposits of charcoal; cross frac-
ture, uneven, inclining to rhom-
boidal, with deposits of carbonate
of lime and iron pyrites. Streak,
dull black. On the fire, fuses
slightly. Ash, deep red. Specific
gravity, 1-401.
LANCASHIRE : Arley. Colour, coal
33-7
66-3
8-6
5-43
1-20
60
60
black, with shining layers. Struc-
ture, massive. Fracture, inclining
to slaty, with charcoal deposits ;
cross fracture, cubical, with traces
of carbonate of lime. On the
fire.splits slightly,and intumesces.
Ash, dull fawn colour. Specific
gravity, 1 - 270.
St. Helens. Coal black and lami-
37-2
62-8
1-2
1-91
1-10
54
56
nated. Principal fracture, slaty ;
cross fracture, cubical, with nu-
merous deposits of charcoal in
the principal fracture, and car-
bonate of lime in the cross frac-
ture. Streak, dull black. On
the fire, swells and agglutinates.
Ash, fawn colour. Specific gravity,
1-285.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Name and
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM :
38'
62-
5-1
8-22
1-60
80
80
Blenkinsop. Coal black ; lami-
nated. Fracture, coarse and gra-
nular; cross fracture, splintry,
inclining to cubical. Streak, dull
black. On the fire, fuses slightly,
and intumesces. Ash, grey. Spe-
cific gravity, 1-298.
Dean's Primrose. Colour, brownish
29-25
70-75
2-4
3-4
1-40
"71
69
black, with shining layers. Frac-
ture in all directions, cubical and
somewhat irregular, with occa-
sional deposits of iron pyrites.
On the fire, splits and crackles
slightly, swells, and intumesces.
Ash, brick red. Specific gravity,
1-261.
Garesfield (Bute's). Coal black and
28-3
71-7
3-2
4-46
90
40
50
rather friable, with thin bands of
dark laminae throughout. Frac-
ture, uneven and cubical ; cross
fracture, angular and hackley,
containing traces of charcoal.
Streak, dull black. On the fire,
swells and fuses together. Ash,
light red. Specific gravity, T290.
Garesfield (Cowan's). Coal black
and shining, with thin dark
29-4
70-6
95
1-34
85
40
45
laminae. Fracture, irregular and
cubical ; cross fracture, angular,
and affording deposits of charcoal.
Streak, dull black. On the fire,
agglutinates, swells, and partially
fuses. Ash, pale cream colour.
Specific gravity, 1-259.
Gosforth. Coal black, with shining
35-
65-
1-
1-54
1-10
50
60
layers. Fracture, irregular, in-
clining to cubical ; cross fracture,
cubical, with indications of char-
coal. Streak, dull black. On the
fire, swells and agglutinates. Ash,
dull yellow. Specific gravity,
1-260.
Hastings Hartley. Jet black ; lami-
36-6
63-4
2-
3-15
95
50
45.
nated and splintry. Fracture,
cubical and slightly conchoidal;
cross fracture, cubical and irre-
gular. Streak, black, with a shade
of brown. On the fire, cracks
and splits, with a trifling tendency
to agglutinate. Ash, white, with
red streaks. Specific gravity,
1-278.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Name and
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
Ash per Cent
Sulphur in
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
NOBTHCMBEBLAND AND DUBHAM :
35-8
64-2
4-7
7-3
1-10
60
50
West Hartlty.Jet black, with
thin dull laminae in the direction
of the principal fracture, and
slight deposits of charcoal. Frac-
ture, slaty, cubical, inclining to
conchoidal; cross fracture, cubi-
cal, with layers of carbonate of
lime. Streak, brown black. On
the fire, splits and opens, but does
not fuse. Ash, dull cream colour.
'*
Specific gravity, T269.
Levwson's Wallsend. Colour, coal
black, with shining layers. Frac-
ture, cubical, and slightly slaty ;
cross fracture, cubical, with thin
34 '9
4'9
1-30
65
65
layers of iron pyrites. Streak,
black and shining. On the fire,
opens out, and agglutinates. Ash,
brick red. Specific gravity, T278.
j
South Peareth.Dutt black, with
27-8
72-2
1-8
2-5
1-20
GO '60
bright laminae, coarse grained.
Fracture, irregular, hackley, and
inclining to cubical, with charcoal
deposits; cross fracture, cubical.
Streak, dull black. On the fire,
intumesces and fuses partially.
Ash, light yellow. Specific gravity,
1-266.
Pelaw Main. Colour, coal black,
inclining to jet in variable layers.
Fracture, cubical in all directions,
30-3
69-7
2-6
3-73
1-20
70
50
with deposits of pyritic charcoal
and carbonate of lime. On the
fire, opens out, agglutinates, and
intumesces. Ash, pale fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1-271.
Pelton Main. Colour, coal black,
with shining layers. Fracture,
in both directions cubical, with
thin deposits of carbonate of lime,
28-4
71-6 | 1-41
1-96
1-10
62
48
and iron pyrites in the cross frac-
j
ture. Streak, black and shining.
On the fire, opens out and fuses
slightly. Ash, pale ochry yellow.
Specific gravity, 1-270.
New Pelton. Colour, coal black, in-
clining to jet in layers. Fracture,
slaty and cubical ; cross fracture,
irregular and cubical. Streak
black and shining. On the fire,
30-2
69-8
1-75
2 5
1-10
56
54
opens out, fuses slightly, and in-
tumesces. Ash, light brick red
Specific gravity, 1-265.
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGEKS.
A.sh per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
In In
Coal.
' Vola-
Coke. tile
Coal.
JOK6.
i Matter
NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM :
36-3
63-7
3-9
6-1
2-10
1-10
1-00
South Tyne. Shining black, with
dull laminae. Fracture, somewhat
rhomboidal and irregular, with
layers of charcoal and pyrites;
cross fracture, angular. Streak,
dull brownish black. On the fire,
agglutinates and swells slightly.
Ash, deep pink. Specific gravity,
1-339.
Urpeth. Colour, coal black, with
28-7
71-3
1'35
1-89
1-00
60
40
shining layers. Fracture, in all
directions, cubical, with layers of
carbonate of lime and iron pyrites
on the cross fracture. Streak,
black and shining. On the fire,
opens out, swells and fuses slight-
ly. Ash, dull ochry yellow. Spe-
cific gravity, 1- 271.
Washington. Colour, coal black,
with shining layers. Fracture,
31-25
68-75
2-2
3'2
1-30
67
63
in all directions, cubical and irre-
gular. On the fire, opens out and
fuses slightly. Streak, shining
black. Ash, reddish yellow. Spe-
cific gravity, 1-260.
SOHERSETSHIRE : Nailsea, Dull
34-9
65-1
3-
4-6
2-85
1-50
1-35
black, coarse grained and fibrous.
Fracture, hackley, inclining to
rhomboidal, with numerous de-
posits of charcoal and iron pyrites;
cross fracture, very irregular.
Streak, brown black. On the fire.
swells and fuses together. Ash,
flesh-coloured, with red streaks.
Specific gravity, 1-312.
Jiadstock. Colour, dull black.
38-25
61-75
3-5
5'66
3-10
1-80 1-30
Structure, coarse grained and
irregular. Fracture, slightly slaty ;
cross fracture, hackley, inclining
to cubical, with layers of charcoal
and iron pyrites, in cubical crys-
|
tals ; deposits of carbonate of
lime. Streak, dull black. On the
fire, alters but little, and intn-
1 |
mesces slightly. Ash, dull yellow
and flocculent. Specific gravity,
1-275.
i
1(3
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Name and
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
STAFFORDSHIRE : Apedale, 4 ft.
40'
GO'
'75
1-25
80
38
42
Jet black, and in square, splintry
fragments. Principal fracture,
slaty, and slightly conchoidal ;
cross fracture, irregular, and nu-
merous black bands. On the fire,
decrepitates and opens ; does not
fuse. Ash, deep fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1-267.
Apedale Jet black and laminated;
splintry and hard. Principal frac-
ture, slaty ; cross fracture, irre-
38-5
61-5
1-9
8-1
1-50
82
08
gular and angular, inclining to
cubical. Streak, shining black.
On the fire, crackles and burns
freely, but remains open, without
any symptoms of fusion. Ash,deep
red. Specific gravity, 1 307.
Heathern. Colour, dull black, with
42-9
57-1
1-75
3'OG
1-50
70
80
shining layers. Fracture, slaty,
containing deposits of charcoal ;
cross fracture, cubical, with thin
layers of carbonate of lime and
iron pyrites. On the fire, splits
and fuses slightly. Ash, pale dull
yellow. Specific gravity, 1-280.
Silverdale, 10 ft. Splintry and
laminated. Principal fracture,
34-
66-
1-95
2-95
1-30
70
GO
slaty ; cross fracture, angular, and
slightly conchoidal. Streak, dull
black. On the fire, splits and
crackles slightly; does not fuse.
Ash.dullred. Spec. gravity, 1-301.
Woodshutts, 1 ft., Banbury.
Fibrous and coarse grained.
40-2
59-8
1-22
2-C4
90
54
3(>
Principal fracture, hackley ; cross
fracture, irregular, inclining to
rhomboidal, with layers of char-
coal. On the fire, swells, but does
not fuse. Ash, deep fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1-291.
WALES (NORTH) : Buabon, Top Yard
Seam. Coal black, with shining
layers ; laminated. Fracture, slaty
37-5
62-5
2'5
4-
1-40
80
00
and cubical, with charcoal de-
posits; cross fracture, cubical.
Streak, black. On the fire, swells,
and agglutinates. Ash, pale fawn
colour. Specific gravity, 1 269.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Matter
Coke.
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
Vola-
tile
Matter
WALES (NORTH) : Ruabon, Main
41-5
58-5
1-
1-71
85
45
40
Coal. Coal black and laminated.
Fracture, irregular, inclining to
cubical ; cross fracture, foliated
and splintry, with numerous
layers of charcoal, and some indi-
cations of iron pyrites. Streak,
dull black. On the fire, swells and
fuses together. Ash, pale yellow.
Specific gravity, 1'284.
Ruabon, Yard Seam. Coal black,
34-
66'
1-4
2-12
1-10
60
50
with dull lamina;. Fracture, irre-
gular, inclining to cubical; cross
fracture, angular, with consider-
able deposits of charcoal, and
thin layers of carbonate of lime.
Streak, dull black. On the fire,
agglutinates and intumesces.
Ash, fawn colour. Specific gra-
vity, 1-271.
Buabon Nant Seam. -Shining black,
37-9
62-1
1-4
2-25
1-10
70
40
and in columnar concretions.
Fracture, coarse and hackley,with
charcoal deposits ; cross fracture,
rhomboidal and crystalline, with
thin layers of carbonate of lime.
Streak, black. On the fire, agglu-
tinates slightly and intumesces.
Ash, cream colour. Specific gra-
vity, 1- 269..
WALES (SOUTH) : Rhonda. Colour,
22-8
77-2
2-7
3-5
2-30
1-20
1-10
coal black. Structure, coarse
grained. Fracture, slaty and irre-
gular ; cross fracture, hackley and
angular. On the fire, swells
slightly. Ash, light fawn colour.
Specific gravity, T278.
Rhonda Low Main. Colour, coal
black ; coarse grained and hackley.
Fracture, irregular and slightly
23-1
76-9
2-1
2-73
2-20
1-10
1-10
cubical; cross fracture, rough
and angular. Streak, dull black.
On the fire, intumesces and agglu-
tinates feebly. Ash, pale red.
Specific gravity, 1-280.
18
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOlt
Name ana
General Character of
Coal.
Vola-
tile
Ash per Cent.
Coal. Coke.
Sulphur in
Vola-
tile
Matter
YORKSHIRE : Elsecar Low Pit.
Colour, jet black, with dull layers.
Structure, laminated. Fracture,
slaty, inclining to cubical; cross
fracture, cubical, with numerous
deposits of charcoal, and traces of
carbonate of lime. Streak, black.
On the fire, swells and fuses with
some intumescence. Ash, ochry
yellow. Specific gravity, 1-258.
Grigleston Cliff, Soft. Colour, coal
black. Structure, splintry, and in
layers. Fracture, slaty, with bands
of charcoal ; cross fracture, hack-
ley and cubical, containing traces
of carbonate of lime. Streak, black.
On the fire, alters but little, and
does not fuse or decrepitate. Ash,
brick red. Specific gravity, T255.
Mortomly. Coal black, with shin-
ing layers, in splintry fragments.
Fracture, laminated and cubical ;
cross fracture, cubical and irre-
gular. Streak, dull black. On the
fire, splits and opens, but after-
wards agglutinates and intu-
mesces. Ash, light fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1'220.
Silkstone, No. 1. Colour, jet black.
Structure, laminated and pris-
matic. Fracture, slaty; cross
fracture, cubical and irregular,
with deposits of carbonate of lime
and charcoal. Streak, black and
shining. On the fire, splits and
fuses slightly. Ash, fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1-260.
Silkstone, No. 2. Colour, jet black.
Structure, uniform. Fracture,
in all directions, cubical; traces
of carbonate of lime and charcoal.
Streak, brownish black. On the
fire, fuses slightly, and intu-
mesces. Ash, yellowish fawn
colour. Specific gravity, 1-259.
Silkstone, No. 3.-Colour, coal black.
Structure, laminated and pris-
matic. Fracture, slaty and co-
lumnar; cross fracture, irregular
and cubical, with deposits of char-
coal and traces of carbonate of
lime. Streak, black. On the fire,
alters little. Ash, pale fawn colour.
Specific gravity, 1-262.
37"
63- | 1-1 I 1-74 ' 1-20 -63
35-6
64-1
1-6 2-48 ; 1-40 i '75
Go
63- 1-6 2-64 1-10 -60
I !
us-
35-2
62-
J-7H
4-21 1-30
2-55 4-1 1-10 ! -60
2-8 I 4-3 1-45 ! -75
I
50
70
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
1!)
Ash per Cent.
Sulphur in
Name and
General Character of
Vola-
tile
Coke.
Vola-
Coal. Matter
In
Coal.
In
Coke.
Coal.
Coke.
tile
Matter
YORKSHIRE : Soap House Pit Dull 35'
65'
8
1-23
75
40
35
black and slaty, with impressions
of leaves. Fracture, rough and
hackley, inclining to conchoidal;
cross fracture, irregular and an-
gular. On the fire, splits, and
then agglutinates and swells.
Streak, dull brownish black. Ash,
light brown. Specific gravity,
1-258.
Woodthorpe. Compact, black and
33-1
66-9
10-5
15-7
1-20
70
50
uniform in appearance ; resembles
cannel coal. Fracture, conchoidal ;
cross fracture, splintry and cou-
choidal, with layers of carbonate
of. lime. Streak, black. On the
fire, decrepitates slightly and
splits, but does not fuse. Ash,
dirty pink. Specific gravity, 1 347.
1
FRANCE: Denain (Valenciennes).
29'9
70-1
6-
8-56
2-40
1-30
1-10
Colour, coal black. Structure,
coarse grained and slightly fib-
rous. Fracture, irregular, in-
clining to cubical, with layers of
charcoal ; cross fracture, hackley
and angular, with traces of iron
pyrites. On the fire, but little
affected, intumesces and aggluti-
.
nates. Ash, fawn colour. Spe-
cific gravity, 1-265.
COAL AND CANNEL.
Every-day experience shows that variations occur in the quality of the
eoal obtained from the same seam and in the same locality. The identi-
cal seam of coal also varies in quality in different districts. Coal got
from those parts where the seam is thickest is more likely to possess
uniformity of structure than that got near to the circumference of the
basin.
Mr. E. W. Binney's observations led him to the conclusion that
seams of coal are materially affected by the nature of the super-
imposed strata. If this is of an open character, such as sandstone, the
20 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
gaseous matter can readily escape ; while, on the other hand, if the
roof is of almost air-tight black shale or blue blind, the gas is
retained. Further, it is not unreasonable to infer that the vegetable
matter of which coal is composed would be deposited irregularly.
For example, during the ages of primeval vegetable growth, a larger
proportion of leaves would be deposited in some places than in others
where the deposits of bark and cellular tissue would be in excess.
These conditions would naturally tend to produce variations in quality.
In seams of cannel there is more uniformity of quality than in those
of ordinary coal, due to the circumstance, as is supposed, of their
having been formed from vegetable matter long macerated in water,
thus insuring a more intimate admixture of the vegetable substances.
It is well known that variations in the gas-producing qualities of
coal are caused by the material having been stacked for a length of
time at the pit's mouth.
The particulars contained in the following Tables, showing the
Producing Power of various kinds of Coal and Cannel, have been
derived from the standard works on Gas Lighting, from Parliamentary
Keturns, and from the recorded results of the different experimentalists,
in whatever authentic form they may have appeared. There are
evident discrepancies between some of the results, especially between
the earliest and the most recent. The range of time, however, over
which the several experiments have been made, embraces a period of
more than fifty years ; and it is doubtless to the imperfect apparatus
used in the earlier trials that the difference between these and the
later results may chiefly be attributed. In some instances the
difference is only apparent, the distillatory process having been pro-
longed at the expense of the illuminating power.
It is exceedingly desirable, in recording the results of experiments
with mixtures of various coals with each other, and along with other
substances, that the exact proportions used should be stated. When
these are not specified, the other particulars given are comparatively
valueless. The worth of some of the information contained in the
subjoined Tables would have been much enhanced had this necessary
rule been followed.
The weight of the coke produced in the different trials should also
be given in every instance. The absence of such information, so
easily obtained, and of such obvious value, is always to be regretted.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
COAL AND CANNEL.
Quantity of Gas obtained from Coal and Cannel per Ton ; Illuminating
Power of the Gas ; Specific Gravity of the Gas; Weiyht of Coke in
Pounds per Ton ; and Percentage of Ash in Coke.
The results described in the third column of the following tables were
obtained with the old burners, now discarded for the " Standard "
burner ; it is necessary, therefore, when desiring to ascertain the
illuminating power which the latter burner would develop, to add
about 15 per cent, to the figures here given.
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wght.
of
Coke
in Ibs.
T P o 6 n.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
C.VNNEL, COAL.
Arniston
Boghead
Ditto
12.600
13,334
15000
22-5
45-
37-75
626
752
1221*
717
708*
7-66*
72-15*
Chartered Gas Co.
Mr. T. G. Barlow.
Chartered Gas Co.
Ditto
15 486
52-
726
760
63-95
Dr Fyfe.
Bridgewater. . . .
Brymbo
Capeldrae ....
Ditto, No 1 . .
11,200
6,650
14,400
11 500
20 :
19-75
41-56
504
577
644
1019*
999
23 -07*
17-26
Mr. J. Leigh.
Chartered Gas Co.
Dr Fyfe
Ditto, No. 2 . . . .
Chapelside, Airdrie
Coed Talon, shale . .
Donibristle ....
Dunkirk, Dukinfield .
Haywood, Scotch . .
Kirkness ....
Ditto . .
9,600
11,272
10,780
9,923
10,875
11,400
12.800
9620
50-
35-61
14-07
37-55
22-75
30-22
21-2
650
593
562
711
1256
916
Nil.
1220
1568
1157
896*
43-7
19-08
7 : 85
3-
17-8
33-7*
Ditto.
Dr. Wallace, 1869.
Mr. J. Paterson.'
Dr. Fyfe.
Mr. Longworth.
Mr. F. J. Evans.
Chartered Gas Co.
Dr Fyfe
Knightswood
Ditto . . .
9,720
13200
19
590
550
iis4*
4* 66*
Mr. Wright.
Ditto
8960
557
Dr Fyfe
Lesmahago, No. 1 Canl.
Ditto No. 2 do. .
Ditto . .
13,500
13,200
10 176
27-1
24-8
44 "12
642
618
669
1129*
1360
18-05
6*58
Chartered Gas Co.
Ditto.
Dr Fyfe
Ditto . . .
12 750
35-55
1052
10-85
Mr F J Evans 1868
Ditto ....
11 500
34-5
1081
11-17
Prof Penny 1869
Ditto, 1st experiment .
to
12,000
11,681
to
35-25
540
Mr. Wright.
* Mr. L. Thompson.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
ofOas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wpht.
of
Coke
in Ibs.
per
Ton.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
CANNEL continued.
Lesmahago, 2nd expmt.
Ditto . .
9,878
11,312
. .
650
737
..
Mr. Wright.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Leverson . . .
Lochgelly . . .
11,600
9,123
10,000
18-
523
567
656
1550*
1490*
13-51*
19-7*
Chartered Gas Co.
Dr. Fyfe.
Ditto.
Monkland . . .
New Brunswick . .
Peasley Cross St.
Helens. . . .
Pelton ....
10,190
10,000
11,500
19-46
18-5
667
520
756
1534*
1 ! 78
4-25
13-72*
Ditto.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr. King.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Ramsey
Ramsey's Newcastle .
Ditto
10,300
9,746
9,692
21-4
16-65
548
554 to
580
625
1520
Chartered Gas Co.
Dr. Fyfe.
Ditto.
Ditto
9,016
604
Mr. Wright.
Ditto
9,333
598
Mr. Kay, Dundee Gas
Ditto . ...
9,667
731
Co.
Drs.Leeson , Miller,&c .
Ditto
9,151
27-2
1416
10-44
Mr. L. Thompson.
Scotch Parrot . . .
Scotch
9,500
14,000
640
580
Dr. Fyfe.
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto
Staffordshire . . .
Torryburn ....
Washington ....
Welsh
13,813
11,200
10,500
11 424
18 :
500
624
500
737
1120
1626*
5 : 8
12 : 9*
Ditto.
Mr. L. Thompson
Dr. Fyfe.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Ditto
Wemyss .
10976
670
Mr Wright.
Ditto ....
10,192
691
Ditto.
Ditto
14,300
24-5
580
1064*
31-78
Mr. Evans, Chrtrd.Co
Ditto
10,080
642
Dr. Fyfe.
Wigan
9500
460to
Ditto
Ditto
11 200
520
606
Mr. J. Hedley.
Ditto
9500
580
Liverpool Gas Co.
Ditto, Ince Hall . .
Ditto, do. ...
Ditto, Balcarres's . .
Ditto, Blundell's . .
Ditto
11,673
11,400
11,500
11,500
9408
20 :
620
528
478
1474
1411*
4*-76
Mr. J. Leigh.
Mr. Evans, Chrtrd.Co
Mr. J. Leigh.
Ditto.
Mr Wright.
Ditto, Hulton's . . .
Ditto ....
10,500
14 453
640
Mr. J. Leigh.
Mr Clegg
Ditto
14 267
*
'610
Ditto
Ditto, Kay & Dews-
bnry's
Wyan ....
11,300
14453
..
640
..
..
Mr. J. Leigh.
Mr Clegg
Yorkshire ....
Ditto, West Iron & Coal
Co. West Ardsley,
near Leeds . . .
11,500
10,296
21-
451
1344
'.'
Dr. Fyfe.
Mr. W. Hugon.
Mr. L. Thompson.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci
flc
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1000.
Wght
of
Coke
inlbs
Ton.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent
Authority.
NEWCASTLE COALS.
Benton Main . . .
Berwick & Craister's
Wallsend ....
Blenkinsopp.
Ditto .....
Dean's Primrose . .
Ditto
10,987
12,507
11,200
9,700
10,500
11,120
14 :
400
470
521
450
430
410
1389
1585
8 : 22
3'4
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto
10500
12'
430
Mr. Evans, Chrtrd. Co
Eden Main .
Ellison's Main . .
English caking coal .
Felling Main . .
Garesfield . . .
Ditto, Bute's . .
Ditto, Cowan's
Ditto
Gosforth . . . .
Ditto
Hasting's Hartley . .
Heaton Main . . .
Hutton Seam . . .
Leverson's Wallseud .
Ditto
10,400
11,200
8,000
11,200
10,500
10,500
10,000
10,000
10,300
10,400
8,700
10,800
10800
li's
12 :
12-5
125
400
416
420
410
398
398
402
402
421
410
425
425
1606
1581
1456
1420
1458
4 : 46
1-34
1*54
3 : is
7 : 52
Mr. Clegg.
Mr. Clegg.
Dr. Fyfef
Mr. Clegg.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Mr. Evans, Chrtrd. Co
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr. Evans, Chrtrd. Co
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr. Clegg.
Hartlepool Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr Evans Chrtrd Co-
Newcastle
Ditto . .
11,648
9 450
13-5
475
Mr. J. Hedley.
Ditto . . .
9 420
13'5
Ditto ....
9 395
14-2
Gas Co.
Sth. Metropolitan Co.
Ditto
New Pelton ....
Peareth's Wallsend .
Ditto . . .
9,200
10,500
11,147
9700
12-
12'
415
410
1564
2*-5
Exeter Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr. Clegg.
Pelton . . .
11 000
14-
430
* '
Mr Evans, Chrtrd Co
Ditto ....
11 000
14'
430
1604
1-96
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto
11 424
437
Mr. J. Hedley.
Ditto ....
9,746
15-93
'555
1563
Dr. Fyfe.
Pelaw . . .
11 424
444
Mr J Hedley
Ditto . . .
11 000
* *
420
* *
Mr L Thompson
Ditto ....
11000
12-75
420
* *
Mr Evans Chrtrd Co
Pelaw Main . . .
Eussell's Wallsend. .
South Pelaw . . .
South Peareth . . .
South Tyne ....
Urpeth
12,400
12,000
9,000
12 ! 5
420
418
1561*
1617
1427
1597
3-73*
2 : 5
6-1
1'89
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto.
Rochester Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto
Wallsend, Newcastle .
Washington ....
West Hartley . . .
12,000
10,000
10,500
14 :
12-5
490
430
420
1540
1438
3 : 2
7-3
RevolvingWeb Retort
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
* Mr. L. Thompson.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOli
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wght.
of
Coke
in Ibs.
per
Ton.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
CUMBERLAND, YORK-
!
SHIRE. LANCASHIRE,
DERBYSHIRE, STAF-
FORDSHIRE, WELSH,
AND OTHER KINDS OF
COAL.
^
Arley . . . . "v .
10,200
13-
462
1540
6-
Mr. J. E.Clift.
Ditto
1485
5-43
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto
n',200
13 : 8
406
1460
Dr. Thompson.
Ash ton - under - Lyme
coal slack ....
9,000
10-
. .
Stafford Gas Co.
Barley Brook, Arle}*,
Wigan
9,500
16'7
460
1459
4-59
Mr Alfred King.
Bickerstaff, Liverpool.
11,424
475
Mr. J. Hedley.
Bilston
7,100
9 : 5
Bilston Gas Company.
Brancepeth ....
8,500
13-
[
Harrogate Gas Co.
Brymbo, 2-yard coal .
8,800
463
Mr. Wright.
Ditto, main ....
10,500
15 :
540
.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Cheshire . .
1534
7-3
Ditto.
Cumberland, No. 1 .
1669
2-81
Ditto.
Ditto, No. 2. .
' f ' t
\\
1667
1-88
Ditto.
Ditto, No. 3. .
1548
5-8
Ditto.
Derbyshire ....
Ditto
8,000
8,500
is'
13-
Leamington Gas Co.
Leicester Gas Co.
Ditto
8,500
15-
Oxford Gas. Co.
Ditto, Staveley . . .
Ditto, deep main .
9,400
424
1324
4 : 57
Mr. L. Thompson.
Mr. Wright.
Ditto, soft coal . . .
7,500
528
Leicester Gas Co.
Ditto, do. ...
Ditto, do. ...
Durham Fields, best
7,000
7,000
'
448
424
Derby Gas Co.
Nottingham Gas Co.
seam
8,600
12-
Sunderland Gas Co.
Forest of Dean, 1st var.
10,133
350
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto, 2nd variety . .
10,133
360
Ditto.
Ditto
9,000
8 to 9
Gloucester Gas Co.
France, Denain (Va-
lenciennes) . . .
Garswood Hall topcoal
1570
8-56
Mr. L. Thompson.
Wigan .....
10,820
16-
566
1346
5-79
Mr. J. Paterson.
Gloucestershire, Coal-
Pit Heath . . .
1566
8-3
Mr. L. Thompson.
Gloucestershire, White-
croft, near Lyduey .
Hindley Field best coal
10,760
450
1472
1314
16-89
5-45
Ditto.
Mr. J. Paterson.
Leeds coal ....
6,500
530
Leeds Gas Co.
Llanelly, Wales. . .
5,000
. .
Llanelly Gas Co.
to 8,000
Lumpcoal,West Brom-
wich
Ditto, do.. . .
6,500
15,500
453
455
Birmingham Gas Co.
Birmingham and Staf-
fordshire Gas Co.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
2,3
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wght.
of
Coke
in Ibs.
Ton.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
VARIOUS COALS contd.
Macclestield ....
Mynydd Bach- y-Glo-
Colliery coal . . .
Neath, South Wales .
Ormskirk or Wigan
slack
6,720
7,000
11,200
8,200
9-
468
462
Swansea Gas Co.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Liverpool Old Gas Co.
Park Gate coal . . .
Platt Lane coal . .
Powell coal, 2 cwt.
charges every 5 hours
Powell coal, 1J cwt.
charges every 5 hours
Somersetshire coal. .
Ditto, Nailsea . . .
Ditto, Radstock. . .
7,500
9,750
10,165
8,250
8,000
13-75
483
459
470
1412
1458
1383
1378
2 : 94
4 : 6
5-66
3-1
Rotherham Gas Co.
Mr. J. Paterson.
Mr. Wright.
Ditto.
Wells Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto
Ditto 4-feet ' do
1344
1-25
Ditto
Staffordshire, Heath-
ern
Ditto, Silverdale, 10-ft.
Ditto, Woodshuts, Ban-
bury, 7-feet . . .
Ditto
7*,730
Iltol2
. .
1279
1478
1340
3-06
2-95
2-04
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Bath Gas Co.
Ditto, South, 1st var. .
Ditto, 2nd do. .
Ditto, 3rd do. .
Ditto, 4th do. .
St. Helens ....
Stockport ....
Wales (North), Ruabon,
top yard seam . .
Ditto, main coal
Ditto, yard seam
Ditto, Naut seam .
10,933
10,667
10,667
9,600
7,800
398
395
390
320
539
1407
1400
1310
1478
1391
4-
1-71
2-12
2'25
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Stockport Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Wales (South), Rhonda
Ditto, low main.
Ditto, Neath. . . .
Welsh coal, 1st variety
Ditto, 2nd do. .
Wigan and St. Helens
caking coal
Yorkshire, best South .
Ditto, Elsecar Low Pit
Ditto, Grigleston Cliff,
soft
Ditto, Mortomly . .
Ditto, Silkstone. . .
Ditto, Silkstone, No. 1.
Ditto, Silkstone No 2
11,200
10,000
10,133
9,168
9,000
8,600
16-25
14-
13 ! 3
468
385
380
1729
1723
1411
1443
1411
1476
1389
3-5
2-73
1 : 74
2-48
2-54
4 : 21
4-1
Ditto.
Ditto.
Mr. J. Hedley.
Mr. Clegg.
Ditto.
Mr. J. Paterson.
Sheffield Gas Co.
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Great GrimsbyGasCo.
Mr. L Thompson.
Ditto
Ditto, Silkstone, No. 3.
1452
4-3
Ditto.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wght.
of
Coke
in ll..s.
Ton.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
VABIOUS COALS contd.
Ditto, Silkstone, nuts,
Thorncliffe . . .
10,800
15-85
1418
6'
Mr. F. J. Evans, 1870
Ditto, Soap House Pit.
Ditto, Woodthorpe. .
;:
''
1456
1499
15-7
Mr. L. Thompson.
Ditto.
MIXTURES OF
CANNEL AND COAL.
Proportions specified.
Boghead cannel l-8th,
Arley Mine coal
7-8ths . .
10,400
16-5
Blackburn Gas Co.
Boghead cannel 5 per
cent., Newcastle coal
95 per cent. . . .
Boghead cannel l-4th,
10,000
14-
'
Devonport Gas Co.
Pelton coal 3-4ths .
12,800
. .
Mr. T. G. Barlow.
Boghead cannel l-10th,
Lochgelly cannel
9-lOths
9,055
24-93
Ditto.
Drighlington cannel
l-4th, Halifax soft
bed coal 3-4ths . .
Ince Hall cannel 68 per
9,000
18-9
Shipley Gas Co.
cent., Arley coal
slack 32 per cent. .
Lesmahago cannel 6
10,206
19-01
527
1396
6-4
Eossendale "Union Gas
Co.
per cent., Cumber-
land coal 94 per cent.
-7,000
16-
Carlisle Gas Co.
Wigan coal and iron
Co.'s cannel 72 per
cent., Arley coal
slack 28 per cent.
Wigan cannel 2-3rds,
9,967
19-65
530
1462
5-2
Eossendale Union Gas
Co.
coal l-3rd ....
Cannel and Newcastle
9,600
17-
Heywood Gas Co.
coal 1 to 5 . . . .
9,000
14-
Alliance Gas Co.,
Half cannel coal, half
Dublin.
black bed ....
Half cannel, half coal .
9,000
9,450
16'
13-5
Pudsey Gas Co.
St. Helens Gas Co.
Proportions not
specified.
Wigan cannel and other
coals
10 091
21'
I>irkcnli6ad (jas Co.
Cannel and bett or bed
"
* *
coals
9,250
18-
Bradford Gas Co.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
27
Name of Coal.
Cubic
Feet
of Gas
Obtained
per Ton.
Ilium.
Power
of Gas
in
Stand.
Sperm
Cndls.
Speci-
fic
Grav.
of the
Gas.
Air
1-000.
Wght.
of
Coke
in Ibs.
*.
Ash in
Coke
per Cent
Authority.
MIXTURES OF CANNEL
AND COAL contd.
Ramsey's cannel with
9,500 to
12-
,.
Hastings Gas Co.
Newcastle caking coal
10,000
Cannel and best house
coal . . .
9,000
I2tol4
Holninrth Gas Co.
Cannel and Newcastle
coal
9,300
12-5
Phoanix Gas Co.
Ditto do. .
9,400
12-
*]
"
1*
Plymouth and Stone-
house Gas Co.
Ditto do. .
8,000 to
12-
..
mt
Portsea Island Gas Co.
9,000
West Riding cannel
and common coal
Oldham, Watergate,
8,000
10tol4
"
Scarborough Gas Co.
and Wigan cannel .
9,500
534
Manchester Gas Wks.
MIXTURES OF
DIFFERENT COALS.
Coal-Pit Heath, Forest
of Dean and South
Wales
7,000
13-
Bristol Gas Co.
Derbyshire and Staf
fordshire coal. .
8,500
10tol2
tt
Warwick Gas Co.
Ditto do. . .
9,000
9tolO
Worcester Gas Co.
Derbyshire, Netting
hamshire, and York
shire best coal . .
7,800 to
8,200
12tol5
-
Nottingham Gas Co.
Derbyshire and Forest
of Dean coal . . .
9,0:0
10-
Cheltenham Gas Co.
Low Moor mixed with
two kinds of slack .
8.COO
tt
420
tm
e>
Bradford Gas Co.
New Pelton and other
Newcastle coals . .
8,500
13-
Kings ton-on-Thames
Newport (Monmouth-
shire) and Somerset-
shire coals .
Newp'rt
8,000
Somers.
9-
Gas Co.
Weston-super-Mare
Gas Co.
5,500
Ravensworth Pelaw &
Newcastle coals . .
Silkstone and Renshaw
9,000
13-
Beccles Gas Co.
coal. ..'...
South Wales and Bris-
7,500
11-5
Lincoln Gas Co.
tol coal. . .
7,500
Bridgewater Gas Co.
Staffordshire and Der-
byshire coal . . .
8,800
12-5
"
"
BirminghamGas Co.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Ilium.
Cubic Power
Speci-
no
Wght.
Feet of Gas
Grav.
Coke
Ash in
Name of Coal.
of Gas
Obtained
in
Stand.
of the
Gas.
in IDS.
Coke
per Cent.
Authority.
per Ton.
Sperm
Cndls.
Air
1-000.
Ton.
MIXTURES OF COAL AND
OTHER SUBSTANCES.
Llantwit small coal,
with 6 per cent, of
Broxbourne shale oil
9,750
21-5
! Mr. T. G. Barlow.
Newcastle coal 80 per
cent., Trinidad bitu-
men 20 per cent. . .
Newcastle coal 90 per
10,600
17-6
.. : Dr. Letheby and Mr.
Keates.
cent., Trinidad bitu-
men 10 per cent.
New Brunswick Al-
10,200
9,166 to
15-6
28-66
Ditto do.
Mr. Evans.
bertite
10,200
to
35-42
RECENT ANALYSES OF COALS AND CANNELS.
GAS
5.
CO
KE.
Name of Coal.
Gas per
Ton of
Coals.
Cubic
Feet.
Illumi-
nating
Power.
Can-
dles.
Ab-
sorption
by
Bro-
mine
Cent.
Car-
bonic
Oxide
Cent.
Per
Ton of
Coals.
Ibs.
Ash in
Coke
C^t.
Authority.
CANNELS.
Boghead. . . .
Lesmahago
13,000
12,000
40-0
32-0
25'0
14-0
1-5
3-0
670
980
60-0
7-0
Mr. F.J.Evans.
Lothian Cannel
12,700
34-0
17-0
7-0
963
6-0
Cleugh Cannel. . .
12,000
30-0
7-75
10-5
1182
12-8
Lochgelly ....
10,500
17-0
40-0
6-0
1232
15-0
Ince Hall (Wigan) .
10,200
20-0
12-0
3-5
1120
8-0
Wigan ... .
10,000
20-0
13-0
4-2
1120
6-5
Kirkless Hall . . .
10,500
23-0
14-0
4-0
1232
9-5
Leeswood Curley . .
Ditto do. average
10,000
9,800
28-0
20-0
24-0
12-5
8-0
8-0
728
1120
10-0
8-0
Wemyss
11,000
26-0
17-0
1-0
1344
50-0
VARIOUS COALS.
Pelton (Old) . .
11,500
13-5
5-0
5-0
1560
2-75
(New) . . .
10,500
12-0
4-75
4-5
1568
2-5
">
Pelaw
10,000
13-25
4-5
4'5
1568
2-5
Waldridge ....
9,000
13-0
4-3
3-5
1568
3.0
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
GAS.
COKE.
Name of Coal.
Gas per
Illumi-
Ab-
sorption
Car-
Per
Ash in
Authority.
Ton of
Coals.
nating
Power.
by
Bro-
bonic
Oxide
Ton of
Coals.
Coke
per
Cubic
Feet.
Can-
dles.
mine
per
C^,
Ibs.
Cent.
Cent.
VABIOCS COALS contd.
Wearmouth . . .
10,500
13-5
4-7
3-8
1500
2-5
Mr.F. J.Evans.
Bute's Tanfleld . .
10,100
13-5
4-0
3-7
1450
3-8
?)
Dean's Primrose .
10,500
13-5
5-0
4-7
1400
3-5
South Helton . . .
9,600
12-7
3-0
3-2
1470
3-7
'
Shincliffe ....
9,500
12-0
5-0
2-0
1500
3-8
i
Lambtou ....
10,500
14-0
4-3
3-3
1560
2-8
Haswell
10,300
13-0
3-4
3-1
1300
2-5
Silkstone, three f
samples . . . 1
10,400
10,866
10,800
15-64
15-84
15-65
6-25
6-5
4-75
6-25
6-25
7-0
1366
1377
1480
3-0
2-0
6-J
:
Thorncliffe. . . .
10,500
16-5
5-5
6-5
1433
4-8
Rhos Lantwit, Caer-
"
philly
9 730
15-07
7-3
8-2
Mr. Fiddes.
Ditto do. ...
9,675
13-69
4-55
7-3
Powell's Lantwit
Ditto do. small
11,079
10,285
15-16
14-56
6-05
5-0
10-1
8-6
Lyduey Norchard
Coal
Coleford, High Del!
Seam ....
9,215
15-46
4-75
10-3
Ditto do. ...
8,702
14-13
4-25
9-4
u
Canuel Varteg Hill
Colliery, Pontypool.
9,262
17-21
6-2
3-6
Gas Coal from do.
9,021
15-47
5-8
4-9
Tyr Filkens, Newport,
Mon
11,835
13'6
4-3
5'9
Lydney Trancbard
"
Seam
9,870
14-77
5-45
8-6
f \
Pellowell, near Lyd-
ney
9,785
13-84
4-25
10-15
B-
%m
Llantwit Red Ash,
Pontypridd small
coal
9,390
15-06
5-8
8-9
, a
, m
Ditto do. large
9,708
16-33
6-46
8-33
Dean's Primrose .
9,800
16-0
Mr. G. Livesey.
Holmside ....
9,800
16-0
West Leversons . .
9,464
15-5
Townley.
9,200
15-3
"
Washington
9,200
16-9
\[
V
\\
"
Nettlesworth Prim-
"
rose
9,500
>s
West Pelaw . . .
9,537
Norfolk Silkgtone . .
10,000
17 : 5
Teesdale
9,468
- -
* *
-
"
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NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
RECENT ANALYSES OF COALS AND CANNELS continued.
COALS. (F. J. EVANS.)
Name of Coal.
Gas
per Ton
in
Cubic
Feet.
Illumi-
nating
Power
of Gas.
Value
of One
Cubic
Foot in
Grains
of
Sperm.
Coke
per
Ton of
Coal.
Ibs.
Sul-
phur
in Coal
C^.
Hydro-
carbons
con-
densed
fay
Bromine.
Value
of One
Ton in
Ibs. of
Sperm.
Old Pelton ....
11,500
14-50
348*
1545
75
5-0
571
Pelaw
11,500
14-75
354
1568
85
4-5
681
Washington . . .
10,000
15-00
360
1523
73
5-0
514
New Pelton . . .
10,100
14-00
336
1456
'62
4-75
484
Leverson ....
11,000
14-00
336
1411
69
4-00
528
Dean's Primrose .
10,500
15-00
360
1456
90
4-80
540
Londonderry . . .
9,800
16-50
396
1545
1-64
6-50
554
Do. average of eight
*-
samples ....
11,000
16-80
403
1500
1-30
6-00
633
Gosforth . . . .
10,000
13-50
324
1456
1-10
4-00
462
West Hartley . . .
10,800
14-00
336
1411
1-20
4-20
518
Hastings Hartley . .
10,300
14-00
333
1344
1-50
4-30
494
CANNELS. (F. J. EVANS.)
Con-
Specific
Photogenic Power.
Name of Cannel.
Gas per
Ton.
densed
per Cent,
by
Specific
Gravity
of Gas.
Gravity of
Con-
densed
By
Bromine.
Matter.
Analysis.
Boghead . . . .
Lesmahago, No. 1. .
15,000
13,500
30-0
16-0
752
642
1-21
1-64
35-75
27-10
36-30
26-24
Ditto, No. 2. .
13,200
17-0
618
1-43
24-80
24-31
Capeldrae . . . .
14,400
16-5
577
1-29
19-75
21-28
Armiston . . . .
12,600
17-0
626
1-40
22-50
23-80
Ramsey .
10 300
12 "5
"548
1*82
Wemyss
14,300
14-5
580
1-87
24-50
27-11
Kirkness . . . .
Knightswood . . .
Wigan (Ince Hall) .
12,800
13,200
11,400
10-2
9-6
11-5
562
550
528
1-95
2-28
1-77
21-20
19-CO
20-00
19-88
21-66
20-35
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GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
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NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
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GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
47
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48
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
CANNEL AND COAL NUTS AND SLACK OK DROSS.
Eequire high heats for carbonization. When the heat is not high
they cake together in a mass, and at the end of the charge are drawn
from the retort in a comparatively unspent condition. They cannot
be used to advantage in iron retorts.
TABLE
Showing, by the Chlorine and Durability Test, the Comparative Value of
Various Coals. (Dr. Fyfe.}
Coals.
Cubic Feet
of Gas per
Ton.
Condensa-
tion by
Chlorine
100 parts;
Durability
with
Jet Flame,
5 inches,
1 ft. burns.
Value of
Gas Accord-
ing to Con-
densation by
Chlorine
and to
Durability.
Value of
Coals ac-
cording to
Value and
Quantity of
Gas.
English caking . . .
English parrot, average.
Marquis of Lothian's
Lesmahago
9,746
10,500
10,000
10,176
10000
6'5
7'6
13-0
17-5
19'5
min. sec.
50 40
44 30
60
70
75
1-00
1-02
2-35
3-72
4-44
1-00
1-08
2-41
3-87
4'55
Kirkness
Boghead
9,620
15,486
20-75
23-37
80 18
84 22
5-06
6-09
4-99
9-67
TABLE
Giving the Result of the Distillation for Gas and for Oil of One Ton of
Newcastle Cannel Coal. (Gesner.)
Distilled for Gas, at 1000 to 1200
Falir.
PRODUCTS.
Coal gas 7450 cub. ft.
Coal tar 18$ gals.
Coke 1200 Ibs.
PRODUCTS OF THE COAL TAR.
Benzole 3 pints.
Coal tar naphtha ... 3 gals.
Heavy oil, naphthaline, &c. 9 gals.
Total
12g gals.
Distilled for Oil, at 750 to 800
Falir.
PRODUCTS.
Gas 1400 cub. ft.
Crude, oil 68 gals.
Coke 1280 Ibs.
PRODUCTS OF THE CRUDE OIL.
Eupion 2 gals.
Lamp oil .... 22J gals.
Heavy oil and paraffin . 24 gals.
Total
48i gals.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
WIGAN CANNEL AND COAL
Yield, on an average, per ton :
Cannel. Coal.
Gas 10,900 cubic feet . . 9980 cubic feet.
Illuminating power . . 24 sperm candles . . 15 sperm candles
Coke 1436 Ibs 1517 Ibs.
Tar 17 gallons . . . .11 gallons.
Ammoniacal liquor. . 18 gallons .... 20 gallons.
NEWCASTLE COAL
Yields, on an average, per ton :
Gas 9700 cubic feet.
Illuminating power . . .15 sperm candles.
Coke 1540 Ibs.
Tar 9 gallons.
Ammoniacal liquor ... 10 gallons.
AVERAGE YIELD OF BITUMINOUS COAL.
The average percentage yield, by weight, of good bituminous coal
is as follows :
Per Cent.
Gas 18
Coke and breeze 68
Tar .>,-,. :.., 5
Ammoniacal liquor . . 9
100
TO DETERMINE THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COAL.
Take a small piece of the coal, suspend it by means of a horsehair
from the under side of the pan of a carefully adjusted balance
(Fig. 1), and weigh it both in and out of water (fresh distilled) ;
divide its weight in the air by the loss of weight in the water, and
the quotient is the specific gravity.
EXAMPLE.
A piece of coal weighs, say .... 480 grains.
Loss of weight when weighed in water . 398 ,,
480
Then = 1-206 specific gravity of the coal compared
398 W ith water as 1-000.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
FIG. 1.
Note. Specific gravity is the relative weight of equal bulks of
different substances ; distilled water at 62 Fahr. being taken as the
standard of comparison. At this temperature a cubic foot of water
weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois. Hence, the specific gravity <\f a body
is also its weifjht in ounces avoirdupois per cubic foot ; so that, know-
ing the specific gravity, the weight of any quantity of matter may
be calculated by simple measurement. For example : In the instance
just given, the specific gravity is shown to be 1-206 ; the weight of the
coal per cubic foot is, therefore, 1206 ounces, or 75-4 Ibs. avoirdupois.
TO FIND THE VALUE OF GAS IN GEAINS OF SPEEM
PER CUBIC FOOT FROM THE GIVEN ILLUMINATING
POWER.
RULE. Multiply 120 (the grains allowed per hour for the con-
sumption of the standard sperm candle) by the illuminating power,
and divide by 5 (consumption of gas in cubic feet per hour by the
standard burner). The answer will be the value of the gas in grains
of sperm per cubic foot.
EXAMPLE. What is the value of gas in grains of sperm per cubic
foot, the illuminating power of which is 19-46 candles ?
19-46 x 120 ...
= 467 grains of sperm. Answer.
5
TO FIND THE VALUE OF ANY COAL PER TON IN
POUNDS OF SPERM, THE YIELD OF GAS AND
ILLUMINATING POWER BEING KNOWN.
RULE 1. Multiply the cubic feet produced per ton by the value of
the gas in grains of sperm per cubic foot (ascertained by the previous
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
rule), and divide by 7000 (the number of grains in 1 Ib. avoirdupois).
The answer will be the value of the coal in Ibs. of sperm per ton.
EXAMPLE. What is the value of a certain coal in Ibs. of sperm per
ton, whose yield of gas is 10,540 cubic feet, and illuminating power
19-63 standard sperm candles ?
- = - = 471-12, value of the gas in grains of sperm per cubic ft.
o
Then - ! -- = 709-37 Ibs. of sperm per ton, value. Or by
RULE 2. Divide the yield per ton by 5 (cubic feet of gas consumed
per hour by standard burner), multiply by the ascertained illuminating
power and by 120 (consumption of standard sperm candle per hour in
grains) ; lastly, divide by 7000 (number of grains in 1 Ib. avoirdupois).
The answer will be the value of the coal in Ibs. of sperm per ton.
EXAMPLE. What is the value of a certain coal in Ibs. of sperm
per ton, whose yield of gas is 10,540 cubic feet, and illuminating
power 19-63 standard sperm candles ? Then
x 19-63 x 120
= 709-37 Ibs. of sperm per ton, value.
TO ASCERTAIN THE RELATIVE VALUE OF DIFFERENT
COALS AND CANNELS.
To ascertain the relative value per ton of different coals and cannels,
attach approximate or actual market prices to the sperm pounds as
ascertained above, and to the several residual products, cast up the
various items, and compare them by the ordinary rule of proportion.
EXAMPLE. The two coals to be compared are
No. 1, yielding
s. d.
10,600 c. ft. of gas per ton, 17J candles value = 636 Ibs.
sperm at Is. 31 16
13i cwt. Coke at 5d. 5 7J
10 gals. Tar _. . at IJd. 1 OJ
22 gals. Ammoniacal Liquor at Id. 1 10
.32 4 6
No. 2, yielding
s. a.
9700 c. ft. of gas per ton, 16f candles value = 557 Ibs.
sperm at Is. 27 17
14 cwt. Coke at5d. 5 10
9 gals. Tar . . at IJd. 11J
20 gals. Ammoniacal Liquor . . at Id. 018
28 5 5J
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Assuming that No. 1 is 12s. 6d. per ton, the relative value of No. 2
will be found as follows :
As 32 4s. 6d. : 28 5s. 5d. : : 12s. 6d. : 10s. lld. value per ton
of No. 2.
TO FIND THE EELATION BETWEEN QUANTITY OF
GAS PEE TON AND ILLUMINATING POWEE. (FARMER.)
If a coal yields a known volume of gas of a known illuminating
value, to ascertain how much it will yield of another value :
BULE. Multiply yield of gas by illuminating power, divide by the
required power, and the quotient is the quantity.
EXAMPLE. A coal yields 9600 cubic feet per ton of 16-candle gas ;
how much will it yield of 14 and 17 candle gas respectively ?
9600 x 16 = 153,600. Then
c. ft. and 9035 c. ft.
The above presupposes that the period of distillation is extended or
abridged, as the case may be. The rule, however, must not be
assumed as absolutely correct, but only approximately so, and that
only within a limited range.
WEIGHT OF COAL.
Anthracite, per cubic yard, solid . . . 2160 Ibs.
Bituminous ... 2025
Cannel ... 2160
Coal, stored in the usual way, per cubic yard 1400 ,,
ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF COAL FOE GAS PUEPOSES
IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.
It is estimated that the present (1889) annual consumption of coal
for the manufacture of illuminating gas in the United Kingdom is
about 10,000,000 tons ; about 2,000,000 tons (or 20 per cent.) of this
quantity being cannel coal.
FOE EOUGHLY ESTIMATING THE QUANTITY OF COAL OK
CANNEL EEQUIEED TO PEODUCE A GIVEN QUANTITY
OF GAS.
EULE. Strike off the last four figures from the quantity of gas pro-
duced, and the figures remaining will represent the coal and cannel in
tons.
Thus : 20;0,000 cubic feet = 20 tons.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS 53
This will be evident when it is remembered that a ton of coal or
cannel produces about 10,000 cubic feet of gas. If the production rise
to 11,000, or fall to 9000 per ton, one-tenth must be deducted from,
or added to, the coal, as the case may be.
THE STORAGE OF COAL.
COAL AND CANNEL SHEDS.
In gas making it is economical to use the coal as fresh as possible
from the pit, but to be prepared for emergencies, the covered storage
room for coal and cannel should be of capacity sufficient to contain
from six to eight weeks' stock of the material, reckoned on the basis
of the heaviest day's consumption in winter. An exception to this
rule may be made in the case of gas-works situated in the imme-
diate vicinity of the coal-fields from whence the supply is derived.
Under such circumstances, provision for two or three weeks' stock
is ample.
In storing coal, 43 cubic feet of space per ton is required.
When coal is exposed to the weather, being stored in the open air
without any protecting covering, it is not only liable to be wetted by
rain on its outer surface, but it also absorbs and retains moisture
within its structural interstices.
The effect of this excess of moisture is to produce disintegration,
reducing the size of the lumps, and converting them to a considerable
extent into dust and culm. The exposure of the coal in the winter
season in this climate is, of course, the most objectionable as regards
disintegration. In hot climates the intense heat of the sun produces
disintegration. The ill-effects of this absorption of moisture do not
end there. Oxidation of the particles of the coal also ensues ; and as
this is only another name for eremacausis or slow-burning, the ma-
terial is not only reduced in weight, but its gas-producing power, both
as regards quantity and quality, and its coking] qualities, are greatly
impaired.
All kinds of coal suffer deterioration by exposure to the weather,
both as regards their heating, coking, and gas-yielding qualities. The
extent of this deterioration is from 20 to 50 per cent, within a brief
period of time. An absolute loss of weight due to the evaporation or
slow combustion of the more volatile constituents, is also experienced.
This is particularly the case with bituminous or caking coal ; cannel
suffers next in degree ; and anthracite the least. Varrentrapp found
in one instance that coal which had been exposed for some years to the
weather had diminished in weight to the extent of 38-03 per cent.
Wet or damp coal not only yields less gas, but gas of an inferior
quality. The sulphur impurities given off from it are more, thus
64 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
augmenting the cost of purification ; whilst some of the sulphur com-
pounds notably, bisulphide of carbon are not removable, except by
a greatly increased area of purification beyond what is to be found at
most gas-works.
SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF COAL.
Coal containing alarge proportion of iron pyrites (bisulphide of iron),
commonly called " brasses," when stored in a compact mass in a wet
or humid state, is liable to spontaneous ignition. This is not an unusual
occurrence in the experience of gas managers. The indications that
combustion has commenced are a sensible rise in the temperature
of the coal-store, a sickly odour, and a choking or smothering sensation
on drawing breath.
There is this liability to spontaneous ignition in almost all bituminous
coals of a friable nature. It is due to more than a single cause. It
may arise from the condensation of oxygen within the pores of the
carbonaceous particles, just as oily cotton waste will fire spontaneously
in the same way by the rapid absorption of oxygen. According to
Professor Abel and Dr. Percy, water or moisture does not accelerate,
but rather retards spontaneous ignition under these circumstances.
The danger of firing is greatest with those coals which contain a
large proportion of iron pyrites in the shape of nodules, or "brasses,"
as they are called, and which are stored in a mass in the wet condition.
These " brasses " become oxidized by the atmospheric oxygen dissolved
in the water with which the coal is saturated ; and the heat thus
generated raises the coal to ignition point.
Notwithstanding a conflict of opinion on the subject, we believe
that the best remedy for this is ventilation. Various expedients are
resorted to for effecting this object, amongst which may be mentioned
the insertion of perforated iron pipes amongst the coal, leaving the
ends exposed; coarse wicker-work baskets, without bottoms, are used
with good results ; and ventilating-shafts of brick, or venetiaiied
shafts of wood, both horizontal and vertical, have proved efficient.
Unless the ventilation is thorough however, the admission of air will
do more harm than good, as a sluggish current will not reduce the
temperature, but rather tend to develop and increase it.
A thermometer let down through the pipes or shafts will indicate
any rise of temperature, and iron rods thrust into the mass of coal,
when withdrawn and touched by the hand, will answer the like
purpose.
When the pyrites are present to a serious extent, the coal should
be hand-picked, either at the colliery or when discharging at the gas-
works. It is only sheer necessity, however, that will justify the
employment of coal of this character for gas-producing purposes.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
55
THE GASES OCCLUDED IN COAL.
Besides the liability to spontaneous combustion or ignition, there is
another strong reason why coal should not be stored in the open air,
nor, indeed, under cover, for a longer time than is absolutely necessary.
In all bituminous coals a constant chemical change is in progress by
which gas is being liberated. This gas, though frequently several times
the volume of the coal, is condensed within the solid substance, being
occluded or enclosed therein, until by diffusion it escapes into the air,
and to such extent the coal is depreciated for gas making. In warm
weather and in hot climates, this deterioration proceeds more rapidly
than in low temperatures.
Dr. Lyon Playfair and others in this country, and Dr. E. von Meyer
in Germany, have investigated the subject ; and the subjoined table by
the latter shows the quantity and composition of the gas so occluded,
obtained from freshly raised samples of coal submitted to him for
analysis.
The plan adopted was to place 100 grammes of the coal in hot de-
aerated water, which was then boiled as long as any gas continued to be
given off, and the gas collected was analyzed by Bunsen's methods.
Fathoms
Samples of Coal Submitted.
No. 1. Low Main Seam, Bewick Colliery, Newcastle. .
2. Maudlin Seam, ditto ditto ....
3. Main Coal Seam, Urpeth Colliery, ditto ....
4. Five-fourth Seam, ditto ditto ....
5. Ditto Wingate Grange Colliery, Durham .
6. Low Main Seam, ditto ditto ....
7. Harvey Seam, ditto ditto ....
8. Ditto Emily Vil, Woodhouse Close Colliery
from
Surface.
30
74
108
148
25
ANALYSIS.
PEKCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF THE GAS.
Coal as
above.
C02
Marsh
Gas.
N
Cubic
Centimetres
of Gas from
100 Grammes
of Coal.
No. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7 .
8 .
5-55
8'54
20-86
16-51
0-34
1-15
0-23
5-31
6-52
26-54
Trace.
85-80
84-04
89-61
50-01
2-28
2-95
4-83
5-65
Trace.
0-19
0-55
0-63
85-65
61-97
74-31
77-84
13-86
14-62
9-61
44-05
25-2
30-7
27-4
24-4
91-2
238-0
211-2
84-0
1 cubic centimetre = 610'28 cubic inches.
1 gramme = 0'0022 Ib. avoirdupois, 100 = 0'22 Ib.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TESTING COAL FOE ITS PRODUCING QUALITIES.
It is almost impossible to judge from the appearance of a coal
whether its gas and coke yielding qualities are good, bad, or indifferent.
So far as outward indications go, nothing is so deceptive to the
inexperienced in such matters ; and even to those who have had large
practice in coal-testing, it is very difficult to forecast with any certainty
the result of a trial of any particular sample.
Some of the poorest coals and cannels have a fatty unctuous
appearance, suggestive of richness in gaseous properties. Again, the
most valuable cannels and shales, fielding gas in extraordinary
abundance, have a dull earthy cast, which might readily be taken as
indicating poverty of composition and yield. The rich Boghead (Scot-
land), Sydney (New South Wales), and Cloverport (Kentucky) cannels
or shales are striking examples of this latter kind. On the other hand,
this does not hold good of the Brazilian shales or " Turba." These
have a dull clayey appearance, and are very indifferent both in the
yield and in the illuminating power of their gas. The importance of
being able to test samples of coal and cannel, or of having them tested
by a specialist in whom reliance can be placed, before entering into
a contract for the material in bulk, is therefore obvious.
A test may be made either on a working scale, or in the experi-
mental apparatus in the gas manager's laboratory. In the former case
several tons of the material have to be used ; and the trial of a single
sample is a formidable and tedious process, extending over many days,
until the old gas in the apparatus and holder has been replaced by the
new. It is obviously impossible to test a variety of samples in this
manner within a reasonable period. Besides, such a method of testing
is not always satisfactory. The manager has to take a good deal for
granted ; he is largely dependent on subordinates for the attention
and care that ought to be exercised, because his constant personal
supervision throughout the time occupied by the test is out of the
question.
The experimental test is to be preferred for many reasons. The
small apparatus is more under the command of the operator. Full
justice is done to the material. The best results it is possible to
obtain are secured. Time is economized in making the tests, because
a number of samples can be tried in the course of, say, ten or fourteen
days.
It may be urged against the experimental, or laboratory test, that,
in practical working, equal results are unattainable. If this be the
fact, it only proves that either the practical working is at fault to the
extent of the difference in result, or that the bulk of the material is not
equal to the sample tested. Assuming, however, that the sample
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
is a fair average of the whole, whatever the deficiencies of practical
working may be, the coal at least should not be depreciated below its
intrinsic value through defective heats and other faulty methods of
carbonization, and although the actual every-day working of the
material may afterwards fall short of the results obtained in the trial
apparatus, these latter are a standard at which to aim. As a general
rule, the difference between the results of actual use and the experi-
mental results, with efficient plant and careful supervision, will not
exceed 5 to 7 per cent, in favour of the experimental test.
To argue that the quality of a coal should be judged and determined
solely by the results yielded in actual working, is just about as reason-
able as to say that the illuminating power of gas should be decided
by the methods of consumption through possibly defective fittings, and
some of the burners largely in use by consumers. Whether coal or
gas, the means best calculated to develop its intrinsic qualities should
be adopted.
In the apparatus described and shown (Fig. 2), the charge to be
used is the 1000th part of a ton viz., 2-24, say,
FIG. 2.
Description.
RETORT. C ast iron ; D-shaped ; 5 in. wide, 4J in. high inside ; 2 ft. 3 in. long outside ;
J inch metal.
ASCENSION-PIPE. 2 in. wrought tube. CONNECTIONS. 1J in. wrought tube.
CONDENSER. 12 vertical 1J in. wrought tubes, each 3 ft. 6 in. long.
WASHER. 1 ft. long, 6 in. wide, 6 in. deep.
PURIFIER. 1 ft. 2 in. square, 12 in. deep, with 2 trays of lime.
GASHOLDER. Capacity 12 cubic feet, with graduated scale attached.
Care should be taken to obtain a fair average sample of the coal to
be operated upon. For that purpose at least half a cwt. of the material
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
should be broken up into small pieces and thoroughly intermixed ; and
from this three several charges are to be taken without selection.
The retort should be got up to, and maintained throughout the
charge, at a bright red heat. If from any cause the temperature is
much reduced, the test will not be satisfactory. This is especially the
case in testing cannel and the rich shales. The time required to
work off the charge of 2 Ibs. will range from 40 to 60 minutes,
according to the character of the coal.
The illuminating power of the gas given out from each charge
should be ascertained by the Bunsen photometer ; no other being
sufficiently trustworthy for that purpose. The average of the three
tests is then taken, both for yield of gas and coke, and for the illumi-
nating power of the gas, and this fairly represents the capabilities of
the coal.
The further conditions to be observed are that the holder be entirely
emptied of air or of the previous charge of gas ; and that the con-
denser be drained of its contents. The test charge may be continued
until the whole of the gas is expelled, or otherwise, depending on
circumstances. In comparing two coals, an equal production from
both may be obtained, and the comparative illuminating power then
ascertained.
The coke and breeze should be carefully drawn from the retort into
a water-tight receptacle made of sheet iron closed by a lid. This is
then placed in a bucket or other vessel of cold water, and, when suffi-
ciently cooled, the coke is weighed.
For ascertaining the quantity of tar and ammoniacal liquor produced,
drain the yield of the three charges from the condenser and washer,
aud measure this in a graduated liquid measure. The number of fluid
minims in a gallon is 76,800. Thus
60 fluid minims = 1 dram.
8 drams . . = 1 ounce.
20 ounces . = 1 pint.
8 pints . . = 1 gallon.
Then
Ibs. Ibs. per ton.
As 6-75 (The weight : 2240 : : The number of : The total number
of the three minims of tar of minims of tar
charges of and liquor and liquor from
coal.) obtained. a ton of the coal.
And this 4- 76,800 gives the gallons of tar and liquor produced per
ton.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEKS.
EETOET HOUSE.
The house may be adapted for either a single or double stack of
retorts, and may be of the ground-floor or stage-floor type of erection,
according to circumstances. In ground-floor houses provision should,
if possible, be made for the application of generator furnaces by taking
the foundation of the retort -stack to a depth of 9 ft. 6 in. below the
floor-line, and making an underground passage, at least 7 feet wide,
in front of the stack.
Dimensions.
For a single stack of retorts
Width inside, 30 feet.
Height to wall plate, 20 feet.
For a double stack of retorts
Width inside, 60 feet.
Height to wall plate, 26 feet.
Wrought-iron trussed roof, slated, tiled, or covered with corrugated
galvanized-iron sheets, with ventilator.
The ventilator should extend from one end of the building to the
other, and be of ample capacity. Suitable openings should be left in
the walls, above the height of the retort-bench, for the admission of
air and light. Ventilating tubes or towers may be used alone or in
connection with the louvre ventilator. They are efficient, and present
a good appearance.
Corrugated-iron sheeting, being lighter than slates or tiles, admits
of the principals and purlins being placed wider apart, so reducing
their number. The first cost of a roof of this description is less ; it
is less affected by wind ; but its durability is inferior to a slated roof.
The sheets should not be thinner than No. 20 gauge.
The clear space in front of a retort stack should not be less than
18 feet. When it is intended to employ machinery for charging and
drawing the retorts, 22 feet may be allowed.
About 8 feet of the width of the floor, immediately in front of the
stack, may be paved with fire-bricks set on edge ; the remainder of the
floor flagged with 4-inch flags. Blue Staffordshire bricks or tiles,
4 inches thick, make an excellent paving for a retort -housefloor ; and,
when these are used, the fire-bricks in front may be dispensed with.
A slight inclination say, 6 inches in the whole width towards the
stack should be given to the floor. This allows the waste water from
the slaked coke to run into the ash-pans, and is also handier for the
stokers in charging.
KEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
A stage-floor retort-house, Fig. 8, costs iu erection from 50 to
75 per cent, more than a ground-floor house, Fig. 4, (dependent on
the character of the site and subsoil) ; but it can be worked with
more economy, and the advantages it offers for the removal of the
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
coke, the application of generator furnaces, and in other ways, are
very great. In all cases where the site naturally favours this form of
construction, it should be adopted. The stage-floor is usually formed
of brick or concrete arches, or cast-iron plates, laid on girders having
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
their ends built into the wall of the house and the division piers of
the retort-stack foundation, and supported also near to this latter by
cast-iron columns.
THE EETORT STACK.
This necessarily varies in size and mode of construction according
to the number of retorts, their dimensions, and arrangement in the
settings. The following details will be found adequate for the erection
of a stack with benches of seven large retorts of any shape, and either
single or throughs, set as shown in Fig. 5.
The ovens are 8 ft. 6 in. wide, 8 feet high from floor-line, and
20 feet through, inside measure.
Height to top of bench, 10 ft. 3 in.
Excavation for bench, 8 feet deep. For generator furnaces,
9 ft. 6 in. deep.
Place therein bed of hydraulic lime or Portland cement concrete,
14 inches thick.
Upon this build the brick footings of the division walls of ovens,
of good hard common bricks, set in lime mortar.
When these are built,J fill up between with a further layer of
concrete, 18 inches thick.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEES.
Division walls of ovens above footings, 18 inches thick, built of
best fire-clay bricks, set in fine, well-tempered fire-clay.
Floor of ovens paved two courses on edge with fire-bricks set in
fire-clay.
Arched roof of ovens, 14 inches thick, formed of three rings of
fire-bricks moulded to the proper radius set in fire-clay.
_' J-iJ
FIG. 7. FIG.
FIG.
FIG. 9.
Two flue-holes in crown of arch, 12 inches square, communicating
with main flue on stack. Damper tiles to be provided for these, 27
inches long, 16 inches wide, 3 inches thick.
64 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
End or buttress walls of stack, 3 ft. 4^ in. thick, of common bricks,
built in with the fire-brick work of stack, and faced with fire-bricks
laid in good lime mortal 1 .
The whole of top of stack haunched up five courses above the top
of the arches, so as to make the total height of 10 ft. Sin. from floor-
line, of good common bricks faced with fire-bricks, laid solid, with
close joints, in good lime mortar. Finish with cornice or coping as
desired.
Double main flue on the stack, built of fire-bricks, set in fire-clay,
and continued to the opening provided in the chimney. Dimensions
of each flue, not less than 80 inches'* deep, 15 inches wide, inside
measure. Outside walls and division wall, 9 inches thick, covered
with fire-clay tiles 2 ft. 4^ in. wide, 4 inches thick.
Buckstaves of wrought iron, either rolled girder (Fig. 7) or rail-
iron (Fig. 8), or, what is still better, formed of two flat-iron bars 6
inches wide, and 1 inch thick, with five cast-iron distance pieces
between (the upper one being square in form), through which the
plates are riveted together with f-inch rivets (Fig. 6).
The boss, A, with hole therein, is intended to receive the wrought-
iron pipe, 1 inch diameter, leading from the 8-inch water main on the
top of the retort stack. To the end of this pipe a brass swivel is
attached ; and from this again a piece of 1-inch steam-tubing, 11
inches long, projects, having a brass swivel cock at its end. A tube f
of an inch diameter is screwed thereto, and terminates in a 4-inch
brass rose jet, through which water is discharged for slaking the coke
as it is drawn from the retorts (Fig. 9).
Tie rods of 1^-inch square bar, or 2-inch round iron ; screwed
inches at each end, and furnished with strong hexagon nuts and
washers.
EETORTS.
Materials of which Retorts are made.
The materials of which retorts for the distillation or carbonization
of coal are made are fire-clay and iron exclusively.
In the early days of gas lighting, and for many years after, cast-
iron retorts only were used.
The fact of the iron retorts not being capable of standing a heat
sufficiently high for the distillation of coal in the most economical
manner, and their liability to rapid oxidation, and even fusion, in the
furnace, operated to cause the adoption of clay in the manufacture of
retorts.
The clay retorts, in the face of much prejudice and opposition,
gradually advanced in popularity as their merits became known, until
at the present time, their use is all but general.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. . 65
Single clay retorts are burnt better and more uniformly when the
ends are left open in the kiln. The backs are easily jointed in setting ;
care being taken to butt them close up against the mid wall.
Clay retorts when once heated do not bear "letting down" and
" standing off" like those made of cast-iron, owing to their liability
to crack when cooling ; and for this reason a setting of one or two iron
retorts is useful in very small works during the minimum gas produc-
tion in the summer season.
Different Forms of Retorts.
Eetorts are made of three different shapes in cross section viz.,
round, oval, and D-shaped. Formerly, rectangular or square, ear-
shaped, and kidney-shaped retorts were made ; but these are now
entirely discarded.
The round, by reason of its shape, is the strongest and most durable ;
but it is not equal to the oval and D as a carbonizer.
The oval ranks next to the round in strength and durability, and
exceeds it in carbonizing capabilities.
The D is the shape most commonly in use, and is considered by
many gas managers to be equal to the oval as regards its power of
carbonizing.
FIG. 10.
After a lengthened experience in the use of both round, oval, and
D-shaped retorts, the writer prefers the oval, as being the most efficient
and economical, producing during its lifetime the greatest quantity of
gas.
Dimensions of Clay Eetorts.
Clay retorts are usually made 2f to 3 inches thick ; the flange to
which the mouthpiece is bolted being 4 inches thick and 8 inches
broad, the neck tapering down to the thickness of the body.
The following are useful and convenient sizes of clay retorts :
Bound . . 15 in. diam. j
Oval . 21 x 15 in. ,, I Inside measure, and 9 ft. 4 in. long outside.
D-shaped, 18 x 15 in. ,, )
The weight of a clay retort of the above sizes is from 14 to 16 cwt.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
For very small works the following sizes are more suitable :
Round . . 14 in. diam.]
Oval. . 18 X 12 in. L Inside measure, and 8 feet long outside.
D-shaped, 16 x 14 in. J
"Through" Retorts.
" Through " or double clay retorts, with a mouthpiece at each end,
are made 18 to 20 feet long, being jointed together in three or four
pieces.
The advantages gained in using this kind of retort are important.
The accumulation of carbon is less, owing to the absence of backs.
The current of air which is drawn through their interior every time
they are charged tends to loosen any carbon deposit that takes place.
More heating surface for carbonization is obtained without additional
expense, and that in the hottest part of the oven. They are also drawn
with greater facility.
As they require to be drawn and charged at both mouthpieces simul-
taneously, they cannot conveniently be worked in establishments
where the stokers are fewer than six in number. The scoop is gene-
rally used in charging these retorts. (See Fig. 21.)
Hints on the Setting of Retorts.
The joints of the brickwork in a setting of retorts should be as close
and fine as it is possible to make them. Each brick should be dipped
in water, placed in its position, and then gently, but firmly bedded
home with the hammer.
A cutting heat from the furnace can be prevented, or greatly modi-
fied, by having ample nostrils in the furnace arch.
A setting should never, when it can be avoided, be brought into use
immediately on completion, as the application of strong heat to the
damp clay is liable to crack the joints of the brickwork, and so hasten
its destruction.
The setting ought to be allowed to stand at least fourteen days, in
order that it may be gradually and thoroughly dried and hardened.
Dimensions for a setting of three large sized clay retorts, 8 ft. 6 in.
long :
Width of oven, 5 ft. 2 in. ; height, 6 ft. 8 in. ; depth, 8 ft. 7 in.
"Width of furnace at grate bars, 9 in.
Width of furnace at springing of arch, 16 in.
Length of furnace, 80 in.
Height from floor-level to underneath the flanges of the two
bottom retorts, 2 ft. 8 in.
Number of grate bars, two ; 30 in. long each, made of 2 in. square
bar-iron.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 67
Dimensions for a setting of five large sized clay retorts, 9 ft. 4 in.
long :
Width of oven, 8 ft. ; height, 7 ft. 6 in ; depth, 9 ft. 5 in.
Width of furnace at grate bars, 10 in.
Width of furnace at springing of arch underneath the middle
retort, 18 in.
Length of furnace, 30 in.
Height from floor-line to underneath the flanges of the bottom
retorts, 2 ft. 8 in.
Number of grate bars, two ; 30 in. long each, made of 2 in. square
bar-iron.
Dimensions for a setting of seven large sized clay retorts, 9 ft. 4 in.
long :
Width of oven, 8 ft. 6 in. ; height, 8 ft. ; depth, 9 ft. 5 in.
Width of furnace at grate bars, 12 in.
Width of furnace at springing of arch, 20 in.
Length of furnace, 36 in.
Height from floor-line to underneath flanges of two bottom retorts
16 in.
Number of grate bars, three; 86 in. long each, made of 2 in.
square bar-iron.
To prevent radiation, the front wall of the oven should be a brick
and a half, or 14 inches thick. The division walls between the ovens,
two bricks, or 18 inches thick. The back wall when the retorts are
not " throughs," a brick and a half, or 14 inches thick.
Quantity of Brickwork in Retort Settings.
The retorts in a setting should be firmly supported by transverse
walls, so that they may satisfactorily bear the wear and tear of work-
ing during the time they are expected to last. It is an error to suppose
that the brickwork causes a diminution in the heat. Take the case of
two benches of retorts set : the one with as much brickwork as is
required for proper support without obstructing the draught, or un-
necessarily covering the retort surfaces ; and the other having the least
possible quantity of brickwork, supporting (say, for example) the
retorts only at their extremities. In getting these benches in action
for the first time, there can be no doubt the latter would be the first to
attain the desired temperature ; but although the former would require
a little longer time, and the expenditure of more fuel at first, the
superior regularity of its action over the other in distilling the gas
fiom coal will scarcely be questioned.
No doubt the thinner the retorts themselves, compatible with
strength, the better, so that the heat may the more readily pass to
their interior. But the circumstances attending the retort as the
F2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
vessel containing the material for distillation are not to be confounded
with those appertaining to the adjacent brickwork. This, of course,
need not be more than is reasonable ; but it is better to err on the side
of excess than too little.
Clay retorts are best 2f to 3 inches in thickness, according as they
are made by machine or by hand ; and the chief point to be observed
in setting them, is to let the heat have free scope for circulating
throughout the oven. With this object in mind, there should be no
mistaken contraction of the nostrils leading out of the furnace. It is
here where the evil in some settings exists, obstructing the passage of
the heat as it is generated, producing cutting draughts, and hastening
the destruction of the furnace bag.
Clay retorts, 9 ft. 4 in. long, are adequately supported by four trans-
verse supports, in addition to the back ledge and the front wall, and
only one of these four need be 9 inches thick. With a setting of this
description, having ample space left for the exit of the heat from the
furnace into the oven, and through the flues, the best results, both as
regards heating and economy of fuel, are obtained.
" Gaiting" Retorts.
On putting a bench or oven into action, the heat should be applied
gently at first, the damper being gradually opened a little more each
day, until the proper temperature is attained.
When the retorts have reached a dull red heat, a light charge of
coal thrown into them will assist the development of the required
temperature, as well as tend to preserve them in good condition.
By carefully attending to these points, the cracking of clay retorts
on first " gaiting" may be entirely avoided.
Furnace Ash Pan.
Ash pan of wrought plate-iron, 5-16ths inch, or cast-iron, 7-16ths
inch thick. For a setting of seven large retorts, the length over all
is 5 feet, or 4 feet not including the mouth part ; 12 inches wide, and
10 inches deep, outside. (Fig. 11.)
Fi
The pan should always be kept charged with water raised to
boiling point by the glowing coke. The water gives off steam in con-
siderable volume ; and this, rising underneath and between the furnace
bars, contributes to the durability of these by keeping them in a state
of comparative coolness. In its passage through the hot coke, the
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGEBS. 69
steam is decomposed into its constituent gases, the hydrogen adding
to the furnace fuel, and the oxygen promoting combustion. A tidy
fire about, with the ash-pans charged with water, and reflecting the
bright fire between the bars, is one of the indications of good stoking.
Duration of Clay Retorts.
The duration of clay retorts, of course, greatly depends on the
setting. When the lower retorts in an oven are properly and con-
tinuously protected by seating tiles or brick arches from the direct
action of the furnace, the setting will last from three to four years ;
otherwise and this is nearer their average life they wiU be burnt
out in 15 to 18 months.
In moderate sized and in large works, each single retort should be
of sufficient capacity to hold a charge of from 2J to 3 cwt. of coal.
And if Newcastle, or other caking coal of fair quality, is used, with
five or six hours' charges, the yield of gas per mouthpiece should be
at the rate of 5500 to 6500 cubic feet per diem of 24 hours.
Now, 18 months' continuous production, at the average rate of,
say, 5500 cubic feet per mouthpiece per day of 24 hours, is equal to
a total production of about 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas.
For clay retorts the heat generally ranges from 2010 Fahr. (orange)
a little upwards.
Usiuil Number of Retorts in a Bed.
In average sized works, settings of five, six, seven, and eight
retorts are usually adopted. In some of the large metropolitan and
provincial works, as many as ten are placed together in one bed, with
an elevated travelling stage in front, from which the higher retorts
are charged and drawn.
Flues and Draught.
For a double stack, containing ten or twelve ovens or benches on
each side, the main flue should also be double, and the internal
dimensions of each division not less than 30 inches in depth by 15
inches in width. For even a lesser number of ovens, the size of the
flue should not vary greatly from the above.
An insufficient draught, whilst it invariably results in diminished
heats, causes a waste of fuel, from the consequent incomplete combus-
tion in the furnace, and the usual hard firing that accompanies it.
The flame which is occasionally seen at the top of a retort-house
chimney is significant of this defect. The flame is produced by the
unconsumed carbonic oxide uniting with its due proportion of oxygen
on coming in contact with the atmosphere, and by combustion being
converted into carbonic acid. When the proper quantity of air is
supplied to the furnace, ihe carbonic oxide produced is there converted
70 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
into carbonic acid, and the heat thus generated is utilized for the
distillation of the coal contained in the retorts.
An excessive draught through the ovens is to be avoided, as well
as an obstructed one. If too much air is drawn in between the
grate bars, its effect is to reduce the heat, as well as to cause the con-
sumption of an excess of fuel. Hence the importance of being able
to control the draught by means of a damper placed at the entrance of
the cross flue into the main flue on the bench.
According to the experiments of Dulong,
1 Ib. of hydrogen, burning to water* yields 62,535 units of heat.
1 Ib. of carbon, burning to carbonic acid, yields 12,906 ditto.
1 Ib. of carbon, burning to carbonic oxide, yields 2495 ditto.
1 Ib. of carbonic oxide, burning to carbonic acid, yields 4478 ditto.
NOTE The English standard unit of heat is the quantity of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of a pound avoirdupois of water 1
Fahr. The French calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise
1 kilo. (2-2 Ibs. avoirdupois) of water 1 centigrade.
As a rule, when firing with coke, cleaning off the fire bars once in
12 hours is sufficient. Too frequent cleaning entails a waste of coke,
besides reducing the heat of the oven.
Instead of the tall chimney-stalk at the end of the retort-house, it
has become the custom to erect chimneys or shafts of less altitude
immediately over the bench, or between the benches, rising a few
feet above the roof, and serving for four or more double ovens on each
side. These are found to produce a sufficient draught, they are more
uniform and regular in their action, and their cost is necessarily less.
But as they deliver the products of combustion into the atmosphere at
a low level, their use should be restricted to neighbourhoods where the
nuisance is unobjectionable.
When the room can be spared, it is best to erect the chimney between,
and apart from, the retort-benches ; so that, when the latter need to be
taken down and rebuilt, the chimney, being a more permanent structure,
remains undisturbed.
In some works each bench is supplied with a small shaft for its own
use. This is scarcely necessary, though Mr. Valon has found the
arrangement useful in the facility it affords for controlling the draught
where generator furnaces are used.
In many American gas-works the main flue and chimney are dis-
pensed with altogether ; the opening in the crown of the bench being
found sufficient, it is said, to afford the requisite draught. Even
assuming the draught to be ample for ensuring perfect heating and
carbonization (which may be doubted), the objections to allowing the
hot fumes to escape into the retort-house underneath the roof, are
sufficiently obvious to cause the practice to be condemned.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
RULE for size of retort-bouse chimneys under 70 feet in height :
1^ square inches of area for each lineal foot of retort, or, say, 15 inches
per mouthpiece.
EXAMPLE. Eequired the internal sectional area of a chimney shaft
serving twelve double benches of seven retorts, or fourteen mouth-
pieces, each (six benches on each side of chimney) ; retorts 20 feet
through, total, 168 mouthpieces. Then
168 X15 = 2 = 17-5 suare feet area.
Cost of Ovens and Settings.
The cost of a double retort-stack, with benches or ovens to contain
settings of five, six, or seven clay retorts (whether single or double),
including hydraulic main, stand-pipes, and all other ironwork, retorts,
brickwork, and labour, amounts (at present prices) to from 20 to
26 per mouthpiece.
The cost of renewing a bench of five, six, or seven clay retorts is
7 10s. to 9 per mouthpiece ; a bench of three clay retorts, about
6 10s. per mouthpiece.
Fire-brick Retorts.
Retorts made of fire-bricks and tiles, rebated or grooved together
and jointed with fire-clay, are in use ; but their general economy as
regards the percentage of fuel required for heating, is not considered
equal to that of the ordinary clay retorts. In the matter of durability,
however, brick retorts possess a clear advantage, their life being three
to four times that of the other ; and though their first cost is more,
this is compensated for by the saving in wear and tear. Fig. 12 is a
IT
A B
FIG. 12.
section of a brick retort. A is the bottom tile, 18 inches long by 8^
inches thick, and B, one of the bricks, 9 inches by 3^ inches.
Large retorts, 40 to 50 inches wide, are objectionable for many
reasons : A large area is exposed to the cold air every time the charge
is drawn, and the tune occupied is necessarily considerable. Again,
there is a tendency to allow carbon to accumulate in such retorts,
because in the ample space the inconvenience of the presence of a
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
thick body of carbon is not felt by the men in drawing and charging.
If the required temperature, however, is kept up under these circum-
stances, it must be at an excessive expenditure of fuel and labour.
The greater depth of the coal, and the constant inequality of carboni-
zation between the inner and outer portions of the charge, is also a
serious drawback to their use.
Cast-Iron Retorts.
Cast-iron retorts are now only employed in very small works, where
the gas making is intermittent ; here, they are useful, as they bear
letting down frequently without suffering damage. As carbonizers
they are not economical, because the heat which they will stand is
not high enough to produce the best results in the yield of gas from
the coal. They are usually made If inch thick, with an ordinary
flange to which the mouthpiece is attached.
The round, 15 inches diameter, and D-shaped, 15 x 18 inches, are
the handiest, and 7 ft. 6 in. is a convenient length. Their weight
is 16 to 18 cwt. Eraser's ribbed retort (Fig. 18) is
an improvement on the ordinary form. In setting
iron retorts a space of about 8 inches should be left
in the rear, to allow for the expansion of the metal,
and prevent their being forced out beyond the front
wall, with the possible breakage of the ascension
Fl0 - 13 - pipes.
Fire-clay tiles are invariably used to protect iron retorts from the
direct action of the furnace heat.
Oxidation proceeds rapidly on the outer surface of iron retorts, and
the scale should be frequently removed, otherwise the proper tempera-
ture will not be maintained. For facility in doing this, sight holes
should be left in convenient positions in the front wall of the bench.
Iron retorts should always be scurfed before being let down, other-
wise the unequal contraction of the incrusted carbon and the metal
of the retort in cooling might cause fracture in the latter.
The duration of an iron retort is equal to the production of about
700,000 to 800,000 cubic feet of gas.
The best heat for iron retorts is that ranging from 1650 Fahr.
(cherry red) to 1830 Fahr. (bright cherry red). Any temperature
beyond this is apt to burn or soften, and so cause distortion of the
retort.
Combined Settings of Clay and Iron.
In some works, combined settings of clay and iron retorts have been
used, the latter being heated by the surplus heat from the former.
The benefits arising from their adoption are questionable.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 73
THE SLAKING OR QUENCHING OF HOT COKE.
In the slaking or quenching of hot coke, water is a necessity. It
is true that if the coke is drawn from the retorts into iron barrows,
and a close cover placed over it, the confined gases, in the absence
of atmospheric oxygen, will gradually arrest combustion in the mass ;
and this method of dealing with the coke is sometimes adopted with
a view to abating the nuisance of the escape of steam charged with
sulphurous vapours from the retort-house, and to preserve the coke
for sale in a dry and bright condition. Where the production of coke
is great, however, as in the case of large works, this is an incon-
venient, if not impossible, method of dealing with the material.
The quantity of water absorbed by the coke when it is slaked in
the ordinary way is comparatively small, not exceeding, on the
average, 15 per cent, of the weight of coke in the first instance ; and
the bulk of this evaporates when the coke is deposited outside the
retort-house in the open air about 3 per cent, of moisture being
permanently retained.
FUEL FOR CARBONIZING.
Coke.
In moderate sized works, skilfully conducted, about 3-44 cwt. of coke,
or 25 per cent, of the production (say, 18f cwt.) of coke per ton from
Newcastle and other high-class bituminous coals, is used as fuel to
carbonize one ton of coal.
In large works, under the most favourable conditions, and with the
ablest management, the consumption of coke for heating the ovens
may be reduced as low as 18 to 20 per cent, of the production.
In small works, one-third the production of coke is nearer the aver-
age consumption.
For the heating of brick retorts, owing to their greater thickness, 10
to 15 per cent, more fuel is used than is required for clay retorts.
Radiation from the bench is reduced, and fuel economized to an
extent greater than might be supposed, by temporarily bricking
up the furnace doors and the mouths of all retorts in beds not in u^e
in proximity to others in action.
Tar as Fuel.
Where tar is unmarketable, or but of low value, and there is a ready
sale for coke, the former should be employed in heating the retort
ovens.
Its application is exceedingly simple. When applied to an ordinary
furnace, the ash pan is first filled up with breeze ; the door is then
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
removed and the door space bricked up, leaving two holes, one above
the other, about 4 by 3 inches. The tar is supplied through the top
hole, the bottom hole being for the admission ol air, and to allow of
the fire being stirred when required. A piece of 2-inch angle-iron, or a
grooved fire-clay slab, or other convenient channel, is inserted into the
furnace through the top hole, and down this the tar is made to flow
in a stream about 3-16ths of an inch thick.
The tar can be taken direct from the hydraulic main, in the bottom
of which a 1 -inch wrought -iron ferrule, having a stop-cock attached, is
screwed. A -inch reducing coupling is then put on, and this size of
pipe brought down to the side of the'' oven, where the tar is supplied
to the trough through a nozzle of the proper dimensions. (See Fig. 14.)
As the hydraulic main will not supply all the tar necessary, a pipe
should also be brought from a tank or cistern erected in some con-
venient place outside the retort -house. If this tank is placed inside
FIG. 14.
the retort-house, the dust arising from the coal mixes with the tar and
hinders its flow. Into this tank a supply of tar should be pumped
frgrn the tar well as required.
The great objection to the use of tar as fuel, as above applied, is that
the intense heat which is generated at the point of combustion, soon
destroys the arch or tiles underneath the middle retort, breaking the
latter down.
As this retort, in the ordinary setting of fives and sevens, is the one
usually first burnt out, it is advisable to restrict the use of tar to those
benches that have been at work for a length of time, and in which the
middle retort is either much burnt or already destroyed.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 75
To obviate the above-mentioned drawbacks, Mr. George Anderson
has invented a furnace specially adapted for the consumption of tar as
fuel, which admirably answers the purpose intended.
About 50 gallons of tar used as fuel will carbonize 2 tons of bitu-
minous coal, or a mixture of bituminous coal and cannel, in 24 hours.
At this rate about 6 gallons of tar are equal to a sack (3 bushels) of
coke.
Numerous other expedients for firing by means of tar have been put
forward, but the above has the merit of efficiency with cheapness and
extreme simplicity. In the event of a deficiency in the supply of tar,
this furnace is readily reconverted for coke firing.
GENEEATOE FUENACES AND EEGENEEATION.
The use of gaseous fuel for heating retorts may be said to have
emerged from the experimental stage. On the Continent more has
been done in this direction than in this country, stimulated, perhaps,
by the comparatively higher value of fuel there. Mr. Webber, Mr.
G. E. Stevenson, Mr. Valon, Mr. Foulis, and others have done much
to spread a knowledge of the value of these furnaces amongst the gas
engineers of this country.
From a scientific point of view, generator furnaces have everything
to recommend them. The saving in fuel by their adoption is variously
estimated at from 10 to 30 per cent, on the best results obtained by
direct coke firing. But they offer other marked advantages. " Clinker-
ing " is avoided, and consequently wear and tear of settings is reduced ;
the heats are higher and steadier, and, being more easily regulated,
they save manual labour ; the charges in the retorts are carbonized
more rapidly, and thus the production of gas per mouthpiece is
increased, and retort-house space economized.
In the generator furnace, the solid fuel is converted into carbonic
oxide gas, and if the regenerative system is not super-added, the gas
produced is mixed with the entering air whilst the latter is at the
ordinary, or at but a slightly higher temperature, unassisted by the
waste heat from the flue. In some instances where the air is heated,
the heat is derived from the active heat within the furnace, and so to
this extent (as compared with the regenerative method) detracts from
the temperature therein.
In the regenerative system invented by Siemens, the heat, after it
has done its work in the oven, and which, under ordinary circum-
stances, is allowed to escape up the chimney, is utilized in heating the
air required for combustion.
There is quite a variety of generators in actual use, and though they
vary in the details of their construction, and in their position either
76 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
within the arch of the retort bench, or outside of it, the principle of
action in each is identical.
The following are the chief generators : Siemens' ; Liegel's, the
latter well known from the description given of them by Mr. G. E.
Stevenson, who introduced them into this country ; Basse's ;
Oechelhauser's ; Schilling's ; Dietreich's, in use in some American
gas-works ; Klonne's, the " Didier," the " Munich," Valon's, and
Livesey's, the last-named being in successful operation at the South
Metropolitan and other gas-works.
Mr. Webber gives the following concise description of generator fur-
naces (" King's Treatise," Vol. III., p. 379 et aeq.} :
" There is much difference in the details of generator furnaces as at
present constructed by various engineers ; but their main features are
always alike, and are remarkably simple. The usual form of the gene-
rator itself is that of a kiln, generally sunk underground or beneath
the level of the charging floor of the retort-house ; the capacity of the
kiln, of course, varying with the amount of work it is intended to
perform ; but it is usually about one-and-a-half diameters in height.
The form of cross-section of the generator may be either rectangular
or round, the former being easier of construction, although, according
to Grahn, the latter gives better results. The generator is fed through
a hole in the top, covered with an air-tight cap. The gas is usually
taken off by an opening near the top. The lower part of the generator,
in which the initial combustion commences, is subject to the greatest
wear, especially from the formation of clinker. The air is admitted
either by a grate at the bottom of the generator, as in an ordinary
furnace, or by openings in the brickwork, which may be either at the
sides, or in the bottom which in that case is tapered down to the size
of the opening or by a combination of the two, as designed by Liegel,
who puts a fire grate underneath the opening in the bottom of the
generator The generator should be lined with at least
9 inches of the best fire-bricks, between which and the surrounding
walls of common brickwork, about 18 inches thick, a space of about
6 inches is left to be filled with a comparatively non-conducting
material, such as asbestos, or even powdered fire-bricks, in order to
diminish the loss of heat by radiation.
" The gas channel, by which the products of combustion leave the
generator, varies according to circumstances, from the short connecting
chamber of Liegel or Livesey, whose generators are virtually one with
the retort settings, to a pipe of considerable length ; but the former,
or some similar plan, is obviously preferable when it is convenient to
adopt it. In all cases the passage, when of any length, must be pro-
vided with a damper.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
" In most cases a generator is about 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches square,
which is sufficient for heating two large settings of retorts. For one
setting half this area will suffice. The body of incandescent coke is
usually about 3 feet deep, although it might be reduced to half that
depth without vitiating the gas produced. Still it is best to keep a con-
siderable margin, in order to avoid risk of interruption in working,
which might otherwise be caused by irregularity in charging the gene-
rator, which operation would, with the sizes of apparatus above speci-
fied, be necessary at four or five hours' intervals.
" The generator may be situated anywhere in the neighbourhood of
the retort bench. The furnace gases are admitted to the interior of
the retort stack, guarded as much as possible from loss of their acquired
heat while in transit, and there mingle with the proper quantity of
previously heated air ; the mixture being attended with instant com-
bustion."
It may be mentioned, incidentally, as a matter of experience, that
where this class of furnace is used, retorts constructed of fire bricks
and tiles do not answer as well as the ordinary moulded retort, as they
are more liable to become deformed by the intense heat acting upon
them.
Dry air, though diathermanous to radiant heat, takes up heat with
extreme rapidity when brought in contact with a hot surface. It is
not necessary, therefore, that the hot flue passage through which the
secondary air is caused to travel in order to be heated before coming
in contact with the combustible gases from the generator should be
long-extended and tortuous in its course.
The advantages of the so-called regenerative arrangements as
applied to retort furnaces are due not only, or chiefly, to the heating
of the secondary air, which is readily accomplished, but largely to the
circumstance that the heat of the waste gases, as the latter traverse
the passages constructed alongside the furnace, is at a potential higher
than that to which the brickwork in the base of the setting, and in the
sides of the generator in the absence of the waste-gas flues, could
possibly attain. The effect of this is to insulate, as it were, the heat
of the furnace, minimizing outward radiation and conduction.
Heat, like water and electricity, tends to establish an equilibrium ;
and the lower the temperature of a body in contact with another at a
higher temperature, the greater the abstraction of heat from the latter
by the former.
From this it will be evident that the function fulfilled by the heat
of the waste gases cannot properly be considered as "regenerative."
Their temperature is necessarily lower than that of the furnace and
the inside of the oven. Heat cannot travel from a lower to a higher
potential any more than water under normal conditions can travel up-
hill ; and therefore it is not possible for the lower temperature to
78 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
" regenerate " the higher. The chief function of the heat of the waste
gases is by insulation, as already explained, to conserve, in the ratio of
their own temperature, the heat generated by combustion in the
furnace. If it were possible to enclose the heated ovens of a retort-
stack on all sides with an envelope of heat, it is obvious that the
heat of the ovens would be conserved, a higher and steadier tempera-
ture maintained, and that economy of fuel would result.
SCURFING R.ETORTS.
In the distillation of coal a deposit of carbon takes place within the
retorts, which, if allowed to go on accumulating, eventually seriously
contracts their internal area, and causes a diminution in the heats.
This deposit is due principally to the pressure produced by the
resistance offered to the passage of the gas through the different appa-
ratus.
Its removal by scurfing with chisel bars in the ordinary way is
always more or less attended with damage to the retorts ; the more
so as they require to stand off for 6 or 12 hours, to loosen the carbon
by the admission of air, before applying the bar.
Different methods of scurfing have been tried with varying success ;
the best probably being that by which a current of air and steam is
made to impinge upon the carbonaceous deposit. The latter plan
is the invention of Mr. G. W. Edge, of the Jersey City (U.S.A.) Gas-
Works. The process is thus described by Mr. E. Goddard :
" The apparatus consists of a steam-pipe connected with the steam-
boiler, and passing along the top of the retort benches, to which is
connected a 1-inch pipe, extending out to the face of the retort mouth-
piece ; to this is connected a ^-inch pipe, having on it a stop-cock
and union joint to connect and disconnect the pipe readily. This
steam -pipe terminates at the end of a pipe 3 inches in diameter, and
about 5 feet long, resting on the bottom of the retort, into which
the steam rushes through a nozzle having a 8-lGths of an inch outlet, at
the same time drawing with it a current of atmospheric air. A retort-lid
is cut out to fit closely round the 3-inch pipe. The lid is luted on tight,
and the plug removed from the top of the ascension-pipe, the
retort being at a good working heat, and the apparatus is ready to
perform.
" The steam should be used at a pressure of from 25 to 40 Ibs. to the
square inch. The rush of steam carries with it a current of atmospheric
air, the cast-iron pipe becomes heated, and the steam and air rushing
through it become superheated, and thus we have a compound blow-
pipe of immense power, the current of which strikes with great energy
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 79
on the thick portion of the carbon at the rear of the retort, but with
diminished force as the returning current partially charged with the
products of combustion approaches the front end of the retort, where
the carbon is thin, in order to pass out through the ascension-pipe.
If the retorts are thickly coated with carbon (say, several inches thick),
on the first application of the apparatus, it will require several hours to
clean them out ; but when the retort is once decarbonized, one hour's
application every thirty days will be found amply sufficient to keep
the retort clear of extraneous carbon."
After all, the best plan of obviating the nuisance is to prevent the
deposit as much as possible, by minimizing the dip, by employing an
exhauster to reduce the back pressure ; and in very small works where
this is not available, by cleaning the surface of the retorts with a
rounded steel scraper every time they are drawn.
TABLE OF COLOURS
Corresponding to Various High Temperatures. (Pouillet.)
Fahr. Fahr.
Faint red 977 White heat 2370
Dull red 1290 Bright white heat.
Brilliant red 1470
Cherry red 1650
Bright cherry red 1830
Orange 2010
Dazzling white 2730
Melting point of cast iron
White 1920 to 2010
Grey 2010 to 2190
Bright orange 2190
The effect of an excessively low heat in the retorts is to diminish
the gaseous products, the chief results of the distillation being the
production of tar.
TABLE,
By Miller, exhibiting the amount and specific gravity of the gas
obtained from two bushels of coal during each of five hours' heating
in an ordinary retort ; showing the importance of restricting the time
during which the coal is subjected to the action of heat in the manu-
facture of gas. The rich hydrocarbons diminished, and carbonic oxide
and hydrogen increased in quantity as the experiment progressed.
Cubic Peet. Specific Gravity.
In the first hour 345 .... '677
In the second hour .... 203 .... '419
In the third hour .... 118 .... '400
In the fourth hour .... 64 .... -322
In the fifth hour 20 . , . .
With cannel the carbonization takes place in considerably less
time than with ordinary coal.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE
Exhibiting the Qualities of Gas at different Periods of Distillation.
(Dr. Henry.)
From Half a Ton of Wigan Cannel.
100 Measures
100 Measures of
100 Measures
of Impure Gas
Purified Gas
of
contain
consist of
Purified Gas
Time from
Commencement of
Distillation.
Sulphu-
retted
Hydro-
gen.
Other
Com-
pounds of
Nitrogen
and Hy-
Olefiant
Gas.
Other
Inferior
Gases.
Nitrogen.
Consume
Oxygen.
Give
Carbonic
Acid.
drogen.
4 an hour.
i
54
16
64
20
180
94
1 hour.
3
34
18
77|
4|
210
112
3 hours.
24
24
15
80
5
200
108
6
24
24
13
72
15
176
94
7
2
24
9
76
15
170
83
9
4
24
8
77
15
150
73
10
2
6
74
20
120
54
12
..
4
4
76
20
82
36
From Half a Ton of Common Wigan Gas Coal.
1 hour.
3
3
10
90
164
91
3 hours.
2
2
9
91
168
5
3
2
6
94
132
70
7
1
3
5
80
15
120
64
9
1
24
2
89
9
112
60
11 ,,
1
1
85
15
90
43
BATE OF PRODUCTION OF GAS
FROM 2 CWT. OF WIGAN COAL IN AN EXPERIMENTAL EETORT.
4 hour
1
14 hours
2
24
Cubic Feet.
. 275
. 245
. 200
. 140
. 80
Total
. 15
. 1015
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
THE DINSMORE SYSTEM OF GAS MAKING.
The Dinsmore system (so called after its inventor) of enriching gas
by the conversion of a portion of the hydrocarbons present in the tar
into permanent gas of a high illuminating power, has been adopted
at Widnes under the supervision of Mr. Isaac Carr, who has intro-
duced various improvements in the method of its application, by which
results of an important character have been obtained. The chief
obstacle to the success of all previous attempts in a similar direction
was the blocking of the ascension-pipes and hydraulic and foul mains
with pitch. This difficulty has now apparently been overcome.
With one-third of the carbonizing plant at work on the new system,
about 10,000 cubic feet of gas per ton, of an illuminating power equal
to 19 standard candles are obtained from an inferior class of coal.
RETOKT MOUTHPIECES.
The following are the details of a mouthpiece for an oval retort
21 in. by 15 in., and will serve as a model for any other size and shape,
allowance being made for varying dimensions. (See Figs. 15 to 18.)
Depth from front to back, over all, 15 in.
Thickness of metal in front portion, f in.
Ditto in lip, 1 in., and planed level.
Ditto in flange, 1 in.
Width of flange in front, 3f in.
Ditto at back, 4 in.
Number of bolt holes, eight ; diameter, 1 in.
Ear-box on each side, with slot 2 in. by -| in.
FIG. 15.
FIG. 16.
FIG. 17.
FIG. 18.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Socket, to receive end of ascension-pipe, 5 in. in height, and 6 in.
diameter inside ; centre 5 in. from front.
Bolts, for securing mouthpiece to retort, eight ; diameter, in. ;
screwed and nutted at both ends.
Lugs of wrought-iron, 14 in. long, 2 in. broad, and f in. thick ;
one with jaws and pin for hinging cross-bar, the other cranked
and notched as in Fig. 18. Slit at opposite end, 2 in. long,
J in. wide ; wedged to ear-box.
Cross-bar of wrought-iron, 25 in. long, 2 in. broad at each end,
and in. thick. Middle part 2 in. broad, swelled out to 2 in.
thick, with 1 in. screwed hole tkrough centre.
Screw, 10 in. long, with square thread 7 in. of its length.
Cross handle, 14 in. long, f in. round-iron.
Lid, in. thick, plate-iron, dished, with lug on each side.
Various devices for dispensing with the screw and its slow action
have been introduced. Amongst these Box's retort-lid fastener, made
by Geo. Waller and Co., Storer and Pugh's lever handle, and King's
patent fastener, made by West's Gas Improvement Company, may
be specially named.
CEMENTS FOB JOINTING RETOET MOUTHPIECES.
For clay retorts
Three-fourths by weight of fire-clay.
One-fourth by weight of iron borings.
When ready to connect, mix with ammoniacal water. Use no sulphur.
20 Ibs. gypsum (sulphate of lime ) made into a pulp with water.
10 Ibs. iron borings saturated with a strong solution of sal ammoniac.
Mix well together till of a consistency fit for use.
In fixing the mouthpieces to clay retorts, the flange or face of the
retort should be notched all over with a sharp-pointed hammer, or a
slight channel cut all round (this is best done by the retort maker in
course of manufacture), for the cement to bed into when the bolts are
screwed up.
CEMENTS FOR JOINING THE ENDS OF CLAY RETORTS.
10 Ibs. gypsum made into a pulp with water.
20 Ibs. iron borings saturated with a strong solution of sal ammoniac.
Mix well together till of a consistency fit for use.
Some engineers use fire-clay alone, mixed with water to the con-
sistency of mortar.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
For iron retort mouthpieces
2 Ibs. fine clean iron borings.
1 oz. sal ammoniac.
1 oz. flowers of sulphur.
Mix together and keep dry. When required for use, add water to
bring the mixture to a proper consistency.
CEMENTS OE LUTING FOR RETORT-LIDS.
Ordinary lime, or spent lime from the purifiers mixed with fire-clay
or common clay, and worked up into mortar.
The following makes a tough persistent luting :
1 part lime.
2 parts moulding sand.
Ground up together, with water, in a mortar mill.
SELF-SEALING RETORT-LIDS.
The self-sealing retort-lid invented by Mr. Morton, with Holnian's
eccentric fastener, is extensively used. The lid is not removed from
the mouthpiece in charging the retort, but swivels round with the
hinged cross-bar, to which it is secured. It is made in any form to
suit the shape of the retort, with upturned semicircular edge, faced
true. This, pressing against the flat edge of the mouthpiece, which is
also faced, makes a gas-tight joint without the intervention of any
kind of luting.
Other self-sealing retort-lids are Tassie's, made with a steel ring let
into a groove in the face of the mouthpiece ; Paiiby's and Grice's,
having a projection on the edge of the lid fitting into a recess on the
face of the mouthpiece ; Somerville's, which consists in the contact
of the outside of the rim of the lid with the inner conical lip of the
mouthpiece ; and Ruscoe's, with steel cross-bar and fastener.
RETORT-HOUSE TOOLS.
Shovels with riveted handles are not good in or about a retort-
house. The heat soon causes the wood to dry in, and the rivets give
way and become jagged, lacerating the hands of the men who use
them. Socketed handles are much the best.
A good handy-sized shovel for charging retorts of the ordinary
size is one 16 inches long by 11 inches wide. Firing shovels (for
coke) are best made an inch wider. Both should be well turned up
at the sides.
G 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
For charging through retorts, the scoop (Fig. 21) is frequently
employed.
This in section is a semicircular trough of sheet-iron, the length of
half the through retort, and large enough to contain about H or
If cwt. of coal. It is inserted twice into the retort at each end. Six
men are required to charge a through retort with the scoop i.e.,
three at each mouthpiece. The method of using it is as follows :
On its being filled with coal, one man takes hold of the handle at the
end, raises it] slightly, the saddle is placed underneath by a second
man, and a third grasps the opposite side. The three then raise the
scoop and insert its end into the retort mouth, whereupon the
saddle is released, and the man having hold of the handle pushes
the scoop with its charge right into the retort, turns its round, and
withdraws it, leaving the charge inside. This operation is repeated a
second time ; the scoop on the first insertion being turned to the left,
and on the second to the right.
Other retort-house tools consist of the discharging rake, Fig. 22 ;
auger, Fig. 26 ; ash-pan rake and shovel, Figs. 23 and 24 ; fire
tongs, Fig. 27 ; and pricker, Fig. 25. [See next page.] Price's coke
and coal barrow, Fig. 1*J, and Cockey's charging barrow, Fig. 20, are
useful and serviceable adjuncts to the retort-house.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING RETORTS BY MACHINERY.
The difficult problem of applying machinery to the charging and
drawing of retorts is one which has occupied the minds of gas
engineers from the very introduction of gas-lighting, and its solution
has been attempted with varying success. Out of about twenty dif-
ferent contrivances that have been invented for the purpose, not more
than lour or five remain in use at the present time, and these only to
a limited extent,
The hydraulic stoker invented by Mr. W. Foulis and the combined
hand and machine stoker of Mr. J. West are both in use at the Man-
chester Corporation Gas-Works. The latter has also been adopted
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
at Maidstone, Portsea, Ipswich, Burnley, Bury, and other works.
Mr. West has also patented the application of compressed air to the
propelling of his machinery ; and this is successfully at work at the
Manchester and the South Metropolitan Gas- Works. More recently
FIG. 21.
o
FIG. 22.
FIG. 23.
FIG 24.
FIG. 25.
SC NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
he has adopted the plan of driving by means of a wire rope running
the whole length of the retort-house, and actuated by a stationary
engine placed at one end. This latter is in use at Blackburn. Mr.
West's machines, both for charging and drawing, and the plan which
lie has latterly adopted of obtaining motive power, are so admirable,
that their general application in the larger gas-works is only a
question of time.
Mr. Warner's machinery is employed at South Shields ; and the
ingenious steam stoker, the invention of Mr. A. Q. Eoss, of Cin-
cinnati, U.S. America, is in use at various works in the States and
in this country.
Clegg attempted to perfect an arrangement by which a continuous
supply and discharge was effected ; and though lie did not succeed in
producing an economical and satisfactory apparatus, it is greatly to be
desired that other efforts in the same direction may be crowned with
The latest improvements of carbonizing plant and methods are
revivals of the idea of inclining the retorts at an angle, with a view to
facilitate the operations of charging and drawing by calling in the aid
of gravity. M. Coze, of Bheims, claims to have succeeded in over-
coming difficulties which had previously proved insuperable, by
adopting the inclination of 80 from the horizontal for a flattened
form of Q retort, combined with a peculiar design of tipping wagon
for charging the coal from above. Mr. J. Elliott, of Ludlow, has
also revived Brunton's idea of carbonizing coals in small charges
pushed into a sloping retort by a traversing arrangement.
ASCENSION OR STAND-PIPES.
These may be either of cast or wrought-iron, and should be not
less than 5 inches internal diameter, with flange at upper end.
Diameter of flange, 10 inches.
Bolt-holes, 4 in number, centre to centre across, 8 inches.
Diameter of bolts, f of an inch.
The best caulking material for Ascension-pipes at their junction
with the mouthpiece socket, is ordinary ground fire-clay, or slaked
lime, made of the consistency of putty. These, when pressed down
into the space between the spigot and socket, make a perfectly tight
and durable joint, and are easily removed when the retorts need
renewing. On the other hand, when the joints are caulked with iron
cement, the labour in cutting it out and the risk of splitting the socket
are considerable.
Choking of Axcension- Pipes.
Ascension-pipes occasionally become choked, to a greater or less
degree, with thick tar, pitch, and other carbonaceous matter. When
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
87
this occurs, let as many as can be spared at once stand off for a shift
(provided the retorts are in condition to admit of this), drawing the
charge, and removing the bonnet or plug from the top of the bridge-
pipe. The heated air making its way through the smallest aperture
will thoroughly clear them of the obstruction.
Preventive of < 'hoking,
Keeping the pipes cool is the best preventive of choking. This may
be accomplished to a great extent by making the front walls of the
ovens 1 bricks thick, so preventing undue radiation from the bench,
and having the mouthpieces of the retorts so constructed as to allow
of the pipes standing G or 8 inches away from the front wall of the
BBIDGE AND DIP PIPES.
Internal diameter of bridge and dip
pipes, 5 inches.
Height of bridge-pipe, 16 inches.
Width, centre to centre, 21 inches.
Connecting flanges, diameter 10^- inches.
Bolt-holes, four in number, centre to
centre across, 8 inches.
Diameter of bolts, f of an inch. (See
Fig. 28.)
FIG. 28.
HYDKAULIC MAIN.
Dimensions and Form.
The hydraulic main, as a general rule, even in small works, should
not be less than 18 inches in width at the water-level.
In section it may be either D-shaped (with the flat side upwards),
square, oblong, or round. The three former shapes are usually
adopted in preference to the round, allowing more gas space than the
latter. (Figs. 29, 30, and 81.)
The Livesey Hydraulic.
This, in section, resembles the frustum of a cone, but is slightly
convex at the sides, and dished at the bottom to the extent of 2 inches
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
below the end of the dip-pipe. It is smaller, and consequently
lighter, than the mains generally in use ; but at the water-level the
area is equal to the old forms. The chief object of the modification
in form is to prevent the accumulation of thick tar. This is accom-
plished by allowing only a shallow depth of liquid ; and this being
kept in motion or circulation by the issuing gas, deposit to any great
extent is prevented. (Fig. 82.)
With the same object in view, Mr. Livesey has reduced the bottom
space in his existing old-fashioned D-shaped mains, by placing
therein a plate of No. 10 gauge sheet-iron, also dished to the extent
of 2 inches below the end of the dip ;' the space underneath being
first filled up with sand.
Wroiif/ht-Iron and Steel Hydraulic Mains.
Hydraulic mains of wrought-iron 5-16ths of an inch thick, or mild
steel plates inch thick sides and bottom, and 7-16ths of an inch
top, are being generally adopted, owing to their lightness and
strength, and are an improvement on those made of cast-iron, which
are usually 3-4ths of an inch thick.
Position of the Hydraulic Main.
The hydraulic main may be either erected on standards placed on
the retort-bench ; on girders attached to the buckstaves, which are
. 29. FIG. 30. FIG. 31. FIG. 32.
.
lengthened so as to reach above the bench for that purpose ; or on cast-
iron pillars in front, and quite detached from the brickwork.
When placed upon the bench, it is liable to be disturbed by the
contraction and expansion of the materials composing the latter ; and
when the bench needs rebuilding, it is an obstacle to the progress of
the work. On the other hand, when erected on pillars in front,
these are slightly in the way, though placed opposite the walls
dividing the several ovens ; and the main itself is more exposed to
the heat of the flame from the retorts in charging.
In some instances the hydraulic main is placed against the retort-
house wall, being supported on brackets or cantilevers attached
thereto. This plan necessitates a strong wall to bear the weight of
the mam and its contents, and also a long length of pipe overhead,
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
fixed in an inclined position, attached at one end by a bend to the
ascension-pipe, and at the other to the dip-pipe on the main.
In addition to the hydraulic main, a second main is sometimes laid
along the bench, and connected to the former at the water-level, at
each bench or oven, by a branch with a valve upon it for closing when
necessary. This secondary main conveys the gas and fluid products
from the retort-house, and admits of the isolation of the hydraulic
main over each setting of retorts. By this arrangement it is easy, in
case of any disturbance of the bench through settlement or otherwise,
to restore the several short lengths of hydraulic main to the true
level.
The Liquid Products in the Hydraulic Main. The Effect of Keeping the
Gas in Contact with the Tar. The Hydraulic Dip.
A simple gas is usually described to be a permanently elastic fluid
under the ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure. Coal gas,
as it is compound in character, does not answer to that description.
When it has been distilled from the coal by the agency of heat, and
issues from the retort up the ascension-pipe into the hydraulic main,
there is carried in suspension, along with the permanently gaseous
fluids, a number of hydrocarbon and other vapours, which condense
at temperatures varying from about 200 Fahr. downwards.
The water which is found in the hydraulic main is due to the con-
densation of the vapour or steam which, coming from the retorts, is
carried up the ascension-pipes along with the permanent gases and
the heavy hydrocarbons ; the latter being deposited as tar. The
presence of the water is accounted for by its previous existence in the
interstices of the apparently dry coal. It is also produced synthetically
by the combination, brought about by the heat of the retorts, of a
portion of the oxygen and hydrogen two constituents of the solid
coal. The quantity of water thus yielded varies with different coals ;
but the average yield may be set down at 16 gallons per ton. It
has previously been explained (see page 5) that a portion of the
steam from wet coal is decomposed in the hot retorts, being resolved
into its constituent gases. It will be seen, therefore, assuming the
correctness of this hypothesis, that two opposite processes are being
carried on simultaneously in the retorts the analytical and the
synthetical and this apparent inconsistent action may be explained
by the original character of the substance acted upon the steam in
the one instance, and the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, in the other
and their proximity to, and period of contact with, the hot surface
traversed by them.
The strong affinity which exists between this water and the
ammonia impurity in the crude gas, causes the absorption of much of
90 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
the latter by the former, producing what is, roughly speaking, a solu-
tion of ammonia. This again, by reason of its affinity for suphuretted
hydrogen and carbonic acid, absorbs a proportion of the gases named,
reducing the amount of these impurities in the gas, and thus is pro-
duced the complex liquid designated " ammoniacal liquor."
The hydrocarbons contribute largely to the illuminating power of
the gas ; and it is therefore desirable to retain them in the permanently
gaseous form. Some of them, especially such as are of the greatest
density, are reduced to the liquid state by the mere mechanical reduc-
tion of their temperature ; whilst others of equal specific gravity,
and many of those of lower density, undergo a change from the
gaseous to the liquid condition, by reason of the solvent or absorbent
action of the liquid contents of the hydraulic main, through which,
by reason of the dip, they have to pass, or with which, in the absence
of the dip, they come intimately in contact. The former may be
classed as hydrocarbon vapours ; the latter, as gaseous hydrocarbons.
It is thus evident that the process of condensation begins at the
hydraulic main ; the results there produced materially affecting the
quality of the gas.
Those hydrocarbons that are changed to the liquid form by this
slight diminution of temperature, it is probably impossible to retain
in the gas under any circumstances whatsoever. With the more
volatile, though still heavy, hydrocarbons, the case is different ; the
power of retaining them in the permanently gaseous form is within
the bounds of possibility, and these are, therefore, of the greatest
interest to the gas manufacturer.
A further class of hydrocarbons are not liquefied at all under ordi-
nary conditions ; and there should never be any difficulty experienced
in keeping them in the gaseous state.
Of the second class of hydrocarbons viz., those which, though of
high specific gravity, it is practicable to retain in the gaseous form we
shall now speak. Their retention in the gas, and how this is most
likely to be accomplished or at least how best to remove all impedi-
ments to that end greatly concerns the gas-maker. It has been
assumed that the mere reduction of temperature between the retort-
mouth and the hydraulic main will not affect their gaseous condition.
Under what other circumstances, then, are they condensed in the
hydraulic main, and in the subsequent mains leading to the condenser ?
The answer is clear, and is what has been already indicated viz., by
the affinity which exists between them and the already liquefied
hydrocarbons present in the mains.
Some remarkable notes corroborating these views in several im-
portant particulars are recorded by Mr. W. Young, being the result of
a number of experiments made by the late Mr. Cusiter in 1868, on the
absorption of the light-giving constituents of coal gas by the heavy
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 91
hydrocarbon oils, his attention being drawn thereto when experiment-
ing with glycerine as a substitute for water in gas-meters.
After having satisfied himself that the disadvantages attending its
use were not compensated by its advantages, he turned his attention to
other liquids which might, he thought, be suitably applied for the like
purpose. One of them was mineral oil of 840 specific gravity. The
effect of this with 28 -can die gas was to reduce the illuminating power
to 14 candles ; and with gas of 35 candles, to 16-1. During the winter
of 1873-4 he repeated the experiments, and made some additions to
the number. Mr. Young deduced from these experiments various
facts of general interest, having reference to the means afforded of
ascertaining the percentage of hydrocarbons in a given quality of
gas.
En a further communication on the same subject, Mr. Young showed
that so great is the solvent action of heavy hydrocarbon oil (boiling
point 180 Fahr.) that hydrocarbons, such as olefiant gas, which are
permanent gases at ordinary temperatures, may be reduced to the
liquid form in passing through it. He further showed that if, instead
of allowing the gas and mixed hydrocarbons to cool together, the gas,
saturated Avith the vapour of the lighter hydrocarbon liberated by heat
from the mixed fluids, were transferred into a separate vessel, thereby
preventing the heavy hydrocarbons from coming into contact with, and
reabsorbing the lighter, the gas would remain saturated with the
vapour from the more volatile fluid.
These important facts lead to but one conclusion viz., that the
practice of allowing the whole of the tar to flow along with the gas
through an extensive range of pipes to the condenser, both being
gradually cooled together in the passage, is founded on an erroneous
estimate of the results that follow thereon, is highly objectionable, and
must be condemned.
The late Mr. R. H. Paterson, with that wise insight which
characterized his investigations, gave expression to his views on this
subject in an able article " On Keeping Gas in Contact with Tar," in
which the objectionableness of the practice is very clearly shown.
The cooling of the gas gradually is a provision the wisdom of which
is unquestionable, and the plan of causing it to make the circuit of the
retort-house in pipes is probably the best method of accomplishing
that object ; but the deposited tar in the hydraulic main and in the
foul main at the point, as near as can be ascertained, when its tem-
perature has fallen to about 110 or 100 Fahr. the temperature at
which its absorbent powers come into most active operation should
be drained away direct to the tar-well by its own separate con-
ductor.
The chief advantages believed to accrue from lengthened contact of
the gas with the tar are, first, the absorption by the latter of naphthaline
92 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
that would otherwise be carried forward to be deposited, by reason of
the decrease in temperature and other causes, in the mains on the
works, and even in the street mains, service-pipes, and the internal
fittings on the premises of consumers ; and, secondly, the absorption
also of a considerable portion of the obnoxious sulphur and other com-
pounds.
These advantages will not be forfeited by the direct removal of the
bulk of the tar, because sufficient light tar will be left in the circuitous
gas-main to absorb any excess of naphthaline vapour present, and
even to assimilate a portion of the sulphur and other impurities.
Besides this, as the general effect will'be to leave a larger proportion
of the gaseous hydrocarbons in the gas, these, by virtue of the power
which they possess in common with the liquid hydrocarbons, of
assimilating and, in this special case, of suspending other hydro-
carbons, will necessarily assist in retaining in the permanent form a
portion of the naphthaline that would, in presence of the greater bulk
of tar, have been liquefied and deposited. By a similar train of reason-
ing, the fact of the inferior quality of the tar produced from the richer
cannels, as compared with that from coal, may be explained.
In dealing with this subject, it has been assumed by some that no
absorbent action is likely to result so long as the tar with which the
gas is in contact is at a temperature of about 100 Fahr., and above ;
and that, therefore, the dip in the hydraulic main causes no diminution
in the amount of hydrocarbon gases present. It has even been assumed
that the tar in the main gives off a proportion of hydrocarbon vapour ;
and in this way increases the illuminating power of the gas. On reflec-
tion, however, it will be plain that this argument is altogether unten-
able, for it is scarcely possible to conceive that hydrocarbons which
have already been liquefied at a high temperature, can again, at a lower
temperature, assume the gaseous or vaporous form. There can be no
doubt that the heavy tars have an absorbent action, less or more, at
all temperatures, being greatest at the lowest ; and this being so, the
passage of the gas through such tars by reason of the dip in the
hydraulic main, must have a prejudicial effect upon the illuminating
constituents of the gas. On the other hand, where means are employed
for removing the heavy tars from the main as rapidly as possible after
they are deposited, the disadvantages of the dip into the lighter
liquors contained therein are reduced almost to nil. This is especially
true where the arrangements are such that, by careful adjustment,
and an adequate area at the water-level, the dip is limited to about
three-fourths of an inch.
It is desirable that the ends of the dip-pipes in the hydraulic main
should be sealed with the ammoniacal liquor in preference to the tar ;
the latter not only robbing the gas to some extent of its richest illu-
minating substances, but offering greater resistance to its passage.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Various expedients to accomplish this end have been devised and are
in use in well-regulated gas-works.
Such being the case, considering the easy application of the dip, its
economy, its self-acting regularity, its comparative immunity from
failure, and the safety attending its use, it is questionable whether
any of the many appliances for dispensing with it, offer sufficient
inducements to compensate for the advantages enumerated.
TEMPERATURE OF GAS IN THE RETORTS.
The reason of the comparatively low temperature of coal gas as it
ascends to the hydraulic main, after being in contact with the intensely
heated surfaces of the retorts in which it is generated, is not apparent
at a cursory glance.
At first sight it would appear as though the action upon the gas in
a retort would be similar to the effect upon air by the ovens of blast
furnaces, where a million cubic feet are heated in the space of an hour
to 633 Fahr. the melting point of lead.
So far from this being the case, the permanent gas at its highest
temperature does not probably exceed 135 Fahr., though generated in
a heat usually reaching 2200.
The reason of the difference in the effect produced in the two in-
stances given is explained by the fact of the rapid absorption of heat
by the volatile constituents of the coal in assuming the gaseous form ;
this heat becoming latent in the gas as in the case of the formation
of steam in an open boiler.
The following is a record of experiments made by the writer to
determine the temperature of the gas as it issues from the retort :
Kjt'pfi'iiwiit Ao. 1.
This experiment was conducted entirely under the usual conditions
of working.
Clay retort, 20 feet through, one in a setting of seven.
Heat, bright cherry red.
Hole drilled in both ascension-pipes 3 feet above the mouthpiece.
Retort charged with 4 cwt. of cannel.
Temperature indicated on insertion of thermometer through the
hole on one side of bench, 193 Fahr.
Temperature indicated on insertion of thermometer through the
hole on the other side, 510 Fahr.
The temperatures indicated were clearly not those of the gas. In
attaining the higher temperature, especially, the mercury rose by
starts at the rate of 3 to 5 at once, evidently caused by hot particles
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
of solid carbon, or other solid or semi-fluid substances coming sud-
denly in contact with the bulb of the thermometer.
The remarkable difference in the temperature of the two sides is
accounted for in this way : On the side in which 193 was indicated
the dip-pipe was probably sealed to a greater depth in the hydraulic
main, and consequently the flow of gas was neither so abundant nor
so rapid on that side as on the other. This was evidenced by the
thermometer on withdrawal being found less thickly coated with tar
than in the other case. The gas was in a more quiescent state, and
therefore there was not the same rush of hot solid particles against
the bulb to raise the temperature abnormally.
It may be noted incidentally here, that indications of temperature
thus obtained would prove whether the ascension-pipes at the two
ends of a through retort were each taking their due share of the gas
being produced.
Experiment No. 2.
The conditions were the same as in the previous instance ; but in-
stead of inserting the thermometer directly through the hole in the
ascension-pipe, the end of a piece of india-rubber tube, 12 inches
long, % inch bore, was pressed against the orifice, and the gas allowed
to flow in a stream through the tube. The object of employing the
tube was to obviate, if possible, the contact of the semi-solid or
semi-fluid substances previously referred to.
The result was : Temperature indicated on one side 250, ditto on
the other side 324.
The rise of the mercury was still somewhat irregular, and the instru-
ment, so much as was inserted, was again thickly coated with tar.
Experiment No. 3.
One end of the through retort was now bricked up, being made per-
fectly gas-tight, the gas passing away by one only of the ascension-pipes ;
in point of fact, the retort was made single instead of through.
In a short, double-flanged piece of the ascension-pipes, within
8 inches of the top of the mouthpiece, were inserted six layers of iron
wire netting, cut into discs, accurately fitting the bore of the pipe.
Three of these discs had meshes one-eighth, and the other three three-
sixteenths of an inch gauge, and the discs were kept three-fourths of
an inch apart by sheet-iron rings, inserted edgeways into the pipe.
The charge, 2 cwt. of cannel, thrown into the retort, happened to be
taken from a heap that had been exposed to the rain, and there was
considerable moisture present.
The hole through which the thermometer was inserted, as in the
previous experiments, was 8 feet above the mouthpiece.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
The following
were the temperatures indicated :
Time.
Temp. Fahr. Time.
Minutes.
Degrees. Minutes.
10
200 55
15
198 60
20
195 65
25
..192 90
30
190 105
35
188 120 ( j . ,
40
184 130
45
... 182 140
50
179 150
Temp. Fahr.
Degrees.
177
174
172
160
158
150
150
.... 148
142
Through all the higher temperatures, down to 172, steam was
condensed into drops upon a piece of paper held in the stream of
gas issuing from the hole. Tar, though not entirely absent, was
nearly so, the instrument on each withdrawal being but slightly
coated. The temperature, with but few exceptions, rose with great
regularity from that of the atmosphere of the retort-house (74) to
the rates observed, showing that the semi-solid particles, which were
evidently the cause of the high temperatures previously indicated,
had been nearly all arrested by the wire netting.
The higher temperatures, I am of opinion, were due to the pre-
sence of steam in the gas in varying proportions, and this latter
would be caused by the moisture in the coal.
Experiment No. 4.
The retort was again charged, this time with 2 cwt, of cannel in
a drier state. All the other conditions were as in the previous trial.
The following were the results obtained :
Time.
Minutes.
2
7
12 "!*; '
17
22
27
75
90
Temp. Fahr.
Degrees.
Time.
Hours.
158
If
174
2
' 177
2*
172
2*
171
2f
169
3
168
BI
141
3|
134
Temp. Fahr.
Degrees.
129
123
122
119
118
116
113
110
During the first half-hour of the charge, the presence of steam,
mixed with the issuing gas, was indicated as before, but less abun-
dantly, though still, doubtless, affecting the results obtained. When
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
the temperature of the gas within 3 feet of the mouthpiece was at
174, it stood at 132 in the bridge-pipe, 14 feet higher up.
Temperature of the Gas in the Bridge-Pipe^ 14^ feet from the llctort
Experiment. 2-Cwt. Charges. Temp, of the Gas.
No. 1 . . . . retort charged 1 hoar . . . . 135 Fahr.
,,2 .. .. ,,3 hours .. .. 116 ,.
,,3 .... 4J hours . . . . 119
It may be suggested that the effect of passing the gas through the
wire netting would be to lower the temperature of the gas, just as the
wire gauze on a Davy lamp reduces th'e temperature of the flame im-
pinging against it. The conditions of the two cases, however, are
entirely different. The meshes were sufficiently large to admit of an
easy passage for the gas, and the metal would be immediately covered
with a thick coating of tar, virtually producing insulation. In addition
to that, the temperature within 6 inches of the front of the bench
was 208 ; and the metal of the ascension-pipe, as well as the inserted
wire netting, would, as a rule, be above the temperature of the gas.
The results of these researches will be found to confirm, in a remark-
able manner, the deductions of earlier investigators.
CONDENSATION.
Extent of Condensation.
The degree of condensation to which coal gas should be subjected
after leaving the retorts, and before entering the purifiers, has never
been determined with that scientific accuracy which the importance
of the subject demands.
The axiom that " thorough condensation is half the purifica-
tion," is too sweeping in character to be serviceable or safe as a guide.
The term " thorough," as applied to the condensation of coal gas,
still remains an indefinite quantity, though the well-directed and
carefully conducted inquiries of the first Referees in the metropolis
(the results of which are embodied in their 'admirable and valuable
reports) have led to a more exact knowledge on this and the other
branches of gas purification.
With respect to one point there cannot be two opinions viz.,
the necessity of guarding against a lower temperature in the gas
than 50 Fahr. If condensation is carried beyond this, the lighter
hydrocarbons are in danger of being deposited, and the gas im-
poverished.
In the following table the bad effects of excessive refrigeration
are shown.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 97
TABLE
Exhibiting the Loss of Illuminating Property in Coal Gas on Exposure to
the Temperature of Freezing Point, 82 Fahr.
Hydrocarbons condensed from
Name of Gas. 1000 Cubic Feet of Gas on Exposure to a
Cold of 32 Fahr.
Boghead cannel 4 42 cubic feet.
InceHall ditto -87
Methyl ditto -88
From the above it appears that the richest gas suffers the greatest
deterioration on being subjected to cold.
Rapid or Sudden Condensation.
Experience has sufficiently proved that rapid or sudden, as well as
excessive, condensation, is an evil to be avoided ; and that to prevent
the deposition of naphthaline in the pipes, and preserve some of th&
richer illuminants, the gas should be allowed to travel in contact with
the lighter tars until the latter are reduced in temperature to about
100 Fahr. before separation takes place.
With this object in view, the pipe leading from the hydraulic main
may be carried with a gradual inclination round the interior of the
retort-house or other convenient building, and from thence to the
condenser ; provision, of course, being made to allow the thicker tar to
run off at a point near to the hydraulic main. By this arrangement
the gas is slowly reduced in temperature, and some of its most valu-
able light-giving hydrocarbons, which would otherwise be condensed,
are retained within it in the permanent state.
Livesey and Tanner's Differential Tar and Liquor Overflow and
Tar Screen is a useful provision for separating the tar and liquor
by means of a perforated screen, preventing the oscillation of the
liquor in the main and allowing of a minimum of seal. The arrange-
ment for adjusting the difference of seal required for drawing off the
tar and liquor separately according to their specific gravities, is also
very ingenious and useful.
Temperature as affecting Registration.
The make of gas, as indicated by the station-meter, is materially
affected by the temperature at which it is registered.
At the temperature of 60 Fahr., with the barometer at 80 inches,
gas is at its standard volume ; and as all aeriform bodies expand -^^
of their bulk at 32 Fahr. for every additional degree of temperature,
or about 1 per cent for 5, it follows that a quantity of gas, say 10,000
cubic feet, registered at 60, would at 70 become 10,196, and at 80
10,393.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The quantity of heat which will raise a cubic foot of water one
degree, will raise 2850 cubic feet of gas or atmospheric air to the same
extent.
In instituting a comparison between the production per ton of mate-
rial at different works, and in testing the productive value of different
coals, it is, therefore, necessary to take into account the temperature
of the gas at the time of measurement. In ascertaining the
specific gravity of gas, and in conducting photometrical observations,
the same care should be taken to note the temperature of the gas at
the time and place of making the experiment.
TABLE. EXPANSION OF AIK AND PERMANENT GASES BY HEAT.
Temp.
Fahr.
Expansion.
Temp.
Fahr.
Expansion.
Temp.
Fahr.
Expansion.
Temp.
Fahr.
Expansion.
32
1000-0
52
1041-6
72
1083-3
92
1125-0
33
1002-1
53
1043-7
73
1085-4
93
1127-1
34
1004-2
54
1045-8
74
1087-5
94
1129-1
35
1006-2
55
1047-9
75
1089-6
95
1131-2
36
1008-3
56
1050-0
76
1091-6
96
1133-3
37
1010-4
57
1052-1
77
1093-7
97
1135-4
38
1012-5
58
1054-1
78
1095-8
98
1137-5
39
1014-6
59
1056-2
79
1097-9
99
1139-5
40
1016-6
60
1058-3
80
1100-0
100
1141-6
41
1018-7
61-
1060-4
81
1102-1
110
1162-5
42
1020-8
62
1062-5
82
1104-1
120
1183-3
43
1022-9
63
1064-5
83
1106-2
130
1204-1
44
1025-0
64
1066-6
84
1108-3
140
1225-0
45
1027-1
65
1068-7
85
1110-4
150
1245-8
46
1029-1
66
1070-8
86
1112-5
160
1266-6
47
1031-2
67
1072-9
87
1114-6
170
1287-5
48
1033-3
68
1075-0
88
1116-6
180
1308-3
49
1035-4
69
1077-1
89
1118-7
190
1329-1
50
1037-5
70
1079-1
90
1120-8
200
1350-0
51
1039-6
71
1081-2
91
1122-9
212
1375-0
TABLE
Showing the Relative Effects of Watet and Air as Cooling Agents for the
Condensation of Gas. (Peclet.)
Excess of Temperature
in the Gas
over the Atmosphere.
For an excess of 10 .
20 .
30 .
40 .
Quantity of Heat lost by a Square Unit
of Exterior Pipe Surface.
When Radiating When plunged
in Air. in Water.
18
5,353
8,944
13,437
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
99
Water is thus shown to be the superior cooling agent, requiring the
exposure of much less radiating surface than air ; but, for the reasons
already adduced, the latter is found to be the more suitable medium
for the condensation of gas, except under the special conditions
noticed hereafter.
TABLE
Giving the Mean Temperature (Fahr.) of every Tenth Day in the Year
in the Central District of England. (Box.)
Month.
1st.
llth.
21st.
Month.
1st.
llth.
21st.
January
February . .
March ...
April
Deg.
36-5
37'2
40-1
43 '6
Deg.
35-6
37-5
41-0
45 '0
Deg.
37-1
38-5
41-9
47-0
July ...
August. . .
September .
October
Deg.
61-2
62-5
58-8
53 -5
Deg.
61-5
61-7
57-4
51 '4
Deg.
02-0
60-6
55-5
49'0
May ...
June ...
50-0
56-4
51-3
57-5
63-8
59-8
November .
December .
46-4
41-7
44-0
40-2
42-0
38-4
CONDENSEKS.
Atmospherical Vertical Condenser.
The ordinary Atmospherical Condenser (Fig. 38) consists of a series
of pipes, usually 18 feet long, put together in two lengths, and placed
upright, through which the gas passes up and down alternately. These
enter a rectangular cistern at bottom, in which the condensed vapours
are deposited, and from whence they flow to the tar well. At the top
is another cistern, containing water to seal the movable hoods cover-
ing each pair of pipes, and for further refrigeration, should such be
required, in warm or sunny weather ; small streams being made to
trickle down the exterior surface of the pipes.
Atmospherical Annular Condenser.
The Annular Condenser is one of the most efficient Atmospherical
condensing apparatus for gas that has yet been devised. In Kirkham's
Condenser, as improved by Wright (Fig. 34), the pipes are placed in
the vertical position, and are of large diameter, each one enclosing a
smaller pipe ; the two forming an annular space through which the gas
is made to flow. Other pipes, placed diagonally, connect the top and
bottom of the condensing columns alternately. By this arrangement
the gas passes through the annular space always in the downward
H 2
100
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
direction, whilst the current of air moves upwards through the interior
ventilating pipe. In cold weather movable covers are placed over the
latter, or butterfly valves are fixed at the foot, for closing, to regulate
the air draught, which might otherwise reduce the temperature of the
FIG. 34.
gas below the desired standard. A small pipe is connected to the
bottom of each column to carry away the deposited tar and water into
a main laid alongside the Condenser, and leading into the tar well.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 101
Instead of the diagonal pipe, extending from the top to the bottom
of each column alternately, Mr. Warner has inserted a mid-feather or
partition, within the annular chamber. This reaches to within a short
distance of the top and bottom ; the space at the lower end being
sealed by the deposited fluids, and a short connecting piece joins the
several columns at the base. By this modification a free passage is
obtained from end to end for the condensed fluids, and the separate
tar main is dispensed with.
Cleland's Slow-speed Condenser.
This consists of a series of vertical pipes, connected together at the
top by a tubular cornice or cap, which serves as the common inlet to
the whole series. The stream of gas being thus divided equally
amongst the several columns, travels through them in a downward
direction and at a comparatively slow speed.
In the lower part of each column, to about a fifth part of its length,
is inserted a "bottle brush " of wood or other material, with a drip
ledge above it to divert the descending liquor on to the centre of the
brush, which has the effect of converting the apparatus, to that extent,
into a scrubber.
The general result is superior efficiency in condensing, and the
yield of a high strength of liquor.
Atmospherical Horizontal Condenser,
The Atmospherical Horizontal Condenser (Pig. 35) is one of the
earliest forms of the apparatus. Its efficiency has not been generally
FIG. 35.
recognized, owing to the want of a correct estimate of the condi-
tions on which the condensation of coal gas ought to be conducted ;
and this has led to its being generally discarded in favour of the vertical
form.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
The earlier method of construction was to fix it against the outside
of the wall of the retort-house or other convenient building ; the several
pipes rising nearly parallel, one above the other, their ends being con-
nected by ^-shaped bends.
An improvement, on strictly scientific principles, has been effected
in the apparatus by Mr. D. A. Graham. A Condenser designed by him
consists of two series of 16-inch cast-iron pipes, 65 feet long, in ten of
such 65-feet lengths, arranged in pairs side by side, and supported
on framework, the end of each length being joined to that of the next.
From the inlet at the top, through the entire run of the Condenser to
the outlet at the bottom, there is a gradual inclination, so that it is
simply a flat screw or spiral, such as might be represented by winding
Fio. 36.
a length of soft wire five times round a piece of board, in which case
the two ends of the wire would answer to the inlet and outlet of the
Condenser. Blank flanges are bolted on the end of each length for
convenience in cleansing.
In this arrangement there is a recognition of the fact that length
rather than height is the desideratum in a Condenser. In the ordinary
vertical form of the apparatus, the cooling effect of the air on the sur-
face of the upper parts of the pipes is almost nil. This will be obvious
when it is considered that the air contiguous to the lower part of the
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
103
Condenser, being assimilated to the temperature of the latter, expands,
and so, becoming lighter than the surrounding air, ascends in contact
with the pipes, extracting less heat in proportion as it rises.
In addition to the other advantages, the ammoniacal liquor on
leaving the Horizontal Condenser is of a strength equal to 5 Twaddel
a result which it is impossible to obtain from the ordinary vertical
form.
A somewhat similar form of Condenser was previously designed and
used by Mr. George Livesey.
Fig. 86 shows a useful form of the Horizontal Condenser suitable
for small works.
Combined Atmospherical and Water Condenser.
Cutler's Horizontal Condenser has one or more small tubes passing
through the interior of the larger pipes. Through these tubes a stream
of water flows in the opposite direction to the gas ; so that by the time
the water reaches the inlet of the Condenser, by absorbing the heat of
the gas, it has attained a moderately high temperature, and thus any
sudden cooling of the gas at the entrance is prevented.
The Tubular or Battery Condenser.
An excellent apparatus (atmospherical) is that known as the Battery
Condenser (Fig. 37). This is an oblong vessel, 12 to 24 inches wide,
FIG. 37.
12 to 18 feet in height, and of length suitable to the requirements of
the works. It is divided by internal plates or mid-feathers, placed at
distances, equal to the width, apart, extending to within a few inches of
104 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
the top and bottom of the chest alternately ; and the gas passes from
the inlet, up and down each division, till it arrives at the outlet. To
augment its condensing power, small tubes, 2 inches in diameter,
through which the air has free circulation, are passed through from
side to side of the vessel, and there securely jointed. These trans-
verse tubes serve the double purpose of cooling the gas ; and, by break-
ing it up and retarding its progress, inducing a natural settlement of
the heavy condensable vapours.
Rules for Calculating the Area required, for Atmospheiical Condensation,
It is stated in ' ' Clegg " (4th edition, p. 173), that " the different
states in which crude gas enters the Condensers make it impossible to
give any fixed rule for the determination of the area of the exposed
surface. It may be dangerous even to venture on a general one ; but
it may be stated from experience that a surface of 150 square feet for
every 1000 cubic feet per hour is about sufficient when the stratum of
gas has not exceeded 3 inches in thickness, and this without the
application of a water shower."
This is at the rate of 6J square feet of condensing surface for every
1000 cubic feet maximum production of gas per diem of 24 hours.
The superficial area of the original Condensers designed by Mr.
Croll for the Great Central Gas Company was 4 feet per 1000 cubic
feet maximum production per diem, or at the rate of 96 square feet
for every 1000 cubic feet of gas produced per hour.
Another rule adopted by some gas managers is to allow 10 square
feet of condensing surface for the cooling of 1 cubic foot of gas per
minute.
This gives at the rate of nearly 7 square feet of surface per 1000
feet per diem.
Others again insist that only 5 square feet of surface are needed
for every 1000 feet made in 24 hours.
An average of the whole of the above gives rather over 5 square
feet.
Our opinion, founded on a lengthened experience, is that all these
estimates are too low, and that about 10 superficial feet of condensing
surface (atmospherical) for each 1000 cubic feet maximum production
per day of 24 hours should be provided. This includes the length of
main extending from the hydraulic main ; moreover, the Condenser
should be protected from the direct action of the sun's rays, or other-
wise water should be made to trickle down the outer surface of the
pipes during sunshine.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 105
Dry Scrubbers as Condensers.
In some works condensation is effected by means of dry scrubbers
cast-iron vessels of large diameter charged with coke, drain tiles,
or other material, breaking up the gas into minute streams, which,
being thus cooled, deposits its tar and water.
A natural settlement of the condensable matter also takes place,
irrespective of the action of the contained material, owing to the
velocity of the flow of the gas being reduced on entering the larger
area.
The rapid fouling of these vessels, however, necessitating frequent
changing of the filling material to prevent undue back pressure, and
maintain their efficiency, renders their use objectionable.
Precipitating chambers of large size are also employed, without any
filling material, in which the gas, as it were, sleeps, and deposits its
condensable particles. A vessel of this kind is useful in other
respects, because the large volume of gas serves as a cushion to
counteract pulsatory action between the exhauster and the retorts.
Underground Condenser.
In this arrangement the pipes are placed in the ground, out of the
reach of the fluctuations of temperature in the atmosphere, with a
view to obtaining uniformity of action in the process of condensation.
By this system, however, a much longer length of piping is required
than by any other, owing to the small amount of radiation from the
surface of the buried pipes.
There is an advantage in this process of gradual condensation ; but
it is advisable, wherever in use, to supplement it by finally passing
the gas through one of the other forms of Condensers made of less
than the usual area.
Water -Channel Condenser.
Mr. Livesey, at the South Metropolitan Works, has adopted the
plan of placing the condensing pipes in a tank divided into channels,
through which a stream of water is made to flow, and which can be
regulated according to the make of gas. The water enters the tank
at the point where the condensed gas makes its exit, and, flowing in
the opposite direction to the gas in the pipes, is gradually raised in
temperature by the latter till it reaches its outlet, where the crude
gas enters. By this means a more uniform condensation is obtained
than is possible in the atmosphere.
106 NBWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Pelouze and Audouin's Condenser.
The principle of this is different to any of the other apparatus
described. In construction it consists of an outer cylindrical cast-
iron chamber, with the usual inlet for gas, and outlets for gas and
liquids, and contains a cylinder of perforated sheet-iron constituting
the Condenser. The sides of the condensing chamber are two thin
sheets of iron with a concentric space between. The inner sheet is
perforated with holes l-20th of an inch in diameter, and the outer
with slots of larger size ; the outer sheet being so arranged as to offer
a blank surface opposite the small holes in the inner sheet. The gas
and condensable vapours pass through the small perforations, the
vapours being as it were wire-drawn, and striking against the opposite
solid surface are deposited thereon, and flow down into the receptacle
below, and thence to the tar well.
The gas passes on through the slots in the outer cylinder to the
outlet pipe.
The condensing cylinder is so balanced as to rise and fall in an
annular space containing tar or liquor which acts as a seal. As
the make of gas increases or decreases, the cylinder rises or falls ;
and consequently a larger or less number of openings are uncovered
for the passage of the gas. The result is a more complete separa-
tion of the tar from the gas than is attainable by any other form of
Condenser.
Carburetting Condensers.
The Aitken and Young Analyzer, and the St. John and Rockwell
apparatus, may both be included under this head, as they are each
designed by their inventors to enrich the gas by carburetion. The
tar and gas are both conveyed direct from the hydraulic main to the
apparatus, their temperature at the inlet being maintained as high as
possible, and means are even adopted of raising the temperature, if
required, in order that the heavier hydrocarbons present in the crude
gas and tar may be permanently suspended, and so become fixed
illuminants in the gas, notwithstanding the subsequent reduction of
temperature in the ordinary course of purification. At the works
where the respective processes have been adopted a good account is
given of their efficiency.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
107
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108
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
In connection with the subject of Condensation, the following Table,
comparing the English and French Thermometers, will be found
useful :
Fahr
Reau.
Cent.
Fahr
Beau.
Cent.
Fahr.
Beau.
Cent.
Fahr.
Reau.
Cent.
212
80-0
100-0
160
56-8
71-1
108
33-7
42-2
56
10-6
13-3
211
79-5
99-4
159
56-4
70-5
107
33-3
41-6
55
10-2
12-7
210
79-1
98-8
158
56-0
70-0
106
32-8
41-1
54
9-7
12-2
209
78-6
98-3
157
55-5
69-4
105
32-4
40-5
53
9'3
11-&
208
78-2
97-7
166
55-1
68-8
104
32-0
40-0
52
8-8
in
207
77-7
97-2
155
54-6
68-3
103
31-5
39-4
51
8-4
10-5
206
77-3
96-6
154
54-2
67-7
102
31-1
38-8
50
8-0
10-0
205
76-8
96-1
153
53-7
67-2
101
'30-6
38-3
49
7'5
9-4
204
76-4
95-5
152
53-3
66-6
100
30-2
37-7
48
7-1
8-8-
203
76-0
95-0
151
52-8
66-1
99
29-7
37-2
47
6-6
8-3
202
75-5
94-4
150
52-4
65-5
98
29-3
36-6
46
6-2
7-7
201
75-1
93-8
149
52-0
65-0
97
28-8
36-1
45
5-7
7-2
200
74-6
93-3
148
51-5
64-4
96
28-4
35-5
44
5-3
6'6
199
74-2
92-7
147
51-1
63-8
95
28-0
35-0
43
4'8
6-1
198
73-7
92-2
146
50-6
63-3
94
27-5
34-4
42
4-4
5-5
197
73-3
91-6
145
50-2
62-7
93
27-1
33-8
41
4-0
5-0
196
72-8
91-1
144
49-7
62-2
92
26-6
33-3
40
3'5
4'4
195
72-4
90-5
143
49-3
61-6
91
26-2
32-7
39
3-1
8-8
194
72-0
90-0
142
48-8
61-1
90
25-7
32-2
38
2-6
3-3
193
71-5
89-4
141
48-4
60-5
89
25-3
31-6
87
2'2
2-7
192
71-1
88-8
140
48-0
60-0
88
24-8
31-1
36
1-7
2-2
191
70-6
88-3
139
47-5
59-4
87
24-4
30-5
35
1-3
1-6
190
70-2
87-7
138
47-1
58-8
86
24-0
30-0
34
0-8
1-1
189
69-7
87-2
137
46-6
58-3
85
23-6
29-4
33
0-4
0-5
188
69-3
86-6
186
46-2
57-7
84
23-1
28-8
82
o-o
o-o
187
68-8
86-1
135
45-7
57-2
83
22-6
28-3
31
- 0-4
- 0-5
186
68-4
85-5
134
45-3
56-6
82
22-2
27-7
30
- 0-8
- 1-1
185
68-0
85-0
133
44-8
56-1
81
21-7
27-2
29
- 1-3
- 1-6
184
67-5
84-4
132
44-4
65-5
80
21-3
26-6
28
- 1'7
- 2-2
183
67-1
83-8
131
44-0
55-0
79
20'8
26-4
27
- 2-2
- 2-7
182
66-6
83-3
130
43-5
54-4
78
20-4
25-5
26
- 2-6
- 3-3
181
66-2
82-7
129
43-1
53-8
77
20-0
25-0
25
- 3-1
- 3-8
180
65-7
82-2
128
42-6
53-3
76
19-5
24-4
24
- 3-5
- 4-4
179
65-3
81-6
127
42-2
52-7
75
19-1
23-8
23
- 4-0
- 5-0
178
64-8
81-1
126
41-7
52-2
74
18-6
23-3
22
- 4-4
- 5-5
177
64-4
80-5
125
41-3
51-6
73
18-2
22-7
21
- 4-8
- 6-1
176
64-0
80-0
124
40-8
51-1
72
17-7
22-2
20
- 5-3
- 6-6
175
63-5
79-4
123
40-4
50-5
71
17-3
21-6
19
- 5-7
- 7-2
174
63-1
78-8
122
40-0
50-0
70
16-8
21-1
18
- 6-2
- 7-7
173
62-6
78-3
121
39-5
49-4
69
16-4
20-5
17
- 6-6
- 8-3
172
62-2
77-7
120
39-1
48-8
68
16'0
20-0
16
- 7-1
- 8-8
171
61 -V
77-2
119
38-6
48-3
67
15-5
19-4
15
- 7-5
- 9-4
170
61-3
76-6
118
38-2
47-7
66
15-1
18-8
14
- 8-0
-10-0
169
60-8
76-1
117
37-7
47-2
65
14-6
18-3
13
- 8-4
-10-5
168
60-4
75-5
116
37-3
46-6
64
14-2
17-7
12
- 8-8
-11-1
167
60-0
75-0
115
36-8
46-1
63
13-7
17-2
11
- 9-3
-11-6
166
59-5
74-4
114
36-4
45-5
62
13-3
16-6
10
- 9'7
-12-2
165
59-1
78-8
113
36-0
45-0
61
12-8
16-1
9
-10-2
-12-7
164
58-6
73-3
112
35-5
44-4
60
12-4
15-5
8
-10-6
-13-3
163
58-2
72-7
111
35-1
43-8
59
12-0
15-0
7-
-11-1
-13-8
162
67-7
72-2
110
84-6
43-3
58
11-5
14-4
6
-11-5
-14-4
161
57-3
71-6
109
84-2
42-7
57
11-1
13'8
5
-12-0
-15-0
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
To convert Degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade and' Reaumur,
and conversely.
To convert Fahr. into Cent.
RULE 1st. Substract 32, and divide the remainder by 1 '8, thus :
Fahr.l67_-82 =75Ceat .
or by
RULE 2nd. Subtract 82, multiply the remainder by 5, and divide
the product by 9, thus :
Fahr.(167-32)x5 =75Centt
H
To convert Cent, into Fahr.
Rule 1st. Multiply by 1-8, and add 82, thus :
Cent. 75 x 1-8 + 82 = 167 Fahr.
or by
RULE 2nd. Multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32, thus :
5
To convert Fahr. into Reau.
RULE 1st. Subtract 32, and divide by 2-25, thus:
Fahr. 113-32
T = 36 Reau.
or by
RULE 2nd. Subtract 32, multiply by 4, and divide by 9, thus :
Fahr. (118-82) X* = 86Beau .
To convert Reau. into Fahr.
RULE 1st. Multiply by 2-25, and add 82, thus :
Reau. 36 x 2-25 + 32 = 113 Fahr.
or by
RULE 2nd. Multiply by 9, divide by 4, and add 32, thus :
Reau. 36 x 9
- + 82 = 113 Fahr.
NAPHTHALINE.
In dealing with the subject of Condensation, that of the formation
or deposition of Naphthaline may be appropriately discussed. This
hydrocarbon when deposited in the solid state in the apparatus and
mains of a gas-works and in the distributing pipes in the streets, is
110 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
exceedingly troublesome ; sometimes entirely blocking the passage of
the gas, and entailing much labour and expense in its removal.
It is generally believed that the presence of Naphthaline in gas is
due, principally, to the high heats necessarily used in the carboniza-
tion of the coal, owing to the partial distillation of a portion of the
tar. In the early days of gas lighting, when iron retorts were used
exclusively, and the heats were comparatively low, Naphthaline as now
found in the mains in the solid state was almost unknown. It was not
until clay retorts came to be employed, and the heat of carbonization
was increased, that Naphthaline made its appearance.
It is well known by its flaky crystalline structure, and its peculiar
ethereal odour. It is not soluble in water, but easily so in naphtha ;
hence its removal is effected by steaming with naphtha vapour, or by
pouring that liquid into the obstructed mains and apparatus.
Naphthaline is deposited most freely from gas produced from bitumi-
nous coal. Some kinds of coal yield it in greater abundance than
others. By using a proportion of cannel along with the coal, the gas
being enriched is enabled to retain some or the whole of the Naphtha-
line in suspension within it in the gaseous condition. The richer the
gas, the more capable it is (under ordinary conditions) of retaining
the constituents which contribute to its enrichment and vice versa.
In the year 1877 M. Bre'mond published an account of a series of
valuable researches made by him on the question of the formation of
Naphthaline and its deposition, in which he showed that (to use his
own words) " Naphthaline is produced wherever there is condensation
of the aqueous vapours contained in the gas ; that its deposition is
preceded by the phenomenon of the condensation of the water ; and
that gas absolutely deprived, as far as possible, of aqueous vapour does
not deposit Naphthaline under the ordinary conditions of temperature
and pressure."
It is clear, therefore, that the subject of condensation is one of the
utmost importance if Naphthaline, or an excess of it, is to be got rid
of. But however perfect the ordinary condensing apparatus may be,
it is almost impossible to deprive gas of its aqueous vapour by this
means. M. Bremond therefore adopted other means of drying the
gas ; and for this purpose he employed an ordinary lime purifier, but
instead of filling it with slaked or hyd rated lime, he charged it with
unslaked lime in lumps. By passing the gas through this unslaked
lime he completely desiccated the gas, with the interesting result that
the aqueous vapour, and consequently the excess of Naphthaline also,
was arrested. The gas thus deprived of its moisture was found to
have increased in illuminating power to a considerable extent.
This remarkable result of drying the gas had previously been
observed by the first London Gas Referees. They found that the gas
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. Ill
made at Beckton actually gained in illuminating power in traversing
the long length of mains from Beckton to London ; and they
remark as follows : "In considering the satisfactory result of the novel
and somewhat perilous enterprise, the Referees are inclined to account
for it [the increase in the illuminating power] mainly by the slow and
gradual withdrawal of aqueous vapour from the gas in its long journey.
This condensation is very different in character from the sudden with-
drawal of aqueous vapour produced by the application of great cold,
for it takes place very gradually, so that the water is deposited without
any appreciable portion of the hydrocarbons being condensed along
with it. In order to ascertain the effect of withdrawing the aqueous
vapour from gas, we made several experiments by passing the gas
through porous chloride of calcium ; the result showing that dry gas
has a superiority in illuminating power over ordinary gas, to the extent
of from 6 to 8 per cent."
The remedy for the objectionable deposit of Naphthaline is thus in
the gasmaker's own hands to a great extent. If the gas be dried either
by means of chloride of calcium or oxide of calcium (unslaked lime),
or by careful and gradual condensation through a considerable length
of mains, not only will the after-deposition of Naphthaline be prevented,
but there will be a sensible increase in the illuminating power of the
gas so treated.
THE EXHAUSTEE.
Wherever the make of gas exceeds 8 millions of cubic feet per
annum, an Exhauster becomes a useful adjunct to the other apparatus
of a gas-works ; the invariable result of its use being to increase the
production per ton, to improve the quality of the gas (provided air is
not drawn in), and to lengthen the duration of the retorts, by prevent-
ing, in a great measure, the deposition of carbon, the removal of which
with the ordinary chisel bars is so destructive and unsatisfactory.
Mechanical Exhausters are of two kinds, the rotatory and the recip-
rocating. Both descriptions have their advocates, and much may be
said in favour of each. The rotatory is certainly steadier in its action,
producing less oscillation, the gas flowing more equably through the
mains and apparatus.
Beale's '(the early form of which is shown in Fig. 88), Jones's (Fig.
39), andLaidlaw's (Fig. 40) are on the rotatory principle ; Methven's,
Musgrave's, Anderson's (Fig. 41), and Dempster's are reciprocating.
The steam-jet Exhauster (Fig. 42), invented by Mr. Cleland, and
improved by Korting Brothers, is another form of exhausting appara-
tus. This operates by projecting a jet of steam, at about 45 Ibs.
112
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
pressure, through an arrangement of pipes or nozzles, without the
intervention of any other mechanical appliances the steam being
afterwards extracted by condensation. The capacity of the Exhauster
is regulated by the adjustable screw and spindle at the end ; and by
a movable inner sleeve, opening or closing the port holes by means of
the screw and nut at the side.
FIG. 88,
Mr. E. 0. Paterson found a gain in illuminating power equal to
f ths of a candle from using this Exhauster, which he attributed to
the steam having volatilized some of the liquid hydrocarbons.
FIG. 39.
FIG. 40.
Beale's form of Exhauster is the one now usually adopted
and whilst the original type is retained, great improvements
have been effected in its construction and working by various makers
of recent years notably by Gwynne and Co., B. Donkin and Co.,
\V. H. Allen and Co., and G. Waller and Co.
The essential features of a good Exhauster are that it should
work with a minimum of friction and power, that it should give
the steadiest possible flow of gas, and that the parts should be
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES
113
perfectly gas-tight. Beale's Exhauster, when well constructed, satisfies
these conditions. The commonest fault is the want of tightness, and
when it is remembered that, under a pressure equal to a 14-inch
column of water, about 9000 cubic feet of gas will pass per hour
through an opening of only one square inch in area, the absolute
necessity of the best workmanship only, being used in Exhausters,
will be evident.
FIG. 41.
The apparatus (Beale's) consists of a cylinder, inside which a
drum revolves, and is provided with pistons on slides which have a
radial motion. The drum is smaller in diameter than the inside of
the cylinder, and the centre lines or axes of both are parallel and
horizontal ; but the drum is placed eccentrically in the cylinder
so as to be in contact with it at the bottom without resting on it.
The inlet and outlet passages are on the two opposite sides of the
cylinder, and as the slides are guided by segments in the end plates,
so that their outer ends are always in contact with the inside of the
cylinder, the gas enters one side, is carried round over the drum to
the other side, and is forced out at the outlet.
114
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
FIG. 43.
FIG. 44.
FIG. 42.
The illustrations Figs. 43 and 44 show sections of a Beale's
Exhauster as made by Gwynne and Co. under their patents, and
containing several improvements on the machine as first invented,
by which the areas of wearing surfaces have been augmented so as
to greatly increase the durability of the machine. These include the
double slides, large segments, steel pins fastened in the segments
and extending through the whole length of the slides, and the outside
bearings for the axle.
The apparatus may be driven either by a strap from a line shaft
actuated by a steam or gas engine, or, what is preferable, by a steam-
engine coupled direct. By employing two Exhausters, and working
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
115
them from one engine, the slides of the Exhausters being placed at
right angles to each other, a perfectly steady vacuum and pressure
are maintained.
Exhauster Governor.
When an Exhauster is employed, it is necessary to supplement its
use by a gas Governor, acting either on a throttle valve within the.
steam feed-pipe, in this case increasing or diminishing the speed of
the engine, or on a valve within a bye-pass connected to the inlet and
outlet mains leading to and from the Exhauster, the opening of
which, when the exhaust is too active, allows a portion of the gas
to return through the Exhauster, and thus prevents the formation of a
partial vacuum in the retorts. (See Fig. 45.)
FIG. 45.
STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE.
These should be provided of ample size, allowing a margin over
and above the actual power needed. An Engine and Boiler barely fit
to do the work required of them are a nuisance.
The Engine, besides turning the exhauster, may be used in pump-
ing water and tar ; and the Boiler, in addition to supplying steam
i 2
116 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE,
for the Engine, is useful for steaming the mains and apparatus on the
works.
Duplicate Boilers of the required size should be provided, to allow
for periodical cleaning and examination.
For firing the Boiler, breeze may be used, mixed with a portion of
coke or coal.
One pound weight of coal of average quality requires 150 cubic
feet of air for its perfect combustion. In actual practice, however,
about double this quantity of air passes through the furnace of steam
Boilers.
Wherever practicable and convenient, the Boiler should be set in
such a position as to allow of its being heated with the waste heat
from the retort- stack.
In small works, if a steam Boiler cannot be employed for want of
space, or should a Boiler be considered objectionable on other grounds,
the Exhauster can be driven by a Gas-Engine.
The kind of Boiler most suitable for a gas-works of moderate size is
the cylindrical, with flat ends, and single internal tube containing the
furnace.
The nominal horse power of such a Boiler is found by multiplying
the sum of the diameters of the outer shell and internal flue by the
length, and dividing the product by 6.
Example. Required the power of a Boiler whose diameter is
4 ft. 6 in., diameter of tube 2 ft. 6 in., and length 12 ft.
(4' 6" + 2' 6") X 12- =
6
Again
Required the power of a Boiler whose diameter is 6 ft., diameter of
tube 3 ft., and length 20 ft.
(Bl^'lA^: = 80-horse power.
Cement for Stopping Leaks in Boilers.
By Weight.
Powdered fire-clay ...... 6 parts.
Fine iron filings ....... 1 part.
Made into a paste with boiled linseed oil.
In high-pressure or non-condensing Engines, with
Steam at 25 Ibs. per square inch, 13 '6 circular inches on piston = 1 horse-power
Do. 30 Ibs. do. 11-8 do. = do.
The diameter of the piston in inches, squared = circular inches.
The following table gives the diameter of cylinders for high-pres-
sure (non-condensing) Steam-Engines, from 3 to 16 horse power, with
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES.
117
steam at 25 Ibs. and 30 Ibs. per square inch respectively, and the
length of stroke for the different
Nominal
Horse
Power.
Diameter of Cylinder
in Inches.
Length
of
Stroke.
Nominal
Horse
Power.
Diameter of Cylinder
in Inches.
Length
Stroke.
Steam per Square Inch.
Steam per Square Inch.
25 Ibs.
30 Ibs.
Inches.
25 Ibs.
30 Ibs.
Inches.
3
64
6
12
8
104
94
2.0
n
61
6i
12
8J
101
9J
20
4
7i
6|
14
9
Hi
m
22
45
71
7i
14
10
in
10|
22
5
Si-
7*
16
11
12J
m
24
H
Si
7J
16
12
121
ni
24
6
9
Si
18
13
m
12J
26
61
9J
8|
18
14
13|
12|
26
7
9|
9
18
15
Mi
13
28
n
104
91
20
16
15
13J
30
Cement for Metallic Joints.
Equal weights of red and white lead, mixed with boiled linseed oil
to the consistency of putty.
THE WASHEE.
The Washer was one of the very earliest appliances used in the
purification of coal gas, and naturally so, owing to the cooling and
condensing property of water, and its power of absorbing ammonia
and of arresting the tar.
Its construction, however, was often faulty at first, and the limits
of its functions misunderstood ; so that the misuse, or overuse, of the
apparatus, resulting in reduced illuminating power to the gas exposed
to its action, caused it to fall for a time into disrepute.
The principle of its action is that of causing the gas to pass in
finely-divided streams through a body of water contained in a
vessel, so that a portion of the ammonia and other gaseous
impurities, and the whole of the floating particles of tar which have
escaped condensation, may be removed before the gas enters the
scrubbers.
The Washer should always be used in conjunction with the scrubber,
and the gas passed through it in the first instance.
When the Washer is exposed to outside atmospheric influence, it is
necessary in winter to employ means to prevent the water from falling
118 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
below a temperature of 50 Fahr. ; otherwise the gas, especially a rich
gas, passing through it will suffer deterioration.
The Washer is generally employed as a separate and distinct appa-
ratus ; but sometimes it is placed at the bottom of the tower scrubber,
of which it constitutes a part.
All Washers give an amount of back pressure, varying from 1 to 4
inches, according to the depth of water traversed. There are numerous
designs of Washers, but the principal ones are here described.
Anderson's Washer.
The persistent advocacy of Mr. George Anderson has done much to
restore the Washer to favour, and his form of the apparatus is still one
of the best.
It consists of a cast-iron outer vessel, containing a number of trays,
having on their under side a series of serrated bars extending from
side to side ; these dip into the water or liquor, and the gas, in pass-
ing through the serrations is divided into minute globules. The
pressure given can be regulated by raising or lowering the overflow
with which the apparatus is provided. A four-way valve is used for
shut-off and bye- pass. Weak liquor from the condenser is run in at
the top, and drips from tray to tray till it reaches the bottom. The
Washer is made either single or double as required.
CatheU' Washer.
The usual oblong or square vessel in this case is divided into sec-
tions as many as may be desired, each elevated higher than the others
in the form of steps. The gas enters at the bottom, passes in divided
streams through a number of curtain serrations extending the full
length of the vessel, and so on through the rest, and out at the top of
the higher compartment. When the liquor in the lowest section is of
the strength required, it is run off, and the contents of the several
sections transferred one step lower, the last or uppermost being charged
with fresh water.
This Washer is also arranged in the vertical form to occupy less
ground space.
Livesey's Washer.
This is a compact and efficient apparatus, occupying less room for
the work done than any other.
In a rectangular cast-iron box of any size (depending on the make
of gas) is a series of rectangular tubes of wrought-iron, to which
wrought-iron perforated plates are fastened, turned down at the
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 119
sides till they dip into the liquor. The perforations are l-20th of an
inch diameter, and l-5th of an inch apart.
The gas passes down between the tubes and through the side per-
forations into spaces filled with liquor, and, bubbling upwards, is again
broken up by finding its way through the horizontal perforations into
the open space above, and so along to the outlet of the apparatus.
Means are provided for securing an active circulation of the liquor,
which is constantly flowing through it from the adjacent scrubber,
and away by an overflow to the well.
THE SCRUBBER.
The Tower Scrubber (Fig. 46) is a cast-iron vessel, either rectangular
or cylindrical (the latter shape being preferred), erected on end, through
which the gas is made to pass in an upward direction after issuing
from the washer.
Its primary use is to entirely purify the gas from ammonia by the
aid of water ; advantage being taken of the well-known great affinity
of ammonia for that liquid.
Water, at mean temperature and pressure (60 Fahr., barometer
30"), dissolves 783 times its volume of ammoniacal gas that is,
undiluted ammoniacal gas. When the latter is mixed with other gases,
as in the case of coal gas, the power of water to arrest it is not
nearly so great.
It also arrests a considerable proportion of the sulphuretted
hydrogen and carbonic acid.
This is accomplished by filling the vessel wholly or in part with
either coke, boulder-stones, brick-bats, roof or draining tiles, furze,
or layers of thin boards set on edge, about 5 to 7 inches in width, f ths
of an inch thick, and from to f of an inch apart ; the material being
kept constantly moistened by a stream of wa-ter trickling from a suit-
able distributing apparatus fixed in the crown.
When the coke or other material is placed in layers, it is supported
on grids fixed at convenient distances apart ; and opposite each space
a manhole, secured by a movable lid or cover, is provided, so as to
afford access to the interior, either for examination or renewal of the
contained material.
The original Livesey Scrubber is fitted with boards of an inch
thick, 11 inches wide, placed on edge, and kept apart by strips or
blocks of wood f of an inch square ; thus making one board to 1 inch.
The tiers are separated by 2-inch square cross sleepers.
The first cost of filling with boards is greater than when coke or
120 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
other material is employed ; but it possesses the marked advantage
of not fouling up, and will rarely or never need renewing. The gas
cannot form narrow channels in its passage through the vessel, but
is constantly being broken up, and brought in contact with the water
that drips from all sides.
Open Scrubbers are also used without any of the materials above
mentioned. In such cases the column of gas in its upward progress
is met by a descending shower of spray from a Gurney jet.
The most efficient kind of Scrubber is the cylindrical, standing in
height about six or seven times its diameter.
FIG.
The superiority of the Tower Scrubber is due, principally, to
the fact that in this apparatus, more than in any other, there is
lengthened contact of the gas with the water or liquor in a minute
state of sub- division. Height is therefore an important factor in a
Scrubber.
Tower Scrubbers are most economical and effective when they
are used in duplicate (Fig. 46) ; the gas being made to pass through
first one, and then the other.
Where more than one pair of Sciubbers is employed, as is the
GAS ENG1NEEES AND MANAGEES. 121
case in many considerable works, the gas should be distributed in
equal quantities through the several pairs simultaneously not
through each in succession.
Experience has proved that the best filling material is thin rough-
sawn boards, as before described, placed in alternate layers, on edge,
one over the other.
When coke is used as the scrubbing material, it may be placed
in six or eight layers, with a space of about 6 inches between each.
Whatever material is used in filling the Scrubber, it is important
that all parts of its surface should be wetted as equally as possible.
The proper action of the Scrubber depends on this.
The necessity of a good water-distributing apparatus is therefore
apparent. Not only should this be of good construction in the first
instance, but it should always be maintained in efficient working
order.
The gas enters at the bottom of the vessel, and the water or liquor
at the top. The gas in travelling upwards is completely broken up,
fresh surfaces being constantly presented to the descending drip, and
to the wetted sides of the filling material, against which it is rubbed
or " scrubbed " all the way up, until it emerges by the outlet at the
top. A trapped overflow at the bottom conveys the liquor either to
the washer or to the tar well.
The gas, before entering the Scrubbers, should have the whole of the
tar eliminated from it ; and to insure this, a washer may be employed.
The washer can be conveniently placed at the bottom of the first
Scrubber.
The weak ammoniacal liquor from the hydraulic main and con-
denser, and from the second Scrubber, should be employed in the
first Scrubber. The object of this is to arrest a proportion of the
carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, as well as the other
sulphur compounds, for which ammonia has a strong affinity, thus
relieving the lime and oxide purifiers, and saving labour and purifying
materials. The weak liquor is also by this means brought up to
the requisite commercial strength.
Fresh water, in the proportion of two to three gallons per 1000
cubic feet of gas passing, is used in the second Scrubber, to remove
the last vestige of ammonia. It also takes up a considerable pro-
portion of the deleterious gases above named.
One method frequently adopted of applying the water or liquor is
by a pipe passing through the crown or side of the vessel, from
which pipe smaller tubes, pierced with holes, radiate towards the
circumference. This may be either fixed or revolving ; the latter
being the most efficient.
Mr. Mann, who has bestowed much attention to this subject, with
122 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
most satisfactory results, makes the uppermost part of his Scrubbers
about 2 or 3 inches wider than the rest, in order that the sides of the
vessel may be wetted as well as the contained material. In this wider
portion of the Scrubber, and underneath the distributing tubes, he
has a revolving layer of birchwood twigs lessening in depth towards
the circumference, and the water falling upon this is equally
distributed throughout. This arrangement requires the use of a
small engine and gearing to produce the slow rotary motion.
To obviate the necessity for an engine, a Barker's mill or other
similar appliance is sometimes used for producing the required motion ;
but as the stream of water necessary to keep this in constant action
would be too great for scrubbing purposes, the mill is usually fed
intermittently from a tilting box, or a vessel holding several gallons
of water, and fitted with a valve and float. Where the quantity of
liquor passing is large, as may be the case in the first Scrubber,
a small turbine may be adopted for turning the distributor.
Note. The action of the Barker's mill is due to the pressure of
water being equal and acting in contrary directions. The rotary
portion of the machine revolves about its vertical axis. This con-
sists of a shaft or spindle working in suitable bearings, and passing
through a cylinder open at the upper end, which is fed by a stream
of water. Near to the bottom of this cylinder, horizontal radiating
tubes are fixed, and on one side of these, holes are drilled for the
outlet of the water. The pressure at these points being removed,
acts only on the opposite side, so causing the mill to revolve, the
velocity increasing with the height of the liquid and the size of
the apertures.
Tower Scrubbers should have an aggregate cubical volume of at least
9 feet for each 1000 cubic feet of gas made per day of 24 hours, taking
the maximum production as the basis of the calculation. For example,
take a works producing in the depth of winter 600,000 cubic feet of
gas per day of 24 hours :
Then,
600 x 9 = 5400 feet, cubical volume required.
This would be supplied by
2 Scrubbers, each 8 ft. diameter, and 56 ft. high.
Or again, take a works producing 1,000,000 cubic feet per day :
Then,
1000x9 = 9000 feet, cubical volume required.
This would be supplied by
2 Scrubbers, each 10 ft. diameter, and 58 ft. high.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 123
ANDEESON'S COMBINED WASHER AND SCRUBBER.
A combined Washer and Scrubber, the invention of Mr. George
Anderson, consists of a rectangular cast-iron vessel, standing on end,
and in height about five times its width. The vessel is divided into
compartments, each of which contains a drum caused to revolve by
suitable gearing. The circumference of each drum is fitted with a
brush of whalebone or other fibre. These fit exactly into the space
allotted for them, and, in revolving, dip into the liquid which partially
fills the several divisions. The Scrubber stands on one of Mr. Ander-
son's Washers, previously described (p. 117 ). A small stream of pure
water, at the rate of 10 to 12 gallons per ton of coal carbonized, is kept
flowing into the top compartment through a funnel and sealing tube,
and gradually descends by way of the gas-pipes connecting the chamber
till it enters the Washer, from which there is an overflow pipe to the
well. The gas enters the Washer at the bottom, and is first relieved of
the tar remaining after condensation ; thence it passes through the
revolving brushes, meeting different strengths of liquor in each divi-
sion, till it reaches the upper one containing pure water, and away by
the outlet. By this means the whole of the ammonia, and a large
proportion of the other impurities, is removed.
THE WASHER SCRUBBER.
Another useful form of Scrubber, or Washer- Scrubber as it has been
designated, of which Mr. Paddon's apparatus is the original type, has
come largely into use in recent years. This is of the horizontal form,
rectangular in sectional plan, and consists of a cast-iron tank or vessel,
usually in sections, containing water or liquor, in which a series of
perforated discs, or volutes of sheet-iron, or chambers containing wood
balls, or other filling medium exposing a large surface, are made to
revolve on a central shaft, at a slow speed. These, as they rise from
the liquid, are completely wetted on both sides, and the crude gas
passing through or amongst them, coming in contact with the wet
surfaces, is deprived of its ammonia and a portion of the other
objectionable compounds. The clean or fresh water entering at one
end, and flowing through the different divisions, is met by the gas
which enters at the opposite end, and gradually increases in strength
till it issues from the final compartment as 10 or 12 ounce (5 or
6 Twaddel) ammoniacal liquor. Kirkham, Hulett, and Chandler's
" Standard " Washer- Scrubber, Fig. 47, and Laycock and Clapham's
" Eclipse " Washer- Scrubber, Fig. 48, are of this type.
124
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
FIG. 47.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS
126 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
In addition to the apparatus described above, the " Purifying
Machine " recently introduced by C. and W. Walker, is a powerful
Washer and Scrubber combined.
Ford's Scrubber- Washer and Cockey's Washer are compact appa-
ratus, producing excellent results, and these do not require motive
power to work them.
TABLE
Shoinng the Number of Volumes of Various Gases which 100 Volumes of
Water, at 60 Fahr. and 30 inches Barometric Pressure, can absorb.
(Dr. Frankland.}
Ammonia ..... 78,000 volumes.
Sulphurous acid. . . . 3,300 ,,
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . 253 ,,
Carbonic acid .... 100
Olefiant gas ..... 12-5
Oxygen ...... 3-7 volumes.
Carbonic oxide . . . . 1'56 ,,
Nitrogen ...... 1-56
Hydrogen ..... 1-56 ,,
Light carburetted hydrogen 1*60 ,,
When water has been saturated with one gas, and is exposed to the
influence of a second, it usually allows a portion of the first to
escape, whilst it absorbs an equivalent quantity of the second. In this
way a small portion of a not easily soluble gas can expel a large
volume of an easily soluble one.
BYE-PASS MAINS AND VALVES.
It is necessary that the condenser, exhauster, washer, scrubber,
station-meter, and governor, should be provided with Bye-pass mains,
closed with Valves or water-traps, to allow of any of the apparatus
being put out of action for cleaning or repairs. The exhauster Bye-
pass is closed with a flap-valve, so that, in case of sudden stoppage of
the machinery, the Valve opens by the pressure of the gas being thrown
against it, and allows the gas to flow unchecked.
THE TAB WELL.
The Tar Well may be built either of bricks laid in cement, and care-
fully puddled at the bottom and sides, or formed of cast or wrought-
iron plates, toltel together, and having either planed or caulked joints.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
127
The iron vessel is preferable where the construction of a good foun-
dation is likely to be a question of great expense.
It should be of capacity sufficient to contain six weeks' make of
material, reckoning from the maximum daily production.
Another Well of smaller dimensions, the size depending on the mag-
nitude of the works, ought to be provided, to serve as a lute or seal,
into which the tar-pipes from the different apparatus should dip.
From this, at a depth of about 15 or 18 inches below the surface of the
ground, an overflow-pipe or channel conveys the condensed products
into the larger reservoir.
In some works the tar-pipe is taken direct from the hydraulic main
into the large Well, and there sealed by being made to dip into a
vertical pipe secured to the bottom of the tank. This is objectionable,
as, in case of stoppage, it is.difficult of access. Again, there is always
the liability of an escape of gas from that portion of the pipe within
the Well ; further, where flushing of the hydraulic main is practised,
the rushing liquor carries with it a quantity of gas which is
liberated within the Well. It is also important that the tar should be
cooled somewhat before entering the larger receptacle, because hydro-
carbon vapour is given off from it at a temperature of about 90 Fahr.
FIG. 49. VERTICAL SECTION.
FIG. 50. PLAN.
and above. In each of these cases the gas or vapour, mixing with the
contained air within the Well, would explode with disastrous conse-
quences on contact with a light. Accidents which have occurred have
been due to one or other of these causes.
In all cases the Wells should be covered over to exclude surface and
rain water, and prevent the possible loss of ammonia by evaporation.
In addition to the underground Tar Well, an elevated cast-iron
Cistern is indispensable in a well-appointed gas-works. Into this the
tar and liquor are pumped from the underground Well, and suitable
draw-off pipes, furnished with stopcocks or valves, serve to discharge
KEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
the material into the barrels, trucks, or barges of the purchasing
contractor.
The Cistern may be divided in two by means of a partition plate
reaching to within about 6 inches of the top, over which the ammo-
niacal liquor will flow, separating itself from the tar by reason of its
lower specific gravity.
A tar and liquor Separator, for placing in the ground in any con-
venient position near to the underground Well, is shown in sectional
elevation and plan hi Figs. 49 and 50. It consists of a cast-iron
vessel, about 4 feet square and 4 feet deep, for a considerable sized
gas-works. The division plate extends from the top of the vessel to
within 4 inches of the bottom ; the diaphragm, over which the tar
escapes into its separate Well, being placed 1 inches lower than the
other diaphragm for the ammoniacal liquor.
TABLE.
Contents of Circular Tanks or Wells in Gallons for each Foot in Depth.
Diameter.
Ft. In.
Gallons for each
Foot in Depth.
Diameter.
Ft. In.
Gallons for each
Foot in Depth.
Diameter.
Ft. In.
Gallons for each
Foot in Depth.
9
397-6
16 6
1336-4
24
2827-4
9 3
420-0
16 9
1377-2
24 3
2886-7
9 6
443-0
17
1418-6
24 6
2946-5
9 9
466-6
17 3
1460-7
24 9
3006-9
10
490-9
17 6
1503-3
25
3068-0
10 3
515-7
17 9
1546-6
25 3
3129-6
10 6
541-2
18
1590-4
25 6
8191-9
10 9
567-3
18 3
1634-9
25 9
3254-8
11
594-0
18 6
1680-0
26
3318-3
11 3
621-3
18 9
1725-7
26 3
3382-4
11 6
649-2
19
1772-1
26 6
3447-2
11 9
677-7
19 3
1819-0
26 9
3512-5
12
706-9
19 6
1866-6
27
3578-5
12 3
736-6
19 9
1914-7
27 3
3645-1
12 6
767-0
20
1963-5
27 6
3712-2
12 9
798-0
20 3
2012-9
27 9
3780-0
13
829-6
20 6
2062-9
28
3848-5
13 3
861-8
20 9
2113-5
28 3
3917-5
13 6
894-6
21
2164-8
28 6
3987-1
13 9
928-1
21 3
2216-6
28 9
4057-4
14
962-1
21 6
2269-1
29
4128-3
14 3
996-8
21 9
2322*1
29 3
4199-7
14 6
1032-1
22
2375-8
29 6
4271-8
14 9
1068-0
22 3
2430-1
29 9
4344-6
15
1104-5
22 6
2485-0
30
4417-9
15 3
1141-6
22 9
2540-6
30 3
4491-8
15 6
1179-3
23
2596-7
30 6
4566-4
15 9
1217-7
23 3
2653-5
30 9
4641-5
16
1256-6
23 6
2710-8
31
4717-3
16 3
1296-2
23 9
2768-8
31 3
4793-7
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
PURIFICATION.
The Impurities in Coal Gas.
The chief impurities present in coal gas, in its crude or raw and
unpurified state, at the time it leaves the retorts, are tar vapour,
ammonia, carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and other sulphur
compounds, notably bisulphide of carbon.
The first-named impurity, tar vapour, begins to condense and is
partially removed in the hydraulic main and pipes leading to the
condensing apparatus, where, if this is of sufficient capacity, and
otherwise adapted to the performance of the work required of it, it is
nearly all removed. What remains is taken out by the washer.
The ammoniacal gas, of which there is about 1 per cent, by volume,
also begins to separate from the crude coal gas in the hydraulic and
foul mains, combining with the moisture distilled from the coal. In
the condenser and washer a further portion is removed ; and in the
scrubbers, if these are as efficient as they ought to be, or can easily
be rendered, the whole of the remaining ammonia (amounting to
about -15 per cent.) is extracted.
The hydraulic and foul mains, condensers, washers, and scrubbers
are also efficacious in removing a portion of the carbonic acid (existing
in the gas to the extent of about 2-5 to 3 per cent.), sulphide of
hydrogen or sulphuretted hydrogen (from 1 to 2 per cent, of which is
contained in the gas), and bisulphide of carbon ; but the bulk of these
three latter impurities still exists in the gas after leaving the scrubbers,
and is carried forward to the Purifiers.
These are charged either with hydrate of lime or hydrated peroxide
of iron, or a combination of both substances, arranged in separate
layers or tiers within the several vessels.
Purification by means of Lime (Oxide of Calcium).
The lime has a perfect and strong affinity for 'carbonic acid and
sulphuretted hydrogen, and accordingly it entirely removes these
compounds from the gas, without leaving the slightest trace of their
presence. The lime, however, in its state of oxide of calcium, has no
affinity for the bisulphide of carbon, so that the greater proportion of
this impurity (all, except such part as is removed by the foul lime
when in the state of sulphide of calcium), is carried forward into the
holders.
Preparation oj the Lime.
Cream or milk of lime was used in Purifying in the early days of
gas manufacture, and though this was thoroughly efficient, and is
130 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
probably the most economical method of employing the lime, it has
been generally discarded on account of the obnoxious character of
the refuse material, " blue billy," as it was called, and the difficulty
of getting rid of it. Lime in the hydrated state is now generally
adopted.
The lime should be prepared by being slaked with clean water a
day or two before it is required for use. If placed in the Purifiers
before this necessary interval has elapsed, it is liable to cake or become
more compact than it otherwise would. On the other hand, hydrate
of lime absorbs carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and its Purifying
power is nullified in proportion to tihe extent of such absorption.
It should not, therefore, be prepared for any great length of time before
it is needed.
It is a common mistake to place the prepared lime in the Purifiers in
a comparatively dry and almost powdery state. Lime used in this
condition is less effective than when thoroughly moistened. It is also
a wasteful method of using the lime, as a large proportion of the
material will be found unspent and almost untouched by the impuri-
ties, when the vessel requires to be changed. The finely-divided lime
is also more liable to cake than the other, and thus increase the back
pressure. When the production of gas is great, as in the depth of
winter, these disadvantages are strongly felt.
Mr. Forstall's instructions for preparing the lime are excellent.
After it has been thoroughly well watered, " a simple and effective
means of gauging the proper degree of moisture, and securing its
uniformity throughout the whole charge of lime operated upon, is to
pass the slaked lime through a wire screen, with an open mesh of one
square inch area, placed at an angle of 70 with the floor. This
screening reduces the lumps to granular pellets of irregular form
and size, the largest not exceeding the bulk of a small hickory nut.
The proper degree of moisture is that beyond which any excess will
cause the ' dough ' to adhere to the screen instead of breaking through.
Slight variations of moisture in different portions of the charge are
corrected by the thorough mingling of the whole in the screening.
The pellets do not adhere to one another spontaneously, but can be
shovelled into barrows, and reshovelled into the Purifiers without losing
their independence ; but the slightest compression and working in the
hand resolves them immediately into adhesive putty. The lime in
this state is so penetrable to gas,, that lumps as large as walnuts
are thoroughly saturated, even when lying loosely upon the surface
of the layers." The weight of the lime prepared in the manner
described, and ready for the Purifiers, is 92 Ibs. to the bushel.
Quick lime nearly doubles in bulk on being slaked.
From 90 to 140 Ibs. of quick lime, reduced to a hydrate, are required
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEES. 131
in the Purification of the gas produced from 1 ton of cannel, and from
60 to 80 Ibs. of that produced from 1 ton of coal.
Mr. Hislop has patented a process of calcination in suitable kilns, by
which the spent lime is converted into quick lime to an almost un-
limited extent, and at considerably less cost than new lime. A
nuisance is thus got rid of, and further economy in Purification
effected.
Purification by means of Hydrated Peroxide of Iron.
Oxide of iron possesses the property of combining with the sulphu-
retted hydrogen, but it has no affinity for carbonic acid and bisulphide
of carbon ; hence when this oxide is used exclusively, the two latter
named impurities are still present in the gas as supplied from the
holders. This remark, however, needs some qualification. As oxide
of iron, pure and simple, it has no affinity for bisulphide of carbon
and other sulpho-carbon compounds, but, from the observations made
at the several metropolitan gas-works, Mr. E. H. Patterson (one of
the Eeferees) deduced the interesting fact that the sulphur which is
present in a state of minute division in the oxide of iron, after the
latter has been in use for some time and frequently revivified, possesses
the power of arresting a portion of the bisulphide of carbon.
The hydrated peroxide of iron may be either the natural oxide, bog
iron ore, as it is called, found largely deposited in some of the bogs in
Ireland and elsewhere ; or the artificial oxide, obtained as a waste
product from various processes of the manufacturing chemist.
Oxide of iron possesses this advantage over lime : After it has been
in the Purifier, and has taken up its quantum of sulphuretted hydrogen,
it can be revivified on exposure to the air. Accordingly, when this
material is used, a floor has to be provided on which it can be spread
out, and turned over for revivification. At the Manchester Gas- Works,
a horse and plough are employed for turning over the foul oxide.
When taken out of the Purifier it is sulphide of iron, of a dense black ;
and after exposure it changes to its original reddish brown colour,
oxygen having been taken up, and sulphur deposited in the free state
in the mass. When the sulphur is found in it to the extent of about
40 to 60 per cent, by weight (the proportion depending on the quality
of the oxide), the material is sold to the manufacturing chemist, and
replaced by fresh oxide.
In using fresh oxide of iron, it is necessary to exercise certain pre-
cautions. The foul material, on its exposure to the air for the first
two or three times, absorbs oxygen so rapidly as often to generate
very intense heat, the whole mass frequently becoming red hot.
Should this occur in the Purifiers, the danger is considerable, and
K2
132 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
the wood grids may be completely destroyed. Whenever, therefore, a
Purifier containing such new oxide has been put out of action, it
should be emptied without delay. The danger of ignition may be
overcome by mixing the new oxide with a proportion of the spent.
Foul oxide should not be spread out immediately on being removed
from the Purifiers. If it is allowed to remain in the heap for a space
of 12 to 24 hours, and then distributed over the floor, the revivification
is more complete, whilst the liability to ignition is reduced.
Average Composition of the Richer Descriptions of Native Bo</ Ore for
Purifying Purposes, dried at 212 Fahr. (Kimjs Treatise] :
Ferric oxide 60 to 70 per cent.
Organic matter 15 to 25 ,,
Silica 4 to 6
Alumina 1 ,,
As generally used, the material contains 30 to 40 per cent of water.
Purification by means of Oxide of Calcium (lime), Sulphide of Calcium
(foul or spent lime], and Oxide of Iron.
Lime alone, or the lime and oxide of iron, when properly applied,
are capable of freeing the gas entirely of the whole three impurities
carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and bisulphide of carbon. This
brings us to the method of Purifying expounded by the Referees in
their Eeport to the Board of Trade on Sulphur Purification at the
Beckton Gas-Works, January 31st, 1872 ; and also by Dr. Odling,
somewhat more in detail, in his lecture on Sulphide of Carbon,
delivered at the Annual Meeting of the British Association of Gas
Managers, held in London, in June, 1872.
To accomplish this perfect Purification in accordance with the sug-
gestions made by Dr. Odling, three sets of Purifiers are required ; the
gas passing through the first set into the second, and on to the third,
from which it makes its exit through the station-meter into the
holders. The modus operandi is as follows :
Let it be assumed that three sets of Purifiers, consisting of four
vessels each, are employed. Nine of these are constantly in action,
three being at rest (one from each set), for the purpose of changing
or revivifying the Purifying mater^l.
The first and second sets are charged with lime, the third set with
oxide of iron.
Say the whole nine are newly charged. On tlie gas from the
scrubbers entering the first set, the lime is acted on by the carbonic
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen simultaneously, leaving the bisulphide
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
of carbon at the beginning of the process to pass unabsorbed. After
they have worked for some time, the sulphuretted hydrogen in the
first set is gradually expelled by the incoming carbonic acid, for
which the lime has a stronger affinity. The second set is now being
fouled with sulphuretted hydrogen, the lime being wholly or in part
changed in character, having become sulphide of calcium, in which
state it has an affinity for, and consequently arrests, the bisulphide
of carbon ; whilst the unabsorbed sulphuretted hydrogen passes on to
be taken up by the oxide of iron with which the final set of Puri-
fiers is charged. By the application of the proper tests at the
several sets of Purifiers, the time for changing the material is
ascertained.
The question of supplying gas entirely free from sulphur in any
form is a formidable one for gas companies ; not so much because
of the cost (though that is considerable) of erecting the additional
sets of Purifiers, as from the difficulty of providing the necessary
ground space for their erection. In new works about to be con-
structed, the thing is easily arranged ; but in the majority of works
already established, it would not be easy to carry the system into
effect.
As regards the question of cost, a careful estimate shows that to
adopt the extended method of Purifying as enunciated, would entail
an outlay of additional capital equivalent to close upon 2d. per 1000
cubic feet of gas sold.
The property of absorbing or arresting bisulphide or disulphide of
carbon possessed by the sulphide of calcium, was known by chemists
and some observant managers of gas-works for a period considerably
anterior to the date of the publication of either the able report of the
Referees, or of the valuable lecture of Dr. Odling, and the principle
of Purification, therein recommended, acted on to some extent. Dr.
Letheby, in a paper communicated to the British Association of
Gas Managers in 1870, speaking of the mode of Purification pur-
sued at the Great Central Works, after referring to the scrubbers,
goes on to say, that " the gas is then passed through a series of
dry lime Purifiers, which present a very large surface for absorption ;
and the lime is purposely left in the Purifiers after it has become
foul, and until a good deal of the sulphuretted hydrogen first absorbed
is displaced by carbonic acid. In this manner the natural affinity
of sulphide of calcium for bisulphide of carbon is permitted to act,
and much sulphur, in this objectionable form, is retained. Leaving
the lime Purifiers, the gas, which is still charged with more or less
of sulphuretted hydrogen,' is passed through oxide of iron . . ? di &J
The chemical effect of these operations is very intelligible, for sul-
phide of ammonium (in the scrubbers, &c.) and sulphide of calcium
134 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
are both endowed with the power of combining with bisulphide of
carbon, and therefore of absorbing and fixing this objectionable im-
purity. It is manifestly then of the greatest importance that coal
gas should be kept in contact with these substances as long as possible
during the process of Purification ... In the case of sulphide
of calcium, it should be permitted to act for some time after the lime has
become foul, for it is in this condition that it is most effective, and a
lime Purifier should not be changed until the sulphuretted hydrogen
of the foul lime is largely displaced by the carbonic acid of the raw
gas. If it be necessary to use oxide of iron on account of the diffi-
culty of disposing of foul lime, it should be used after the lime."
It remained, however, for Mr. E. H. Patterson to show, which he
did conclusively, that this complete Purification can only be success-
fully attained by first extracting the carbonic acid, as, until that is
entirely removed from the crude gas, it is impossible to obtain the
sulphide of calcium in sufficient quantity or condition to arrest the
bisulphide of carbon.
CLASSIFICATION
Of the best known Limestones of this Country, in the Order of their Purity
and ivhich Order also expresses their Value for the purpose of
Purifying Coal Gas. (Hughes.)
1. The white chalk limestone of Merstham, Dorking, Charlton,
Erith, and other parts of the chalk range surrounding the metropolis.
2. The grey chalk limestone, from the lower beds of chalk.
8. The blue beds of the upper and middle Oolites.
4. The lower white and grey limestones of the Oolites.
5. The most calcareous and crystalline beds of the carboniferous or
mountain limestone, colours grey and bluish.
6. The magnesian limestone of Yorkshire and Derbyshire.
7. The white lias limestone.
8. The blue lias limestone.
9. The Silurian limestone ofWenlock, Dudley, &c., and the coralline
limestones of Plymouth and the neighourhood.
The value of limestone as a Purifying agent is in inverse proportion
to the amount of earthy or foreign matter it contains ; that which
leaves the smallest proportion of insoluble sediment on being dissolved
in diluted acid is the best.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
135
Limestone is 'the carbonate of lime found in its natural state, from
which the oxide of calcium (quick or caustic lime) is produced by the
expulsion of the carbonic acid by means of heat in the limekiln.
Quick or Caustic Lime (oxide of calcium) is lime in the solid state,
before absorbing, or being slaked with, water.
Hydrate of Lime is lime in a moist state. It is a chemical com-
pound of lime and water in the proportion of one part of water to three
parts of lime.
Milk of Lime, or Cream of Lime, is a mixture or solution ot hydrate
of lime and water.
WEIGHT AND MEASUEEMENT OF LIME.
1 bushel of quick lime weighs about 70 Ibs.
1 cubic foot of ,, ,, 54
1 yard of 1460
1 ton of ,, is equal to about 32 bushels.
TABLE
Showing the Composition of Di/erent Limestones and their Specific
Gravity. (Government Commission.)
Quality of Limestone
Carbo-
Carbo-
Silica
Iron
Water
Specific
and
nate of
nate of
Alumina
and
Gravity
Locality.
Lime.
Magnesia.
(Flint.)
(Clay.)
Loss.
(Dry.)
g" fAncaster, Lincolnshire . .
S Bath Box, Wiltshire . . .
93-59
94-52
2-90
2-50
80
1-20
2-71
1-78
2-182
1-839
5 1 Portland, Dorsetshire . .j 95'16
1-20
1 : 20
50
1-94
2-145
(Ketton, Rutlandshire. . .
i <D ( Barnack, Northamptonshire.
92-17
93-40
4-10
3-80
90
1-30
2-83
1-50
2-045
2-090
S| JChilmark, Wiltshire . . .
79-00
3-70
10 : 40
2-00
4-20
2-481
J <" ( Ham Hill, Somersetshire. .
79-30
5-20
4-70
8-30
2-50
2-260
A trace of bitumen was observed in each of the above.
s
Bolsover, Derbyshire .
51-10
40-20
3-60
1-80
3-30
2-316
-ffi.2
Huddlestone, Yorkshire . .
54-19
41-37
2-53
30
1-61
2-147
6i
Roche Abbey do. . .
57-50
39-40
80
70
1-60
2-134
Ss.l
Park Nook do. . .
55-70
41-60
40
2-30
2-138
Hawkins's Air Process for Revivification of the Oxide of Iron in Situ.
Mr. J. G. Hawkins discovered that by drawing in from 2 to 3 per
cent, of air at the inlet to the condenser, revivification of the oxide
of iron in situ can be effected to a large extent.
136 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The Purifiers are thus made to continue in use for a greater length
of time without changing ; whilst it is remarkable that the oxide by
this process can be charged with as much as 75 per cent, of free
sulphur.
Purifiers with a proportionately large area in comparison with
the make of gas are required to obtain the full advantage of this
In adopting the air process, two layers of oxide are preferable to
one deep layer. Owing to the heat generated by chemical action, as
well as to the deposition of the sulphur, a considerable increase or
expansion in the bulk of the material takes place in the Purifiers ; and
it is necessary, therefore, to allow ample room for the oxide to expand.
A space of several inches should be allowed between the two layers,
and the surface of the upper layer should be at least 3 inches below
the edge of the water lute.
To counteract the effect of the nitrogen passing into the gas, (the
oxygen having entered into combination with the purifying material),
and reducing the illuminating power, Mr. Hawkins has devised an
apparatus for carburetting the air. This consists of a closed cast-iron
box, oblong in shape, which is constantly supplied with tar from the
hydraulic main or condenser, the tar being heated, by means of
steam pipes at the bottom of the box, to a temperature of 176 Fahr.
the boiling-point of benzole. Air is forced, by means of a steam
pump, through the box over the surface of the tar, being made to
pursue a tortuous course by means of a series of baffle plates, and is
then permitted to join the stream of gas at the condensers ; so that
any subsequent condensation of hydrocarbon vapour is returned to
the tar well.
The Use of Pure Oxygen in Purification.
The chief objection to the use of air for revivifying the oxide of iron
in situ is the importation of a considerable volume of the inert gas
nitrogen into the coal gas, reducing the luminiferous value of the latter,
unless counteracted by the carburetting process above described.
It is obvious that if pure oxygen is employed instead of atmospheric
air, the objection stated will be overcome. The cost of producing
oxygen, however, rendered its use prohibitory for this purpose until
the advent of Erin's process for the production of pure oxygen from
atmospheric air on a commercial scale and at a cheap rate.
In a valuable paper read before the Gas Institute in 1888, Mr.
Valon gave an interesting description of a series of careful experiments
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 137
carried out by him to test the value of the system of adding pure
oxygen to the gas in the process of Purification by oxide of iron or
lime.
The oxygen was admitted at the exhauster outlet by a pipe con-
nected to a wet meter to register the quantity passing, and to a small
holder in which the oxygen was contained.
The quantity of oxygen passed into the oxide was *1 per cent,
by volume for every 100 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen per 100 cubic
feet of gas.
There was found to be an increase in luminosity of about 5 per
cent., whilst the Purification was conducted with less than the usual
quantity of Purifying material and Purifying space.
Using lime only in the Purifiers, the results were still more satis-
factory. It was found that the sulphur was deposited in the solid
form, the lime being perfectly carbonated.
The sulphur compounds were kept down to an average of 6 to 8
grains per 100 cubic feet ; and the illuminating power of the gas was
raised by 1-25 per cent.
In order to obtain the pure oxygen by Erin's process, air is first
deprived of its carbonic acid and moisture by being drawn by a pump
through chambers containing lime and caustic soda, and the same
pump forces it, under a pressure of about one atmosphere, through
barium oxide, contained in steel retorts 8 inches in diameter, heated
in brick furnaces to a dull red heat by producer gas. At this tempera-
ture the barium oxide absorbs a large proportion of the oxygen con-
tained in the air, and is converted into barium peroxide ; the nitrogen,
and any unabsorbed oxygen, escaping through a relief- valve at the
other end of the retorts. When the barium oxide is sufficiently
peroxidized, the temperature of the retorts is raised to bright red, and
the pumps, by the changing of the valves, are converted into vacuum
pumps ; thereupon the absorbed oxygen,under the influence of the higher
temperature and reduced pressure, is given off again, and discharged
by the pumps into the gasholder. The retorts containing the restored
barium oxide are allowed to cool to their previous dull red tempera-
ture, when the barium oxide is again ready to abstract a fresh supply
of oxygen from the air. With due care, and under proper conditions,
there seems to be practically no limit to the number of operations
which may be effected by the one charge of barium oxide. The cost
of the oxygen obtained by the method described, including interest on
capital for plant, wear and tear, and all manufacturing expenses, is
.given by Erin's Company at 5s. per 1000 cubic feet.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Purijication by means of Caustic Soda and Sulphide of Sodium.
The late Mr. R. H. Patterson patented a process of Purifying by
washing or scrubbing the gas in solutions of caustic soda and sulphide
of sodium, extracting the carbonic acid and sulphur impurities, and so
dispensing altogether with the ordinary lime and oxide of iron Purifiers.
The soda solutions, when saturated with the impurities, possess the
important quality of being easily and perpetually revivified or restored
to their original state on the gas-works, whilst the whole of the sulphur
is secured for sale. The plan, however, has not been tried on an
adequately large scale.
Purijication by means of Cattt^C Ammonia, and Carbonate of
Ammonia.
Attempts have been made by Mr. Laming, Mr. Livesey, Mr. F. CL
Hills and others, to purify the gas in closed vessels by employing the
ammonia found in the gas for arresting the other impurities. Unfor-
tunately, the loss of ammonia at each time of desulphurating the
liquor, owing to its extreme volatility, prevented success in this
direction under the conditions adopted.
Claus's Process of Purijication bij Ammonia Gas.
This process of continuous Purification in closed vessels, though not
hitherto largely adopted, is of such importance as to merit a detailed
description.
The crude ammoniacal liquor, consisting of sulphide of ammonium
and carbonate of ammonia, is passed through a series of towers,
wherein it is exposed to the action of carbonic acid (obtained as
described below), whereby the sulphide of ammonium is decomposed,
sulphuretted hydrogen being liberated, and carbonate of ammonia
remaining alone.
The sulphuretted hydrogen passes through and out of the towers in
the opposite direction to that in which the crude liquor travels, and is
disposed of in the manner described hereafter ; whilst the carbonate of
ammonia solution passes forward into other towers in which it is
heated to a temperature of 180 to 200 Fahr.
At this temperature the carbonate of ammonia, of a strength equal
to 10 or 15 ounce liquor, loses two-thirds or three-fourths of its carbonic
acid, and a corresponding quantity of caustic ammonia remains in the
liquor passing from these towers.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
As only a portion of the carbonic acid evolved in the heating vessel
or towers is required for the above-mentioned decomposition of sulphide
of ammonia, the surplus is allowed to escape in a regulated quantity,
and may be used for other purposes forming part of the process.
The sulphuretted hydrogen, after leaving the towers, is conveyed
to a closed furnace charged with oxide of iron, where a low incan-
descent heat is generated and maintained by the admission of a
regulated supply of air.
The oxide of iron, once heated, continues to absorb the sulphuretted
hydrogen, which, owing to the continual admission of air, is evolved
in the form of sulphur, in finely -divided particles, which is carried off
and caught in chambers, so that the oxide does not require revivifi-
cation, and the same quantity, kept hot by continual working, goes on
indefinitely decomposing the sulphuretted hydrogen sent through it.
The purified ammoniacal liquor is then passed down distilling
towers, into which steam is admitted, driving off the ammonia gas
at the top, which is passed through cooling chambers, in which any
carbonate of ammonia carried with it deposits in crystals.
Thence, as much of the ammonia gas as is required for the pur-
poses of purification, passes with the coal gas into a chamber, where
they are allowed sufficient time to mix.
The gas is then passed through scrubbing towers, where all the
impurities are washed out in the liquor, which may be obtained of 40
to 50 oz. strength if required.
Any surplus ammonia, being perfectly pure, can be used for making
any of the salts of ammonia desired.
The liquor flowing from the bottom of the distilling towers contains
sulphocyanide of ammonium, and may be used over and over again
in the scrubbers instead of water, until the sulphocyanide accumu-
lates to such a strength as to make it marketably valuable for
chemical manufacture.
PUEIFYING HOUSE.
The house to contain the Purifiers should be lofty and well venti-
lated, not only for the comfort of the workmen employed therein, but
to lessen or entirely remove the risk of explosion from any leakage of
gas that might occur. The house should also be arranged with a view
to future extension.
It is a convenient plan to build the house with a ground and
upper floor, and to place the Purifying vessels on the latter with the
140 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
connections and centre-valve underneath and fully exposed and access-
ible. The ground floor can thus be used for revivifying the oxide of
iron, if that material is employed, or for other purposes.
The vessels are discharged through an opening in the bottom of
each, closed by a gas-tight lid, and the fresh material is raised by
means of an endless chain ladder, or other suitable elevating appa-
ratus, to the floor above.
PUEIFIEES.
Construction and Arrangement of the Purifiers.
The Purifying vessels are almost invariably made of cast-iron, with
sheet-iron covers secured with suitable fastenings, to prevent their
being lifted by the incoming gas pressing on their under surface.
Malam's arrangement of four in the set, with connections and a
centre- valve (Fig. 51), by which three of the vessels are kept in action,
and one out of use for renewal of the Purifying material, is still
generally adopted, and is the simplest and most convenient. In some
works a second set of two Purifiers is used in addition to the series of
four, and these are connected together, and to the others, with single
or four- way valves. (Fig. 51). Under this arrangement the set of
four is charged with oxide to arrest the sulphuretted hydrogen, and
the set of two with lime to take up the carbonic acid, the gas passing
through them in the order shown.
Depth and best Form of Purifiers.
In determining the size of Purifiers, where either dry lime or oxide
of iron is intended to be used, it is of the utmost importance to
provide a liberal superficial area, and to make ample allowance for
increased gas-make.
One of the greatest sources of discomfort to a gas manager is having
his Purifiers so cramped and confined in their area as to be incapable
of doing the work required in an efficient manner.
The ordinary and best form of Purifier is the square or oblong ; this
shape is the cheapest, affords the largest area for the space occupied,
and is also the most convenient as regards the placing of the trays or
grids.
The usual depth of Purifiers is 5 feet ; in some large gas-works they
are 6 feet deep.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
141
Large Purifiers, say, 20 feet square and upwards, should ha ve two or
more tie rods of round wrought-iron, stretching across them from side
i i
f
DISCHARGE
1
o o
PIPE
FIG. 51.
to side, at the upper part of the lute, to support the sides under the
strain to which they are often subjected by the expansion of the
142 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
contained oxide of iron, especially where the air process, previously
described, is in operation. These ties should be removable, having
an eyelet hole at both ends, fitting into a forked piece, also furnished
with eyelet holes, bolted to the vertical flanges, and secured by an
easy fitting bolt or pin.
The capacity or Purifying power of the vessel is determined more
by its superficial area than its cubical volume. There is, however, a
mutual relation between the two, as, when the depth is increased and
fully utilized, the surface area has to be proportionately augmented, on
account of the resistance offered by the deeper material to the flow of
the gas. It is more strictly correct, then, to say that the superficial
area, in proportion to the depth of the Purifying material, is the gauge
of the capacity or Purifying power of the vessels ; and the maximum
hourly or daily gas-make of which the works are capable should form
the basis of any calculation to determine their size.
One of the chief conditions for securing satisfactory Purification is
the use of vessels of large area. If economy and efficiency are to be
considered, time is an important element, and must not be disregarded.
The mere passing of the gas through the Purifying media is not suffi-
cient to insure good results ; time is required for chemical affinity to
operate.
Rules for Determining the Size of Purifiers.
It is stated in Clegg (4th ed., p. 200) that " the usual calculation with
gas makers in France is that an area of about 1 foot is required for
every 250 Ibs. of coal carbonized in 24 hours.each Purifier being supposed
to contain three sieves, which would amount to about three square
yards of surface to each ton of coal carbonized." This is not very
explicit.
The same also states " that for every 150 cubic feet of gas per
hour which can be generated, each Purifier should present one super-
ficial foot of surface." This allowance is absurdly small, and in
practice, with anything near the maximum production, would be found
altogether inadequate.
The rule given in Hughes (8rded.,p. 158) is much to be preferred
viz., " Allow one superficial yard of sieve for every 1000 cubic feet of
gas produced per diem."
Adopting this rule, a works capable of producing a maximum of
220,000 cubic feet of gas per day of 24 hours will require four
Purifiers, each 10 feet square, and having five tiers of lime sieves
each.
Another rule, agreeing closely with the above, is to allow 10
square yards of sieve for every ton of coal and cannel that can be
carbonized in 24 hours.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 143
I venture on another rule which experience has taught me to
regard with more favour than any of the above viz., that where
there is intended to be four Purifiers, three always in action, the
maximum daily (24 hours) make of gas, expressed in thousands,
multiplied by the constant -6, will give the superficial area in feet of
each Purifier.
EXAMPLE. Required the superficial area of each of the four Purifiers
in a works equal to the production of 500,000 cubic feet of gas per
diem of 24 hours.
500 x '6 = 800 feet superficial area of each Purifier.
\/ 300 = 17-3 (say, 18) feet side of square of Purifier.
For very small works where there is no exhauster, the constant '8
may be employed with advantage.
Water Lute for Covers and Hydraulic Centre-Valve.
The evils of contracted area in Purifiers are aggravated by having
a shallow seal to the lids or covers and the hydraulic centre-valve.
In small works the water lute should never be less than 12 inches
deep by 4-| inches wide ; and in medium sized and large works, from
18 to 24 inches by 6 to 8 inches in width.
Ample depth of water lute is especially important where the back
pressure is increased by the use of telescopic holders.
Number of Layers of Purifying Material.
In Purifiers charged with hydrate of lime, there may be two or four
tiers of sieves. The lime spread upon their surface may be from 4 to
8 inches in depth.
When oxide of iron is used, the layers may be two in number, and
the material 15 to 20 inches deep on each.
It is a mistake to adopt the plan of placing either the lime or oxide
in a single deep layer. The gas is apt to form passages through the deep
material ; whereas when there are two or more layers of less depth, it
recovers itself, and changes its course through each.
Sieves, Trays, or Grids for Lime and Oxide of Iron.
Round wrought-iron rods, f of an inch thick, bound together with
a framing of angle or flat-iron, make an excellent tray, especially
where lime is used. They are less suitable for oxide of iron, which
144
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
destroys them by corrosion, though when made of the
strength named, they last for many years. They pos-
sess a great advantage over most other trays in the
smaller space which they occupy in the Purifier, and
the larger Purifying area obtained by their use. Per-
forated cast-iron and wood trays are suitable for either
lime or oxide. The latter are usually made with strips
of wood (yellow pine, pitch pine, or red deal, the prices
being as 3, 2, 1) of any convenient length ; the strips
are 1 inch broad, an inch thick, and slightly
tapered, the outer pieces of frame being of harder tim-
ber (hickory, beech, oak, or ash), and 1^ inches thick ;
the whole bound together with f-inch bolts and nuts,
having the heads, washers, and nuts countersunk in
the side frames, and the holes plugged with wood or
cement. The strips are kept an inch to f of an inch
apart by pieces of wood of that thickness, and If inches
square, put between them at the places where the bolts
are inserted (Fig. 52).
Apparatus for Raising the Lids or Covers.
For raising the lids or covers of the Purifiers,
various contrivances are employed ; the most common
being a double purchase crab, travelling on iron rails
laid on either wooden beams or iron lattice girders,
FIG. 62"" navm g their ends inserted in the walls of the build-
ing ; or, in the absence of walls, supported on pillars.
The lifting machine, sometimes called a " Goliath," first con-
structed by Messrs. Cockey and Sons, is a useful and compact
contrivance for the same purpose. This consists of two standards,
one on each side of the Purifier, connected across the top by two
girders a few inches apart. The standards, having grooved or flanged
wheels, or rollers attached, traverse the purifying house from one end
to the other on rails laid on the floor. The covers are raised by-
means of two long vertical screws, with an eyelet-hole at the end of
each, in which the hooks on the lid are inserted, and moved by a winch
and cog-wheels put in motion by means of a handle at one of the
sides. When the apparatus is not in use, it can be wheeled out of
the way, leaving the space above the Purifiers to the tie-rods or
beams of the roof entirely unobstructed.
Mr. Reid employs a somewhat similar travelling carriage ; but,
instead of the wheel gearing and screws, he uses hydrostatic pressure
for accomplishing the same object. A full description, with drawing
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 145
of his ingenious apparatus, was submitted by him to the North
British Association of Gas Managers, at their meeting in July, 1872,
and appears at length in the Journal of Gas Lighting for Aug. 27 of the
same year.
Centre and oilier CJiange Valves.
The dry Centre-valve, with surface faced to fit gas-tight, is now
extensively adopted, and, as a rule, is preferred to the old hydraulic
Centre-valve. The chief advantages it possesses over the latter are the
greater ease and facility in changing from one Purifier to another ;
one man being able to accomplish this with a few turns of a handle,
thus minimizing to the utmost extent the passage of unpurified gas
during that operation. It occupies less space, is entirely beneath the
Purifying- house floor, and presents a dead resistance to pressure,
admitting of greater steadiness in the flow of the gas where an ex-
hauster is at work.
Four-way valves are adopted by some managers in preference
to the Centre- valve ; their chief recommendation being that by their use
the connections are simplified. The advantages which they possess
over the ordinary single Valve are more apparent. When the latter
are employed, twelve are needed for a set of four Purifiers, and six for
a set of two ; whereas, with the four- way valves, only one-third that
number is required,
Size of Connecting-Pipes.
With respect to the size of the Connecting-pipes, the rule is to
make their internal diameter, in incites, equal, as nearly as possible,
to the square root, in feet, of the area of the Purifiers.
Thus, Purifiers 10 feet square, giving an area of 100 square feet,
have Connecting-pipes 10 inches in diameter ; and Purifiers 16 feet by
12 feet, having an area of 192 square feet, have their Connecting-
pipes 14 inches in diameter. With the larger proportionate sizes of
Purifiers now being employed over those formerly erected, a deduction
of may safely be made from the result obtained by the above rule.
Thus (see rule on p. 148), a works capable of producing 500,000 cubic
feet of gas per day requires four Purifiers, having each an area of
800 square feet [500 x -6 = 300] , the square root being 17'3 ;
deducting ^, or 2-2, we have 15-1, or say 15 inches, the diameter of
the Connecting-pipes.
DEOEY'S MAIN THEEMOMETEE.
The illustrations (Figs. 53 to 55) show the improved arrangement
invented by Mr. Drory, for ascertaining the temperature of the gas
146
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
passing through the condenser and other apparatus, and the mains.
It consists of an outer shell fitted with a conical hollow plug having an
aperture corresponding to that in the outer shell. The Tester, which
fits into the plug, contains a Thermometer, which, on| being turned
FIG. 55.
opposite to the apertures, is in immediate contact with the gas, and
on withdrawal the temperature is ascertained. For attaching the
Tester, a hole suitable for a 1-inch wrought-iron pipe is drilled and
tapped in the pipe or side of the apparatus, and the instrument is
screwed therein.
TESTS
For the Detection of Impurities in Coal Gas after tJie Ordinary Processes
of Purification.
Ammonia.
Expose yellow turmeric paper slightly moistened with water, or
litmus paper first reddened by any weak acid, to a jet of unlighted
gas for about a minute. If the yellow colour of the turmeric be
turned to brown, or if the blue of the litmus be restored, Ammonia is
present.
Turmeric and litmus papers may be purchased at the chemists, or
they can be prepared as follows :
TURMERIC PAPER. Six parts by weight of spirits of wine are
added to one of turmeric powder in a stoppered bottle, and well
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 147
shaken up occasionally for three days. A portion of the clear
fluid is then poured on a plate, and pieces of unsized white filter-
ing paper well soaked therein. These are then dried in air, cut
into strips half an inch wide and 2 inches long, and kept for use
in a bottle away from the light.
LITMUS PAPER. Six parts by weight of water to one of powdered
litmus, shaken well together, allowed to stand for several days,
and then filtered. Pieces of white filtering paper are then
thoroughly soaked in the solution, dried, and cut into strips,
which should be kept in a close stoppered bottle, excluded as
much as possible from the air and light. Should it be desired to
redden the solution, add (after filtration) a small quantity of very
dilute sulphuric acid, gradually, drop by drop, until the pink or
neutral tinge is obtained.
Carbonic Acid.
Make a solution of pure barytes, and pass the gas through it. If
Carbonic Acid be present, carbonate of barytes will be precipitated ; or
pass the gas through clear lime water, and carbonate of lime will be
precipitated.
It may also be detected by adding to water impregnated with the
gas a few drops of sulphuric acid, when minute bubbles of Carbonic
Acid gas will be rapidly disengaged.
LIME WATER is prepared by agitating slaked lime with distilled
water in a bottle or other vessel. It is then allowed to stand
until the excess of lime has been deposited, when the clear liquid
is poured off, and filtered through filtering paper.
Mr. J. T. Sheard's method of estimating Carbonic Acid in coal gas
consists in passing a definite volume of gas through a solution of
barium hydrate of known strength, which absorbs the Carbonic Acid
out of the gas ; the amount of free hydrate remaining after the
operation being determined by titration with deci-normal hydrochloric
acid. Either the volume or the weight of impurity that has been
absorbed can thence be calculated.
The gas absorption tube is of the form shown in Fig. 56 ; the
straight part above the bulbs being filled with glass beads.
To make a test, two absorption tubes are charged with 20 or 80
cubic centimetres each, of a barium hydrate solution, the strength of
which has been accurately determined by titration with deci-normal
acid, and which should be approximately of equal strength with
the acid. The apparatus being connected up as shown, Fig. 57,
500 c.c. of gas are drawn by means of the aspirator slowly through
the liquid, and followed immediately, without stopping the current,
L 2
148
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
by an equal quantity of air, which is done by slipping off the india-
rubber tube at the inlet of the apparatus, as the water running from
the aspirator passes the mark of a 500 c.c. flask, and then running
out a further quantity of 500 c.c. into another flask held in readiness.
The bulbs are then washed down with water free from Carbonic Acid, a
few drops of the phenol-phthalein (sufficient to impart a distinct
purple red colour to the liquid) added, and the whole titrated with
deci-normal hydrochloric acid the acid being added a few drops
at a time, with frequent agitation of the liquid until the colour is
destroyed. The amount of barium hydrate that has been neutralized
FIG. 56.
FIG. 67.
is equivalent to the amount of Carbonic Acid absorbed from 600 c.c.
of gas ; from which the percentage of the impurity present, or its
weight per cubic foot of gas, can be determined.
EXAMPLE. Two gas absorption tubes charged, respectively, with
30 c.c. and 20 c.c. of barium hydrate solution. One cubic centimetre
of the barium hydrate having previously been found by experiment as
equivalent to 1-09 of acid.
First Tube.
82-7 c.c.
Second Tube.
21-8 c.c.
Equivalent of barium hydrate employed
^- acid required to neutralize resultant liquid. 21-6 c.c. .. 21-4 c.c.
11-1 c.c.
0-4 c.c.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 149
Then
11-6 c.c. X 0-0022 grm. x 100 . . . , -,-,
. 9U ^ = 2-77 percent, by volume of C0 8
11-5 c.c. x 0-0022 grm. x 15-432 grs. x 28,315 c.c.
500 c.c.
grains of C0 a per cubic foot of gas.*
These calculations may be shortened by employing the factor
0-241 for percentage by volume, and 1-92 for grains per cubic foot.
Thus
11-5 x 0-241 = 2-77 per cent, by volume of C0 a
11-5 x 1-92 = 22-1 grains of C0 2 per cub. ft. of. gas.
A complete test can be made in fifteen minutes, and perfectly
accurate results obtained.
The apparatus is equally applicable to the estimation of Ammonia
in gas, by employing acid of suitable strength as the absorbent.
Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
Moisten a piece of writing-paper with a solution of acetate of lead
in distilled water, and expose it for not less than a minute to a jet of
unlighted gas. If Sulphuretted Hydrogen be present, the paper will be
browned or blackened.
A solution of nitrate of silver is a more delicate test than the above.
This requires to be kept in a bottle coated outside with tinfoil, and
placed in a drawer or other dark place to protect it from the influence
of the light.
Lead Paper may be made of white filtering paper soaked in
the acetate of lead solution, then dried, cut into slips, and kept in
a well-corked bottle for use. But the solution applied to the
paper at the time of making the test is preferable.
The following are the regulations given in Schedule A of the Gas-
Works Clauses Act, 1871, in respect of the apparatus and mode of
testing for Sulphuretted Hydrogen :
Apparatus for Testing the Presence in the Gas of Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
A glass vessel (Fig. 60) containing a strip of bibulous paper
moistened with a solution of acetate of lead, containing 60 grains of
crystallized acetate of lead dissolved in one fluid ounce of water.
* It may be explained that
0-0022 grm. is the weight of COa to which 1 c.c. of ^ acid is equivalent.
0'914 grm. is the weight of 500 c.c. of COa saturated with moisture.
16-432 grs. is the value of 1 gramme.
28,315 c.c. is the value of 1 cubic foot.
150
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Mode of Testing for Sulphuretted Hydrogen. The gas shall be passed
through the glass vessel containing the strip of bibulous paper
moistened with the solution of the acetate of lead for a period of three
minutes, or such longer period as may be prescribed ; and if any dis-
colouration of the test paper is found to have taken place, this is to
be held conclusive as to the presence of Sulphuretted Hydrogen in the
Sulphur.
The Sulphur present in gas, due to com-
pounds other, than Sulphuretted Hydrogen,
notably Bisulphide of Carbon, is estimated by
burning a jet of the gas at the rate of one cubic
foot, or half a cubic foot, per hour, for 24 hours,
from a Leslie or other burner arranged within
the wide end of a trumpet tube whose upper
and smaller end is inserted in a condenser,
from the opposite end of which a tube carries
off the uncondensed vapour, and creates a cur-
rent through the apparatus. (See Fig. 58.)
Through the lower and wide end, where the
burner is fixed, a supply of air, to support com-
bustion, enters, carrying with it the vapour of
ammonia from liquid ammonia or pieces of the
carbonate contained in a suitable receptacle
surrounding the burner. The ammonia com-
bining with the sulphurous acid from the gas-flame, is deposited
within the condenser as sulphite and sulphate of ammonia, from which
the quantity of Sulphur per 100 cubic feet of gas is calculated.
Illuminating Power and Impurities.
The illuminating power of gas may be high, and at the same time a
good deal of Sulphur and other impurities may be present. Purity is
not always in a given ratio with illuminating power.
Harcourt's Colour Test.
This is one of the most useful apparatus in the gas manager's
laboratory for determining with ease and celerity the amount of Bisul-
phide of Carbon, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, and Carbonic Acid in coal
gas. The following is a description of the test, and directions for
its use.
Testing for Bisulphide of Carbon.
The arrangement of the colour test is shown in Fig. 59 ; the fire-clay
cylinder being represented by dotted lines.
The bulb, which is filled with platinized pumice, is to be so adjusted
FIG. 58.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
161
that it may be about an inch above the burner, and in the middle of the
cylinder.
To use the apparatus, turn on first the upper stopcock, sending gas
through the bulb at the rate of about half a cubic foot an hour, as may
be judged by lighting the gas for a moment at the end of the horizontal
arm, when a flame about an inch in length should be produced. Raise
the cylinder, which will be supported by the pressure of the wires,
light the burner, and turn down the flame till it forms a blue non-
luminous ring. Lower the cylinder, and place the small clay pieces
upon it round the neck of the bulb.
FIG. 59.
A testing may be made five minutes after the burner is lighted,
except when the apparatus is first used, when the gas should be
allowed to flow through the bulb for a quarter of an hour, or a little
longer, and any number of testings one after another as long as the
heat is continued.
The mode of testing is as follows : Lay a piece of white paper on
the table by the side of the burner, and fix a piece of cardboard
upright in the brass clip ; the cardboard serves as a background
against which to observe the colour of the contents of the glasses, and
should receive a side light, and be as clear as possible from shadows.
Fill one glass (once for all) up to the mark with standard coloured
liquid, and cork it tightly. Dilute some of the lead syrup with twenty
152 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
times its volume of distilled water, and fill the other glass up to the
mark with a portion of the liquid thus prepared. Insert the
caoutchouc plug with capillary-tube and elbow-tube, and connect, aa
shown in the figure, with the bulb and aspirator, placing the two
glasses side by side.
The aspirator should be full of water at starting, and the measur-
ing cylinder empty. Turn the tap of the aspirator gradually ; a
stream of bubbles will rise through the solution of lead. Turn off
the tap for a minute, and observe the liquid at the bottom of the
capillary -tube. If it gradually rises, the india-rubber connections
are not air-tight, and must be made 'so before proceeding. Avoid
pressing the plugs into the glass or the aspirator while they are
connected, which would drive up the lead solution into the inlet-tube.
When the connections are air-tight, let the water run into the measur-
ing cylinder in a slender stream until the lead solution has become
as dark as the standard. As the ascending bubbles interfere
somewhat with the observation of the tint, it is best to turn off
the tap when the colour seems almost deep enough ; compare the
two ; turn on the tap, if necessary, for a few moments, then
compare again ; and so on, till the colour of the two liquids is the
same.
The volume of water which the measuring cylinder now contains
is equal to the volume of gas which has passed through the lead
solution.
This volume of gas contained a quantity of Sulphur as Carbon
Bisulphide which, as Lead Sulphide, has coloured the liquid in the
test-glass up to the standard tint. The standard has been made
such that, to impart this tint to the volume of liquid, 0-0187 grain
of Lead Sulphide must be present, containing 0*0025 grain of Sulphur.
Hence, supposing the measuring cylinder, each division of which
corresponds to l-2000th cubic foot, to have been filled to the 30th
division, 30-2000ths cubic foot of gas contained 0-0025 grain of
sulphur. From this ratio the number of grains of Sulphur existing
as Bisulphide in 100 cubic feet of the sample of gas tested can
easily be calculated.
The following table gives the relation between (V) the divisions
of the measuring cylinder filled with water, and (S) the grains of
Sulphur existing as Bisulphide in 100 cubic feet of gas. Since gas
contains besides Carbon Bisulphide, some other Sulphur compounds
which are not transformed into Sulphuretted Hydrogen by the action
of heat, and which contain Sulphur amounting ordinarily to 7 or 8
grains in 100 cubic feet, this quantity must be added to that found by
the test, if it is wished to know approximately the total amount of
Sulphur.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
153
TABLE I.
V
S
V
S
10 .
. 50-0
33
. 15-1
11 .
. 45-4
34
. 14-7
12 .
41-7
35
. 14-3
13
38-5
36
. 13-9
14
35-7
37
. 13-5
15
33-3
38
. 13-2
16
31-3
39
. 12-8
17
29-4
40
. 12-5
18
27-8
41
. 12-2
19
26-3
42
. 11-9
20
25-0
43
. 11-6
21
23-8
44
. 11-4
22
22-7
45
. ll'l
23
21-7
46
. 10-9
24
20'8
47
. 10-6
25
20-0
48
. 10-4
26
19-2
49
. 10-2
27
18-5
50
. 10-0
28
17-9
51
. 9-8
29
17-2
52
. 2-6
30
16-7
53
. 9'4
31
16-1
54
9.2
32
15-6
55
. 9-1
8'2
8-1
7-9
7-8
7'7
7-6
7-5
7-4
7'2
7-1
7-0
6-9
6'7
V
S
79
6-3
80
6'2
81
6-2
82
6-1
83
6-0
84
6-0
85
5'9
86
5-8
87
5-7
88
5'7
89
5-6
90
5'6
91
5'5
92
5'4
93
5-4
94
5-3
95
5-3
96
5-2
97
5-2
98
5-1
99
5-1
100
5-0
150
3-3
For the next testing, the test-glass is to be disconnected and
re-charged. The water in the measuring cylinders is poured back
into the aspirator.
The colour of the standard is unaffected by exposure to light, but
deepens if the liquid is warmed, returning to its original shade as the
liquid cools. If, therefore, the glass containing the standard has
been in a warm place, it must be let cool before testing.
The liquid which has been used becomes colourless after being
exposed to the light for a few hours, and may thus be used over and
over again for 20 times or more, if it is not allowed to absorb car-
bonic acid from the air. The best mode of working is to have two
well-corked flasks, into one of which the coloured liquid is emptied
while the glass is re-charged from the other.
Testing for Sulphuretted Hydrogen and Carbonic Acid.
The apparatus may also be used without the bulb-tube and stand to
test the amount of Sulphuretted Hydrogen or Carbonic Acid in gas at
any stage in its purification.
The gas is led in this case directly into the test-glass, which is
charged with lead solution for Sulphuretted Hydrogen, and with a
saturated solution of barium hydrate (baryta water) for Carbonic
Acid.
154
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
When the gas contains more than 50 grains of Sulphur as Sulphu-
retted Hydrogen in 100 cubic feet, a smaller cylinder, containing
l-200th cubic foot, is used to measure the volume of liquid run from
the aspirator. The divisions on the smaller cylinder are tenths of the
corresponding divisions on the larger cylinder ; therefore when it is
used the numbers under S in Table I. must be read as whole numbers
by omitting the decimal points.
To estimate Carbonic Acid a standard liquid containing a definite
amount of suspended barium carbonate is used for comparison. The
glasses are placed side by side on a blackened board or piece of paper
and with a black background behind them. The passage of the gas
should be interrupted, and the test-glass slightly shaken once or twice
to wash down any particles of carbonate which may cling to the sides
of the glass above the surface of the liquid. The standard should also
be shaken before the comparison is made, in order that the precipitates
may be in a similar condition. When the two liquids are judged to
be equally white and opaque, the volume of water in the measuring
cylinder gives the volume of gas which has precipitated a known
weight of barium carbonate. Table II. gives the relation between
(V) the divisions of the large measuring cylinder filled with water,
and (C) the volume of Carbonic Acid in 100 volumes of gas. When
the gas contains more than-72 per cent, of Carbonic Acid, the smaller
measuring cylinder should be used, and the values of (C) multiplied
by moving the decimal point one place to the right.
24
27
37
TABLE
II.
c
V
22
56
21
57
21
58
20
69
20
60
19
61
18
62
18
63
17
64
17
65
17
66
16
67
16
68
16
69
15
70
16
71
15
72
14
73
14
74
14
76
14
76
13
77
13
78
S4
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
150
08
08
08
08
08
08
08
08
08
08
07
07
07
07
07
05
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
155
After each testing the glass and capillary- tube should be cleaned
with a little dilute hydrochloric acid and well rinsed with distilled
water. The turbid liquid is poured into a flask, which should be kept
well corked, containing an excess of crystallized barium hydrate.
After the suspended precipitate has subsided, the clear liquid is
poured off, or, if necessary, filtered, into another flask, also kept well
corked, from which it may be poured into the test-glass when required.
Care should be taken not to expose the solution to the air longer than
necessary.
Instructions of the London Gas Referees as to the Times and Mode
of Testing for Purity.
The testings for purity shall extend over twenty hours of each day,
and shall be made upon ten cubic feet of gas, which shall be tested
successively for each of the following impurities :
I. Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
The gas shall be passed as it leaves the service -pipe through an
Apparatus (Fig. 60) in which are suspended slips of bibulous paper,
impregnated with basic acetate of lead.
The Test-paper from which these slips are cut is
to be prepared from time to time by moistening
sheets of bibulous paper with a solution of one part
of Sugar of Lead in eight or nine parts of water,
and holding each sheet while still damp over the
surface of a strong solution of Ammonia for a
few moments. As the paper dries all free Ammonia
escapes.
If any discoloration of the slip of Test-paper is
found to have taken place, this is to be held con-
clusive as to the presence of Sulphuretted Hydrogen
in the gas. Fresh Test-slips are to be placed in
the Apparatus every day.
In the event of any impurity being discovered,
one of the Test-slips shall be placed in a stoppered
bottle and kept in the dark at the Testing-place ;
the remaining slips shall be forwarded with the
daily Keport.
II. Ammonia.
The gas which has been tested for Sulphuretted Hydrogen shall pass
next through an Apparatus consisting of a glass cylinder filled with
glass beads, which have been moistened with a measured quantity of
standard Sulphuric Acid. A set of burettes, properly graduated, is
provided.
FIG. 60.
166 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
The maximum amount of Ammonia allowed is 4 grains per 100 cubic
feet of gas ; and the Testings shall be made so as to show the exact
amount of Ammonia in the gas.
Two Test-solutions are to be used one consisting of dilute Sulphuric
Acid of such strength that 25 measures (septems ) will neutralize 1 grain
of Ammonia ; the other a weak solution of Ammonia, 100 measures
of which contain 1 grain of Ammonia.
The correctness of the result to be obtained depends upon the ful-
filment of two conditions :
1. The preparation of Test-solutions having the proper strength.
2. The accurate performance of the operation of testing.
To prepare the Test-solutions the following processes may be used
by the Gas Examiner :
Measure a gallon of distilled water into a clean earthenware jar, or
other suitable vessel. Add to this 94 septems of pure concentrated
Sulphuric Acid, and mix thoroughly. Take exactly 50 septems of the
liquid and precipitate it with Barium Chloride in the manner prescribed
for the Sulphur Test. The weight of Barium Sulphate which 50 septems
of the Test-acid should yield is 13-8 grains. The weight obtained with
the dilute acid prepared as above will be somewhat greater, unless the
Sulphuric Acid used had a specific gravity below 1-84.
Add now to the diluted acid a measured quantity of water, which is to
be found by subtracting 13-8 from the weight of Barium Sulphate ob-
tained in the experiment, and multiplying the difference by 726. The
resulting number is the number of septems of water to be added.
If these operations have been accurately performed, a second pre-
cipitation and weighing of the Barium Sulphate obtainable from 50
septems of the Test-acid will' give nearly the correct number of 13-8
grains. If the weight exceeds 13-9 grains, or falls below 13 - 7 grains,
more water or Sulphuric Acid must be added, and fresh trials made,
until the weight falls within these limits. The Test-acid thus pre-
pared should be transferred at once to stoppered bottles, which have
been well drained and are duly labelled.
To prepare the standard solution of Ammonia, measure out as before
a gallon of distilled water, and mix with it 50 septems of strong solu-
tion of Ammonia (sp. gr. 0-88). Try whether 100 septems of the
Test-alkali thus prepared will neutralize 25 of the Test-acid, proceed-
ing according to the directions given subsequently as to the mode of
testing. If the acid is just neutralized by the last few drops, the Test-
alkali is of the required strength. But if not, small additional
quantities of water, or of strong Ammonia solution, must be added,
and fresh trials made, until the proper strength has been attained.
The bottles in which the solution is stored should be filled nearly full
and well stoppered.
The mode of testing is as follows : Take 50 septems of the Test-
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 167
acid (which is greatly in excess of any quantity of Ammonia likely to
be found in the gas), and pour it into the glass cylinder, so as to well
wet the whole interior surface, and also the glass beads. Connect
one terminal tube of the cylinder with the gas supply, and the other
with the meter, and make the gas pass at the rate of about half a
cubic foot per hour. Any Ammonia that is in the gas will be arrested
by the Sulphuric Acid, and a portion of the Acid (varying with the
quantity of Ammonia in the gas) will be neutralized thereby. At the
end of each period of testing, wash out the glass cylinder and its con-
tents with distilled water, and collect the washings in a glass vessel.
Transfer one-half of this liquid to a separate glass vessel, and add a
quantity of a neutral solution of haematoxylin or litmus just sufficient
to colour the liquid. Then pour into the burette 100 septems of the
Test-alkali, and gradually drop this solution into the measured quantity
of the washings collected, stirring constantly. As soon as the colour
changes (indicating that the whole of the Sulphuric Acid has been
neutralized), read off the quantity of liquid remaining in the burette.
To find the number of grains of Ammonia in 100 cubic feet of the
gas, multiply by 2 the number of septems of Test-alkali remaining in
the burette, and move the decimal point one place to the left.
The remaining half of the liquid is to be preserved for a week in
a bottle duly labelled.
III. Sulphur Compounds otlwr than Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
The gas which has been tested for Sulphuretted Hydrogen and
Ammonia shall pass next through a meter, by means of which the
rate of flow can be adjusted to half a cubic foot per hour, and which
is provided with a self-acting movement for shutting off the gas when
ten cubic feet have passed.
The testing shall be made in a room where no gas is burnt other
than that which is being tested for Sulphur and Ammonia.
The apparatus to be employed is represented by the diagram (Fig.
58), and is of the following description : The gas is burnt in a small
Bunsen burner with steatite top, which is mounted on a short cylin-
drical stand, perforated with holes for the admission of air, and having
on its upper surface a deep circular channel to receive the wide end
of a glass trumpet-tube. On the top of the stand, between the
narrow stem of the burner and the surrounding glass trumpet-tube,
are to be placed pieces of commercial Sesqui-carbonate of Ammonia
weighing in all about 2 ounces.
The products both of the combustion of the gas and of the gradual
volatilization of the Ammonia salt go upwards through the trumpet-
tube into a vertical glass cylinder, packed with balls of glass, to break
up the current and promote condensation. From the top of the
cylinder there proceeds a long glass pipe or chimney, serving to effect
158 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
some further condensation, as well as to regulate the draught and
afford an exit for the uncondensable gases. In the bottom of the
cylinder is fixed a small glass tube, through which the liquid (formed
during the testing) drops into a beaker placed beneath.
The following cautions are to be observed in selecting and setting up
the apparatus :
See that the inlet-pipe fits gas-tight into the burner, and that
the holes in the circular stand are clear. If the burner gives a
luminous flame, remove the top piece, and, having hammered down
gently the nozzle of soft metal, perforate it afresh, making as small
a hole as will give passage to half a cubic foot of gas per hour at
a convenient pressure.
See that the tubulure of the condenser has an internal diameter
of not less than f inch, and that its outside is smooth and of the
same size as the small end of the trumpet-tube.
See that the short piece of india-rubber pipe fits tightly both to
the trumpet-tube and to the tubulure -of the condenser.
The small tube at the bottom of the condenser should have its
lower end contracted, so that when in use it may be closed by a
drop of water.
The india-rubber pipe at the lower end of the chimney-tube
should fit into, and not simply rest upon, the mouth of the con-
denser, and the upper extremity of this tube may with advantage
be given a downward curvature.
At the end of each period of testing, the cylinder and trumpet-tube
are to be well washed out with distilled water. Fresh pieces of Sesqui-
carbonate of Ammonia are to be used each day.
The Gas Examiner shall then proceed as follows :
The liquid in the beaker and the water used in washing out the
Apparatus shall be put into the same vessel, well mixed, and measured.
One-half of the liquid so obtained is to be set aside, and preserved for
a week, properly labelled, in case it should be desirable to verify the
correctness of the testing.
The remaining half of the liquid is to be put into a flask, or beaker
covered with a large watch-glass treated with Hydrochloric Acid
sufficient in quantity to leave an excess of acid in the solution and
then raised to the boiling point. An excess of a solution of Barium
Chloride is now to be added, and the boiling continued for five minutes.
The vessel and its contents are to be allowed to stand till the Barium
Sulphate settles at the bottom of the vessel, after which the clear
liquid is to be as far as possible poured off through a paper filter.
The remaining liquid and Barium Sulphate are then to be poured on
to the filter, and the latter well washed with hot distilled water.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEES. 159
(In order to ascertain whether every trace of Barium Chloride and
Ammonium Chloride has been removed, a small quantity of the wash-
ings from the filter should be placed in a test-tube, and a drop of a
solution of Silver Nitrate added ; should the liquid, instead of re-
maining perfectly clear, become cloudy, the washing must be con-
tinued until, on repeating the test, no cloudiness is produced.) Dry
the filter with its contents, and transfer it into a weighed platinum
crucible. Heat the crucible over a lamp, increasing the temperature
gradually, from the point at which the paper begins to char, up to
bright redness. When no black particles remain, allow the crucible
to cool ; place it when nearly cold in a desiccator over strong Sulphuric
Acid, and again weigh it. The difference between the first and
second weighings of the crucible will give the number of grains of
Barium Sulphate. Multiply this number by 11 and divide by 4 ; the
result is the number of grains of sulphur in 100 cubic feet of the gas.
This number is to be corrected for the variations of temperature
and atmospheric pressure in the manner indicated under the head of
Illuminating Power (see post), with this difference, that the readings
of the Barometer and Thermometer are to be taken for the day on
which the testing commenced and also the day on which it closed ;
and the mean of the two is to be used.
This correction may be made most simply and with sufficient
accuracy in the following manner :
When the Tabular Number is between 955-965, 966-975, 976-985,
986-995, increase the number of grains of Sulphur by j&jths,
T n th3, Tilths, T A<yth.
When the Tabular Number is between 996-1005, no correction
need be made.
When the Tabular Number is between 1006-1015, 1016-1025,
1026-1035, diminish the number of grains of Sulphur by
("Barometer (mean) ..... 29-4
EXAMPLE : j Thermometer (mean) .... 58
(Tabular Number ..... 985
Grains of Barium Sulphate from 5 cubic feet of Gas . . . 4-3
Multiply by 11, and divide by 4. 11
4)47-3
Grains of Sulphur in 100 cub. ft. of Gas (unconnected)
Add 11-8 x = .
Grains of Sulphur in 100 cub. ft. of Gas (corrected) . . . 12-06
[Result: 12-1 grains.]
160 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
At to the Maximum Amounts of Impurity in each Form idth which
the Gas shall be allowed to be Charged.
Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
By the Acts of Parliament all gas supplied must be wholly free
from this impurity.
Ammonia.
The maximum amount of this impurity shall be 4 grains per 100
cubic feet.
Sulphur Compounds other than Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
The maximum amount of Sulphur with which gas shall be allowed
to be charged shall be 22 grains of Sulphur in every 100 cubic feet
of gas.
STATION METEK HOUSE.
The Station Meter House, if conveniently situated on the works,
and made sufficiently large, may contain in addition to the meters,
the station governors, exhaust and pressure register, a range of
pressure gauges, and a jet photometer.
When thus arranged, they are all within the purview, and imme-
diately under the control, of the workman in charge.
The Meter-House is susceptible of ornamentation, and should have
a little bestowed upon it, besides being kept scrupulously clean and
well ventilated.
STATION METER.
The quantity of gas manufactured, as it passes into the holders,
after its purification has been completed, is measured and recorded
by the Station Meter.
This is invariably of the "wet" description that is to say, the
measuring wheel or drum is caused to revolve by the elastic force of
the gas pressing upon the surface of a body of water, with which the
vessel is. charged up to a certain line.
In construction it differs slightly from the wet meters used by
consumers, but its principle of action is identical with these.
The Meter case, which is of cast-iron, is made either cylindrical
(Fig. 61), or rectangular (Fig. 62) ; the former shape being generally
adopted for sizes up to 20,000 cubic feet per hour. When it is rect-
angular in form, the roof is composed of wrought-iron plates, usually
No. 10 B.W.G.
The measuring wheel or drum is made of charcoal annealed tinned
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
161
plates, riveted and soldered together in segments, and the shaft or
axle is supported by anti-friction wheels.
The registering mechanism consists of a series of enamelled dials,
with wheel-work and pointers indicating from 100 to 100,000,000
cubic feet at each of their revolutions. The dial figures, unlike those
on the consumers' meters, all run in the same direction.
An eight-day clock and tell-tale apparatus are placed in front, above
the index. On a circular plate, a graduated disc of card paper is
fixed ; and a lead pencil attached to a rod, which again is attached
to and actuated by the minute finger of the clock, pressing upon the
paper, indicates the uniformity or otherwise of the gas production
during each hour of the day and night.
FIG. 61.
FIG. 62.
The size or capacity of a Station Meter is designated by the quantity
of gas in cubic feet which it is capable of passing per hour, the mea-
suring wheel making 120 down to 70 revolutions, as a maximum, in
that time (the number of revolutions depending on the size of the
instrument), with a loss of pressure not exceeding 5-10ths of an inch
between the inlet and the outlet. Thus, if the drum have a capacity
of 50 cubic feet, 50 x 120 = 6000 cubic feet, the size of the Meter.
If the capacity be 200 cubic feet, then 200 x 100 = 20,000 cubic feet,
the size of Meter, and so on.
It is thus easy to determine the capacity of the wheel or dram
required to measure any given production. Say the maximum hourly
make of gas in a works is 30,000 cubic feet ; then,
80,000
100
= 300 cubic feet
the required capacity of the measuring wheel or drum. In all cases a
reasonable margin in size should be allowed for growing production.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
When a Meter wheel is driven beyond the speed above named, the
friction is increased, more pressure is absorbed in working the wheel,
and the registration is falsified.
The Station Meter should be placed perfectly level on a substantial
foundation, with raised stone base.
It should be fitted with bye-pass and hydraulic trap, with outlet
cock ; shut-off valves ; adjiistable overflow pipe ; water-line gauge ;
an ordinary pressure gauge each for the inlet and outlet pipes (Fig. 64),
and a differential pressure gauge (Fig. 66) ; a thermometer ; a filling
tube and funnel, with stopcock, and a flushing cock.
TABLE.
Station Meter Details.
Quantity
Measured
H P o e u r r.
Capacity
per
Revolution.
Number of
Revolutions of
Measuring Drum
per Hour.
Pressure
Absorbed in
Actuating the
Meter.
Diameter of
Measuring
Drum.
Depth or Length
of Measuring
Drum, minus
Hollow Cover.
Cubic Feet.
Cubic Feet.
Inch.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
600
5
120
A
2 6
1 3i
900
7'5
120
A
2 104
1 8J
1,200
10
120
A
3 04
2 04
1,500
12-5
120
3
3 54
2 04
1,800
15
120
ft
3 5*
2 5
2,400
20
120
A
3 6*
2 10
8,000
25
120
I 3 o
40 30
8,600
30
120
A
40 35
4,800
40
120
A
43 42
6,000
50
120
A
4 74 4 4J
7,200
60
120
A
4 11 4 64
9,600
80
120
A
56 4 11
12,000
100
120
A
58 5 64
15,000
150
100
A
68 63
20,000
200
100
A
80 63
25,000
250
100
A
80 70
30,000
300
100
A
8 I* 81
40,000
400
100
A
96 85
50,000
500
100
A
10 3 93
60,000
750
80
A 11 6 10 2
80,000
1,000
80
A
12 10 11 7
100,000
1,430
70
A
15 4 12 6
THE PEESSUEE GAUGE.
The ordinary Pressure Gauge (Figs. 63 and 64) has its tubes, which
are of glass, charged with water to the zero line on the ivory or box-
wood scale between. This is graduated into inches and tenths. It is
made of any length as required, and the scale may be figured either in
inches or tenths of an inch, as shown.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
163
On the Gauge being attached to the main or service pipe, either
directly or by means of a short connecting tube, the difference between
the two water levels represents the gas pressure.
A series of these Gauges, to indicate the pressure existing between
the different apparatus of the gas-works, should be fixed in some posi-
tion convenient for frequent inspection.
King's Gauge (Fig. 65) is constructed on the same principle as the
above, but it indicates slighter variations of pressure ; the finger having
a long sweep for small differences of water level, and the dial being
graduated into finer divisions.
FIG. 63.
FIG. 64.
FIG. 65.
FIG.
The Differential Gauge (Fig. 66) is commonly attached to the inlet
and outlet pipes respectively of station meters ; the indications of the
instrument being the difference in pressure between the two, showing
the pressure absorbed in actuating the meter.
Coloured water for Pressure Gauges is made by infusing a little
pounded cochineal in hot water. It is then filtered, and a few drops
of nitric or hydrochloric acid added, to prevent the bright scarlet
colour from fading.
The glass tubes of Pressure Gauges, when foul, may be cleansed with
a weak solution of sulphuric acid in water.
PRESSURE AND EXHAUST REGISTERS.
The principle of action of these instruments (Fig. 67), invented by
Crosley, is the same as that of the foregoing, but they are made to
record as well as indicate the pressure or exhaust, as the case may be.
M 2
164
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
This is accomplished by means of a float in water, to which a vertical
spindle is attached, having a lead pencil at the upper end, pressing
upon a cylindrical graduated roll of paper upon a drum, which is
caused to revolve by clockwork once in the 24 hours. The paper roll
is renewed daily.
The Exhaust Kegister is connected to the mains on the works, at a
point between the hydraulic main and the exhauster, and the record
shows whether, in the absence of the manager, the exhauster has been
kept working with regularity.
The Pressure Eegister is attached to the street main beyond the
governor, and records the various pressures maintained therein during
the day and night.
The difference between the Exhaust and Pressure Registers is simply
one of detail in construction ; the zero line in the former being placed
midway on the scale, and the spindle lengthened to correspond, whilst
the area of the float is also increased. In
the latter the zero line is at the bottom.
Wright's Pressure Register 'Fig. 68) is a
combination of the King's gauge, with a time-
piece, having a circular plate and paper disc
instead of a dial. The 24 hours are printed
on the disc, and a pencil at the end of a rod
actuated by the float, pressing upon this,
records the varying pressures.
FIG. 67.
Fio. 68.
Mr. W. H. Cowan has invented a neat and compact instrument
which records the pressures by photography upon sensitized sheets on
the revolving cylinder, instead of by the markings of the usual lead
pencil.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
165
GASHOLDEK TANKS.
The Tank is that portion of the storage reservoir for gas which con-
tains the water in which the floating vessel or holder rises and
descends. (Figs. 69 to 71).
It may be constructed either whoUy or partially under the ground
level, or (as in the case of iron Tanks) entirely above ground. (Fig. 70).
Ground
line.
FIG. 69.
Ground
line.
FIG. 70.
Ground
line.
FIG. 71.
In excavated Tanks, wherever the substratum is favourable, it ia
economical to leave a circular or conical mound in the centre.
This is called the "dumpling" or "cone." (Fig. 69.")
Tanks are occasionally formed by making a circular cutting in the
ground, and erecting therein an iron or brick annular channel to
contain the water, the intervening central space being also covered
with water, but only to a few inches depth. These are called
" Annular " Tanks. (Fig. 71.)
166
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Excavation far Tank.
The width of the excavation for a Tank depends on the nature of the
substrata encountered, whether clay, shale, gravel, sand, &c., unless
a complete system of close shoring by means of timber all round is
adopted.
Natural Slope or Angle of Repose of Earth*
with Horizontal Line.
Sand, dry.
Sand, damp
z\ Shingle and gravel
_ '6 Clay, drained .
\ Clay, wet . .
UUdSi. Earth, compact
p ea t or vegetable earth
Weight of various Earths and Rocks.
Per Cubic Yard. ] Per Cubic Yard.
Sand, dry ... about 2430 Ibs. Marl . . . about 2900 Ibs.
Sand, damp . . 3200 Shale ... 4370
Shingle and gravel 2850 Chalk ... 4000
Clay .... 3240 Sandstone. . 4250
Mud ... , 2700 , Slate , 4860 .,
FIG. 72.
(Fig. 72.)
. average 87 or 1-33 to 1
31 ,
2-63
1
1 .'
40 ,
1-2
1
45 ,
1-0
1
t
16 ,
3-3
1
.
48 ,
0-9
1
arth
28 ,
1-89
1
Materials of ivhich Tanks are constructed.
Tanks are constructed of stone (either built up, or excavated from
the solid rock) brick, concrete, cast or wrought-iron, or a combination
of iron with the other materials.
The kind of material employed is regulated, as a rule, by the
character of the district where the gas-works are situated, and the
nature of the ground whereon the erection is to be. If the neighbour-
hood abounds in stone, the probability is that that will be the cheapest,
and will consequently be adopted in the construction of the Tank. But
even in districts where stone is plentiful, if this is of a hard nature,
the expense of dressing is such as to make the Tank more costly than
if built of bricks, though the latter may have to be brought from a
distance. In places distant from a supply of building material, and to
which the latter has to be brought by conveyance, brick will generally
be chosen as the most suitable.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
167
On the other hand, where the ground is of such a character as would
entail an extraordinary outlay in securing a good foundation, or where
it is unsafe for a brick or stone structure ; or, again, where the sinking
of a Tank is almost impossible, owing to the presence of a large body
of inflowing water through the strata, as by the sea-side, or contiguous
to some rivers, the best class of Tank to be adopted is one made of cast
or wrought-iron plates bolted or riveted together, the cast-iron plate
joints being either planed or made water-tight with rust cement. It
is only under such circumstances that iron Tanks are adopted, as their
cost is much greater than either brick or stone, and the erection of a
Tank above ground is disadvantageous in several respects.
It may happen that the ground is of such a nature as to render the
construction even of an iron Tank upon it unsafe ; or there may be a
slope or embankment in dangerous proximity. In such cases recourse
may be had to piling to give it solidity and prevent movement.
FIG. 73.
TRAMMEL FOR GASHOLDER TANK DURING ERECTION.
Masonry Tanks, being porous, are generally built with a backing of
clay puddle behind the walls and in the bottom ; but the puddle can
be dispensed with by lining the Tank with a coat of neat Portland
cement about 1 inch in thickness. Mortar composed of cement and
clean sharp sand in equal proportions by measure, makes a water-tight
lining, provided it is carefully polished to a smooth face with a steel
trowel.
A lining of 4^-inch brickwork, with a space between the Tank wall
and the lining, 1 inch wide, filled with neat cement, is also occasionally
adopted.
The walls of a Tank so treated, being impervious to water, require to
be made somewhat stronger, and the backing more carefully consoli-
dated, than where puddle is employed, because there is no fluid
pressure outside to balance the fluid pressure within the Tank.
The weakest part of a masonry Tank, as usually constructed, is
168 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
that where the inlet and outlet pipes pass through the wall at the
bottom. The instances of failure here are so numerous as to justify
the plan, sometimes adopted, of placing the pipes in a recess built
in the Tank wall. The objection to this recess is that it breaks the
circle of the wall, and consequently weakens its power of resistance to
outside pressure ; but continuity of the circle can be secured by
strutting the opening with cast-iron struts as in Fig. 74.
FIG. 74. FIG. 75.
Or the pipes can be made square in section, and built in with the
wall, as in Fig. 75.
When a brick or stone Tank built in blue lias lime mortar is of large
dimensions, the walls may be strengthened at intervals of 2 or 3 feet
apart, by rings 2 or 8 feet in width, of the brick or stone laid in Port-
land cement mortar.
Hoop-iron, or flat wrought-iron rings, built at intervals into the
masonry or concrete, are occasionally used for giving strength to the
walls of a Tank. When the diameter is great, and particularly in Tanks
where no puddle is employed, flat bar-iron hoops, braced or tightened
by screws or cotters, are also sometimes placed round the outside.
When from any cause it is found impracticable or undesirable to
construct a masonry Tank, whether of stone, brick, or concrete, with
its coping on a level with the adjacent ground, circumstances may
require that the raised portion of the wall should be strengthened,
in addition to the support given by the earth backing, either by
flat wrought-iron rings built into it, or by outside wrought-iron
hoops. One such ring or hoop will suffice for every 4 feet in height
of the Tank wall above the natural ground level. The strength
of the iron will, of course, be determined by the dimensions of the
Tank ; but it may be stated, by way of guidance, that for a Tank of 102
feet in diameter, the iron should be 5 inches wide and f of an inch
thick. The flat ring is made continuous throughout the circle by
riveting, and the hoop by screw-bolts or cotters.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 169
The bricks used in building a Tank should be thoroughly well wetted
before being laid, to cause the mortar to adhere.
In time of severe frost all brick and stone work should cease.
To prevent injury in time of rain, and especially in winter, when a
sudden frost might supervene, the top of the new walling should be
covered with weather boards.
Concrete.
By measure
Blue lias lime concrete (for foundations)
Gravel, shingle, broken stone, bricks, or old retorts,
1 to 2 inches cube 6 parts.
Clean sharp sand 2 parts.
Blue Has or other hydraulic lime 1 part.
Portland cement concrete (for Tank walls)
Gravel, shingle, broken stone, bricks, or old retorts,
1 inches cube 7 parts.
Clean sharp sand 2 parts.
Portland cement 1 part.
Mr. J. Douglas gives the following useful instructions for mixing
or preparing the concrete: "A platform, about 20 feet square, of
deals, should be laid on the ground to ensure the clean mixing of
the materials. The measure for the material is simply a square box
without top or bottom, and should contain, as a convenient quantity,
about half a yard. It should be twice as many inches deep as the
proportions of cement and ballast. For instance, if the cement is
1 in 8, it should be 16 inches deep. Inside, at 2 inches from the
top, nail a lath all the way round; and after placing the measure
at one end of the platform, fill the box with shingle or ballast to
the level of the lath, and complete with cement, striking the cement
level with a straight-edge. The box measure can then be lifted up
and removed, when the cement will fall down over and among the
aggregate, and the whole mass should be twice turned over dry. Water
can then be added through a rose, and the whole turned twice over
again. As little water should be added as possible, but enough to
thoroughly moisten the whole mass. The concrete is then fit for
use. In dry weather it is necessary to keep the work damp, as, if
there is not sufficient water to enable the cement to set about
11 per cent. the concrete will be useless. It is also important to
thoroughly wet the previous work on which the fresh concrete is to be
laid."
Concrete is best placed in position from barrows wheeled close up ;
it should then be well and solidly rammed down. To tip it from a
170 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE,
height (as was formerly the practice) is objectionable, as tending to
disintegrate the ingredients of which it is composed.
Asphalte or tar concrete has never (so far as I am aware) been tried
for a holder Tank ; but there is no reason why it should not answer
admirably for that purpose. Its composition is as follows :
By measure.
Coal tar 6 parts.
Sifted lias lime 2 parts.
Gravel, shingle, broken stones, bricks, or old
retorts, not more than 1 inches cube . . 7 parts.
Clean, sharp sand ...'.*.... 2 parts.
The tar and lime to be first mixed together, and the other materials
added. All to be thoroughly dry.
The kind of Mortar employed.
In the construction of brick or stone Tanks, hydraulic mortar or
cement mortar, either one or the other, or both, is invariably used.
The following is their composition :
Hydraulic Mortar.
By measure.
Best blue lias lime 1 part.
Clean sharp river sand 2 parts.
or,
Best blue lias lime 1 part.
Burnt clay 2 parts.
or,
Best blue lias lime 1 part.
Puzzolana 1 part.
Clean sharp sand -i 1 . 6 parts.
Cement Mortar.
Cement, Portland 1 part.
Clean sharp sand 3 parts.
The lime should be fresh burnt, and not more than sufficient of the
mortar for a day's work prepared at once. The cement mortar should
only be made as it is being used.
The characteristics of good Portland cement are thus succinctly
stated by Mr. Faija : " In colour it should be of a dull bluish grey;
and should have a clear, sharp, almost floury feel in the hand ; it
should weigh from 112 Ibs. to 118 Ibs. per striked bushel (87 to 92 Ibs.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 171
per cubic foot), and when moulded into a briquette, or small testing-
block, and soaked in water for seven days, should be capable of resisting
a tensile strain of from 300 to 400 Ibs. per square inch. The cement
should, during the process of setting, show neither expansion nor
contraction."
Asphalte or Tar Mortar.
By measure.
Coal tar 2 parts.
Sifted lime 2 parts.
The tar and lime to be mixed together, and sand, in a thoroughly
dry state, to be afterwards added.
Puddle.
For puddle, clay mixed with one-third sand, silt, or soil free from
vegetable fibre, is preferable to pure clay, being firmer in texture, and
less liable to crack when dry. It should be prepared outside of the
trench, put in in thin layers as the wall of the Tank is built, kept
moistened, trodden well in with the feet, and backed up with earth
carefully pounded. A cubic yard of puddle weighs about 2 tons.
Iron Tanks.
In iron Tanks the flanges of the bottom plates should always be
inside ; whilst those for the sides may be outside, and the plates should
break joint with each other throughout.
Iron piers, or piers of brick, stone, or concrete, are erected at equal
distances apart round the outside of iron Tanks, for the purpose of sup-
porting the gasholder columns or standards. If the Tank is of
small dimensions, the standards may be bolted to strong brackets
secured to the upper tier of side plates.
Leakages from Iron Tanks.
Leakages of water from iron Tanks may often be greatly reduced or
altogether stopped by emptying a bushel or two of horse dung into the
water contiguous to the escape. A handful of fine iron filings sprinkled
lightly over the dung will be found of advantage. By this simple
expedient, very heavy escapes have frequently been reduced to a mere
drip within the space of a few minutes.
Dry Wells, and Inlet and Outlet Pipes.
The dry or stand pipe well is not necessarily the invariable accom-
paniment of a Gasholder Tank. Some engineers prefer to dispense
with it altogether.
172 NBWBIQGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Many of the largest Tanks are made without dry wells, the inlet and
outlet pipes being of such ample diameter as to admit of their exami-
nation and repair, if need be, from the inside.
The advantage supposed to be gained by providing a dry well is the
facility which it affords of access to the inlet and outlet pipes, both
vertical and horizontal, in case of fracture, without disturbing the
puddle or other backing of the Tank wall.
In small Tanks it is not unusual to form a recess in the Tank wall in
which the inlet and outlet pipes are placed, and are thus accessible
when the Tank is emptied of water. (Fig. 74.)
The inlet and outlet pipes, especially when of wrought-iron, should
be securely anchored or bolted down to the stone or concrete base on
which they rest within the Tank. If this is not done, the water, by
reason of its floating power, is liable to raise them slightly, and so
disturb and cause a leakage through or past the puddle or concrete in
which the horizontal portions of the pipes are embedded.
Thickness of Tank Walls.
The walls of masonry Tanks (brick, stone, and concrete) are never
required to resist, unsupported, the pressure of the water acting upon
their sides ; but are invariably built under the surface level of the
ground within the space of an excavation made for that purpose, and
having a backing of earth carefully rammed all round them. This
earth backing usually offers a resistance to the pressure of the water
within the Tank, greater than the combined weight of the wall and
the cohesive nature of its component ingredients ; and consequently
in designing a Tank wall, this fact is allowed for, and a deduction made
from the calculated unsupported thickness of the masonry.
In the well-known Memoire by M. Arson, a translation of which, by
Dr. Pole, is given in " King's Treatise " (Vol. II., p. 181 et scq.), the
author investigates this subject with his usual ability. After some
preliminary observations on the nature of the ground, and the choice
and placing of material, he proceeds to a consideration of the forces
and resistances in a Gasholder Tank of masonry, and deduces the
following formulae :
As to the Pressure of the Water.
TT8
(1) S D g = the total force of the water.
Then as to the threefold resistance to this force.
H 2
(1) C D 1 -^- = tJie resistance of the earth backing.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
P E 2 D 1 H
(2) o = the resistance of the weight of the masonry.
(3) K H 2 E = the resistance dm to collision.
Adding the combined resistance from the three sources together, we
have
And to produce stability of the Tank these must be greater than the
effect of the pressure of the water
SD f
where D = Internal diameter of the Tank in feet.
E = Thickness of the wall (average) in feet.
D 1 External diameter of the Tank in feet.
H = Height of wall in feet.
S = Weight of a cubic foot of water.
C = Resistance of the earth backing in Ibs. per sq. foot.
P = Weight of a cubic foot of the masonry.
K = Cohesive force per sq. foot.
Applying these formulae to one of the examples of Tanks actually
constructed, let us see how they work out. Take the Tank described
on p. 180 :
D = Internal diameter of tank, 122 feet.
E = Average thickness of wall, 2-| feet.
D 1 = External diameter, 127 feet.
H = Height (or depth), 24 feet.
S = Weight of a cubic foot of water, 62-5 Ibs.
C = Resistance of the earth backing per sq. foot, clay and earth,
say average 1200 Ibs.
P = Weight of a cubic foot of the masonry, 112 Ibs.
K = Cohesive force per sq. foot, bricks in 1 Portland cement to
3 sand, mortar, 31,680 Ibs.
Then
TT8 04.8
(1) SDir = 62-5 x 122 * = 17,568,000 = total force of
- the water
in Ibs.
174 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
2
(1) C D 1 ^ = 1200 x 127 5 = 43,891,200 = resistance of
earth back-
ing.
PE 2 D X H 112 x 2-5 2 x 127 x 24 1 __. Qn _ . , ,
(2) ----- 5 - = s = 1,066,800 = resistance of
weight of
masonry.
(3) KH 2 E = 31680 x 24 2 x 2-5 = 45,619,200 = resistance due
to cohesion.
90,577,200 = total resist-
ance in Ibs.
or about five times the pressure of the water, which is an ample
margin for safety.
It has already been pointed out that the walls of brick Tanks, which
are porous in some degree, having a backing of clay puddle behind and
over the Tank bottom, are placed in equilibrium by the water on both
sides, and therefore do not require to be of as great a thickness as those
with an internal lining of cement impermeable to water. In the latter
case special care should be taken to see that the earth backing is
thoroughly consolidated behind the wall, so that the pressure of the
water against the Tank may be transmitted thereto direct, without
clanger of rupture to the masonry.
When it is required to ascertain the thickness of any portion of a
Tank wall to resist the force of the water pressing against it, the
formulae as under is applicable :
, = thickness in inches.
Ji Jr
Where P = the pressure of the water in Ibs. per square inch.
D = the radius of the Tank in inches.
K = the safe cohesive force in Ibs. per square inch.
EXAMPLE. A brick and puddle Tank set in Portland cement mortar
is 122 feet in internal diameter and 24 feet deep to the surface of the
rest stones. Required thickness of wall immediately above footings.
The pressure of the water on each square inch will therefore be
62*5 x 24
- = 10 Ibs. pressure of water per square inch.
The safe cohesive strength of the brickwork in Portland cement
mortar (1 cement, 3 sand) may be taken at 220 -f- 2 = 110.
Then: D _ WX7W = 7_ 74 inches _ nearly _ or f , 2 jn _
the required thickness of the wall. It will be seen, however, that in
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 175
this calculation no account has been taken either of the resistance
offered by the weight of the masonry, or of the support given by the
earth backing ; so that the result obtained is the theoretical thickness
of the wall to resist the pressure of the water without any backing.
And as this latter may be taken as fully equal to the other, the thick-
ness obtained by the calculation may be reduced by one-half i.e., to
8 ft. 1 in. which will be the required thickness of the wall above the
footings. The required thickness at any other depth may be found in
like manner. The pressure of the water, which varies in proportion
to the depth, may be represented by a right-angled triangle ABC,
A and, therefore, the thickness at the top would work
out to nothing. It must not be overlooked, how-
ever, that the Tank sides act as a retaining wall to
the earth both during construction and at any time
afterwards, when the water is withdrawn ; and con-
sequently the thickness should be graduated from the
B C ascertained thickness at the base to about 2 or 3
bricks width at the coping.
The thickness of 3 feet at the base of the wall is too thin by more
than one-half for an ordinary retaining wall of that height (24 feet);
but it must be remembered that this apparent weakness is counter-
balanced by the circular form of the structure, possessing as it does
all the qualities of the arch, and being built up, both wall and backing,
gradually throughout the complete circle from base to coping.
The conditions as regards backing of cast and wrought-iron Tanks
are different. These being generally erected above ground, the re-
sistance offered to the bursting force of the contained water is entirely
due to the cohesive strength of the metal.
The same formula, however, is applicable here, as will be seen from
the next example of a cast-iron Tank, where the safe cohesive strength
of the iron is taken at 4000 Ibs. per sectional square inch, its ultimate
tenacity being 16,000.
EXAMPLE. A cast-iron Tank is 80 feet in internal diameter and
18 feet deep. Kequired the thickness of the lower ring of plates.
These are generally 3 to 4 feet in depth, but the water pressure on
the lowest foot may be taken.
fi2'5 x 18
Here r-j7 7'8 Ibs. pressure of water per square inch.
Then
PD 7-8 x 480
K - P = 4000 - 7-8
the required thickness ; and so in like manner the required thickness
of the several higher rings may be ascertained. This thickness may
176 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
be slightly reduced by making allowance for the assistance given to the
lower ring of plates by their attachment to the plates forming the
bottom of the Tank, and especially if iron hoops are employed round
the outer circumference to give rigidity to the structure.
The safe cohesive strength of wrought-iron plates may be taken at
10,000 Ibs. per sectional square inch.
Examples of Constniction.
The following are examples of Gasholder Tanks constructed under
moderately favourable circumstances. It will be found advisable in
practice, in some instances, to increase the strength of the walls and
footings, and even to put a bed of concrete below the latter where the
underlying strata are of an unsatisfactory character.
BEICK TANKS.
Diameter, 21 ft. 6 in. Depth, 10 ft.
Footings, 3 single courses ; width respectively, 3, 2$, and 2
bricks.
Wall, 1 bricks thick for half the height, diminishing by an
offset on the outside to 1 brick for the remainder.
Coping of wall, bricks set on edge, in cement.
Piers to support gasholder columns, 4 hi number, brought up
from foundation, and built in with the wall, each capped
with a stone 2 ft. square, 8 in. thick, having 3 holes drilled
in each for the holding-down bolts.
Best stones, 8 hi number, 15 in. square, 6 in. thick, laid on
footings built at bottom, bound in with the wall-footings.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third fine sand, or soil free
from vegetable fibre, 2 ft. thick at bottom ; and at the sides,
tapering from 2 ft. at the base to one foot at the top.
Bottom, flagged with 3-in. flags.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime one-third, sharp river sand two-thirds.
Diameter, 33 ft. 6 in. Depth, 12 ft.
Footings, 2 double courses, width 3 and 2 bricks.
Wall, 2 bricks thick for 8 ft. high, and 1 bricks for the re-
maining 4 ft., set off on outside.
Coping of wall, bricks on edge, laid in cement.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 177
Piers, 4, bound in with wall, and brought up from foundation,
each capped with a stone 2 ft. square, 9 in. thick, with 3
bolt-holes.
Stones at bottom, for bottom curb of holder to rest on when
down, 8 ; each 16 in. square, 6 in. thick, let into face of
wall 2 in. ; laid on footings.
Puddled with clay puddle, composed of two-thirds clay and
one-third fine sand, trodden well together, 2 ft. thick at
bottom and sides, tapering to 1 ft. 6 in. at top.
Bottom, flagged with yard flags, 3 in. thick.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, composed of best lias lime, mixed with two-thirds.
sharp sand.
Diameter, 89 ft. Depth, 14 ft.
Footings, 2 double courses, 3 bricks wide at base, diminishing
by offsets to commencement of wall.
Wall, 2| bricks at bottom to height of 6 ft. ; next 4 ft., 2 bricks ;
remaining 3 ft. 6 in. to underneath coping, 1| bricks thick.
Coping stones, 6 in. thick, laid in cement, and cramped together
on the outside.
Piers, 5, brought up from foundation, each capped with a stone
2 ft. 6 in. square, 9 in. thick, with 4 bolt-holes.
Best stones, 10, let 3 in. into face of wall, 18 in. square, 6 in.
thick on footings.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third sand, 2 ft. thick at
bottom and at the sides, tapering to 1 ft. 6 in. at top.
Bottom, brick paved.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sharp river sand.
Diameter, 51 ft. 6 in. Depth, 16 ft.
Footings, 2 double courses, 3 and 3 bricks wide.
Wall, thickness at base to height of 7 ft., 2 bricks ; next 5 ft.,
2 bricks ; and remaining 4 ft., 1 bricks.
Coping, bricks on edge, set in cement.
Piers, 5, carried up from foundation, each pier capped with a
stone 3 ft. square, 9 in. thick, having 4 holes for holding-down
bolts.
Kest stones, 10, 18 in. square, 6 in. thick, laid on footings, and
let 3 in. into face of wall.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third sand, 2 ft. thick at
bottom and sides, diminishing to 1 ft. 6 in. at top.
178 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Bottom flagged with yard flags 3 in. thick, bedded on the
puddle.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sharp river sand.
Diameter, 62 ft. Depth, 14 ft.
Footings, 4 courses ; width respectively 4-J-, 4, 3, and 3 bricks.
Wall, thickness at base to height of 5 ft., 2 bricks; next 5 ft.,
2 bricks ; remaining 3 ft. to underneath coping, 1 bricks.
Coping stones, 1 ft. thick, dressed to the proper radius, and laid
in cement.
Piers, 6, brought up from foundation, bound in with tank wall,
each capped with a stone 3 ft. square, 10 in. thick, with 4 bolt-
holes.
Best stones, 12, 18 in. square, 8 in. thick, laid on footings.
Mound left in bottom of tank, 8 feet less in diameter than the
latter, flagged round the base, other part pitched with random
stones.
Puddled with clay two-thirds, intimately mixed with one-third
sand ; 2 ft. thick at bottom ; the sides, 2ft. at base to 1 ft. 6 in.
at top.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sand.
Diameter, 62 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Footings, 5 courses, first course, double, 5 bricks in width ;
others single ; 4, 4, and 3 bricks wide respectively.
Wall thickness at base to height of 9 ft., 3 bricks ; next 6 ft., 2*
bricks ; remaining 5 ft. to underneath coping, 2 bricks.
Coping stones, 1 ft. thick, dressed to the proper radius, and laid
in cement.
Piers, 8, brought up from foundation, bound in with tank wall,
each capped with a stone 8 feet square, 12 in. thick, with 4
bolt-holes.
Eest stones, 16, 2 ft. 6 in. long, 12 in. wide, 10 in. thick.
Mound left in bottom of tank, 11 feet less in diameter than the
latter, covered with concrete 6 in. thick.
Puddled with clay ; 18 in. thick at bottom ; the sides, 2 ft. at
base to 1 ft. 6 in. at top.
Bricks, best hard-burnt seconds.
Mortar, 1 Portland cement to 2 of sharp sand.
Diameter, 83 ft. 6 in. Depth, 20 ft.
Footings, 4 courses ; first course, double, 5 bricks in width ;
others single ; 4^, 4, and 3| bricks wide respectively.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 179
Wall, from base to height of 7 ft., 3 bricks ; next 7 ft., 2 bricks ;
and remaining 6 ft., 2 bricks thick.
Coping, bricks set on edge, and laid in cement.
Piers, 9, brought up from foundation, each capped with a stone
4 ft. square, 10 in. thick, with 4 holes for holding-down bolts
of columns.
Rest stones, 18, 24 in. square, 10 in. thick, laid on footings, and
let 3 in. into sides of tank.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third sand, 2 ft. thick at bot-
tom ; the sides, 2 ft. at base, tapering to 1 ft. 6 in. at top.
Centre pillar, to support crown of gasholder when down, built of
brick, coated with cement.
Bottom, flagged with Yorkshire flags, 4 in. thick.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sharp river sand.
Diameter, 102 ft. Depth, 24 ft.
Footings, 6 bricks wide at base, diminishing by offsets to the
bottom of wall.
Wall, thickness at base to 7 ft. in height, 4 bricks ; next 7 ft.,
3 bricks ; next 5 ft., 3 bricks ; and remaining 4 ft. to
coping, 2 bricks thick.
Coping of stone, 1 ft. thick.
Piers, 12, carried up and built in with wall from foundation.
Each capped with a stone 4 ft. square, 15 in. thick, with 4
bolt-holes.
Best stones, 24, 2 ft. 6 in. square, 12 in. thick, let 4 in. into
bottom of wall, and resting on footings.
Stones, 72 in number, 18 in. long, 12 in. by 12 in., built into
tank wall, against which the channel guides are fastened.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third sand, 2 ft. thick at
bottom ; the sides, 2 ft. 6 in. at base, tapering to 1 ft. 6 in.
at top.
Bottom, concreted over the puddle to the depth of 10 in.
Centre pillar, to support gasholder crown.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sharp river sand.
Diameter, 102 ft. 6 in. Depth, 30 ft.
Footings, 1 double and 4 single courses, respectively 6, 5, 5, 4,
and 4 bricks wide.
Wall, 3 bricks wide for 10 ft. high ; next 10 ft., 2 bricks : and
remaining 9 ft. to coping, 2 bricks.
180 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Coping of stone, 12 in. thick, not less than 4. ft. long each stone,
Strengthening rings, of brickwork, laid in cement, 5
1st ring, 2 ft. 6 in. from bottom, 7 bricks deep.
2nd do. 8 ,, 6 ,, , 6 do.
3rd do. 14
4th do. 19 6
5th do. 24
do.
do.
do.
Piers, 12, brought up from foundation along with and bound into
the wall, each capped with a stone 4 ft. 6 in. square, 15 in.
thick, with 4 bolt-holes.
Rest stones, 24, 27 in. square, 12 in. thick, on footings, and let
4 in. into tank wall.
Puddled with clay, mixed with one-third sand, 2 ft. thick
throughout.
Centre pillar, of brick, to support gasholder crown, cemented
over.
Bottom concreted to the depth of 12 in. over the puddle.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, lias lime, mixed with two-thirds sharp river sand.
Diameter, 122 ft. Depth, 24 ft.
Concrete under footings of wall and rest stones, 12 in. thick and
10 ft. wide.
Footings, 8 bricks wide at base, diminishing by 8 offsets to the
bottom of the wall.
Wall, thickness at base to 8 ft. 9 in. in height, 4 bricks ; next
7 ft., 3-J- bricks ; next 4 ft. 6 in., 3 bricks ; and remaining 3 ft.
to coping, 2-J bricks thick. Batter of wall 1 in 100.
Coping of stone, 9 in. thick, by 24 in. wide, and not less than
3 ft. 4 in. long.
Piers, 14, each 7 bricks square carried up and built in with wall
from foundation, and capped with a stone 5 ft. 4 in. square,
18 in. thick, and with 4 holding-down bolts to each.
Eest stones, 28, 8 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. by 12 in. thick, let into wall
4^ in., and resting on footings.
Guide rail stones 56 in number, built into tank wall, 28 of
which are 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in., the remaining 28
being 2 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft.
Brick ring or apron extending 6 ft. from inside of tank wall at
the bottom to form a floor, 3 courses of bricks thick laid
flat.
Centre pillar of brickwork, 4 ft. diameter.
Mortar Portland cement, 1 part ; sand 3 parts.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEKS. 181
Bricks, picked common.
Puddle behind wall of tank, 24 in. thick at bottom, tapering t
18 in. at top. On cone in tank bottom 18 in. thick.
Concrete over surface of puddled cone in bottom, 6 in. thick.
Diameter, 145 ft. Depth, 55 ft.
Top of tank, 4 ft. above ground level.
Footings, 4 double courses, respectively 5 ft., 4 ft. 8 in., 4ft. 4| in.,
and 4 ft. wide.
Wall, to height of 10 ft. above footings, 3 ft. 7 in., or 4 bricks
thick; next 10 ft., 4 bricks; next 10 ft., 3^ bricks; next
15 ft., 3 bricks ; next 5 ft., 2 bricks ; remaining 4 ft., ex-
clusive of coping, 2 bricks thick.
Strengthening rings, or courses, 6 courses in every 5 ft. of
height ; also the 3 finishing courses, and the corresponding
courses in piers, set in cement. The brickwork at no part
carried higher than 5 courses of bricks, until the circle up to
that level is completed, puddled, and backed up.
Coping of stone, 12 in. thick, bedded in cement.
Piers, 16, 4 ft. 3 in. wide, each capped with a stone 5 ft. square,
18 in. thick, for supporting columns ; 4 holes in each for
holding-down bolts ; the said holding-down bolts, with cast-
iron plate, built into each pier, 10 ft. below level of coping.
Rest stones, 32, let 4 in. into face of wall, and resting on piers
of brickwork forming part of the general footings.
Blocks of stone, 18 in. by 12 in. by 12 in., inserted in wall
opposite each pier, for securing guides.
Cone in centre of tank, 6 ft. less in diameter at the base than
the interior of tank ; lower part, to height of 20 ft., paved
with 4 courses of brickwork ; upper part, of clay only.
Puddle, not less than 18 in. in thickness, and kept constantly
well moistened ; the earth being firmly pounded in behind.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, composed of 1 part fresh burnt lias lime, to 3 parts of
clean, sharp river sand ; not more than sufficient for one day's
work made at one time.
Cement, fresh burnt, with equal proportions of sand, mixed as it
is being used.
Dry, or stand pipe well, 15 ft. diameter, 63 ft. deep, paved with
3 courses of brickwork on edge, set in cement.
Diameter, 154 ft. Depth, 40 ft. 6 in.
Foundation of concrete 12 in. thick, 13 ft. wide under piers, and
11 ft. wide under walling.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE,
Wall, starts from concrete foundation without footings, 5 bricks
thick fora height of 16 ft. 10 in. ; next 4 bricks for 6 ft. 5 in.
deep ; next 4 bricks for 6 ft. 5 in. ; next 3 bricks for 6 ft. 5 in..
and 3 bricks the remaining height.
Coping of stone, 12 in. by 2 ft. 3 in., in lengths not less than
4 ft. 6 in.
Piers, 16 in number, 6 ft. square from bottom to top, capped with
hard Yorkshire stones, 6 ft. square and 2 ft. thick, with 4
bolt-holes in each.
Rest stones, 32, 4ft. 10 in. by 2 ft., by 1 ft., built 4 in. in tank
wall.
Guide rail stones, 144 in number, 112 of which are 2 ft. by 1 ft.
9 in. by 1 ft., and the remaining 32 being 2 ft. by 1 ft. 9 in.
by 1 ft. 6 in.
Puddled with clay 24 in. thick over surface of mound in bottom,
and behind tank wall.
Brick apron, 2 ft. thick and 6 ft. wide, round bottom of tank wall
inside, upon which the rest stones are set.
Centre pillar of brick, 6 ft. square at bottom and 6 ft. 3 in. square
at top, capped by a stone 12 in. thick.
Mortar, Portland, cement, 1 part ; sand, 3 parts.
Bond, English ; alternate courses of headers and stretchers
throughout.
Dry well, 10 ft. in diameter, 48 ft. 6 in. deep.
Diameter, 182 ft. Depth, 40 ft.
Footings, 3 ft. deep below tank bottom, in 3 equal set-offs ; placed
on elm sleepers, 9 in. by 4 in.
Wall, thickness at base to 15 ft. in height, 4 bricks ; next 15 ft.,
4 bricks ; next 5 ft., 3 bricks, and remaining 4 ft., 2 bricks
thick.
Coping, Bramley Fall stone, 12 in. thick, and 24 in. wide.
Piers, 28, 6 ft. thick from inside tank to outside pier, and 8 ft. 9 in.
wide side to side, capped with granite blocks, 5 ft. 3 in. square
and 2 ft. thick, with 4 bolt-holes in each.
Eest stones, 28, built in wall 12 in., are each 4 ft. by 2 ft. G in.
by 12 in. thick.
Guide rail stones, 112 in number, 18 in. by 12 in. by 12 in.
Puddled with clay on cone in bottom of tank, under footings,
and behind tank wall a uniform thickness of 24 in.
Cone at bottom covered over the clay with 9 in. of concrete,
and paved with a layer of bricks on edge, set in cement.
Centre pillar of brickwork, 7 ft. 6 in. square, capped with granite
block, 2 ft. thick, the whole on a foundation of concrete.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stock bricks.
Mortar, blue lias lime mortar.
Brick ring or apron, 3 ft. thick, extending 6 ft. 6 in. from inside
of tank wall at the bottom, to form a floor.
Diameter, 200 ft. Depth, 36 ft.
Footings, laid on elm boards 1 in. thick, placed on the puddle,
are 9 bricks wide at base, diminishing by 2| in. offsets to
bottom of wall.
Wall, thickness at base to 12 ft. in height, 5 bricks ; next 6 ft.,
4 bricks ; next 5 ft., 4 bricks ; next 5 ft., 3 bricks ; next 5ft.,
3 bricks, and the remaining portion, 2| bricks ; being finished
at top, to form a coping, with Staffordshire blue bricks set on
edge in cement.
Piers, 22 in number, 5 ft. 6 in. from inside tank to outside the
pier, and 7 ft. wide from side to side, surmounted by Bramley
Fall column stones, 6 ft. by 5 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 4 in. thick, with
4 holes in each.
Piers, intermediate, 22 in number, 5 brick lengths square, brought
up from bottom, and capped with stones, 2 ft. square, and
1 ft. 6 in. thick.
Rest stones, 44, 4 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. by 1 ft. 3 in. thick, set into wall
4 in. and bedded on concrete.
Guide rail stones, 44, 2 ft. square by 1 ft. 6 in.
Puddled with clay, over cone in centre, and under footings 2 ft. 6 in.
thick, behind tank wall 2 ft. thick at bottom, tapering to 1 ft. Gin.
at top.
Concrete apron, 2 ft. thick, extending 9 ft. from tank wall all round.
Cone, covered with Gin. of concrete over the clay puddle.
Bricks, well burnt Oldbury brown bricks.
Mortar, blue lias lime, 1 part ; sand, 2 parts.
Bond, English, alternate courses of headers and stretchers
throughout.
Hoop-iron bond, every sixth course in height, 1J in. by l-16th in.
is inserted as follows : In the 5 bricks thick part, 5 rows are laid
in the thickness of the wall at equal distances apart ; in the 4|
and 4 bricks thick part, 4 rows ; 3 and 3 bricks part, 3 rows ; and
2 rows for the remaining height.
Shallow dry well, 12 ft. diameter, 20 ft. deep.
Diameter, 203 ft. 6 in. Depth, 38 ft.
Footings, bottom course, 7 bricks wide, 4 bricks deep, and 4 single
courses, respectively 6, 5, 5, and 4| bricks wide.
184 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Wall, thickness for a height of 20 ft., 4 bricks; next 9 ft., 3*
bricks; next 8 ft., 3 bricks.
Coping stone, 24 in. wide, 12 in. thick.
Strengthening rings of brickwork laid in cement, 5, divided equally
throughout the depth of tank wall, 10 bricks each in depth.
Piers, 18, on foundations brought up from bottom of tank footings
and bound in with wall, each capped with a stone 6 ft. square,
18 in. thick, 4 holes for bolts, the latter with plate built into
pier, 10 ft. below the top of coping.
Rest stones, 36, 4 ft. square, 12 in. thick, on footings brought up
from bottom of wall footings.
Puddled with clay, mixed with ohe-third sharp sand, and not less
than 2 ft. thick in any part.
Bottom concreted over the puddle to the depth of 12 in.
Bricks, best hard-burnt stocks.
Mortar, 1 part lias lime to 2 parts sharp river sand.
Diameter, 218 ft. Depth, 44 ft. 6 in.
Foundation of concrete 2 ft. thick, 9 ft. 5 in. wide, including apron.
Wall, thickness at base to 20ft. in height, 5 bricks ; next 5 ft.,
4 bricks ; next 5 ft., 4 bricks ; next 5 ft., 3 bricks ; next 5 ft.,
3 bricks, and the remaining portion 2 bricks ; 7 circular bands
of brickwork, 6 courses deep each, and extending through the
full thickness of the wall, are built in equidistantly in the
height of the wall set in Portland cement mortar, the inter-
vening portions of the wall being set in hydraulic lime mortar
all in English bond.
Coping of Yorkshire stone, 2 ft. 5 in. by 6 in., in 5 ft. lengths,
projecting 1 nch over wall.
Piers, 24, each 7 from inside tank wall to outside of pier, and
5 ft. 6 in. wide, side to side, capped with Brarnley Fall stones,
7 ft. by 5 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft., having 7 bolt-holes in each.
Piers, intermediate, 24, each 3 ft. 10 in. square, capped with
stones 4 ft. by 4 ft. by 6 in.
Best blocks of concrete, 48, each 4 ft. 6 in. long by 2 ft. wide, and
standing 6 in. above the concrete apron.
Guide rail stones, 288, each 18 in. by 12 in. by 12 in., projecting
1 in. from face of tank wall.
Puddled with clay, not less than 18 in. at any part.
Truncated surface of cone paved with stones.
Mortar, blue lias hydraulic lime, 1 part ; sand, 3 parts.
Cement mortar, ortland cement, 1 part ; sand, 3 parts.
Concrete, Portland cement, 1 part ; river ballast, 7 parts.
Shallow dry well, 12 ft. diameter, 26 feet deep.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
COMPOSITE TANK.
Diameter, 152 ft. Depth 31 ft.
Footings, 8 ft. 6 in. wide at bottom, including apron, 2 ft. 6 in.
thick.
Wall, brick faced, 9 in. thick, in English bond ; backing of con-
crete ; thickness at base, including the backing, to 13 ft. 9 in.
high, 3 ft. 4 in. ; next 8 ft. 6 in., 3 feet thick ; and the next
8 ft. 6 in., 2 ft. 8 in., to the underside of coping.
Coping of stone, 1 ft. 10 in. by 12 in., in 3-ft. lengths.
Piers, 16, are 8 ft. from inside tank wall to outside pier, and 4 ft.
6 in. wide, from side to side, formed of 9-in. brickwork on three
sides, and filled in with concrete, the whole being capped with
a stone 8 ft. by 4 ft. by 1 ft.
Best stones, 2 to each pier, or a total of 32, each 4 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in.
by 9 in.
Guide rail stones, 48, each 2 ft. by 1 ft. by 9 in.
Puddled with clay, 2 ft. thick throughout.
Cone, concreted over the clay puddle to a depth of 12 in. and
rendered.
Centre pillar, solid brickwork, 6 ft. 6 in. diameter at top, the sides
having a batter of 1 in 40 ; built on a foundation of concrete
10 ft. square and 8 ft. deep. Stone cap, 6 ft. diameter by
1 ft. thick, on which is placed a double layer of 4-in. oak
planking.
Hoop-iron bond, tarred and sanded, 1 in. wide, l-12th in. thick is
placed every 4 ft. in height, in the proportion of 1 strip to
to every 4^ in. in thickness of the wall.
Mortar, Portland cement, 1 part ; sand, 3 parts.
Concrete, Portland cement, 1 part ; sand, 3 parts ; coarse screened
stones, 1 in. diameter, 4 parts.
Dry well, 11 ft. diameter, 40 feet deep to floor.
CONCEETE TANKS.
Diameter, 82 ft. Depth, 28 ft.
Wall, 3 ft. 8 in. thick at bottom, tapering on the outside to
2 ft. 4 in. at the top, built entirely of concrete, and rendered
on inside with neat Portland cement f in. thick.
Piers, 10, each 4 ft. by 3 ft. 8 in. of concrete.
Rest blocks of concrete 2 ft. long, 18 in. wide, 6 in. thick.
186 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Backing composed of sand.
Cone, concreted over surface, 18 in. thick, and rendered with neat
cement f in. thick.
Centre pillar, 4 ft. square, 8 ft. high.
Concrete, Portland cement, 1 part ; sand, gravel, old retorts, and
clinkers, 5 parts.
Diameter, 184 ft. Depth, 47 ft.
Wall, 5 ft. thick at bottom, tapering on the outside to 2 ft. 8 in.
at the top, built entirely of concrete, and rendered on inside
with neat Portland cement f in. thick.
Piers, 20, each 8 feet thick, of concrete entirely.
Rest blocks of concrete, 6 ft. long.
Puddle, none.
Cone, concreted over surface, 12 in. thick, and rendered with
neat cement f in. thick.
Centre pillar, hollow, external diameter 14 ft., internal ditto,
10ft.
Concrete, Portland cement, 1 part ; gravel, sand, ballast, burnt
clay, old retorts, and clinkers, 7 parts.
Dry well, 10 ft. diameter, 53 ft. deep, built of concrete 2 ft. thick,
and rendered outside with neat cement.
STONE TANK.
Diameter, 89 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Footings, 2 courses. First course composed of stones at least
8 ft. 6 in. square and 9 in. thick ; second course, 3 ft. square,
9 in. thick, breaking joint at least 1 ft. on the vertical joint.
Wall, to underneath coping, built of stones not less than 16 in.
on the inner face, dressed to the proper radius ; no stone
having less than 10 in. of a square joint, nor less than 18 in.
on the bed, and 5 in. thick. Walling carried out in horizontal
courses throughout the circumference of the tank, and backed
up with good strong random. Two throughs to every super-
ficial yard. Thickness of wall at base, random included,
2 ft. 8 in., gradually diminishing to 1 ft. 8 in. at top.
Coping of stones, 1 ft. 11 in. broad, 8 in. thick, and not less
than 3 ft. 6 in. long, dressed to the proper radius, and laid in
cement.
Piers, 9, bound in and built up along with the tank wall ; a
through of entire size every vertical yard, and capped with a
solid cover 3 ft. 6 in. square, 15 in. thick, having 4 holes
for foundation bolts of columns.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 187
Rest or bearing stones, 18, throughs 2 ft. wide and 1 ft. thick
built in along with wall footings, and projecting 1 ft. 9 in. into
the tank.
Mound or cone in bottom of tank, covered with puddle to the
depth of 24 in., its base flagged with a course of yard flags
4 in. thick, the remainder pitched with dry rubble.
Pillar in centre of tank, capped with a solid stone 4 ft. square,
15 in. thick, for supporting crown of gasholder when down.
Mortar, lias lime, one-third ; sharp clean sand, two-thirds.
CAST-IRON TANKS.
Diameter, 83 ft. Depth, 15 ft.
Plates, not more than 4ft. in length or width. All, except top
course or tier, strengthened with diagonal ribs. Lowest tier,
f in. thick ; top tier, in. thick ; intermediate and bottom
plates, f in. thick. Small brackets or snugs, projecting 4 in., cast
1 in. below centre of side plates, to support the strengthening
hoops.
Flanges, 3 in. wide, with brackets between the bolt-holes.
Bolt-holes, square, fin. and in., and 6 in. apart, centres.
Bolts of bottom plates and two lower tiers of sides, f- in. ; all the
others, % in. square under head.
Hoops of flat wrought-iron, 3 in. by f in., bound round each tier of
side plates with jaws and screws.
Joints, in. thick, caulked with iron cement.
Diameter, 61 ft. Depth, 17 ft.
Plates, bottom, 1 in. thick, except outside row, 1 m - thick. Sides,
first tier, 1 in. ; second, 1 in. ; third, in. ; and 4th, f in. thick.
Depth, 4 ft. 3 in. ; width, 4 ft. 9 in. Say, 40 plates in each tier.
Snugs, projecting 4 in., cast on each plate, 2 in. below centre,
to support the binding hoops.
Flanges, 3 in. wide, not less than f in. thick ; brackets in. thick
between the bolt-holes.
Bolt-holes, square, f in. ; 7 in. apart, centre to centre.
Bolts, fin., square under head.
Hoops of flat-iron, 3^ in. by fin., with suitable jaws and tighten-
ing screws bound round each tier of side plates.
Joints, in. thick, caulked with iron cement.
Diameter, 101 ft. Depth, 22 ft. 8 in.
Plates, bottom, outside row, 1 in., and remainder 1 in., except
188 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
centre plate, If in. Sides, first and second tiers, l^in. ; third
tier, 1% in. ; fourth and fifth tiers, 1 in. thick. Width, 4 ft. 2 in.
(say 75 plates in each tier) ; depth, 4 ft. Of in. Bearing bracket,
projecting 5 in., cast on each plate, 2^ in. below centre, to
supjport the strengthening hoops.
Flanges, 3in. wide, equal to plates in strength ; brackets, fin.,
between the bolt-holes.
Bolt-holes, square, 1 in. ; 7 in., centre to centre.
Bolts, 1 in., square under head.
Hoops, flat-iron, 5 in. by l^in., with jaws and screws, bound
round each tier of side platee.
Joints, f in- thick, caulked with iron cement.
WROUGHT-IKON TANK.
Diameter, 51 ft. 4 in. Depth, 14 ft.
Plates, % in. thick, both sides and bottom, with the exception of
the outer row in the latter, and those to which the guide rails
are fixed up the sides, which are f in. thick.
Curbs, of angle-iron, extending round the entire circumference of
the tank outside ; top curb, 4 in. by 4 in. by f in. ; two inter-
mediate curbs or rings the same size, and bottom curb 4f in.
by 4f in. by f in., all butt-jointed, and with lapping pieces
not less than 18 in. long, riveted to the side plates of the tank
with in. rivets 6 in. apart.
Vertical stays, 12 in number, serving as guides for the holder,
14 ft. long, formed of two 3 in. by 2f in. by f in. angle-irons
placed thus: JL and riveted to the \ in. plates up the sides
before mentioned with rivets 6 in. apart.
Lap of plates, not less than If in., riveted hot with in. rivets,
If in. centres.
Masonry standards or iron brackets to support columns.
ANNULAE OB KING TANKS.
Cast-iron.
Diameter, 75 ft. Depth, 19 ft.
Plates, bottom or ring plates, 3 ft. 6 in. wide, 1 in. thick. Inner
circles, 1 tier of plates only, 4 ft. deep, 1 in. thick ; strengthened
with 2 horizontal ribs 2 in. deep by in. thick on side next
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 139
centre of tank, and on other side with 2 vertical brackets,
9 in. at bottom, diminishing to nothing at top, f in. thick,
with foot, 9 in. by 6 in. by f in., on bottom of each bracket.
Outer circle, 4 tiers, 4 ft. 9 in. deep, and 1 in., in., f in., and
f in. thick respectively. 55 plates in the circumference. Snug,
projecting 4 in. 2 in. below centre, to support binding hoops.
Flanges, 3f in. wide, equal to plates in strength, with brackets
between the bolt-holes.
Bolt-holes square, in., 6 in. centre to centre.
Bolts, in. square under head.
Hoops, flat-iron, 4 in. by 1 in., with suitable jaws and screws,
bound round each tier of outside plates.
Joints, i in. thick, caulked with iron cement.
Diameter, 103 ft. Depth, 22 ft.
Plates, bottom or ring, 5 ft. wide, 1 in. thick. Inner circle, 1 tier
of plates only 4 ft. deep, 1 in. thick ; strengthened with 2 hori-
zontal ribs, 2 in. deep by f in. thick on side next centre of
tank, and on other side with 2 vertical brackets, 9 in. at bottom,
diminishing to nothing at top, f in. thick, with foot on bottom
of each, 9 in. by 6 in. by in. Outer circle, 5 tiers, 4 ft. 5 in.
deep, and 1J in., 1 in., f- in., in., and fin. thick respectively.
66 plates in the circumference. A snug or bearing bracket cast
on each of the outside plates, 2^ in. below centre, and project-
ing 4 in. for supporting the binding hoops.
Flanges, 8 in. wide, 1 in. thick,*_with brackets between the bolt-
holes.
Bolt-holes, in. square, 6 in. apart, centre to centre.
Bolts, in., square under head.
Hoops, flat-iron, 4 in. by in. for bottom tier, 4^ in. by f in.
for the others, with jaws and tightening screws.
Joints, in. thick, caulked with iron cement.
Diameter, 110 ft. Depth', 24 ft, 2 in.
Plates, bottom or ring, 3 ft. 10 in. wide, in. thick. Inner circle
1 tier of plates only, 4 ft. deep, in. thick ; strengthened with
2 horizontal ribs, 2 in. broad by % in. thick on side next centre
of tank, and on the other side with 2 vertical brackets, 9 in. at
bottom, diminishing to nothing at top, in. thick, with foot on
bottom of each, 9 in. by 6 in. by in. Outer circle, 5 tiers,
4 ft. 10 in. deep, and 1^ in., 1 in., f in., in., and in. thick
respectively, 66 plates in the circumference. A bearing bracket
cast on each of the outside plates, 2J in. below centre, and
projecting 4 in., for supporting the binding hoops.
190 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Flanges, 3 in. wide, and same strength as the respective plates ;
brackets between the bolt-holes.
Bolt-holes, in. square, 6 in. apart, centres.
Bolts, in., square under head.
Hoops, flat-iron, 6 in. by f in. for the bottom tier, and 4 in. by
$ in. for the others, with suitable jaws and tightening screws.
Joints, | in. thick, caulked with iron cement.
Wrought-Iron.
Diameter, 127 ft. Depth, 20 ft. 8 in.
Annular space, 8 ft. 9 in. wide. *
Plates, bottom or ring plates inch thick ; sides five rows deep ;
first and second row of plates from bottom in. thick ; third
and fourth rows, 7-16ths in. thick, and the fifth or top row
f in. thick ; lap of plates, 8 in. ; the top of the inner row of
plates being 8 in. lower than the outer row ; angle-iron curbs in
bottom, 4 in. by 4 in., by -f in. thick ; the in. and 7-16ths in.
plates riveted with in. rivets, 2 inches apart, and the f in.
plates by f in. rivets, 2 in. apart.
Curbs, top outer curb of angle-iron 5 in. by 5 in. by inch. ; top
inner curb of angle-iron 8 in. by 3 in. by \ in. ; both riveted
with f in. rivets, 6 in. apart.
Standards, 18, box form, 15 in. by 9 in., of f-in. plates on three
sides, 3 in. by 3 in. by \ in. angle-iron to secure the same to side
sheets, and extending round the bottom of the standard at its
lower end, and 5 in. by 5 in. by f in. angle-iron round the top to
form a base for the columns, all riveted at 6 in. apart with
f-in. rivets. Two of these standards form the inlet and outlet
pipes, for which purpose they are continued under the annular
space and up the inside of the inner ring of side sheets, and
riveted with f-in. rivets as before, but only 2 in. apart.
GASHOLDEES.
The Holder or floating vessel (Fig. 76) is the storage reservoir for
the gas, and it serves the all-important purpose of equalizing the dis-
tribution of the gas underpressure, and ensures an unbroken continuity
of supply. In form it is invariably cylindrical, like an inverted cup,
and works freely up and down in the tank.
The Holder may be either single (Fig. 76), or telescopic (Fig. 77), and
the latter may be in either two or more lifts. Two lifts are generally
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
191
adopted ; but some of the largest Holders now constructed are in
three lifts.
When the Holder is made in the telescopic form, its capacity is
nearly double or treble (as the case may be) the capacity of the single-
lift Holder for equal dimensions of tank. Ground space and capital
are thus economized by its adoption.
FIG. 77.
Telescopic Holders require great care in construction and working
Jint, to ensure accuracy in the "cupping" of the water-lute or seal,
and, second, to prevent the water in the lute from freezing, which
endangers the action of the vessel, or causes distortion, and imperils
the lighting of the district.
Holders, whether single or telescopic, are counterbalanced or not
as is found desirable or necessary. When the diameter of the Holder
is more than twice the depth, counterbalance weights are not required
especially where an exhauster on the one hand, and a governor on the
other, are employed, as is the case in all but the smallest gas-works.
When the diameter and depth more nearly approximate, it will
192 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
generally be found of advantage to reduce the pressure by counter-
balancing.
The crown or roof of a Holder may be either trussed (Fig. 76), or
untrussed (Fig. 77). In the latter case the top curb requires to be
made sufficiently strong to resist the pressure of the gas exerted on
the underside of the roof which tends to distort the curb. A frame-
work of wood or iron is required to be erected within the tank to sup-
port the untrussed roof when the Holder is empty of gas, and resting
on the landing stones.
The usual rise given to the roof or crown of a Holder is 5 per cent.
or one -twentieth of the diameter.
Gasholders without Upper Guide-Framing,
Mr. G. Livesey has added a third lift to a Holder at Eother-
hithe, without increasing the height of the original framing ; the only
addition made being the replacing of the channel guides with H-iron
to furnish paths for the combined radial and tangential rollers on the
grips of the middle and outer lifts. This Holder is working success-
fully.
The invention of Mr. W. Gadd introduces a new principle of guid-
ing ; the elevated framing being entirely dispensed with, and the
vessel guided from the bottom curb. The channel or rail guides
within the tank, or within the lower lift of a telescopic Holder, are
placed at an angle like the thread of a screw, instead of in the vertical
plane. The rollers attached to the bottom curb, or to the cup of the
inner lift, are ranged either radially or tangentially with the sides of
the vessel ; and as they work in the channels or rails provided for
them, the floating vessel rises and descends in the tank with a helical
or screw-like motion.
Gasholder Capacity.
The Holder or Holders should be of capacity sufficient to contain at
least the 24 hours' maximum production of gas. An excess in capa-
city, though not absolutely necessary, is found advantageous in point
of convenience and economy, where the rate of consumption is liable
to fluctuations by the non-lighting of the public lamps during the
hours of moonlight ; and where, as in manufacturing towns and dis-
tricts, the large manufactories, generally the heaviest gas consumers,
being closed on Saturday nights and Sundays, the production for
these two days (unless Sunday labour is partially avoided) is greatly
in excess of the consumption.
Precautions to be observed in the Working of Gasholders.
Telescopic Holders in winter are liable to be thrown out of order by
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
193
the freezing of the water in the cup between the lifts. When the
lower lift is down, the upper lift in its progress downwards rolls
the ice and snow in the lute into lumps, often, if not removed,
throwing the vessel out of plumb, and even fracturing the columns.
Great care should therefore be taken to keep the water-lute clear ;
and where steam can be readily applied, it is of the utmost service in
accomplishing this object in time of frost. Messrs. S. Cutler and Sons
have devised an apparatus for preventing freezing of the water in Gas-
holder cups, by admitting steam or hot water at intervals round the
circumference of the vessel. The arrangement is self-acting, compact,
and trustworthy.
FIG. 78
Another important precaution is to keep the top or crown of the
Holder, whether single or telescope, clear of snow, especially when the
latter is drifting. Nothing will sooner break down a Holder and its
guide framing than allowing a mass of snow to collect and lie on one
side of the roof.
The oscillation of a telescope Holder during strong winds is greater
when uncupped than when the lifts are joined. Its liability to damage
from wind is also greater when uncupped, even although less surface
is presented to the wind's action.
Mr. G, Livesey's hydraulic seal (Fig. 78), for attaching to the
underside of the roof of a Gasholder over the inlet and outlet pipes,
194 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
is an ingenious device for allowing access to the pipes without having
to discharge the gas contained in the crown.
The sheeting of a Holder, being thin and the portion most liable to
wear out by oxidation, should be coated outside at least once a year
with good oxide of iron or other suitable paint or tar. All rust should
be removed before laying on the paint, and for this purpose the sheets
should be scrubbed with a brush made of short steel wires. For re-
moving tar a steel scraper may be employed.
It happens not unfrequently that the roof of a Gasholder becomes
pitted with small pin-holes from which there is a considerable and
constant escape of gas. This may % arise from the inferiority of the
iron in the first instance ; or from' allowing the sheets to become
oxidized before fixing ; or it may be due to neglect to paint the vessel
when in use. In districts where there are numerous chemical works,
the impurities in the atmosphere affect the thin sheets in this manner.
The leaks may be stopped by coating the roof with warm tar, and
riddling dry sand or cement over it through a sieve, at the same time
rubbing the mixture well in with a stiff brush.
RECIPE for coating a Gasholder :
1 gallon of tar.
Ib. of slaked lime.
| Ib. of pitch.
| Ib. of tallow.
| pint of coal naphtha.
Dissolve the pitch and mix the lime in the tar by heating them in
a boiler, being careful not to boil them ; ladle out the hot liquid into
a bucket, and then add the tallow and the naphtha. Stir the mixture
occasionally, and with a brush paint it on the Holder before it grows
cold.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
195
TABLE
(ririn;/ the CAPACITY OF GASHOLDERS in Cubic Feet for even/ Foot in
Depth, and from 40 to 150 Feet in Diameter, advancing Half a Foot
. '!'
at (t Time,
Dia-
meter
of
Holder
in Ft.
Capacity
in Cub. 1 Dia- ;
Ft. for | meter
every oi
Foot in Holder
Depth of ! in Ft. !
Holder. ,
Capacity
in Cub.
Ft. for
every
Foot in
Depth of
Holder.
Dia-
meter
of
Holder
in Ft.
Capacity
in Cub.
Ft. for
every
Foot in
Depth of
Holder.
. Dia-
meter
of
Holder
1 in Ft.
Capacity
in Cub.
Ft. for
every
Foot in
Depth of
Holder.
Dia- i
meter
of
Holder
in Ft.
Capacity
in Cub.
Ft. for
every
Foot in
Depth of
Holder.
40
1256-64 624
3067-96
844
5607-95
1064
8908-20
128*
12968-72
404
1288-25 j 63
3117-25
85
5674-51
i 107
8992-04
129
13069-84
41
1320-25 '
634 i
3166-92
854
5741-47
1074
9076-27
1294 113171-35
414
1352-65 | 64 I
3216-99
86
5808-81
108
9160-90
130 13273-26
42
1385-44 ! ! 644
3267-46
864
5876-55
: 1084
9245-92
1304 '13375-55
42J
1418-62 65
3318-31
87
5944-09
109
9331-33
131 13478-24
43
1452-20 ! 654
3369-56
874
6013-21
1094
9417-14
1314
13581-33
431
1486-17 66
3421-20
88
6082-13
! 110
9503-34
132
13684-80
44
1520-53
664
3473-23
884
6151-44
i H04
9589-93
1324
13788-67
444
1555-28
67 i
3525-66
89
6221-15
111
9676-91
133
13892-94
45
1590-43
674
3578-47
894
6291-25
1114 9764-28
1334
13997-59
45J
1625-97
68
3631-68
90
6361-74
! 112
9852-05
134 14102-64
46
1661-90 1 684 1
3685-29
904
6432-62
! 1124 9940-21
1344 1 14208 -OS
464
1698-23 69
3739-28
91
6503-89
; lib 10028-77
135 |14313-91
47
1734-94
694
3793-67
91i
6575-56
, 1134 10117-71
1354
14420-14
474
1772-05
70
3848-46
92
6647-62
1 114 10207-05
136
14526-75
48
1809-56 1 704
3903-63
924
6720-07
i 114* i 10296 -79
136* 14633-76
434
1847-45 1 71
3959-20
93
6792-92
, 115 jl0386-91
137 14741-17
49
1885-74
714
4015-16
934
6866-16
: 1154 j 10477 -43
1374 [14848 -96
49i
1924-42
72
4071-51
94
6939-79
j 116 10568-34
138 14957-15
50
1963-50
724
4128-25
944
7013-81
1 1164 10659-64
1384 15065-73
504
2002-96
73
4185-39
95
7088-23
117 10751:34
139 |15174-71
51
2042-82
734
4242-92
954
7163-04
, 1174 110843-42
1394
15284-08
514
2083-07
74
4300-85
96
7238-24
118 H0935-90
140
15393-84
52
2123-72
74
4359-16
964
7313-84
1184 il!028-78
1404
15503-99
524
2164-75
75
4417-87
97
73S9-82
119
11122-04
141
15614-53
53
2206-18
754
4476-97
974
7466-20
1194
11215-70
1414
15725-47
534
2248-01
76
4536-47
98
7542-98
120
11309-76
142
15836-80
54
2490-22 1 764
4596-35
984
7620-14
t 1204
11404-20
1424
15948-52
544
233-2-83 77
4656-63
99
7697-70
! 121
11499-04
143
16060-64
55
2375-83 774
4717-30
994
7775 ' 65
1214
11594-28
1434
16173-15
554
2419-22 1 78
4778-37
100
7854-00
122
11689-89
144
16286-05
56
2463-01
784
4839-83
100*
7932-73
1224
11785-90
1444
16399-34
564
2507-19 79
4901-68
101
8011-86
123 1 11882 -31
145
16513-03
57
2551-76
79*
4963-92
1014
8091-38
' 1234 11979-11
1454
16627-11
574
2596-72 | 80"
5026-56
102
8171-30
, 124
12076-31
146
16741-58
58
2642-08 ! 804
5089-58
1024
8251-60
: J244
12173-89
1464
16856-45
584
2687-83 || 81
5153-00
103
8332-30
i 125
12271-87
147
16971-70
59
2733-97
814
5216-82
1034
8418-40
; 1254
12370-24
1474
17087-35
594
2780-51
82
5281-02
104
8494-88
126
12469-01
148
17203-40
60
2827-44
824
5345-62
1044
8576-76
; 1264
12568-16
1484
17319-83
604
2874-76
83
5410-62
105
8659-03
! 127
12667-71
149
17436-66
61
2922-47
834
5476-00
105*
8741-69
127*
12767-65
1494
17553-88
614
2970-57 || 84
5541-78
106
8824-75
128
12867-99
150
17671-50
62
3019-07 1
1
196
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE OF THE WEIGHTS OP GASHOLDEKS
In pounds for every One-Tenth of an Inch Maximum Pressure, and fr<>
20 to 200 Feet in Diameter.
Diameter
of Gas-
holder in
Feet.
Weight in
Ibs. for each
One-tenth
of an Inch
Pressure.
Diameter
of Gas-
holder in
Feet.
Weight in
Ibs. for each
One- tenth
of an Inch
Pressure.
Diameter
of Gas-
holder in
Feet.
Weight in
Ibs. for each
One-tenth
of an Inch
Pressure.
Diameter
of Gas-
holder in
Feet.
Weight in
Ibs. for each
One-tenth
of an Inch
Pressure.
20
164
53 1149 86
3026
119
5793
21
181
54 1193 '\ 87
3097
120
5891
22
198
55 1238
88
3168
121
5990
23
217
56 1283
89
3241
122
6089
24
236
57 1329
90
3314
123
6189
25
256
58 1376
91
3388
124 6290
26
277
59 1424
92
3463
125 6392
27
298
60 1473
93
3538
126 6495
28
321
61 1522
94
3695
127
6598
29
344
62
1573
95
3692
128
6703
30
368
63
1624
96
3770
129
6808
31
393
64
1676
97
3849
130
6914
32
419
65
1729
98
3929
131
7021
33
446
66
1782
99
4010
132
7128
34
473
67
1837
100
4091
133
7237
35
501
68
1892
101
4173
134
7346
36
530
69
1948
102
4256
135
7456
37
560
70
2005
103
4340
136
7567
38
591
71
2062
104
4425
137
7678
39
622
72
2121
105
4510
138
7791
40
655
73
2180
106
4597
139
7904
41
688
74
2240
107
4684
140
8018
42
722
75
2301
108
4772
141
8133
43
757
76
2363
109
4861
142
8249
44
792
77
2426
110
4950
143
8366
45
828
78
' 2489
111
5041
144
8483
46
866
79
2553
112
5132
145
8601
47
904
80
2618
113
5224
146
8720
48
943
81
2684
114
5317
147
8840
982
82
2751
115
5410
148
8961
50
1023
83
2818
116
5505
149
9083
51
1064
84
2887
117
5630
150
9205
52
1106
85
2956
118
5696
200
16,364
To Ascertain the Weight of a Gasholder by the above Table, the
Diameter and Maximum Pressure being known.
KULE. Multiply the number of Ibs. standing opposite to the dia-
meter by the pressure in tenths of an inch.
EXAMPLE. What is the weight of a Gasholder 78 feet in diameter,
giving a maximum pressure of 32/10ths ?
2489 x 32 = 79,648 Ibs., weight of Gasholder.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 197
To Ascertain, by the preceding Table, the Pressure which a Gaslwlder mil
give, the Diameter ami Weight being known.
KULE. Divide the weight in Ibs. of the Gasholder by the weight
given opposite to the diameter.
EXAMPLE. What pressure will a Gasholder give whose weight is
32,075 Ibs., and diameter 56 feet ?
82,075 -f- 1288 = 25/10ths, maximum pressure of Gasholder.
The figures given in the foregoing table are based on the weight of
a cubic foot of water viz., 62-5 Ibs. ; a column cf water l/10th of
an inch high, with an area of 1 square foot, being -52083 Ibs., or the
120th part.
Thus, if the area of the Holder in feet (obtained by squaring the
diameter and multiplying by -7854) be multiplied by 62 '5, the
weight of a cubic foot of water in Ibs., and divided by 120, the number
of lOths of an inch in a foot, the product will be the weight of the
Holder in Ibs. for each l/10th of an inch maximum pressure.
Or thus : The area of a circle is to the square of its diameter as
7854 is to 1 ; hence the weight of a Gasholder in Ibs., to give l/10th
of an inch pressure, is to the square of its diameter in feet as
52083 x -7854 is to unity; or, which is the same thing, as -4091
is to unity. So to ascertain the weight of a Holder, say, 100 feet
diameter, giving a maxirrmm pressure of 85/10ths
100 2 x 35 x -4091 = 143,185 Ibs., weight of Gasholder.
DIMENSIONS OF THE PKINCIPAL MATERIALS IN
GASHOLDEES IN ACTUAL WORKING.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 30 ft. Depth, 15 ft.
Roof sheets, No. 17 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, No. 18 B, wire gauge.
Inlet and outlet pipes, 6 in. diam.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 35 ft. Depth, 12 ft.
Roof sheets, No. 15 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, No. 16 B. wire gauge.
Crown plate, 3 ft. 6 in. diam., f thick.
198 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
4 main and 4 secondary bars, of 3 in. T-iron.
Top and bottom curbs, of 3 in. angle-iron.
4 columns, 13 ft. 6 in. long ; diam. at base, 6 in. ; at top, 5 in.
4 holding-down bolts to each column, 4 ft. long, 1 in. round
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 36 ft. Depth, 12 ft.
Eoof sheets, No. 17 B. wire gaugje.
Side sheets, No. 18 B. wire gauge.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 40 ft. Depth, 15 ft.
Crown plate, 3 ft. 5 in. diam., f in. thick.
Eoof sheets, No. 14 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 14 B. wire gauge ; all the
rest, No. 15 B. wire gauge.
Eivets for sheets, % in. diam., 1 in. apart, centre to centre.
Eivets for top curb, in. diam., 1 in. apart, centre to centre.
Eivets for bottom curb, in. diam., 6 in. apart, centre to centre.
Centre-pipe of cast-iron, 6 ft. long, 4 in. diam.
Truss cup, cast-iron, 2 ft. 6 in. diam.
12 main bars, T-iron, 2 x 2 x 2 x f in.
4 vertical stays, T-iron, 3 x 2 x f in.
Top curb, angle-iron, 3 x 3 x f in.
Bottom curb, angle-iron, 3 x 3 x f in.
4 columns, 17 ft. long ; diam. at base, 9 in. ; diam. at top, 7 in.
3 holding-down bolts to each column, 7 ft. long each, 1 in. diam.
Girders of T-iron, 3 x 4 x ^ in., trussed.
Balance-weights, 40 cwt. ; \ in. chains.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 44 ft. 6 in. Depth, 20 ft.
Eise of crown, 1 ft. 9 in.
Crown plate, 3 ft. 6 in. diam., f in. thick.
Eoof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 12 B. wire gauge ; all
the rest, No. 14.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 12 B. wire gauge ; the
rest, No. 17.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 199
Rivets for Nos. 12 and 14 sheets, 5-16tlis in diam. ; for No. 16
sheets, J in. diam.
5 main and 5 secondary bearing bars, of T-iron, 3 x 8 x f in.
5 columns, 22 ft. long, 7 in. diam. at base, 5f in. diam. at top ;
metal ll-16ths thick.
4 holding-down bolts, 16 ft. long, 1J in. square-iron
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 50 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Rise of crown, 12 in.
Roof sheets, No. 14 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, No. 15 B. wire gauge.
Rivets, 1 in. apart, centres.
Top and bottom curbs, 3 in. angle-iron.
8 vertical bars.
8 columns, 26 ft. long, cast in two lengths each ; 12 in. diam. at
base, 6 in. diam. at top.
Inlet-pipe, 9 in. diam.
Outlet-pipe, 10 in. diam.
Simjle Gasholder.
Diameter, 50 ft. Depth, 16 ft.
Rise of crown, 2 ft. 6 in.
Crown plate, 3 ft. diam., J in. thick.
Roof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 12 B. wire gauge ; all
the others, No. 14.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 14 B. wire gauge ; the
others, No. 16.
Rivets, in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Rivets for joining sheets to angle-iron, f in. diam., 1 in. apart,
centres.
Rivets for bottom curb, |- in. diam., 9 in. apart, centres.
10 main and 10 secondary rafters, of T-iron, 3 x 3 x f in.
Top curb, of angle-iron, 3 x 3 x f in.
Bottom curb, two rings of angle-iron, 3 x 3 x f in., 6 in.
apart, with flat bar of iron, 6 in. wide and \ in. thick, between
them.
Centre strut, cast-iron pipe, 9 ft. long, 6 in. external diam., fin.
thick ; bearing flanges, 13 in. diam., 1J in. thick ; outer rim
of cup strengthened by a ring of S C and crown-iron, 2 x lin.,
shrunk on hot.
200 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
10 vertical ribs, T-iron, 3 x 3 x f in., secured to top and bottom
curbs and to side sheets.
5 columns, 18 ft. long ; diam. at base, 7 in. ; diarn. at top, 5 in. ;
metal, f in. thick.
Suspension chains, \ in. short link, tested to 5 tons.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 50 ft. Depth, 18 ft.
Koof sheets, No. 14 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, No. 15 B. wire gauge.
Inlet and outlet pipes, 9 in. diam.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 60 ft. Depth, 17 ft.
Kise of crown, 3 ft.
Crown plate, 4 ft. diam., in. thick.
Roof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 13 B. wire gauge ; the
rest, No. 14.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 14 B. wire gauge ; the rest
No. 15.
Top curb, 4 x 4 x 7-16ths in. angle-iron.
Bottom curb, two bars of 3 x 3 x f in. angle-iron, placed back
to back, and bar of flat-iron riveted to the bottom with f in.
rivets.
16 vertical bars, 2 x 2 x f in. T-iron, riveted to top and
bottom curbs and to side sheets.
8 columns, 18ft. long; diam. at base, 6f in.; at top, 5 in. ;
metal, f in. thick.
Sini/le Gasholder.
Diameter, 60 ft. Depth, 18 ft.
Roof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 13 B. wire gauge ; the
others, No. 14.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 14 B. wire gauge ; the
others, No. 15.
Top curb, 4 x 4 x % in. angle-iron.
Bottom curb, formed of two bars of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x in.,
riveted back to back with \ in. rivets 12 in. apart, centres.
14 vertical bars, 4x3 x \ in. T-iron.
7 columns, 19 ft. 6 in. long each.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 201
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 81 ft. 8 in. Depth, 20 ft. 6 in.
Rise of crown, 3 ft.
Crown plate, 4 ft. diam., in. thick.
Eoof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 10 ; all the rest, No.
14 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 14 ; all the rest, No. 16 B.
wire gauge.
Rivets, in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
16 main rafters, 5 x 3 x ^in. T-iron.
16 secondary rafters, 4 x in. flat-iron, placed on edge.
Centre strut, cast-iron pipe, 9 ft. long, 7 in. external diam., lin.
thick ; flanges, 13 in. diam., 1 in. thick; cup strengthened by
a hoop 2 x 1 in. S C iron, shrunk on hot.
Tension rods, long Queen bolts, short Queen bolts, long sus-
penders, short suspenders, 16 in number each, of 1 in., lin.,
1 in., 1 in., and in. round-iron respectively.
Top curb, of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x -J- in.
Bottom curb, of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x ^ in., with bar of flat-iron,
6 x in. between, and riveted with f in. rivets, 12 in. apart.
12 vertical bars, 4 x 3 x % in. T-iron.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 87 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Rise of crown, 4 ft.
2 crown plates, 4 ft. diam., ^ in. thick.
Roof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 12 ; the rest, No. 14 B.
wire gauge, except 9 sheets upon which the sliding carriages
are fixed, No. 7 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 12 ; all the remainder, No.
14 B. wire gauge.
Rivets, 5-16ths in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Centre-pipe of wrought-iroii, 12 ft. long, 12 in. diam.
Truss cup, wrought-iron, 3 ft. diam., f in. thick.
18 main bars, T-iron, 4 x 8 x in.
18 secondary bars, T-iron, 3 x 3 x in.
9 rings or purlins of bracket bars, the middle purlin of angle-iron
3 x 3 x in., the remainder of flat-iron 2 x in., secured
to main and secondary bars with -f in. bolts.
18 principal tension rods, 1 in. diam.
86 diagonal tension rods, in. diam.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
86 truss bars ; 18 of If iu. diam., 18 of 1 in. diam.
Top curb, 2 rings of angle-iron, 3f X 3f x f in.
Bottom curb, 2 rings of angle-iron, 3f x 8f x f in.
18 vertical truss bars, T-iron, 8f x 3f x fin.
9 columns, 22 ft. long each, 14 in. diam. at base, 11 in. at top.
4 holding-down bolts, 8 ft. long, If in. diam.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 100 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Eise of crown, 5 ft.
2 crown plates, 5 ft. diam., in. thick.
Eoof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 10 ; the remainder, No.
12 B. wire gauge, except carriage sheets, in. thick.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, No. 9 ; the remainder, No. 12
B. wire gauge.
Rivets, 5-16ths in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Centre-pipe of wrought- iron, 14 ft. long, 24 in. diam., 5-16ths in.
thick.
18 main and 18 secondary bars.
Top curb, 2 rings of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x 7-16ths in.
Bottom curb, 2 rings of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x 7-16ths in., and a
flat bar of wrought-iron, 6 x f in.
18 vertical bars, T-iron, 4 x 4 x f in.
9 columns, 24 ft. long, 24 in. diam. at base, 18 in. diam. at top,
1 to 1 in. metals.
4 holding-down bolts, 8 feet long, If in. diam.
Single Gasholder.
Diameter, 110 ft. Depth, 26 ft.
Eise of crown, 5 ft. 6 in.
Crown plates, 4 ft. diam. ; f in. thick.
Eoof sheets, row next centre and outer row next curb, J in. thick ;
second row from centre, in. thick ; and second row next curb,
8-16ths in. thick ; the remainder, No. 12 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top and bottom rows, f i n - thick ; next row to each,
8-16ths in. thick ; the remainder, No. 12 B. wire gauge.
Eivets, $ in. and 8-16ths in. plates, fin. rivets, 2 in. centres ; the
f in. and No. 12 B. wire gauge sheets 5-lGths in. rivets, If in.
centres ; J in. plates and curb in. rivets, 2 in. centres.
Top curb of 2 angle-irons 5 x 4 x f in.
Bottom curb of 2 angle-irons 4 x 4 x f in.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Vertical stays, 14, of 2 angle-irons 3 x 8 X in., and a piece of
timber 12 in. x 4 in. bolted between.
Centre pipe of in. plate, 2 ft. diam.
Main rafters, 28, of T-iron 5 x 8 x & in.
Purlins, of T-iron 3 x 4 x in., and remainder of angle-iron
3 x 8 x f in.
Struts, 8, on main rafters 1 and 1 in. diam.
Tie rod, principal If in. diam., second 1 in. diam., and third
1 in. diam.
Columns, 14, of cast-iron 1 ft. 6 in. in diam. at bottom, 1 ft. 2 in.
at top ; metal | in. at bottom, diminishing to f in. thick at
top.
Holding-down bolts, 4, 1 in. diam., 20 ft. long.
Lattice girders, 14, 1 ft. 6 in. deep, of two frames of angle-iron,
3 x 8 x in., and braces 2 x inch riveted between, top
and bottom of girder covered with a plate 10 in. wide by f in.
thick.
Siwjle Gasholder.
Diameter, 142 ft. Depth, 55 ft.
Roof, without trussing or framework.
Roof sheets, first, or outside circle, 3 ft. long, f- in. thick ; rivets
in. diam., 2 in. apart, centres. Second circle, 3 ft. long,
% in. thick; rivets, 9-16ths in. diam. ,2^ in. apart, centres ; centre
sheets, forming a circle, 30 ft. diam., inch thick, butted and
riveted to each other by lapping pieces, 3^ in. wide ; rivets,
9-16ths in. diam. ; remainder of roof sheets, 5 ft. long,
3-16ths in. (No. 7 B. wire gauge) thick; rivets, f in. diam.,
1 in. apart, centres.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, in. thick ; rivets, in. diam.,
1 in. apart, centres. Intervening side sheets, No. 10 B. wire
gauge ; rivets, f in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Top curb, a circular chamber or girder, in section nearly rectan-
gular, outer depth, 18 in. ; inner depth, 19in. ; width, 2ft., Gin. ;
constructed of 4 x 4 x ^ in. angle-iron.
Bottom curb, formed of two circles of f in. boiler-plates, 12 in.
wide, each riveted to a circle of angle- iron, 4 x 4 x in.
32 vertical stays, three sides of a rectangular figure, 12 in. wide,
10 in. deep ; formed of 4 angle-irons 3 x 3 x f in. and in.
boiler-plate.
16 columns, diam. at base, 3 ft. ; at top, 2 ft. 3 in. ; metal, in.
to f in. thick.
4 holding-down bolts, 10 ft. long, 2 in. round-iron.
204 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter of outer lift, 44 ft. Depth, 16 ft.
Diameter of inner lift, 43 ft. Depth, 16 ft.
Rise of crown, 1 ft. 9 in.
Crown plate, 3 ft. 6 in. diam., f in. thick.
Eoof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 12 ; all the rest, No. 14
B. wire gauge.
Side sheets in both lifts, top and, bottom tiers, No. 12 ; all the
rest, No. 16 B. wire gauge.
Rivets for Nos. 12 and 14 sheets, 5-16ths in. diam. ; for No. 16
sheets, J in. diam.
Cup, inner lift, formed by 2 rings of 2 x 2 x 5-16ths in. angle-
iron, connected together with No. 8 plates, with side of No. 10
plate, and a ring 1 x in. half-round iron, riveted round.
Dip, outer lift, the counterpart of the cup inverted.
Main-bearing bars, T-iron, 3 x 8 x \ in.
Secondary bearing bars, T-iron, 3 x 3 x fin.
6 vertical bars, inner lift, T-iron, 2 x 2 x f in.
6 vertical bars, outer lift, T-iron, 2 x lj X f in.
Bottom curb, angle-iron, double, 3 x 3 x f in.
6 columns, 12 in. diam. at base, 10 in. at top ; metal, 1 in. to f in.
thick.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 87 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 85 ft. Depth, 20 ft.
Rise of crown, 4 ft.
2 crown plates, 4 ft. diam., in. thick.
Roof sheets, inner and outer circles, No. 12 ; the rest, No. 14 B.
wire gauge, except 9 sheets upon which the carriages are fixed,
No. 7 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, both lifts, No. 12 ; all therest^
No. 14 B. wire gauge.
Rivets, 5-16ths in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Hydraulic cup and dip, 7 in. wide, 16 in. deep.
Centre-pipe of wrought-iron, 12 ft. long, 12 in. diam.
Truss cup, wrought-iron, 3 ft. diam., | in. thick.
18 main bars, T-iron, 4 x 3 x in.
18 secondary bars, T-iron, 3 x 3 X in.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
9 rings or purlins of bracket bars, the middle purlin of angle-iron,
3 x 3 x in., the remainder of flat-iron, 2 x \ in., secured to
main and secondary bars with in. bolts.
18 principal tension rods, \\ in. diam.
36 diagonal tension rods, in. diam.
36 truss bars ; 18 of \\ in. diam., 18 of \\ in. diam.
Bottom curb, 2 rings of angle-iron, 8 x 3 x f in.
18 vertical truss bars, T-iron, 3 x 3 x in.
9 columns, 41 ft. long, 30 in. diam. at base, 20 in. at top, 1 to f- in.
metal, cast in 4 lengths.
4 holding-down bolts, 8 ft. long, \\ in. diam.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 100 ft. Depth, 22 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 98 ft. Depth, 22 ft.
Eoof sheets, No. 11 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, top tier, No. 11 ; all the others, No. 12 B. wire
gauge.
Rivets, in. diam., 1 in. apart, centres.
Hydraulic joint, 8 in. wide, 15 in. deep, No. 10 B. wire gauge ;
top edge of cup and bottom each of dip bound by half-round
iron 2 x 1 in. thick.
Bottom curb, angle-iron, 4x1 in. at the root, and ring of bar-iron
4 x 1 in.
12 columns, 24 in. diam. at base, 16 in. at top ; metal 1^ to 1 in.
thick.
4 holding-down bolts, 10 ft. long, 2 in. square-iron.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 102 ft. Depth, 22 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 100 ft. Depth, 22 ft.
Rise of crown, 4 ft.
Crown plate, 5 ft. diam., -f in. thick.
Roof sheets, first ring next centre, No. 9 ; next and outer rings,
No. 11 ; all the rest, No. 12 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, outer lift, top and bottom tiers, No. 11 ; all the
rest, No. 13 B. wire gauge. Inner lift, top and bottom tiers,
No. 13 ; all the rest, No. 17 B. wire gauge.
206 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Cup and dip, 8 in. wide, 15 in. deep, of angle -iron 3 x 8 x f in. ;
plate, No. 7 B. wire gauge ; edges stiffened with 1 x f in.
half-round-iron ; } in. rivets, 6 in. apart.
10 columns, 18 in. diam. at base, 14 in. at top ; metal, 1 to f in.
thick, cast in 4 lengths.
4 holding-down bolts, 8ft. long, 2 in. square wrought-iron.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 103 ft. Depth, 2$ ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 101 ft. Depth, 24 ft.
2 crown plates, 4 ft. diam., in. thick.
Eoof sheets, inner and outer rings, in. thick ; all the rest,
l-10th in. thick.
Side sheets, top and bottom tiers, in. thick ; the remainder,
l-10th in. thick.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 112 ft. Depth, 26 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 110 ft. Depth, 26 ft.
Eise of crown, 6 ft.
Roof, trussed.
Roof sheets, centre plate ^ in. thick, next row ^ in. ; next,
3-16ths in. ; outer row, in. ; next, 3-16ths in. ; and the in-
termediate 7 rows, in. thick.
Side sheets, 3-16ths in. thick top and bottom rows ; remainder,
No. 12 B. wire gauge ; the cup, 8 in. x 18 in., is formed of
2 rings of 3 x 3 x f in. angle-iron, the bottom and sides being
of in. plate, having 2 x 1 in. half-round bead at edge of
plate.
Top curb, of two rings of angle-iron 5 x 3 x \ in.
Bottom curb, of 2 rings of angle-iron 5 x 3 X \ in. placed 9 in.
apart, between which the bottom roller carriages are secured.
Vertical stays, inner lift, 28, 14 of which are of 2 angle-irons
8 x 3 x in. riveted on each side to f i web plate 9 in. wide
and in. thick ; the remaining 14 being of T-iron 5 x 3^ in.
trussed with three struts and a tie rod. Outer lift has 28
vertical stays of in. guard-iron 5 in. wide, against which the
guide pieces on the cup slide.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 207
Centre column, 17 ft. 6 in. long and 2 ft. diaua. of wrought-iron
plates f in. thick, f in. rivets, 2 in. pitch ; this is secured to
the under crown plate, which is 4 ft. in diarn., by a ring of
angle -iron 5 x 4 x in. and f in. rivets ; at the lower end
of the column are 2 rings of angle-iron, 5 x 4 x f in., placed
3 in. apart to form a jaw to receive ends of tension rods.
Main rafters, 14, of T-iron, 4 x 5 x i in., trussed with six
wrought-iron struts 1J, 1, and If in. diam., and a ! in.
diam. tension rod. Fourteen main tie rods of If in. round-iron,
extending from curb to bottom of centre column, and suspended
in two places from the main rafters with in. round rods ;
the main tie rods and the tension rods have each a wrought-
iron coupling box with right and left hand threads.
Secondary rafters, 14, T-iron, 3 x 5 x in., trussed as above
with four struts 1J and 1^ in. diam., tension rod 1J in diam.,
with coupling box ; these rafters extend from curb to within
21 ft. of the centre of holder, the inner ends being secured to a
main brace bar or purlin.
Purlins, 7 rows between side and centre. The main purlin men-
tioned above is 4| x 4 x 9-16ths in.; the one next curb,
4 x 3 x iin.; and the remainder, 3 x 3 x fin., all of T-iron.
Columns, 14, of cast-iron, 2 ft. 6 in. diameter at bottom, 2 ft. at
top, and 55 ft. 8 in. high, surmounted with a large ball 30 in.
diam., with spiked finial.
Girders, 2 rows, each 2 ft. deep, and 10 in wide, of 4 angle-irons
8 x 3 x f in., with plate 10 x f in., top and bottom diagonal
braces 3 x fin., at the intersection of which is a cast-iron
spiked ball in two halves, 17 in. diam. across spikes.
Holding-down bolts, 4, 2 in. diam., 11 ft. 6 in. long.
Tn-o-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 120 ft. Depth, 24 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 118 ft. Depth, 24 ft.
Kise of crown, 6 ft.
Hoof, untrussed, resting when down on timber framing in tank.
Koof sheets, first or outside row, f in. thick ; second row, ^ in. ;
third row, 3-16ths in. ; fourth row, No. 8 B. wire gauge ;
crown plates, in. thick and 6 ft. in diam. ; inside row, next
crown plate, 3-16ths in.; next, No. 8B. wire gauge; and the
remaining 10 rows of intermediate sheets, No. 11 B. wire
gauge.
208 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Side sheets, inner lift, 12 courses high ; top and bottom course,
in. thick ; second course at top, 8-16ths in. ; and the re-
mainder, No. 12 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, outer lift, 12 courses high ; top and bottom course,
in. thick ; second course at bottom, 3-16ths in. ; and the re-
mainder, No. 12 B. wire gauge. The thicker sheets in both
inner and outer lift, riveted together with f in. rivets, 1 in.
apart, centres, and the others with 5-16ths in. rivets, 1 in.
apart, centres.
Top curb, of 2 angle-irons, one at junction of roof with side
sheets, 5 x 5 x f in., and the other at the inner edge of outer
row of sheets, 4 x 4 x \ in. ; the two stiffened by gusset-
pieces springing from the vertical stays.
Bottom curb, of two 5 x 4 x f in. angle-irons, riveted to the
outside of the lower row of sheets, with f in. rivets, 6 in.
apart. Between these two curbs, which are placed 2 in. apart,
are fixed the 28 guide carriages and rollers.
Cups, formed of rolled channel-iron 8 x 8 x in., riveted to the
side sheets and rising plates, with \ in. rivets 4 in. apart. A
half-round bead 2 x f in. being riveted to edge of rising
plates, which are f in. thick and 18 in. deep.
Vertical stays, 28, formed of two 4 x 4 x \ in. angle-irons and
a web-plate between, f in. thick and 9 in. wide, secured with
f in. rivets, 6 in. apart ; at the upper end of these is attached
a gusset-plate with angle-iron edges 3 x 3 x f in., extending
to the inner angle-iron curb of roof, to which and the outer
curb it is riveted.
Standards 14, in the form of the letter T, 4 ft. 2 in. x 3 ft. at
bottom, tapering to 1 ft. 9 in. each way at the top ; each
standard 51 ft. high. Between the angle-iron framework of
the standards is cast-iron trellis work, 1 in. thick, on one of its
sides, and wrought-iron lattice work on the other ; the standards
are secured to cast-iron hollow base plates 6 in. deep ; 4 holding-
down bolts to each standard, 11 ft. G in. long, 2 in. diam.
Lattice girders, 2 rows in the height ; first or lower row, 27 in.
deep ; top row, 80 in. deep ; formed of 4 angle-irons, 3 x 3 X
in. wrought-iron tension bars, 3 x \ in., and cast-iron struts.
Two-lift Telescopic GashoUlcr.
Diameter, outer lift, 151 ft. 6 in. Depth, 40 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 149 ft. Depth, 40 ft. 3 in.
Crown trussed, rise 8 ft.
Roof sheets, outer row, 5-16ths in. ; next row, 3-16thsin. ; and the
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
remainder No. 10 B. wire gauge, two centre plates f in. thick
and 4 ft. 6 in. diarn.
Side sheets, top and bottom rows in both lifts in. thick, the
remainder No. 11 B. wire gauge, in. rivets, 1 in. centre ; cup
and griplO in. wide and 20 in. deep,Piggot's form ; plates f in.
thick, strengthened at edges with bead-iron.
Top curb, of 2 rings of angle-iron 5 x 5 x i in., placed one
above the other ; the lower one is secured to a flat bar 10 in.
wide and ^ in. thick, which is again connected by straps 4 in.
wide and in. thick to the top row of sheets.
Bottom curb, of 2 rings of angle-iron 5 x 4 x f in. riveted to
the outside of the bottom of row of sheets with f in. rivets.
Between these two rings are fixed the bottom guide roller
carriages.
Vertical stays, 32 in top lift of H-iron 12 in. deep, and 32 in
bottom lift, of channel-iron 8 x 2 x in., attached to sheets,
cups, and curbs with f in. bolts in upper lift, and f- in. screwed
pins in lower lift.
Centre column, 3 ft. 6 in. diam., 22 ft. long, of plates 7-16ths in,
thick.
Roof framing, 24 main radial T-iron bars 6 x 4 x in. curved
to roof, each with a main tension rod 2 in. in diameter at curb,
and reduced to 1^ in. at the foot of centre column, and having
a coupling box with right and left hand thread, 4 struts and
4 tension rods form the bracing to each main bar, the former of
cross-iron 4 x 4^ x f in. placed vertically, and the latter of
1, 1^, 1, and If in. round-iron placed diagonally, the strongest
section being nearest the centre column ; 48 secondary radial
bars of 4 x ^ in. flat-iron, that is, 2 equidistant between the
main radial bars, and extending from top curb towards centre
a distance of 26 ft., and then for a further distance of 16 ft.,
in direction of the centre, another bar of the same dimensions
is fixed. 17 rings or rows of purlins, divided equally from
curb to centre, are fixed between main and secondary bars ;
the first row from centre being of 6 x ^ in. flat-iron ; next
4 rows of angle-iron, 1 x 1 X ^ in. ; next row of angle-
iron 2 x 2 x |- in. ; next row of T-iron 3 x 6 x in. ; next
2 rows, which are subdivided in length by the secondary radial
bars above mentioned, are of angle-iron 1 x 1 X J in. ; next
row extending from main bar to main bar is of I-iron 3x6
X i in. ; next two rows are divided in 3 lengths between, main
bars by the two secondary bars, and are of 1^ x 1 X J in.
angle-iron ; next row extending from main to main is of T-iron
4 x 6 x i in. ; next row divided in 3 lengths as before of
210 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
1 X 1 X J in. angle-iron, and the remaining 2 rows divided
in 3 as before of 2 x 2 x in. angle-iron ; 3 bars of flat-iron
2 x f in. cross diagonally in each bay formed by the two
main bars.
Columns, 16, of cast-iron, 83 ft. high, 3 ft. in diam. at base, and
2 ft. 8 in. at top, metal 1 in. thick ; cast-iron channel guide up
the column, 5 x 3 in. inside measure, weighing 56 Ibs. per
foot.
Girders, 16, at top 4 ft. deep, 7 in. wide, of 4 angle-irons 3x3
X f in. and a top and bottom plate 7 in. wide by f in. thick ;
diagonal brace bars 4 x f in. ; 16 intermediate girders 3 ft. 6 in.
deep, 6 in. wide, of 4 angle-irons 2^ x 2 x f in., and top and
bottom plates 6 in. wide by f in. thick, diagonal brace bars
3 X f in. ; at the intersection of the brace bars a cast-iron star
12 in. in diam. is riveted.
Holding-down bolts, 4, 2 in. square and 14 ft. long.
Capacity, 1,400,000 cubic feet.
Tiro-lift Teltteopic Goahotder.
Diameter, outer lift, 197 ft. 6 in. Depth, 36 ft.
Diameter, inner lift, 195 ft. Depth, 36 ft.
Crown, un trussed, rise 10 ft.
Roof sheets, centre plate in. thick, 6 ft. diameter ; row next
centre of No. 7 B. wire gauge ; row next curb, ^ in. thick ;
next row, 5-16ths in. thick ; third row, No. 7 B. wire gauge,
and the remaining rows of No. 11 B. wire gauge.
Side sheets, of inner lift in 18 rows ; top row, i in. ; bottom
row forming cup, f in. ; second row from top and bottom,
in. ; third row from top and bottom of No. 7 B. wire gauge ;
and the 12 intermediate rows of sheets of No. 11 B. wire
gauge in thickness. Those of outer lift in 18 rows ; top
row forming cup, J in. ; bottom row, 5-10ths in. ; second
from top, No. 9 B. wire gauge ; second from bottom, 3-16ths
in. ; third from bottom, No. 9 B. wire gauge, and the 13
intermediate rows of No. 11 B. wire gauge in thickness.
Cups, 10 in. wide, 18 in. deep, of channel-iron, 10 x 8i x in.,
rising side plates, f in. thick, with 2 x f in. bead riveted to
Top curb, of 2 angle-iron rings, outer one 6 x 6 x f in. ; inner
one, 5 x 5 x f in., both double riveted to top and side
sheets, with f in. rivets, 2 in. apart centre to centre.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 211
Bottom curb, of 2 angle-iron rings, 6 x 5 x f in., riveted to
side sheets, with f in. rivets, G in. apart.
Vertical stays, 44, in upper lift of H-iron, 8 x 5 x 5 x 7-l6thsin.
secured to top and bottom rows of sheets and the outer angle-
iron curb, but not to the intermediate sheets, except just
at the centre, where there are two clips, 6 in. wide x 5-16ths
in. thick, to which the sheet is riveted. Gusset pieces, 44, of
2 angle-iron frames, 2^ x 2^ x f in., riveted to a 7-16ths in.
web-plate placed between them and riveted together, and to
m the vertical stays, outer row of top sheets, and inner angle-iron
curb with -f in. rivets, 4 in. pitch. Vertical stays in lower
or outer lift, 44, of channel-iron, 8 x 2 x in., riveted to
bottom curb, and to the sheets half way up, with four f in.
rivets, countersunk heads in the channel, and bolted to the
channel-iron of grip with two f in. bolts.
Guide wheels, 22, at top lift of malleable cast-iron, 24 in.
diameter, with steel axles or pins, mounted on wrought-iron
carriages, 44 fixed under cup of upper lift, 22 on grip, and 44
on bottom curb of outer lift, all of malleable cast-iron, having
steel pins and wrought-iron carriages.
Columns, 22, of cast-iron, 3 ft. diameter at bottom, and 2 ft. 6 in..
at top, mounted on ornamental base 4 ft. square and 9 ft. 9 in.
high, two entablatures and ornamental cap ; 4 holding-down
bolts to each column, 2 in. diameter.
Girders, upper tier, 3 ft. 6 in. deep ; lower tier, 3 ft. deep, of two
frames of angle-iron, 4 x 4 x 7-16ths in., with lattice bars,
4 x f in. riveted between them ; the top, bottom, and ends of
girders covered with a f in. plate 9 in. wide ; rivets, f in., 4 in.
apart centres ; at the intersection of the diagonal braces with
each other are fixed plates, 12 in. diameter and f in. thick.
Quality of iron, plate, angle, and T-iron of best South Staffordshire
brands, the channel and H-iron of the best Belgian ; the sheets
of the very best South Staffordshire, equal to B. B. H. best.
Kivets, all sizes, of the best soft charcoal-iron. Those for the
No. 11 B. wire gauge sheets, of No. 3 B. wire gauge in diameter
and 1 in. pitch ; and those for No. 7 B. wire gauge sheets,
with f in. rivets 1 in. apart centres.
Capacity, 2 million cubic feet.
Two-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 200 ft. Depth, 25 ft. 3 in.
Diameter, inner lift, 198 ft. Depth, 25 ft. 9 in.
Roof untrussed, and flat.
p 2
212 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Roof sheets, centre plate f in., row next centre plate in. ; next
row i in. ; outer row next curb i in. ; second row ^ in. ; and
the whole of the remaining rows | in. thick.
Side sheets, outer lift, bottom row in. ; next 3-16ths in. ; top
row 3-16ths in. ; intermediate rows all in. thick ; inner lift,
bottom and top rows 3-16ths in. thick ; remainder ^ in. thick.
Top curb is a box girder 3 ft. x 2 ft. of f in. plates and
' 4 x 4 x in. angle-irons in the inside corners, riveted
together.
Bottom curb, of 2 angle-irons, 4 x 4 x $ in. riveted to a
f in. plate 8 in. wide ; the whole riveted to the lower sheet
of holder.
Cup formed of channel-iron 8 x 3 x 3 x f in. thick ; rising
plate f in. thick and 15 in. deep ; a 1^ in. half-round iron
bead is riveted to edge of rising plate.
Columns, 28, 50 ft. long, 8 ft. diameter at bottom, and 2 ft. 4 in.
diameter at top ; metal 1^ in. thick at bottom and 1 in. at top.
Capacity, 1 million cubic feet.
Three-lift Telescopic Gasholder.
Diameter, outer lift, 214 ft. Depth, 53 ft.
Diameter, middle lift, 211 ft. Depth, 53 ft. 3 in.
Diameter, inner lift, 208 ft. Depth, 53 ft. 6 in.
Rise of crown, 14 ft.
Roof, untrussed.
Roof sheets, outer row forming part of curb, f in. thick, of steel
plates 3 ft. wide ; next row No. 7 B. wire gauge ; then another
row of No. 9 B. wire gauge ; the remainder being all of No. 10 B.
wire gauge ; these latter riveted with 5-16ths in. rivets 1 in.
pitch ; the No. 7 B. wire gauge sheets riveted to the f in.
steel curb plate by f in. rivets, 2 in. pitch.
Side sheets of No. 11 B. wire gauge, secured to each other with
5-16ths in. rivets, 1 in. pitch, lap of sheets 1 in. ; the bottom
and top rows of sheets in outer lift are and 3-16ths in.
thick respectively ; in the middle lift 8-16ths in., and in the
top lift 3-16ths and J in. respectively, being riveted to the
other sheeting with f in. rivets, 1J in. pitch, If in. lap.
Piggot's cup and dip, the former of 7-16ths in. plate, and the
latter of f in. plate, secured to adjoining sheets with in.
rivets, If in. pitch, 2 in. lap ; cup and dip 12 in. wide and
21 in. deep ; edge of cup and dip stiffened by a 2 X in.
flat-iron.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 213
Top curb, formed by two f in. steel plates, one forming the outer
row of sheets on the crown being 36 in. wide, the other
forming top row of sheets on the side 12 in. wide ; these are
joined together at the angle with a 5 x 5 x f in. angle-steel
curb, and further stiffened at the inner edge of the crown
plate with a 6 x 3 x in. angle-steel, all riveted together
with | in. and 1 in. steel rivets, 4 in. pitch.
Bottom curb, formed by a plate f in. thick, and 15 in. wide,
secured at right angles to the lower rows of sheets to a 6 X 3
X -| in. angle-iron with f in. rivets, 5 in. pitch ; another angle-
iron of the same dimensions being placed 1 ft. 5 in. higher,
forming a space in which are fixed the bottom roller
carriages.
Vertical stays, 48, on lower and middle lifts are made of No. 10
B. wire gauge sheets bent in the form thus_fl_8 x 4 in.,
riveted to the outside of the sheets, and on the inside opposite
these are 8 x 3J x in. channel-irons, placed between two 4
X 3 x J in. angle-irons, which are riveted through the sheets
to the outside stays. The top or inner lift is stiffened by No.
8 B. wire gauge sheets of the same form as above, but are 12 x
9 in., placed inside only.
Standards, 24, in the form of the letter H, 20 x 16 in. and 158 ft.
6 in. high above coping of tank, of wrought-iron formed of four
3 x 3 x f in. angle-irons f in. web plate, and % in. inside and
outside plates, having 5 tiers of struts from standard to
standard, and 10 sets of diagonal braces. Two channel-irons
8 x 3 x \ in. riveted to each other back to back and to the
standards, form the guides upon which the radial and tangen-
tial rollers work ; the bottoms of standards are fastened to tri-
angular shaped cast-iron base-plates, each secured to the tank
with three 2 in. bolts.
Capacity, 5^ million cubic feet.
214 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
THE STATION GOVEKNOR.
An unnecessarily high pressure of gas in the mains and service-pipes
is synonymous with a heavy leakage account.
Ordinary valves are powerless to effect the desired pressure regula-
tion, however well they may be attended to. No gas-works, therefore,
whatever its size, should be without a Station Governor to control the
initial pressure.
When properly constructed it accomplishes this important object
perfectly, however much the consumption on the one side and the
density of the gas on the other may vary.
The construction of the Governor is of the most simple character,
consisting of a small cast-iron water-tank, through the bottom of which
the gas from the regular holder enters, and makes its exit by means of
a stand-pipe rising above the water level. This pipe may be either
annular or rectangular in form. In the former case the gas enters
by way of the central opening, and makes its exit by the annular
space. In the latter arrangement the pipe is divided in two by a mid-
feather, one division being the inlet and the other the outlet for the
gas ; the inlet division of the pipe occupying the central position in the
tank. Within the tank is a floating bell or gasholder made of tinned
sheet-iron, from the crown of which a conical or parabolic shaped
valve is suspended by an eye-bolt. It is the raising and lowering of
this valve within the inlet gas aperture, by reason of the gas exerting
a pressure of greater or less force, (according as the consumption
varies), on the inner surface of the floating bell, that accomplishes
the necessary regulation.
The holder may be balanced or buoyed up either by means of
an air chamber within itself, placed round its lower curb (Fig. 80), and
consequently immersed in the water of the tank, or by a chain
secured to its crown outside (Fig. 79), passing over one or two pulleys
and terminating in a rod carrying the required balance weights, the
needed pressure being obtained by placing cast-iron or lead weights
on the crown of the holder ; or it may be weighted with water allowed
to flow from a feed pipe into a tank formed by continuing the sides
of the holder a few inches above the crown. The method of weighting
by water is preferable to the other, as the pressure can be applied or
removed in a more gradual manner, the opening in the supply and
discharge taps being regulated as desired.
The conical valve for increasing or diminishing the area of the gas
aperture has generally given place to that in the form of a parabola ;
the latter requiring a shorter range to produce the necessary effect,
and being more delicate and certain in its action. The parabola should
be made twice its diameter in length, and of weight sufficient to resist,
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
215
without oscillation or blinking, whatever pressure may be exerted
against it by the inflowing gas. With the like object it was formerly
necessary to make the floating bell with an area 20 times greater than
the area of the base of the valve ; but with the improvements effected
in Governors this is not now required, and much less space is now
occupied by the apparatus.
Serious accidents have arisen from the escape of gas by the tilting of
the floating bell ; and, to obviate this danger, improvements have been
introduced in the construction of Governors.
The Governor of Messrs. J. and J. Braddock (Fig. 79 in section) will
show what has been done in this direction. The gas enters from above
the valve chamber. Over the valve, and of the same area as its
base, is a compensating chamber within the bell, which is supplied
with gas through a small pipe enclosing the valve rod, so placing
the bell and valve in equilibrium. The bell is actuated by the
outlet pressure, through a small pipe attached to the outlet branch.
It will thus be seen that if by accident the bell were tilted or rent,
the quantity of gas escaping would be limited ta that which would be
discharged through the two small pipes referred to.
FIG. 79.
Mr. F. W. Hartley introduced a safety and regulating plate over
the valve to effect the same object, and obtained compensation
by means of a small tank and holder placed alongside the Governor,
the holder being suspended from the chain carrying the counterpoise
weights.
Mr. D. Bruce Peebles employs the pressure of the inlet gas, supplied
through a small pipe having a dry regulator fixed upon it, to load the
bell of the Governor, which is enclosed in a gas-tight case ; and the
only adjustment required is by means of small weights to the
regulator.
216
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Mr. W. Cowan has introduced various improvements in Governors,
by which the adjusted pressure is maintained under all variations
of draught or changes at the inlet. (See Fig. 80.) He has also in-
vented an " Automatic Pressure Changer," a most ingenious instru-
ment for raising and reducing the pressure automatically at any given
time, thus dispensing with the attendant, except on extraordinary
occasions.
O
FIG. 80.
Mr. C. Hunt has adapted the ordinary throttle-valve to the purpose
of a Governor. By this plan a holder scarcely larger in diameter
than the main only is required. Within the supply-main leading from
the works to the street, the disc or throttle is accurately balanced on
two small steel centres ; the lever or radius arm by which it is
actuated, being also inside the main, is attached to the centre of the
disc. A small vertical pipe, communicating the holder with the main,
serves to enclose the connecting-pipe attached to the radius arm and
to the crown of the holder, and also conveys the gas into the latter.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
217
By means of this arrangement, a holder only 12^- inches in diameter,
will actuate an 8-inch valve ; and one only 17 inches diameter, an
18-inch valve.
In winter time the water in a Governor tank is liable to freeze,
particularly if the house containing it is in an exposed situation. A
very efficient and simple remedy for this is provided by the steam
stove. This is merely a cast-iron cylinder or pipe in the form of a
pedestal, 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. in height, and 10 or 12 in. in diameter,
having a base, and an ornamental top or covering brightened by being
ground and polished. The stove is placed on end 011 the floor of the
Governor room, in any convenient part, and a steam-pipe about f in.
in diameter, with stop-cock, is inserted through the bottom, in which
is another stop-cock for letting off the water of condensation. In
time of frost, by means of this stove, the atmosphere of the room
can be maintained at an equable temperature, at a minimum expense.
A piece of ordinary cast-iron pipe can be adapted to the purpose ; on
the other hand the stove is susceptible of any amount of orna-
mentation.
DISTRICT OR DIFFERENTIAL GOVERNORS.
Gas pressure varies according to the elevation, increasing and
decreasing at the rate of about one-tenth of an inch for each 10 feet
of rise and fall respectively. It is thus obvious that if the pressure
in the lower mains is sufficient, that in the higher mains (assuming
them to be connected throughout) must be in excess.
For the supply of gas to varying levels,
therefore, separate leading mains, with a Sta-
tion Governor upon each, are highly advan-
tageous, and should be employed wherever
practicable.
District or Differential Governors, for the
automatic regulation of the pressure in the
mains at high altitudes considerably removed
from the gas-works, are also of the utmost
utility. These are produced both in the wet
and dry form by most makers of gas appa-
ratus. Fig. 81 shows the District Governor
made by Messrs. D. Bruce Peebles and Co.
By doubling the amount of pressure, the
FIG. 81. consumption of gas is increased by about one-
half. Leakage from a pipe is, of course, increased in the same ratio
i.e., in the proportion of the square root of the pressure.
218 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
MAIN PIPES.
The leakage which arises in the distribution of gas is largely
due to defective and badly jointed Main pipes.
Hence it is of the first importance to ensure that the pipes employed
for that purpose are made of a good quality of metal, close in texture,
free from defects of every kind, and as equal as possible in their
sectional thickness.
To secure these three latter conditions, all cast-iron pipes 5 inches
internal diameter and upwards should be cast vertically in dry sand
moulds. Smaller sizes are usually oast in green sand and in inclined
moulds.
The pipes should be tested by hydrostatic pressure equal to at least
75 Ibs. on the square inch (150 feet head of water), either at the place
of manufacture or on the gas-works ; and whilst under pressure they
should be smartly rapped with a 3 Ib. hammer from end to end. This
will often reveal faults, such as sandy, porous, and blown places, not
otherwise discernible.
Kapping the pipes whilst on the ground will also indicate their
character. If the sound emitted is clear and bell-like, the pipe may
be considered free from defects. On the other hand, if dull and
leaden, it is cracked or otherwise imperfect.
All pipes that do not stand the tests should be rejected.
The metal of pipes, whilst compact and close, should not be exces-
sively brittle and splintery, but such as may be readily chipped and
drilled.
Cast-iron pipes below 3 in. diameter are 6 ft. long ; 3 in. to
11 in. diameter, 9 ft. long ; when 12 in. diameter and upwards they
may be either 9 ft. or 12 ft. long. The socket is not included in
these lengths.
It is usual to pay for any overweight in the pipes beyond the
Tveight specified, not exceeding 4 per cent.
Formula for calculating the weight of cast-iron pipes :
W = 2-45(D a - d 2 ).
Where D = outside diameter of pipe in inches.
d = inside diameter of pipe in inches.
W = weight of a lineal foot of pipe in Ibs.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
219
TABLE.
CAST-IRON GAS PIPES, WITH OPEN JOINTS.
The weight of the socket, and bead on spigot, is equal to 9-Wths of a
lineal foot of the pipe, and this is included in the iceiyhts given.
Internal
Diameter of
Pipe.
Thickness of
Metal in Body of
Pipe.
Lengh of
Socket,
inside measure.
Length of Pipe
not including
Socket.
Weight per Pipe
inclusive of
Socket and Bead.
Inches.
1
Inches.
5-16ths
Inches.
aa
Feet.
6
Cwts. qrs. Ibs.
010
11
6-16ths
24
6
1 10
2
5-16ths
3
6
1 22
24
3-8ths
3
6
2 17
3
3-8ths
3
9
1 11
4
3-8ths
4
9
1 1 19
5
7-16ths
4
9
207
6
7.16ths
4
9
2 1 21
7
S.lOths
4
9
3 27
8
5 lOths
4
9
3 2 19
9
6-10ths
44
9
4 11
10
9-16ths
44
9
5 16
11
9-16ths
44
9
5 2 14
12
5-8ths
44
12
8 3 16
13
5-8ths
44
12
9 2 12
14
5-8ths
4
12
10 1 8
16
5-8ths
4*
12
11 4
16
ll-16ths
44
12
12 3 24
17
ll-16ths
44
12
13 2 24
18
ll-16ths
44
12
14 2
19
3-4ths
44
12
16 2 24
20
3-4ths
44
12
17 2 8
21
3-4ths
5
12
18 1 20
22
13-16ths
5
12
20 3 20
23
13-16ths
5
12
21 3 8
24
7-8th8
5
12
24 2 8
30
1
5
12
85
36
14th
6
12
47 16
42
l^ths
6
12
57 3 16
48
IJth
6
12
69 2
For the smaller sizes of pipes up to 8 in. diameter, the open
jointing space is fin., and for larger diameters -Jin. wide all round.
The following are the usual depths of the socket, inside measure, for
the various sizes of open-jointed gas-pipes, plugged with yarn and
lead:
Diameter. Depth of Socket.
Up to 3 inches 3 inches.
4 to 8 4
9 to 20 4
21 to 30 5
3'2 and upwards 6
220
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE.
OAST-IKON GAS PIPES, WITH TURNED AND BORED JOINTS, HAVING A
EECESS IN FRONT FOR LEAD.
The weif/ht of the socket and thickened spigot is equal to 1^ lineal foot of
the jnjje, and this is included in the weif/hts given.
Internal
Diameter of
Pipe.
Thickness of
Metal in Body of
Pipe.
Length of
Socket,
inside measure.
Length of Pipe,
not including
Socket.
Weight per Pipe,
inclusive of Socket
and thickened Spigot.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Feet.
Cwt. qrs. Ibs.
1
5-16ths
24
6
1 1
14
5-16ths
24
6
1 12
2
5-16ths
3
6
1 24
n
8-8ths
3
6
2 19
3
3-8ths
3|
9
1 14
4
3-8ths
4
9
1 1 22
6
7-16ths
4
9
2 13
6
7-16ths
44
9
2 1 27
7
5-10ths
44
9
318
8
5-10ths
44
9
330
9
5-10ths
44
9
4 23
10
9-16ths
4*
9
510
11
9-16ths
44
9
531
12
5-8ths
44
12
904
13
5-8ths
44
12
930
14
5-8ths
44
12
10 1 24
15
5-8ths
5
12
11 24
16
ll-16ths
5
12
13 16
17
ll-16ths
51
12
13 3 20
18
ll-16ths
51
12
14 2 24
19
3-4ths
51
12
16 3 24
20
3-4ths
51
12
17 3 12
21
3-4ths
51
12
18 2 24
22
13-16ths
51
12
21 1
23
13-16ths
51
12
22 20
24
7-8ths
51
12
24 3 24
80
1
51
12
85 2 4
36
IJth
6
12
47 3 16
42
48
1-ftths
llth
6
6
12
12
58 3 4
70 2 8
When the turned and bored joint, on being tested, is found gas-
tight, it is not necessary to fill the recess with lead. The usual
filling material adopted under such circumstances is Portland or
Roman cement. These cements, if kneaded with warm water, set
quickly ; with cold water not so soon.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
FIG. 82.
TABLE.
Dimensions of the Sockets of Turned
and Bored Cast-Iron Gas Pipes,
with a Recess in Front (Fig. 82.)
TABLE.
Dimensions of the Sockets of Turned
and Bored Cast-Iron Gas Pipes,
without a Kecessin Front. (Fig.88.)
Diameter
of Pipe.
A
B
c
D
E
Diam.
of Pipe.
A
B
C
D
Inches.
Inches.
In.
In. In.
In.
Inches. Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
2
5-16ths
H
4
8
1
2 5-16ths
5
4
3
2i
3-8ths
t
A
BJ
If
2J 3-8ths
n
9 g
3i
3
3-8ths
|A
i
33
s
3
3-8ths
i
|
31
34
3-8ths
1
i
8i
I
34
3-8ths
ii
|
3}
4
3-8ths
1A
H
4
rt
4
3-8tha
i|
IS
4
5
7-16ths
11
ft
4*
i*
5
7-16ths
11
H
4
6
7-16ths
n
1
4^
1
6
7-16ths
14
i
4
7
5-10ths
IA
i
4
1
7
5-lOths
IA
1
4
8
9
10
6-10ths
5-lOths
9-16ths
ii
it
if.
-B
I
I
4
4*
4
IA
IA
IA
8
9
10
5-10ths
5-lOths
9-16ths
it
ii*
V
I
11
9-16ths
14
Ii
4
4
11 9-16ths
Ii?
&
4i
12
5-8ths
14
I
4^
u
12
5-8ths
IH
H
4}
13
5-8ths
IA
53
y
ii
13
5-8ths
ii
H
4
14
5-8ths
IA
5$
4^
H
14
6-8ths
it
H
44
15
5-8ths
n
i
5
IA
15 5-8ths
2;
i
5
16
17
ll-16ths
ll-16ths
ir-
i
IA
6
H
if
16
17
ll-16ths
ll-16ths
2
2*
IA
5
61
18
11-lGths
lit
IA
6i
i|
18 ll-16ths
2J
XA
61
20
3-4ths
i
ip
6|
IA
20 ! 3-4ths
2i
ii
61
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE.
CAST-IKON GAS PIPES, WITH FLANGE JOINTS.
The weight of the flanges is equal to 1 lineal f out of the pipe, and this
is included in the weiyhts yicen.
Flanges.
Internal
Diameter
of Pipe.
Thickness of
Metal
in Body of
Pipe.
Dia-
meter
across
Flanges.
Thick-
ness
of
Metal.
Number
of Bolt
Holes.
Dia-
meter,
centre to
centre,
of Bolt
Dia-
meter
of
Bolts.
Length
of Pipe
outside
the
Flanges.
Weight per Pipe
inclusive
of the Flanges.
Holes.
Inches.
Inches. Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Feet.
Cwts. qrs. Ibs.
5-16ths ! 4
A
3
a|
A i 6
010
11
5-16ths 44
T 7 e
3
3g
1 6
1 11
2
5-16ths
64
1
4
44
i 7 * 1 6
1 22
a
3-8ths
7i
T"
4
5i
4 6
2 18
3
3-8ths
74
4
54
4
1 11
4
3-8ths
9
TS
4
7
4
9
1 1 22
5
7-16ths
10i
|
4
8i
9
2 10
6
7-16ths
lli
i
4
94
9
2 1 24
7
5-lOths
13
1
4
11
9
315
8
5-10ths
14J
1
6
12
9
3 2 25
9
5-10ths
16
1
6
134
9
4 17
10
9-16ths
174
6
14*
9
5 22
11
9-16ths
18*
I
6
15 8
9
5 2 20
12
5-8ths
194
H
6
16J
12
8 3 24
13
5-8ths
204
ti
6
17*
12
9 2 20
14
5-8ths
214
i
8
18J
12
10 1 16
15
5-8ths
224
i
8
194
12
11 12
16
ll-16ths
24
' 1 T V
8
21
12
13 8
17
ll-16tbB
25
IA
8
22
12
13 3 8
18
ll-16ths
26
it
10
23
12
14 2 12
19
3-4ths
27
H
10
24
12
16 3 12
20
3-4ths
28
li
10
24*
12
17 2 24
21
3-4ths
29
IJr
10
254
12
18 2 8
22
13-16ths
30
1ft
10
264
12
21 8
23
13-16ths
31
if
10
274
J
12
22
24
7-8ths
32
4
12
284
I
12
24 3
80
1
38
if
14
344
1
12
35 1
36
IJths
45
li
18
414
1
12
47 2
42
1-ftths
51
If
20
474
1
12
58 1 8
48
lith
57
if
24
534
1
12
70 4
Cast-iron in cooling from the molten condition shrinks one-eighth of
an inch per foot.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Main Pipe Joints.
A host of joints for Main pipes have been invented from time to
time, which, though theoretically good, have not all proved very satis-
factory in practice.
The classes of joint generally in use are the turned and bored, and
the open joint. The ball and socket joint is employed under excep-
tional circumstances, as when the Main has to be laid in the bed of a
river or harbour, or across a narrow arm of the sea.
A difference of opinion exists among engineers as to which form
of joint is best the turned and bored, or the open joint filled with
lead, rust cement, or other substance, metallic or otherwise.
We, who have had large experience in both, and under most cir-
cumstances, prefer the turned and bored, both for ease in adjustment,
economy, and efficiency.
In districts where the ground is extensively undermined and liable
to subsidence, the vulcanized india-rubber joint (which is virtually
an open joint) is the most suitable.
Special pipes, such as bends, tees, and junctions are, for convenience
sake, made with open joints.
The turned and bored joint is shown in Fig. 84.
There is no difficulty in swinging round ordinary curves with a line
of Mains jointed in this manner ; but when the radius of the curve is
short, an occasional yarn and lead joint is required.
In specifying for pipes with these joints, care should be taken that
the bored and turned surfaces are not made with too much taper ;
indeed, the nearer the surfaces approach to parallel lines, the better
they will fit.
When laying the pipes, the spigot and socket ends, after being
cleaned with cotton waste, are coated with thick paint composed of
one part each white and red lead mixed with boiled linseed oil ; the
end is then inserted and driven home with a mallet, or, should the pipe
be large, with a swing block.
In driving the pipes they will sometimes be found to spring back at
every stroke. This may be due either to the surfaces being made too
224 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
conical, in which case it is difficult to ensure a good joint ; or
there is a slight ridge or roughness on the inner edge of the bored
part of the socket. Chip this off with a sharp chisel.
Red lead sets sooner and harder than white ; and the following reason
is given for preferring the white to the red for joints : When an ex-
pansion or contraction takes place in the pipes, the red lead is liable
to crack, and so cause a leakage ; whereas the white lead is more
tractable, and better adapts itself to the varying circumstances. An
equal mixture of the two is preferable.
The socket may either be bored flush up to the face, as in Fig. 83,
or it may have a recess in front, as in, Figs. 82 and 84. The latter is
to be preferred, as it can be supplemented with lead or other filling
should the turned joint prove defective.
Two examples of the open joint are given in Figs. 85 and 86.
FIG. 85. FIG. 86.
In placing the pipes, twined gasket is caulked in all round so as to
fill nearly half the length of the open space. A roll of tough plastic
clay is then passed round and pressed against the socket face, and
through a lip on the upper side molten lead is poured till the remain-
ing space is filled. On the lead being set up with a blunt caulking
tool and hammer the joint is complete.
The ladle should contain sufficient molten lead to fill the joint at
one pouring, otherwise the adhesion of the metal throughout will not
be perfect.
Molten lead, when heated to redness, will fly when poured upon a
wet or damp surface.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLE
'jiving the Weight of Lead in Pounds required for Jointing Cast-iron
Mains.
Diameter of
Pipe in Inches.
Depth of Lead
in Inches.
Weight of Lead
in Pounds.
Diameter of
Pipe in Inches.
Depth of Lead
in Inches.
Weight of Lead
in Pounds.
li
II
11
11
21
161
2
11
11
12
2|
181
21
H
21
13
2|
21
3
li
2J
14
21
231
4
H
4
15
21
26
5
li
51
16
21
281
6
2
7
17
21
31
7
2
83
18
21
321
8
2J
101
19
2
34
9
2*
121
20
2|
351
10
21
141
24
3
48
For pipes 1^ to 8 inches in diameter the lead is assumed to be about
f -inch thick ; and in pipes 9 inches in diameter and upwards, ^-inch
thick.
In place of lead, rust cement and a mixture of beeswax and tallow
are used for jointing mains. " Spence's metal " also is an efficient
substitute, and its cost is considerably less.
Iron or Emt Cements for Flange and Open Socket Joints.
(1) 1 Ib. of clean iron borings, pounded fine in a mortar.
2 oz. sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia) ha powder.
1 oz flowers of sulphur.
Mix the whole together by pounding and keep dry. For use, mix
one part with twenty of iron borings pounded, adding water to the
consistency of mortar.
( 2) 98 parts fine iron borings.
1 part flowers of sulphur.
1 part sal ammoniac.
Mix, and when required for use, dissolve in boiling water. This
cement sets quickly.
If required to set slowly, which makes the better joint
(8) 197 parts iron borings.
1 part flowers of sulphur.
2 parts sal ammoniac.
When required for use, mix with boiling water.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The iron borings used for making joints should be perfectly free
from grease and oil.
The cubical content of the joint in inches, divided by 5, gives the
weight in pounds of iron cement required.
The india-rubber joint (Fig. 87) is formed by passing a vulcanized
ring of that material round the spigot end of the pipe, which is
specially cast with a groove and bead to suit this description of joint.
When the pipe end is pushed forward into the socket, the ring is
FIG.
compressed or flattened, and butts against the raised bead. No : other
packing is necessary, so that it is an expeditious method of jointing,
whilst the vulcanized india-rubber, unaffected by the presence of gas
or moisture, is practically indestructible.
The other advantages of this joint are referred to above.
The ball and socket joint is shown in Fig. 88. This particular form
is the invention of Mr. J. Z. Kay, and has been successfully employed
for Main pipes crossing through rivers and harbours where the
FIG. 89.
ordinary rigid joint is inapplicable. The lead is first run in and
caulked ; and the connected pipes, being like a chain, can be paid out
of a lighter, or other vessel, when they will find their own bed in the
river bottom.
The expansion joint (Fig. 89) is useful in all cases where a line of
Main is exposed to varying temperatures, as in pipes placed against a
wall or alongside a bridge, or in an open trench or channel.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Mill-board or engine-board coated with red or white lead, makes
a good and durable joint for flanges.
A combination of asbestos and india-rubber woven sheeting, makes
a superior flange joint, especially for steam purposes, as these sub-
stances resist the action of both heat and moisture. To prevent adhe-
sion to the iron (in the case of blank flange and manhole joints that
require to be frequently broken), the flange should be rubbed over
with powdered black lead before placing the cover.
Metallic rings are commonly used for flange joints. These are best
made with ^-inch or f-inch lead pipe, with the ends soldered evenly
together ; the ring is then covered with flax, and well smeared with
red lead or paint. The pipe must not be beaten flat, but left round,
so that when the joint is screwed up it may bed into any irregularities
in the surfaces. The remaining space between the flanges is filled with
rust or other cement.
Flange pipes can be jointed without the interposition of any packing
material, by having the flanges faced in a lathe. In such case the
surfaces are merely coated with white lead paint, and the joint
tightened up.
Bolts used for jointing flanges, &c., should have a gummet of flax or
tow, smeared with red or white lead, placed round their neck to bed
under the head when screwed up.
Red and white lead should always be mixed with boiled linseed oil.
Other oil can be made to answer, but not nearly so well.
Wrought-iron Main Pipes.
Of recent years a considerable trade has sprung up in the manufac-
ture of wrought-iron and steel Main pipes of large diameter for foreign
countries. Although the first cost of these is much greater than that
of the same sizes in cast-iron, yet owing to their being lighter and less
liable to fracture, the reduced expense of freight and haulage to their
destination makes their ultimate cost, length for length, materially
less.
The wrought-iron pipes are lap-welded, and those of the steel are
riveted in the seam. They are generally in 15-feet lengths. The
first table on p. 228 gives the usual thickness and weight of wrought-
iron pipes.
Q 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
TABLE.
ThickneKK (tnd Weif/ht of Wrouyht-iron Main Pipe*.
Diameter Inside.
Inches.
Thickness.
Inches.
Weight per Foot.
Pounds.
3
5-32 full.
6
3J
5-32 full.
7
4
3-16
9
5
3-16
10J
6
3-16
13
7
1-4 bare.
18
8
1-4 bare.
20
9
1-4 bare.
24*
10
1-4
28
12
1-4
33
14
5-16
43
16
5-16
50
The smaller sizes, 3 in., 3 in., and 4 in. diameter have screwed
ends and sockets. The larger diameters may be either screwed or
FIG. 90.
plain. In the latter case the " Kimberley " Collar (Fig. 90) is employed
for connecting them ; this is also made of wrought-iron.
TABLE.
Weif/ht of Lead required for Jointing Wrou<jht-iron Main Pijies with
the "Kimberley" Collar.
Internal
Diameter
Depth of Lead
on each side
Weight Internal
of Diameter
Depth of Lead
on each side
Weight
of Pipe.
of Collar.
Lead.
of Pipe. of Collar.
Lead.
Inches.
Inches.
Pounds.
Inches.
Inches.
Pounds.
5
13
83
10
13
16}
6
13
10 | 11
18
7
13
113
12
13
20
8
13
13J
14
2
26
9
13
15
16
2
30
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 229
The Laijimj of Main Pipes.
Special care is needed in the laying of Main pipes. As a general
rule the covering of soil over them should be at least 21 inches deep,
to protect them from the influences of heavy traffic and low and varying
temperatures.
The excavation to receive the pipes should not be unnecessarily wide,
as the less filling up that is required the better, not to mention the
saving in cost.
The bottom of the trench on which the pipes rest should be even
and firm, and if not so, then thoroughly consolidated by punning.
The soil should be scooped out at the various points in the trench
bottom, where the sockets come, so that the body of the pipe may lie
solid throughout its length. In cases where this cannot well be done
resort may be had to underpinning.
Each pipe should be laid with the proper inclination or fall, and
securely jointed ; all joints being proved either with gas or air under
high pressure while the trench is open.
In refilling the trench, the soil should be shovelled in in layers, and
rammed firmly and equally all round and above the pipes.
Gas pipes should be free from excrescences, and moderately smooth
on their inner surface.
They are better not coated internally with any kind of substance
soluble in naphtha or other hydrocarbon liquid. Such coating is soon
dissolved by the gas, and drains partially away into the drip wells ;
the residue collecting into viscid masses at different points, princi-
pally near to the joints. The coating can only be intended to reduce
friction by rendering the surface smooth for the passage of the gas,
because as a preservative to the iron, internally, it is not required. Its
effect is to impede the flow. The slight deposit which takes place from
the gas alone soon gives the metal a smooth coating. These objections
do not, of course, apply to the internal coating of water-pipes.
It is only for appearance sake, as a rule, that a covering of this
description can be recommended for the outside of cast-iron pipes. It
often serves only to hide defects in the casting.
The reddish-brown oxide covering which cast-iron pipes acquire in
a short time, when laid in ordinary soil, is one of the best preservatives
of the metal. This covering is impervious to moisture, its effect being
to arrest further corrosive action.
There are, however, circumstances where it is desirable and neces-
sary to coat pipes externally, as, for example, when they are of
wrought-iron, and when, though of cast-iron, they are to be laid in
soils intermixed with engine ashes, furnace slag, vitrified cinders,
clinker, dross, scoriae, or chemical refuse of any kind.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Furthermore, the pipes in such cases should be carefully embedded
in good common soil obtained for that purpose, or puddled round with
clay especially protecting the upper side with a thick covering.
It is worse than useless to place clay only underneath the pipe. When
so placed, it serves to receive and retain the water, which, percolating
through the material forming the ground, is charged with acid bisul-
phides and other deleterious compounds. The metal of the pipe thus
lying, as it were, in a bath of acidulous liquid, is destroyed sooner than
it would be if no clay were present. The protection afforded by the
clay should therefore be complete, all round the pipe, and particularly
over its upper surface.
Gas pipes laid through arable land do it no harm, but rather good,
inasmuch as they help to drain the land. The joints should be perfect,
however, as the escape of gas is fatal to vegetable life.
Mains in level ground should be laid with a slight inclination, say
1 foot in 400 yards, and at each lowest point a syphon or drip-well
(Fig. 91), of cast-iron, should be placed underneath, and connected by
a tube to the pipe to receive the liquid arising from condensation.
Another form of syphon, with sockets to receive the Main pipes, is
shown in Fig. 92. In all cases where a Main dips, a syphon is required
at the place where the dip is reversed.
Fio. 91.
FIG. 92.
The liquor from these receptacles is pumped out periodically into a
cask on wheels, and deposited in the tar-well on the gas-works.
In laying down Mains in lieu of others of a smaller size, the dif-
ference in value between the two sizes of pipes only should be charged
to capital account.
Appliances used in Mainlaying.
In beginning to lay an extensive length of Main pipes, considerable
delay, and consequent loss, is often experienced at first, owing to a
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 231
want of foresight in providing beforehand the necessary men, tools,
and other appliances required. The following is an enumeration of
what is necessary to be provided, varying according to the peculiari-
ties of the district and the extent of the work to be done :
One or two skilled main-layers.
A number of labourers according to the extent of the work.
A paviour and his labourer. A night watchman.
A pick and spade (and a tool, if clay) for each labourer.
A supply of picks, pick-handles, and wedges should be kept in
stock to replace broken ones.
A screen for separating stones and soil.
Shear-legs or tripod ; or, what is better, if the Mains are of large
diameter, a moveable pipe-layer, supported on wheels, running on
rails laid alongside of the trench.
Blocks, tackle, and ropes or chain.
A chain or clip to encircle the pipes.
Eight hand-spikes of wood, for moving the pipes about.
Two pieces of 2 or 3-inch wrought-iron tube (according to the size
of main), on which to roll the pipe previous to lowering it to its place
in the trench.
Two or four long iron bars, and two short ones.
Two planks for long and strong leverage.
Red and white lead, mixed with boiled oil, if turned and bored joints.
Some cotton waste and old cards to clean the joints, if turned and
bored. A supply of spun yarn and lead, if open joints.
A wooden mallet for driving small bored and turned pipes.
Two or four oak blocks, strengthened with bolts or hoops, to lay
against the pipe- sockets when driving.
A 3 or 4-inch cast-iron pipe, to swing with a rope or chain from
centre of shear-legs when driving, or a wooden swing block if
preferred.
Wood plugs for the various sizes of pipes and branches.
India-rubber cloth bags for plugging the mains. (See Fig. 23.)
A lead pot and two ladles.
Chisels and caulking tools.
Tarred rope for trying the joints and pipes.
A coke fire-grate for melting the lead and for
use by the night watchman.
Three setts, with handles, for cutting any
pipes required.
FIG. 93. Two large hammers, 7 Ibs. weight, and several
smaller ones, 1, 2, and 3 Ibs. each.
Screwing tackle.
Some fine flax for indifferent joints.
282 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
A few casks of cement.
A bogie or hand-drag, and two or three hand-barrows.
Portable bench, with vice attached.
Covered hand-cart, under lock and key.
A supply of good soil for bedding the pipes, and to prevent the con-
tact of ashes, if such should be present in the cutting.
A spirit-level and a straight-edge 10 or 12 feet long.
A supply of planking to cover up any part of the trench temporarily.
A box for the night watchman.
Two red signal lamps to warn passengers of the open trench during
the dark hours.
Two stand-pipes for the signal lights.
Apparatus for proving the Mains for leakage before filling up the
trench.
Look up beforehand what bends, tees, thimbles, flanges, drip-wells,
and other special castings will be required in the course of the
work, and have them in readiness when needed.
In enlarging or replacing pipes, many services require to be coupled
up and renewed, and in that case service-layers and tools should be got
ready.
Explosions in Main Pipes.
In the laying of large Main pipes, due care and diligence should be
exercised by the skilled and responsible officials in charge of such
work. Calamitous explosions have occurred owing to neglect in
these particulars.
Such an explosion took place in London in 1862, and again in 1880 ;
and one in Manchester, in 1873, when a large cast-iron syphon- well
was being attached to a Main.
Coal gas when unmixed with air or oxygen, as is well known, is
perfectly inexplosive, and is even incombustible. It is only when the
gas comes in contact with the oxygen of the air, as at the burner for
example, that it can be ignited ; combustion being in fact the union
in the presence of heat of the hydrogen and carbon of the gas with
atmospheric oxygen.
Explosions of the kind referred to are produced by a mixture of gas
and air in certain proportions. The explosive force of a compound of
this character is greatest when gas is mixed with eight times its bulk
of air.
Under ordinary circumstances it is impossible for air to become
mixed with the gas in the street Mains. This can only occur when a
Main is in course of being laid, or when a fresh junction is being made
with an existing Main.
In the case of the London explosions referred to, a new Main was
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
being laid. In order to allow of this being done, the gas was either
wholly or partially shut off at the junction with the live Main. Probably
the gas was only partially excluded ; and the limited quantity entering
would, by the operation of the law of the diffusion of gases, gradually
mix with the air existing in the new length of Main, till it became
charged throughout its course with a dangerously explosive compound.
On the application of a light, either accidentally or from intention, the
mixture was ignited, with disastrous consequences to life and property.
It is not necessary that there should be the presence of actual flame
to cause ignition. Dr. Frankland and other authorities have demon-
strated the fact, well known to most gas engineers, that explosive
mixtures of coal gas and air may be inflamed by a spark struck from
stone or metal ; that ignition may be caused by a spark produced from
the hammer and chisel of a workman, or even from the tramp of a
horse upon the pavement.
There is no absolute necessity that the gas should be excluded from
such an extent of Main pipes in course of being laid as to incur the
risk of accident ; because the Main for a short space from the point
where the junction is being made can readily be closed by the ordinary
india-rubber valves. When the Main is of such large diameter as to
preclude the possibility of a valve of this kind being used, the
utmost precaution is necessary to ensure the expulsion of the air
before a light is applied to test the soundness of the joints.
Under any circumstances the application of a light is objectionable
and unnecessary, as the joints can be proved when the Main
is under pressure by brushing them over with a solution of soap in
water.
The Testiny of Gas-Mains in the Ground.
The reduction of the loss of gas by leakage during recent years is
remarkable. It is safe to estimate that twenty to twenty-five years
ago, the unaccounted-for gas averaged sixteen per cent, of the gas pro-
duced. At the present time the average is only one-half that figure,
or eight per cent. This reduction is largely due to the closer attention
that is given to the pressures by day and night ; to the use of governors
in street lighting ; and to the better supervision that is exercised in the
laying of Mains and service-pipes.
It may be stated as a salutary rule, that the maximum initial pres-
sure in a district during the hours of the heaviest consumption, should
not exceed 20-tenths. When there is found to be a necessity for more,
the trunk Mains, or some of the most contracted Mains branching
therefrom, should be replaced by larger ones.
Considerable expense must be incurred in any systematic attempt
to reduce leakage ; but wherever in a district the unaccounted-for gas
234
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
exceeds 10 per cent, of the make, the expenditure is not only justifiable
on sanitary and other grounds, but is eventually found to be a good
and profitable investment.
Various appliances have been devised for testing gas Mams in the
ground. Brothers' apparatus consists simply of two 30-light meters,
one of which registers the passage of gas in the usual way ; and the
other is made to act as an exhauster, either by continuing the spindle
of the drum through the casing and attaching a handle to it, or by
means of a small wheel geared into a larger one on the periphery of
the drum the former being actuated by a handle from the outside.
The Main having been severed, and -ihe two ends carefully plugged,
the exhauster inlet is connected to the live Main, and the meter outlet
to the dead section of Main ; the exhauster and meter also being
joined. On the exhauster being gently turned, gas is drawn from the
live Main, and forced through the meter into the length of Main under
test, and thus the amount of loss in a certain time and under a given
pressure is indicated.
The great cost is in cutting the pipes, reinstating them, and finding
the exact locality of the escape. To obviate the necessity of severing
the pipes, a suggestion was made at the meeting of the Manchester
District Institution of Gas Engineers in November 1879, that water-
valves or traps which would also answer the purpose of drip wells, might
be permanently placed at intervals in the line of Mains. These traps,
having a diaphragm extending to within a regulated distance of the
bottom, on being charged with water, would form a
hydraulic valve, shutting off the gas from any section of
Main as desired, and enabling a test to be made without
difficulty and at reduced expense.
Acting on this suggestion, Mr. J. H. Lyon has intro-
duced an improved syphon box or hydraulic valve, for at-
taching to Mains, and by means of a leakage indicator
affixed to stand pipes on each side of the box or valve,
the quantity of gas escaping is readily ascertained.
(See Fig. 94.)
SURFACE OP ROAD
FIG. 94.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
235
111
111
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8..1-!
f?1
11'
00 (M ^!0 03 0<M
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hi
C-OOOO<MD-
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cq ffl O <M OJ
01 U5!M 00 OK)
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SlSJij
I'slllilfi
!M U5O C- O(N
<M (MU3 rH r-l CO
IPIiJil
lllliiii!
illllHII
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
i
^10 rHCO CO 00
ait- t- OOCO C- t- C5
d
I
,^031 00 OCO O (MOO
^ ,-H i-H CM 00 rH f 1 CO
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r " 1
11
rH
lii
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oJlO >0 tOO '-^ "OCO
<N
111
r
^t> rH T(0 T4 t-pl
o5C- 00 00 -^ C- C-C5
]
^0 CO 000 OCO
o5C~ C- t- CM CO C-00
CO
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^O CO O5CO O OCO
o5O O OC-^ O5 O-H
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a;t- t> ooco c~ t-oo
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1
^Ui O rH CO CO IO rH
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^O5 CO COO CO 05CO
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111
^f Oa OCO (N * O
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^jrH l> OCO rHt>
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,Q C- O CO "*l US t- T-H
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^JO5 CM U5O D- O5CO
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B
^JOO (M >OO CD OOOJ
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3
^j(M t> 000 CQ05
oilO 10 10O 10 U5CO
1
fej
^0 TJ1 t>0 t- 0-*
w -00 O5 O5CO 00 OOO
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^O O rHiO CO lOO
M 'CO CO * 00 CO COlO
H S
^CO 05 050 C005
^5 CO C-(M CD CDt-
CO
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^JCTl OQ U5CO t- O3CO
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1
,^(M X> 0!M (MC35
oJOO 00 0010 00 OOC5
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f^CO 00 rHCO O COOi
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W
jQ-QO tM * O CD OOCM
^IO CO COrH 10 >Ot>
'f ' "1 ; v!
'iT ' 'iT ' '
Diameter in Inchei.
Description of Joint.
In ordinary ballast . .
In roads macadamized w
Welsh or limestone .
In ordinary paved streets
[n bituminized streets .
In footpaths made with ss
or ashes
[n footpaths flagged
[n footpaths asphalted .
|
_g
s
Description of Joint.
[n ordinary ballast .
In roads macadamized w
Welsh or limestone .
In ordinary paved streets
In bituminized streets .
In footpaths made with sa
or ashes
In footpaths flagged
In footpaths asphalted .
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
237
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipe*, 2, 8,
and 4 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to- 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to the nearest Penny.}
Diameter in Inches.
2.
8.
4.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge
Open.
T.&B
Plnge
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
25
26
25
41
42
41
53
54
64
Cost per yard at
s. a.
s. d.
s. d.
8. d.
s. d.
.d.
s. d.
S. d.
s. d.
4 per tou.
11
11
11
6
1 6
6
1 11
1 11
1 11
2 6
11
11
11
6
1 7
6
1 11
2
2
5
11
11
7
1 7
7
2
2 1
2 1
7 6
1
1
7
1 8
7
2 1
2 1
2 1
10
1
1
1
8
1 8
8
2 2
2 2
2 3
12 6
1
1
1
8
1 9
8
2 2
2 3
2 3
15
i i
1
1 1
9
1 9
9
2 3
2 3
2 3
17 6
i i
2
1 1
9
1 10
9
2 4
2 4
2 4
500
i i
2
1 1
10
1 11
10
2 4
2 5
2 5
626
1 2
2
1 2
11
1 11
11
2 5
2 6
2 6
650
1 2
3
1 2
1 11
2
11
2 6
2 6
2 6
576
1 2
3
1 2
2
2
2
2 7
2 7
2 7
5 10
1 3
3
1 3
2
2 1
2
2 7
2 8
2 8
6 12 6
1 3
4
1 3
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 8
2 9
2 9
5 15
517 ft
1 3
4
1 3
2 1
2O
2 2
2rt
2 1
2 2
2 9
2n
2 9
2 9
2-trt
I/O ,,
600
1 4
5
1 4
|
2 2
z
2 3
2 2
y
2 10
2 10
2 11
JLU
2 11
626
1 4
6
1 4
2 3
2 4
2 3
2 11
2 11
2 11
650
1 6
5
1 6
2 3
2 4
2 3
2 11
3
3
676
1 6
6
1 5
2 4
2 5
2 4
3
3 1
3 1
6 10
1 6
6
1 5
2 5
2 5
2 5
3 1
3 2
3 2
6 12 6
1 6
6
1 6
2 5
2 6
2 5
3 2
3 2
3 2
6 15
1 6
7
1 6
2 6
2 6
2 6
3 2
3 3
3 3
,6 17 6
1 6
7
1 6
2 6
2 7
2 6
3 3
3 4
3 4
700
1 7
8
1 7
2 7
2 8
2 7
3 4
3 5
3 5
726
1 7
8
1 7
2 7
2 8
2 7
3 4
3 6
3 5
750
1 7
8
1 7
2 8
2 9
2 8
3 5
3 6
3 6
776
1 8
9
1 8
2 8
2 9
2 8
3 6
3 7
3 7
7 10
1 8
9
1 8
2 9
2 10
2 9
3 7
3 7
3 7
7 12 6
1 8
9
1 8
2 9
2 10
2 9
3 7
3 8
3 7
7 15
1 9
10
1 9
2 10
2 11
2 10
3 8
3 9
3 9
7 17 6
1 9
10
1 9
2 11
2 11
2 11
3 9
3 10
3 10
800
1 9
10
1 9
211
3
2 11
3 9
3 10
3 10
826
1 10
11
1 10
3
3 1
3
3 10
3 11
3 11
850
1 10
11
1 10
3
3 1
3
3 11
4
4
876
8 10
1 10
1 11
11
2 A
1 10
1-1 1
8 1
31
3 2
3O
3 1
4
4
4
b 12 6
1 11
U
2
l-l
1 11
1
3 2
M
3 3
8 2
4 1
4 2
4 2
8 15
1 11
2
1 11
3 2
3 3
3 2
4 2
4 3
3
8 17 6
2
2 1
2
3 3
3 4
3 3
4 2
4 3
3
900
2
2 1
2
3 4
3 5
3 4
4 3
4 4
4
926
2
2 1
2
3 4
3 5
3 4
4 4
4 5
5
950
2 1
2 2
2 1
3 5
3 6
3 5
4 5
4 6
6
976
2 1
2 2
2 1
3 5
3 6
3 5
5
4 6
6
9 10
2 1
2 2
2 1
3 6
3 7
3 6
'. 6
4 7
7
9 12 6
2 2
2 3
2 2
3 6
3 7
3 6
' 7
4 3
8
9 15
2 2
2 3
2 2
3 7
3 8
3 7
7
4 8
8
9 17 6
10
2 2
2 2
2 4
2 4
2 2
2 2
3 7
3 8
3 8
3 9
3 7
3 8
8
9
4 9
4 10
4 9
4 10
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipes 5, 6 r
and 7 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
)to the nearest Penny,)
Diameter in Inches.
5.
6.
7.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T. & B. Flnge.
Open.
T.&B.
Plnge
Open.
T. & B.! Flnge,
Weight per yard in Ibs.
77
79 79
91
93
92
121
124 123
Cost per yard at
4 per ton.
s.d.
2 9
s.d.
2 10
s. d.
2 9
s. d.
3 3
s.d.
8 4
s.d.
3 3
s.d.
4 4
s.d.
4 5
s.d.
4 6
426
2 10
2 11
2 10
3 4
8 5
3 5
4 5
4 7
4 6
450
2 11
3
3
3 5
8 6
3 6
4 7
4 8
4 8
476
3
3 1
3 1
3 6
8 7
3 7
4 9
4 10
4 10
4 10
3 1
8 2
3 2
3 8
3 9
3 8
4 10
5
4 11
4 12 6
3 2
3 3
3 3
3 9
3 10
3 10
5
5 1
5 1
4 15
3 3
3 4
3 4
3 10
3 11
3 11
5 2
5 3
5 3
4 17 6
3 4
3 5
3 5
4
4 1
4
5 4
5 5
5 4
600
626
3 5
3(*
3 6
3 6
4 1
4 2
4 1
5 5
5 6
50
5 6
5Q
650 ,|
3 7
3 8
3 8
4 3
4
4 4
5 8
O
5 10
O
5 9
676
3 8
3 9
3 9
4 4
5
4 5
5 10
5 11
5 11
6 10
3 9
3 10
3 10
4 6
7
4 6
5 11
6 1
6
6 12 6
3 10
4
3 11
4 7
8
4 7
6 1
6 3
6 2
6 15
3 11
4 1
4
4 8
9
4 9
6 2
6 4
6 4
6 17 6
4 2
4 1
4 9
11
4 10
6 4
6 6
6 5
600
1
4 3
4 2
4 10
5
4 11
6 6
6 8
6 7
626
2
4 4
4 3
5
6 1
5
6 7
6 9
6 9
650
3
4 5
4 4
5 1
5 2
5 2
6 9
6 11
6 10
676
4
4 6
4 5
5 2
6 3
5 3
e 11
7 1
7
6 10
6
4 7
4 6
5 3
6 5
5 4
7
7 2
7 2
6 12 6
6 15
7
4 8
4Q
4 7
40
5 4
5f
5 6
57
5 5
7 2
7 4
7 3
6 17 6
9
y
4 10
O
4 9
u
5 7
1
5 9
5 8
7 5
7 7
7 7
700
10
4 11
4 10
5 8
5 10
5 9
7 7
7 9
7 A
726
11
5
5
5 9
5 11
5 10
7 8
7 11
7 10
750
5
5 1
5 1
5 11
6
5 11
7 10
8
8
776
5 1
5 2
5 2
6
6 1
6 1
8
8 2
8 1
7 10
5 2
5 3
5 3
6 1
6 3
6 2
8 1
8 4
8 3
7 12 6
5 3
5 5
5 4
6 2
6 4
6 3
8 3
8 5
8 4
7 15
5 4
5 6
5 5
6 3
6 5
6 4
8 4
8 7
8 6
7 17 6
5 5
5 7
5 6
6 5
6 6
6 6
8 6
8 9
8 8
800
5 6
5 8
5 7
6 6
6 8
6 7
8 8
8 10
8 9
826
5 7
5 9
5 8
6 7
6 9
6 8
8 9
9
8 11
850
5 8
5 10
5 9
6 8
6 10
6 9
8 11
9 2
9 1
876
5 9
5 11
5 10
6 10
6 11
6 10
9 1
9 3
9 2
8 10
5 10
6
5 11
6 11
7
7
9 2
9 5
9 4
8 12 6
5 11
6 1
6
7
7 2
7 1
9 4
9 7
9 6
8 15
6
6 2
6 1
7 1
7 3
7 2
9 5
9 8
7
8 17 6
6 1
6 3
6 2
7 3
7 4
7 3
9 7
9 10
9 9
900
6 2
6 4
6 3
7 4
7 6
7 5
9 9
10
9 10
926
6 3
6 5
6 4
7 5
7 7
7 6
9 10
10 1
10
950
6 4
6 6
6 5
7 6
7 8
7 7
10
10 3
10 2
976
6 5
6 7
6 6
7 7
7 9
7 8
10 2
10 5
10 4
9 10
6 6
6 8
6 7
7 9
7 10
7 10
10 3
10 6
10 5
9 12 (3
6 7
6 9
6 8
7 10
8
7 U
10 5
10 8
10 7
9 15
9 17 6
6 8
(i 9
6 10
6 11
6 9
6 11
7 11
8
8 1
8 2
1?
10 6
10 8
10 10
10 11
10 8
10 10
10
6 11 I 7 1
7
8 2 ! 8 4 8 s
1C 10
11 ] 11
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipes 8, 9,
and 10 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to the nearest Penny.)
Diameter in Inches.
8.
9.
10.
Class of Joint.
Open. IT. & B.
Flnge.
Open
T.&B.
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
137
140
139
153
157
155
192
196
194
Cost psr yard at
s. d.
s d
s d
s d
s d
8 d.
s. d.
s d
s d
i per ton.
4 11
5
5
5 6
5 7
5 6
6 10
7 6
6 11
426
5 1
5 2
5 1
5 8
5 9
5 9
7 1
7 3
7 2
5 "
5 2
5 4
5 3
5 10
6
5 11
7 3
7 5
7 4
7 6
5 4
5 6
5 5
6
6 2
6 1
7 6
7 8
7 7
10
5 6
5 8
5 7
6 2
6 4
6 3
7 9
7 11
7 10
12 6
5 8
5 9
5 9
6 4
6 6
6 5
7 11
8 1
8
15 ,
5 10
5 11
5 11
6 6
6 8
6 7
8 2
8 4
8 8
17 6
6
6 1
6 1
6 8
6 10
6 9
8 4
8 6
8 5
500
6 1
6 3
6 2
6 10
7
6 11
8 7
8 9
8 8
626
6 3
6 5
6 4
7
7 2
7 1
8 9
9
8 11
550
6 5
6 7
6 6
7 2
7 4
7 3
9
9 2
9 1
576
6 7
6 9
6 8
7 4
7 6
7 5
9 3
9 5
9 4
5 10
6 9
6 11
6 10
7 6
7 9
7 7
9 5
9 8
9 6
5 12 6
6 11
7
7
7 8
7 11
7 9
9 8
9 10
9 9
5 15
7
7 2
7 2
7 10
8 1
7 11
9 10
10 1
10
5 17 6
7 2
7 4
7 3
8
8 3
8 2
10 1 !10 3
10 2
600
7 4
7 6
7 5
8 2
8 5
8 4
10 3 10 6
10 5
626 .,
650
7 8
7 10
7 9
8 6
8 9
8 6
8 8
[0 6
10 9
_iu y
10 11
10 7
10 10
676
7 10
8
7 11
8 8
8 11
8 10
10 11
11 2
11 1
6 10
7 11
8 2
8 1
8 10
9 1
9
11 2 11 5
11 3
6 12 6
8 1
8 3
8 3
9 1
9 3
9 2
11 4
11 7
11 6
6 15
8 3
8 5
8 5
9 3
9 6
9 4
11 7
11 10
11 8
6 17 6
8 5
8 7
8 6
9 5
9 8
9 6
11 9
12
11 11
700
8 7
8 9
8 8
9 7
9 10
9 8
12
12 3
12 1
726
8 9
8 11
8 10
9 9
10
9 10
12 3
12 6
12 4
750
8 10
9 1
9
9 11
10 2 10
12 5
12 8
12 6
776
9
9 3
9 2
10 1
10 4 |10 2
12 8
12 11
12 9
7 10
9 2
9 5
9 4
10 3
10 6
10 5
12 10
13 2
13
7 12 6
9 4
9 6
9 6
10 5
10 8
10 7
13 1
13 4
13 2
7 15
9 6
9 8
9 7
10 7
10 10
10 9
13 4
13 7
13 5
7 17 6
9 8
9 10
9 9
10 9
11
10 H
13 6
13 9
13 7
800
9 9
10
9 11
10 11
11 3
11 1
13 9
14
13 10
826
9 11
10 2
10 1
11 1
11 5
11 3
13 11
14 3
14
850
10 1
10 4 |10 3
11 3
11 7
11 5
14 2
14 5
14 3
876
10 3
10 6
10 5
11 5
11 9
11 7
14 4
14 8
14 6
8 10
10 5
10 8
10 7
11 7
11 11
11 9
14 7
14 11
14 8
8 12 6
10 7
10 9
10 8
11 9
12 1
11 11
14 9
15 1
14 11
8 15
10 8
10 11
10 10
11 11
12 3
12 1
15
15 4
15 2
817 6
10 10
11 1
11
12 1
12 5
12 3
15 2
15 6
15 4
900
11
11 3
11 2
12 3
12 7
12 5
15 5
15 9
15 7
926
11 2
11 5
11 4
12 5
12 9
12 8
15 7
16
15 9
950
11 4
11 7
11 6
12 8
13
12 10
15 10
16 2
16
976
11 6
11 9
11 8
12 10
13 2
13
16
16 5
16 2
9 10
11 7
11 11
11 9
13 !13 4
13 2
16 3
16 8
16 5
9 12 6
11 9
12
11 11
13 2
13 6
13 4
16 5
16 10
16 8
9 15
11 11
12 2
12 1
13 4
13 8
13 6
16 8
17 1
16 10
9 17 6
12 1
12 4
12 3
13 6
13 10
13 8
16 10
17 3
17 1
10
12 3
12 6
12 5
13 8 114
13 10
17 2
17 6
17 3
240
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE
Giving Weiyht and Cost per yard of Cant-Iron Main (las Pipes, 11, 12,
and 18 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculat<'<l
to the nearest Penny.}
Diameter in Inches.
11.
Flnge
Open.
12.
Flnge.
18.
T. &B
Class of Joint.
Open.
T. & B.
T. &B
Open.
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
210
215
212
249
253
251
269
273
271
Cost per yard at
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
8. d.
s. d.
8. d.
s. d.
s. d.
4 per ton.
7 6
7 8
7 7
8 11
9
9
9 7
9 9
9 8
426
7 9
7 11
7 10
9 2
9 4
9 3
9 11
10 1
10
450
8
8 2
8
9 5
9 7
9 6
10 3
10 4
10 3
476
8 2
8 5
8 3,
9 9
9 11
9 10
10 6
10 8
10 7
4 10
8 5
8 8
8 6
10
10 2
10 1
10 10
11
10 11
4 12 6
8 8
8 11
8 9
10 3
10 5
10 4
11 1
11 3
11 2
4 15
8 11
9 1
9
10 6
10 9
10 8
11 5
11 7
11 6
4 17 6
9 2
9 4
9 3
10 10
11
10 11
11 9
11 11
11 10
500
9 4
9 7
9 5
11 1
11 4
11 3
12
12 2
12 1
526
9 7
9 10
9 8
11 4
11 7
11 6
12 4
12 6
12 5
550
9 10
10 1
9 11
11 7
11 10
11 9
12 7
12 10
12 8
576
10 1
10 4
10 2
11 11
12 2
12
12 11
13 1
13
5 10
10 4
10 7
10 5
12 2
12 5
12 4
13 3
13 5
13 4
5 12 6
10 7
10 10
10 8
12 5
12 8
12 7
13 6
13 9
13 7
6 15
10 10
11 1
10 10
12 9
13
12 11
13 10
14
13 11
5 17 6
11
11 3
11 1
13 1
13 3
13 2
14 1
14 4
14 3
600
11 3
11 6
11 4
13 4
13 7
13 5
14 5
14 8
14 6
626
11 6
11 9
11 7
13 7
13 10
13 9
14 9
14 11
14 10
650
11 9
12
11 10
13 11
14 1
14
15
15 3
15 2.
676
11 11
12 3
12 1
14 2
14 5
14 3
15 4
15 6
15 5
6 10
12 3
12 6
12 4
14 5
14 8
14 7
15 7
15 10
15 9
6 12 6
12 5
12 8
12 6
14 9
15
14 10
15 11
16 2
16
6 15
12 8
13
12 9
15
15 3
15 2
16 3
16 5
16 4
6 17 6
12 11
13 2
13
15 3
15 6
15 5
16 6
16 9
16 8
700
13 2
13 5
13 3
15 7
15 10
15 8
16 10
17 1
16 11
726
13 5
13 8
13 6
15 10
16 1
16
17 1
17 4
17 3
750
13 7
13 10
13 9
16 1
16 5
16 3
17 5
17 8
17 7
776
13 10
14 2
14
16 5
16 8
16 6
17 9
18
17 10
7 10
14 2
14 5
14 2
16 8
16 11
16 10
18
18 3
18 2
7 12 6
14 4
14 8
14 5
16 11
17 3
17 1
18 4
18 7
18 5
7 15
14 6
14 11
14 8
17 3
17 6
17 4
18 7
18 11
18 9
7 17 6
14 9
15 1
14 11
17 6
17 9
17 8
18 11
19 2
19 1
800
15
15 4
15 2
17 10
18 1
17 11
19 3
19 6
19 4
826
15 3
15 7
15 4
18 1
18 4
18 2
19 6
19 10
19 8
850
15 6
15 10
15 7
18 4
18 7
18 5
19 10
20 1
20
876
15 8
16 1
15 10
18 8
18 11
18 9
20 1
20 5
20 3
8 10
15 11
16 4
16 1
18 11
19 2
19
20 5
20 9
20 7
8 12 6
16 2
16 7
16 4
19 2
19 6
19 4
20 9
21
20 10
8 15
16 5
16 10
16 7
19 6
19 9
19 7
21
21 4
21 2
8 17 6
16 8
17
16 9
19 9
20 1
19 11
21 4
21 8
21 6
900
16 10
17 3
17
20
20 4
20 2
21 7
21 11
21 9
926
17 1
17 6
17 3
20 4
20 7
20 5
21 11
22 3
22 1
950
17 4
17 9
17 6
20 7
20 11
20 9
22 3
22 7
22 5
976
17 7
18
17 9
20 10
21 2
21
22 6
22 10
22 8
9 10
17 10
18 3
18
21 2
21 6
21 4
22 10
23 2
23
9 12 6
18 1
18 6
18 3
21 5
21 9
21 7
23 1
23 6
23 4
9 15
18 3
18 9
18 6
21 8
22
21 10
23 5
23 9
23 7
9 17 6
18 6
19
18 8
22
22 4
22 2
23 9
24 1
23 11
10
18 9
19 2 18 11
22 3
22 7
22 5
24
24 5
24 2
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
241
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipes, 14, 15,
and 16 inches diameter, at Rates from to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to the nearest Penny.}
Diameter in inches.
14.
15.
16.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T.&B.
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B.
Flnge
Open.
T.&B.
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
289
293
291
809
314
811
363
368
366
,
s d
s d
R d
i'4 per ton.
10 4
10 6
10 5
11
11' 3
11 1
13 6
13 2
13 1
426
10 8
10 9
10 9
11 5
11 7
11 5
13 4
13 7
13 6
450
11
11 1
11 1
11 9
11 11
11 10
13 9
14
13 11
476
11 3
11 5
11 4
12 1
12 3
12 2
14 2
14 5
14 4
4 10
11 7
11 9
11 8
12 5
12 7
12 6
14 7
14 9
14 8
4 12 6
11 11
12 1
12
12 9
13
12 10
15
15 2
15 1
4 15
12 3
12 5
12 4
13 1
13 4
13 2
15 5
15 7
15 6
4 17 6
12 7
12 9
12 8
13 5
13 8
13 6
15 10
16
15 11
500
12 11
13 1
13
13 10
14
13 11
16 2
16 5
16 4
526
13 3
13 5
13 4
14 2
14 4
14 3
16 7
16 10
16 9
550
13 7
13 9
13 8
14 6
14 9
14 7
17
17 3
17 2
576
13 10
14 1
14
14 10
15 1
14 11
17 5
17 8
17 7
5 10
14 2
14 5
14 3
15 2
15 5
15 3
17 10
18 1
18
5 12 6
14 6
14 9
14 7
15 6
15 9
15 7
18 3
18 6
18 5
5 15
14 10
15
14 11
15 10
16 1
15 11
18 8
18 11
18 9
5 17 6
15 2
15 4
15 3
16 3
16 6
16 4
19
19 4
19 2
600
15 6
15 8
15 7
16 7
16 10
16 8
19 5
19 8
19 7
626 ,
15 10
16
15 11
16 11
17 2
17
19 10
20 2
20
650
16 1
16 4
16 3
17 3
17 6
17 4
20 3
20 6
20 5
676
16 6
16 8
16 7
17 7
17 10
17 8
20 8
20 11
20 10
6 10
16 9
17
16 11
17 11
18 3
18
21 1
21 4
21 3
6 12 6
17 1
17 4
17 3
18 3
18 7
18 5
21 6
21 9
21 8
6 15
17 5
17 8
17 6
18 7
18 11
18 9
21 10
22 2
22 1
6 17 6
17 9
18
17 10
19
19 3
19 1
22 3
22 7
22 6
700
18 1
18 4
18 2
19 4
19 7
19 5
22 8
23
22 10
726
18 5
18 8
18 6
19 8
20
19 9
23 1
23 5
23 3
750
18 8
18 11
18 10
20
20 4
20 1
23 6
23 10
23 8
776
19
19 4
19 2
20 4
20 8
20 6
23 11
24 3
24 1
7 10
19 4
19 7
19 6
20 8
21
20 10
24 4
24 8
24 6
7 12 6
19 8
19 11
19 10
21
21 5
21 2
24 9
25 1
24 11
7 15
20
20 3
20 2
21 4
21 9
21 6
25 1
25 5
25 4
7 17 6
20 4
20 7
20 6
21 9
22 1
21 10
25 6
25 11
25 9
800
20 8
20 11
20 9
22 1
22 5
22 2
25 11
26 3
26 2
826
21
21 3
21 1
22 5
22 9
22 7
26 4
26 8
26 7
850
21 3
21 7
21 5
22 9
23 2
22 11
26 9
27 1
26 11
876
21 7
21 11
21 9
23 1
23 6
23 3
27 2
27 6
27 4
8 10
21 11
22 3
22 1
23 5
23 10
23 7
27 6
27 11
27 9
8 12 6
22 3
22 7
22 5
23 10
24 2
23 11
27 11
28 4
28 2
8 15
22 7
22 11
22 9
24 2
24 6
24 3
28 4
28 9
28 7
8 17 6
22 11
23 3
23 1
24 6
24 10
24 8
28 9
29 2
29
900
23 3
23 6
23 4
24 10
25 3
25
29 2
29 7
29 5
926
23 7
23 10
23 9
25 2
25 7
25 4
29 7
30
29 10
950
23 10
24 2
24
25 6
25 11
25 8
30
30 5
30 3
976
24 2
24 6
24 4
25 10
26 3
26
30 5
30 10
30 8
9 10
24 6
24 10
24 8
26 2
26 7
26 4
30 9
31 2
31
9 12 6
24 10
25 2
25
26 7
27
26 9
31 2
31 8
31 5
9 15
25 2
25 6
25 4
26 11
27 4
27 1
31 7
32
31 10
9 17 6
25 6
25 10
25 8
27 3
27 8
27 5
32
32 5
32 3
10
25 10
26 2
26
27 7
28
27 9
32 5
32 10
32 8
242
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast- Iron Main Gas Pipes, 17, 18,
and 19 incJies diameter, at Plates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to the nearest Penny.)
Diameter in Inches.
17.
18.
19.
Flnge.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge
Open.
T.&B
Weight per yard in Ibs.
384
390
387
406
412
409
468
475
472
Cost per yard at
s. a..
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
S. d.
s. d
s. d.
s. d.
s. di
4 per ton.
13 8
13 11
13 10
14 6
14 8
14 7
16 8
16 11
16 10
426
14 2
14 4
14 3
14 11
15 2
15 1
17 3
17 6
17 5
450 ,,
14 7
14 9
14 8
15 5
15 7
15 6
17 9
18
17 11
476
15
15 3
15 1
15 10
16 1
16
18 3
18 7
18 5
4 10
15 5
15 8
15 6
16 4
16 7
16 5
18 10
19 1
18 11
4 12 6
15 10
16 1
15 11
16 9
17
16 11
19 4
19 7
19 6
4 15
16 3
16 6
16 5
17 2
17 6
17 4
19 10
20 2
20
4 17 6
16 9
17
16 9
17 8
17 11
17 10
20 4
20 8
20 7
500
17 2
17 5
17 3
18 1
18 5
18 3
20 11
21 2
21 1
526
17 7
17 10
17 9
18 7
18 10
18 9
21 5
21 9
21 7
550
18
18 3
18 2
19
19 4
19 2
21 11
22 3
22 1
576
18 5
18 9
18 7
J9 6
19 9
19 8
22 6
22 10
22 8
5 10
18 10
19 2
19
19 11
20 3
20 1
23
23 4
23 2
5 12 6
19 3
19 7
19 5
20 5
20 8
20 6
23 6
23 10
23 8
6 15
19 8
20
19 10
20 10
21 2
21
24
24 5
24 3
5 17 6
20 2 20 5
20 4
21 4
21 7
21 5
24 7
24 11
24 9
600
20 7 20 11
20 9
21 9
22 1
21 11
25 1
25 5
25 3
626
21
21 4
21 2
22 2
22 6
22 4
25 7
26
25 10
650
21 5
21 9
21 7
22 8
23
22 10
26 1
26 6
26 4
676
21 10
22 2
22
23 1
23 5
23 3
26 8
27
26 10
6 10
22 3
22 7
22 5
23 7
23 11
23 9
27 2
27 7
27 5
6 12 6
22 9
23 1
22 11
24
24 4
24 2
27 8
28 1
27 11
6 15
23 2
23 6
23 4
24 5
24 10
24 8
28 2
28 7
28 5
6 17 6
23 7
23 11
23 9
24 11
25 3
25 1
28 7
29 2
29
700
24
24 4
24 2
25 4
25 9
25 7
29 3
29 8
29 6
726
24 5
24 10
24 7
25 10
26 3
26
29 9
30 3
30
750
24 10
25 3
25
26 3
26 8
26 6
30 3
30 9
30 7
776
25 3
25 8 25 6
26 9
27 2
26 11
30 10
31 3
31 1
7 10
25 8
26 1 25 11
27 2
27 7
27 5
31 4
31 10
31 8
7 12 6
26 '2
26 7 1 26 4
27 8
28 1
27 10
31 10
32 4
32 2
7 15
26 7
27 26 9
28 1
28 6
28 3
32 4
32 10
32 8
7 }7 6
27
27 5127 2
28 7
29
28 9
32 11
33 5
33 2
800
27 5
27 10J27 8
29
29 5
29 2
33 5
33 11
33 8
826
27 10
28 4
28 1
29 5
29 11
29 8
33 11
34 6
34 3
850 ,,
28 3
28 9
28 6
29 11
30 4
30 1
34 6
35
34 9
876
28 8
29 2
28 11
30 4
30 10
30 7
35
35 6
35 4
8 10
29 2
29 7
29 4
30 10
31 3
31
35 6
36
35 10
8 12 6
29 7
30
29 10
31 3
31 8
31 6
36 1-
36 7
36 4
8 15
30
30 5
30 3
31 8
32 2
31 11
36 7
37 1
36 10
8 17 6
30 5
30 11
30 8
32 2
32 8
32 5
37 1
37 8
37 5
900
30 10
31 4
31 1
32 7
33 1
32 10
37 7
38 2
37 11
926
31 3
31 9
31 6
33 1
33 7
33 4
38 2
38 8
38 5
950
31 8
32 2
31 11
33 6
34
33 9
38 8
39 3
39
976
32 1
32 8
32 5
34
34 6
34 3
39 2
39 9
39 6
9 10
32 7
33 1
32 10
34 5
34 11
34 8
39 8
40 3
40
9 12 6
33
33 6
33 3
34 11
35 5
35 2
40 3
40 10
40 7
9 16
33 5
33 11
33 8
35 4
35 10
35 7
40 9
41 4
41 1
9 17 6
33 10
34 5
34 1
35 10
36 4
36 1
41 3
41 11
41 7
10
34 31
34 10
34 7
36 3
36 9
36 6
41 9
42 5
42 2
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
243
TABLE
it'inif Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipes, 20, 21,
and 22 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to the nearest Penny,}
Diameter in Inches.
20.
21.
22.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T. &B.
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B.
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B.
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
492
500
496
516
524
520
589
595
590
Cost per yard at
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s d
8 d
B d
s. d.
s. d.
8. d
i'4 per ton.
17 7
17 10
17 8
18 5
18 8
18 7
20 11
^!1 3
21 1
426
18 1
18 5
18 3
19
19 4
19 2
21 V
21 11
21 9
450
18 8
19
18 10
19 7
19 11
19 9
22 3
22 7
22 5
476
19 3
19 6
19 5
20 2
20 6
20 4
22 11
23 3
23 1
4 10
19 9
20
19 11
20 9
21 1
20 11
23 6
23 11
23 8
4 12 6
20 4
20 8
20 6
21 4
21 8
21 6
24 2
24 7
24 4
4 15
20 10
21 2
21
21 10
22 3
22 1
24 10
25 3
25
4 17 6
21 5
21 9
21 7
22 6
22 10
22 8
25 6
25 11
25 8
500
21 11
22 4
22 2
23
23 5
23 2
26 2
26 7
26 4
526
22 6
22 11
22 8
23 7
24
23 9
26 10
27 3
27
550
23 1
23 5
23 3
24 2
24 7
24 4
27 5
27 11
27 8
576
23 7
24
23 10
24 9
25 2
25
28 1
28 7
28 4
5 10
24 2
24 7
24 4
25 4
25 9
25 6
28 9
29 3
29
5 12 6
24 9
25 1
24 11
25 11
26 4
26 1
29 5
29 11
29 8
5 15
25 3
25 8
25 5
26 6
26 11
26 8
30 1
30 6
30 3
5 17 6
25 10
26 3
26
27 1
27 6
27 3
30 9
31 3
30 11
600
26 4
26 9
26 7
27 8
28 1
27 10
31 5
31 10
31 7
626
26 11
27 4
27 2
28 3
28 8
28 5
32
32 6
32 3
650
27 5
27 11
27 8
28
29 3
29
32 8
33 2
32 11
676
28
28 6
28 3
29 4
29 10
29 7
33 4
33 10
33 7
6 10
28 7
29
28 9
29 11
30 5
30 2
34
34 6
34 3
6 12 6
29 1
29 7
29 4
30 6
31
30 9
34 8
35 2
34 11
6 15
29 8
30 1
29 11
31 1
31 7
31 4
35 4
35 10
35 7
6 17 6
30 2
30 8
30 5
31 8
32 2
31 11
36
36 6
36 3
700
30 9
31 3
31
32 3
32 9
32 6
36 7
37 2
36 10
726
31 4
31 10
31 7
32 10
33 4
33 1
37 3
37 10
37 6
750
31 10
32 4
32 1
33 5
33 11
33 8
37 11
38 6
38 2
776
32 5
32 11
32 8
34
34 6
34 3
38 7
39 2
38 10
7 10
32 U
33 6
33 2
34 7
35 1
34 10
39 3
39 10
39 6
7 12 6
33 6
34
33 9
35 2
35 8
35 5
39 11
40 6
40 2
7 15
34
34 7
34 4
35 8
36 3
36
40 6
41 2
40 10
7 17 6
34 7
35 2
34 11
36 3
36 10
36 7
41 2
41 10
41 6
800
35 2
35 8
35 5
36 10
37 5
37 2
41 10
42 6
42 2
826
35 8
36 3
36
37 5
38
37 9
42 6
43 2
42 10
850
36 3
36 10
36 6
38
38 7
38 4
43 2
43 10
43 5
876 ,
36 9
37 5
37 1
38 7
39 2
38 11
43 10
44 6
44 1
8 10 '
37 4
37 11
37 8
39 2
39 9
39 5
44 6
45 2
44 9
8 12 6
37 11
38 6
28 2
39 9
40 4
40
45 2
45 10
45 5
8 15
38 5
39 1
38 9
40 4
40 11
40 7
45 9
46 6
46 1
8 17 6
39
39 7
39 4
40 11
41 6
41 2
46 5
47 2
46 9
900
39 6
40 2
39 10
41 5
42 1
41 9
47 1
47 10
47 5
926 ,
40 1
40 9
40 5
42
42 8
42 4
47 9
48 6
48 1
950
40 7
41 3
40 11
42 7
43 3
42 11
48 5
49 2
48 9
976
41 2
41 10
41 6
43 2
43 10
43 6
49 1
49 10
49 5
9 10
41 9
42 5
42 1
43 9
44 5
44 1
49 8
50 5
50
9 12 6
42 3
43
42 8
44 4
45
44 8
50 4
51 1
50 8
9 15
42 10
43 6
43 2
44 11
45 7
45 3
51
51 9
51 4
9 17 6
43 5
44 1
43 9
45 6
46 2
45 10
51 8
52 5
52
10 ,
43 11
44 8
44 3
46 1
46 9
46 5
52 4
53 1
52 8
244
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE
Giving Weight and Cost per Yard of Catt-Iron Main Gas Pipes, 23, 24,
and 30 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Cakulated
to the nearest Penny.)
Diameter in Inches.
28.
24.
80.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge
Open
T.&B
Flng
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
611
621
616
688
699
693
980
995
987
Cost per yard at
400 per ton.
s. d
21 10
s. d
22 2
22
24 7
24 11
24 9
35
35 6
35 3
2 6
22 6
22 10
22 8
'25 4
25 9
25 6
36 1
36 8
36 4
50
23 2
23 7
23 4
26 1
26 6
26 3
37 2
37 9
37 5
76
23 10
24 3
24 1
26 11
27 4
27 1
38 3
38 10
38 7
10
24 6
24 11
24 9
27 8
28 1
27 10
39 4
40
39 8
12 6
25 3
25 8
25 5
28 5
28 1C
28 7
40 6
41 1
40 9
15
25 11
26 4
26 1
29 2
29 5
41 7
42 2
41 10
17 6
26 7
27
26 10
29 11
30 5
30 2
42 8
43 4
43
500
27 3
27 9
27 6
30 8
31 2
30 11
43 9
44 5
44 1
526
28
28 5
28 2
31 6
32
31 9
44 10
45 6
45 2
550
28 8
29 1
28 10
32 3
32 9
32 6
45 11
46 8
46 3
676
29 4
29 10
29 7
33
33 7
33 3
47
47 9
47 4
5 10
30
30 6
30 3
33 9
34 4
34
48 1
48 10
48 5
5 12 6
30 8
31 2
30 11
34 7
35 1
34 10
49 3
50
49 7
5 15
31 4
31 10
31 7
35 4
35 11
35 7
50 4
51 1
50 8
6 17 6
32 1
32 7
32 4
36 1
36 8
36 4
51 5
52 2
51 9
600
32 9
33 3
33
36 10
37 5
37 1
52 6
53 4
52 10
626
33 5
34
33 8
37 8
38 3
37 11
53 7
54 6
54
650
34 1
34 8
34 4
38 5
39
38 8
54 8
55 6
55 1
676
34 9
35 4
35 1
39 2
39 9
39 5
55 9
56 8
56 2
6 10
35 5
36
35 9
39 11
40 7
40 2
56 10
57 9
57 3
6 12 6
36 2
36 9
36 5
40 8
41 4
41
58
58 10
58 5
6 15
36 10
37 5
37 1
41 5
42 1
41 9
59 1
59 11
59 6
6 17 6
37 6
38 1
37 10
42 3
42 11
42 6
60 2
61
60 7
700
38 2
38 10
38 6
43
43 8
43 4
61 3
62 2
61 8
726
38 10
39 6
39 2
43 9
44 6
44 1
62 4
63 3
62 9
750
39 6
40 2
39 10
44 6
45 3
44 10
63 5
64 5
63 11
776
40 3
40 11
40 7
45 4
46
45 7
64 6
65 6
65
7 10
40 11
41 7
41 3
46 1
46 10
46 5
65 7
66 7
66 1
7 12 6
41 7
42 3
41 11
46 10
47 7
47 2
66 9
67 8
67 2
7 15
42 3
42 11
42 7
47 7
48 4
47 11
67 10
68 10
68 3
7 17 6
42 11
43 8
43 4
48 5
49 2
48 9
68 11
69 11
69 5
800
43 8
44 4
44
49 2
49 11
49 6
70
71
70 6
826 ,.
44 4
45 1
44 8
49 11
50 9
50 3
71 1
72 1
71 7
850
45
45 9
45 4
50 8
51 6
51
72 2
73 3
72 8
876
45 8
46 5
46 1
51 5
52 3
51 10
73 3
74 4
73 10
8 10
46 4
47 1
46 9
52 2
53
52 7
74 4
75 6
74 11
8 12 6
47
47 10
47 5
53
53 10
53 4
75 6
76 8
76
8 15
47 9
48 6
48 2
53 9
64 7
54 2
76 7
77 9
77 1
8 17 6
48 5
49 3
48 10
54 6
55 5
54 11
77 8
78 10
78 3
900
49 1
49 11
49 6
55 3
56 2
55 8
78 9
79 11
79 4
926
49 9
50 7
50 2
56 1
56 11
56 6
79 10
81 1
80 5
950
50 5
51 3
50 10
56 10
57 9
57 3
80 11
82 2
81 6
976
51 2
52
51 7
57 7
58 6
58
82
83 3
82 7
9 10
51 10
52 8
52 3
58 4
59 3
58 9
83 1
84 5
83 8
9 12 6
52 6
53 4
52 11
59 2
60 1
59 7
84 2
85 6
84 10
9 15
53 2
54 1
53 7
59 11
60 10
60 4
5 4
86 7
85 11
9 17 6
53 10
54 9
54 4
60 8
61 8
61 1
86 5
87 9
87
10
54 7
55 5
55
61 5
62 5
61 10
7 6
88 10
88 1
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
245
TABLE
Owing Weight and Cost per Yard of Cast-Iron Main Gas Pipes 36, 42,
and 48 inches diameter, at Rates from 4 to 10 per Ton. (Calculated
to tJie nearest Penny.)
Diameter in Inches.
86.
42.
48.
Class of Joint.
Open.
T.&B
Plnge
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Open.
T.&B
Flnge.
Weight per yard in Ibs.
1320
1841 j 1330
1621
1646
1638
1946
1976
1961
Cost per yard at
s. d.
s d 1 8 d
s d
a d
8 d
s d
s. d.
s. d.
4 per ton.
47 2
47 11 47 6
57 11
58 9
58 4
70 7
70
426
48 7
49 5! 49
59 8
60 7
60 2
71 8
72 9
72 3
5
50 1
50 11 50 6
61 6
62 5
61 11
73 10
75
74 5
7 6
51 7
52 5 51 11
63 4
64 4
63 9
75 11
77 2
76 7
10
53
53 10
53 5
65 1
66 2
65 7
78 2
79 5
78 9
12 6
54 b
55 4
54 11
66 11
68
67 5
80 4
81 7
81
15
56
56 10
56 5
68 9
69 10
69 3
82 6
83 10
83 2
4 17 6
57 5
58 4
57 11
70 7
71 8
71 1
84 8
86
86 4
500
58 11
59 10
59 4
72 4
73 6
72 11
86 10
88 2
87 6
526
60 4
61 4
60 10
74 2
75 4
74 9
89 1
90 5
89 9
560
61 10
62 10
62 4,
76
77 2
76 6
91 3
92 7
91 11
576
63 4
64 4
63 10
77 10
79
78 4
93 5
94 10
94 1
5 10
64 10
65 10
65 4
79 7
80 10
80 2
95 7
97
96 3
5 12 6
66 4
67 4
66 10
81 5
82 8
82
97 9
99 3
98 6
5 15
67 9
68 10
68 3
83 3
84 6
83 10
99 11
101 5
100 8
5 17 6
69 3
70 4
69 9
85
86 4
85 8
102 1
103 8
102 10
600
70 8
71 10
71 3
86 10
88 2
87 6
104 3
105 10
105 1
626
72 2
73 4
72 9
88 8
90
89 3
106 5
108
107 3
660
73 8
74 10
74 2
90 5
91 10
01 1
108 7
110 3
109 5
676
75 2
76 4
75 8
92 3
93 8
92 11
110 8
112 6
111 7
6 10
76 7
77 10
77 2
94 1
95 6
94 9
112 11
114 8
113 10
6 12 6
78 1
79 3
78 8
95 11
97 4
96 8
115 1
116 11
116
6 15
79 7
80 10
80 2
97 8
99 2
98 5
117 3
119 1
118 2
6 17 6
81
82 4
81 8
99 6
101
100 3
119 5
121 4
120 4
700
82 6
83 10
83 1
101 4
102 10
102 1
121 7
123 6
122 7
726
84
85 4
84 7
103 1
104 9
103 11
123 10
125 8
124 9
750
85 5
86 10
86 1
04 11
106 6
105 8
126 0127 11
126 11
776
86 11
88 4l 87 71
06 9
108 5
107 6
128 2 130 1
129 2
7 10
88 5
89 9
89 1
08 6
110 3
109 4
130 4132 4
131 4
7 12 6
89 10
91 4
90 6
10 4
112 1
111 2
132 6134 6
133 6
7 15
91 4
92 9
92
12 2
113 11
113
134 8136 9
135 8
7 17 6
92 10
94 3
93 6
14
115 9
114 10
136 10138 11
137 11
800
94 3
95 9
95
15 9
117 7
116 8
139 0141 2
140 1
826
95 9
97 3
96 6
17 7
19 5
118 6
141 2
143 4
142 3
850
97 3
98 9
97 11
19 5
121 3
120 3
143 4
145 7
144 5
876
98 9
100 3
99 5
21 3
123 1
122 2
145 6
147 9
146 8
8 10
00 2
101 9
100 11
23
124 11
123 11
147 8
149 11
148 10
8 12 6
01 8
103 3
102 5
24 10
126 9
125 9
149 10
152 1
151
8 15
103 1
104 9
103 11
26 8
128 7
127 7
152
154 4
153 2
8 17 6
104 7
106 3
105 5
128 6
130 5
129 5
154 2
156 6
155 5
900
106 1
107 9
106 10
130 3
132 3
131 3
156 4
158 9
157 7
926
107 7
109. 3
108 4
132 1
134 1
133 1
158 7
160 11
159 9
950 .
109 0110 9
109-10
133 10
135 11
134 10
160 8
163 2
161 11
976
110 6112 3
111 4
135 8
137 9
136 8
162 11
165 4
164 1
9 10
111 11 113 9
112 10
137 6
139 7
138 6
165 1
167 7
166 4
9 12 6
113 5115 3
114 4
139 4
141 6
140 4
167 3
169 9
168 6
9 15
114 11 116 9
115 9
141 1
143 3
142 2
169 5
172
170 8
9 17 6
116 5118 3
117 3
142 11
145 1
144
171 7
174 2
172 10
10
117 I0|ll9 9
118 9
144 9
146 11
145 10
173 9
176 5
176 1
246
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
KJ
.
COi <t-<MlO'3lCO' lOCMrH^t*
SJq, 030
'
r- c T^ is c c '
oooo o<
^(M^O^C
i 03 O I
i OS -^1 00
r^^o"
1 I 1 I !t C^C
'JOOiOiOOlgOOOOOOOOCDC
>ioioc2ao^oooo<Maot-ooooooc
coSSSrtSSSrHS 05000050 * ''*' 0003
* aSuScc *<'Gii-*oa>aot^'tDeDtotorfmeaa*
t(M I
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!5!SS
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGERS. 247
TABLES
Of the Discharge of Gas, in Cubic Feet per Hour, through Pipes of
various Diameters and Lengths, at different Pressures.
By THOMAS G. BARLOW. Extended by THOMAS NEWBIGGING.
(The specific gravity of the gas is taken at 0-4, air being 1.)
The tables are calculated according to the formula given by Professor
Pole in his valuable article * " On the Motion of Fluids in Pipes,"
viz. :
Q = quantity of gas in cubic feet per hour.
I = length of pipe in yards.
d diameter of pipe in inches.
h = pressure in inches of water.
s = specific gravity of gas, air being 1 .
Q = 1350 d 2 V ^
i.e., multiply the pressure in inches of water by the diameter of the
pipe, also in inches. Divide the product by the specific gravity of the
gas multiplied by the length of the pipe in yards. Extract the square
root of the quotient, which root, multiplied by the constant quantity
1350, and the square of the diameter of the pipe in inches, gives the
number of cubic feet discharged in one hour.
EXAMPLE. It is required to find the number of cubic feet of gas of
the specific gravity of -400, which will be discharged in one hour from
a pipe 8 inches in diameter, and 1250 yards in length, under a pressure
of 15-10ths, or 1 inches head of water.
Thus (A d) = 8 X 1-5 = 12.
( Y = - 12 \ = -024, the square root being = -1549.
% s / '4 X 12oO/
( 1350 <P\/^-j) = 1350 x 64 x -1549 = 13,383 cubic feet = Q.
* See " King's Treatise," Vol. II., p. 374, et seq.
NBWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Diameter of Pipe, 0*5 Inch.
Length in yards.
10.
20.
30.
50.
75.
100.
150.
Quantity delivered
with 0-1 in. pressure.
37-7
26-7
21'7
16-8
13-8
11-9
9-7
0-2
53-4
37-7
30-6
23-8
19-5
16-8
13-8
0-3
65-2
46-3
37-7
29-1
23-8
20-7
16-8
0-4
75-2
53-3
43-2
33-7
27-6
23-8
19-6
0-5
84'3
59-4
48-6
87-4
30-7
26-7
21-7
0-6
92-1
66-1
53-3
41-1
33-7
29-0
23-8
0-8 "
106-7
75-4
61 '4
47-5
38-8
33-7
27-4
i-o
119-1
84-3
68-8
53-3
43-2
37-7
80-8
1-2
130-6
92-1
75-2
58-3
47-5
41-1
83-7
1-5
146-1
103-2
84-3
65-1
53-3
45-9
37-8
1-8 "
159-9
113-0
92-1
71-6
68-3
50-6
41-1
2-0
168-7
119-1
97-2
76-2
61-4
53-3
43-5
2-5
188-6
133-3
108-6
84-3
68-8
59-4
48-6
Diameter of Pipe, 0*75 Inch.
Length in yards.
10.
20.
30.
60.
75.
100.
150.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
104-3
73-8
60-0
46-6
37-9
32-9
26-9
0-2
147-5
104-3
84-9
65-8
53-7
46-6
37-9
0-3
179-9
126-8
104-3
80-9
65-8
57-0
46-6
0-4
207-3
146-5
119-9
93-2
75-9
65-8
53-8
0-6
232-3
164-0
133-6
103-2
84-2
73-8
60-0
0-6
254-3
179-9
146-5
113-9
92-6
79-7
65-3
0-8
293-8
207-3
169-3
131-3
107-0
92-6
75-9
i-o
328-8
232-3
189-8
146-5
119-9
103-2
84-2
1-2
359-9
254-3
207-3
160-9
131-3
113-9
92-6
1-5
402-4
284-0
232-3
179-9
146-5
126-8
103-2
1-8
441-1
311-3
254-3
192-2
160-9
138-9
113-9
2-0
464-7
328-8
268-0
207-3
169-3
146-5
119-9
2-5
519'4
367-5
299-9
232-2
189-8
164-0
133-6
Diameter of Pipe, 1 Inch.
Length in yards.
10.
20.
30.
50.
75.
100.
150.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
214-0
151-0
124-0
95-0
78-0
67-0
55-0
0-2
302-0
214-0
175-0
135-0
110-0
95
78-0
0-3
368-5
260-6
214-0
165 -a
135-0
117-0
95-0
0-4
426-6
301-0
245-7
190-0
156-0
135-0
110-0
0-5
476-6
337-5
274-0
213-3
172-8
151-0
123-0
0-6
522-4
368-5
301-0
233-5
190-3
164-7
135-0
0'8
603-4
426-6
348-3
270-0
220-0
190-3
155-2
1-0
675-0
476-5
388-8
301-0
245-7
213-3
172-8
1-2
738-4
522-4
426-6
329-4
270-0
233-5
190-3
1-6
826-2
584-6
476-5
368-5
801-0
260-5
213-3
1-8
904-6
639-9
622-4
405-0
329-4
286-2
233-6
2-0
964-4
675-0
650-8
426-6
348-3
301-0
245-7
2-5
1,066-6
754-6
615-6
476-5
388-8
337-5
274-0
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Diameter of Pipe, 1-25 Inches.
Length in yards.
25.
50.
75.
100.
150.
200.
800.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
236-0
167-0
137-0
118-0
96-0
84-0
68-0
0-2
333-0
236-0
192-0
167-0
137-0
118-0
96-0
0-3
407-1
289-0
236-0
205-0
167-0
144-0
118-0
0-4
470-3
333-2
272-1
236-0
192-0
167-0
137-0
0-5
527-3
371-2
303-7
263-6
215-1
187-0
152-0
0-6
575-8
407-1
333-2
286-8
235-8
203-9
166-6
0-8
666-5
470-3
383-9
333-2
272-1
235-8
192-3
1-0
744-6
527-3
430-3
371-2
303-7
263-6
215-1
1-2
816-3
575-8
470-3
407-1
333-2
286-8
235-8
1-5
913-3
645-4
527-3
455-6
371-2
322-7
263-6
1-8
999-8
706-4
575-8
499-9
407-1
352-2
286-8
2-0
1,054-6
744-6
607-5
527-3
430-3
371-2
803-7
2-5
1,179-1
833-2
679-2
588-5
480-9
415-5
339-6
Diameter of Pipe, 1-5 Indies.
Length in yards.
as.
50.
75.
100.
150.
200.
800.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
374-0
264-0
215-0
187-0
152-0
132-0
107-0
0-2
528-0
374-0
304-0
264-0
215-0
187-0
152-0
03
643-9
458-0
374-0
322-0
264-0
229-0
187-0
0-4
741-1
525-4
428-2
374-0
304-0
264-0
215-0
0-5
829-2
586-2
479-9
413-1
339-5
295-0
239-0
0-6
911-2
643-9
525-4
455-6
370-5
321-9
261-2
0-8
1,050-9
741-1
607-5
525-4
428-2
370-5
303-7
1-0
1,175-5
829-2
677-3
586-2
479-9
413-1
339-5
1-2
1,287-9
911-2
741-1
643-9
525-4
455-6
370-5
1-5
1,439-7
1,017-5
829-2
719-8
586-2
607-2
413-1
1-8
1,576-4
1,114-7
911-2
789-1
643-9
555-8
455-6
2-0
1,661-5
1,175-5
959-8
829-2
677-3
586-2
479-9
2-5
1,858-9
1,315-2
1,072-2
929-4
759-3
656-1
534-6
Diameter of Pipe, 2 Inches.
Length in yards.
50.
75.
100.
150.
200.
300.
500.
Quantity delivered
with 0-1 in. pressure.
540
441
381
311
270
220
170
0-2
763
623
540
441
381
311
241
03
934
763
665
540
468
381
296
0-4
1,080
880
761
623
540
441
341
0-5 ,
1,204
983
853
697
604
492
381
0-6
1,318
1,080
934
761
659
540
416
0-8
1,523
1,242
1,080
880
761
621
481
1-0
1,706
1,393
1,204
983
853
697
640
12
1,868
1,523
1,318
1,080
934
761
589
1-5
2,090
1,706
1,474
1,204
1,042
853
659
1-8
2,290
1,868
1,620
1,318
1,145
934
724
2-0
2,414
1,971
1,706
1,393
1,204
983
761
2-5
2,700
2203
1,906
1,555
1,350
1,102
853
250
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Diameter of Pipe, 2'5 Inche*.
Length in yards.
50.
75.
100.
150.
200.
300.
500.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
943
770
667
545
471
335
298
0-2
1,335
1,090
943
770
667
545
421
0-3
1,628
1,335
1,172
943
819
667
516
0-4
1,882
1,540
1,333
1,090
943
770
596
0-5
2,109
1,721
1,485
1,215
1,055
861
667
0-6
2,303
1,882
1,628
1,333
1,148
943
731
0-8
2,666
2,177
1,882
1,540
1,333
1,088
844
1-0
2,978
2,430
2,109
1,721
1,485
1,215
943
1-2
3,265
2,666
2.303
1,882
1,628
1,333
1,029
1-5
3,653
2,978
2^582
2,109
1,823
1,485
1,148
1-8
3,999
3,265
2,827
2,303
2,000
1,628
1,266
2-0
4,219
3,443
2,978
2,430
2,109
1,721
1,333
2-5
4,717
3,848
3,333
2,717
2,354
1,924
1,485
Diameter of Pipe, 3 Inches.
Length in yards.
100.
150.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in pressure.
0'2
1,054
1,440
859
1,214
666
942
471
666
384
543
333
471
298
375
0-3
1,823
1,487
1,153
815
666
576
529
0-4
2,102
1,713
1,332
942
768
666
596
0-5
2,345
1,920
1,482
1,054
859
744
666
0-6
2,576
2,102
1,628
1,152
942
815
739
0-8
2,965
2,430
1,882
1,324
1,081
942
845
1-0
3,317
2,709
2,102
1,482
1,215
1,052
942
11
3,645
2,965
2,296
1,628
1,324
1,152
1,030
11
4,070
3,317
2,576
1,823
1,482
1,288
1,152
11
4,459
3,645
2,819
1,993
1,628
1,409
1,262
2-0
4,702
3,839
2,965
2,102
1,713
1,482
1,324
2-5
5,261
4,289
3,317
2,345
1,920
1,652
1,482
Diameter of Pipe, 4 Inches.
Length in yards.
100.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in pressure.
2,160
1,366
966
788
683
611
557
0-2
3,054
1,932
1,366
1,114
966
864
788
0-8
3,737
2,366
1,673
1,366
1,183
1,058
966
0-4
4,320
2,722
1,932
1,576
1,366
1,222
1,114
0-5
4,817
3,046
2,160
1,761
1,526
1,366
1,245
0-6
5,270
3,346
2,354
1,932
1,672
1,496
1,366
0-8
6,091
3,845
2,722
2,225
1,932
1,728
1,576
1-0
6,826
4,320
3,046
2,484
2,160
1,932
1,761
11
7,474
4,730
3,346
2,722
2,354
2,115
1,922
11
8,359
5,270
3,737
3,046
2,635
2,354
2,160
1-8
9,158
5,789
4,082
3,346
2,894
2,592
2,354
2-0
9,655
6,091
4,320
3,521
3,046
2,722
2,484
2-5
10,800
6,826
4,817
3,931
3,413
3,046
2,786
GAS ENGINEER AND MANAGERS.
251
Diameter of Pipe, 5 Inches.
Length in yards.
100.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
3.540
2,245
1,587
1,296
1,122
1,000
910
0-2
,5,005
3,174
2,245
1,832
1,587
1,414
1,296
0-3
6,514
3,888
2,748
2,245
1,943
1,732
1,575
0-4
7,526
4,759
3,174
2,592
2,245
2,000
1,820
0-5
8,438
5,333
3,773
2,888
2,508
2,236
1,934
0-6
9,214
5,839 i 4,118
3,174
2,748
2,449
2.245
0-8
10,665
6,750 1 4,759
3,881
3,174
2,828
2,596
1-0
11,914
7,526 I 5,333
4,354
3,773
3,174
2,877
1-2
13,061
8,235 1 5,839
4,759
4,118
3,679
3,375
1-5
14,614
9,214 I 6,514
5,333
4,590
4,118
3,540
1-8
15,998
10,125
7,156
5,839
5,063
4,523
4,118
2-0
16,875
10,665 7,526
6,143
5,333
4,759
4,354
2.5
18,866
11,914
8,438
6,885
5,940
5,333
4,860
Diameter of Pipe, 6 Inches.
Length in yards.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
I7r>o.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
3,770
2,660
2,170
1,680
1,680
1,530
1,420
0-2
5,320
3,770
3,130
2,660
2,370
2,170
2,010
0'3
6,530
4,620
3,770
3,270
2,920
2,660
2,460
0-4
7,540
5,320
4,340
3,770
3,360
3,060
2,840
0'5
8,408
5,970
4,860
4,210
3,770
3,430
3,180
0-6
9,185
6,512
5,320
4,620
4,130
3,770
3,460
0-8
10,643
7,528
6,124
5,320
4,740
4,340
4,020
1-0
11,858
8,408
6,853
5,929
5,320
4,860
4,500
1-2
13,025
9,185
7,528
6,512
5,832
5,297
4,929
1-5
14,580
10,303
8,408
7,290
6,512
5,970
5,500
1-8
15,941
11,275
9,185
7,970
7,139
6,512
6,026
2-0
16,816
11,858
9,720
8,408
7,528
6,853
6,360
2-5
18,808
13,268
10,838
9,380
8,408
7,679
7,096
Diameter of Pipe, 7 Inches.
Length in yards.
250.
500. j 750.
1000.
1250.
1500. | 1750.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
5,560
3,920 3,200
2,780
2,470
2,270
2,100
0-2
7,840
5,560 4,510
3,920
3,500
3,200
2,960
0-3
9,600
6,800 5,560
4,800
4,300
3,920
3,640
0'4
11,120
7,840 6,400
5,560
4,940
4,540
4,200
. 0-5
12,370
8,750 ! 7,180
6,200
5,560
5,060
4,680
0-6
13,554
9,585 i 7,840
6,800
6,080
5,560
5,130
0-8
15,611
11,047 i 8,996
7;840
7,020
6,400
5,930
1-0
17,463
12,370 i 10,054
8,732
7,840
7,180
6,610
1-2
19,170
13,554 ; 11,047
9,585
8,533
7,805
7,210
1-5
21,433
15,148 12,370
10,716
9,585
8,750
8,120
1-8
23,477
16,597 13,554
11,709
10,452
9,855
8,864
2-0
24,740
17,463 j 14,288
12,370
11,047
10,054
9,360
2'5
27,651
19,567 15,942
13,825
12,370
11,292
10,452
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Diameter of Pipe, 8 Inches.
Length in yards.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
Quantity delivered
with 0-1 in. pressure.
0-2
7,760
10,940
5,470
7,760
4,470
6,310
3,880
5,470
3,460
4,880
3,160
4,470
2,920
4,130
0-3 "
13,400
9,450
7,760
6,700
5,980
5,470
5,050
0-4
15,520
10,940
8,940
7,760
6,920
6,320
5,840
0-5
17,280
12,200
9,900
8,640
7,760
7,020
6,520
0-6
18,922
13,383
10,940
9,450
8,480
7,760
7,150
0-8
21,851
15,379
12,614
10,940
9,780
8,940
8,260
1-0
24,365
17,280
14,083
12,182
10,940
9,900
9,237
1-2
26,767
18,922
15,379
13,383
11,923
10,886
10,109
1-6
29,894
21,082
1Y.280
14,947
13,383
12,200
11,300
1-8
32,746
23,155
18,922
16,330
14,602
13,383
12.355
2-0
34,560
24,365
19,872
17,280
15,379
14,083
13,040
2-5
38,621
27,302
22,291
19,267
17,280
15,725
14,602
Diameter of Pipe, 9 Inches.
Length in yards.
250.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
10,400
7,380
6,350
5,200
4,650
4,250
3,950
0-2
14,760
10,400
8,500
7,380
6,480
6,000
5,620
0-3
18,000
12,780
10,400
9,000
8,300
7,380
6,800
0-4
20,800
14,760
12,700
10,400
9,300
8,500
7,900
0-5
23,182
16,500
13,420
11,900
10,400
9,680
8,800
0-6
25,369
17,933
14,760
12,780
11,400
10,400
9,650
0-8
29,306
20,667
16,938
14,760
13,100
12,000
11,050
1-0
32,805
23,182
18,918
16,403
14,760
13,420
12,380
1-2
35,867
25,369
20,667
17,933
16,064
14,653
13,559
1-5
40,131
28,409
23,182
20,011
17,933
16,500
15,200
1-8
43,959
31,055
25,369
21,979
19,683
17,933
16,621
2-0
46,364
32,805
26,681
23,182
20,667
18,918
17,600
2-5
51,332
36,632
29,853
25,916
23,182
21,105
19,574
Diameter of Pipe, 10 Incites.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
2000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
9,560
7,800
6,750
6,050
5,520
5,100
4,780
0-2
13,500
11,040
9,560
8,520
7,800
7,300
6,750
0'3
16,500
13,500
11,700
10,520
9,560
8,850
8,259
0'4
19,120
15,600
13,500
12,100
11,040
10,200
9,560
0-5
21,300
17,400
15,050
13,500
12,380
11,400
10,650
0-6
23,355
19,120
16,500
14,800
13,500
12,500
11,650
0-8
27,000
22,005
19,120
17,050
15,600
14,400
13,500
1-0
30,105
24,570
21,330
19,120
17,400
16,150
15,060
1-2
32,940
27,000
23,355
20,911
19,035
17,550
16,578
1-5
36,855
30,105
26,055
23,355
21,300
19,600
18,500
1-8
40,500
32,940
28,620
25,515
23,355
21,600
20,250
2-0
42,660
34,830
30,105
27,000
24,570
22,800
21,300
2-5
47,655
38,880
83,750
30,105
27,540
25,501
23,760
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
253
Diameter of Pipe, 12 Inches.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
2000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
0-2
15,100
21,400
12,300
17,400
10,700
15,100
9,550
13,450
8,700
12,300
8,050
11,350
7,550
10,700
0-3
26,100
21,400
19,500
16,500
15,100
13,880
13,050
0-4
30,200
24,600
21,400
19,100
17,400
16,100
15,100
0-6
33,600
27,500
23,800
21,400
19,440
18,050
16,800
0-6
36,741
30,200
26,100
23,300
21,400
19,800
19,500
0-8
42,573
34,603
30,200
26,900 '
24,600
22,700
21,400
1-0
47,433
38,880
33,631
30,200
27,500
25,450
23,800
1-2
52,099
42,573
36,741
32,853
30,112
27,799
26,049
1-6
58,320
47,433
41,212
36,741
33,600
31,250
29,250
1-8
63,763
52,099
45,100
40,396
36,741
34,020
31,881
2-0
67,262
54.820
47,433
42,573
38,880
36,100
33,600
2-5
75,232
61,430
53,071
47,433
43,351
40,240
37,519
Diameter of Pipe, 14 Inches.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
2000.
Quantity delivered.
with O'l in. pressure.
22.100
18,100
15,600
13,950
12,750
11,800
11,050
0-2
31,200
25,500
22,100
19,800
18,100
16,700
15,600
0-3
38,400
31,200
27,100
24.250
22,100
20,500
19,200
0-4
44,200
36,200
31,200
27,900
25,500
23,600
22,100
0-5
49,400
40,400
35,000
31,200
28,500
26,460
24,700
0-6
54,216
44,200
38,400
34,300
31,200
28,900
27,100
0-8
62,445
51,067
44,200
39,600
36,200
33,400
31,200
1-0
69,854
57,153
49,480
44,200
40,400
37,300
35,000
1-2
76,681
62,445
54,216
48,421
44,188
40,986
38,340
MS
85,730
69,854
60,593
54.216
49,400
45,700
42,600
1-8
93,906
76,681
66,414
59,270
54,216
50,009
46,834
2-0
98,960
80,703
69,854
62,445
57,153
52,920
49,400
2-5
110,602
90,228
78,268
69,854
63,768
59,005
55,301
Diameter of Pipe, 15 Indies.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
2000.
Quantity delivered.
with O'l in. pressure.
26,300
21,400
18,600
16,600
15,200
14,000
13,150
0'2
37,200
30,400
26,300
23,500
21,400
19,900
18,60d
0'3
45,500
37,200
32,250
28,750
26,300
24,300
22,750
0'4
52,600
42,800
37,200
33,200
30,400
28,000
26,300
0-5
58,700
48,000
41,600
37,200
34,000
31,400
29,350
0-6
64,395
52,600
45,500
40,700
37,200
34,450
32,250
0'8
74,115
60,750
52,600
47,000
42,800
39,800
37;200
1-0
82,923
67,736
58,623
52,600
48,000
44,400
41,600
1-2
91,125
74,115
64,395
57,408
52,548
48,600
45,562
11
101,756
82,923
71,983
64,395
58,700
54,300
50,800
1-8
111,476
91,125
78,914
70,470
64,395
59,535
55,586
2'0
117,551
95,985
82,923
74,115
67,736
62,800
58,700
2-5
131,523
107,223
92,947
82,923
75,937
70,166
65,610
254
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Diameter of Pipe, 16 Inches.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1250.
1500.
1750.
2000.
Quantity delivered.
with O'l in. pressure.
0-2
31,000
43,700
25,250
35,700
21,850
31,000
19,550
27,700
17,850
25,250
16,550
23,400
15,500
21,850
0-3
53,600
43,700
38,100
34,000
31,000
28,700
26,800
0'4
62,000
50,500
43,700
39,100
35,700
33,100
31,000
0-5
69,120
56,600
49,000
43,700
39,900
37,150
34,560
0-6
75,686
62,000
53,600
47,900
43,700
38,100
40,700
0-8
87,402
71,193
62,000
55,400
50,500
46,800
43,700
ro ,,
97,459
79,488
69,120
62,000
56,600
52,400
49,000
1-2
107,066
87,402
75,686
67,703
61,516
57,024
53,533
1-5
119,577
97,459
84,326
75,686
69,120
63,900
60,100
1-8
130,982
107,066
92,620
82,944
75,686
70,087
65,318
20
138,240
112,665
97,459
87,402
79,488
74,300
69,120
2'5
154,483
126,144 109,209
97,459
89,164
82,598
77,068
Diameter of Pipe, 18 Inches.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1500.
2000.
2500.
8000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
41,400
33,800
29,400
23,900
20,700
18,400
16,900
0-2
58,800
47,800
41,400
33,800
29,400
26,200
23,900
0-3
71,800
58,800
50,800
41,400
35,900
32,100
29,400
0'4 ,
82,800
67,600
58,800
47,800
41,400
36,800
33,800
0-5
92,600
75,700
65,600
53,500
46,300
41,400
37,850
0-6
101,476
82,800
71,800
58,800
50,800
45,400
41,400
0-8
117,223
95,790
82,800
67,600
58,800
52,300
47,800
1-0
131,220
106,725
92,728
75,700
65,600
58,800
53,500
1-2
143,467
117,223
101,476
82,668
71,733
64,254
58,611
1-5
161,400
131,220
113,636
92,728
80,000
71,800
65,600
1-8
175,834
143,467
124,221
101,476
87,917
78,732
71,733
2-0
185.457
151,340
131,220
106,725
92,728
82,800
75,700
2-5
207,327
169,273
146,529
119,410
103,663
92,728
84,500
Diameter of Pipe, 20 Inches.
Length in yards.
500.
750.
1000.
1500.
2000.
2500.
3000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
54,000
44,000
38,250 i 31,200
27,000
24,200
22,000
0'2
76,500
62,400
54,000 i 44,000
38,250
34,200
31,200
0-3
93,500
76,500 66,100 54,000
46,750
41,800
38,250
0-4
108,000
88,000 76,500 62,400
54,000
48,400
44,000
0-5
120,500
98,800 85,300
69,800
62,250
54,000
49,400
0-6
131,760
108,000 93,500
76,500
66,100
59,100
54,000
0-8
152,280
124,200
108,000 ! 88,000
76,500
68,400
62,400
1-0
170,640
139,320 120,420 98,800
85,300
76,500
69,800
1-2
1-5
186,840
208,980
152,280 131,760 | 108,000
170,640 ! 147,420 120,420
93,420
102,300
83,646
93,500
76,140
85,300
1'8
228,960
186,840 1 162,000 131,760
114,480
102,060
93,420
2-0
241,380
197,100 i 170,640 139,320
120,420
108,000
98,800
2-5
270,000
220,320 | 190,620
155,520
135,000
120,420
110,200
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
255
Diameter of Pipe, 22 Inches.
Length in yards.
500. | 750.
1000.
1500.
2000.
2500. 3000.
Quantity delivered
|
with O'l in. pressure.
68,600 i 56,000
48,400
39,600
34,300
30,700
28,000
0-2
96,800 79,200
68,600
56,000
48,000
43,400
39,600
0-3
118,800 96,800
84,000
68,600
59,400
53,300
48,400
0'4
137,200 i 112,000
96,800
79,200
68,600
61,400
56,000
0-5
153,500 ! 122,500
108,200
88,600
76,800
68,400
61,200
0-6
168,577 137,200
118,800
96,800
84,000
75,000
68,600
0-8
193,406 158,122
137,200
112,000
96,800
86,500
79,200
i-o
216,275 176,418
152,895
122,500
108,200
96,800
88,600
1-2
237,184 i 193,406
168,577
136,560
118,265
105,850
96,703
1-5
265,280 ' 216,275
187,525 ! 152,895
132,000
118,800
108,200
1-8
290,697 i 237,184
203,860
168,577
145,054
130,026
118,265
2-0
306,444 1 249,598
216,275 | 176,418
152,895
137,200
122,500
2'5
342,381 279,655
242,280
197,326
171,190
152,895
140,000
Diameter of Pipe, 24 Inches.
Length in yards.
.500.
750.
1000.
1500. 2000.
2500.
8000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
84,000
68,600
59,500
48,500 42,000
37,500
34,300
0-2
119,000
97,000
84,000
68,600 59,500
53,400
48,500
0-3
145,500
119,000
103,000
84 000 72,700
65,200
59,500
0-4
168,000
137,200
119,000
97,000 : 84,000
75,000
68,600
0-5
187,500
155,000
135,600
108,600 ! 93,800
84,000
77,500
0-6
208,396
168,000
145,000
119,000 ' 103,000
92,000
84,000
0'8
240,900
196,655
168,000
137,200 119,000
106,000
97,000
1-0
269,049
219,283
189,734
155,000 135,600
119,000
108,600
1-2
294,710
240,900
208,396
170,294 : 146,966
131,414
120,450
1-5 i 329,702
269,049
233,280
189,734 : 163,000
145,500
135,600
1-8 360,806
294,710
255,052
208,396 ! 180,403
161,585
146,966
2-0 ! 380,946
311,040
269,049
219,283 ' 189,734
168,000
155,000
2'5
425,347
347,587 300,931
245,721 ! 212,284
189,734
172,000
Diameter of Pipe, &6 Inches.
Length in yards.
750.
1000.
1500.
2000.
2500.
8000.
4000.
Quantity delivered
with O'l in. pressure.
85,000
73,500
60,000
52,000
46,500
42,500
36,750
0-2
120,000
104,000
85,000
73,500
65,800
60,000
52,000
03
147,000
127,000
104,000
90,000
80,600
73,500
63,500
0-4
170,000
147,000
120,000
104,000
93,000
85,000
73,500
0-5
189,000
165,000
134,000
116,000
104,000
94.-500
82,500
0-6
208,000
180,000
147,000
127,000
114,000
104,000
90,000
0-8
240,013
208,000
170,000
147,000
132,000
120,000
104,000
1-0
268,304
232.621
189,000
165,000
147,000
134,000
116,000
1-2
293,857
254,615
208,072
179,782
160,617
146,928
126,851
1-5
328,536
284,731
232,621
201,000
180,000
165,000
142,000
1-8 ,
360,385
312,109
254,615
220,666
197,121
179,782
156,054
2-0
379,641
328,536
268,304
232,621
208,000
189,000
165,000
2-5
424,359
367,777
300,245
260,091
232,621
213,000
184,000
3-0
465,334
402,456
328,536
284,731
254,615
232,621
201,000
266
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Diameter of Pipe, 28 Inches.
Length in yards.
1000.
1500.
2000.
2500.
3000.
4000.
5000.
Quantity delivered
with 0'5 in. pressure.
198,000
161,000
140,000
125,000
114,500
99,000
88,600
06
216,866
176,752
153,362
136,533
124,891
107,956
96,314
08
249,782
204,271
176,752
157,701
143,942
124,891
111,978
i-o.
280,000
229,000
198,000
177,000
161,000
140,000
125,000
1-2
306,724
249,782
216,866
193,687
176,752
153,362
136,533
1-5
342,921
280,000
241,000
216,000
198,000
171,000
153,500
1-8
375,626
306,724
265,658
237,081
216,866
187,336
167,227
20
395,841
322,812
280,000
250,000
229,000
198,000
177,200
2-5
442,411
360,914
313,074
280,000
255,000
222,000
198,000
3-0
484,747
395,841
342J921
306,724
280,000
241,000
216,000
Diameter of Pipe, 80 Inches.
Length in yards.
1000.
2000.
8000.
4000.
5000.
7500.
10000.
Quantity delivered
with 0'5 in. pressure.
234,000
166,000
135,000
117,000
105,000
86,000
74,500
0-6
257,580
182,250
148,230
128,790
115,182
94,041
81,405
0-8
296,460
210,195
171,315
148,230
132,435
108,135
94,041
i-o
332,000
234,000
192,000
166,000
149,000
121,500
105,000
1-2
364,500
257,580
210,195
182,250
162,810
132,435
115,182
1'5
407,025
287,000
234,000
203,000
182,000
149,000
128,500
1-8
445,905
315,657
257,580
222,345
199,260
162,810
140,940
2-0
470,205
331,695
270,000
234,000
210,000
172,000
149,000
2-5*
526,095
371,790
303,750
263,000
234,000
192,000
166,000
3-0
575,910
407,025
331,695
287,955
257,000
210,000
182,000
4-0
664,605
470,205
383,940
331,695
298,000
243,000
210,000
Diameter of Pipe, 86 Inches.
Length in yards.
1000.
2000.
3000.
4000.
5000.
7500.
10000.
Quantity delivered
with 0'5 in. pressure.
370,915
262,440
213,451
185,457
165,862
135,419
117,223
0-6
405,907
286,934
234,446
202,953
181,783
148,366
127,720
0-8
468,892
330,674
271,013
234,446
209,952
171,285
148,366
i-o
530,000
370,000
303,000
265,000
234,000
192,000
166,000
12
573,868
405,907
330,674
286,934
257,016
209,952
181,783
1-5
642,103
456,000
372,000
322,000
288,000
234,900
204,000
1-8
703,339
496,886
405,907
351,669
314,928
257,016
222,199
2-0
741,830
524,880
428,000
372,000
332,000
271,000 1 234^000
2-5
829,310
586,116
477,640
416,000
372,000
303,000 ! 265,000
3-0
908,042
642,103
524,880
454,546
407,000
332,000
288,000
4-0
1,049,760
742,180
605,361
524,880
468,892
384,000
332,000
The foregoing tables are calculated upon the basis of the specific
gravity of the gas being 400. The quantity of gas of any other specific
gravity discharged may be ascertained by multiplying the quantity
indicated in the table by -6325 (the square root of -400), and dividing
by the square root of the specific gravity of the other gas.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS.
267
EXAMPLE. If a 12-inch pipe, 1000 yards long, discharges 28, 800 cubic
feet of gasper hour, specific gravity -400 at -5 in. pressure, how much
gas will the same pipe discharge, at the same pressure, when the
specific gravity is -560?
23,800 x -6325
7483
= 20,116 cubic feet. Answer.
The quantity of gas discharged at any other pressure ma"y be ascer-
tained by multiplying the quantity indicated in the table by the square
root of the new pressure, and dividing by the square root of the
original pressure.
EXAMPLE. If a quantity of gas equal to 23,355 cubic feet is dis-
charged in one hour at a pressure of 1-2 inches, what quantity will be
discharged through the same pipe at 2- 2 inches pressure ?
28.85SX1-4882 _
1-0954
To facilitate these calculations, tables are annexed of the square
roots of specific gravities from -350 to -700, rising -005 at a time ; and
of the square roots of pressures from l-10th of an inch to 4 inches,
rising l-10th at a time.
TABLE.
Square Root of the Specific Gravity of Gas from '350 to -700.
Specific
Gravity.
Square
Root.
Specific
Gravity.
Square
Root.
Specific
Gravity.
Square
Root.
Specific
Gravity.
Bgtuuce I Specific
Root. Gravity.
Square
Root.
350
5916
425
6519
495
7035
565
7517
635
7969
355 '5958
430
6557
500
7071
570
7549 -640
8000
-360
6000
435
6595
505
7106
575
7583 j -645
8031
365
6041
440
6633
510
7141
580
7616
650
8062
370
6083
445
6671
515
7176
585
7648
655
8093
375
6124
450
6708
520
7212
590
7681
660
8124
380
6164
455
6745
525
7246
595
7713
665
8155
385 -6205
460
6782
530
7280
600
7746
670
8185
390 '6245 j -465
6819
535
7314
605
7778
675
8216
395
6285 1 -470
6856
540
7348
610
7810
680
8246
400 -6325
475
6892
545
7382
615
7842
685
8276
405 ' -6364
480
6928
550
7416 '
620
7874
690
8306
410
6403
485
6964
555
7449
625
7905
695
8337
415
6442
490
7000
560
7488
630
7937
700
8387
420
6481
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE.
Square Hoot of Pressures, rising by Tenths of an Inch, from One-Tenth
Four Inches.
Inches and
Tenths.
Square
Root.
Inches and
Tenths.
Square
Root.
Inches and
Tenths.
Square
Root.
l-10th.
3162
l-5-10ths.
2251
2-8-10ths.
1-6733
2-10ths.
4472
1-6
., '2649
2-9
1-7029
3
6477
1-7
3038
3 inches.
1-7320
4
6324
i-s ;
3416
8-l-10th.
7606
5
7071
1-9
3784
3-2-lOths.
7888
6
7745
2 inches.
4142
3-3
8165
7
8366
2-l-10th.
4491
3-4
8439
8
8944
2-2-lOths.
4832
3-5
8708
?inch.
9487
1-0000
2-3
2-4 ;
5165
5491
3-6
3-7
8973
9235
l-l-10th.
1-0488
2'5
5811
3-8
9493
l-2-10ths.
1-0954
2-6
1-6123
3-9
9748
1-3
1-1401
2'7
1-6431
4 inches.
2-0000
1-4
1-1832
Should it be required to find the pressure in inches of water to
discharge a certain quantity of gas of given specific gravity in an
hour, through a pipe the dimensions of which are known, the formula
is
(1350) 2 d 5
i.e., multiply the square of the number of cubic feet of gas to be dis-
charged hi one hour by the specific gravity of the gas, and by the
length of the pipe in yards ; divide the product by the square of the
constant number 1350, multiplied by the diameter in inches raised to
the fifth power, and the quotient is the pressure.
EXAMPLE. It is required to find the pressure in inches of water to
discharge in an hour 12,000 cubic feet of gas, specific gravity '5,
through a pipe 8 inches in diameter and 1900 yards long. Then
Q 2 x s x l_ 144,000,000 x -5 x 1900 136,800,000,000 _ j 2-3 ins.
1350 2 xd 5 ~ 1,822,500x32,768 X 59,719,68~0700CT~ { nearly.
If the diameter of a pipe is required which will discharge a given
quantity of gas under a given pressure, we have the formula
y Q*77
= V
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
This can easily be calculated by a table of logarithms thus
log. d = i (2 log. Q. + log. s. + log. 1. - 2 log. 1850 + log.h.)
EXAMPLE. It is required to find the diameter of a pipe 1240 yards
long, to discharge 48,000 cubic feet of gas, of the specific gravity -4, in
one hour, with a pressure of 2 inches. Then
2 log. Q = 2 log. 48,000 . . . = 9-8624824
log. s = log. -4 ..... = 1-6020600
log. 1. = log. 1240 . . . . = 3-0934217
12-0579641
2 log. 1350 = 6-2606676 } _ 6 . 5616976
log. h = log. 2 = 0- 3010300 [ '
5 ) 5-4962665
log. d ...... . . = 1-0992533
Therefore d = 13 inches, nearly.
The following axioms are worth remembering :
1. The discharge of gas will be doubled when the length of the
pipe is only one-fourth of any of the lengths given in the tables.
2. The discharge of gas will be only one-half when the length of
the pipe is four times greater than the lengths given in the tables.
8. The discharge of gas will be doubled by the application of four
times the pressure.
Handy Piule for finding (approximately) the Content of a Pipe in
Gallons and Cttbic Feet.
RULE. Multiply the square of the diameter of the pipe in inches
by the length in yards, and divide by 10 for gallons, and by 60 for
cubic feet.
EXAMPLE. A pipe is 6 in. diameter and 400 yards long, what is the
content? then
240 cubic feet.
260 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
SERVICE -PIPES AND FITTINGS.
In the term Service-pipes are included all pipes branching out of the
mains to the consumers' meters, and for the supply of public and
private lamps, &c.
Leakage or unaccounted-for gas is due more to defects in Service-
pipes than to all the other causes combined. The leaks are chiefly
caused in the pipe by corrosion, or at its junction with the main.
Such being the case, it is clear that the utmost care should be de-
voted to the habilitation and maintenance of this portion of the dis-
tributory plant.
Service-pipes are of cast-iron, wrought-iron, and lead. The use of
cast-iron pipes for this purpose is, as a general rule, confined to the
supply of gas to large establishments, where the diameter of the pipe
exceeds 2 inches. The smaller sizes are too fragile to bear the over-
head traffic, and the number of joints is objectionable. Such Ser-
vices as are of less bore than 3 inches are usually of wrought-iron,
or lead.
Wrought-iron pipes or tubes are chiefly employed for Services.
They can be obtained of any convenient length, and are easily and
expeditiously fixed.
Wrought-iron tubes and fittings, such as tees, bends, elbows,
ferrules, sockets, &c., should be perfectly cylindrical, with no ribs or
flat places, and internally as smooth as possible. The welding
should be scarcely discernible from the other parts, and the screw
should be equally deep throughout the thread.
In laying wrought-iron pipes, the coupling or socket at the end,
and which is supplied along with the pipe, should always be removed,
the thread painted with red or white lead paint, and then replaced.
Lead pipes have their advantages, though they require more care
in laying ; and to prevent their sagging in the ground, wood lags
have to be placed underneath them throughout their length.
On the other hand, they can be laid with fewer joints ; the only
jointing places being the connections with the main and the meter,
unless the premises to be supplied are beyond the ordinary distance
from the main. When taken up, also, to be renewed, the old metal
is of more value than old iron.
All Service -pipes, whether of wrought-iron or lead, when laid in the
ground, should be protected from the oxidizing influences of the soil,
moisture, and air, by being encased in a u -shaped or V-shaped channel
of wood or other material, filled, after the pipe has been laid therein,
with a mixture of hot pitch and tar. This prolongs their life in-
definitely, and prevents leakage, and consequently is well worth the
trifling extra cost and trouble entailed.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
The tinning or galvanizing . of the surface of wrought-iron pipes
adds greatly to their durability when laid in sandy soil impregnated
with saline matter.
The Barff-Bower process of covering iron with a thin layer of
oxide to protect it from corrosion, either in the soil or when exposed
to the atmosphere, is peculiarly valuable as applied to wrought-iron
tubes and fittings, and deserves to be universally adopted.
Mains should be drilled, not cut with a chisel, for the insertion of
Service pipes. The full sectional thickness of the metal is thus pre-
served, and the hole is a true circle in form.
Mr. Upward's drilling apparatus secures immunity from leakage in
attaching the Service -pipe to the main ; and it is easily applied and
used.
All Service-pipes should, if possible, be laid with a slight fall to the
main to admit of the condensed moisture draining away thereto.
When the pipe is of great length, and a continuous inclination to the
main is impracticable, a small drip-well, commonly called a bottle-
syphon (Fig. 96 on page 268) should be attached at the lowest point.
FIG. 95.
The Service-cleanser of Messrs. D. Hulett and Co. (Fig. 95) is . ex-
ceedingly useful for removing water and other obstructions from
Service-pipes.
It is not possible always to see whether a wrought-iron Service-
pipe is worn out or not, unless it is taken up out of the ground. The
under part of the pipe will often be found completely oxidized, when
the upper surface is sound and good. The rust forms a shell, which
crumbles on being disturbed, but when untouched is sufficient to
prevent the immediate escape of gas. '
All abrupt angles, such as square elbows, whether in mains, Services,
or internal fittings, owing to the resistance they offer to the regular
and even flow of the gas, act as condensers, and diminish the available
pressure. Their use should, therefore, be discarded wherever practi-
cable ; bends or round elbows being much more preferable. For the
same reason the internal surface of pipes should be a? smooth as
262
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
possible. No pipe should be put in use without careful examination,
and the removal of all existing roughnesses.
2-inch cast-iron pipes as mains,
i-inch wrought-iron pipes as Services, and
-inch lead or composition pipes for internal supply, should be
utterly abandoned.
The first are a grievous source of direct leakage, owing to breakages
at their junction with the Service-pipes; the whole three, if used to
any great extent, entail high initial pressure, which is synonymous
with a heavy leakage account.
If the distance from the main to the meter does not exceed 30
yards, the following sizes of Service-pipes will supply the number of
lights named :
1 to 10 lights (consuming say 4 c. ft. per hour each)
11 80
31 60
61 120
121 200 ,
The above s zes allow for partial contraction of the area of the pipe
by corrosion or deposition.
Wrought-iron
Tube.
. | inch.
TABLE.
Weight per Foot of Wrought-iron Tubing
For Gas, Water, and Steam.
\
GAS.
WATER.
STEAM.
Internal
Diameter.
Weight
per Foot.
Internal
Diameter.
Weight
per Foot.
Internal
Diameter.
Weight
per Foot.
Inches.
!
Lbs. Ozs.
14}
1 5}
1 15
Inches.
i
Lbs. Ozs.
15
1 7}
2 1
Inches.
1
1
1
Lbs. Ozs.
15}
1 8
2 3}
11
2
2}
2 10
3 2}
4 6}
5 10}
f
2}
2 14
3 9
4 14
6 4
li
?
2}
4
5 8
7
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLE.
Weight of Wrought-Iron Gas Tubes and Fittings.
Size.
Tubes.
Fittings.
Weight per
100 feet.
Weight per
1000 feet.
Weight of
10 Elbows.
Weight of
10 Tees.
Weight of
10 Crosses.
Cwts. Qrs. Lbs.
Tons. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs.
Lbs. Ozs.
Lbs. Ozs.
Lbs. Ozs.
1
010
0220
1 1
1
1 8
i
1 14
0330
1 7
1 8
1 14
i
026
0524
1 13
2 4
2 3
i
3 6J
8 9J
2 15
3
3 4
|
1 22J
12 1
4 6
5 4
5 11
1
1 2 26
17 1 8
6 4
7 10
9 2
1J
2 1 11
1 3 1 26
10 10
12 15
14 11
if
237
1 8 14
15 8
16 7
18 10
11
3 12
1 11 8
15 12
20
21 4
2
3 3 21
1 19 1 14
22 6
27
31 4
2J
4 26
2218
30 2
32 8
41 4
91
505
2 10 1 22
46 2
50 15
51 4
it
5 1 19
2 14 22
55 10
68 8
80 10
3
6 20
3134
73 8
85 5
88 12
3J
7 1 14
3 13 3
101
121
129
4
820
4500
126
144
158
TABLE.
Pitch of the Whitworth Taps and Dies for Gas Tubing.
Internal
Diameter of
Pipe.
External
Diameter of
Pipe.
Number of
Threads per
Inch.
Internal
Diameter of
Pipe.
External
Diameter of
Pipe.
Number of
Threads per
Inch.
i
385
28 2
2-347
11
1
520
19 2fr
2-467
11
665
19
2i
2-587
11
J
882
14
21
2-794
11
1
1-034
14
2i
3-001
11
1
1-302
11
2
3-124
11
H
1-492
11
2f
3-247
11
it
1-650
11
21
3-367
11
il
1-745
11
3-485
11
ij
1-882
11
3i
3-698
11
H
2-021
11
Si
3-912
11
il
2-047
11
8f
4-125
11
U
2-245
11 4
4-339
11
Uniformity in the screws or threads of Service-pipes and fittings is
greatly to be desired, a large proportion of the leakage being due to
the want of this. The screwed joint may be too slack, in which
264 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
case leakage often follows ; on the other hand, when a socket is
too small to receive the screwed end of a pipe, instead of running
the tap into the one, or the dies over the other, careless workmen
are often content to let the joint pass, provided they succeed in getting
a single thread to bite. The natural settlement of the ground, the
traffic over the surface, or the first keen frost, disjoints the connection
and an escape follows.
To Calculate the Required Size of Service -Pipes.
The following table gives the theoretical diameter required for
pipes which have to supply a certain number of burners at distances
from the street main. The table is calculated by the formula
<( = >y /I a being the same as that used in the determination
of the quantities of gas delivered by large pipes.
As, however, the actual discharge from small pipes is less than the
calculated quantity, the tabular number must be increased by one-
third if the Service-pipe is of lead, and by one-half if of wrought-iron.
When of the latter material, it is not advisable to put in the ground a
pipe of less than f -inch in diameter.
EXAMPLE of the Manner of Using the Table. Supposing there are
40 lights to be supplied, at the distance of 70 feet from the main, the
tabular number opposite 70 and under 40 is 73540. To this add
one-third if a lead service, making -98053, and one-half if a wrought-
iron service, making 1-10310. The sizes of pipes next above the
numbers are 1 inch and 1J inch respectively, and these are the sizes
required.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
265
TABLE
Showing the Diameter of Pipes, in Decimals of an Inch, to Supply Lights
at Certain Distances from the Main.
Number of Lights, each Burning Five Feet per Hour, with
Distance of
Lights from Main in
Feet.
a Pressure of One Inch.
3.
5.
10.
15. 20.
25.
30.
5
15457
17682
19176
20311
22027
23331
24396
25302
26094
26802
27439
28023
30391
32191
33660
34901
18882
21691
23524
24916
27020
28620
29927
31024
32010
32876
33660
34377
37281
39489
41291
42825
24912
28617
31034
32872
35649
37760
39483
40950
42231
43375
44408
45354
49185
52098
54476
56507
29424
33660
36504
38666
41932
44415
46441
48167
49675
51255
52235
53348
57054
61281
64077
66457
32876
37765
40956
43381
47045
49830
52105
54041
55733
57241
58606
59854
64909
68753
71891
74561
35946
41291
44779
47429
51438
54483
56970
59086
60936
62585
64077
65442
70970
75173
78604
81523
38824
44415
48167
51019
55329,
58605
61280
63556
65546
67011
68925
70393
76339
80860
84550
87691
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
150
200
250
800
Distance of
Lights from Main in
Feet.
Number of Lights, each Burning Five Feet per Hour, with
a Pressure of One Inch.
40.
50.
100.
150.
200.
300.
5 ....
10
15 .
43381
49832
54041
57241
62076
65753
68753
71307
73540
75530
77331
78978
85649
90720
94862
98389
"47430
54484
59086
62585
67872
71891
75172
77928
80405
82582
84550
86351
93688
99191
1-0371
1-0757
62577
71881
77954
82571
89546
94848
99177
0286
0608
0895
1155
1394
2356
3088
3685
1-4197
73911
83775
91693
97123
0533
1156
1665
2099
2478
2874
3121
3400
4532
5393
6095
6693
82581
94862
0288
0897
1817
2517
3089
3574
3999
4378
4721
5035
6305
7270
8058
8729
97525
1157
2099
2815
3898
4721
5393
5965
6464
6910
7313
1-7681
1-9175
2-0311
2-1238
2-2540
20 .
30
40 .
50 . . . . . .
60
70
80
90
100 ...
150
200
250 ....
300 .
266
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
PRICE LIST OF WROUGHT-
No.
1
2
3
4
5
g
INTERNAL DIAMETEB. INCHES.
Tubes, 2 to 14 feet long, per foot .
Pieces, 12 to 23J inches long, each .
Do. 3 to 115 .
Longscrews, 12 to 23 J ,, .
3 to 115 .
Bends
i
s. d.
2
4
2
5
4
55
i
s. d.
25
5
3
7
5
(.i*
I
s. d.
3
7
4
9
6
7
i
s. d.
4J
9
6
11
8
8
*
s. d.
6
1
8
1 2
10
11
1
s. d.
8J
1 4
11
1 6
1
1 3
789
Springs, not Socketed. . . .
% 4
5
6
7
9
11
10 11
12
13
14
16
Socket Union (10), Pipe Do. (11) .
Elbows, Wrought-Iron . . . .
Tees . . . .
Crosses . . . .
Plain Sockets
>
o"e
6
10
15
2
6*
6J
1
15
2 (5
7
7
1
2
3
8
9
1 5
3
4
10
1
1 9
35
5 6
1 2
1 3
2 3
4
16
Diminished Sockets
3
n 4
n 5
6
7
17
8
9
10
1
1 2
1 4
18 19
Caps (18) Plugs (19)
2
3
3
4
5
6
20 21
22
Backnuts (20, Nipples (21) . . .
1
2
2 6
2
3
3
3 9
35
5
4
6 3
23
Bound Elbows, Wrought-Iron . .
7
7
8
9
1
1 4
24
S
27
28
29
Iron Main Cocks
Do. with Brass Plugs .
Bound Way Iron Cocks ....
Do. with Brass Plugs .
Cock Spanners, Wrought-Iron . .
Do. Malleable Cast-Iron .
2 8
2 3
2 9
4 6
3 6
5
1
7
3 6
5 6
4
6 6
1 4
8
4 6
7 6
5 6
9
1 8
10
6 6
10 6
7 6
13
2
1 2
30
Syphon Boxes 1 Quart .
11
12
13
31
32 i
Do. 2 . . . .
Do. 3 ! . . . .
16
20
17
22
33
34
Do. 4 . . . .
Malleable Cast Bound Elbows . .
o"e
o"65
0"7
o"s
21
10
23
1 2
(35) Tongs or Nippers, (86) Stocks, Dies, and Taps, at prices as
quoted by the manufacturer.
If Tubes are required to be of longer length than 14 feet, they are
charged at the next higher rate.
Tubes of intermediate diameters charged at the price of the next
larger size.
Springs ; if socketed, sockets added at list prices.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
267
IRON TUBING AND FITTINGS, &o.
If
If
If
2
2
|
2f
3
I
4
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
B. d.
s. d.
s. d.
B. d.
s. d.
B. d.
s. d.
11
1 2
1 6
1 9
2 7
3 3
4
4 6
5 6
7
1 8
2
2 6
3
4 6
6 3
7 6
9
11 6
14 6
1 1
1 4
2
2 3
4
4 9
6
7
8
9
2
2 6
3 3
4
5 6
7
8 6
10
12 6
15 6
1 3
2
2 6
3
4 6
5 6
6 6
7 6
8 6
10
1 9
2 3
3 3
4 3
6 6
10
12
16
25
32 6
1 4
1 8
2 6
3 3
5 6
7 6
10
12
19
26
6 9
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
22
28
1 9
2 3
3
3 6
5 6
8 6
11
14
22
28
1 9
2 6
3
3 9
6
9 6
12 6
16 6
24
30
3
3 6
4 6
5 3
10 6
16
21
30
42
50
6
7
9
1
1 6
2 6
3
3 6
5
6
9
11
1113
2
3
4
5
7
9
1 6
1 9
2026
3 9
5
6 9
8 6
10
11 6
8
10
10 13
2
2 6
3 6
4 9
70 10
6
8
10 1
1 9
2 3
3
3 6
4666
8 6
10
11 6 13 6
16
19
22
25
80 i 36
1 11
2 6
3 4 3 10
6 6
10
13
16
25 32
8 6
11
14
18
27
36
44
50
75
90
15
19 6
25
32
47
60
90
110
140
190
10
13
17 6
22
38
54
62
70
100
160
19
28
36
42
60
85
105
120
180
280
2 4
3
3 6
4
4 9
6
7 6
9
12
14
1 8
2 2
2 9
3 3
4 9
6
7 6
9
12
14
14
15
15 6
16
18
..
..
18
19
21
23
25
30 "0
35"0
40"0
24
25
26 6
28
32
35
40
45
50"0
56"0
25
27
29
31
34
38
42
47
54
60
1 9
2 3
3
3 6
5 6
9
12
15
30
40
Discount
Gas tubes and fittings, per cent.
Galvanized do. do.
Steam and water do. do .
Galvanized do. do.
Iron Cocks over 2 inches at special discounts.
368
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
PUBLIC LIGHTING.
The height of a lamp pillar or column (Fig. 98), measured from
the surface of the ground to the centre of the flame, should not exceed
10 feet.
A f -inch or even a -inch lead pipe is not suitable for placing in
the interior of a lamp column. In cold districts, in winter, the con-
densed moisture in a pipe of this small bore becomes frozen, filling up
the entire length with solid ice in a very short space of time. This
is probably due to the wavy irregularities in the pipe preventing the
water from draining rapidly away.
Galvanized wrought-iron pipe is best for lamp columns, and for
placing against a wall for the supply of a bracket lamp ; and -inch
is the smallest size that should be used. In situations exposed to
cutting winds, and where the frost is keen, f-inch wrought-iron pipes
are best.
If the service-pipe at the entrance to the base of a lamp column has
not very ample fall to the main, the water of condensation, unable
to drain quickly away, will inevitably be frozen at that point during
frost, and, by accretion, will eventually interrupt the passage of the
gas.
It is not unusual to find one-half the public lights in some districts
extinguished at night when a severe frost prevails. This is simply
due to mismanagement, as it would not occur if attention were paid
to the matters indicated above.
Seventy yards is the maximum distance apart at which public
lamps should be placed.
A new and entirely novel form of Lamp Post (Fig. 97), has been intro-
duced by J. and J. Braddock. It consists of four 1 -inch wrought-iron
tubes, held together at three points, in addition to the base, by cast-iron
binders, one of the tubes being used as the service-pipe for conveying
the gas to the burner. Panels may be fixed at the foot, or it can be
left open, as desired. No ladder-arm is required, as the tubes, on any
side, form a square support for a ladder to rest against. The tubes
are continued down through the visible base, and are screwed into a
cast-iron plate underground. Altogether, the post has a neat appear-
ance, and, owing to its lightness under 2 cwt. and the ease with
which it can be taken to pieces and set up again, it is specially adapted
for export.
The ordinary four-sided lamp is the most serviceable for general use.
It is 14 inches square at the widest part, and made of tinned
copper.
The street lamps designed by Mr. Sugg (Fig. 99) and Mr. Bray
(Figs. 100 and 101), with clusters of flat-flame burners, and the lamp
270
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
and regenerative burner of Herr F. Siemens (Fig. 102) have much
improved the lighting of streets and squares wherever they have
been introduced ; and have proved, at the same time, that efficient
FIG. 97.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
271
street illumination by means of gas is perfectly attainable where
there is a willingness on the part of towns' authorities to incur the
expense.
The earlier street lamps were constructed with opaque reflecting
tops, and the glazed tops were afterwards introduced as an improve-
FIG. 99.
FIG. 100.
ment. When the whole of the light is reflected downwards, the fronts
of the houses, except for a short space above the height of the lamp
column, are placed in a state of utter darkness, and to passengers
FIG. 101.
FIG. 102.
walking along the streets the gloomy canopy overhead, rendered all
the more sombre and distressing from the concentrated light under-
neath, has an unearthly and depressing effect.
272
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
On the other hand, where the main thoroughfares of a large town
are lighted with the capacious lamps recently introduced, with semi-
transparent crowns, admitting of the radiation of a portion of the light
on the house fronts, the perfection of street lighting is attained as near
as possible.
The square at the bottom of a lamp is generally in two or three
parts, one of them being hinged on the outer edge, for raising when
the lamp is being lighted by the pole. It is a common occurrence to
find a portion of the bottom missing altogether, and the flame, thus
exposed to the action of the wind, is in a state of constant oscillation,
whereby much of the illuminating power of the gas is sacrificed.
The supply of gas to public lamps is usually fixed at 5 cubic feet
per hour for common gas up to 17 candles value ; for cannel gas up
to 30 candles value, the supply per hour varies from 3 to 4 cubic
feet.
Satisfactory public lighting, as between gas companies and local
authorities, is best secured by the adoption of a good average meter
system, and the application of a regulator to every lamp.
Weight and Thickness of Glass for Public Lamps,
No. of the Glass
059
063
071
077
083
091
or uie w, Thickness
^u^oT Seeing an in
21 .
100
24 .
111
26 .
125
32 .
154
36 .
167
42 .
200
Rule to find the Length of Day and Night.
Day. The hour of sunset, doubled, is the length of the day.
Night. The hour of sunrise, doubled, is the length of the night.
The Moon's Eising and Setting.
At 4 days old, the Moon sets about 10 o'clock at night
At 5
At 6
At 7
At 15
At 16
At 17
At 18
At 19
At 20
the Moon rises
11
12 ;; ;;
1 o'clock in the morning.
6 in the evening.
8J
10 at night.
11
12
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
273
* 1
s- o
1
a
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Sg
iSg
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S-S"
si
oS
fl m
ll
ll
jo sjnojj jo
t-iO^OOrH - C*l "<# AQ C
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g2 I .^C^rHQOD^-lOCOCrsOC^^iO
81
3a;ning jo
STOOJJ jo noi^B
5i-(Cl5lOI>
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274
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Mic
Q
mmer
ter.
Lady-Day
Quarter.
uaqrae^deg
"jsnSny
qcuispi
*;
o %
H
<M 00 CO
<M oq <M eq <M <M co oooo
COOSCNOOOi-ITMt- rHOOlOCN
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ts 02 <N 10 00 rH CM OOThrt
CQ cq <M 10
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f 1 i ) rH CO
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CO SO 00 rH C- O OS t- * r-l
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-:-?- as
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 275
CONSUMERS' GAS METERS.
Gas Meters are either " Wet " or " Dry."
The wet Meter has a measuring wheel or drum enclosed in an
iron case charged with water up to a certain level, called the " water-
line." The drum is divided into compartments similar to the station
Meter; and the measurement and indication, or registration, of the gas
passing through it are performed in the same manner.
The dry Meter has usually a case of tinned iron. This is
divided into compartments by a central partition and two or more
movable diaphragms with prepared flexible leather sides. The gas
enters and leaves these compartments alternately through valves whose
passages are made to open and close at the proper moment. The
alternate expansion and contraction of the inner and outer spaces
(after the manner of the ordinary bellows), by the pressure of the gas.
exerted on the surfaces of the diaphragms, are communicated by levers
and cranks to the wheelwork of the indicators, which are alike in both
classes of Meter.
Meters, as tested under the provisions of the " Sales of Gas Act,
1859," are stamped as correct by the Inspector when their registration
does not vary from the true standard measure of gas more than 2 per-
cent, in favour of the seller, and 3 per cent, in favour of the consumer.
Added together, the range is 5 per cent.
" Compensating " Meters were introduced to overcome the difficulty
caused by the limitation in the range of the water level of wet Meters.
Most of these have a reservoir of water within the case distinct from
the water in which the measuring wheel revolves ; and various auto-
matic expedients are adopted for transferring this water, as long as it
lasts, to the body of the Meter, to compensate for the diminution of
water therein by evaporation or otherwise.
The action of the Warner and Cowan measuring wheel is independent
of the water-line ; the compensation in this instance being effected by
a second and smaller wheel contained within, and revolving with, the
larger one, but having its partitions arranged in the opposite direction.
When a depression occurs in the water-line of a Meter from any cause,
a volume of gas in excess of the true quantity is passed ; but in this
instance the excess in volume of the gas is returned by the smaU wheel
to the Meter inlet to be remeasured.
The Sanders and Donovan Meter is provided with a compensating
hollow float of metal plate, accurately balanced on pivots within the
front portion of the case, and independent of the Meter's action. As
the water is added to or withdrawn, the float rises or sinks in propor-
tion, and thus the correct level is maintained.
T 2
276 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOK
When the drum or measuring wheel of a Meter is driven at a speed
exceeding 120 revolutions per hour (except 2 and 3 lights, when it
may have a speed of 144), it absorbs an undue amount of the avail-
able gas pressure, and its registration is falsified. It is important,
therefore, to see that all Meters fixed are adequate to the supply of the
greatest number of lights in use at one time on the premises of the
consumer.
Mr. Urquhart's " Reliance " Meter and Mr. Hunt's Meter, both of
which are on the compensating principle, though different in character,
are exceptions to the rule above stated, as they measure correctly even
when the measuring wheel is caused-.to revolve at speeds in excess of the
normal rate. This result is obtained by a reverse action, by which the
gas enters through passages in the valve chamber in the body of the
Meter, and thence into the drum, from which it makes its escape
through the bent tube to the outlet. The inlet pressure thus bears
upon nearly the whole surface of the contained water, and the measuring
chambers are practically unaltered in capacity.
It need scarcely be pointed out, however, that anything like a general
resort to the practice of allowing the use of Meters too small for the
consumption except at extraordinary pressures, is a serious evil in
various ways loss by leakage is increased ; the illuminating power of
the gas is practically reduced ; and consumers, whose Meters and
fittings are adequate, suffer by the prevailing high pressure.
One-light Meters, which formerly were extensively employed, are
now altogether inadmissible ; and even two-light Meters should only
be sparingly used. The low price at which gas is sold encourages its
extended consumption ; and the houses are becoming fewer in number
every day where this small size is sufficient to afford an adequate sup-
ply at reasonable pressures, to the quantity of lights in regular use.
The regular periodical inspection of Meters is a point of the utmost
importance, and ought never to be neglected. The indices of Meters
in dwelling-houses, &c., should be noted, and water supplied to the
proper level wherever deficient, at least once every six weeks. The
Meters in mills, manufactories, and large establishments of every kind
where the consumption of gas is heavy, should be inspected for the like
purpose once every 14 days.
The Inspector should always be provided with a supply of leather
washers for the different screws and plugs, to replace any that are
worn out.
Meters in cold and exposed positions should be protected by a suitable
covering during frost, to prevent interruption to the supply of gas by
the water becoming frozen. Woollen rags or wrappings of any kind
will answer the purpose.
The Motive Power Meter is but rarely required ; but it is exceedingly
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
277
useful in certain positions, where the pres-
sure, from some unavoidable cause, is in-
sufficient to afford an adequate supply of
gas. In construction it is like an ordinary
Meter, but instead of the gas pressure being
the motive power, the gas is exhausted from
the main by the measuring wheel. This is
set in motion by a descending weight, at-
tached to which is a cord wound on a drum
revolving in bearings on the top of the Meter
case, the drum being geared to the shaft of
the measuring wheel, which projects
through the back of the case. The speed
of the Meter, and consequently the pres-
. 103. sure of gas obtained, are regulated by the
weight aforementioned. Parkinson's Motive Power Meter is shown
in Fig. 103.
The " Prepayment Gas-Meter " recently introduced, and of which
there are already several different forms, is an ingenious device for
extending the sale of gas amongst small consumers. By the addition
of a simple mechanism contained in a small box attached to the
ordinary wet or dry meter, and on dropping a penny through a slot
therein, a quantity of gas of the value of the penny is allowed to pass
to the burner. When the gas thus paid for is consumed, the supply
ceases until another prepayment is made.
By another arrangement, on prepayment of a given sum say 4d.
for 100 cubic feet an extra dial on the meter is set to pass the
quantity of gas ; and when this is consumed, a valve shuts off the
supply, unless, in the meantime, a further payment has been made,
and the dial is reset.
Testing Meters.
For the verification of gas Meters by a public Inspector under the
" Sales of Gas Act," a somewhat elaborate set of apparatus is required.
For ordinary use in testing Meters in a gas works, the following may
be provided (see Fig. 104) : A standard gasholder of 10 cubic feet capa-
city. A proving bench. An overhead water cistern. A float of lights,
and thermometers for taking the temperature of the air and water.
In testing, it is important to secure uniformity in the temperature
of the air or gas in the test holder, the water in the tank, and the air
in the room viz., 60 Fahr. ; otherwise corrections for varying tem-
perature have to be made.
Place the Meter to be tested on the proving bench, charge it with
water to the proper water-line (if a wet Meter), and connect it with the
holder and to the float of lights (if gas is being used).
278
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
See that the pointer of the small metal drum above the index in the
wet Meter, or of the small circle on the index plate of the dry Meter,
coincides with one of the figures marked thereon. If it does not,
pass a small quantity of gas through till the necessary adjustment is
effected.
Next, fill up the test holder till the line of the scale upon it is
exactly opposite its pointer.
This being done, turn the gas or air on to the Meter, and allow the
Meter to work till the small metal drum has made one or more revolu-
Fio. 104.
tions, taking care to close the stop-cock when the pointer of the drum
is exactly over the figure from which the start was made.
The Meter registration is then compared with that of the holder
scale. If they correspond, the Meter is exactly correct ; but if the
scale on the holder indicates less or more than the small drum on the
Meter, the percentage of error is calculated ; or it can be ascertained
on reference to the Table.
The percentage Tables on the following pages are taken from those
issued by the Metropolitan Board of Works for the use of their Meter
Inspectors.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLES
Showing the Percentage of Error in Meters according as their Registration
differs from the Indications of the Test Gasholders.
The sign + is used to indicate fast, and to indicate slow.
Meters not exceeding 2 per cent, fast, or 3 per cent, slow, are correct within the
meaning of the " Sales of Gas Act."
Meter Registering
1 Foot.
Meter Registering
2 Feet.
Meter Registering
3 Feet.
Meter Registering
3 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error,
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Foot.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
0'90
+ ll'll
1-80
+ ll'll
2-70
+ 11-11
3-10
- 3-22
91
+ 9-89
81
+ 10-50
71
+ 10-70
11
- 3-54
92
+ 8-70
82
+ 9-89
72
+ 10-30
12
- 3-85
93
+ 7-25
83
+ 9-29
73
+ 9-89
13
- 4-16
94
+ 6-36
84
+ .8-70
74
+ 9-49
14
- 4-46
95
+ 5-26
85
+ 8-11
75
+ 9:09
15
- 4-76
96
+ 4-17
86
+ 7-53
76
+ 8-70
16
- 6'Otf
97
+ 3-09
87
+ 6-95
77
+ 8-31
17
- 6-36
98
+ 2-04
88
+ 6-38
78
+ 7-92
18
- 6-66
99
+ 1-01
89
+ 5-82
79
+ 7-53
19
- 5-85
1-00
Nil.
1'90
+ 5-26
2-80
+ 7'14
3-20
- 6'25
01
- i-oo
91
+ 4-71
81
+ 6-76
21
- 6-54
02
- 1-97
92
+ 4-17
82
+ 6-38
22
- 6-82
03
- 2-92
93
+ 3-63
83
+ 6-01
23
- 7-12
04
- 3-85
94
+ 3-09
84
+ 5-63
24
- 7'4l
05
- 4-74
95
+ 2-56
85
+ 5-26
25
- 7-70
06
- 5-66
96
+ 2-04
86
+ 4-89
26
- 7-98
07
- 6-54
97
+ 1-52
87
+ 4-53
27
- 8'26
08
- 7-40
98
+ 1-01
88
+ 4-17
28
- 8-54
09
- 8-26
99
+ 0-50
89
+ 3-81
29
- 8-82
1-10
- 9-10
2-00
Nil.
2-90
+ 3-45
3-30
- 9-09
11
- 9-91
01
- 0-50
91
+ 3-09
31
- 9'3li
12
- 10-07
02
- 0-99
92
+ 2-74
32
- 9-64
03
- 1-48
93
+ 2-39
33
- 9-91
04
- 1-96
94
+ 2-04
34
- 10-18
05
- 2-44
95
+ 1-69
06
- 2-91
96
+ 1-35
07
- 3-38
97
+ 1-01
08
- 3-85
98
+ 0-67
09
- 4-31
99
+ 0-33
2-10
- 4-76
3-00
Nil.
11
- 5-21
01
- 0-33
12
- 5-66
02
- 0-66
13
- 6-10
03
- 0-99
14
- 6-54
04
- 1-32
15
- 6-98
05
- 1-64
16
- 7-41
06
- 1-96
17
- 7-83
07
- 2-28
18
- 8-26
08
- 2-60
19
- b-68
09
- 2-91
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Meter Registering
5 Feet.
Meter Registering
5 Feet.
Meter Registering
5 Feet.
Meter Registering
10 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
4-50
+ ll'll
5-02
- 0-40
5-54
- 9-75
9-00
+ 11-11
51
+ 10-86
03
- 0-60
55
- 9-91
01
+ 10-99
62
+ 10-62
04
- 0-79
56
- 10-07
02
+ 10-86
53
+ 30-38
05
- 0-99
57
- 10-23
03
+ 10-74
54
+ 10-13
06
- 1-19
-. '58
- 10-39
04
+ 10-62
55
+ 9-89
07
- 1-33
59
- 10-55
05
+ 10-50
56
+ 9-65
08
- 1-57
5-60
- 10-71
06
+ 10-38
57
+ 9-41
09
- 1-77
61
- 10-87
07
+ 10-25
58
+ 9-17
5-10
- 1-96
62
- 11-03
08
+ 10-13
59
+ 8-93
11
- 2-15
63
- 11-19
09
+ 10-01
4-60
+ 8-70
12
- 2-34
9-10
+ 9-89
61
+ 8-46
13
- 2-53
11
+ 9-77
62
+ 8-23
14
- 2-72
12
+ 9-65
68
+ 7-99
15
- 2-91
13
+ 9-53
64
+ 7-76
16
- 3-10
14
+ 9-41
65
+ 7-53
17
- 3-29
15
+ 9-29
66
+ 7-30
18
- 3-47
16
+ 9-17
67
+ 7-07
19
- 3-66
17
+ 9-05
68
+ 6-84
5-20
- 3-85
18
+ 8-93
69
+ 6-61
21
- 4-03
19
+ 8'81
4-70
+ 6-38
22
- 4-21
9-20
+ 8-70
71
+ 6-16
23
- 4-40
21
+ 8-58
72
+ 5-93
24
- 4-58
22
+ 8-45
73
-f 5-71
25
- 4-76
23
+ 8'34
74
+ 5-49
26
- 4-94
24
+ 8-23
76
+ 5-26
27
- 5-12
25
+ 8-11
76
+ 5-04
28
- 5-30
26
+ 7-93
77
+ 4-82
29
- 5-48
27
+ 7-87
78
+ 4-60
5-30
- 5-66
28
+ 7'76
79
+ 4-38
31
- 5-84
29
+ 7-64
4-80
+ 4-17
32
- 6-02
9-30
+ 7-53.
81
+ 3-95
33
- 6-19
31
+ 7-41
82
+ 3-73
34
- 6-37
32
+ 7-30
83
+ 3-52
35
- 6-54
33
+ 7-18-
84
+ 3-31
36
- 6-72
34
+ 7-07
85
+ 3-09
37
- 6-89
35
+ 6-95
86
+ 2-88
38
- 7-06
36
+ 6-84
87
+ 2-67
39
- 7-24
37
+ 6-72
88
+ 2-46
5-40
- 7-41
38
+ 6-61
89
+ 2-25
41
- 7-58
39
+ 6-50
4-90
+ 2-04
42
- 7-75
9-40
+ 6-38
91
+ 1-83
43
- 7'92
41
+ 6-27
92
+ 1-63
44
- 8-09
42
+ 6-16
93
+ 1-42
45
- 8-26
43
+ 6-04
94
+ 1-21
46
- 8-42
44
+ 5-93
95
+ 1-01
47
- 8-59
45
+ 5-82
96
+ 0-81
48
- 8-76
46
+ 5-71
97
+ 0-60
49
- 8-93
47
+ 5-60
98
+ 0-40
5-50
- 9-09
48
+ 5-49
99
+ 0-20
51
- 9-26
49
+ 5-37
6-00
Nil.
52
- 9-42
9-50
+ 5-26
01
- 0-20
53
- 9-59
51
+ 5-15
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
281
Meter Registering
10 Feet.
Meter Registering
10 Feet.
Meter Registering
10 Feet.
Meter Registering
10 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
9-52
+ 5-04
10-04
- 0-40
10-56
- 5-30
11-08
- 9-75
53
+ 4-93
05
- 0-50
57
- 5-39
09
- 9-83
54
+ 4-82
06
- 0-60
58
- 5'48
11-10
- 9-91
55
+ 4-71
07
- 0-70
59
- 5-57
11
- 9-99
56
+ 4'60
08
- 0-79
10-60
- 5-66
12
- 10-07
57
+ '49
09
- 0-89
61
- 5-75
13
- 10-15
58
+ '38
10-10
- 0-99
62
- 5-84
14
- 10-23
59
+ -28
11
- -09
63
- 5-93
15
- 10-31
9-60
+ -17
12
- '19
64
- 6-02
16
- 10-39
61
+ '06
13
- -28
65
- 6-10
; 17
- 10-47
62
+ 3-95
14
- -38
66
- 6-19
18
- 10-55
63
+ 3-84
15
- -48
67
- 6-28
19
- 10-63
64
+ 3-73
16
- '57
68
- 6-37
11-20
- 10-71
65
+ 3-63
17
- '67
69
- 6-45
21
- 10-79
66
+ 3-52
18
- -77
10-70
- 6-54
22
- 10-87
67
+ 3-41
19
- 1-86
71
- 6-63
23
- 10'95
68
+ 3-31
10-20
- 1-96
72
- 6-72
24
- 11-03
69
+ 3-20
21
- 2-06
73
- 6-80
25
- 11-11
9-70
+ 3-09
22
- 2-15
74
- 6-89
71
+ 2-99
23
- 2-25
75
- 6-98
72
+ 2-88
24
- 2-34
76
- 7-06
73
+ 2-77
25
- 2-44
77
- 7-15
74
+ 2-67
26
- 2-53
78
- 7-24
75
+ 2-56
27
- 2-63
79
- 7-32
76
+ 2-46
"28
- 2-72
10-80
- 7-41
77
+ 2-35
29
- 2-82
81
- 7-49
78
+ 2-25
10-30
- 2-91
82
- 7-58
79
+ 2-15
31
- 3-01
83
- 7-66
9-80
+ 2-04
32
- 3-10
84
- 7-75
81
+ -94
33
- 3-19
85
- 7-83
1
82
+ -83
34
- 3-29
86
- 7-92
83
+ -73
35
- 3-38
87
- 8-00
84
+ -63
36
- 3-47
88
- 8-09
85
+ -52
37
- 3-57
89
- 8-17
86
+ '42
38
- 3-66
10-90
- 8-26
87
+ -32
39
- 3-75
91
- 8-34
88
+ -21
10-40
- 3-85
92
- 8-42
89
+ -11
41
- 3-94
93
- 8-51
9-90
+ -01
42
- 4-03
94
- 8-59
91
-f 0'9l
43
- 4-12
95
- 8-68
92
+ 0-81
44
- 4-21
96
- 8-76
93
+ 0-70
45
- 4-31
97
- 8-84
94
-f 0'60
46
- 4-40
98
- 8-93
95
+ 0-50
47
- 4-49
99
- 9-01
96
+ 0-40
48
- 4-58
11-00
- 9-09
97
+ 0-30
49
- 4-67
01
- 9-18
98
+ 0-20
10-50
- 4-76
02
- 9-26
99
+ o-io
51
- 4'85
03
- 9-34
10-00
Nil.
52
- 4-94
04
- 9-42
01
- 0-10
53
- 5-03
05
- 9-51
02
- 0-20
54
- 5-12
06
- 9-59
03
- 0-30
55
- 5-21
07
- 9-67
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Meter Registering
20 Feet.
Meter Registering
20 Feet.
Meter Registering 1 Meter Registering
20 Feet. 20 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading 1
f Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
>er Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
18-00
+ 11-11
18-52
+ 7-99
19-04
+ 5-04
19-56
+ 2-25
01
+ 11-05
63
+ 7-93
05
+ 4-98
67
+ 2-20
02-
h 10-99
54
+ 7-87
06
+ 4-93
68
+ 2-15
03
+ 10-92
55
+ 7-82
07
+ 4-87
69
+ 2-09
04
+ 10-86
56
+ 7-76
08
+ 4-82
19-60
+ 2-04
05
+ 10-80
57
+ 7-70
% '09
+ 4-76
61
+ 1-99
06
+ 10-74
68
+ 7-64
19-10
+ 4-71
62
+ 1-94
07
+ 10-68
69
+ 7-59
11
+ 4-65
63
+ 1-88
08
+ 10-62
18-60
+ 7-53
12
+ 4-60
64
+ 1-83
09
+ 10-56
61
+ 7-47
13
+ 4-54
65
+ 1-78
18-10
+ 10-50
62
+ 7-41
14
+ 4-49
66
+ 1-73
11
+ 10-44
63
+ 7-36
15
+ 4-43
67
+ 1-68
12
+ 10-38
64
+ 7-30
16
+ 4-38
68
+ 1-63
13
+ 10-31
65
+ 7-24
17
+ 4-33
69
+ 1-67
14
+ 10-25
66
+ 7-18
18
+ 4-28
19-70
+ 1-52
15
+ 10-19
67
4- 7-13
19
+ 4-22
71
+ 1-47
16
+ 10-13
68
+ 7-07
19-20
+ 4-17
72
+ 1-42
17
+ 10-07
69
+ 7-01
21
+ 4-11
73
+ 1-37
18
+ 10-01
18-70
+ 6-95
22
+ 4-06
74
+ 1-32
19
+ 9-95
71
+ 6-90
23
+ 4-00
75
+ 1-26
18-20
+ 9-89
72
+ 6-84
24
+ 3-95
76
+ 1-21
21
+ 9-83
73
+ 6-78
25
+ 3-89
77
+ 1-16
22
+ 9-77
74
+ 6-72
26
+ 3-84
78
+ I'll
23
+ 9-71
75
+ 6-66
27
+ 3-78
79
+ 1-06
24
+ 9-65
76
+ 6-61
28
+ 3-73
19-80
+ 1-01
25
+ 9-59
77
+ 6-55
29
+ 3-68
81
+ 0-96
26
+ 9-53
78
4- 6-50
19-30
+ 3-63
82
+ 0-91
27
+ 9-47
79
+ 6-44
81
+ 3-57
83
+ 0-86
28
+ 9-41
18-80
+ 6-38
32
+ 3-52
84
+ 0-81
29
+ 9-35
81
+ 6-32
33
+ 3-46
85
+ 0-75
18-30
+ 9-29
82
+ 6-27
34
+ 3-41
86
+ 0-70
31
+ 9-23
83
+ 6-21
35
+ 3-36
87
+ 0'65
32
+ 9-17
84
+ 6-16
36
+ b-31
88
+ 0-60
33
+ 9-11
85
+ 6-10
37
+ 3-25
89
+ 0-55
34
+ 9-05
86
+ 6-04
38
+ 3-20
19-90
+ 0-50
35
+ 8-99
87
+ 6-98
39
+ 3-14
91
+ 0-45
36
+ 8-93
88
+ 6-93
19-40
+ 3-09
92
+ 0-40
37
+ 8-87
*89
+ 5-87
41
+ 3-04
93
+ 0-35
S8
+ 8-81
18-90
+ 5-82
42
+ 2-99
94
f- 0-30
39
+ 8-76
91
+ 5'76
43
+ 2-93
95
-f 0-25
18-40
+ 8-70
92
+ 6'71
44
+ 2-88
96
+ 0-20
41
+ 8-64
93
+ 6-65
45
+ 2-82
97
-f 0-15
42
+ 8-58
94
+ 6-60
46
+ 2-77
98
+ o-io
43
+ 8-62
95
+ 5-54
47
+ 2-72
99
+ 0-05
44
+ 8-46
96
+ C'49
48
+ 2-67
20-00
Nil.
45
+ 8-40
97
+ 6-4
49
+ 2-61
02
- o-io
46
+ 8-34
98
+ 6-3
19-50
+ 2-56
04
- 0-20
47
+ 8-29
99
+ 5-3
51
+ 2-5
06
- 0-30
48
+ 8-23
19-00
+ 6-2
62
+ 2-46
08
- 0-40
49
+ 8-17
01
+ 6-2
63
+ 2-40
20-10
- 0-50
18-50
+ 8-11
02
+ 5-1
54
+ 2-35
12
- 0-60
51
+ 8-05
03
+ 5-09
55
+ 2-3
14
- 0-70
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES.
Meter Registering
20 Feet.
Meter Registering
20 Feet.
Meter Registering
20 Feet.
Meter Registering
80 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
20-16
- 0-79
21-20
- 6-66
22-24
- 10-07
27-00
+ ll'll
18
- 0-89
22
- 6-75
26
- 10-15
02
+ 11-03
20-20
- 0-99
24
- 5-84
28
- 10-23
04
+ 10-95
22
- -09
26
- 5-93
22-30
- 10-31
06
+ 10-86
.24
- -19
28
- 6-02
82
- 10-39
08
+ 10-78
26
- -28
21-30
- 6-10
84
- 10-47
27'10
+ 10-70
28
- -38
32
- 6-19
86
- 10-55
12
+ 10-62
20-30
- -48
84
- 6-28
88
- 10-63
14
+ 10-54
82
- 1-57
86
- 6-37
22-40
- 10-71
16
+ 10-46
34
- 1-67
38
- 6-46
42
- 10-79
18
+ 10-38
36
- 1-77
21-40
- 6-54
44
- 10-87
07-20
+ 10-30
38
- 1-86
42
- 6-63
46
- 10-95
22
+ 10 21
20-40
- 1-96
44
- 6-72
48
- 11-03
24
+ 10-13
42
- 2-06
46
- 6-80
22-50
- 11-11
26
+ 10-05
44
- 2-15
48
- 6-89
2b
+ 9-97
46
- 2-25
21-50
- 6-98
27 'BO
+ 9-89
48
- 2-34
52
- 7-06
32
+ 9-81
20-50
- 2-44
54
- 7-15
34
+ 9-73
52
- 2-53
66
- 7-24
ao
+ 9-65
54
- 2-63
68
- 7-32
38
+ 9-57
56
- 2-73
21-60
- 7-41
27-40
+ 9-49
58
- 2-82
62
- 7-49
42
+ 9-41
0-60
- 2-91
64
- 7-58
44
+ 9-33
62
- 3-01
66
- 7-66
46
+ 9-25
64
- 3-10
68
- 7-75
48
+ 9-17
66
- 3-19
21-70
- 7-83
27-50
+ 9-09
68
- 3-29
72
- 7-92
52
+ 9-01
20-70
- 3-38
74
- 8-00
64
+ 8-93
72
- 3-47
76
- 8-09
56
-f 8-85
74
- 3'67
78
- 8-17
58
+ 8-78
76
- 3-66
21-80
- 8-26
27-60
+ 8-70
78
- 3-75
82
- 8-34
62
+ 8-62
20-80
- 3-85
84
- 8-42
64
+ 8-54
82
- 3-94
86
- 8-51
66
+ 8-46
84
- 4-03
88
- 8-59
68
+ 8-38
86
- 4-12
21-90
- 8-68
27-70
+ 8-31
88
- 4-21
92
- 8-76
72
+ 8-23
20-90
- 4-31
94
- 8-84
74
+ 8-15
92
- 4-40
96
- 8-93
76
+ 8-07
94
- 4-49
98
- 9-01
78
+ 7-99
96
- 4-58
22-00
- 9-09
27-80
+ 7'92
98
- 4-67
02
- 9-18
82
+ 7-84
21-00
- 4-76
04
- 9-26
84
+ 7-76
02
- 4-85
06
- 9-34
86
+ 7-68
04
- 4-94
08
- 9-42
88
+ 7-61
06
- 5-03
22-10
- 9-61
27-90
+ 7-53
08
- 5-12
12
- 9-59
92
+ 7-45
21-10
- 5-21
14
- 9-67
94
+ 7'38
12
- 6-30
16
- 9-75
96
+ 7-80
14
- 5-39
18
- 9-83
98
+ 7-22
16
- 5-48
22-20
- 9-91
28-00
+ 7-14
18
- 5-57
22
- 9-99
02
+ 7-07
281
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Meter Eegistering
30 Feet.
Meter Eegiatering
30 Feet.
Meter Eegistering
30 Feet.
Meter Kegistering
30 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
28-04
+ 6-99
29-08
+ 3-16
30-12
- 0-40
31-16
- 3-72
06
+ 6-92
29-10
+ 3-09
14
- 0-47
18
- 3-79
08
+ 6-84
12
+ 3-02
16
- 0-53
31-20
- 3-85
28-10
+ 6-76
14
+ 2'95
18
- 0-60
22
- 3-91
12
+ 6'69
16
+ 2-88
30-20
- 0-66
24
- 3-97
14
+ 6-61
18
+ 2-81
. -22
- 0-73
26
- 4-03
16
+ 6-53
29-20
+ 2-74
24
- 0-79
28
- 4-09
18
+ 6-46
22
+ 2-67
26
- 0-86
31-30
- 4-16
28-20
+ 6-38
24
+ 2-60
28
- 0-92
32
- 4-22
22
+ 6-31
56
+ 2-53
30-30
- 0-99
34
- 4-28
24
+ 6-23
28
+ 2-46
32
- 1-06
36
- 4'34
26
+ 6-16
29-30
+ 2-39
34
- 1'12
38
- 4-40
28
+ 6-08
32
+ 2-32
36
- 1-19
31-40
- 4-46
28-30
+ 6-01
34
+ 2-25
38
- -26
42
- 4-52
32
+ 5-93
36
+ 2-18
30-40
- -32
44
- -68
34
+ 5-86
38
+ 2-11
42
- -38
46
- -64
36
+ 5-78
29-40
+ 2-04
44
- -44
48
- -70
38
+ 5-71
42
+ 1-97
46
- -61
31-50
- -76
28-40
+ 5-63
44
+ 1-90
48
- -57
62
- -82
42
+ 5-56
46
+ 1-83
30-50
- -64
54
- -88
44
+ 5-49
48
+ 1-76
62
- -71
56
- -94
46
+ 5-41
29-50
+ 1-69
54
- -77
58
- 5-00
48
+ 5-34
62
+ 1-63
56
- -83
31-60
- 5-06
28-50
+ 5-26
64
+ 1-56
58
- -89
62
- 6-12
52
+ 5-19
66
+ 1-49
30-60
- -96
64
- 6-18
64
+ 5-11
58
+ 1-42
62
- 2-02
66
- 5-24
56
+ 5-04
29-60
+ 1-35
64
- 2-09
68
- 6-30
58
+ 4-96
62
+ 1-28
66
- 2-15
31-70
- 6-36
28-60
+ 4-89
64
+ 1-21
68
- 2-22
72
- 6-42
62
+ 4-82
66
+ 1-14
30-70
- 2-28
74
- 6-48
64
+ 4-75
68
+ 1-08
72
- 2-34
76
- 6-54
66
+ 4-67
29-70
+ 1-01
74
- 2-40
78
- 5-60
68
+ 4-60
72
+ 0-94
76
- 2-47
31-80
- 6-66
28-70
+ 4-53
74
+ 0-88
78
- 2-53
82
- 6-72
72
+ 4-45
76
+ 0-81
30-80
- 2-60
84
- 6-78
74
+ 4-38
78
+ 0-74
82
- 2-66
86
- 5-84
76
+ 4-31
29-80
+ 0-67
84
- 2-72
88
- 6-90
78
+ 4-24
82
+ 0-60
86
- 2-78
31-90
- 6-96
28-80
+ 4-17
84
+ 0-53
88
- 2-85
92
- 6-02.
82
+ 4-10
86
+ 0-47
30-90
- 2-91
94
- 6-08
84
+ 4-02
88
+ 0-40
92
- 2-97
96
- 6-13
86
+ 3-95
29-90
+ 0-33
94
- 3-04
98
- 6-19
88
+ 3-88
92
+ 0-26
96
- 3-10
32-00
- 6-25
28-90
+ 3-81
94
+ 0-20
98
- 8-16
02
- 6'31
92
+ 3-73
96
+ 0-13
31-00
- 3-22
04
- '6-37
94
+ 3-66
98
+ 0-07
02
- 3-29
06
- 6-42
96
+ 3-59
30-00
Nil.
04
- 3-35
08
- 6-48
98
+ 3-62
02
- 0-07
06
- 3-42
32-10
- 6-64
29-00
+ 3-45
04
- 0-13
08
- 3-48
12
- 6-60
02
+ 3-38
06
- 0-20
31-10
- 3-64
14
- 8-66
04
+ 3-31
08
- 0-27
12
- 3-60
16
- 6-72
06
+ 8-24
30-10
- 0-33
14
- 3-66
18
- 6-77
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Meter Registering
80 Feet.
Meter Registering
30 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
i Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
32-20
- 6-83
33-24
- 9-75
36-00
+ 11-11
37-04
+ 7-99
22
- 6-89
26
- 9-81
02
+ 11-05
06
+ 7-93
24
- 6-95
28
- 9-86
04
+ 10-99
08
+ 7-87
26
- 7-01
33-30
- 9-91
06
+ 10-92
37-10
+ 7-82
28
- 7-07
32
- 9-96
08
+ 10-86
12
+ 7-76
32-30
- 7-12
34
- 10-01
36-10
+ 10-80
14
+ 7-70
32
- 7-18
36
- 10-07
12
+ 10-74
16
+ 7-64
34
- 7-24
38
- 10-12
14
+ 10-68
18
+ 7-59
36
- 7-30
33-40
- 10-18
16
+ 10-62
37-20
+ 7-53
38
- 7'36
42
- 10-23
18
+ 10-56
22
+ 7-47
32-40
- 7-41
44
- 10-28
36-20
+ 10-50
24
+ 7-41
42
- 7-47
46
- 10-34
22
+ 10-44
26
+ 7-86
44
- 7-53
48
- 10-39
24
+ 10-38
28
+ 7-30
46
- 7-59
33-50
- 10-45
26
+ 10-31
37-30
+ 7-24
48
- 7-64
52
- 10-50
28
+ 10-25
32
+ 7-18
32-60
- 7-70
54
- 10-55
36-30
+ 10-19
34
+ 7-13
52
- 7-76
56
- 10-61
32
+ 10-13
36
+ 7-07
54
- 7-82
58
- 10-66
34
+ 10-07
38
+ 7-01
56
- 7-87
33-60
- 10-71
36
+ 10-01
37-40
+ 6-95
58
- 7-93
62
- 10-76
38
+ 9-95
42
+ 6-90
32-60
- 7-98
64
- 10-82
36-40
-f 9-89
44
+ 6-84
62
- 8-04
66
- 10-87
42
+ 9-83
46
+ 6-78
64
- 8-10
68
- 10-93
44
+ 9-77
48
+ 6-72
66
- 8-15
33-70
- 10-98
46
+ 9-71
37-50
+ 6-66
68
- 8-21
72
- 11-03
48
+ 9-65
52
+ 6-61
32*70
- 8-26
74
- 11-09
36-50
+ 9-59
54
+ 6-55
72
- 8-32
76
- 11-14
52.
+ 9-53
56
+ 6-50
74
- 8-37
78
- 11-19
54
+ 9-47
58
+ 6-44
76
- 8-43
56
+ 9-41
37-60
+ 6-38
78
- 8-49
58
+ 9-35
62
+ 6-32
32-80
- 8-54
36-60
+ 9-29
64
+ 6-27
82
- 8-60
62
+ 9-23
66
+ 6-21
84
- 8-66
64
+ 9-17
68
+ 6-16
86
- 8-71
66
+ 9-11
37-70
+ 6-10
88
- 8'77
68
+ 9-05
72
+ 6-04
32-90
- 8-82
36-70
+ 8-99
74
+ 5-98
92
- 8-87
72
+ 8-93
76
+ 5-93
94
- 8-93
74
+ 8-87
78
+ 5-87
96
- 8-99
76
+ 8-81
37-80
+ 5-82
98
- 9-04
78
+ 8-76
82
+ 5-76
33-00
- 9-09
36-80
+ 8-70
84
+ 5-71
02
- 9-15
82
+ 8-64
86
+ 5-65
04
- 9-20
84
+ 8-58
88
+ 5-60
06
- 9-26
86
+ 8-52
37-90
+ 5-54
08
- 9-31
88
+ 8-46
92
+ 5-49
33-10
- 9-36
36-90
+ 8-40
94
+ 5-43
12
- 9-42
92
+ 8-34
96
+ 5-37
14
- 9-47
94
+ 8-29
98
+ 5-31
16
- 9-53
96
+ 8-23
38-00
+ 5-26
18
- 9-59
98
+ 8-17
02
+ 5-20
33-20
- 9-64
37-00
+ 8-11
04
+ 6-15
22
- 9-70
02
+ 8-05
06
+ 5-09
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Percent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
88-08
+ 5-04
39-12
+ 2-25
40-16
- 0-40
41-20
- 2-91
88-10
+ 4-98
14
+ 2-20
18
- 0-45
22
- 2-96
12
+ 4-93
16
+ 2-15
40-20
- 0-50
24
- 3-01
14
+ 4-87
18
+ 2-^y
22
- 0-55
26
- 3-06
16
+ 4-82
39-20
+ 2-04
24
- 0'60
28
- 3-10
18
+ 4-76
22
+ 1-99
' -26
- 0-65
41-30
- 3-15
38-20
+ 4-71
24
+ 1-94
28
- 0-70
82
- 3-19
22
+ 4-65
26
+ 1-88
40-30
- 0-75
34
- 3-24
24
+ 4-60
28
+ 1-83
32
- 0-79
36
- 3-29
26
+ 4-54
39-30
+ 1-78
34
- 0-84
38
- 3-34
28
+ 4-49
32
+ 1-73
36
- 0-89
41-40
- 3-38
88-30
+ 4-44
34
+ 1-68
38
- 0-94
- 3-43
32
+ 4-38
36
+ 1-63
40-40
- 0-99
44
- 3-47
84
+ 4-33
38
+ 1-57
42
- 1-04
46
- 3-52
36
+ 4-28
39-40
+ 1-52
44
- -09
48
- 3-57
38
+ 4-1:2
42
+ 1-47
46
- -14
41-50
- 3-61
33-40
+ 4-17
44
+ 1-42
48
- -19
52
- 3-66
42
+ 4-11
46
+ 1-37
40-50
- '24
54
- 3-71
44
+ 4-06
48
+ 1-32
52
- '28
56
- 3-75
46
+ 4'00
39-50
+ 1-26
54
- '33
58
- 3-80
48
+ 3-95
52
+ 1-21
66
- '38
41-60
- 3-85
38-50
+ 3-90
54
+ 1'16
58
- -43
62
- 3-90
62
+ 3-84
56
+ I'll
40-60
- '48
64
- 3-94
54
+ 3-78
58
+ 1-06
62
- '53
66
- 3-99
66
+ 3-73
39-60
+ 1-01
64
- '57
68
- 4-03
68
+ 3-68
62
+ 0-96
66
- -62
41-70
- 4-08
88-eo
+ 3-63
64
+ 0-91
68
- '67
72
- 4-12
62
+ 3-57
66
+ 0-86
40-70
- -72
74
- 4-17
64
+ 3-52
68
+ 0-81
72
- '77
76
- 4-21
66
+ 3-46
39-70
+ 0-75
74
- -82
78
- 4-26
t8
+ 3-41
72
+ 0-70
7t>
- -86
41 -bo
- 4-31
38-70
+ 8-36
74
+ 0-65
78
- -91
62
- 4-36
72
+ 3-31
76
+ 0-60
40-80
- -96
84
- 4-40-
74
+ 3-25
78
+ 0-55
82
- 2-01
80
- 4-45
76
+ 3-20
39-80
+ 0-50
84
- 2-06
88
- 4-49
78
+ 3-14
82
+ 0-45
b6
- 2-10
41-90
- 4-54
38-80
+ 3-09
84
+ 0-40
88
- 2-15
92
- 4-58
82
+ 3-04
86
+ 0-35
40-90
- 2-20
94
- 4-63
84
+ 2-99
88
+ 0-30
92
- 2-25
9ti
- 4-67
86
+ 2-93
39-90
+ 0-25
94
- 2-30
98
- 4-72
88
+ 2-88
92
+ 0-20
96
- 2-34
42-00
- 4-76
88-90
+ 2-82
94
+ 0-15
98
- 2-39
02
- 4-81
92
+ 2-77
96
+ 0-10
41-OC
- 2-44
04
- 4-85
94
+ 2-72
98
+ 0-05
02
- 2-4')
06
- 4-90
96
+ 2-67
40-00
Nil.
04
- 2-53
08
- 4-94
98
+ 2-61
02
- 0-05
06
- 2-58
42-10
- 4-99
89-00
+ 2-56
04
- o-io
08
- 2-63
12
- 5 03
02
+ 2-5L
06
- 0'15
41-10
- 2-68
14
- 5-08
04
+ 2-46
08
- 0-20
12
- 2-72
16
- 5-12
06
+ 2-40
40-10
- 0-25
14
- S -78
18
- 5-17
08
+ 2-35
12
- 0-30
16
- 2-82
42-20
- 5-21
89-10
+ 2-30
14
- 0-35
18
- 2-87
22
- 5-26
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
287
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
40 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
42-24
- 6-30
43-28
- 7-58
44-32
- 9-75
45-00
+ 11-11
96
- 5-35
43-30
_ 7*62
34
- 9-79
02
+ 11-06
28
- 5-39
32
- 7-66
36
- 9-83
04
+ 11-01
42-80
- 6-44
34
- 7-71
38
- 9-87
06
+ 10-96
32
- 5-48
36
- 7-75
44-40
- 9-91
08
+ 10-91
34
- 5-53
38
- 7-79
42
- 9-95
45-10
+ 10-86
36
- 5-57
43-40
- 7-83
44
- 9-99
12
+ 10-81
38
- 6-62
42
- 7-88
46
- 10-03
14
+ 10-76
42-40
- 5-66
44
- 7-92
48
- 10-07
16
+ 10-72
42 - 5-71
46
- 7-96
44-50
- 10-11
18
+ 10-67
44 - 5-75
48
- 8-00
52
- 10-15
45-20
+ 10-62
46
- 6-80
43-60
- 8-05
64
- 10-19
22
+ 10-57
48
- 5-84
52
- 8-09
56
- 10-23
24
+ 10-52
42-50
- 5-88
54
- 8-13
. -68
- 10-27
26
+ 10-48
62
- 6-93
56
- 8-17
44-60
- 10-31
28
+ 10-43
64
- 5-98
58
- 8-22
62
- 10-35
45-30
+ 10-38
66
- 6-02
43-60
- 8-26
64
- 10-39
32
+ 10-33
68
- 6-06
62
- 8-30
66
- 10-43
34
+ 10-28
42-60
- 6-10
64
- 8-34
68
- 10-47
36
+ 10-23
62
- 6-15
66
- 8-38
44-70
- 10-51
38
+ 10-18
64
- 6-19
68
- 8-42
72
- 10-55
45-40
+ 10-13
66
- 6-24
43-70
- 8-47
74
- 10-59
42
+ 10-08
68
- 6-28
72
- 8-51
76
- 10-63
44
+ 10-03
42-70
- 6-33
74
- 8-55
78
- 10-67
46
+ 9-99
72
- 6-37
76
- 8-59
44-80
- 10-71
48
+ 9-94
74
- 6-41
78
- 8-64
82
- 10-75
45-50
+ 9-89
76
- 6-45
43-80
- 8-68
84
- 10-79
52
+ 9-84
78
- 6-50
8-2
- 8-72
86
- 10-84
54
+ 9-79
42-80
- 6-54
84
- 8-76
88
- 10-87
56
+ 9-75
82
- 6-59
86
- 8-80
44-90
- 10-91
58
+ 9-70
84
- 6-63
8d
8'84
92
- 10-95
45-60
+ 9-65
86
- 6-68
43-90
- 8-89
94
- 10-99
62
+ 9-60
88
- 6-72
92
- 8-93
96
- 11-03
64
+ 9-55
42-90
- 6-76
94
- 8-97
98
- 11-07
66
+ 9-50
92
- 6-80
96
- 9-01
45-00
- 11-11
68
+ 9-46
94
- 6-85
98
- 9-05
45-70
+ 9-41
96
- 6-89
44-00
- 9-09
72
+ 9-36
98
- 6-94
02
- 9-14
74
+ 9-31
43- CO
- 6-98
04
- 9-18
76
+ 9-27
02
- 7-02
06
- 9-22
78
+ 9-22
04
- 7-06
08
- 9-26
45-80
+ 9-17
06
- 7-11
44'10
- 9-30
82
+ 9-12
08
- 7-15
12
- 9-34
84
+ 9-07
43-10
- 7-20
14
- 9-38
86
+ 9-03
12
- 7-24
16
- 9-42
88
+ 8-98
14
- 7-28
18
- 9-47
45-90
+ 8-93
16
- 7-32
44-20
- 9-51
92
+ 8-88
18
- 7-37
22
- 9-55
94
+ 8-84
43-20
- 7-41
24
- 9-59
96
+ 8-79
22
- 7-45
26
- 9-63
98
+ 8-75
24
- 7-49
28
- 9-67
46-00
+ 8-70
26
- 7-54
44-30
- 9-71
02
+ 8-65
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Meter Kegistering
60 Feet.
Meter [Registering
50 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
46-04
+ 8-60
47-08
+ 6-20
48-12
+ 3-91
49-16
+ 1-71
06
+ 8-56
47-10
+ 6-16
14
+ 3-86
18
+ 1'67
08
+ 8-51
12
+ 6-11
16
+ 3-82
49-20
+ 1-63
46-10
+ 8-46
14
+ 6-07
18
+ 3-77
22
+ 1-59
12
+ 8-41
16
+ 6-02
48-20
+ 3-73
24
+ 1-55
14
+ 8-37
18
+ 5-98
22
+ 3-69
26
+ 1-60
16
+ 8-32
47-20
+ 5-93
* -24
+ 3-65
28
+ 1-46
18
+ 8-28
22
+ 5-89
26
+ 3-60
49-30
+ 1-42
46-20
+ 8-23
24
+ 5-84
28
+ 3-56
32
+ 1-38
22
+ 8-18
26
+ 5-80
48-30
+ 3-52
34
+ 1-34
24
+ 8-13
28
+ 5-75
32
+ 3-48
36
4- 1-29
26
+ 8-09
47-30
+ 5-71
34
+ 3-44
38
+ 1-25
28
+ 8-04
32
+ 5-67
86
+ 3-39
49-40
+ 1-21
46-30
+ 7-99
34
+ 5-62
38
+ 3-35
42
+ 1-17
32
+ 7-94
36
+ 5-58
48-40
+ 3-31
44
+ 1-13
34
+ 7-90
38
+ 5-53
42
+ 3-27
46
+ 1-09
36
+ 7-85
47-40
+ 5-49
44
+ 3-22
48
+ 1-05
38
+ 7-81
42
+ 5-44
46
+ 3-18
49-50
+ 1-01
46-40
+ 7-76
44
+ 5-40
48
+ 3-13
52
+ 0-97
42
+ 7-71
46
+ 5-35
48-50
+ 3-09
54
+ 0-93
44
+ 7-67
48
+ 5-31
52
+ 3-05
56
+ 0-89
46
+ 7-62
47-50
+ 5-26
54
+ 3-01
58
+ 0-85
48
+ 7-58
52
+ 5-22
56
+ 2-96
49-60
+ 0-81
46'50
+ 7-53
54
+ 5-17
58
+ 2-92
62
+ 0-77
52
+ 7-48
56
+ 5-13
48-60
+ 2-88
64
+ 0-73
54
+ 7-44
58
+ 5-08
62
+ 2-84
66
+ 0-68
56
+ 7-39
47-60
+ 5-04
64
+ 2-80
68
+ 0-64
58
+ 7'35
62
+ 5-00
66
+ 2-75
49-70
+ 0-60
45-60
+ 7-30
64
+ 4-95
68
+ 2-71
72
+ 0-56
62
+ 7-25
66
+ 4-91
48-70
+ 2-67
74
+ 0-52
64
+ 7-21
68
+ 4-86
72
+ 2-63
76
+ 0-48
66
+ 7-16
47-70
+ 4-82
74
+ 2-59
78
+ 0-44
68
+ 7-12
72
+ 4-78
76
+ 2-54
49-80
+ 0-40
46-70
+ 7-07
74
+ 4-73
78
+ 2-50
82
+ 0-36
72
+ 7-02
76
+ 4-69
48-80
+ 2-46
84
+ 0-32
74
+ 6-98
78
+ 4-64
+ 2-42
86
+ 0-28
76
+ 6-93
47-80
+ 4-60
84
+ 2-38
88
+ 0-24
78
+ 6-89
82
+ 4-56
86
+ 2-33
49-90
+ 0-20
46-80
+ 6-84
84
+ 4-51
88
+ 2-29
92
+ 0'16
82
+ 6-79
86
+ 4-47
48-90
+ 2-25
94
+ 0-12
84
+ 6-75
88
+ 4-42
92
+ 2-21
96
+ 0-08
86
+ 6-70
47-90
+ 4-88
94
+ 2-17
98
+ 0-04
88
+ 6-66
92
+ 4-34
96
+ 2-12
50-00
Nil.
46-90
+ 6-61
94
+ 4-30
98
+ 2-08
02
- 0-04
92
+ 6-56
96
+ 4-25
49-00
+ 2-04
04
- 0'03
94
+ 6-52
98
+ 4-21
02
+ 2-00
06
- 0-12
96
+ 6-47
48-00
+ 4-17
04
+ 1-96
08
- 0-16
98
+ 6-43
02
+ 4-13
06
+ 1-91
50-10
- 0-20
47-00
+ 6-38
04
+ 4-08
08
+ 1-87
12
- 0-24
02
+ 6-34
06
+ 4-04
49-10
+ 1-83
14
- 0-28
04
+ 6-29
08
+ 3-99
12
+ 1-79
16
- 0-32
06
+ 6-25
48-10
+ 3-95
14
+ 1-75
18
- 0-36
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Meter Registering
50 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
50-20
- 0-40
51-24
- 2-42
52-70
- 5-12
55-30
- 9-59
22
- 0-44
26
- 2-45
76
- 5-21
85
- 9-67
24
- 0-48
28
- 2-49
80
- 5-30
40
- 9-75
26
- 0-52
51-30
- 2'53
85
- 5-39
45
- 9-83
28
- 0-56
32
- 2'57
90
- 6-48
55-50
- 9-91
50-30
- 0-60
34
- 2-61
95
- 5-57
65
- 9-99
82
- 0-64
36
- 2-65
53-00
- 5-66
60
- 10-07
34
- 0-68
38
- 2-69
05
- 5-75
65
- 10-15
36
- 0-71
51-40
- 2-72
10
- 6-84
70
- 10-23
38
- 0-75
42
- 2-76
15
- 5-93
75
- 10-31
.50-40
- 0-79
44
- 2-80
20
- 6-02
80
- 10-39
42
- 0-83
46
- 2-83
25
- 6-10
85
- 10-47
44
- 0-87
48
- 2-87
30
- 6-19
90
- 10-55
46
- 0-91
51-50
- 2-91
35
- 6-28
95
- 10-63
48
- 0-95
52
- 2-95
40
- 6-37
56-00
- 10-71
50-50
- 0-99
54
- 2-99
45
- 6-45
05
- 10-79
52
- -03
56
- 3-02
53-60
- 6-54
10
- 10-87
54
- -07
68
- 3-06
55
- 6-63
15
- 10-95
56
- -11
51-60
- 3-10
60
- 6-72
20
- 11-03
58
- -15
62
- 3-14
66
- 6-80
25
- 11-11
50-60
- -19
64
- 3-18
70
- 6-89
62
- '23
66
- 3-21
75
- 6-98
64
- -27
68
- 3-25
80
- 7-06
66
- -30
51-70
- 3-29
85
- 7-15
68
- -34
72
3*33
90
- 7-24
60-70
- -38
74
- 3-36
95
- 7-32
72
- -42
76
- 3-40
54-00
- 7'41
74
- -46
78
- 3-43
05
- 7-49
76
- -49
51-80
- 3-47
10
- 7-58
78
- -53
82
- 3-51
15
- 7-66
60-80
- '57
84
- 3-55
20
- 7-75
82
- -61
86
- 3-58
26
- 7-83
84
- -65
88
- 3-62
30
- 7-92
86
- '69
51-90
- 3-66
36
- 8-00
88
- -73
92
- 3-70
40
- 8-09
50'90
- -77
94
- 3-74
45
- 8-17
92
- -81
96
- 3-77
54-50
- 8-26
94
- -85
98
- 3-81
55
- 8-34
96
- -88
52-00
- 3-85
60
- 8-42
98
- 1-92
05
- 3-94
65
- 8-51
51-00
- 1-96
10
- 4-03
70
- 8-59
02
- 2-00
15
- 4-12
75
- 8-68
04
- 2-04
20
- 4-21
80
- 8-76
06
- 2-07
25
- 4-31
85
- 8-84
08
- 2-11
30
- 4-40
90
- 8-93
51-10
- 2-15
35
- 4-49
95
- 9-01
12
- 2-19
40
- 4-68
55-00
- 9-09
14
- 2-23
45
- 4-67
05
- 9-18
16
- 2-26
52-50
- 4 -76
10
- 9-26
18
- 2-30
55
- 4-85
15
- 9-34
51-20
- 2-34
60
- 4-94
20
- 9-42
22
- 2-38
65
- 5-03
25
- 9-51
290
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Reading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Percent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
90-00
+ ll'll
92-65
+ 7-1)3
95-30
+ 4-93
97-95
+ 2-09
05
+ 11-05
70
-f 7-87
35
+ 4-87
98-00
+ 2-04
10
+ 10-99
75
+ 7-82
40
+ 4-82
05
+ -99
15
+ 10-92
80
+ 7-76
45
+ 4-76
10
+ -94
20
+ 10-86
85
+ 7-70
95-50
+ 4-71
15
+ '88
25
+ 10-80
90
+ 7-64
. '65
+ 4-65
20
+ -83
30
+ 10-74
95
+ 7'69
*-60
+ 4-60
25
+ "78
35
+ 10-68
93-00
-f- 7'53
65
+ 4-54
30
+ '73
40
+ 10-62
05
+ 7'47
70
+ 4-49
35
+ -68
45
+ 10-56
10
+ 7-41
75
+ 4-43
40
+ -63
90-50
+ 10-50
15
+ 7-36
80
+ 4-38
45
+ "57
55
+ 10-44
20
+ 7-30
85
+ 4-33
98-50
+ -52
60
+ 10-88
25
+ 7-24
90
+ 4-28
65
+ -47
65
+ 10-31
30
+ 7-18
95
+ 4-22
60
+ -42
70
+ 10-25
35
+ 7-13
96-00
+ 4-17
65
+ -37
75
+ 10-19
40
+ 7-07
05
+ 4-11
70
+ -32
80
+ 10-13
45
+ 7-01
10
+ 4-06
75
+ -26-
85
+ 10-07
93-50
-f 6-95
15
+ 4-00
80
+ -21
90
+ 10-01
55
+ 6-90
20
+ 3-95
85
+ -16
95
+ 9-95
60
+ 6-84
25
+ 3-89
90
+ -11
91-00
+ 9-89
65
+ 6-78
30
+ 3-84
95
+ -06
05
+ 9-83
70
+ 6-72
35
+ 3-78
99-00
+ -01
10
+ 9-77
75
+ 6-66
40
+ 3-73
05
+ 0-96
15
+ 9-71
80
+ 6-61
45
+ 3-68
10
+ 0-91
20
+ 9-65
85
+ 6-55
96-50
+ 3-63
15
+ 0-86
25
+ 9-59
90
+ 6-50
55
+ 3-57
20
+ 0-81
30
+ 9-53
95
+ 6-44
60
+ 3-52
25
+ 0-75
35
+ 9-47
94-00
+ 6-38
65
+ 3-46
30
+ 0-70
40
+ 9-41
05
+ 6-32
70
+ 3-41
35
+ 0-65
45
+ 9-35
10
+ 6-27
75
+ 3-36
40
+ 0-60
91-50
+ 9-29
15
+ 6-21
80
+ 3-31
45
+ 0-55
55
+ 9-23
20
+ 6-16
85
+ 3-25
99-50
+ 0-50
60
+ 9-17
25
+ 6-10
90
+ 3-20
55
+ 0-45
65
+ 9-11
30
+ 6-04
95
+ 3-14
60
+ 0-40
70
+ 9-05
36
+ 6-98
97-00
+ 3-09
65
+ 0-35
75
+ 8-99
40
+ 6-93
05
+ 3-04
70
+ 0-30
80
+ 8-93
45
+ 5-87
10
+ 2-99
75
+ 0-25
85
+ 8-87
94-50
+ 6-82
15
-f 2-93
80
+ 0-20
90
+ 8-81
65
+ 5-76
20
+ 2-88
85
+ 0-15
95
+ 8-76
60
+ 5-71
25
+ 2-82
90
+ 0-10
92-00
+ 8-70
65
+ 5-65
30
+ 2-77
95
+ 0-05
05
-f 8-64
70
+ 5-60
35
+ 2-72
100-00
Nil.
10
+ 8-58
75
+ 5-64
40
+ 2-67
05
- 0-05
15
+ 8-52
80
+ 5-49
45
+ 2-61
10
- o-io
20
+ 8-46
85
+ 5-43
97-50
+ 2-56
15
- 0-15
25
+ 8-40
90
+ 6-37
55
+ 2-51
20
- 0'20
30
+ 8-34
95
+ 6-31
60
+ 2-46
25
- 0-25
35
+ 8-29
95-00
+ 6-26
65
+ 2-40
30
- 0'30
40
+ 8-23
05
+ 5-20
70
+ 2-35
35
- 0-35
45
*- 8-17
10
+ 6-15
75
+ 2-30
40
- 0-40
92-60
+ 8-11
15
+ 6-09
80
+ 2-25
45
- 0-45
55
+ 8-05
20
+ 5-04
85
+ 2-20
100-50
- 0-50
60
+ 7-99
25
+ 4-98
90
+ 2-16
55
- 0-55
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
291
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Meter Registering
100 Feet.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Beading
of Scale
of Gas-
holder.
Amount
of
Error.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
Feet.
Per Cent.
100-60
- 0-60
103-25
- 3-15
105-90
- 5-57
108-55
- 7-88
65
- 0-65
30
- 3-19
95
- 5-62
60
- 7-92
70
- 0-70
35
- 3-24
106-00
- 5-66
65
- 7-96
75
- 0-75
40
- 3-29
05
- 6-71
70
- 8-00
80
- 0-79
45
- 3-34
10
- 5-75
75
- 8-05
85
- 0-84
103-50
- 3-38
15
- 6-80
80
- 8-09
90
- 0-89
55
- 3-43
20
- 5-84
85
- 8-13
95
- 0-94
60
- 3-47
25
- 5-88
90
- 8-17
101-00
- 0-99
65
- 3-52
30
- 5-93
95
- 8-22
05
- 1-04
70
- 3-57
35
- 5-98
109-00
- 8-26
10
- 1-09
75
- 3-61
40
- 6-02
05
- 8-30
15
- 1-14
80
- 3-66
45
- 6-06
10
- 8-34
20
- 1-19
85
- 3-71
106-50
- 6-10
15
- 8-38
25
- 1-24
90
- 3-75
55
- 6-15
20
- 8-42
30
- 1-28
95
- 3-80
60
- 6-19
25
- 8-47
35
- 1-33
104-00
- 3-85
65
- 6-24
30
- 8-51
40
- 1-38
05
- 3-90
70
- 6-28
35
- 8-55
45
- 1-43
10
- 3-94
75
- 6-33
40
- 8-59
101-50
- 1-48
15
- 3-99
80
- 6-37
45
- 8-64
55
- 1-53
20
_ 4-03
85
- 6-41
109-50
- 8-68
60
- 1-57
25
_ 4-08
90
- 6-45
55
- 8-72
65
- 1-62
30
_ 4-12
95
- 6-50
60
- 8-76
70
- 1-67
35
_ 4-17
107-00
- 6-54
65
- 8-80
75
- 1-72
40
_ 4-21
05
- 6-59
70
- 8-84
80
- 1-77
45
- 4-26
10
- 6-63
75
- 8-89
85
- 1-82
104-50
- 4-31
15
- 6-68
80
- 8-93
90
- 1-87
65
- 4-36
20
- 6-72
85
- 8-97
95
- 1-91
60
- 4-40
25
- 6-76
90
- 9-01
102-00
- 1-96
65
- 4-45
30
- 6-80
95
- 9-05
05
- 2-01
70
- 4-49
35
- 6-85
110-00
- 9-09
10
- 2-06
75
- 4-54
40
- 6-89
10
- 9-18
15
- 2-10
80
- 4-58
45
- 6-94
20
- 9-26
20
- 2-15
85
- 4-63
107-50
- 6-98
30
- 9-34
25
- 2-20
90
- 4-67
55
- 7-02
40
- 9-42
30
- 2-25
95
- 4-72
60
- 7-06
50
- 9-51
35
- 2-30
105-00
- 4-76
65
- 7-11
60
- 9-69
40
- 2-34
05
- 4-81
70
- 7-15
70
- 9-67
45
- 2-39
10
- 4-85
75
- 7-20
80
- 9-75
102-50
- 2-44
15
- 4-90
80
- 7-24
90
- 9-83
65
- 2-49
20
- 4-94
85
- 7-28
111-00
- 9-91
60
- 2-53
25
- 4-99
90
- 7-32
10
- 9-99
65
- 2-58
30
- 5-03
95
- 7-37
20
- 10-07
70
- 2-63
35
- 5-08
108-00
- 7-41
30
- 10-15
75
- 2-68
40
- 5-12
05
- 7-45
40
- 10-23
80
- 2-72
45
- 5-17
10
- 7-49
50
- 10-31
85
- 2-78
105-50
- 5-21
-.15
- 7-54
60
- 10-39
90
- 2-82
55
- 5-26
20
- 7-58
70
- 10-47
95
- 2-87
60
- 5-30
25
- 7-62
80
- 10-55
103-00
- 2-91
65
- 5-35
30
- 7-66
90
- 10-63
05
- 2-96
70
- 5-39
35
- 7-71
112-00
- 10-71
10
- 3-01
75
- 6'44
40
- 7-75
10
- 10-79
15
- 3-06
80
- 6-48
45
- 7-79
20
- 10-87
20
- 3-10
85
- 5-53
108-50
- 7-83
30
- 10-95
u 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
NOTE. Any other quantity may be calculated by the rule of propor-
tion, thus :
Meter registering 100-00 feet
Beading of scale of test gasholder. . 89-95
Difference 10-05
89-95: 100:: 10-05: 11-17 fast.
And Meter registering 100-00 feet
Beading of scale of test gasholder . . 112-55 ,,
Difference . . . '* . . . 12-55
112-55 : 100 : : 12-55 : 11-15 slow.
TABLE
Showing the Dilatation of Gas in Contact icith Water and Saturated
with Aqueous Vapour, for given Temperature. (Professor Airey.)
(Used in making Corrections for Temperature in the Testing of Gas Meters.)
Temperature
in Fahrenheit's
Percentage
of
Temperature
in Fahrenheit's
Percentage
of
Temperature
in Fahrenheit's
Percentage
of
Scale.
Dilatation.
Scale.
Dilatation.
Scale.
Dilatation.
31-40
54-33
55
74-30
11
33-54
|
56-24
6
75-94
115
35-70
1
58-12
65
77-23
12
37-84
1*
60-02
7
78-81
125
39-91
2
62-00
75
80-40
13
42-05
25
63-77
8
81-94
135
44-17
3
65-63
85
83-44
14
46-22
35
67-43
9
84-88
145
48-25
4
69-18
95
86-39
15
50-32
45
70-90
10
87-83
155
52-36
5
j 72-60
105
89-20
16
NOTE. The table shows the percentage of increase of the volume of gas above its
volume at the temperature of 31'4 Fahr.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES. 293
INTERNAL FITTINGS.
The advantages of an ample supply of good and pure gas are fre-
quently neutralized by the defective manner in which premises are
fitted internally.
Bad gas-fittings are generally the result of cupidity or ignorance.
They are a common cause of complaint from consumers who are often
ready to attribute the inefficient light which they afford to a want of
pressure or purity, or a low illuminating power in the gas.
The following regulations (with such additions and modifications as
may be found necessary) may be adopted with advantage by gas
authorities.
Regulations as to Internal Fittings.
1. The company's (or local authority's) servants will in all cases lay
on the service-pipe, conveying the same through the outer wall of the
premises to be supplied with gas.
2. The main-cock must be attached to the end of the service-pipe
within the building, and close to the outer wall.
3. The gas meter must be placed perfectly level, either on the floor
or on a substantial support, and within 2 ft. 6 in. of the main-cock.
4. The piping attached to the meter, whether inlet or outlet, must
not be smaller in internal diameter than that of the meter unions.
5. The following are the sizes of the meters, and their measuring
capacity, from which the number of lights which they supply can be
readily calculated :
Size of
Meters.
2-light
5 "
10
15
60
80
100
150
200
250
300
400
500
Size of
Inlet and
Outlet.
Inches.
J
Measuring
Capacity per
Eevolution.
Cubic Feet.
fa . . .
Measuring
Capacity per
Hour.
Cubic Feet.
. . 12
$ . .
. . . i . . .
. . 18
a
30
' 1*
|
60
1
|
90
1J
1 . . .
. . 120
1| . .
14 .
. . 180
14
24
300
u ' '
. . . J* ;
360
' ' i| '
4 . .
480
. . 2
5 . . .
. . 600
3 . .
3 . .
4
: : : i? : : :
12$
. . 900
. . 1200
1500
4
15
1800
. . 4
20
2400
5
. 25 . . .
3000
. 5
. 30
. 3600
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
To ascertain the number of lights which any size of meter will
supply, divide the measuring capacity per hour by the quantity of gas
per hour which each jet is estimated to consume. Example : What
number of lights, consuming 4 cubic feet of gas per hour, will a 20-light
meter supply ? Then, ? = 80 lights, answer.
6. The following are the sizes and lengths of iron, lead, or compo-
sition tubes to be used according to the number of ordinary lights :
Internal Diameter
of Tubing.
Inches.
1 ....
Greatest Leng
allowed.
Feet.
20
<h Greatest No.
of Burners
allowed.
3
30
6
|
40
12
3
50
. . . 20
1*
70
35
\l : : :
. . 100
. . 150
60
100
2
200
. 200
Tubing of J inch bore is not allowed to be used.
7. The tubes or pipes must be laid with proper fall, and in such a
manner that they are easily accessible, and protected from liability to
damage. Attention is to be given to leaving a space round them at
such places as wall crossings, &c., where fracture or crushing of the
pipes might be caused by the subsidence of the building. The joinings
of the tubes and pipes are to be made in the most solid and substantial
manner; and carefully rounded bends (not elbows) are to be used
wherever the direction of a pipe is changed.
8. Floor boards covering pipes must be secured with screws, so that
they may be easily removed to afford access to the pipes, especially at
the points of connection.
9. On the completion of the work of fitting, and before the piping is
covered up, notice thereof must be given in writing to the gas manager
(the requisite form for that purpose being obtained at the gas office),
who will cause an inspection to be made of the work, and if found in
accordance with the regulations herein contained, it will be passed by
the company (or local authority), and the gas turned on.
10. If the regulations are not conformed to hi every respect, the com-
pany (or local authority) reserve the right to refuse a supply of gas
.mtii the necessary alterations are made.
11. Gas-fitters complying with these regulations have their names
registered on the company's (or local authority's) list of approved
GAS ENGINBEES AND MANAGEES. 295
fitters, and they are at liberty to designate themselves " Authorized
Gas-Fitters. " Eepeated negligence will cause the license to be with-
drawn.
A handy and useful apparatus for testing the soundness of gas-
fittings, has been devised by Harrison and Sheard. It consists of a
small force pump and a King's pressure-gauge, in which mercury is
employed instead of water ; the two being connected together on one
base board, and provided with a coupling for ready attachment to the
Fittings to be tested.
To use the apparatus, air is forced, by means of the pump, into the
Fittings until the pressure therein is equivalent to, say, 12 inches of
water, as indicated on the dial of the gauge. The pump is then shut
off by means of a stopcock, and it is noted whether the pressure is
maintained or falls away. If the pointer remains stationary, the
Fittings are sound ; while if it goes back, there is a leakage.
To facilitate the discovery of leakages, gas m#y be forced into the
Fittings, by connecting an inlet pipe on the pump, by means of india-
rubber tubing, with any convenient gas supply ; when the gas escaping
through the defective Fittings at a high pressure, enables the locality
of the leakages to be readily discovered.
Ordinary sitting rooms are best lighted by means of a central
chandelier. When the room is of large dimensions, wall brackets may
be added. A bracket at each side of the mantelpiece has a tasteful
appearance, and lights are handy in that position.
The jets of chandeliers and brackets should be not less than 36 inches
from the ceiling.
A tea-spoonful of salad oil added on the top of the water in the tube
of a water-slide pendant, tends, in a great measure, to prevent or retard
evaporation of the water.
Burners arranged in the horizontal position are not usually effective,
and are not to be recommended except on the conditions noted here-
after. The flames of such have an unpleasant pulsatory or tremulous
motion, very disagreeable when fixed on a level with or but slightly
above the eye of the spectator, due to the upward current of air striking
the underside. ^
The arrangement is bad for another reason viz., the flame is pre-
vented from receiving its due supply of oxygen on all sides, and as a
consequence, the combustion is imperfect ; bad illumination, and a
deposit of unconsumed carbon on the ceiling being the result.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
It is not, however, to be assumed that lights placed in the horizontal
or the inclined position are never effective. They can be rendered so
by causing the tails of the flames to impinge one upon the other, and
by making provision in the construction of the pendant for the air
current to play upon the upper surface of the flame.
The question of the efficient ventilation of rooms where gas is being
consumed is one of importance both to the gas producer and the user.
The subject has been a comparatively neglected one, although it pro-
mises in the future to occupy greater prominence.
Ventilating globe and other lights of various designs have been intro-
duced by Messrs. Sugg, Cowan,
Bray, Strode, and other makers,
with highly satisfactory results,
and their more general adop-
tion is only a question of time.
Fig. 105 shows Mr. Cowan's
ventilating globe light ; and
Fig. 106, the ventilating sun-
light as made by Mr. Strode.
In the matter of internal
Fittings, the gas manager, by
judgment and tact, can exercise
a useful supervision even with-
out the aid of statutory powers ;
and his advice in regard to
the sizes of pipes and the
kind of burners and lamps
to be used in different situations will generally be accepted and
acted upon.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES. 297
To obtain the maximum of light from a burner, it is necessary that
the pressure, when that is in excess in the mams, as it must necessarily
be, should be controlled and regulated in the passage of the gas to the
point of ignition.
This cannot be accomplished satisfactorily by checking either the
taps on the Fittings, or the stop-cock at the meter, because there is a
continual variation of pressure according to the consumption that is in
progress.
The house governor or regulator was invented to achieve that end.
It may be fixed on the pipe leading from the meter outlet, or what is bet-
ter, on the principal pipe supplying each floor level of the premises.
The regulator is automatic in its action ; and when weighted to afford
the required pressure for all the burners in use, it will continue to give
a practically uniform supply, however much the pressure in the mains
may vary, or whether the whole or only a portion of the burners
being supplied through it may be alight at one time. The " Needle "
governor burner of Mr. Peebles, and the "Acme" regulating burner
of Wright, are examples of regulation applied close to the point of
consumption.
It is a clearly established fact that the lower the pressure (provided
there is just sufficient) at which gas can be burned, the better the light.
If, instead of being advantageously consumed, the gas is forced through
the burners into the atmosphere, the carbon is rapidly oxidized by the
excess of air drawn into the flame by the heavy pressure, with the
usual unsatisfactory results as regards illumination.
Dr. Letheby found that a vulcanized india-rubber tube of about 30
feet in length, reduced the power of a weak gas to the extent of nearly
25 per cent., by absorbing the illuminating hydrocarbons.
Varnish to Prevent the Escape of Gas through India-rubber Tubing.
1-J parts treacle.
2 ,, gum arabic.
7 ,, white wine.
3 ,, strong alcohol.
First dissolve the treacle and gum in the white wine, and afterwards
add the alcohol very slowly, constantly stirring the mixture to prevent
the gum from being thrown down.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
HANDY EULE
For Estimating (Approximately} the Number of Burners required to Light
Churches, Public Halls, and other Large Tluildings.
RULE. The floor area in feet divided by 50 for common gas, and by
70 for cannel gas, will give the number of flat-flame burners required
for effective lighting.
EXAMPLE. A room is 80 feet long and 56 feet wide. What number
of burners is required ? Then
80 x 56 = 4480 sq. ft. area . = say 90 burners with common gas,
consuming 5 c. ft. per hour each.
4480
-W- =say 60 burners with cannel gas, consuming 4 c. ft. per hour each.
TABLE
Showing the Loss of Li<jht per cent, through Shades or Globes.
(Mr. W. King}.
Loss of Light
per cent.
Clear glass . . 10'57
Ground glass (entire surface ground)
Smooth opal
Ground opal
Ground opal, ornamented with painted figures, the figures inter
vening between the burner and the photometer screen . .
29-48
52-83
55-85
73-98
TABLE
Showing the Amount of Light Obstructed by the Use of Globes or Moons.
(Mr. A. H. Wood.)
Light obstructed by a clear glass globe about 12 per cent.
a clear globe with slightly ground
flowers ,,24
globes of about the usual pattern . ,,35
globes ground all over ,,40 ,,
opal globes ,,60
painted opal globes 64
common window glass 9
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Thickness o
i of an
I
8 i
' V
A
A
s
. 'fir of ar
38 rV
. i
Loss of Light
f Glass. per Cent.
inch. , . . 6'15
8-61
13-08
9-39
. . 13-00
4-27
62-34
65-75
62-74
inch 51-23
As used 34-48
for 85-11
church 89-62
windows, &c. 81' 97
97-68
TABLE
Showing tJie Loss of Light through flat Slieets of Glass of different
Qualities and Colours. (Mr. F. H. Storer, U.S. America.)
Description of Glass.
Thick English plate
Crystal plate . . .
English crown . .
Double English window glass
Double German* . .
Single German . . .
Double German, ground
Single German ,,
Berkshire (Mass.) .
Berkshire enamelled i.e.,
ground only upon portions
of its surface small figure .
Orange coloured window glass
Purple
Ruby .
Green .
A porcelain transparency
The results of the experiments with globes given in the foregoing
tables were obtained with the light in a direct line with the photo-
meter disc, and with the defective moons or globes formerly in use,
having narrow openings at the bottom. With the improved globes of
the present day, the bottom openings of which are 4 to 5 inches
diameter, the results more recently obtained by Mr. F. W. Hartley
differ from those detailed.
In 1880, Mr. Hartley carried out a series of experiments with
ground and plain glass of various kinds, both flat and rounded on
their surface, and with the lighting horizontal and overhead.! These
experiments are interesting and valuable ; but the details are too
lengthy to be given, even in outline, here. The general conclusion,
however, at which Mr. Hartley arrived is as follows :
HOKIZONTAL LIGHTING.
Sheet Glass.
1. That ordinary sheet glass, apart from thickness, varies in its
obstructive power to the passage of light. That the percentage
loss increases with the distance of the glass from the flame, and
increases also as the light grows stronger.
* Among the Boston dealers, the term " German " is applied to glass of Belgian
manufacture.
t " Observations on Glass as an Obstructor and Reflector of Artificial Light," by
F. W. Hartley, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Journal of Gas Lighting, January, 1881.
300 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
2. That ground sheet glass, apart from thickness, also varies in
obstructive power. That the percentage loss increases with the
distance of the glass from the flame, and decreases as the light
grows stronger. That the percentage loss depends on which
side clear or ground is presented to the flame.
8. That with flashed opal the losses follow the same law as ground
glass for distance from and for power of light.
4. That with clear glass as an obstructor of light in front of the
flame and clear glass behind as a reflector of light, the reflected
light reduces the loss to a degree dependent on the distance of
each glass from the flame.
Globes.
5. .That a clear glass globe obstructs light from an Argand flame,
but increases the sensible light from a flat flame.
6. That globes of ground glass obstruct less light than sheets of
ground glass. That the percentage loss diminishes as the
light grows stronger ; and is, for an average light, from 18 to
20 per cent.
7. That opal globes obstruct an amount of light equal to 33 to 65'
per cent.
OVERHEAD LIGHTING.
8. That the amount of light yielded by a flame in an angular direction
is much less than it yields in a horizontal direction.
9. That glass globes with elevated or overhead Argand flames,
reduce the power of the light clear globes, about 3 per cent. ;.
ground globes, about 21 per cent. ; and albatrine globes, about
23 per cent.
10. That glass globes with flat-flame burners, at a certain elevation
and within a certain radius, increase the power of the light
clear globes, about 6 per cent. ; ground globes, about 9 per
cent. ; albatrine globes, about 23 per cent. ; and German opal
globes, about 21 per cent.
11. That reflectors greatly increase the power of the light, within a
radius dependent on the shape and size of the reflector ; the=
range in the experiments being from 52 to 92 per cent.
12. That screens at the base of an Argand flame cause a reduction.
in the power of the light, whatever be the size and form of the;
reflector.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
301
LEAD AND COMPOSITION PIPES FOE GAS.
Weiylits per Yard, and Lengths usually Manufactured,
LIGHT. HEAVY.
Weight Lengths of
Diameter per Bundles
Inside. Yard. usually
Ibs. oz. Manufactured.
Weight Lengths of
Diameter per Bundles
Inside. Yard. usually
Ibs. oz. Manufactured.
i inch. . . 11 J
. 80 yards.
i inch. .
15 . . 67 yards.
1 ..12
. 60
g
16* . . 46 ..
i ..20
. 32
4
a 10
. 16
..24
. 25
3
20
1
..33
. 23
1
3 12
. 19
i
..48
. 26
1
6
. 20
H
..80
. 16
11
10
12
li
. . 12
. 10
li
.' . 14
9
2
. . 18
5
2
. . 21
5
BEASS TUBE, PLAIN WEIGHT PEE FOOT.
Diameter. Weight.
Inches. Ibs. ozs.
l-4th -08 or 1-28
5-16ths -15 2'40
3-8ths -19 3-04
7-16ths -21 3-36
1 half -25 4-00
9-16ths -31 4-96
5-8ths -37 5-92
3-4ths -43 6-88
Diameter.
Inches.
7-8ths .
linch .
14
Weight.
Ibs. ozs.
50 or 8.00
59 9-44
81 12-96
1.00 16-00
1-12 17-92
1-25 20-00
1-50 24-00
1-87 29-92
The size of brass and copper tube is measured by the outside diameter.
BEASS TUBE, SPIEAL AND FLUTED WEIGHT PEE FOOT.
Spiral, Fluted,
Diameter. Weight. Weight.
Inches. oz. oz.
3-8ths .... 3 . . . . 2|
7-16ths . ... 3J .... 31
1 half . ... 32 .... 3J
9-16ths .... 4J .... 4
5-8ths . . .5 .... 5
Spiral, Fluted,
Diameter. Weight. Weight.
Inches. oz. oz.
3-4ths .... 6 .... 6
7-ths 71 .... 7
1 inch .... 9 .... 8
li .... 12 .... 11
1J , 15 .... 14
bOLDEES.
FINE SOLDER is an alloy of 2 parts of block tin and 1 of lead
{melts at 360 Fahr.). This is used for fine work such as soldering
.the drums of meters, for pewter, &c.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
GLAZING- SOLDEB. Equal parts of block tin and lead. Used for
lead.
PLUMBING SOLDEB. 1 part block tin, 2 lead. For all kinds of
plumbers' joints and for tin and zinc.
SOLDEB FOB COPPEB. Hard : 3 parts brass, 1 zinc. Soft : 8 brass,
1 zinc.
BBAZING SOLDEB OB SPELTEB. Hard : 1 part copper, 1 zinc. Soft :
4 parts copper, 8 zinc, 1 block tin. For fine brass work : 1 part silver,
8 copper, 8 zinc.
SOLDEB FOB STEEL. 19 parts silver, 8 copper, 1 zinc.
PEWTEBEBS' SOFT SOLDEB. 2 parts bismuth, 4 lead, 3 tin. Com-
mon : 1 part bismuth, 1 lead, 2 tin.
FLUXES FOB SOLDEBING.
Iron and steel Borax or sal ammoniac.
Tinned iron Kesin or chloride of zinc.
Copper and brass .... Sal ammoniac or chloride of zinc.
Lead and composition pipes . Resin and sweet oil.
Zinc Chloride of zinc.
FOB TINNING BBASS OB IBON.
\ oz. muriatic acid.
\ oz. mercury.
\ oz. ground block tin.
Mix together, and dilute the whole with a small quantity of cold
water. Apply with the finger or a cork.
BBAZING.
The edges of the articles, either iron or brass, to be brazed are
scraped thoroughly clean, covered with the brazing solder or spelter hi
the form of borings or turnings sprinkled over with powdered borax,
and exposed to the heat of a clear fire till the solder flows. A smoke-
less coke or gas fire is best for the purpose. In brazing iron, a
covering of loam is sometimes placed over the solder, to exclude the
air, till it melts.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 303
BRONZE.
1 quart common vinegar.
2 ozs. sal ammoniac.
1 oz. blue stone (sulphate of copper).
The sal ammoniac and blue stone are well pounded, and then
allowed to dissolve in the vinegar. The solution, when ready, is laid
on with a common brush, black-leaded whilst damp, and then polished.
Lacquer is then applied as described hereafter.
Green Bronze,
To imitate the antique.
1 quart common vinegar.
2 ozs. verdigris.
1 oz. sal ammoniac.
Boil for a quarter of an hour, filter) through paper, and dilute with
water. Immerse the article to be bronzed until it acquires the green
tinge desired ; then wash carefully, and dry in sawdust.
Bronze Powders.
These can be purchased from any dealer in artists' material. They
are prepared as follows :
Copper Bronze Powder.
Strips of copper are dissolved in nitric acid in a glass vessel, and
then strips of iron are added, when the dissolved copper is precipitated
in the form of a very fine powder. This powder is washed with water
and dried, and is then ready for use.
Gold Bronze Powder or Aurum Mosaicum,
Is the basis of many bronze powders. Any desired colour can be
produced by mixing it with the common dry pigments. Thus, a red
bronze powder is obtained by grinding red lead with it ; and a green
by the use of verdigris. It is prepared in the following manner :
One pound of tin is melted in a crucible, and then poured cau-
tiously into an iron dish containing half a pound of mercury.
When cold it is reduced to powder, mixed with seven ounces of
flowers of sulphur, and eight ounces of sal ammoniac, and
304 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
triturated in a mortar. The mixture is then calcined in a flask,
which expels the sulphur, mercury, and ammonia, and leaves a
residuum in the form and colour of a bright flaky gold powder.
Size for Bronze Powders.
The size is made hy boiling four ounces of gum animi to every
pound of pure linseed oil in a flask, until the mixture is of the con-
sistency of cream ; after which it is diluted with turpentine as
required.
The article to be bronzed is coated, by means of a soft brush, with
this size ; and when nearly dry, a piece of soft leather is wrapped round
the finger, dipped into the powder, and rubbed gently over it ; or it
may be laid on with a camel's-hair pencil, and then left to dry
thoroughly ; after which all the loose powder is brushed off.
The bronze may also be mixed with a strong solution of isinglass,
and applied in the moist state, like varnish, with a brush. This latter
mode, however, is not suitable for articles exposed to the weather.
For Silverimj Metals.
Nitrate of silver 10 parts.
Common salt 10 ,,
Cream of tartar 30
Moisten with water when ready to apply, and lay the mixture on
with a soft brush.
LACQUEE AND VARNISH.
The solution of spirits of wine and shellac, known as " simple pale "
lacquer, is the basis of most other lacquers. The two ingredients in
their proper proportions, as stated below, are put into a jar or bottle,
and allowed to remain for forty-eight hours, being briskly shaken three
or four times during the interval. At the expiration of the time
named, most of the shellac will be dissolved. The mixture is then
carefully strained through filtering paper, to free it from grit and other
foreign substances, and to remove any particles of undissolved shellac
that may remain.
Different tints or shades, producing red, green, yellow, &c., are
obtained by mixing with the pale lacquer various colouring ingredients,
isuch as dragon's blood, arnotto, gamboge, turmeric, saffron, &c. The
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 305
proper way of adding these is to stir them in a cup with a small
quantity of the pale lacquer, afterwards straining the whole through a
piece of thin cloth or gauze, and filtering if necessary.
The article to be lacquered is heated slightly by means of a steam
kettle or stove ; or it may be held over a hot iron plate till just as hot
as to allow of its being touched by the finger without burning. The
heat must not be greater than this. The lacquer is then applied with
a soft camel's-hair brush
Simple Pale Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
4 ozs. of shellac.
Fine Pale Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
1 oz. of pure white shellac.
1 dr. of gamboge.
2 drs. of Cape aloes. .
Fine Pale Lacquer, for Silvered or Tinned Work.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
1 oz. of pure white shellac.
(jrold Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
3 ozs. of shellac.
oz. of turmeric.
2 drs. of arnotto.
2 drs. of saffron.
Deep Gold Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
3 ozs. of shellac.
^ oz. of turmeric.
4 drs. of dragon's blood.
Red Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
4 ozs. of shellac.
4 drs. of dragon's blood.
1 dr. of gamboge.
306 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Yellow Lacquer.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
2 ozs. of shellac.
2 drs. of gamboge.
4 drs. of Cape aloes.
Green Lacquer for Bronze.
1 pint of spirits of wine.
4 ozs. of shellac.
4 drs. of turmeric.
J dr. of gamboge.
Iron' Lacquer.
1 quart of turpentine,
f Ib. of asphalte.
2 ozs. of shellac.
To Clean Old Brass Work for Lacquering.
Boil a strong lye of wood ashes, and strengthen with soap lees ; put
in the brass work, and the old lacquer will come off. Next dip it in a
solution of nitric acid and water, strong enough to remove the dirt ;
wash it immediately in clean water ; dry^well, and lacquer.
Varnish far Iron Work.
Boil a quantity of gas tar for four or five hours, till it runs as thin as
water ; add one quart of turpentine to a gallon of the tar, and boil
another half hour. Apply the varnish whilst hot.
Golden Varnish.
Pulverize 1 drachm of saffron and a draclm of dragon's blood, and
put them into 1 pint of spirits of wine. Add 2 ounces of gum shellac
and 2 drachms of Soccotrine aloes. Dissolve the whole by gentle heat.
Yellow painted work, varnished with this' mixture, will appear almost
equal to gold.
Varnish fi.r Outdoor Wood Work.
Boil together one gallon of gas tar and 2 Ibs. of white copperas.
Apply whilst hot.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
307
Ghie Cement to Resist Moisture.
1 part glue.
1 part black resin.
part red ochre.
Mix with the least possible quantity 6f water.
PUBLIC ILLUMINATIONS.
In provincial towns the Gas Manager is usually called upon to
arrange and superintend the Illuminations that are given to celebrate
any great national or local event. On such occasions the following
particulars will be found useful :
MODE OF SUPPLY AND PRICE OF GAS.
Illumination Devices are generally supplied with gas direct from
the main, without the intervention of a meter to register the con-
sumption. Where the Illuminations are anything like universal, the
fixing of meters is altogether impracticable.
Taking the consumption of each jet * to be at the rate of one cubic
foot of gas per hour, which is a fair average, including loss by leakage
and trial lighting, the following will be . the rate of charge according
to the price per 1000 cubic feet :
At 6s. 6d. per 1000, -078 of a penny per jet * per hour.
6 5
077
6 4
076
6 3
075
6 2
074
6 1
073
6
072
5 11
071
5 10
070
59
069
5 8
068
5 7
067
5
066
* By the term "jet," as here used, is meant the small gas-flame at each hole
drilled or punched in the pipes forming the different devices.
x 2
308 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
At 5s. 5d.
per 1000, -065 of
a penny per jet per hour.
5 4
064
> i
5 8
068
>)
5 2
062
5 1
061
> >
5
060
>
4 11
059
4 10
058
M >
4 9
057
>,
4 8
056
M
4 7
055
4 6
054 x
M
4 5
053
4 4
052
4 8
051
4 2
050
' >
4 1
049
>
4
048
>
8 11
047
8 10
046
8 9
045
8 8
044
8 7
043
M
8 6
042
M
8 5
041
>> ))
8 4
040
8 8
039
M
3 2
038
3 1
037
)>
8
036
!>
2 11
085
) 1>
2 10
084
) ) )>
2 9
083
2 8
032
2 7
031
)>
2 6
030
)
2 5
029
.)
2 4
028
M
2 8
027
)1
2 2
026
2 1
025
1
2
024
,, ,, ,,
When the ordinary No. 1, 2, and 3 fish-tail burners are employed,
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
the consumption may be reckoned at the rate of 3, 4, and 5 cubic
feet per hour each respectively, and charged accordingly.
It is proper to stipulate that no Illumination should amount to less
than 50s.
SEBVICE OR SUPPLY PIPES.
It is the usual rule for the Gas Authorities to convey at their
own cost a service-pipe from the main, and from 8 to 12 feet up the
front of the building to be illuminated, provided the whole length of
pipe required does not exceed 36 feet. A charge is made for any addi-
tional length. The expense of fixing the Devices in their position
is also charged. To the end of the pipe in front of the building a
stop-cock is attached for shutting off or regulating the supply of gas.
Care should be taken to have the pipes of ample capacity, other-
wise the Illumination will be poor and ; ineffective.
When the building to be illuminated is large, it is advisable to run
up a service-pipe at each end, and one in the centre, connecting them
together in the front ; each pipe, of course, having a distinct con-
iiection with the main in the street.
The service-pipes should be laid with a slight fall to the main ; and
the use of all abrupt angles such as square elbows should be
avoided, bends being employed instead.
The service-pipes are temporary only, being lent by the Gas
Authorities, and are removed by them when the Illuminations are
over.
DEVICES.
The Devices are paid for by the private inhabitants, or the Local
Authorities, or by both, as the case may be.
They may consist of
Initial and other letters, single lined thus, ZX and double-
lined thus,
Mottoes straight, curved, or circular.
Lanterns with coloured devices.
Laurel Scrolls.
Garlands.
Festoons.
True Lovers' Knots.
Stars of various kinds.
Mitres.
310
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Crescents.
Crosses.
Plumes, as Prince of Wales' Feathers.
Aureoles.
Crowns.
Shields.
Anchors.
Masonic Emblems.
Heraldic Crests.
Corporation Arms.
Other Devices suitable to the particular occasion.
The Devices are made by the manufacturers of gas-fittings, wrought-
iron tubing, and others, and are supplied to Gas Authorities and the
Trade at about the following prices :
Single-lined Letters, in Iron or Copper, fitted with Strong Union
Length of Letter
18 inches
Size of Inlet.
|ths inch bore
1
|
Price.
' Us; Od. each.
12 6
13 6
8
4
J
3
3
15
18
21
25
30
Double-lined Lettei-s, in Iron or Copper, fitted with Strong Union
Couplings,
Length of Letter
18 inches
24
42
48 ,
54
Size of Inlet.
|ths inch bore
1
1
i
!
i .
i
1
Price.
12s. 6d. each.
15
17 6
20
24
33
40
Brumu-ick Stars and Stars with Eight Points, Made of Wrought-Iron
Welded Pipe, and fitted irith Strong Union Couplings.
3 feet
4
5
6 ,,
7
8
1 inch bore
ll ;:
iJ ' ,,
i* ::
Price with
Price with
Price with
Star Centre.
Shield Centre.
Plu me Centre.
8. d.
M B. d.
i' 8. d.
200.
.220.
. -1 17
2 12 .
. 2 15 .
. 3 10
366.
. 3 10 .
.450
4 15 .
.500.
. 5 15
636.
. 6 10 .
.750
770.
. 7 15 .
. 8 10
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS 311
Crowns and Plumes cost about one-third more than Stars.
Scrolls, Garlands, Heraldic Crests, and other Devices, at prices
varying according to the elaboration of the design.
Wrought-iron pipes, drilled, and with Star jets inserted, are sup-
plied at about the ordinary list price.
The Devices maybe " home-made," and if so will be less expensive ;
but unless constructed by skilled and tasteful workmen, they will
present a scraggy, irregular appearance when lighted up.
ILLUMINATED BOKDERS.
A very pretty effect, easily managed, and one that gives a rich
fulness to the central Illumination of a building, is obtained by run-
ning wrought-iron tubing along the principal angles, with holes
drilled in the tube at distances about 6 inches apart, and having small
jets or star burners inserted. The burners may be placed wider apart,
and globes made use of. These prevent the lights from being extin-
guished by the wind, and also heighten the general effect. In this
case a short piece of brass tube, with elbow-socket and gallery, must
be inserted. Globes ground all over, or white opal globes, or white
and coloured globes arranged alternately, show to the best advantage.
COLOURED FIRES.
A display of Coloured Fires, at intervals, from prominent points of
elevation, adds greatly to the effect of an Illumination.
The following are some excellent recipes for their production :
Lilac Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Chlorate of Potash , . 49 parts, or 7 13
Sulphur 25 40
Chalk 20 ., 33
Black oxide of copper 6 10
This composition weighs 1 lb., and costs 2s. 3d.
Purple Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Chlorate of potash 43 parts, or 6 14
Nitrate of potash (saltpetre) 22 J 3 10
Sulphur 22 3 10
Black oxide of copper 10 19
Black sulphide of mercury (Ethiop's mineral) 2 , 05
Weight, 1 lb. ; cost, 2s. 3d.
312 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Yellow Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Nitrate of soda 75 parts, or 12
Sulphur 19 31
Charcoal or lamp black 6 15
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
Blue or Bengal Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Dry nitrate of potash 6 parts, or 10 10J
Sulphur 2 3 9i
Tersulphide of antimony .... 1 112
Weight, lib. ; cost, Is.
Or
Oz. Drms.
Ammonic sulphate of copper 8 parts, or 8 8
Chlorate of potash 6 67
Shellac 1 11
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, 2s. 3d.
Green Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Nitrate of baryta 77 parts, or 12 5
Sulphur 13 21
Chlorate of potash 5 13
Charcoal or lamp black 3 ,, 08
Metallic arsenic 2 05
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
Or
Oz. Drms.
Nitrate of baryta 9 parts, or 10 10
Shellac 3 39
Chlorate of potash 1J 1 13
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
Crimson Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Nitrate of strontia 80 parts, or 10
Sulphur 22J 2 14
Chlorate of potash 20 28
Charcoal or lamp black 5 10
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
Red Fire.
Oz. Drms.
Nirate of strontia 40 parts, or 10
Sulphur 13 32
Chlorate of potash 5 13
Charcoal or lamp black 3 11
Sulphide of antimony 4 10
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 313
Or
Oz. Drms.
Nitrate of strontia 9 parts, or 10 10
Shellac 3 39
Chlorate of potash 1 1 13
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is. 6d.
White Indian Fire.
Nitrate of potash 24 parts, or 11 10
Sulphur 7 3 6
Sulphide of arsenic (Realgar) 2 1
Weight, 1 Ib. ; cost, Is.
In no case should the chlorate of potash be (/round along with the sulphur,
as ignition, caused by the friction, might ensue.
The ingredients should be reduced to the finest powder (excepting
the shellac, which should only be beaten into small fragments) by
bruising them in a mortar made of hard wood, the chlorate of potash
being ground separately. They should then be intimately mixed
together, by passing them three or four times through a hair sieve.
When mixed, keep the material in a close- stoppered bottle, to pre-
vent spontaneous combustion. All the ingredients must be perfectly dry
to insure success.
The mixtures are best fired in hemispherical dishes, or ladles made of
beaten iron, about 5 inches diameter and 2 inches deep in the centre.
The fumes arising from the different fires should be avoided.
A pound in weight of any of the mixtures is sufficient for a fire
(though any quantity may be used) ; and the cost varies from Is. to
2s. 3d. each. The ingredients can be obtained from almost any
chemist and druggist.
-314
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
ILLUMINATION DEVICES.
A
oo- c *
^SHB5]*Ms.".7
,_.... jm
v,. A ,-f ClSff ^ML
\ ">--V / ,' '__'" ."-'- ^V*^ /^'-~~~-^- /"'-'--''
~"K W ^**S%c-
'"M"^ " : '^W
, r \ \ "j ',-; 7^'/
{sgPzSSs&Sti
FIGS. 107 TO 120.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEBS.
315
, /1&S\\ /// y:A \ * /.J/-H
' '
Fios. 121 AND 122.
316
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
f
r^
V -r^k}-7
< ; x< \/v%
3&P ^_S-;
""^^^
.'^---";:^ r"-:-----'** 1 "" /^
^^^^rr^5p^%^ ; ^.^
"^^fe^^''' "$^4'&&'^
^rn /r?iT ^^>
: JA.Li
*
(:
...\^,...
\ "' '-V
FIGS. 123 TO 134.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES.
317
BRITANNIA RULES THE WAVES
FIGS. 135 AND 136
318
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
M
n l\*>
i-l \ v
/ fl \
h 1.
FIGS. 137 TO 148.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
1
FIGS. K4 AND 145.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
FIGS. 146 TO 152.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES.
FIGS. 158 AND 164.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
W x // Ji Vlp
V Vx.^:::::::^ ^
FIGS. 165 TO 160.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
823
' i i - ' \ 7 ' i
! H'l'VR ;ij i
; ! '. \ V -H '- ;\ '.
^^^^y-ii
CIVIU2ATION
? / \\
in i (&(ft\(ftM \ HI
\ I ll
\\ iMUlfCil //I
^
FIGS. 161 AND
T 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
FIGS. 168 TO 165.
GAS ENQINEEBS AND MANAGERS.
FIGS. 166 AND 167.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
&*ujw
', , - ~" "v 5-L;x
. U . \M
9^
<.(.y ^\
&&
P*
e?W
FIGS. 168 TO 170.
GAS ENGINBEES AND MANAGERS.
FIGS. 171 AND 172.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
iidVi^
!!'*::f?im
/Mr
.-v X>-?~! ,-
r r X'M-/^
^;-
1 I
X, ? /
Fios. 173 AND 174.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
329
VICTOR! A
FIG. 175
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
ILLUMINATING POWER.
For testing the Illuminating Power of gas in accordance with the
statutory provisions, the Bunsen photometer is used ; and the Letheby-
Bunsen form of the apparatus (Fig. 176) is that generally adopted.
The standard candle is a sperm candle, six of which weigh 1 lb.,
and each burns 120 grains of sperm per hour.
The gas is supplied through an experimental meter, and burns at
one end of a graduated bar, and the candle at the other ; a movable
disc of prepared paper being placed 'between the two.
This disc, which is contained within a sliding box or carriage, fitted
with two reflectors, is moved between the two lights until its opposite
sides are equally illuminated, whereupon the Illuminating Power of the
gas is read off by the operator on inspection of the figures on the
^graduated bar.
FIG. 176.
The bar is graduated in accordance with the law that lights which
equally illuminate an object are to each other as the square of their
distance, from such object. Thus, assuming that the distance from
the disc to the gas flame is 80 inches, and to the candle flame 20
inches, then 80 2 = 6400, and 20 2 =400, or as 16 to 1, the Illuminating
value of the gas as compared with the candle.
The following apparatus are also required, viz. : A governor to
regulate the gas pressure ; a clock striking every minute ; a King's
pressure-gauge ; a candle balance and weights ; a thermometer and a
barometer.
The apparatus is arranged and fixed on a substantially made table,
placed in the photometer room. This room may be conveniently made
about 10 or 12 feet square, and should be ventilated ; but currents of
air which would affect the steadiness of the gas and candle flame must
be guarded against. Provision is made to exclude the daylight ; and
the walls are coloured a dull black.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Statutory Regulations for Testing the Illuminating Power of Gas.
The provisions in Schedule A of the Gas-Works Clauses Act, 1871,
in regard to the apparatus for, and the mode of testing the Illumi-
nating Power of gas, are as follows :
Regulations in respect of Testing Apparatus. The apparatus for testing
the Illuminating Power of tlie gas shall consist of the improved form of
Bunsen's photometer, known as Letheby's open 60- inch photometer,
or Evans's enclosed 100-inch photometer, together with a proper
meter, minute clock, governor, pressure gauge, and balance.
The burner to be used for testing the gas shall be such as shall be
prescribed.
The candles used for testing the gas shall be sperm candles of six to
the pound, and two candles shall be used together.
Mode of Testing for Illuminating Power. The gas in the photometer
is to be lighted at least fifteen minutes before the testings begin ; and it
is to be kept continuously burning from the beginning to the end of
the tests.
Each testing shall include ten observations of the photometer, made
at intervals of a minute.
The consumption of the gas is to be carefully adjusted to 5 cubic
feet per hour.
The candles are to be lighted at least ten minutes before beginning
each testing, so as to arrive at their normal rate of burning, which is
shown when the wick is slightly bent, and the tip glowing. The
standard rate of consumption for the candles shall be 120 grains each
per hour. Before and after making each set of ten observations of the
photometer, the Gas Examiner shall weigh the candles ; and if the
combustion shall have been more or less per candle than 120 grains
per hour, he shall make and record the calculations requisite to
neutralize the effects of this difference.
The average of each set of ten observations is to be taken as repre-
senting the Illuminating Power of that testing.
Instructions of the London Gas Referees as to the Times and Mode of
Testing for Illuminating Power.
The testings for Illuminating Power shall be three in number daily.
The Photometers to be used in the testing places shall be the im-
proved forms of the Bunsen Photometer, prescribed and certified by
the Eeferees.
The burner attached to the Photometer shall be a standard burner
corresponding to that which has been deposited with the Warden of
332 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
the Standards in accordance with Section 37 of The Gaslight and Coke
Company's Act, 1876. A description of the standard burners to be
used for testing common gas and cannel gas respectively is given.
(See page 835.)
The gas in the Photometer is to be kept burning for at least fifteen
minutes before any testing is made.
The disc used in the Photometer shall be either the Leeson or the
Bunsen disc. The chimneys are to be cleaned daily.
The candles shall be such as are described in Section 25 of the
Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 namely, sperm candles of six to the
pound, each burning 120 grains an hour. Two of these candles shall
be used together.
Each testing shall consist of ten observations of the Photometer,
made at intervals of one minute. The average of each set of ten
observations is to be taken as representing the Illuminating Power for
that testing.
The rate of burning of the gas in each burner shall be 5 cubic feet
per hour a rate of consumption which is shown by the long hand of
the meter making exactly one revolution per minute for several minutes
consecutively.
The candles are to be lighted at least ten minutes before the begin-
ning of each testing, so as to have attained their normal rate of burn-
ing. Before and after making each testing, the Gas Examiner shall
weigh the candles ; and if the rate of consumption per candle shall
not have exceeded 126 grains per hour, or fallen short of 114 grains
per hour, he shall make, and record in a book to be kept for the pur-
pose, the calculations requisite to neutralize the effects of this differ-
ence. If the rate of consumption shall have varied from the prescribed
rate beyond the above-named limits, the testing is to be rejected, and a
fresh testing made.
Instead of weighing the candles, the Gas Examiner may observe the
time in which 40 grains are burnt. This must not exceed 10-5, or fall
short of 9-5 minutes.
The Gas Examiner shall, at least once a week, compare the meter-
clock with the standard-clock in each testing-place.
At the time of each testing the Gas Examiner shall observe and
record the temperature of the gas, as shown by the thermometers
attached to the meters, and also the height of the barometer. The
volumes of the gas operated upon during the testings may be corrected
from these data (the standard of comparison being, for the barometer,
30 inches ; and for the thermometer, 60 degrees) by means of the
Table. (See pages 336 and 337). Suppose, for example, the ther-
mometer stands at 54 degrees, and the barometer at 30'3 inches :
multiply the quantity of gas consumed by the corresponding tabular
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
number the product will be the corrected volume of the gas i.e., the
volume the gas would have occupied when measured over water at the
standard temperature and pressure. Thus
Volume of gas consumed 5 cubic feet.
Tabular number for barometer and thermometer 1-025.
Then 1-025 x 5 = 5-125, the corrected volume.
Instead of thus correcting the volume of gas consumed, the same
object may be attained by dividing the observed Illuminating Power
by the tabular number, or in the manner described on page 159.
The Gas Examiner shall record his observations and calculations
for determining Illuminating Power in the form prescribed on page
338.
The calculations for working out the corrections, &c., for the Illumi-
nating Power of the gas proceed in the following manner : Add the
observations together, and divide the sum by 10, to get the average ;
then, as two candles are used, multiply by two, to get the Illuminating
Power of the gas if tried against one candle. Then, as the standard
rate of the consumption of the candles (viz., 120 grains) is to the
average number of grains consumed by each per hour, so is the
above-obtained number to the actual Illuminating Power. Finally,
make the correction for temperature and pressure, by dividing the
Illuminating Power by the tabular number. For example (taking the
tabular number as 1-025) :
Observations
1st minute 7-8 Consumption of the 2 candles in
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
7-8
8-1
8-2
8-3
8-5
8-6
8-4
8-3
8-6
10 minutes,
= 41 grains.
3
123 = consumption of 1
candle per hour.
10)82-6
Average, by 2 candles = 8-26
2
Average, by 1 candle = 16-52
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Average, by 1 candle = 16-52
per
4956
3304
1652
Standard con-
sumption . 120)203196
Correction for
temp. &pres. 1025)16933 (-16-5 = corrected Ilium. Power
1025 in candles.
6683
6150
5830
The foregoing calculation can be shortened as follows, which is the
form prescribed on page 338 :
Average, by 2 candles (arrived at as
shown on page 333) = 8-26
Consumption by 2 candles in 10 minutes 41 grains.
826
3304
2 ) 33866
Tabular number . . 1025 ) 16933 (16-5 = corrected Ilium.
1025 Power in
candles.
6683
6150
5330
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TJie Standard Burner.
The burner which has been adopted as the Standard burner for
testing common gas was designed by Mr. Sugg, and was called by him
" Sugg's London Argand, No. 1."
A is appended, (Fig. 177), in which A re-
presents section, half size, a supply-pipe, B
the gallery, C the cone, D the steatite
chamber, E the chimney.
The following are the dimensions of those
parts of the burner upon which its action
depends:- Inch.
Diameter of supply-pipes . . . . 08
External diameter of annular steatite
chamber 0-84
Internal diameter of annular steatite
chamber 0'48
Number of holes 24
Diameter of each hole 0-045
Internal diameter of cone
At the bottom 1-5
At the top 1-08
Height of upper surface of cone and
of steatite chamber above floor of
gallery 0-75
Height of glass chimney .... 6
Internal diameter of chimney . . If
The Standard burner for testing cannel gas
is a steatite batswing burner, consisting of a
cylindrical stem, the top of which is divided
by a slit of uniform width. j ,
External diameter of top of stem . 0-31
Internal diameter of stem . . . 0-17
Width of slit 0-02
Depth of slit 0-15 FIG. 177.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
TABLE to facilitate the Correction of tlie Volume of Gas at
IHER.
BAB.
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
28-0
979
974
970
965
960
956
951
946
942
937
932
28-1
983
978
973
969
964
959
955
951
945
941
936
28-2
986
981
977
972
967
963
958
953
949
944
939
28'3
990
985
980
976
971
966
961
957
952
947
942
28-4
993
988
984
979
974
970
965
960
955
951
946
28-5
997
992
987
983
978
973
968
964
959
954
949
28-6
1-001
995
991
986
981
977
972
967
962
958
953
28-7
1-004
999
994
990
985
980
975
970
966
961
956
28'8
1-007
1-003
998
993
988
984
979
974
969
964
959
28-9
1-011
1-006
1-001
997
992
987
982
977
973
968
963
29-0
1-014
1-010
1-005
1-000
995
990
986
981
976
971
966
29'1
1-018
1-013
1-008
1-004
999
994
989
984
979
975
969
29-2
1-021
1-017
1-012
1-007
1-002
997
992
988
982
978
973
29-3
1-025
1-020
1-015
1-011
1-006
1-001
996
991
986
981
976
29-4
1-028
1-024
1-019
1-014
1-009
1-004
999
995
990
985
980
29-5
1-032
1-027
1-022
1-018
1-013
1-008
1-003
998
993
988
983
29-6
1-036
1-031
1-026
1-021
1-016
1-011
1-006
001
996
992
986
39-7
1-039
1-034
1-029
1-025
1'019
1-015
1-010
005
1-000
995
990
29-8
1-043
1-038
1-033
1-028
1-023
1-018
1-013
008
1-003
998
993
29-9
1-046
1-041
1-036
1-031
1-026
1-022
1-017
012
1-007
1-002
997
30'0
1-050
1-045
1-040
1-035
1-030
1-025
1-020
015
1-010
005
000
30-1
1-053
1-048
1-043
1-038
1-033
1-029
1-024
019
1-014
009
003
30-2
1-057
1-052
1-047
1-042
1-037
1-032
1-027
022
1-017
012
007
30-3
1-060
1-055
1-050
1-045
1-040
1-036
1-030
025
1-020
015
010
30'4
1-064
1-059
1-054
1-049
1-044
1-039
1-034
029
1-C24
019
014
30-5
1-067
1-062
1-057
1-052
1-047
1-042
1-037
032
1-027
022
017
30-6
1-071
1-066
1-061
1-056
1-051
1-046
1-041
036
1-031
026
020
30-7
1-074
1-069
1-064
1-059
1-054
1-049
1-044
039
1-034
1-029
024
30-8
1-078
1-073
1-068
1-063
1-058
1-053
1-048
043
1-037
1-032
027
30-9
1-081
1-076
1-071
1-066
11-061
1-056
1-051
046
1-041
1-036
031
31-0
1-085
1-080
1-075
1-070
1-065
1-060
1-055
049
l-OM
1-039
1-034
%* The numbers in the above table have been re-calculated from the formula
perature on the Fahrenheit scale, and a the tension of aqueous vapour at t.
at 60 and 30 inches pressure, V = v n.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
different Temperatures and under different AtmospJieric Pressures.
BAB
THEK
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
28-0
927
922
917
912
907
902
897
892
887
881
875
870
28-1
930
926
921
916
911
905
900
895
890
884
879
873
28-2
934
929
924
919
914
909
904
898
893
887
882
876
28-3
937
932
928
922
917
912
907
902
896
891
885
880
28-4
941
936
931
926
921
915
910
905
900
894
888
883
28-5
944
939
934
929
924
919
914
908
903
897
892
886
28-6
947
943
938
932
927
922
917
912
906
901
895
889
28-7
951
946
941
936
931
925
920
915
909
904
898
893
28-8
954
949
944
939
934
929
924
918
913
907
901
,QQ/
28-9
958
953
948
942
937
932
927
921
916
910
905
899
29-0
961
956
951
946
941
935
930
925
919
914
908
903
29-1
964
959
954
949
944
939
933
928
923
917
911
906
29-2
968
963
958
952
947
942
93V
931
926
923
914
909
29-3
971
966
961
956
950
945
940
935
929
923
918
912
29-4
975
969
964
959
954
949
943
938
932
927
921
915
29-5
978
973
968
962
957
952
947
941
936
930
924
919
29-6
981
976
971
966
960
955
950
944
939
933
927
922
29-7
985
980
974
969
964
959
953
948
942
937
931
925
29-8
988
983
978
972
967
962
957
951
946
940
934
928
29'9
991
986
981
976
970
965
960
954
949
943
937
932
30'0
995
990
985
979
974
968
963
958
952
946
941
935
30-1
998
993
988
983
977
972
966
961
955
950
944
938
30-2
002
996
991
986
980
975
970
'964
959
953
947
941
30-3
.005
000
995
989
984
978
973
968
962
956
950
Q4A
30-4
008
003
998
993
987
982
976
971
965
959
954
948
30-5
012
006
001
996
990
985
980
974
969
963
957
951
30-6
015
010
005
999
994
988
983
977
972
966
960
954
30-7
018
013
008
1-003
997
992
986
981
975
969
963
957
30-8
022
017
on
1-006
ooo
995
990
984
978
972
967
961
30-9
025
1-020
015
1-009
004
998
993
987
982
976
970
964
31-0
029
1-023
018
L-013
007
002
996
991
985
979
973
967
. 17 ' 64 ( h - a \ where h is the height of the barometer in inches, t the tern-
460 + t
If v is any volume at . and h inches pressure, and Y the corresponding volume
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Statement of Testings for Illuminating Power.
Date 18
Barometer Thermometer Tabular Number
Hour.
Observations
taken at
intervals of
one minute.
Here multiply
the number
obtained by the
number of
grains con-
sumed by the
two candles
in ten minutes,
and divide by 2.
Or divide by
the number of
minutes in
which 40 grs.
were
consumed.
Consnmp
of spern
two can
in ten rr
Obgei
1st min.
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
tion\
a by
Consumption \
of sperm by f
Consumption \
of sperm by 1
dies f
in. )
vations.
two candles f
in ten min. )
Observations.
Ist-cain.
two candles- f
in ten min. )
Observations.
q.J i
5th '
7th
9th
10th
2 )
2 )
2 )
Tabular \ /
Ilium. Power at . .
number ) ( Corrected
Average
Ilium.
i) , f~,
j
fr fh*
day.
Divide the average
Illuminating Power by
the tabular number
corresponding to Mean
Temperature and
)
Pressure: the quotient
will be the corrected
Illuminating Power for
the day.
Average Ilium. Power
uncorrected . . .
} =
Candles. Ga9 Examiner.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
339
The Meters used for Measuring the Gas Consumed in Making tlie
Various
The meters used for measuring the gas consumed in making the
various testings, having been certified by the Eeferees, shall, at periods
of not less than seven days, be proved by the Gas Examiners by means
of the Referees' cubic-foot measure a description of which apparatus,
with directions how to use it, is given below. Should a meter show
any variation, water must be added or withdrawn until the meter is
correct. Every testing place shall have the above-mentioned appa-
ratus, so that the Gas Examiner may employ it whenever he thinks
necessary.
No meter other than a wet one shall be used in testing the gas under
these instructions.
The Gas Eeferees" Cubic-Foot Measure.
Description of the Cubic-Foot Measure ; the method of fixing it ; and
directions for verifying the accuracy of the Meters connected with the,
Photometers, and also (see page 159) with the Sulphur and Ammonia
Tests.
I.
This instrument (Fig. 178) is a vessel inform like
an elongated egg, made of hardened tin about one
quarter of an inch thick, fitted at each end with a
narrow glass tube, the joints being made sound with
india-rubber packing. The instrument stands in a
vertical position, firmly fixed to a strong plank.
At the top of the instrument is a three-way cock,
marked on the head of the key with a T, each arm
of which shows the direction of a way through the
plug ; and in the side of this cock there is a small
hole or vent, which serves to admit the air when the
measure is to be emptied of water. When the T is
in its ordinary position communication is closed
between the measure and the tube leading from it
to the meters, but is open to the external air ; with
the H in this position (i.e., with the stem pointing
to the opposite side of the cock to that in which the
vent is drilled), the measure is open to the meters
and shut to the air.
At the bottom of the instrument there are two
cocks the small one, when opened, admits water
into the measure; the large one, when opened,
allows the water to be run off. The former of these
cocks is provided with a lever-key, in order to regu-
late, with greater nicety, the entrance of the water
into the measure. FIG- i?8.
z 2
340 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
The cock at the top of the measure is continued by a tin pipe in the
form of an arch (bending down to meet the pipe leading to the
meters) ; and at the farther end of the arch, there is a piece of glass
tube, in which a thermometer is hung to show the temperature of
the air passing from the measure into the meter.
Affixed round each of the glass tubes fitted to the upper and lower
part of the measure, there is a narrow strip of paper, which indicates
the exact measure of one cubic foot, as tested by the Exchequer
standard cubic-foot bottle the upper edge of both strips of paper
being the true water-line of the measure.
II.
The instrument should be in communication with a tank of water
fed by a self-acting supply.
The lower water-level of the tank should be even with the top of the
strip of paper marking the " full " line of the vessel ; and it is advan-
tageous that the upper water level should be below the plug of the
three-way cock on the measure.
III.
To verify the meters employed in ascertaining the consumption of
gas in the photometers, or those used in the sulphur or ammonia
tests, the mode of procedure is as follows :
Turn the three-way cock at the top of the instrument so as to
leave the vent open to the air ; and shut the large cock at the bottom
of the apparatus. Then open the small lever cock, and allow suffi-
cient water to flow in to fill the lower glass tube up to the water-
line. Then turn the upper cock so as to close the vent, while
opening the way to the meters.
Next open the cock of the meter which is to be tested taking
care that all the other meters are closed to the cubic-foot measure.
Note the exact position of the index hands i.e., both the long hand
and the 1-foot hand, if it be a photometer meter, or simply the long
hand if it be a sulphur meter.
When all is ready, open a communication between the outlet of
the meter and the air at the same time taking care that all the
pressure-gauge cocks are closed. Then proceed gently to open the
small lever-cock, and allow the water to flow into the measure, just
fast enough to raise the pressure in the syphon pressure-gauge fixed
alongside, and in communication with the measure, from half an inch
to three quarters. This precaution is necessary to prevent the water
being blown out of the meter by excessive pressure.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
A meter attached to the photometer should make twelve revolu-
tions of the long hand, and consequently one of the cubic-foot hand,
by the time the measure is full up to the strip of paper on the upper
glass tube. A meter connected with the sulphur test should, in the
same time, make one revolution of the long hand.
Should the meter complete the prescribed number of revolutions
before the measure is full, then some water must be removed from
the meter; if the contrary is the case, then water must be added
to the meter. The testing is then to be repeated until the meter
is found to register correctly.
The dial of the photometer meter is divided into 50 divisions ; and
as each revolution indicates one-twelfth of a foot, each division con-
sequently represents the ^^ part of a cubic foot ; and therefore 6 of
those divisions represent 1 per cent.
The dial of the sulphur meters is divided into 100 parts ; and as
each complete revolution indicates one foot, each division conse-
quently represents 1 per cent.
The difference of an ounce in the quantity of water in the meters
will make them register about 1 per cent, either fast or slow.
When the temperature of the cubic-foot measure is higher than
the temperature at the outlet of the meter, the meter (if correct) will
register a smaller quantity than has actually passed to it from the
measure ; when the temperature of the measure is lower than that of
the meter, the quantity registered ought to be greater.
To find the volume which the meter ought to register, when such
a difference of temperature exists, divide the tabular number corres-
ponding to the barometric pressure, and the temperature of the
cubic-foot measure, by the tabular number corresponding to the
barometric pressure and the temperature of the meter. (See Tables,
pp. 836 and 337.)
As to the Mode of Testing the Pressure at which Gas is Supplied.
Testings of pressure shall be made by unscrewing the governor and
burner of one of the ordinary public lamps, in such street or part of a
street as the controlling authority may from time to time appoint, and
attaching in their stead the portable pressure gauge.
The Gas Examiners having fixed the gauge gas-tight, and as nearly
as possible vertical, on the pipe of the lamp, and having opened the
cocks of the lamp and gauge, shall read and at once record the pressure
shown. From the observed pressure one-tenth of an inch is to be
deducted to correct for the difference between the pressure of gas at
the top of the lamp-column and that at which it is supplied to the
basement of the neighbouring houses.
342 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The Gas Referees' Street Lamp Pressure Gauge.
This instrument (Fig. 179) has been designed by the Gas Referees,
in accordance with Sect : on 6 of The Gaslight and Coke
and other Gas Companies' Acts Amendment Act, 1880,
for the purpose of testing in any street at any hour the
pressure at which gas is supplied. Its construction
is as follows :
Within a lantern provided with a handle for carry-
ing and feet for resting on the ground, is placed a
candle-lamp, to gi^e light for reading the gauge. In
front of the candle-lamp is a sheet of opal glass, and
in front of this a glass U-tube, partly filled with
coloured water, and communicating at one end with
the air, at the other with a metal pipe, which passes
through the bottom of the lantern. In order to read
easily and accurately the difference of level of the
liquid in the two limbs, a scale divided into tenths of
an inch is made to slide between them with sufficient
friction to retain it in any position. The zero of the
scale having been brought level with the surface of the
liquid which is pressed upon by the gas, the height
above this of the surface which is pressed upon by the
FIG. 179 au * can be read directly. The lantern is closed in
front by a glass door, at each side of which is a re-
flector for throwing light upon the scale of the gauge. Above each
limb of the U-tube is a tap, which can be closed when the instrument
is not in use, to prevent the liquid being accidentally spilt.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
PHOTOMETEK TABLE.
Calculated for One Candle. (Sugg.)*
Con-
Grains per Hour Consumed by the Sperm Candle.
sumption
of Gas
Feet per
Hour.
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
4-5
1-01851
1-02777
1-03703 11-04629
1-05555
1-06481
1-07407
1-08333
1-09259
4-6
99637
1-00543
1-01449 1-02355
1-03260
1-04166
1-05072
1-05978
1-06884
4-7
97517
98404
99290
1-00177
1-01063
1-01950
1-02836
1-03723
1-04609
4-8
95486
96354
97222
98090
98958
99826
1-00694
1-01562
1-02430
4-9
93537
94387
95238
96088
96938
97789
98639
99489
1-00340
5-0
91066
92500
93333
94166
95000
95833
96666
97499
98333
5-1
89869
90686
91503
92320 '93137
93954
94771
95588
96405
5-2
88141
88942
89743
90544
91346
92147
92948
93750
94551
5-3
86477
87264
88050
88836
89622
90408
91194
91981
92767
5'4
84876
85648
86419
87191
87962
88734
89506
90277
91049
5-5
83333
84090
84848
85606
86363
87121
87878
88636
89393
Con-
Grains per Hour Consumed by the Sperm Candle.
sumption
of Gas
Feet per
Hour.
119 ' 120
121
122
123
124
125
126 127
i
4'5
1-10185 1-11111
1-12037
1-12962
1-13888
1-14814
1-15740
16666 -17592
4-6
1-07789 1-08695
1-09601
1-10507
1-11413
1-12318
1-13224 | -14130 I -15036
4-7
1-05496 1-06383
1-07269
1-08156
1-09042
1-09929
1-10815 -li;02 -12588
4-8
1-03298 1-04166
1-05034
1-05902
1-06770
1-07638
1-08506 | -09375 -10243
4-9
1-01190 1-02040
1-02891
1-03741
1-04591
1-05442 1-06292 '07142 ; '07993
5-0
99166 1-00000
1-00833
1-01666
1-02499
1-03333 ! 1-04166 1 '04999 ; '05832
5-1
97222 -98039
98856
99673
1-00490
1-01307 11-02124 11-08941 -03758
5-2
95352 '96153
96955
97756
98557
99358 1-00160
1-00961 i -01762
5-3
93553 : -94339
95125
95911
96698
97484
98270
99056 -99842
5'4
91820 '92592
93364
94135
94907
95679
96450
97222 ! -97993
5'5
90151 ! '90909
91666
92424
93181
93939
94696
95454 -96212
Con-
sumption i
Grains per Hour Consumed by the Sperm Candle.
otuas
Feet per
Hour.
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
4-5
1-18518
1-19444
1-20370
1-21296
22222
1-23148
24074
1-25000
4-6
1-15942
1-16847
17753
1-18659
19565
1-20471
21376
1-22282
4'7
1-13475
1-14361
15248
1-16134
17021
17907
18794
1-19680
4-8
1-11111
1-11979
12847
1-13715
14583
15451
16319
1-17187
4-9
1-08843
1-09693
10544
11394
12244
13095
13945
1-14795
r'
1-06666
1-07500
08333
09166
10000
10833
11666
1-12500
1-04575
1-05392
06209
07026
07843
08660
09477
1-10294
5'2
1-02564
1-03365
04166
04967
05769
06570
07371
1-08173
5-3
1-00628
1-01415
02201
02987
03773
04559
05345
1-06132
5-4
98765
99537
00308
01080
01851
1-02623
03395
1-04168
5-5
96969
97727
98484
99242
1-00000
1-00757
01515
1-02272
Mr. Sugg has also published, in a book form, series of useful photometrical tablet from 9-5 to
20 candles.
844
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
RULE. Multiply the number standing beneatli the number of grains
consumed by the candle, and opposite the number of feet consumed by
the gas-burner, by the illuminating power as read off from the scale
of the photometer ; the product is the correct value of the gas reduced
to the standard of 120 grains per hour and 5 cubic feet per hour.
THE AERORTHOMETER.
The Aerorthometer (Fig. 180) in-
vented by Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt,
'is an ingenious instrument for cor-
recting the observed volume of any
portion of gas to its normal volume
i.e., the volume it would have
under standard conditions of tempe-
rature and pressure. A reading of
this instrument furnishes a number
expressing the ratio between the
observed and the normal, or cor-
rected, volumes of any gas, and
serves instead of reading a baro-
meter and thermometer and calcu-
lating or referring to a table.
It consists of a bulb and stem,
like a thermometer, containing air
enclosed over mercury. The mer-
cury stands at a certain height in
the stem, and rises and falls as the
inclosed air contracts or expands
with changes of temperature and
atmospheric pressure. The volume
of the air is read off by means of a
scale engraved on the stem and on
the wood behind it. Each degree
of the scale marks a portion of the
stem whose capacity is one-thou-
sandth part of the volume of the
inclosed air when under a pressure
of 30 inches of mercury and at a
temperature of 60 Fahr. The line
at which the mercury stands under
these conditions is figured accord-
ingly 1000 ; and any other reading
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 346
of the instrument, at a different pressure or temperature, gives
the volume to which the thousand volumes have been expanded
or contracted. A small drop of water having been passed into the
bulb, the expansion caused by a rise of temperature includes that
due to the increased tension of aqueous vapour.
In order that the volume of air inclosed in the bulb of the Aeror-
thometer may be measured under the atmospheric pressure, a second
tube is placed by the side of the graduated stem, which is of the same
calibre and connected with the same reservoir of mercury, but open
above. By the pressure of a screw upon the leathern top of the
reservoir, the mercury is raised in both tubes ; and when the mercury
stands at the same level in both, the inclosed air is under the atmo-
spheric pressure. By being painted white, the bulb is protected from
the action of radiant heat.
Since the volume of any portion of gas contained in a holder or
passing through a meter near which an Aerorthometer is placed,
bears the same relation to the volume the gas would occupy under
standard conditions as the volume read on the stem of the Aeror-
thometer bears to 1000, the figures expressing the corrected volume of
the gas may be obtained by multiplying the observed volume by 1000,
and dividing it by the Aerorthometer reading. Thus, if n represents
the number read upon the instrument, v the observed volume or rate
of passage of the gas, and V the corrected or normal value, then
The instrument must stand or be suspended in a vertical position
near the meter or holder whose registration it is to be used to correct.
To make a reading, the screw is to be turned (if necessary) until the
mercury stands at a lower level in the open tube than in that which
is graduated. Then the screw must be turned slowly in the oppo-
site direction until the mercury is exactly level in both tubes. The
level of the mercury read upon the graduated tube gives the required
number.
Various Proposed Standards oj Light.
The sperm candle has long been considered an unsatisfactory
Standard, owing chiefly to the shade of colour emitted by it differ-
ing somewhat from that of the gas, and the inequality of its rate of
consumption.
Various Standards of light have been advocated from time to time to
supersede the candle ; but none of these have hitherto been adopted in
this country.
346
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The Carcel lamp is the Standard in France ; the light,
equal to 9-6 sperm candles, being produced by purified
colza (rape) oil, burning at the rate of 648 grains per
hour. The upper portion of this lamp is shown in sec-
tion in Fig. 181 ; and the dimensions of its various parts
are as follows :
External diameter of burner . -9055 inches.
Internal diameter of air-tube . -6692 ,,
External diameter of air-tube . 1-7912
Total length of chimney . . 11-4170
Length from base. t to neck of
chimney . \ 2-4015 ,,
External diameter of chimney
at level of neck .... 1-8503
External diameter of chimney
at top . ... . . 1-3385
Mean thickness of the glass . -0787 ,,
The wick used is that known as " light-house wick,"
and the plait is composed of 75 strands ; a piece 4 inches
long weighing 55 5 grains. When the consumption of
oil is less than 586 grains, or exceeds 710 grains per
hour, the trial is cancelled.
Mr. Keates invented a moderator lamp consuming
sperm oil, and yielding a light equal to 10 sperm candles,
which he advocated as a suitable Standard.
The most ingenious Standard proposed is that of a
FIG 181 portion of the gas-flame itself. The credit of the
conception is shared by both Mr. Fiddes and Mr. John
Methven, who, unaware of each other's investigations, conducted a
series of experiments on the same lines.
In the course of his photometrical observations, Mr. Fiddes found
that if a circular hole about -inch diameter were made at a given
height in an opaque chimney, and this placed over an argand flame in
lieu of the usual glass chimney, the amount of light passing through
the hole was a constant quantity, notwithstanding variations in the
illuminating power of the gas.
Mr. Methven's researches led him to a similar conclusion ; his later
experiments showing that the amount of light (equal to two Standard
candles), passing through a slot 1 inch long and inch wide, in an
opaque screen, is constant with gases ranging from 15 to 20 candles
power ; and that, when either common or cannel gas is carburetted
with gasoline (light petroleum spirit, boiling point below 120 Fahr.),
the amount of light yielded by a flame 2 inches long, is con-
stant whatever the illuminating power of the gas employed. As the
result of this latter discovery, Mr. Methven uses a shorter and wider
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES. 347
slot for the carburetted gas. Fig. 182 shows the Methven Standard
with the long and short slots combined on the same slide for the
ordinary and carburetted gas respectively. Fig. 183, shows the car-
burettor fitted with bye-pass arrangement, so that when connected to
the gas-pipe supplying the Methven Standard, either ordinary gas, or
carburetted gas, may be used.
FIG. 182.
It is daily becoming more evident that the acceptance of Mr.
Methven 's light as a Standard would be a fairly satisfactory solution
of the difficulty. Photometrical observations, also, are greatly simpli-
fied by the ease with which it can be used, the saving of time which
it effects, and the avoidance of that distraction of mind on the part
of the operator, which is inseparable from the employment of candles.
FIG. 183.
In the Pentane Standard of Mr. A. Vernon Har court, the gas em-
ployed for producing the light is " a mixture of air with that portion
of American petroleum which, after repeated rectification, distils at a
temperature not exceeding 122 Fahr. The liquid thus obtained con-
sists almost entirely of pentane, the fifth member of the series of
paraffines." Burning at the rate of J a cubic foot per hour', this gas
gives a flame which yields a light equal to that of the Standard candle.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Mr. Harcourt has devised a new Pentane Standard Lamp on a
different principle to that above referred to, in which, instead of a mix-
ture of pentane and air, pentane only is burned. This lamp, shown in
Fig. 184, resembles an ordinary spirit lamp, with the chimney added to
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
349
keep the flame steady, and raise the temperature of combustion. A
wick is employed, not, as in the ordinary lamp, at the point of
ignition, but several inches from it ; its use being to convey the
liquid pentane by capillary action to the part of the tube where
volatilization of the pentane takes place by the warmth conducted
downwards from the flame. The wick is enclosed in a tube jacketed
by another tube to produce a steady temperature ; and this again is
covered by the larger tube with the contracted upper end, as shown.
The chimney is moveable for adjustment at any required height.
To put the lamp in action, first remove the lower tube, and
having warmed the inner tubes, light the pentane vapour, as it rises
in the smaller one. Put on the large tube with the chimney at-
tached ; and the top of the flame, on raising the wick slightly, will pass
into the chimney.
Two narrow slots are cut in the chimney on opposite sides, so
that the tip of the flame is visible through either of them. When
the chimney is set at a definite height above the lower tube, and
the flame is adjusted so that its tip is between the upper and lower
limits of the slots, the centre portion of the flame appearing between
the lower tube and the chimney, gives a definite quantity of light.
TABLE
Comparing (approximately) the Specific Gravity of Gas (Air being I'OOO)
with th Illuminating Power in Standard Sperm Candles.
No. of
Cndls.
Spec.
Grav.
No. of Spec.
Cndls. Grav.
No. of Spec
Cndls. Grav
10 equal
to about -380
20 equal to about '508
30 equal to about '678
11
392
21 '522
31
694
12
405
22 -537
32
708
13
416
23 -550
33
722
14
430
24
565
34
738
15
n '443
25
585
35
755
16
'455
26
605
36
775
17
468
27
625
37
790
18
482
28
645
19
,, '495
29
662
350
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOK
VARIATIONS IN THE ILLUMINATING POWER OF GAS.
Most gas managers, in the course of their experience, must have
observed variations, sometimes considerable, in the illuminating
power of their gas, for which they have been unable satisfactorily to
account. These variations are unquestionably due, to a great extent,
to changes of atmospheric pressure. Whenjshe pressure is augmented,
the luminosity is increased, and vice versa. To determine this point,
Dr. Frankland instituted a series of important experiments, of which
the following are the results :
Pressure of Air in
Inches of Mercury.
30'2
Observed
Illuminating Power.
. . . lOO'O
Pressure of Air in
Inches of Mercury.
18'2
Observed
Illuminating Power.
37-4
28'2 . . .
26'2 . . .
. . . 91'4
. . 80'6
16-2 . . .
14-2 . .
. . . 29-4
. . . 19-8
24-2 . . .
. 73-0
12-2 . .
. . . 12-5
22-2 .
. . . 61-4
10-2 . . .
... 3'6
20-2 . . .
. . . 47-8
The diminution of luminosity follows a fixed and definite law, which
may be thus expressed : The decrease in illuminating power is directly
proportional to the decrease of atmospheric pressure. Of 100 units of
light emitted by a gas-flame burning in air, 5-1 units are extinguished
by each reduction of 1 mercurial inch of atmospheric pressure. On
the other hand, if a lightless flame be made to burn under augmented
pressure, it becomes luminous. The chief cause of the difference is
the increase in the volume, and therefore decrease of the density of
those heavy hydrocarbons to which the luminosity of a gas-flame is
attributed when the atmospheric pressure is reduced, and vice versa.
TABLE
Showing the Percentage of Loss of Light by Mixing Air with Coal fcfx.
Per Cent.
Air.
1 .
2 .
Loss of Light
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
Air.
8 .
Loss of Light
Per Cent.
100
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
351
JET PHOTOMETER.
The three following instruments, which are each employed to de-
termine the illuminating value of gas, though only approximately
correct in their indications, are yet sufficiently trustworthy to render
them useful and valuable auxiliaries to the more absolute method of
testing already described.
Their great recommendations are their portability, and the ease
and celerity with which the illuminating power can be ascertained
by their aid.
Their action depends on the relation which the specific gravity of
the gas bears to its illuminating power. The flame being kept at
a given height, the pressure required, and therefore the rate of con-
sumption, will vary according to the density of the gas and its con-
sequent illuminating value.
The Jet Photometer.
Lowe's jet photometer, as improved by Sugg and Kirkham (Fig. 185),
affords a ready means of ascertaining, by a momentary inspection,
I
FIG. 185.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
whether the gas being produced is uniform in quality. The apparatus
consists of a King's gauge of delicate construction, with its semi-
circular scale indicating the pressure. A steatite jet having
a fine orifice is fixed at the top of this, and the gas issuing there-
from, and being lighted, gives a flame which should be constantly
maintained at 7 inches.
The scale shown in Fig. 186 is for gas of 14 to 19 candles illumi-
nating power. The same scale is used for 20, 25, or 30 candle gas,
but with a different jet, and a lesser consumption per hour, the gauge
pointing to the place where the figure 16 stands, but with the number
changed to 20, 25, or 30 conforming* to the standard quality of the
gas to be supplied according to the Special Act of Parliament.
FIG. 18G.
The range of the jet is necessarily short. It is correct at the gauge
point, but with a slightly increasing error on the numbers above and
below the error being against the gas in going up, and in favour of it
in going down. This is due to variations in the pressure increasing
or diminishing at the point of ignition. Within the degrees marked
on the scale, however, this error is not important.
The gas-tap is shown on the right side of the instrument. The small
cylinder on the left side is in communication with the water-cistern
in the body of the gauge, and contains a compensator, which, on being
screwed up or down as required, adjusts the water-line, so that the
pointer of the gauge stands at zero when the gas-tap is closed.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 353
Sugg's Illuminating Power Meter.
This instrument is shown in Fig. 187, and, as the name indicates,
is used for ascertaining the illuminating power of gas. The mode of
putting it in operation is as follows : Having filled it up to the
water line scratched on the glass in the small box on the right side,
connect it to the gas supply with a piece of metal tube. The inlet
is a ground union joint, fixed in the centre of the back of the instru-
ment. Turn the lever so as to make the gas pass through the
measuring-drum, and let it get rid of all the air, or other kind of gas
in it. Light the burner and adjust the flame to 3 inches in height.
FIG. 187.
Then, when the large hand arrives at 16, change the position of the
lever, so as to make the gas pass to the burner without going
through the measuring- drum. The large hand will then stop at 16.
Wind up the clock by means of the remontoir on the top of the meter
just in the rear of the dial ring. Start the clock by moving the slide
which is on the left of the meter, close to the governor. Then, when
the hand of the clock is passing any one of the divisions of the minute,
change the position of the lever of the bye-pass, so as to make the gas
pass through the meter. When the hand has made one complete
revolution, stop the meter by means of the lever, in the manner before
A A
354 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
described, and read off the illuminating power. The minute clock
should not be stopped either before or after the observation, unless
it is desired to put the clock entirely at rest.
Thorp and Tosher's Jet Photometer.
This is an ingenious and handy instrument (Fig. 188), for enabling
the illuminating value of the gas to be ascertained from inspection
FIG. 188.
at any time and place. It is well understood that the quantity
of gas passed in a given time will bear a proportion to the size of
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
ihe orifice (this is the principle on which the aerorheometer is made
a useful instrument by the same inventors for indicating the
rintity of gas consumed by different burners, &c.) ; and further
t the gas-flame being maintained at a given height, the quantity
of gas consumed, and the pressure, will vary as the illuminating
power. A movable or floating disc inside the glass tube regulates
the size of the orifice, and its position in the tube, corresponding
io the graduations of the scale at the side, indicates the illuminating
value.
THE SPECIFIC GEAVITY OF GAS.
Specific Gravity a Test of Quality.
If coal gas is free from carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and
-air, specific gravity is a proper test of quality ; the denser it is, the
greater will be its illuminating power increase in weight and light -
giving property being due to the presence of a larger proportion of
olefiant gas and the other richer and heavier hydrocarbons.
Ordinary Method of Determining the Specific Gravity.
The apparatus required in determining the specific gravity of gas
are a thin glass globe of about 100 cubic inches capacity, with two
stop-cocks on opposite sides, a good air-pump, and a very delicate
balance. The experimental room should also be furnished with a
barometer, showing the atmospheric pressure, and thermometers indi-
cating the temperature both of the air and gas. The method of mani-
pulation is as follows :
First. Open the two stop-cocks ; the globe will then be full of air
at the atmospheric pressure and temperature. Carefully weigh the
globe while in this state, and make a note of the weight.
Second. Attach the globe by one of the stop-cocks to the air-
pump, close the other stop-cock, and exhaust it as perfectly as possi-
lole. Having closed the stop-cock, remove the globe and weigh it in
its exhausted state. Suppose that it now weighs 31-5 grains less
than before, then these 81-5 grains represent the weight of the air
abstracted.
Third. Now attach the globe either to an experimental gasholder
or to a gas-pillar connected by a pipe to the main, and fill the globe
with the gas. When full, remove it and weigh it a third time. Sup-
pose that the weight is now 14-2 grains more than when in its
A A 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
exhausted state, then these 14-2 grains represent the weight of the
contained gas. Then, as 81 '5 (the weight of the air) is to 14-2
(the weight of the gas), so is 1-000 (the specific gravity of the air) to
the specific gravity of the gas. Or divide the weight of the gas by
the weight of the air, and the quotient is the specific gravity of the
gas ; thus
- = -450, specific gravity of the gas, compared
with air as unity, or 1-000.
Dr. Letheby's Method of Determining the Specific Gravity.
With Dr. Lethehy's apparatus (Fig. 189), the use of the air-pump
is dispensed with. It consists of a similar glass globe,
about 6 inches in diameter, furnished with two stop-
cocks, to one of which is attached a glass tube half
an inch in diameter and 7 inches long, fitted with a
jet for burning the gas, and having a thermometer in-
side of the tube to indicate the temperature. The
other stop-cock can be attached by a suitable nozzle
to a gas-pillar, and in practice the gas is kept flowing
through the apparatus, being consumed from the jet at
the upper end. The exact weight of the globe when full
of air at mean temperature and pressure is engraved
upon it ; and a counterpoise weight is provided, exactly
equal to the weight of the globe when exhausted.
When it is required to determine the specific gravity
of the gas, the lower or supply-cock is first closed, and
the upper one immediately afterwards. This order is
necessary to be observed in the shutting of the cocks,
because if the upper one were first closed, the gas within
the globe would be at the pressure of the gas within the
main, instead of that of the atmosphere. The globe is then placed in
the balance and a sufficient number of grains and fractional parts added
to the pan containing the counterpoise weight to equalize the beam.
Suppose that it takes 15 grains, then these represent the weight of the
gas, and say that the globeful of air weighs 35 grains, then
gg = -429, the specific gravity of the gas.
But it is necessary in making such observations to correct the volume
of gas to mean temperature and pressure, and to allow for the moisture
present in all aeriform bodies in contact with water. To these points
the observations which follow apply.
FIG. 189.
GAS ENGINEERS' AND MANAGERS.
Corrections for Temperature, Barometric Pressure, and Moisture.
Owing to the contraction and expansion which take place in the
bulk of all aeriform bodies, due to the variations in atmospheric tem-
perature and pressure, it is necessary, when estimating and comparing
their volume, to adopt one common temperature and barometric pres-
sure as the standard. The mean temperature of 60 Fahr. and 30
inches of mercury have been adopted as the most convenient, and to
this standard their volume is accordingly reduced. For example :
Corrections for Temperature. All aeriform bodies expand l-480th
part of their volume at 32 Fahr. for every degree of increase of tem-
perature (1 -273rd of the volume of the gas at Centigrade for each
degree of the same scale). Now suppose it is required to ascertain
what volume 1000 cubic feet of gas at 68 will occupy at 60 the mean
temperature. We know by the above-mentioned law that a quantity
of gas which at 32 is 480 parts, will at 60 become 508 (60-32 = 28
+ 480 = 508), and at 68, 516 (68-32 = 36+480 = 516), then
1000 x 508
^g = 984 cubic feet.
Or, again, if it is required to know the volume which 1000 cubic
feet of gas at 56 will occupy at 60, then
1000 x 508
= 1008 cubic feet.
oU'x
Correction for Pressure. The amount of decrease or increase in
volume is inversely as the pressure. To ascertain what volume 1000
cubic feet of gas at 28-5 inches will occupy when the mercury stands
at 30 inches, the mean barometric pressure, then
1000 x 28-5 , . , ,
= 950 cubic feet.
O\J
Or, again, if it is desired to ascertain the volume which 1000 cubic
feet of gas at 30-6 inches will occupy at 30 inches, then
1000 3 ^ 8 - 6 = 1 020 cubic feet.
Or,
Correcting at once for Temperature and Pressure. Suppose it is
required to ascertain what volume 1000 cubic feet of gas at 72 tem-
perature and 29-8 inches pressure will occupy at standard temperature
and pressure, then
1000 x ^ x ~QQ- = 970-5 cubic feet.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Correction for Moisture. It has been proved by experiment that one
cubic inch of permanent aqueous vapour at the mean temperature of
60, and the mean pressure of 30 inches, weighs -1929 grains ; and the
following table, founded on the researches of Dalton and Ure, and
given by Faraday in his "Chemical Manipulations," shows the pro-
portion by volume of aqueous vapour existing in any gas standing over
or in contact with water, at the different temperatures indicated, and
at a mean barometric pressure of 30 inches.
Proportion Proportion Proportion
Temp. of Vapour in Temp. of Vapour in Temp. of Vapour in
Deg. Fahr. One Volume Deg. Fahr. One Volume Deg. Fahr. One Volume
of Gas. of Gas. of Gas.
40
00933 54
. . -01533 68
02406
41
00973 55
. . -01586 69
02483
42
01013 56
01640 70
02566
43
01053 57
01693 71
02653
44
01093 58
01753 72
02740
45
01133 59
01810 73
02830
46
01173 60
01866 74
02923
47
01213 61
01923 75
03020
48
01253 62
01980 76
03120
49
01293 63
02060 77
03220
50
01333 64
02120 78
03323
61
01380 65
02190 79 .
03423
52
01426 66
02260 80 .
03533
53
01480 67
.
02330
To determine by means of this table the quantity of aqueous vapour
present, it is necessary to multiply the volume of the gas by the
tabular number corresponding to the temperature, thus Suppose
100 cubic inches of gas weigh 16 grains at the temperature of 72, and
at mean barometric pressure, then, according to the table, the volume
of aqueous vapour present is
100 x -02740 = 2-740 cubic inches.
This corrected to mean temperature will be
480 + 28
2-74 x
2-677 cubic inches.
480 + 40
Now, with respect to the volume of the gas, 100 cubic inches at 72
are equal to
X
100 x
= 97-7 cubic inches at a temperature of 60.
480 x 40
Hence, 97-7 2-677 = 95-023 cubic inches, the volume of dry gas at
mean temperature and pressure.
To arrive at the weight of the volume of dry gas, the volume of
aqueous vapour must be multiplied by -1929 grains, the weight of a-
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 359
cubic inch of permanent aqueous vapour, as before stated, and the
product deducted from the total weight of 16 grains ; thus
16 - (2-677 x -1929) = 15-483 grains.
Then for the weight of 100 cubic inches of dry gas, we have
15-483 x 100
-n^o23 = 16-294 grains.
And as 100 cubic inches of air at mean temperature and pressure
weigh 81 grains, we have
^- = -525, the specific gravity of the air.
If, instead of making the correction for moisture, it is preferred to
dry the gas as it passes into the globe, this may be done by causing
it to flow through a glass tube half an inch in diameter and about 18
to 20 inches long, containing pieces of chloride of calcium ; that sub-
stance having a strong affinity for moisture. Before using, the
chloride of calcium should be fused in an earthenware crucible at
a low temperature, then poured on a clean stone surface, and as
soon as cold, broken in pieces and put in the tube. The gas in pass-
ing through the tube to fill the globe should be made to travel slowly ;
about 15 minutes being the usual time allowed.
Wright's Method of Determining the Specific Gravity.
For ascertaining the specific gravity of gas, Mr. Wright used a light
balloon (Fig. 190), capable of containing one cubic foot, or 1728 cubic
inches.
His directions for performing the experiment are
as follows :
Expel the air from the balloon by folding it in
the form in which it is first received, ascertain the
weight of the balloon and car, fill the balloon with
gas, insert the stopper, and put as many grains * in
the car as will balance it in the air; add the
number of grains which it carries to the weight
of the balloon, and deduct the amount from the
tabular number corresponding to the degree of
temperature indicated by the thermometer, and FIG. 190.
the pressure indicated by the barometer (pp. 836-7) ;
divide the result by the tabular number due to the temperature and
* The weights used are not troy grains, 100 of them being equal to 53'56 troy
grains ; they are each equal to 1-728 cubic inches of air, when the barometer is at 30
inches, and the thermometer at 60.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
pressure of the gas (to ascertain which, allow the gas to blow upon
the bulb of the thermometer until the mercury is stationary), and the
three first figures are the specific gravity.
EXAMPLE I.
Weight of balloon and grains in car, 560.
Then
924 - 560
= -379, the specific gravity.
EXAMPLE II.
SS a r of . the . air .
Then
Weight of balloon and grains in car, 560.
1067 - 560
1Q12 -
KM A ,
= -501, the specific gravity.
Lux's Specific Gravity Apparatus.
The gas-balance, shown in Fig. 191, for determining the specific
gravity of illuminating gas, is the invention of Mr. Frederick Lux.
FIG. 191.
It is constructed on the principle of the common lever-balance, with
a curved scale attached by means of a coupling-rod to the standard.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS.
361
The scale is graduated from to 1 ; and the tongue or pointer, moving
in close proximity thereto, enables the operator to take a direct read-
ing of the specific gravity of the gas under examination.
Instead of consuming the gas through the vertical tube, a pipe can
be arranged to convey the gas to the photometer for the purpose
of testing its illuminating power.
To Find the Weight in Pounds of any Quantity of Gas at 60 Fahr. and
80 in. Bar., the Specific Gravity being known.
EULE. Multiply the quantity in feet by the specific gravity, and
the product by -0767 (weight of a cubic foot of air), and the answer
. will be the weight of gas in Ibs. avoirdupois.
EXAMPLE. What is the weight of 9400 cubic feet of gas, its specific
gravity being -480?
9400 x '480 x -0767 = 846-07 Ibs. of gas.
TABLE.
Weight of 1000 Cubic Feet of Gas of Different Specific Gravities, at
60 Fahr., and 30 in. Bar.
Specific
Gravity.
Air 1-000.
Weight
per 1000
cub. ft.
Ibs.
Specific
Gravity.
Air 1-000.
Weight
per 1000
cub. ft.
Ibs.
Specific
Gravity.
Air 1-000.
Weight
per 1000
cub. ft.
Ibs.
380
29-146
470
36-049
560
42-952
385
29-529
475
36-432
565
43-335
390
29-913
480
36-816
570
43-719
395
30-296
485
37-200
575
44-102
400
30-680
490
37-583
580
44-486
405
31-063
495
37-966
585
44-870
410
31-447
500
38-350
590
45-253
415
31-830
505
38-733
595
45-636
420
32-214
510
39-117
600
46-020
425
32-597
515
39-500
605
46-403
430
32-981
520
39-884
610
46-787
435
33-364
525
40-267
615
47-170
440
33-748
530
40-651
620
47-554
445
34-131
535
41-034
625
47-937
450
34-515
540
41-418
630
48-321
455
34-898
545
41-801
635
48-704
460
35"282
550
42-185
640
49-088
465
35-665
555
42-568
645
49-471
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Handy Rule for Ascertaining (approximately} the Weight of Coal Gas
in a Holdei'.
KULE. Multiply the number of thousands of cubic feet contained
in the holder by 37, and the product will be the weight of the gas
in Ibs.
EXAMPLE. A holder contains 54,000 cubic feet of gas, what is the
weight of the gas ?
54 x 37 = 1998 Ibs., approximate weight of the gas.
THE USE OF GAS FOR COOKING, HEATING,
VENTILATING, AND MOTIVE POWER. .
The use of gas for cooking, heating, and motive power has made
rapid strides of recent years ; and the steady increase that is taking
place in the consumption of gas for purposes other than illumination
is a matter of interest. Fifteen to twenty years ago this consumption
was only beginning to make itself felt, yet within the brief period
which has elapsed, considerable industries, giving employment to
much capital and many workpeople, have been called into existence to
produce the machinery and appliances required. These, which are
of the most numerous and varied kind, are of great excellence, whilst
improvements are constantly being effected therein.
For domestic and greenhouse use there are numberless heating
stoves of superior design and workmanship, and in cooking stoves and
ovens there is equal variety.
The uses to which gas may be advantageously put in every branch
of trade where heat is required, are only limited by the number of
such trades. For example, in coffee roasting, in the manufacture of
confectionery, the baking of bread, the finishing of shoes, in dentistry,
in the production of jewellery, in wire welding, tempering steel,
enamelling, and many others.
The gas-engine already successfully competes with the steam motor
for all purposes where the power required to be exerted is intermittent
and within moderate limits.
For handiness in application, and cleanliness and safety in use, gas,
as a fuel, is unsurpassed. The use of gas in these ways means a
saving of time and labour, and is an important step towards the solu-
tion of the smoke difficulty in towns.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEBS. 363
Taking its advantages in these respects into account, there is
economy in its employment even when, as in scattered districts, its
price per 1000 cubic feet may be considered high. In towns where
the price of gas is comparatively low, there is a positive economy
in its adoption, beyond the special recommendations named.
The manufacture of gas-engines was at first confined to the
smaller sizes, from one man power to 10-horse power, but now larger
sizes equal to as high as 100-horse power are being made.
In adopting this motor, neither boiler nor chimney are required,
and hence it can be employed in buildings, and in out-of-the-way
corners in establishments where a steam engine is altogether inad-
missible. It is always available for work on the opening of a tap,
and it goes on working continuously day and night with the least pos-
sible attention. Moreover, the percentage efficiency of the gas-engine
is greatly in excess of that evolved by the steam motor.
As a ventilating agent the gas-flame is of the greatest use, and in
rooms where the means of ventilation are provided it promotes their
efficiency, though it has not been employed in this direction as exten-
sively as its merits deserve. In spacious assembly rooms the gas
" Sunlight," or the " Eegenerative " light, with their ventilating
tubes, may be recommended as superior to any other method of arti-
ficial lighting.
One of the best methods perhaps the very best method of reduc-
ing the proportion which capital expenditure in gas-works bears to
revenue, is to cultivate a day consumption of gas, by affording faci-
lities for and encouraging in every legitimate way the use of gas for
cooking, heating, ventilating, and motive power.
This policy, if pursued to a successful issue, is virtually to reduce
the percentage of capital in the proportion of such consumption,
because the plant is brought to bear in earning profit during the day-
light as well as in the lighting hours.
The experiments on pp. 364-6, showing the advantages of cooking
by means of gas, are quoted by Mr. William Carr, in his article on this
subject in "King's Treatise," Vol. III., pp. 232-4 :
364
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
COOKING BY MEANS OF GAS.
(Mr. MAGNUS OHKEN, in his work " On the Advantages of Gas for
Cooking and Heating.")
Gas at 4s. 5d. per 1000 cubic feet.
Joint.
Weight.
Ibs. ozs.
Time.
b. m.
Weight
when .
Cooked.
Ibs. ozs.
Weight
of
Ibs. ozs.
Loss i Gas
of Used.
Weight. ;
Ibs. ozs. o. ft.
Cost
of
Gas.
d.
Leg of Mutton
8 11
2 20
7 5
5
7J
41
2-17
Bibs of Beef .
10 14
2 37
9 101
6i
14
46
2'43
Leg of Mutton
9 7
2 30
8 6
71
94
42
2-22
Bibs of Beef .
11
2 45
9 13
44
144
48
2'54
39 6)
35 2J
1 6i
2 134
177
9-36
Coal at 22s. per ton. (OHREN.)
Joint.
Weight.
Ibs. ozs.
Time.
b. m.
Weight
when
Cooked.
Ibs. ozs.
Weight
of
Dripping.
Ibs. ozs.
Loss
of
Weight.
Ibs. ozs.
Coal
used.
Ibs.
Cost
of
^al.
Cost
of
Wood,
d.
Total
Cost.
d.
Leg of Mutton
8 14
2 60
7 Of
8
7f
284
3'36
0-50
3-86
Bibs of Beef .
10 14
2 45
9 102
5
14J
29 3-42
0-50
3-92
Leg of Mutton
9 12
2 80
8
10
1 2
28 3-30
0-50
3-80
Bibs of Beef .
13 2
2 50
11 13
6
15
30 1 3-53
0-50
4-03
41 134
36 84
1 13
3 7
1154 13-61
2-00
15-61
These experiments were made twenty years ago, with the imperfect
apparatus of that time. The following were made in 1879-80 :
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGERS.
365
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GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 367
THE RESIDUAL PEODUCTS.
It is daily becoming more imperative on the Gas Manager to do all
that in his power lies to promote the interests of the undertaking
under,his charge, by utilizing the Residual Products of gas manufacture
to the utmost extent.
It is a remarkable fact that there are no waste products in a properly
conducted gas-works. The coke, breeze, tar, ammoniacal liquor,
sulphur, spent lime, retort carbon, and even the clinker and ash from
the furnaces are all marketable, and therefore of more or less value.
The flue heat from the retort stack is even utilized for the generation
of steam, and in the retort furnace where the regenerative or restora-
tive system is applied.
Coke and Breeze.
Coke, as ordinarily produced, is not well adapted for domestic use,
for kitcheners, for use in greenhouses, or stoves in general ; and, in
consequence, its sale is often restricted. To render it suitable for
these purposes, it requires to be broken into pieces of smaller and
more uniform size.
Wherever means have been adopted for this purpose, the article has
been found to command a ready sale ; and instead of mountains of
coke in every available corner of the works, the material is cleared
out almost as quickly as it is produced.
The labour and inconvenience and enormous waste attendant on
stacking are thus avoided, the premises can be kept in better order,
and the revenue is augmented.
For breaking the coke by hand, Mr. Bennett recommends a hammer
of the form shown in Fig. 192, with a chisel edge at one end, and four
prongs at the other.
A machine for breaking coke is made by Messrs. Smith, Beacock
and Tannett, of Leeds. This is used by Mr. Sellers at the York Gas-
Works, who gives the cost, and describes the advantages attending
its use.
" The engine (a 4-horse vertical) and breaker, and fitting up of
same, cost 148 ; being, for the engine, 108, the breaker, 28, and
fitting up, 7. By placing the engine and breaker upon one frame,
so that both could be moved upon one set of wheels, the cost would be
materially reduced, and the working very much improved. The
machine, when at full work, will break 20 tons of coke per day. We
have one man to look after the engine, and two to feed the
machine; but as the first named is not fully occupied with the
engine, he assists the other two in helping carters to put the
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
broken coke into bags, &c., the net cost of all which add 9d. per ton
to the price. Then in breaking a ton of coke, about 1 cwt. passes
through the screen, and is sold as breeze at Is. 6d. per ton, or, say,
Id. per cwt. The real result, therefore, of breaking coke stands thus :
We sell our unbroken coke at 10s. per ton, and broken at 10s. 8d. ;
the 8d. added being 9d. per ton for labour,
and coke converted into breeze by breaking,
less Id. received for breeze per ton of coke
broken. The cost of maintenance of engine
and breaker we consider is more than re-
couped by, t first the saving of labour that
would have been employed in loading the
coke if it had not been broken ; secondly,
the saving of the cost in labour and depre-
ciation of stacking the coke if it were not
sold ; and, thirdly, the advantage gained in
getting rid of the coke, so as to enable us to
maintain our price of 10s. per ton, for upon
our annual make of coke for sale a reduc-
tion of Is. per ton would inflict a loss of
500 a year."
Another excellent coke breaker is that
devised by Messrs. Thomas and Somerville.
This machine requires very little power to-
drive it, and the waste of coke by its use is
remarkably small. At a trial of the machine at the Old Kent Koad
works, the following results were obtained :
FIG. 192.
500 feet of gas consumed by a 2-horse power gas
engine, at cost price of gas delivered in holder .
Oil and cotton waste
Two men supplying machine with large coke, and
shovelling up broken, at 4s. 6d 9
Interest and wear and tear (say)
d.
Total per day 10 6
For 80 tons of coke broken per day at the rate of .
Add for loss by dust and waste, 1 cwt. with price of
coke at (say) 13s. 4d. per ton .'
Cost of breaking, per ton
9i
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGEKS.
The coke thus manipulated finds a ready and constant market as
quickly as it is produced, the result being an average net gain of Is. 6d.
per ton of coke.
Coke, immediately on being slaked with water, weighs about 15 per
cent, more than when unslaked ; the bulk of the moisture, however,
evaporates about 3 per cent, only being retained.
A ton of coke is about a chaldron and a half.
A chaldron of coke varies in weight from 12 to 15 cwt.
For the quantity of coke produced by different coals, see the tables
on pages 3 to 49.
Coal Tar.
The yield of tar from coal per ton in gas-works ranges up to 12
gallons, and from cannel up to about 17 gallons. The average pro-
duction in gas-works throughout the country will not exceed 11 gallons
per ton. The total production of coal tar in the United Kingdom is
probably about 500,000 tons.
The utilization of the tar for its products is not pursued at many
gas-works, though it is done at a few, and if well managed it is a
source of profit.
Considerably more skill and care are required in the distillation of
tar than in the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia ; nevertheless, it
is safe to predict that before many years have elapsed, this branch of
practical chemistry will be widely practised on those gas-works where
there is space and convenience.
The manufacture on gas-works may be wisely restricted to the dis-
tillation of the tar for the light and heavy oils, and the production of
pitch.
The principal dangers to be apprehended in the process are the
leaking or boiling over of the stills and the firing of vapours, causing
conflagration, and the stoppage of the pipe passages with accretions
of solid matter, chiefly naphthaline, resulting in explosion ; but these
dangers can be minimized, or altogether averted, under proper super-
vision, and by the use of efficient apparatus.
The specific gravity of tar produced from ordinary coal ranges from
1-120 to 1-150 ; that from cannel coal, from -980 to 1-060.
TABLE
Showing about the Average Proportion of the several Products obtained
from the Distillation of 10,000 gallons of Coal Tar. (Dr. Letheby.)
Ammoniacal liquor . . 240 '0 gals. I Solvent naphtha . . . 41 '8 gals.
40 per cent, benzole . . 34 -4 | Last runnings . . . . 12 '0
90 . . 63-1 | Dead oil 3018'7
Pitch 36 tons.
370 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
TABLE
Showing the Average Percentage of the Products Obtained from 100 Tom
of Coal Tar. ( Roscoe.)
Naphtha 3'0 2-0 per cent.
Light oils and carbolic acid .... 1-5 0'8
Heavy oils, naphthalene, anthracene. . 35 - 25 - ,,
Pitch 50-0 60-0
Water and loss 10'5 12-2
100-0 100-0
Mr. C. Greville Williams remarks (" King's Treatise," Vol. in.,
p. 281) that " The working results to be obtained from a charge of
1200 gallons vary so greatly, according to the nature of the tar and
the care with which the distillation has been made, that it is exceed-
ingly difficult to give any average which will be satisfactory to distillers
in different parts of the country. The following figures are placed
side by side as extreme cases " :
London :
Lancashire: (" Chemistry as
(Watson Smith.) applied to the Arts
and Manufactures.")
Ammoniacal liquor .... gallons 30 ... 50
First light oils , 33 ... 20
Second light oils " 157 ... 20
Creosote oils , 104 ... 250
Anthracene oils , 229 ... 50
Pitch tons 3-25 ... 4
Tar Pavement.
This is made of the breeze, ashes, and clinker of gas-works and mill
furnaces, along with shingle or coarsely-ground granite, mixed with
coal tar.
A coke fire is first made on the ground, and the solid ingredients
cessed in a heap round and over it ; layer after layer being gradually
added as the heat penetrates through the mass, until sufficient bulk
of the material is ready.
If preferred, or if a large quantity of material has t o be dried and
heated, a raised sheet-iron floor may be made, supported on bricks,
with the coke fire underneath ; or a permanent fire-brick floor may be
constructed, ramified with flues underneath leading to a chimney, and
having a fire grate at one end.
In the meantime, whilst the solid ingredients are being dried and
heated, the tar is being boiled, and, when ready, the two are taken
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEES. 371
and mixed together in small heaps (say about three ordinary barrow
loads ) in the proportion by measure of 1 part tar to 7 parts solid.
The whole is then turned over immediately whilst hot, and
thoroughly mixed, until every particle of the solid ingredients has
received a coating of tar.
The mixed material is then sorted into three separate heaps of
graduated fineness, by passing it through two sieves with f-inch and
f -inch meshes respectively. It is now ready for use, and may be laid
down at once, or kept in stock for a short time until required.
It is preferred by some to sort the solid ingredients before mixing
with the tar, as the latter is liable to clog the sieves. In this case an
ordinary screen, f inch between the bars, and supported at an angle,
is employed ; and all that passes through it is afterwards riddled
through a f-inch sieve.
The three different grades of material are then dried and made hot
as described, and thoroughly mixed with hot tar in these proportions :
1. Coarse material
j 1 part tar \ * 4
19 parts solid } or24
gals, tar to 1 ton solid.
2. Riddlings . .
( 1 part tar Qfk
1 7 parts solid } or30
1
8. Fine material
( 1 part tar ) Qft
(6 parts solid J or36
1
The footpath being properly kerbed, the upper edge of the stones
standing 3 inches above the solid bottom of the path, the rough pre-
pared material, No. 1, is put down 2 inches thick; then No. 2 about
inch thick, and finally No. 8 about inch thick. Each layer as it is
put down is rolled with a 10-cwt. roller until thoroughly consoli-
dated. Corners which cannot be reached by the roller, must be con-
solidated by punning. Derbyshire spar or fine granite sprinkled over
the surface improves the appearance of the pavement.
Three tons of the rough (No. 1) and 1 tons of the fine prepared
material (Nos. 2 and 8) will cover 60 square yards, or a footpath
2 yards wide and 80 yards long.
Ammoniacal Liquor.
The amount of liquor obtained up to the outlet of the scrubbers,
per ton of coal carbonized, varies from 15 to 45 gallons of 10-oz.
strength, depending on the class of coal used, and the efficiency of the
apparatus for arresting the ammonia.
The product of ammoniacal water or liquor, when treated with
sulphuric acid, is sulphate of ammonia ; when treated with muriatic
or hydrochloric acid, it is muriate of ammonia, or sal ammoniac.
B B 2
372 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
The manufacture of sulphate of ammonia from the ammoniacal
liquor is fast becoming general in gas-works, and properly so, as the
process is both simple and profitable. That it must be more profitable
to use the liquor at the place of production than at a distance away,
is evident, taking into account the saving of the cost of transport of a
bulky material.
The apparatus required is neither complicated nor costly ; the process
is free from danger (though fatal accidents have occurred through
carelessness, or the use of imperfect appliances), and an intelligent
labourer can learn it in less than a week's time.
In actual practice (using round figures) it is found that
1 ton of average gas coal yields 28 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia.
100 tons ,," ,, 1 tons
10 tons (2294 gals.) ammoniacal
liquor, 5 Twaddel, yield 1 ton ,,
The strength, and consequent value, of ammoniacal liquor, is com-
monly ascertained by Twaddel's hydrometer, and also by the quantity
of sulphuric acid of the specific gravity 1845 required to neutralize
the ammonia contained in one gallon.
Each degree of Twaddel is equal, as nearly as possible, to 2 oz. of
acid per gallon of the liquor ; hence arises the description of its
value :
Water of 5 degrees Twaddel is called 10-oz. liquor.
6 12
7 14
And so on, at the rate of 2 ounces for each degree, so that 10-oz.,
12-oz., or 14-oz. liquor means ammoniacal liquor of such a strength
that 10-oz., 12-oz., or 14-oz. of sulphuric acid, of the specific gravity
of 1845, are required to neutralize the ammonia contained in a gallon
of it.
To convert degrees of Twaddel's hydrometer into specific gravity,
multiply the number of degrees by 5, and add 1000 to the product.
EXAMPLE. Twaddel 6x5 + 1000 = 1030 specific gravity.
To convert specific gravity into degrees of Twaddel, deduct 1000
from the specific gravity, and divide the remainder by 5.
EXAMPLE. Specific gravity 1030-1000^-5 = 6 degrees of Twaddel.
To determine the weight of a gallon of ammoniacal liquor of any
strength, find the specific gravity by the above rule. This will
represent the number of ounces avoirdupois in weight per cubic foot.
Divide by 16 to ascertain the number of pounds per cubic foot, and by
6-25 (gallons per cubic foot) for the weight of a gallon of the liquor.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 373
EXAMPLE. Eequired weight per gallon of 10-oz. liquor (5 Twaddel),
(5 x 5) + 1000 = 1025, specific gravity and weight per cubic foot
in ounces avoirdupois.
= 64-063 Ibs. per cubic foot.
lo
64-063 ==10 . 25 ibs. weight per gallon of 10-oz. liquor.
Or the weight may be found more expeditiously by the rule given
immediately after the next table on page 374.
It is well known that the greater the proportion of ammoniacal gas
contained in a pure solution, the less the density or specific gravity of
such solution. How then, it may be asked, is the apparent contra-
diction to be explained, that the larger the quantity of ammonia
contained in gas liquor, the greater the density ?
The explanation is to be found in the circumstance that gas liquor
is not a solution of ammonia pure and simple, but contains other
gases in solution, and in combination with the ammonia in the form
of salts, which increase its specific gravity ; and the more ammonia
liquor contains, the greater is its power of arresting and absorbing
such other gases.
It is by reason of this latter-mentioned fact that Twaddel's hydro-
meter is tolerated as a gauge of the strength and value of the ammo-
niacal liquor of gas-works. At the best, however, its employment
for this purpose is very unsatisfactory.
The method of testing by saturating the liquor with sulphuric acid
is an improvement on the hydrometer ; but even that is imperfect, as
has been pointed out by Mr. Greville, who ascertained by experiments
on nine different samples of liquor that an average of 22-5 per cenf. of
the ammonia present in combination was not indicated by the acid.
The mode of testing by Mr. Thomas Wills meets the difficulty.
His plan is to mix with he liquor a caustic alkali for which the acids
of the salts contained in the liquor have a stronger affinity than for
the ammonia with which they are combined. On the mixture being
strongly heated, the salts are decomposed in presence of the caustic
alkali ; and the ammonia is driven off in the gaseous state, and being
conveyed into a solution of sulphuric acid is secured as sulphate of
ammonia. This and the other methods of testing are fully detailed
by Mr. Hartley in his brochure on " Ammonia Liquor Tests."
374
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
TABLE
Showing the Specific Gravity, Weight per Cubic Foot, Weight per Gallon,
and Ounce Strength of Ammoniacal or Gas Liquor of different degree*
Twaddel.
Degrees.
Twaddel
Liquor.
Specific Gravity
and Weight
per Cubic Foot
in Ounces
Avoirdupois.
Weight
per
Gallon.
Ibs.
Ounce
Strength
Degrees
Twaddel
Liquor.
Specific Gravity
and Weight
per Cubic Foot
in Ounces
Avoirdupois.
Weight
per
Gallon
Ibs.
Ounce
Strength.
1000
10-0
12*
1062-5
10-625
25
i
1002-5
10-025
1
13
1065
10-65
26
i
1005
10-05
2
13}
1067-5
10-675
27
i}
1007-5
10-075
3
14
1070
10-7
28
2
1010
10-1
4
14}
1072-5
10-725
29
2}
1012-5
10-125
5
15
1075
10-75
30
3
1015
10-15
6
15}
1077-5
10-775
31
tt
1017-5
10-175
7
16
1080
10.8
32
4
1020
10-2
8
16}
1082-5
10-825
33
4*
1022-5
10-225
9
17
1085
10-85
34
5
1025
10-25
10
17}
1087-5
10-875
35
54
1027-5
10-275
11
18
1090
10-9
36
6
1030
10-3
12
18}
1092-5
10-925
37
6}
1032-5
10-325
13
19
1095
10-95
38
7
1035
10-35
14
19}
1097-5
10-975
39-
7}
1037-5
10-375
15
20
1100
11-0
40
8
1040
10-4
16
20}
1102-5
11-025
41
8}
1042-5
10-425
17
21
1105
11-05
42
9
1045
10-45
18
21}
1107-5
11-075
43
94
1047-5
10-475
19
22
1110
11-1
44
10
1050
10-5
20
22}
1112-5
11-125
45
10}
1052-5 10-525
21
23
1115
11-15
46
11
1055
10-55
22
23}
1117-5
11-175
47
11}
1057-5
10-575
23
24
1120
11-2
48
12
1060
10-6
24
25
1125
11-25
5<>
It will be seen by the above that the weight of the liquor in pounds,
avoirdupois per gallon is obtained by simply placing the decimal point
after the first two figures of the number representing the specific
gravity. Thus, liquor of 1025 specific gravity is 10 '25 Ibs. ; and of
1037 '5 specific gravity is 10-375 Ibs. weight per gallon.
Each degree of Twaddel represents 350 grains above the weight of
distilled water. Consequently, 5 degrees represent 1750 grains, or
Ib. ; 20 degrees, 7000 grains, or 1 Ib.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
375
In Beaume's Hydrometer, which was the first instrument of the
kind, the divisions are equidistant ; and it has two modes of graduation
according as it is intended for liquids heavier or lighter than water.
This instrument is the one principally in use on the Continent.
Beaumes' Hydrometer Compared with Specific Gravity.
For Liquids Heavier than Water.
Degrees.
Beaum6.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Beaume.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Beaume.
Specific
Gravity.
1-000
26
206
52
1-520
1
1-007
27
216
53
1-535
2
013
28
225
54
1-551
3
020
29
235
55
1-567
4
027
30
245
56
1-583
5
034
31
256
57
1-600
6
041
32
267
58
1-617
7
048
33
277
59
1-634
8
056
34
288
60
1-652
9
063
35
299
61
1-670
10
070
36
310
62
1-689
11
078
37
321
63
1-708
,12
085
38
333
64
1-727
13
094
39
345
65
1-747
14
101
40
357
66
1-767
15
109
41
1-369
67
1-788
16
118
42
1-381
68
1-809
17
126
43
1-395
69
1-831
18
134
44
1-407
70
1-854
19
143
45
1-420
71
1-877
20
152
46
1-434
72
1-900
21
160
47
1-448
73
1-944
22
169
48
1-462
74
1-949
23
178
49
1-476
75
1-974
24
1-188
50
1-490
76
2-000
25
1-197
51
1-495
Beaume s Hydrometer Compared with Specific Gravity.
For Liquids Lighter than Water.
Degrees
Beaume.
Specific
Gravity.
Degrees
Beaame.
Specific
GFavity.
Degrees
Benume.
Specific
Gravity.
10
1-000
27
0-896
44
0-811
11
0-993
28
0-890
45
0-807
12
0-986
29
0-885
46
0-802
13
0-980
30
0-880
47
0-798
14
0-973
31
0-874
48
0-794
15
0-967
32
0-869
49
0-789
16
0-960
33
0-864
50
0-785
17
0-954
34
0-859
51
0-781
18
0-948
35
0-854
52
0-777
19
0-942
36
0-849
53
0-773
20
0-936
37
0-844
54
0-768
21
0-930
38
0-839
55
0-764
22
0-924
39
0-834 '
56
0-760
23
0-918
40
0-830
57
0-757
24
0-913
41
0-825
58
0-753
25
0-907
42
0-820
59
0-749
26
0-901
43
0-816
60
0-745
876 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Applications of Sulphate of Ammonia in Agriculture.
Mr. W. Arnold gives the following general directions for the applica-
tion of sulphate of ammonia in agriculture, and a list of the crops for
which it is most suitable :
Sulphate of ammonia is one of the most powerful fertilizers known
to modern science. . It is especially rich in nitrogen ; and when used
either by itself or in conjunction with farmyard manure, its good
effects are written so plainly, in better quality and largely increased
yield of corn, that no farmer who has once used it will ever give it up,
but will, on the contrary, annually increase its use upon his farm.
When bought at first hand from a gas-works, sulphate of ammonia
is guaranteed to contain more than twenty per cent, of nitrogen. Hence
its excellent effect upon all corn crops, which is chiefly expended in
increasing the yield of grain, but not the straw ; and there is, there-
fore, much less risk of ' lodging " from heavy rains. This is a very
important advantage. Then, manure rich in nitrogen increases the
proportion of gluten in cereals ; and this increase is stated by Boussin-
gault to be as much as 10 per cent. With an increase, therefore, of
10 per cent, in quality and of 20 per cent, in yield, the use of sulphate
of ammonia ought to be increased tenfold, to the great advantage of the
English farmer, for both may be done.
The most suitable dressing is one of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre,
mixed with an equal weight of fine dry earth or sand, and applied
early in the spring (say March or April), in moist or showery weather.
It should be thoroughly mixed in a barn or dry shed ; and, if at all
lumpy, beaten with a shovel, and passed through a 45-mesh riddle.
It should be carefully sown by hand; or, if in large quantities, with a
manure drill. If wheat is to be grown entirely with sulphate of
ammonia, it is better to put it on in two dressings one half in autumn,
and the other half in spring.
Upland or meadow grass, wheat, barley, oats, rye, colza, hemp,
mangel-wurzel, cabbages, hops, garden produce generally, and beet-
root (when grown for sugar), are the crops most largely benefited by
this manure ; simply because nitrogen, which is its dominant element,
enters largely into their composition. For instance, colza, hemp, and
beetroot require each of them 70 Ibs. per acre of nitrogen to produce a
full and healthy crop; wheat, 53 Ibs.; and barley, oats, and rye, 85
Ibs. per acre each.
Beans, peas, sainfoin, or clover, in which potash is the dominant ele-
ment, are not benefited by an application of sulphate of ammonia ; but
almost all other crops that can be grown will richly repay its use.
In the case of a crop thinned out by wireworm, the ravages of birds
or insects, or by a severe winter, the application of 2 cwt. of sulphate
of ammonia early in the spring, and lightly harrowed in, will, in many
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 377
cases, cause a crop that looked only fit to plough up, to tiller freely,
and grow away into a full yield of corn for the district.
Mr: Magnus Ohren states the exact quantity of sulphate of ammonia
which he considers is required for different crops, as follows :
For Grass Land. 1 cwt. per acre ; to be put on the land in the
month of April, before or after a shower of rain.
For Wheat, Oats, and Barley. 1 cwt. per acre for wheat, in April ;
1 cwt. per acre for oats, in April ; 1 cwt. per acre for barley, in April.
For Vines. 1 bushel on the vine border, lightly forked in, in the
months of March, April, May, and September. This quantity (1 bushel)
to be for the nourishment of four vines.
For Onion Beds. A good sprinkling over the beds two or three
times during the growth of the onions.
For Potatoes. 1 cwt. per acre as a top dressing, before the haulms
appear above ground.
For Greenhouse Plants. A large teacupful in a bucket of water, to
water the greenhouse plants with twice a week. Not to be used, how-
ever, for heaths, rhododendrons, or orchids.
For Peach, Apricot, Plum, Currant, and Gooseberry Trees. A similar
solution to that given for greenhouse plants, in the months of March,
April, and May. Eose trees and garden plants generally are benefited
by the use of the solution. Celery, cabbages, and cauliflowers also
grow well when watered with the solution.
For the Raising of Healthy Plants from Seeds. Sprinkle a good
quantity of the sulphate on the seed beds, and then water them a week
before sowing the seeds. Melons and cucumber plants also are much
benefited by the sulphate of ammonia.
Note. All vegetation, excepting heaths, rhododendrons, and orchids,
is rendered more luxuriant, healthier, and consequently freer from the
destructive attacks of insects, by the use of sulphate of ammonia. In
the spring of the year vegetation requires a condensed antiseptic and
nourishing food to enable it to withstand the blighting effects of the
north-easterly winds, which, being the least electrical of all the winds,
lower its vitality, and thus conduce to disease.
Spent Oxide of Iron.
The oxide of iron used in gas purification may be considered as
"spent " when the quantity of free sulphur contained in it ranges
between 45 and 55 per cent, by weight of the whole bulk of the
material.
Although by continuing to use it the proportion of sulphur can be
increased, it is not economical to do this beyond a certain point, as the
purifiers would have to be changed more frequently, and the labour
required for that purpose would be out of proportion to the benefit
derived. If, however (see ante p. 136), a small proportion of air or
878 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
oxygen is sent through the purifiers along with the gas, revivification
in situ is effected, and the oxide can be charged with 75 per cent, of
free sulphur.
In addition to the sulphur, the spent oxide usually 'contains a small
percentage of salts of ammonia, and some insoluble cyanides of iron,
which are of value.
The spent oxide is generally sold at per unit of contained sulphur.
Mr. Andrew Stephenson has devised a handy apparatus (Fig. 198) ,
for estimating the amount of sulphur in the oxide, and gives the fol-
lowing instructions for using the same :
Weigh 100 grains of spent oxide^dry at 212 Fahr., and weigh to
ascertain moisture ; put the dried material in the test-tube, A, which
is provided at the bottom with a filter of cotton wool.
FIG. 193.
Bisulphide of carbon is then blown from the holder, B, into the test-
tube, A, on top of the spent oxide. It percolates the mass gradually,
and dissolves out the sulphur ; the solution finding its way by gravita-
tion into the flask, C, which is placed in a water-bath.
The Bunsen burner is then lighted, and the application of heat soon
vaporizes the bisulphide of carbon from the flask, C. The vapour finds
its way through the connecting-tube into the condenser, and is
recovered in the receiver, D, under water, ready for further use.
The sulphur is left in the flask (the weight of which has been pre-
viously noted) ; and when all the bisulphide of carbon is driven off, the
quantity of sulphur may be ascertained.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 379
Fit the filter in the test-tube with care. If too tight, it will pre-
vent filtration ; if too loose, it will permit some of the oxide to pass
through.
Three or four times the bulk of the oxide is about the proportion of
bisulphide of carbon necessary to dissolve out all the sulphur.
It must always be borne in mind that bisulphide of carbon is very
inflammable, and in the gaseous state when mixed with air in certain
proportions it is explosive. The bisulphide in the holder, B, should be
covered with water.
It is best to melt the sulphur in the flask before weighing, to drive
off all bisulphide of carbon.
Gas Lime :
Its Composition, and Use in Agi~iculture.
In a valuable paper on gas lime, published in the Journal of Gas
Lighting,* Professor Voelcker states that a copious supply of air is
necessary to transform the injurious sulphur compounds contained in
the material into fertilizing agents.
When exposed to the air (and the longer it is kept exposed the
better), gas lime is in some respects superior to quick lime as a.
manure.
The oxygen of the atmosphere destroys the offensive smell, and
changes the sulphuret of calcium in it first into sulphite, and finally
into sulphate of lime or gypsum, well known as a valuable fertilizing
substance.
In addition to its chemical virtues, gas lime exercises a beneficial
mechanical effect upon land, by rendering stiff, heavy, clayey land more
porous and friable, and by consolidating light sandy soils.
The crops which are particularly benefited by gas lime are clover,
sainfoin, lucerne, peas, beans, vetches, and turnips. It is a useful
fertilizer for permanent pasture, destroying the coarser grasses, and
favouring the growth of a sweeter and more nutritious herbage.
It kills moss, heath, feather grass, and other plants characteristic
of peaty land, its application to which cannot be too strongly recom-
mended.
As a general rule, two tons per acre is the quantity of gas lime
which ought to be put on land.
The proper time for its application is in the autumn or winter.
. During the period of storage, the heap should be turned over once
or twice to ensure its complete exposure to the air.
* See Vol. XIV., p. 210.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
The following is an analysis by Professor Voelcker of a sample of
gas lime, kept long enough to be used icith safety as a manure :
Composition of Gas Lime (Dried at 212 Fahr.)
Per Cent.
Water of combination and a little organic matter 7 '24
Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphoric acid . . . 2'49
Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 4'64
Sulphite of lime 15'19
Carbonate of lime ..." 49'40
Caustic lime 18'23
Magmsia and alkalies 2'53
Insoluble siliceous matter . . . . - v 0-28
100-00
In fresh gas lime the proportion of water varies usually from 30 to 40 per cent.
TABLE
Showing the results Obtained by the application of certain Manures
to Land. (Mr. Wilson, of Largs.)
Produce
Pounds of
Increase per
Manure.
of the Lot
Hay
Acre over that
in Ibs.
per Acre.
Untouched.
Left untouched
430
3360
2J barrels of quicklime ...
1 ton of lime from gas-works .
602
651
4816
5208
1456
1848
4J cwt. of w od charcoal powder
665
5320
1960
2 bushels of bone dust ...
693
5544
2184
18 Ibs. of nitrate of potash
742
5936
2576
20 Ibs of nitrate of soda ....
784
6272
2912
10 bushels of soot
819
6552
8192
28 Ibs. of sulphate of ammonia . . .
874
6776
3416
100 gals, of ammoniacal liquor fromi
gas-works j
945
7562
4202
The land was a piece of three years' old pasture, of uniform quality,
divided into 10 lots of 20 perches each. All the lots were manured at
the same time with the articles given in the table, and the grass cut
and made into hay in July. Each application cost the same.
Ammoniacal liquor is best applied at the following strength :
Ammoniacal liquor (5 Twaddel) 1 part.
Water 7 parts.
The proper time for its application is in the spring, after the grass
has commenced growing, and during cloudy weather. It may be
sprinkled on the land as water is applied to the streets of towns to lay
the dust.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES.
381
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PH Z-i PnP-i fl| Pn rn 2n PH C-
Propyl ....
Propylene, or Tityle
Propy-hydride . .
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
g
ty
1
1
_fl
5
c
d
3
fli
^
-
|o
-"S'tf
ill
11
i|ii
|
1 ,
5
1
1
*
'S
_a
}~
"3
s
i
3
I
1
"c8
s
do.
do.
of the purifiers. Used
ip dressing for land.
peroxide of iron, emplo;
he sulphuretted hydrogei
ing become charged wil
ie extent of 40 to 75 per d
of foulings and revivifici
e manufacturing chemil
niric acid.
||a^
5 ^-2g
Jldll
1-alll
'g "^"S
2 S s^a-w
i?ti
imoma alum,
lime of the purifiers, and
in absorbing from the g
: carbon impurity, and tl
ands other than sulphv
A constituent <
body.
A constituent
light oil.
A constituent
light oil.
** jj
11
liHlllliiil
}jlse;*i|gjrtJ
g* = ,
M T3 r; .
o^oS g
ggJ-B. ^
1"12?
5 _ .2 '2 "pJ?
IP
c
ill
*
1
S
: ! .:?]?
*
ft
!i
,
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13
Name of Pi
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i|
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t-il'J
00 !H a a m O
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Oxide of
ate of Am
s!
5-s
sl
it
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d
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s-
OB
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
|
A constituent of raw gas.
Sulphur impurities existing in coal gas.
In the best gas-producing coals the amount
of sulphur present rarely exceeds 1J per
cent., generally it is much less. In the
process of distillation about one-half the
contained sulphur remains in the residual
coke, whilst the other half is volatilized,
and, combining with H and C, constitutes
impurities reauiring removal.
!i if 11FI *fittt;i
3.1 r^' ^" a e llliioll
~^ -gig's! :ffl**i s
t!li & fflltiHi
m MI i ? a
a iiiii
il?l|ij|:io||:l!ri!lll
iff Jii^ifi?iiirri:i
SI-H o bo o H w 3 o o P<J3 2 o bcja o> be O..13 a
H H H
ing Point,
egrees
irenheit.
:i : . 1 ' :
r^
l j
7
II
il
3.
ia
P
h
S
|
1
1
1
.
Formula
Symbol
1 '
*
00
a
i
M
g
1 -a
^. "
03 .
1
a 1
g.
,
s
3
1-
S'S
i
o 2
If
~ll
1*1
1
I
o 6
ft
3
01
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lit
pW'3
03 03
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I
".-
03
NBWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
g" o'
s a
g
ifiHiffi *
*n*SiHr a |
^
s7
3 *
f
I*
1!
i: i
s f i
I s " .
lil
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5i|i
ll^'l
"o ^ S fe:
111 B
esW
i
1 3 Hi
dj c a S a 3 .2
'O c3 &t E> T3
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S 33 o oo '^3 &t'3 g o s o
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IJj
^2 13
is is
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f
. II
2
2
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It
II
-Sc-
2*0
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES. 395
CHEMICAL AND OTHEE MEMOBANDA.
The compounds of the non-metallic elements with the metals and
with each other have names ending in " ide " or "uret ;" as Fe S,
sulphide or sulphuret of iron.
When two or more atoms or equivalents of the non-metallic ele-
ments enter into combination, the number of atoms or equivalents is
expressed by prefixes.
Mon . . . means 1 atom, as N 2 0, nitrogen mon-oxide.
Di, bin, or bi means 2 atoms, as N 2 2 , nitrogen di-oxide, or bin-oxide
of nitrogen : CS 2 , bi-sulphide or di-sulphide of carbon.
Tri or ter . means 3 atoms, as N 2 8 , nitrogen tri-oxide ; Sb 2 S 3 , ter-
sulphide of antimony.
Tetr . . . means 4 atoms, as N 2 4 , nitrogen tetr-oxide.
Pent or penta means 5 atoms, as N 2 5 , nitrogen pent-oxide ; PC1 5 ,
penta- chloride of phosphorus.
Sesqui . means 1 atoms ( =2 to 3), as Fe 2 3 , sesqui-oxide of iron.
Proto or prot means first, as Fe 0, prot-oxide of iron.
Sub . . . means under, as Cu 2 0, sub-oxide of copper.
Per . . . means the highest, as H Cl 4 , per-chloric acid.
The terminations " ic " and " ous " are used for acids ; the former
representing a higher state of oxidation than the latter.
When a substance forms more than two acid compounds, the pre-
fixes " hypo," under, and " hypher " above, are used.
The smaller number, as H 2 , placed to the right of, and slightly
below a symbol is called the exponent, and indicates the number of
times that the combining weight of the substance has to be taken.
When the symbol is without a number thus, H the number one is
understood. The small numbers modify only the symbol immediately
preceding, but larger numbers prefixed to the symbol modify all that
follow as far as the next comma or + sign : thus 2H 2 S0 4 signifies
that four of hydrogen, two of sulphur, and eight of oxygen, or, more
correctly, that two of sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 being the formula for
sulphuric acid) are to be taken.
A base is a compound which will chemically combine with an acid.
A salt is a compound of an acid and a base.
When water is in combination with acids or bases, they are said
to be hydrated.
Alkalies neutralize acids, forming salts.
Alkalies turn vegetable reds to blue, and yellows to brown.
Acids turn vegetable blues to red, and browns to yellow.
A simple or elementary substance is a body that cannot be resolved
or separated into any simpler substances as oxygen, carbon, iron.
A compound substance is one consisting of two or more constituents
water, carbonic acid gas, olefiant gas.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
The equivalent number or atomic or combining weight expresses the
relation that subsists between the different proportions by weight in
which substances unite chemically with each other.
The equivalent or combining weight of a compound is the sum of
the combining weight of its constituents.
Specific gravity expresses the difference that subsists between the
weights of equal volumes of bodies. Gases are usually compared with
air as TOGO, liquids and solids with water as 1-000.
So far as chemists have been able to discover, there are about 65
elementary or simple substances.
No compound body contains all the elementary substances. Most
compounds are composed of two, three, or four elements.
TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES.
Names of Elements.
Symbols
Atomic
Weights.
Names of Elements.
Symbols.
Atomic
Weights.
Aluminium . . ,
Antimony (stibium)
Al
Sb
27-5
122
Mercury (Hydrarg.) .
Molybdenum .
Hg
Mo
200
96
Arsenic ....
As
75
Nickel
Ni
59
Barium
Ba
1 137
Niobium ....
Nb
94
Bismuth ....
Bi
208
Nitrogen ....
N
14
Boron
B
11
Osmium ....
Os
199
Bromine ....
Br
80
Oxygen ....
16
Cadmium ....
Cd
112
Palladium . . .
Pd
106
Caesium ....
Cs
133
Phosphorus .
P
31
Calcium ....
Ca
40
Platinum ....
Pt
197 'IK
Carbon ....
C
12
Potassium (Kalium) .
K
39
Cerium ....
Ce
140-42
Rhodium ....
Rh
104
Chlorine ....
Cl
35-5
Rubidium ....
Rb
85
Chromium.
Cr
52
Ruthenium
Rn
104
Cobalt
Co
59
Selenium ....
Se
79
Copper (Cuprum). .
Didymium . . .
Cu
D
63-5
174-57
Silicium or Silicon .
Silver (Argentnm) .
Si
Ag
28
108
Erbium
E
165-89
Sodium (Natrium) .
Na
23
Fluorine ....
P
19
Strontium. . . .
Sr
87 T,
Glucinum or Beryl- )
Hum ....'"
Gl
9-4
Sulphur
Tantalum or Colum- >
S
32
Gold (Aurum) . .
Au
197
bium ...;.
Ta
182
Hydrogen ....
H
1
Tellurium .
Te
128
Indium . . .
In
113-4
Thallium ....
Tl
204
Iodine ....
I
127
Thorium ....
Th
233 --11
Indium. . . .
Ir
192
Tin (Stannum) . .
Sn
118
Iron (Ferrum)
Fe
56
Titanium ....
Ti
CO
Lanthanum
La
138-52
Tungsten (Wolfram)
W
184
Lead (Plumbum)
Pb
207
Uranium ....
U
238-48
Lithium ....
Li
7
Vanadium. . . .
V
51-8
Magnesium . . .
Mg
24
Yttrium ....
Y
172-70
Manganese (Manga- 1
Zinc
Zn
65
nium) .'...)
Mn
55
Zirconium . . .
Zr
90
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 397
LIST OF SUBSTANCES,
Simple and Compound, frequently mentioned in Connection u-it/i the
Manufacture and Purification of Coal Gas and the Ilexidunl
Products resulting therefrom.
Name of Substance. Symbol.
Ammonia NH S
Aniline C 12 H 7 N
Aqueous vapour .... H 2
Benzole C 6 H 6
Bisulphide of carbon . . . CS 2
Bisulphide of iron . Fe S 2
Bntylene C 4 H 8
Carbon C
Carbolic acid C 12 H 6 2
Carbonate of ammonia . . 2 NH 3 3 C0 2 + 2 HO
Carbonate of lime . . . Ca C0 8
Carbonic acid C0 2
Carbonic oxide . . . .CO
Cyanogen . . . . . . C 2 N 2
Hydrogen H
Hydrochloric or muriatic acid HC1
Light carburetted hydrogen . CH 4
Muriate of ammonia . . . NH 3 HC1, or NH 4 C1
Naphthaline . .' . . . C 10 H 8
Nitrogen N
Nitric acid . / . . . HN0 8
Olenantgas C 2 H 4
Oxygen
Oxide of calcium (caustic lime) Ca
Oxide of potassium (caustic) ^ n
potash) ) ^ U
Oxide of sodium (caustic soda) Naj
Peroxide of iron .... Fe 2 0,
Protoxide of iron . . . . Fe
Protosulphide of iron . . . Fe S
Protochloride of manganese. Mn C1 2
Propylene C 8 He
Sesquisulphide of iron . . Fe 2 S 3
Sulphur S
Sulphate of ammonia . . 2(NH 4 )S0 4
Sulphide of calcium . . . Ca S
Sulphuretted hydrogen . . H 2 S
Sulphuric acid .... H 2 S0 4
Sulphur dioxide .... SO.,
Water H 2
XEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
To ascertain the proportion, by ii-eiyht, of the different substances
in a compound, multiply the atomic weight of each substance by the
exponent.
For example : Take olefiant gas, C 2 H 4 , which, as its formula in-
dicates, consists, by weight, of two atoms of carbon combined with
four atoms of hydrogen
Atomic Weight. Exponent. bjw2fght.'
C 12 x 2 = 24 or 85-715 per cent.
H 1 x 4 = 4 or 14-285
So that, 24 grains, or 24 ounces, or 25 pounds of carbon, combine with
4 grains, or 4 ounces, or 4 pounds of nydrogen to form 28 grains, or
28 ounces, or 28 pounds, and so on, of olefiant gas.
COMMON NAMES OF CEETAIN CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES.
Aqua fortis , Nitric acid
Aqua regia A mixture of nitric and hydrochloric-
acids, so called from its property of
dissolving gold.
Bluestone, or blue vitriol . Sulphate of copper.
Calomel Chloride of mercury.
Chloroform Chloride of forniyle.
Choke-damp. . . j/i* Carbon dioxide.
Common salt Chloride of sodium.
Copperas, or green vitriol . Sulphate of iron.
Corrosive sublimate . . . Bichloride of mercury.
Dry alum Sulphate of alumina and potash.
Epsom salts Sulphate of magnesia.
Ethiops mineral. . . . Black sulphate of mercury.
Fire-damp Light carburetted hydrogen.
Galena Sulphide of lead.
Glauber's salts .... Sulphate of soda.
Goulard water . . ">.,,],' Basic acetate of lead.
Iron pyrites Bisulphide of iron.
Jeweller's putty .... Oxide of tin.
King's yellow .... Sulphide of arsenic.
Laughing gas . ($$.% Pro toxite of nitrogen.
Lime Oxide of calcium.
Lunar caustic .... Nitrate of silver.
Mosaic gold Bisulphide of tin.
Muriate of lime .... Chloride of calcium.
Nitre, or saltpetre . . . Nitrate of potash.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES Continued.
Oil of vitriol .-'. . . Sulphuric acid.
Potash Oxide of potassium.
Eealgar Sulphide of arsenic
Bed lead' Oxide of lead.
Bust of iron Oxide of iron.
Sal ammoniac .... Muriate of ammonia.
Soda . '';. Oxide of sodium.
Spirits of hartshorn .
Spirit of salt ....
Stucco, or plaster of Paris
Sugar of lead
Tincal . .
Ammonia.
Hydrochloric or muriatic acid.
Sulphate of lime.
Acetate of lead.
Crude borax.
Verdigris Basic acetate of copper.
Vermilion Sulphide of mercury.
Vinegar Acetic acid.
Volatile alkali .... Ammonia.
Wad Black oxide of manganese.
Water Oxide of hydrogen.
White vitriol Sulphate of zinc.
TABLE OF VARIOUS GASES.
TJieir Specific Gravity, Weiyht, and Solubility in Water.
60 Fahr. 30 in. Barometer.
Name.
Specific
Gravity.
Air equal
1-000
Weight of a
Cubic Foot in
Pounds
Avoirdupois.
Weight
ofaCubic
Foot in
Grains.
Number
of Cubic
Ft. equal
to 1 Ib.
Solubility,
100 Vols. of
Water absorb.
Hydrogen
Light carburetted hydrogen
Ammonia
Carbonic oxide
Olefiant gas
Nitrogen
Air
0691
559
590
967
968
9713
1-000
1-039
1-1056
1-1747
1-527
1-529
2-247
2-470
2-640
00529997
0428753
045253
0741689
0742456
07449871
0767
0796913
08479952
09009949
1171209
1172743
1723449
189449 ,
202488
37-09
300-12
316-77
519-18
519-71
521-49
536-90
557-83
593-59
630-69
819-84
820-92
1206-41
1326-14
1417-41
188-68
23-32
22-09
13-48
13-46
13-42
13-03
12-54
11-79
11-09
8-53
8-52
5-80
5-27
4-93
1-93 Vols
3-91 '
72,720-
2-43
16'15
1-48
1-70
f Not soluble
< in water.
2-99 Vols
323-26
77-78
100-20
4276-60
236-80
(Not soluble
' in water.
Nitric oxide
Oxygen
Sulphuretted hydrogen . .
Nitrous oxide
Carbonic acid
Sulphurous acid ....
Chlorine
Bisulphide of carbon ....
400 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOK
To reduce a volume of gas of any specific gravity to pounds avoir-
dupois, multiply the volume by the sp. gr. and by -0767.
EXAMPLE. Eequired the weight of 1500 cubic feet of gas whose
specific gravity is 520.
1500 x -520 x -0767 = 59-8261bs.
To find the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of air at
different temperatures, and under different pressures.
1-3253 x B
459 + T
EXAMPLE. Kequired the weight of v a cubic foot of air, the barometer
being at 29-5 inches, and the temperature 84 Fahr.
1-8253 x 29-5
459 + 84
= -072lb.
Luting for E.rpcriments in Chemistry.
For temporarily, securing the joints of chemical vessels, glass
stoppers, &c., use equal parts by weight of linseed meal and whiting
made into a stiff paste with water. The two substances should be
well triturated in a mortar, and the water added till of the proper
consistency.
Pieces of vulcanized india-rubber tubing are very suitable for join-
ing the ends of glass and earthenware tubes. The india-rubber is
slipped over the ends, and secured with pack-thread.
India-rubber capsules for bottle necks, having a hole through them
ior the insertion of glass tubes are handier, and more likely to be gas-
tight than the ordinary corks.
AVEEAGE COMPOSITION OF LONDON GAS BY VOLUME.
(Dr. LctJwbtj, 1866.)
Common Gas. Cannel Gas.
Hydrogen 46'0 27'7
Light carburetted hydrogen .... 39'5 50-0
Olefiantgas . 3'8 13'0
Carbonic oxide 7-5 ...... 6'8
Carbonic acid 0'7 O'l
Aqueous vapour 2*0 2'0
Nitrogen 0'5 0'4
100-0 100-0
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
401
'Relative Value of Different Illuminating Agents in Regard to their
Illuminating Properties. (Dr. Letheby, 1866).
Name.
Bate of Consumption
per Hour.
Ilium. Power.
(Sperm, 120 grg.)
Quantity
14 Candles.
Cannel gas
4 feet.
18'67
3 feet.
Goal gas .
5
14-00
5
Benzole .
301 grs.
4-91
857 grs.
Paraffin oil
265
7-11
522
Sperm oil
686
10-00
960
Colza oil .
648
9-01
1008
Paraffin candles .
122
1-46
1171
Sperm
132
1-35
1440
Wax .
168
1-43
1652
Steario . .
140
1-13
1732
Composite . .
144
1-08
1858
Tallow . .
145
0-83
2542
TABLE,
Comparing Gas icith the other Ordinary Light-giving Materialt.
(Dr. Letheby.)
5 cubic feet of common gas (at 4s. per 1000 cubic feet) give a light
equal to
2-5 Argand lamps, burning the best sperm oil at the rate of 183
grains per hour (price of sperm, 8s. per gallon) ; or,
23 mould tallow candles of six to the pound, each burning at the
rate of 145 grains per hour (price 6d. per lb.) ; or,
18 common oil lamps, burning the best sperm oil at the rate of 133
grains per hour (price of sperm, 8s. per gallon) ; or,
13 sperm candles, six to the pound, each burning at the rate of 133
grains per hour (price 2s. per lb.) ; or,
15 composition candles, six to the pound, each burning at the rate
of 136 grains per hour (price 2s. per lb.) ; or,
16-25 wax candles, six to the pound (2s. per lb.)
Estimating the cost of the gas and other light-giving materials a
the price affixed, we have the next
TABLE,
Showing the Relative Cost of the Various Illuminating
Gas equal
Sperm oil burnt in Argands
Mould tallow candles, six to the pound ; . . . .
Sperm oil burnt in an open lamp .;.:.. )(
Sperm candles, six to the pound ....'...
Composition candles, six to the pound .....
Wax candles, six to the pound ....;..
Agents.
to 1
8
12
17
24
29
30
402
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
In other words, Is. worth of gas will go as far in the produc-
tion of light as 8s. worth of sperm oil burnt in an Argand lamp, or
12s. worth of ordinary mould candles, or 17s. worth of sperm oil burnt
in an open lamp, or 24s. worth of sperm candles, or 29s. worth of
composition candles, or 80s. worth of wax candles.
TABLE,
Showing the Relative Proportions which the Ordinary Light- giving
Materials bear to 1000 Cubic Feet of IS-Candte Gas, as estimated, by
Mr. Lewis Thompson.
1COO cubic feet of common gas were
found equal to the light of
44? Ibs. of sperm candles.
48? Ibs. of carefully snuffed wax candles.
52i ff Ibs. of best mould candles.
54? Ibs. of best dip candles.
6J gallons of purified colza oil. Spe-
cific gravity, -915.
5-Ar gallons of sperm oil. Specific gra-
vity, -888.
The comparative values of the different light-giving materials may
be readily estimated from the foregoing tabular statement of relative
proportions. Thus, for instance, if the cost of gas be 4s. 6d. per 1000
cubic feet, the cost of wax candles that yield an equal quantity of light,
at 2s. 4d. per lb., would be 5 14s.
RELATIVE VALUES OF ILLUMINATING AGENTS.
In respect of their Heating and Vitiating Effects on the Atmosphere, when
Burning so as to Give the Light of 12 Standard Sperm Candles.
(Dr. Letheby.)
V
Cannel gas .
Common gas .
Sperm oil
Benzole
Pounds of Oxygen
rater Heated Consumed
1 Fahr. (Cubic Feet).
1950 .... 3-30 . .
2786 .... 5-45 . .
2335 .... 4-75 . .
Carbonic
Acid Product
(Cubic Feet
. . 2-01
. . 3-21
3-33
id
b
(
Air
Vitiated
Cubic Feet).
50-2
80-2
83-3
88-5
112-5
119-2
131-7
149-5
156-2
218-3
2326 .... 4-4fi . .
. . 8-64
Paraffin . .
Camphine . .
Sperm candles
Wax candles .
Stearic candles
Tallow candles
3619 . . .
3251 . . .
3517 . . .
3831 . . .
6-81 . .
6-65 . .
. . 4-50
7-57 . .
8'41 . .
. . 5-27
5 '90
3747 . . '.
5054 . . .
8-82 . .
12-06 . .
. . 6-25
. . 8-73
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 408
TABLE,
Indicating the Comparative Salubrity of the Several Illuminating
Materials.
The flame of coal gas, and the flames of several combustible bodies
that gave an amount of light equal to it, were burned separately in
given quantities of atmospheric air, and the times were noted at which
the flames were extinguished by the contamination of the air. The
following were the results :
Colza oil was extinguished in 71 minutes
Olive oil , 72
Russian tallow
Sperm oil . .
Sperm
Stearic acid ....
Wax candles ....
Spermaceti candles . .
Coal gas (13 candles) . .
Cannel gas (28 candles) .
76
76
77
79
83
98
152
.From which it appears that the atmosphere of a confined room lighted
by cannel gas will support life twice as long as the atmosphere of the
same room lighted equally by tallow candles.
Relative Cost of the Magnesium Light, Stearine Candles, and Common
Coal Gas. (Dr. Frankland, 1865).
2i oz, of magnesium wire, at 21s. per oz 2 12 6
20 Ibs. of stearine candles, at Is 100
404 cubic feet of 12-candle gas, at 4s. 6d. per 1000 . . . 1 9|
TABLE.
Calorific Power of Various Photogenic Compounds. (F. J. Evans).
Pounds of Water Pounds of Water
Cubic Feet raised 1 raised !
Name of Gas, &c. to by the by th?
One Pound. Consumption of Consumption of
1 Foot of Gas. 1 Ib. of Gas.
Hydrogen ISO'O .... 300 .... 54,000
Newcastle coal gas, sp. gr. -410 . 32-4 .... 650 .... 21,060
Cannel gas, sp. gr. -500 ... 26'5 .... 760 .... 20,140
Oil gas, sp. gr. -825 16'69 .... 1200 . . .
1 Ib. of candles.
Sperm candles, 6 to the Ib. 17,567
1 Ib of oil.
Sperm oil, burnt in a lamp 16,490
D D 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
I
K
l!
ttj
Cf^r^^C^OT_C^O^^_I^^OT_
^O^^o
F-H-KNCiKSWWlrtOQr-lr-lrtiHrHr-lr-K
f ICOOO^-O^^-OOO C^Ol O^G^
''
r-1 <N 03r-l CO I-l
M ip O U5 JO 33 t> O5 t^ 1C 10 O Op O OS O5 p t- SO Ttl W U5 I> t> O
^gg*SSS^sssSfefeSS^
.3 . .a
j ,a
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
405
TABLE.
Heats of Combustion with Oxygen.
British Thermal
Units of Heat.
Pounds of Water
at 212 Pahr.
Evaporated per
Pound of Substance.
Hydrogen 61,500
Alcohol 12,963
Benzene 18,600
Carbon bisulphide 6,152
Carbon burning to carbonic acid .... 12,906
Carbon burning to carbonic oxide .... 2,495
Carbonic oxide burning to carbonic acid . . 4,478
Charcoal, wood 12,455
Coal, anthracite 15,600
Coal, best bituminous ', 15,504
Coke, produced from ditto 14,375
Coal, average quality 13,600
Coke, produced from ditto 12,800
Ethylene 21,500
Graphite 14,067
Light carburetted hydrogen, or marsh gas . 24,020
Lignite 11,710
Olefiant gas 21,375
Olive oil 17,784
Peat, dry 9,983
Petroleum 20,272
Propylene 21,200
Sulphur 4,102
Sulphuric ether 16,282
Turpentine 19,566
Wood, dry 7,824
Cubic Feet per Ib.
Coal gas, 17 candles ... 32 '227 21,696
Water gas 22-862 6,649
Producer gas 14 '369 1,897
Producer water gas ... 13 478 983
13-42
19-25
6-37
13-36
2-58
4-63
12-90
16-14
16-05
14-88
14-08
13-25
22-25
14-56
24-86
12-12
22-12
18-41
10-33
20-98
21-94
4-25
16-85
20-25
8-10
22-46
6-88
1-96
1-02
The British standard unit of heat (thermal unit) is the amount
of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Ib. avoirdupois of water
1 Fahrenheit.
The French standard unit of heat (calorie) is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogramme of water 1
Centigrade.
The number of British units of heat required to evaporate 1 Ib. of
water at boiling point, 212 Fahr., is 966 ; and at 62 Fahr., 1116.
The number of French units of heat required to evaporate 1 kilo, of
water at boiling point, 100 Cent., is 536*7 ; and at 16-6 Cent., 620-1.
One British unit of heat = -0251996 French units.
One French unit of heat = 3 96832 British units.
406 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
The total heating power of any fuel, expressed in British units,
-J- 966 = Ibs. of water at 212 Fahr. evaporated per Ib. of fuel.
EXAMPLE : 1 Ib. of hydrogen yields in combustion 61,500 units of
heat.
Then : ^^ = 63-66 Ibs. of water at 212 Fahr. evaporated
per Ib. of hydrogen.
DISTILLED WATER.
(At 62>ahr.)
1 pint = 34 -65 cubic inches, or 1-25 Ibs.
1 gal. = 277-274 cubic inches, or 10 Ibs.
11-2 gals., or 1-792 c. ft. = 1 cwt.
224 gals., or 35-84 c. ft. = 1 ton.
1 cubic inch = 252-45 grs. or -036075 Ibs.
12 inches = -434 Ibs.
1 foot = 6-25 gals., or 1000 ozs., or 62-5 Ibs.
1-8,, = 1 cwt.
35-84 cubic feet = 1 ton.
1 cylindrical inch = -02842 Ibs.
12 inches = -341 Ibs.
1 foot = 5 gals., or 49-1 Ibs.
2-282 feet = 1 cwt.
45-64 = 1 ton.
Centre of pressure f depth from surface.
Water is at its maximum density at 39 2 Fahr. (4 C.), and expands
l-10th part of its bulk on freezing.
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SUBSTANCES.
The meaning implied in the term " specific heat," or more correctly
" calorific capacity," is the quantity of heat required to raise the tem-
perature of a substance 1 (independently of the unit of mass and scale
of temperature) ; water being taken as the standard of comparison.
For example: the specific heat of mercury is -03332, by which is
to be understood that thirty times as much heat is required to raise
water to a given temperature as an equal weight of mercury. In other
words, the quantity of heat which would raise the temperature of any
given weight of mercury through 1, would only raise the temperature
of a like weight of water through -03332.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
407
SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS.
(Water as 1.)
Acetic acid . . .
Alcohol (sp. gr. -793) . .
Aluminium
Antimony, cast
Arsenic . .
Bees-wax ....
Benzine .
Birch ...'.!'.!
Bismuth ....
Brass
Brick, common .
Brick, fire
Cadmium ....
Chalk, white
Charcoal, animal, calcined
Charcoal, wood ....
Clay, white, burned
Coal . .
Cobalt | i
Copper
Diamond ....
Ether
Glass . .
Gold . .
Graphite . .
Ice . .
Iodine ..'.'.'.'.'.
Iron, cast '.
Iron, wrought ....
6589
622
2143
05077
0814
45
21485
24111
185
2777
10696
09215
14687
6207
19768
03244
05412
12983
11379
Lead ....
Lime, burned. .
Lithium . . .
Magnesium .
Manganese
Marble, white .
Mercury . . .
Nickel .
Oil, olive . . .
Oil, sweet . . .
Oil of turpentine
Palladium. . .
Phosphorous .
Pine ....
Platinum . . .
Potassium . .
Selenium .
Silicon, crystalized
Silicon, fused. .
Silver ....
Sodium . . .
Spermaceti . .
0314
217
9408
2499
1217
21585
10863
31
472
65
Sulphur . .
Sulphuric acid
Tellurium
Thallium . .
Tin ...
Zinc . . .
07616
1774
175
05701
1175
04737
0336
05695
SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES AND VAPOUES.
Equal Weights.
y Air .... .... 0-2374 .
( Oxygen 0'2175 .
Simple I Nitrogen 0'2438 .
gases. 1 Hydrogen 3'4090 .
Chlorine 0'1210 .
Vapour. v Bromine 0'0555 .
/ Binoxide of nitrogen 0'2315 .
Carbonic oxide 0'2450 .
Carbonic acid 0'2163 .
Sulphuretted hydrogen .... 0'2432 .
Compound I Sulphurous anhydride 0'1553 .
gases. ( Hydrochloric acid Q-J845 .
Nitrous oxide 0'2262 .
Nitric oxide 0'2317 .
Ammonia 0'5083 .
Marsh gas 0'5929 .
Olefiant gas (ethylene) 0'4040 .
{Water (steam) 0'4805 .
Ether 0-4810 .
Chloroform 0'1567 .
Alcohol 0-4534 .
Turpentine 0'5061 .
Bisulphide of carbon 0'1570 .
Benzole 0'3754 .
Acetone 0-4125 .
Equal Volumes.
0-2374
0-2405
0-2370
0-2359
0-3040
0-2406
0-2370
0-3307
0-2857
0-3414
0-2333
0-3447
0-2406
0-3277
0-4106
1-2296
0-6461
0-7171
2-3776
0-4140
1-0114
0-8244
408
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE,
Showing the Expansion of Liquids in Volume from 82 to 212 Fahr.
. become 1046
1000 parts of water
oil
mercury . . .
spirits of wine .
air
1080
1018
1110
1373 to 1375
TABLE,
Showing tJie Lineal Expansion of Metals produced by Raising their
Temperature from 82 to 212 Fahr.
Zinc
Platinum .
Tin (pure)
Tin (impure)
Silver . .
Copper. .
Brass . .
1 part in 322
Gold 1 part in 682
351
Bismuth
719
403
Iron -
812
600
624
Antimony
923
1000
Palladium
681
Platinum
1100
684
Flint glass ....
1248
TABLE,
Showing the Relative Power of Metals for Conducting Heat.
GoW 1000
Silver 973
Copper 898-2
Platinum 381
Iron 374-3
Zinc 363
Tin 303-9
Lead 179'6
TABLE,
Showing the Relative Power of Metals for Reflecting Heat.
Intensity of Direct Eadiation, 100.
Silver plate -97
Gold -95
Brass -93
Speculum metal ... -86
Tin -85
Polished platinum
Steel ....
Zinc
Iron
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
409
TABLE
Melting Points.
Degrees Fabr.
Degrees Fabr.
810
Platinum 3632
Bismuth
. 1044
. . . 1652
Silver . . 1832
Butter . . .
... 91
Sodium 203
p v
2102
Spermaceti . .
. . . 120
181
Copper . . .
. 2282
Ditto, coined
. . 2156
Steel ....
2372 to 2552
Ice ....
... 32
. 230
Iodine
. . . . 225
Tin ....
... 446
Iron, cast. . .
. 1922 to 2382
Wax, white . .
... 154
Ditto, wrought .
2732 to 2912
Ditto, yellow
... 144
Lead
. . . 633
7inn
AM
Phosphorous
. . . Ill
THE GAS INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
The manufacture and distribution of coal gas may be justly described
as one of the important industries of the world. Like railways and
the electric telegraph, it is a product of the 19th century ; for, though
coal gas was actually used for illuminating purposes by William
Murdoch, the inventor of gas lighting, as early as 1792, at Bedruth,
in Cornwall, and in 1797 at his house at Old Cumnock, Ayrshire, it
was not until well into the first decade of the present century that
gas began to be generally applied in the lighting of streets, factories,
and dwelling-houses.
The illumination of Soho Works, Birmingham, to celebrate the
Peace of Amiens, took place in 1802. These works belonged to
Boulton and Watt, and Murdoch was employed as manager to the
firm. The first application of gas to the interior lighting of large
premises was made by Murdoch in Salford, in 1805, at the cotton
manufactory of Phillips and Lee ; and the first street lighted with gas
was Pall Mall, London, in 1807. The first gas Company incorporated
by Act of Parliament was the " Chartered " (now the Gaslight and
Ccke), London, in 1812.
Although in its earliest use coal gas was restricted to the purpoie
of affording artificial light, no long time elapsed before its value as a
heating medium began to be realised. Winsor, one of the pioneers of
gas lighting, claimed as an important advantage of the new invention
or discovery that gas, besides its light-giving qualities, ceuld be used
both for cooking food and warming dwellings, and as early as 1825
attempts were made to apply it for these purposes. It was not, how-
ever, till later on in the century that anything like a practical appli-
cation of gas was made to the cooking of food. Mr. J. Sharp, of
410 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Southampton, about the year 1840, began to construct ovens heated
by gas for cooking and baking, and these he used for many years,
giving public lectures, in the course of which he practically demon-
strated their usefulness and value.
Gas, however, in those days was higher in price than now ; and,
although it was evident that it served most efficiently for culinary
operations, its cost militated against its extensive adoption in this
direction. The prejudice against it was strong, also, on account of the
supposed liability of any food cooked by its means to be tainted with
the flavour of the gas itself. This operated against its use ; and though
the prejudice was founded on ignorance of the facts, it is not a matter
of wonder that such an idea was entertained, seeing that, even at the
present day, in spite of the strongest evidence to the contrary, the
same belief is still widely accepted, and still operates with many as a
bar to its adoption.
Gas has won for itself an important place as an agent for obtaining
motive power. It was from the very first a matter of observation,
and not unfrequently of dire and unsought experience, that when gas
and atmospheric air were mixed in certain proportions, and the mix-
ture fired, an explosion was the result. Attempts were soon made to
utilise the force thus exerted by confining the explosive compound in
a suitable cylinder, and exploding it to obtain prime movement as in
the steam engine. After many more or less successful attempts by
different inventors, and the expenditure of much ingenuity, the
"Lenoir" gas engine, so named after its inventor, was produced
(1860), and thus was solved the economical problem of how to utilise
an explosive mixture of gas and air as a prime motor. From that
time down to the present tlae patent records contain the description of
many inventions of this character, and gas engines of great power and
efficiency are now produced.
In England, Wales, and Ireland the gas actually supplied to con-
sumers varies in illuminating power from 14 to 22 standard candles,
according to the quality of the coal used ; the higher figure above 17
candles being obtained by an admixture of cannel, or shale, with the
ordinary bituminous coal. In Scotland the range of illuminating
value is from 22 to 30 candles.
The selling price of gas per 1000 cubic feet ranges throughout
England, Wales, and Ireland from Is. 9d. to 6s. 3d., and in Scotland
from 8s. to 8s. 4d., with a few of the smallest concerns charging as
much as 10s. per 1000 cubic feet. Taking into consideration, how-
ever, that in Scotland gas of a higher illuminating power is supplied
than in the other portions of the kingdom, that a smaller con-
sumption per consumer is the consequence, and calculating the price
at per unit of light, the actual difference in price is not so great as
appears at first sight.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES.
411
The average cost of producing and distributing illuminating gas in
England is about two-thirds of the selling price. Taking a selling
price of, say, 2s. 6d. per 1000 cubic feet, the cost of producing: and
distributing the gas, including the net expenditure on coal [after
deducting the income from residuals) and working expenses, will be
Is. 8d. per 1000 cubic feet. Analysing this figure, the expenditure
on coal will be Is. 3d., and deducting the value of the residuals, at
present prices, which is equal to 8d., there is left 7d. as the net cost
of the coal. The balance of Is. Id. is made up by the working
expenses, which include wages, salaries, purifying materials, repairs
and renewals, rates and taxes, and incidental expenses. The difference
of lOd. between the prime cost of the gas, Is. 8d., and its selling price
of 2s. 6d. is absorbed in the payment of the interest and dividend on
the invested capital in the case of a Company, and in the instance of
the undertaking belonging to a Local Authority, in the discharge of the
interest on the annuities and borrowed capital (if any), and the pro-
vision of a sinking fund.
According , to the Parliamentary Eeturns last issued (1888) the
number of gas-works in Great Britain and Ireland belonging to
Companies under statutory powers and restrictions is 384 ; and of
those in the hands of Local Authorities, the number is 168. No account
is taken in the Returns of those gas-works belonging to companies
which are supplying gas without statutory powers. Of these there
are about 950 in the United Kingdom. Neither do the Eeturns include
the large number of small gas-works owned by private individuals
and firms throughout the country, and which have been erected for
the supply of isolated houses, workshops, and factories.
By determining, as near as may be, the number of tons of coal
carbonized, the quantity of gas produced in one year, and the capital
employed in gas-works, we shall be able to form a good idea of the
extent of this important branch of industry as it affects the United
Kingdom. Taking, therefore, the figures as they appear in the
Parliamentary Eeturns, and supplementing these, where they are
deficient, by an estimate based largely on personal knowledge, we
have the results given in the following table :
Coal Carbonized
in 1888.
Tons.
Gas- Works in the United Kingdom belong-
ing to Local Authorities .....
Ditto belonging to Statutory Companies .
Ditto belonging to non-Statutory Com-
panies, Private Individuals, and Firms
(estimated) .........
2,985,577
5,977,254
Gas Produced Capital em-
in 1888. ployed in 1888.
Cubic Feet.
30,105,457,962 .. 20,081,435
61,266,055,857 .. 37,396,580
1,000,000 .. 8,000,000,000 .. 5,300,000
Total 9,962,831 .. 99,371,513,819 .. 62,778,015
412 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
This capital of 62,778,015, however, represents only the expendi-
ture upon the undertakings ; and if the premium amount, which ranges
from 50 to 60 percent., be added, the actual commercial value is found
to be* about 100 million pounds sterling.
Of the quantity of gas annually produced there is an average loss
by leakage and from other causes of nearly 8000 million cubic feet, or
8 per cent, of the whole make.
The total annual rental may be set down at 14,900,000, and the
profits at 4,700,000 equal to 7^ per cent, on the expended capital, and
4-85 per cent, on the capital as enhanced by the premium value.
The number of hands employed in gas-works in the United King-
dom is about 60,000, and the wages paid annually amount to
4,000,000. But, if account is taken of the different trades which
have been called into existence for the production of the appliances of
gas manufacture, distribution, and consumption, and of the miners
who are employed in raising the coal, the figures in the two latter
items may be safely quadrupled. For the distribution of the gas to
the public, there is a length of about 20,000 miles of mains laid, not
reckoning the service pipes. The number of consumers is 2,400,000,
and the public lamps 430,000.
It is occasionally a subject of remark by uninformed or hostile
critics, that no important improvements have been effected in gas
manufacture since the earlier days of its introduction. If this were
so, it would either speak well for the inventors of this art, or badly
for their successors in the industry. The statement, however, is
altogether wide of the truth. True, the method of producing the gas,
as in the earlier days, is by distillation of the coal in closed retorts,
and the purification, storage, and distribution of gas are effected in
apparatus and plant which, in their main features, do not greatly
differ from the earlier forms. But it is obvious that a similar invi-
dious comparison might be made in regard to all the most notable
inventions. The chief characteristics of an industry are retained,
whilst the processes undergo improvement and modification. As a
matter of fact, great improvements have been effected in the plant
and apparatus for the manufacture of illuminating gas, whilst the
mechanical and chemical principles involved in its production are
now carefully investigated by gas engineers, and are yearly becoming
better understood.
THE CAPITAL EMPLOYED IN GAS-WOKKS.
The Capital of a Gas Undertaking represents or includes (1) the
amount of money that has been expended on obtaining an Act of
Incorporation, if it be a Statutory Company ; (2) the cost of the land
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 418
for the site of the works, and the engineering expenses incurred;
(3) the cost of the general manufacturing, purifying, and storing
plant ; and (4) the cost of the distributing pipes and accessories ; with
(5) an added sum as a floating or working capital to meet current
outlay before the revenue begins to accrue.
The amount of the various items making up the aggregate, neces-
sarily varies under different conditions. For example, take the first
the money expended on obtaining an Act of Incorporation. When a
Company have had to contend with and overcome persistent and
strong opposition, the cost of their Act will exceed the cost of one
obtained under more favourable conditions, to the extent of 100, 200,
or even 300 per cent. Again, the cost of land is a varying factor,
and the expense of the erection of 'works is often increased by the
character of the site and its subsoil. It is true that in the case of a
large Company, these several items, even when greatly in excess of a
normal amount, do not increase the total capital outlay by any
material percentage ; but on small and moderate- sized undertakings
they are often peculiarly burdensome.
But there are other circumstances more distinctly marked than
these, which contribute to the variations in the relative amount of
capital expended by different Companies. The character of the district
of supply is one of them. The district of some Companies is thickly
populated with a high class of consumers throughout. Others,
again, have a scanty population, and of a poorer class; and although
the plant and mains of this latter may be less extensive, yet the pro-
portion of its capital to the production and rental will usually be
in excess of the other, whilst there is this paradoxical result in the
instances referred to, that those who are least able to afford it have
often necessarily to pay a higher price for the gas.
In many instances, Companies have wide expanses of country to
canalise with miles of mains, on some of which, except at the terminus,
there is scarcely a consumer. Again, the district may be a manufac-
turing one, with mills and workshops consuming gas only during four
or five months in the year. The proportion of capital in such case
has frequently to be large to provide plant to meet the principal gas
demands within a limited period of time. It is no unusual thing,
under such circumstances, to find that during nearly one half of the
year, seven-tenths of the whole plant is standing unproductive.
In contrast to these, there are towns whose gas consumption is
comparatively steady all the year round. Take, as an example, the
inland watering-places and fashionable sea-side towns. To these,
there is during the summer and autumn season, a flow of visitors
who consume a large quantity of gas. Such is proved by the fact
that the heaviest daily make in these places is generally in the months
of September or October. This tends to equalise the consumption
414 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
in the different seasons, because the resident inhabitants consume
their proportion of gas during the winter and early spring months,
when the visitors are absent. It is fair to conclude that, owing to
this regular and steady consumption, the plant is almost continuously
employed, and therefore a smaller capital in proportion to the yearly
production is required than in those places where the heavy consump-
tion is spasmodic and brief.
But although this spasmodic consumption appears, at first sight, a
serious drawback, in practice it does not always necessitate a higher
price for the gas, and a much larger capital outlay than is required by
those concerns whose consumption qr sale of gas is steadier ; for in
some of the large manufacturing towns the mill consumption is so
enormous that, by straining the plant for limited periods, ^the dis-
advantage is counterbalanced.
There can be no question that expensive engineering tends to an
undue inflation of the capital account. A want of engineering skill
in the construction of works has precisely the same effect ; for here,
as in other matters, extremes meet.
Considerable thought will always be given by a capable and con-
scientious engineer to the proper arrangement of works. He will so
perfect his designs that the works shall not be squandered or sprawl-
ing over the site, occupying unnecessary space, but compact and
harmonious, so that the different processes in gas making may be
conveniently carried on, and economical in the working.
Whilst it is not necessary or desirable that the buildings of a gas-
works should be as strong as a castle, it is equally objectionable to set
up unstable and flimsy structures that entail an annual heavy expendi-
ture for repairs, constituting a perpetual tax, enhancing the cost of
working.
Excessive and unnecessary ornamentation is to be eschewed in all
works of this kind. All ornamentation, however, is not useless.
Blank thick walls, for example, are not necessarily stronger than
others well proportioned thinner and lighter in parts, but
strengthened by suitable projections that add to the beauty of a
building by breaking the dull uniformity. The same argument holds
good as respects design in apparatus. Taste should not be neglected ;
and there is ample scope for the exercise of good taste in most depart-
ments of a gas-works.
On a closer examination of the question, it will be apparent that
there occur times in the history of most gas undertakings when the
capital expenditure is either below or in excess of the average, viz.
when the margin of its producing, storing, and distributing resources
is closely worked up, and enlargement is required, then the capital
compared with the production is low. But extensions have to be
carried out. These must necessarily be of such extent as to provide a
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 415
margin for future increased consumption, and, being larger than the
immediate requirements of the district, the capital is swelled out of
proportion. This is especially true of times when trade is brisk, and
labour and materials are dear. Then extensions are costly, and,
singular to say, it is at such times that they are most frequently made.
Under such circumstances, unless resort can be had to a reserve fund
to maintain the dividends, a sacrifice of a portion of the statutory
interest has to be submitted to or the price of the gas increased.
But this condition of things is by no means inevitable. One of
the evidences of good administrative skill in the conduct of a gas-
works is the ensuring that extensions are carried out systematically
and with foresight, and in as gradual a manner as may be, not post-
poning them to the very last extremity ; in other words, starving the
concern wearing it threadbare which is the worst policy possible
for the undertaking and all associated with it, including both share-
holders and consumers.
The capital of gas-works in the hands of Corporations and other
Local Authorities is, as a rule, in excess of that of Companies ; but
this arises from causes well understood. Many Towns' Authorities
have within comparatively recent years become possessed of gas-
Avorks by purchase from the Companies who previously owned them ;
and, as in most cases they have had to pay the full market price for
the concern, amounting to from twenty to twenty-eight years' pur-
chase of the annual profits, and even more in some instances, the
result is that the capital outlay is large with this compensatory
advantage, however, that the percentage of interest to be paid on
such capital is not more, but usually less, than that paid by the
Company on the smaller capital. As time goes on, and extensions
of the Corporation works are made, these are carried out with an
expenditure, though not necessarily less than that of a Company,
yet bearing a lower rate of interest, and consequently pressing less
heavily on the resources of the undertaking.
The immediate effect of an excessively large capital outlay by a Gas
Company is, as has been already remarked, either a sacrifice by the
shareholders of a proportion of the statutory dividends, or an augmen-
tation in the selling price of the gas ; and not unfrequently, when the
capital is greatly in excess, both these undesirable results are ex-
perienced.
One of the best, perhaps the very best method of reducing the pro-
portion which capital expenditure bears to revenue, is to cultivate a
day consumption of gas, by affording facilities for, and encouraging in
every legitimate way the use of gas for cooking, heating, and motive
power. This policy, if pursued to a successful issue, is virtually to re-
duce the percentage of capital in the proportion of such consumption,
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
because the plant is brought to bear in earning profit during the
daylight as well as in the lighting hours.
The " Auction Clauses," now introduced into the Bill of every Gas
Company making application to Parliament for money powers, are,
without doubt, an ingenious and fairly satisfactory device for securing
the limitation of capital ; whilst, at the same time, they tend to give
stability to the undertaking, and provide a guarantee for the gradual
reduction of the price of the gas.
The " Sliding Scale " (which is not inserted compulsorily as are the
" Auction Clauses ") operates in the same direction, though it is open
to grave objection on other grounds. .^ The subject is one of such vital
importance that it should be looked at from every point of view. No
doubt the Companies who were enabled to adopt the sliding scale
in the early days of its inception, are to be congratulated on the
results they have achieved in the way of enhanced dividends by its
application and working ; but there will probably be less room for
congratulation to any who may adopt it in future, with the closer
limitations which will prevail in fixing the initial or standard price.
It is clear, also, that Companies seeking powers at a time when
coal and materials generally are low in price, are placed at a dis-
advantage as compared with other Companies applying to Parliament
in a time of inflated prices. Notwithstanding all experience, one of
the ruling characteristics of average human nature is to conclude
that that which actually exists will scarcely ever again be modified to
any large extent. Injustice may, therefore, unintentionally, be meted
Out to one Company, and more than justice to another ; and so, when
the reaction comes, the circumstances of the first suffer impairment,
whilst the other is glutted with a run of good fortune. This want of
equal justice in the incidence of the sliding scale, whilst inevitable, is
sufficient to convince any disinterested observer that its indiscriminate
advocacy is a mistake. It is, moreover, a curious and interesting
commentary on the action of the sliding scale that, in spite of the
inducement which it offers for a low selling price, there are both
Gas Companies and Local Authorities who, without it, can produce and
sell gas at a price as low as, or even lower than, those who boast its
possession.
It is unreasonable to expect that the capital of Gas Companies, and
the selling price of gas, can ever be uniform throughout the country.
It would be just as reasonable to expect that the general rates of
different districts can be equalised. All the causes above pointed out,
and others not touched upon, militate against such a result.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
SUNDEY USEFUL NOTES.
In choosing the site for a gas-works, consideration should be had
to its position, which should be at the lowest, or nearly the lowest
part of the district, to obtain the advantage of the natural increase in
the pressure of the gas in travelling to the higher levels.
It should, if possible, be alongside a railway, navigable river, or
can,il, for convenience in the delivery of coal and other materials, and
the disposal of such of the residuals as are despatched to a distance.
The buildings and plant should be so set out on the land as to
admit of future extensions being made with ease and economy.
The design of a structure should be in keeping with the purpose for
Avhich the structure is intended.
Capital is best spent on substantial tanks and apparatus. Mere
ornament should be a secondary consideration.
The average cost of gas-works in provincial towns is about 1 per
head of the population. In very large towns it will amount to more,
and in very small towns it will scarcely reach that sum.
The average cost of gas-works per million cubic feet of gas pro-
duced per annum is from 600 to 700 ; or at the rate of about 14s.
per 1000 cubic feet.
The capital of a well-managed gas company of average size, does
not usually amount to more than four times the annual gas rental.
rice versa, the gas rental should be at least one-fourth of the capital.
Reckoned on the maximum production of gas in 24 hours, the capital
will amount to about 2s. 3d. per cubic foot, or, say, 112 per 1000
cubic feet.
The population per mile of main is usually about 2000 people. In
densely populated towns it will rise to 3000 ; but in fashionable resi-
dential places, where the houses stand more apart, the population per
mile of main will fall below 1000.
The usual consumption of gas per mile of main in large towns is
from 2i to 4 millions of cubic feet per annum ; and in small towns
from 2 to 3 millions.
The gas rental per mile of main usually ranges from 400 to 600
per annum.
The average consumption per head of the population in large towns
is about 2000 cubic feet per annum ; in small manufacturing towns
about 1600 cubic feet, and in agricultural towns about 1000 to 1200
cubic feet per annum.
The usual annual increase in the consumption of gas is from 5 to
10 per cent. In rapidly growing districts it will range higher.
The term " Structural Value " has reference to the amount of
capital expended upon works in their construction.
" Commercial Value" is the value of the net annual profits which a
firm or company can make by the use of their works.
418
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE,
Showing the Time in ivhich the Yearly Consumption of Gas will be
Doubled, at Different Annual Rates of Increase.
Rate per
cent, of
Increase
per ann.
Time in which
the Consumption
will be Doubled.
Rate per
cent, of
Increase
per ann.
Time in which the
Consumption
will be Doubled.
Rate per
cent, of
Increase
per ann.
Time in which the
Consumption
will be Doubled.
2
35 years, 1 day.
51
12 years, 345 days.
9
8 years, 16 days.
2}
3
28 years, 26 days.
23 years, 164 days.
6
61
11 years, 327 days.
11 years, 2 days.
91
10
7 years, 233 days.
7 years, 100 day e.
31
20 years, 54 days.
7
10 years, 89 days. :' 101
6 years, 344 days.
4
4
5
17 years, 246 days.
15 years, 273 days.
14 years, 75 days.
71
8
81
9 years, 213 days.
9 years, 2 days.
8 years, 181 days.
11
| i?
6 years, 234 days.
6 years, 134 day B.
6 years, 42 days.
Handy Rule for Converting Capital per Million Cubic Feet into
Capital per Thousand Cubic Feet.
Point off all the figures after the hundreds as decimals, and
multiply by 2.
EXAMPLE. The capital of a gas undertaking is 725 per million
cubic feet of gas sold (or produced) per annum, what is the capital
per 1000 cubic feet ?
THEN. 7-26 x 2 = 14-50 ; say, 14s. 6d. per 1000 cubic feet,
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
419
TABLE,
Showing the Approximate Sum (or the Equivalent of the Annuities) paid
for each 100 of Share Capital of Gas Companies on the Purchase of
the Gas-Works by Municipal Corporations, Commissioners, or Local
Boards, in the several under-mentioned Towns.
Approximate
Sum (or the
Year
Equivalent of
Name.
when
Pur-
he Annuities)
paid for each
Remarks.
chased.
100 of
Share Capital.
Aberdeen . . , .
1871
250
Alloa . . . ; . '
1877
232
Arbroath . . . .
Ashton-in-Makerfield
1871
1875
175
160
Non-statutory Company.
Atherton . .
1873
160
Bangor ...
1878
250
Belfast ...
1874
193
Birkenhead. . . .
1858
220
Birmingham . . .
Birstal
1875
1872
196
187
Blackburn ....
1877
235
Bolton
1872
204
/
A sum of 162,856 had been ex-
Bradford . . . . .
1871
1
382 J
pended out of profits in extending
the works. Capitalizing this sum,
the amount paid per 100 is only
96.
Briton Ferry ....
1873
210
Broughty Ferry . . .
1870
150
Non-statutory Company.
1854
300
Burslem
1877
222
Bury (Lancashire) . .
Cliorley
1859
1871
250
250
Cleckheaton . . . .
1870
205
Clitheroe
1878
210
Colne
1877
237
Non-statutory Company.
Darlington
1854
216
Darwen
1873
188
Dewsbury and Batley .
1873
205
Droitwich
Dukinfield
1878
1877
149
250
Non-statutory Company.
Dumbarton
Ib73
225
Dumfries
1878
151
Dundee ....
1868
160
EastRetford . . . .
1878
200
Evesham
1878
129
Forfar
1871
187
Glasgow
Halifax
1869
1856
209
250
1
A sum of 24,000 had been ex-
Hereford .
1872
861 J
pended out of profits in extending
the works. Capitalizing this sum,
]
the amount paid per 100 is
I
172.
E E 2
420
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Name.
Year
when
Pur-
chased.
Approximate
Sum (or the
Equivalent of
he Annuities)
paid for each
jElOOof
Share Capital.
Remarks.
Heywood
1867
208
Hindley
1872
208
1
Non-statutory Company. A sum of
Horncastle . . '." '. .
1876
117 \
8000 had been expended out of
profits on extending the works,
Huddersfield ....
1872
1
204 .
which sum was capitalized.
Ilkeston
Inverness
1878
1875
177
153
Non-statntory Company.
Kilmarnock ....
1872
150
A sum of 1300 had been expended
Kirkintilloch . . ( . .
1878
200 -
out of profits on extending the
works. Capitalizing this sum, the
\
amount paid per 100 is 169.
Leeda
1870
140
Leicester
1878
217
Leigh
1874
200
Llaududuo
1876
175
Longton
1877
200
Macclesfield . . . .
1861
250
Mansfield
1878
250
Maryport . . ., ., .,.
1876
118
Neath
1874
125
Nelson
1866
150
Newbury . . 1 :<1 :'' B .'
1878
130 -
Site belonged to Corporation and
works and plant taken at a valua-
Newcastle-under-Lyme
1881
250
tion.
Newry
Nottingham . . .
1878
1874
190
162
Non-statutory Company.
Oldham
1853
250
Padiham and Hapton
1876
200
Paisley
1845
160
Penrith .
1877
191
Perth
1871
156
Bochdale . . . P*
1844
167
Rotherham. . . .
1870
205
Saffron Walden . .
1878
111
Non-statutory Company.
St. Helens . .... .
1876
272
Sowerby Bridge .
1861
159
Stafford ....
1878
262
btoke-on-Trent . .
1878
250
Stratford-upon-Avou
1879
188
Sutton-in-Ashfield .
1878
261
Tyldesley ....
Ulverston ....
1865
1874
167
212
"Warrington . . .
1877
240
The Company were allowed to
Wigan . - . . JO.i .
1874
208 -
capitalize 12,500. Adding this
to the share capital, the sum paid
per 100 is 174.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
421
TABLE, showing the Cost of Gas per Hour in Fractions of a Penny,
when Burnt at the following Hates per 1000 Cubic Feet :
Consumption
per Hour
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s. d.
s. d. ! s. d.
s. a.
fi. d.
. d.
in Cubic Feet.
26
2 7
2 8
2 9
2 10
2 11 30
31 82
3 3
3 4
8 5
2
060
062
064
066
008
070 !'072
074 -076
078
080
082
21
075
0775
080
0825
085
0875-090
0952 -095
0975
100
1025
3
090
093
096
099
102
105 j'lu8 '111 1-114
117
120
123
3}
105
1085
112
1155
119
1225-126 ! 1295! -133
1365
140
1435
4
120
124
128
132
136
140 i'144
148 -152
156
160
164
41
135
1395
144
1486
153
1575-162
1665-171
1755
180
1845
5
150
155
160
165
170
175 -180
185 -190
195
200
205
51
165
1705
176
1815
187
1925' -198
2035-209
2145
220
2255
6
180
186
192
198
204
210 '216
222
228
234
240
246
61
195
2015
208
2145
221
2275 -234
2405
247
2535
260
2665
7
210
217
224
231
238
245 -252
259 '266
273
280
287
Consumption
1
per Hour
s.d.
s.d.
s. d. s. d.
s. d.
s.d. s.d.
s. d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
in Cubic Feet.
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
3 10
3 11
4
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
~~T~
084
086
088
090
092
094
096 '098
100
102
104
106
2J
105
1075
110
1125
115
1175
120 '1225
125
1275
130
1325
3
126
129
132
135
138
141 '144 '147
150
153
156
159
31
147
1505
154
1575
161
16451-168 ! '1715
175
1785
182
1855
4
168
17-2
176
180
184
188
192 '196
200 i'204
208
212
41
189
1935
198
2025
207
2115
216 % is205
225
2295
234
2385
5
210
215
220
225
230
235
240 -245
250
255
260
265
5)
231
2365
242
2475
253
2585
264 '2695
275
2805
286
2915
6
252
258
264
270
276
282
288
294
300
306
312
<318
6i
273
2795
286
2925
299
3055
312
3185
325
3315
338
3445
7
294
301
308
315
322
329
336
343
350
357
364
371
Consumption
I
per Hour
s.d.
s. d. | s. d.
s. d. s. d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
in Cubic Feet.
4 6
47 48
49 410
411
5
5 1
5268
5 4
55
2
108
110 I-112
114
116
118
120
122
124
126
128
130
21
135
1375-140
1425
145
1475
150
1525
155
1575
160
1625
3
162
165 '168
171
174
177
180
183
186
189
192
195
3J
189
1925-196
1995
203
2065
210
2135
217
2205
224
2276
4
216
220 r224
228
232
236
240
244
248
252
256
260
41
243
2475
252
2565
261
2665
270
2745
279
2835/288
2925
5
270
275
230
285
290
295
300
305
310
315
320
325
51
297
3025
3)8
3135
319
3245
330
3355
341
3465
352
3576
t;
324
330
336
342
348
354
360
366
372
378
384
390
61
351
3575
364
3705
377
3835
390
3965 -4;>3
4095
416
4225
7
378
385
392
399
406
413
420
427 '434
441
448
455
Consp. i
per Hour ! s . d.
s.d.
s.d.
s d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s.d.
s. d.
s.d.
in Cb. Ft-j 5 8
5 7
5 8
5 9
5 10
5 11
6061
62
6 3
6 4
6 5
6 6
2 j-132
134
136
138
140
142
144
146
148 '150
152
154
156
2J 1-165
1676
170
1725
175
1775
180
1825
185 '1875
190
1925
195
3 i-198
201
204
207
210
213
216
219
222 |-225
228
231
234
31 i-231
2345
238
2415
245
2485
252
2555
259
2625
266
2695
273
4 j-264
268
272
276
280
284
288
292
296
300
304
308
312
41 -297
3015
306
3105
315
3195 -324
3285
333 -3375
342
3466
351
5 -33
335
340
345
350
355
360
365
370 '375
380
385
390
51 (-363
3685! '374
3795
385
3905
396
4015
407 -4125
418
4335
429
6 1-396
402
408
414
420
426
432
438 '444
450
456
462
468
61 -429
4355
442
4485
455
4615
468
4745/481
4875
494
5005
507
7 1-462
469 '476
483
490
497
504
511 -518
525
532
539
546
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
GOLDEN RULES FOR GAS MANAGERS.
Keep up the heats of the retorts.
Keep up the efficiency of the meters.
Keep down the pressure in the mains.
Keep down the arrears in the gas ledger.
These rules are as applicable to-day as they were on the first day
they were penned, as they embody all the philosophy of gas manage-
ment. A strict adherence to the advice which they give will ensure
the success of any gas undertaking,-.just as a disregard of them will
result in loss and disaster.
It has been attempted (with little success, and less reason) to
impugn the utility of the third rule. To keep down the pressure in the
daytime, say certain writers and speakers, is to discourage the use of
gas for cooking and heating. But, surely, to make such a remark is
to betray an amount of dulness not easy to understand. It should be
obvious to the meanest comprehension that it is not advised that the
pressure should be kept down to an abnormal rate. Whatever pres-
sure is required either by day or night must, of course, be maintained ;
the rule indeed implies as much, but it implies something more its
object is to discountenance the maintenance of a wasteful pressure, and
all pressure in excess of actual requirements is wasteful. Verbum sat
sapient/i.
COEFFICIENTS
Number, Dimensions, and Cost of the carious Buildings, Apparatus,
Machinery, and Plant of a Gas-Works.
It is an almost impossible task to give a series of coefficients of the
number, dimensions, and cost of Buildings, Apparatus, Machinery,
and Plant, applicable to the individual case of every Gas- Works in the
United Kingdom. That such is the fact will be clear when the varia-
tions in size, character of subsoil, design (whether substantial or other-
wise), and situation of such Works, are taken into consideration.
Again, although the cost based on the prices of labour and mate-
rials ruling at the present time may be applicable, it is evident that
the figures will necessarily vary with the fluctuations in the market
prices, and the effect of competition.
But neither is it possible to fix with perfect accuracy a standard of
prices as a basis that will apply even under existing circumstances,
as such prices vary, less or more, in different parts of the country.
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGEES. 423
At the best, it is only an approximation that can be given, and an
attempt in this direction is made as follows :
Prices on which the Coefficients of Cost are based.
Labour. Average.
Skilled labour lOd. per hour.
Unskilled ditto 4d. to 6d. per hour.
Bricksetting, labour only Is. 3d. per sq. yd. 9" thick.
Retort setting, labour only 22s. per mouthpiece.
Materials. Average.
Selected beat pressed bricks 2 to 2 5s. per 1000.
Common bricks, best 20s. per 1000.
Portland cement 50s. per ton.
Lias or hydraulic lime 22s. ditto.
Ordinary lime 12s. ditto.
Building sand la. per load.
Sheet lead for flashing 13s. 6d. der cwt.
Fire-bricks 60s. per 1000.
Superior refractory bricks, as silica, &c 85s. ditto.
Fire.clay, ground 20s. per ton.
Clay retorts 21" X 15" 4s. per lineal foot.
Cast-iron pipes 2" to 4" diameter 5 5s. per ton.
Ditto 5" to 8" 5 ditto.
Ditto 9" to 16" 4 15s. ditto.
Ditto 17" and upwards 4 12s. ditto.
Specials, cast-iron 8 to 11 ditto.
The cost of laying and jointing pipes is given on pp. 235 and 236.
Wrought-iron tubes according to list prices, with 60 per cent, discount.
Ditto fittings ditto.
Labour and Materials combined. Average.
Stock brickwork, 9" thick 5s. 6d. per square yard.
Common ditto, best, 9" thick 8s. 9d. ditto.
Superior dressed stonework 3s. per cubic foot.
Rubble ditto 10s. per cubic yard.
Slating '.'.v". 3s. to 3s. 6d. per square yard.
Flagging, 3" flags 3s. 6d. to 5s. ditto.
Paving with 5" and 6" setta 3s. 6d. to 5s. ditto.
Portland cement concrete 1 in 9 10s. per cubic yard.
Ditto ditto 1 in 7 12s. ditto.
Ditto ditto 1 in 5 14s. ditto.
Cast-iron in large castings 7 10s. per ton.
Ditto ditto fixing only 15s. ditto.
Ditto small castings 10 to 12 ditto.
Plain cast-iron columns and beams 7 5s. to 7 15s. ditto.
Ditto ditto fixing only 10s. to 15s. ditto.
Wrought-iron in bars with forged ends, for roof work 15 ditto.
Ditto ditto fixing only 2 ditto.
Ditto ditto in angle, tee, and channel . 15 ditto.
Ditto ditto fixing only 2 ditto.
Wrought-iron roofs, per square yard of floor area
covered, but not including slating 14s. to 17s.
Wrought-iron in bars, with forged ends, for holder
work and apparatus generally 17 per ton.
Ditto fixing only 2 ditto.
XEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Labour and Materials combined. Average.
Wrought-iron in forgiugs, small JE18 per ton.
Ditto fixing cnly 1 ditto.
Ditto in sheets and plates cold-straightened
and punched 418 ditto.
Ditto rivets and fixing 2 10s. lOd. ditto.
Ditto in rolled iron girders 6 to 6 10s. ditto.
Ditto fixing only 15s. ditto.
Ditto riveted girders 11 to 12 ditto.
Ditto fixing only 10s to 15s. ditto.
Sheet lead flashing and linings, and labour placing 18s. 6d. per cwt.
It is on these average prices current, that the coefficients of cost
to be now given are based.
Capacity of the Works.
A Gas- Works capable of producing a maximum of 630,000 cubic-
feet of gas per day of 24 hours is taken as a basis, and this size of
Works is adopted as being, though comparatively small, about a fair
average, and to give a wider applicability to the figures than they
would have had a very large Works been assumed.
Using 190 as the multiplier, this is equivalent to an annual pro-
duction of 120 million cubic feet. Reasonable allowance is also
made for future growth in the consumption.
The site of such a Works will comprise 2 to 8 statute acres of land.
It is assumed that the site is fairly level and such as to admit of its
being fully utilized.
This extent of land is capable of containing, without inconvenient
crowding, provided the Works are laid out with judgment, the whole
of the Manufacturing, Purifying, and Storage Buildings and Apparatus
required for the above make of gas per day, and also the Buildings
and Plant for the manufacture of Sulphate of Ammonia, the recovery
of Sulphur, and the distillation of Tar.
The cost of the Apparatus in each case includes erection.
The Buildings are assumed to be neat and substantial.
Estimating the production from each mouthpiece or retort (oval or
D shaped 21" x 15" x 10 feet long) at 6000 feet of gas per day of
24 hours on the average
The number of mouthpieces required is ... 105
Add by way of surplus to meet contingencies . 21
Total mouthpieces required . . 126
The retorts are assumed to be in settings of sixes or sevens, and
are throughs.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Cost reckoned on
Cost. Description. t^S&Sgo.
duction per 1000 plece>
Cubic Feet.
s. d. s. d.
10,080 Stage Floor Retort House with retort
stack 20 feet wide, 20 feet space on each
side. Retort settings, two dwarf chim-
neys, generator furnaces, all ironwork
(including foul main round the inside
of the honse), tools, and implements ;
also covered coal stores to contain four
weeks' stock of coal calculated on the
maximum days' consumption, with
railway communication 16 . . 80
(>,255 Stage Floor Retort House and coal stores
only, as above 9 18 . . 49 13
3,825 Retort Stack and two Dwarf Chimneys
built up from basement, with generator
furnaces, retort settings, and ironwork
complete (513 . . 30 7
2,620 Brickwork of Retort Stack and two
dwarf chimneys, generator furnaces,
retorts, and settings, but no ironwork . 400 . . 20
1,800 Ironwork only of stack complete, includ-
ing hydraulic and foul mains ... 213 . . 10 7
630 Retorts, including labour in setting and
a'l fire-clay materials (no ironwork) 100 , . 600
630 Generator Furnaces and ironwork of
same 100 .. 500
7,000 Ground Floor Retort House with retort
stack 20 feet wide, 20 feet space on
each side, retort settings, two dwarf
chimneys, all ironwork (including foul
main round the inside of the honse),
tools, and implements; also covered
coal store to contain four weeks' stock
of coal calculated on the maximum
days' consumption, with railway com-
munication '.'... 11 2 3 .. 55 10
4,190 Ground Floor Retort Hous, and coal
stores only, as above 6 13 3 . . 33 5
2,810 Retort Stack, two dwarf chimneys, and
retort settings, with iron mountings
complete 490 .. 22 50
1,606 Brickwork of retort stack two dwarf
chimneys, retorts, and settings, but no
ironwork 2 11 . . 12 15
1,194 Ironwork only of stack including hy-
draulic and foul mains .... 1 18 . . 9 10
630 Retorts, including labour in setting and
fire-clay materials (no ironwork) . . 100 . . 500
"2,000 Railway Communication with an ad-
joining line of railway. This is an
uncertain item, but say as an average. 326 . . 18
460 Condenser. This may be of any form,
vertical or horizontal (the respective
coat will not vary to any great extent),
with connections and bye-pass mains
and valves complete 14 ('.
426
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Cost.
535
300
Description.
570
500
80
Boiler and Exhauster House. Chimney and setting for
two boilers
Steam Boilers of the Cornish type, two in number, of
steel and of ample size to supply steam for exhausters,
scrubbers, washer-scrubber, pumps, sulphate apparatus,
and any other purpose on the works 18' 0" x5' 6" and all
mountings and connections
Exhauster. Capacity 40,000 cubic feet per hour driven
direct, with its own steam engine, with governor, con-
nections, bye-pass mains and -flap-valve complete.
Duplicate exhausters are desirable in case of a break-
down
Tower Scrubbers, two in number, 9 feet in diameter and
44 feet high each, with pent-house in addition. Wood
filling, liquor and water distributors, washer, at base of
first
Washer Scrubber with steam engine, connections, bye-
pass mains and valves. Capacity, 700,000 cubic feet per
day
Tar and Ammoniacal Liquor Wells, two in number, or
one divided in two. These are assumed to be under-
ground, built of bricks in Portland cement mortar;
capacity equal to four weeks' production of tar and
liquor ; with separator
Set of Three Pumps with steam engine
Cost per Square
Foot o Purifying
Area.
Cost per 1000
Cubic Feet of Gns
(maximum)
produced per Day.
s. d.
17
3,780 Purifying House. Ground floor house
with cellar and six purifiers 20 ft. square
X 5 ft. deep, and lifting apparatus for
purifier lids, wood grids, one centre
valve, two 4-way change valves, and all
connections 18 in. diameter, complete .
1 ,260 House only, as above
400 Revivifying Floor adjoining, for oxide of
iron, covered by a roof supported on
pillars
4,800 Two-Storied Purifying House, including
six purifiers 20 feet square and 5 feet
deep, placed on upper floor, supported
on iron beams and columns ; wood
grids, one centre valve, and two 4-way
change valves, all connections 18 in.
diameter ; lifting apparatus for purifier
lids; revivifying space on ground floor,
steam-engine and elevating apparatus
for oxide of iron and lime ....
1,780 House only, as above
300 Oxide Elevating Apparatus with gearing,
belting, and steam engine
3,620 Punfitrs. Six vessels, 20 ft. square x
5 ft. deep in two sets. The first four
with centre valve, and the two last with
4-way valves ; with wood grids, lifting
tackle for covers, and all connections .
e. d.
1 11
10
034
2
16
026
110
10
18
7 12
3 3
12 ft
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 427
Cost per 1000
COB Description. B ffi,S*f
produced per Day.
k 8. d.
500 Station Meter House, with accommodation for two station
meters, and two station governors 16
425 Station Meter. Square connections, with bye-pass valves,
and mountings, complete; capacity, 40,000 cubic feet
per hour 13 6
Cost per 1000
Cubic feet Capacity.
a. d.
5,040 Gasholder Tanks, two in number, 122 feet
diameter, 22J feet deep = 240,000 cubic
feet each, built with bricks laid in Port-
land cement mortar and puddled ... 10 10 800
7,040 Gasholders, two in number, two-lift,
telescopic, 120 feet diameter, 40 feet
deep, capacity 430,000 cubic feet each, to-
gether 860,000 cubic feet, equal to 32
hours' (1) days' production ; with stand
pipes and valves 800 .. 11 86
236 StationGovernors, 16-inch, two in number,
with bye-pass, connections, and valves. .. 076
400 Foundations of Apparatus throughout
the works . . 12 6
315 Connections, valves, and mains, through-
out the works 16 in. diameter. Tar
pipes, water-pipes, &o . . 10
65 Weighbridge at entrance .'. 020
1,700 Offices, Workshops, Stores, testing room and laboratory,
and furnishing 2 14
700 Boundary Wall, Drains, yard paving, and conveniences . 120
81,000 Distributing Plant. Assuming that the outlay on mains,
valves, syphons, and service pipes, amounts to 30 per
cent, of the total capital expenditure, which is a fair
average, then the cost will be 33 6 8
500 Sulphate of Ammonia Apparatus, capacity 5 to 7 tons
liquor per 24 hours and appurtenances; including two
cast-iron purifiers, 10' 0" X 5' 0" X 5' 0", hydraulic
change valve and wood roof on pillars, overhead liquor
tank to hold 10 tons, lead-lined acid store tank, and acid
supply tank with elevator, pipes, taps, &c 16
1.30 Buildings and lead-lined store for ditto 12 (i
140 Sulphur Recovery Apparatus 046
310 Tar Distilling Apparatus 10
280 Buildings for ditto 090
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Description.
The Capital of 70,000 would be distri-
buted as under.
Land, law, parliamentary, and engineering
expenses
Floating capital
Buildings (including a stage floor bouse,
the brickwork of the retort stack, the
gasholder tanks, tar wells, and founda-
tions of apparatus)
Apparatus and machinery (including the
ironwork of retort stack, gasholders, and
the apparatus generally)
Distributing plant, mains, service-pipes,
Total
Dividing the 70,000 Capital under the
Heads of the different Departments.
Land, law, parliamentary, and engineering
expenses
Floating capital
Manufacturing
Purifying (including condenser, scrubbers,
washer scrubber, purifiers, &c.)
Storing
Distributing
Total.
Capital
Amount.
6,300
4,900
22,400
15,400
21,000
70,000
4,900
16,100
12,600
21.000
70,000
Per-
centage.
32
22
30
100
Cost per 1000
Cubic Feet of Gas
(maximum)
produced per Daj.
s. d.
10
7 15 f,
35 11
10
7 15
25 11
14 9
20
33 6 8
111
MISCELLANEOUS.
BKICKS AND BBICKWOKK.
Usual Dimensions of Bricks.
9 inches long ; 4 inches broad ; 2f inches thick.
Weight of 1000 common clay bricks, about 3 tons.
Weight of 1000 fire-clay bricks, about 3 tons.
805 common clay bricks weigh about 1 ton.
800 fire-clay bricks weigh about 1 ton.
82 bricks laid fiat will pave one square yard.
52 bricks laid on edge will pave one square yard.
Number of bricks in a cubic yard, without mortar, 416.
Number of bricks in a cubic yard, with mortar, 884.
In England, brickwork is generally calculated by the square rod.
A rod of brickwork measures 16| feet x 16| feet x 1^ foot = 800
cubic feet, or 11 cubic yards.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
A rod of brickwork = 272 superficial feet, 1 brick, or 18 inches
thick, which is called the standard thickness.
Number of bricks in a rod of brickwork, allowing for waste, 4500.
To reduce brickwork from superficial feet of 9 inches thick to the
standard thickness of 18^ inches, deduct one-third.
To reduce brickwork from cubic feet to superficial feet of the
standard thickness of 13 inches, deduct one ninth.
To reduce brickwork from cubic feet to rods, divide by 306.
To reduce brickwork of more than 1-J bricks thick to superficial
feet of the standard thickness of 13|- inches, multiply the area in
feet by the number of half bricks in thickness, and divide the
product by 3.
To reduce brickwork footings to superficial feet of the standard
thickness of 13^ inches, multiply the length by the height of the
courses, in feet, and the product by the number of half bricks in the
mean breadth, and divide by 3. When the number of courses is odd,
the number of half bricks in the middle course is the mean. When
the number of courses is even, the mean breadth is found by taking
half the sum of half bricks in the upper and lower courses.
Bond in Brickwork.
English bond is the strongest, and is a course of stretchers and a
course of headers alternately, or one course of headers and one
course of stretchers.
Flemish bond is a header and stretcher laid alternately in the
same course.
Hoop-iron, when used as bond, should be well tarred and sanded,
and bedded in Portland cement.
A rod of brickwork in ordinary buildings requires about
1 cubic yard of lime.
2f cubic yards of sand.
A rod of brickwork in a gasholder tank requires about
If cubic yards of blue lias lime.
2| cubic yards of sharp river sand.
A rod of brickwork requires about
If cubic yards of Roman or Portland cement.
If cubic yards of sharp river sand.
A cubic yard of quicklime . . . weighs about 1460 Ibs.
,, ,, blue lias quicklime ,, ,, 1470 ,,
Portland cement . ,, ,, 2416 ,,
,, ,, Eoman cement . ,, ,, 1700 ,,
dry sand ... 2430
The above materials, when made into mortar, lose about one-
third of their bulk.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE,
TABLES,
Showing tlie Number of Bricks in Walls of different Areas, from % a Briek
up to 4 Bricks thick. ' Reckoned at 4500 Bricks to the Bod (272 ft ft
super.), allowing for Waste.
TABLE I. From 1 to 50 Superficial Feet.
Area of Wall
Sup. Feet.
Brick
on Bed.
1 Brick
Thick.
1J Bricks
Thick.
2 Bricks
Thick.
2* Bricks
"Thick.
3 Bricks
Thick.
3J Brick
Thick.
4 Bricks
Thick.
1
6
11
17
22
28
33
39
44
2
11
22
33
44
65
66
77
88
3
17
33
50
66'*
83
99
116
132
4
44
66
88
110 132
154
176
5
28
55
83
110
138 165
193
221
6
33
66
99
132
165
199
232
265
7
39
77
116
154
193
232
270
309
8
44
88
132
176
221
265
309
353
9
50
99
149
199
248
298
347
397
10
55
110
165
221
276
331
386
441
11
61
121
182
243
303
364
425
485
12
66
132
199
265
331
397
463
529
13
72
143
215
287
358
430
602
574
14
77
154
232
309
386
463
540
618
15
83
165
248
331
414
496
579
662
16
88
176
265
353
441
529
618
706
17
94
187
281
875
469
563
656
750
18
99
199
298
397
496
596
695
794
19
105
210
314
419
524
629
733
838
20
110
221
331
441
551
662
772
882
21
116
232
347
463
579
695
811
926
22
121
243
364
485
607
728
849
971
23
127
254
381
507
634
761
888
1015
24
132
265
397
629
662
794
926
1059
25
138
276
414
651
689
827
965
1103
26
143
287
430
674
717
860
1004
1147
27
149
298
447
696
744
893
1042
1191
28
154
309
463
618
772
926
1081
1235
29
160
320
480
640
800
960
1119
1279
80
165
331
496
662
827
993
1158
1324
31
171
342
613
684
855
1026
1197
1368
32
176
353
529
706
882
1059
1235
1412
33
182
364
546
728
910
1092
1274
1456
34
188
375
563
750
938
1125
1313
1500
35
193
386
679
772
965
1158
1351
1544
36
199
397
596
794
993
1191
1390
1583
37
204
408
612
816
1020
1224
1428
1632
38
210
419
629
838
1048
1257
1467
1676
39
215
430
645
860
1075
1290
1506
1721
40
221
441
662
882
1103
1324
1544
1765
41
226
452
678
904
1131
1357
1583
1809
42
232
463
695
926
1158
1390
1621
1853
43
237
474
711
949
1186
1423
1660
1897
44
243
485
728
971
1213
1456
1699
1941
45
248
496
744
993
1241
1489
1737
1985
46
254
607
761
1015
1268
1522
1776
2029
47
259
518
778
1037
1296
1555
1814
2074
48
265
529
794
1069
1324
1588
1853
2118
49
270
640
811
1081
1351
1621
1892
2162
50
276
551
827
1103
1379
1654
1930
22(X;
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGERS.
431
TABLES,
Showing tJie Number of Bricks in Walls of different Areas, from % a Brick
up to 4 Bricks thick. Reckoned at 4500 Bricks to the Rod (272 feet
super.), allowing for Waste.
TABLE II. 51 to 100 Superficial Feet.
Area of Wall.
Sup. Feet.
J Brick
on Bed.
1 Brick
thick.
1* Bricks
thick.
2 Bricks
thick.
2i Bricks
thick.
3 Bricks
thick.
3J Bricks
thick.
4 Bricks
thick.
51
281
563
844
1125
1406
1688
1969
2250
52
287
574
860
1147
1434
1721
2007
2294
53
292
584
877
1169
1461
1754
2046
2338
54
298
596
893
1191
1489
1787
2085
2382
55
303
607
910
1213
1517
1820
2123
2426
36
309
618
926
1235
1544
1853
2162
2471
57
314
629
943
12.57
1572
1886
2200
2515
58
320
640
960
1279
1599
1919
2239
2559
68
325
651
976
1301
1627
1952
2278
2603
PO
331
662
993
1323
1654
1985
2316
2647
61
336
673
1009
1346
1682
2018
2355
2691
62
342
684
1026
1368
1710
2051
2393
2785
63
347
695
1042
1390
1737
2085
2432
2779
64
353
706
1059
1412
1765
2118
2471
2824
65
358
717
1075
1434
1792
2151
2509
2868
66
364
728
1092
1456
1820
2184
2548
2912
67
369
739
1108
1478
1847
2217
2586
2956
68
375
750
1125
1500
1875
2250
2625
3000
69
381
761
1142
1522
1903
2283
2664
3044
70
386
772
1158
1544
1939
2316
2702
3088
71
392
783
1175
1566
1958
2349
2741
3132
72
397
794
1191
1588
1985
2382
2779
3177
73
403
805
1208
1610
2013
2415
2818
3221
74
408
816
1224
1632
2040
2449
2857
3265
75
414 827
1241
1654
2068
2482
2895
3309
76
419 i 838
1257
1676
2096
2515
2934
3353
77
425 i 849
1274
1699
2123
2548
2972
3397
78
.430 860
1290
1721
2151
2581
3011
3441
79
436
871
1307
1743
2178
2614
3050
3485
80
441
882
1324
1765
2206
2647
3088
3529
81
447
893
1340
1787
2233
2680
3127
3574
82
452
904
1357
1809
2261
2713
3165
3618
83
458
915
1373
1831
2289
2746
3204
3662
84
463
926
1390
1853
2316
2779
3243
3706
85
469
988
1406
1875
2344
2813
3281
3750
86
474
949
1423
1897
2371
2846
3320
3794
87
480
960
1439
1919
2399
2879
3358
3838
88
485
970
1456
1941
2426
2912
3397
3882
89
491
982
1472
1963
2454
2945
3436
3926
90
496
993
1489
1985
2482
2978
3474
3971
91
502
1004
1506 : 2007
2509
3011
3513
4015
9l
507
1015
1522 2029
2537
3044
3551
4059
93
513
1026
1539 2051
2564
3077
3590
4103
94
518
1037
1555 j 2074
2592
3110
3629
4147
95
524
1048
1572 ! 2096
2619
3143
3667
4191
96
529
1059
1588 I 2118
2647
3176
3706
4235
97
535
1070
1605
2140
2675
3210
3744
4279
98
540
1081
1621
2162
2702
3243
3783
4324
99
546
1092
1638
2184
2730
3276
3822
4368
100
651
1103 ! 1654
2206
2757
3309
3860
4412
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
TABLES,
Showing the Number of Bricks in Walls of di/e rod Areas, from % a Brick-
up to 4: Bricks thick. Reckoned at 4500' Bricks to the Hod (272 feet
super.}, allowing for Waste.
TABLE III. .Front 110 to 600 Superficial Feet.
Area of Wall.
Sup. Feet.
J Brick
on Bed.
1 Brick
thick.
J Bricks
thick.
2 Bricks
thick.
2J Bricks
thick.
8 Bricks
thick.
3A Bricks
"thick.
4 Brick,
thick.
110
607
1213
1820
2426
3033
3640
4246
485o
120
662
1324
1985
2647
3309
3971
4632
5294
130
717
1434
2151
2868
3585
4301
5018
5735
140
772
1544
2316
3Q88
3860
4632
5404
6176
150
827
1654
2482
3309
4136
4963
57JO
6618
160
882
1765
2647
3529
4412
5z94
6176
7059
170
938
1875
2813
3750
4688
5625
6563
7500
180
998
1985
2978
3971
4963
5956
6949
7941
190
1048
2096
3143
4191
5*39
6287
7335
8382
200
1103
2206
3309
4412
5515
6618
7721
8824
210
1158
2316
3474
4632
5790
6949
8107
9265
220
1213
2426
3640
4ci53
6066
7279
6493
9706
230
1268
2537
3805
5074
6342
7610
8S79
10,147
240
1324
2647
3971
5294
6618
7941
9265
10,588
260
1379
2757
413u
5515
6893
8272
9651
11,029
260
1434
2868
4301
5735
7169
8603
10,037
11,471
270
1489
2978
44b7
5956
7445
8934
10.423
11,912
280
1544
3088
4632
6176
7721
9265
108.>9
12353
290
1599
3199
4798
6397
79%
9596
11,195
12.794
300
1654
3309
4963
6618
8272
9926
11.581
13,235
310
1710
3419
5129
6838
8548
10,257
11,967
13,676
820
1765
3529
5294
7059
8824
10,588
12.353
14,118
330
1820
3640
5460
7279
9099
10,919
12,73!)
14.559
840
1875
3750
5625
7500
9375
11,250
13,125
15,(00
850
1930
3860
6790
7721
9651
11,081
13,511
15,441
360
1985
3971
5956
7941
9926
11,912
13,897
15,882
870
2040
4081
6121
8162
10,202
12,243
14,283
16,324
380
2096
4191
6287
8382
10,478
12,574
14.669
16,765
390
2151
4301
6452
86u8
10,754
12,904
15,055
17,206
400
2200
4412
6618
8824
11,029
13,235
15.441
17,647
410
2261
4522
6783
9044
11.3U5
13,566
15,827
18,088
420
2310
4632
6949
9265
11,581
13,897
16,213
18,529
430
2371
4743
7114
9485
11, 8*7
14,2-8
16,599
18.971
440
2426
4853
7279
9706
12,132
14,559
16,9-i5
19,412
450
2482
4963
7445
9926
12,408
14,890
1<-,371
19,853
460
2537
5074
7610
10,147
12,684
15,221
17,757
20,294
470
2592
5184
7776
10,368
12,960
15,551
18,143
20,735
480
2647
5294
7941
10,588
13,235
15,882
18,529
21,176
490
2702
5404
8107
10,809
13,511
16,213
18,915
21,618
500
2757
5515
b272
11,029
13,787
16,544
19,301
22,059
610
2813
5625
8438
11,250
14,063
16,875
19,088
22,500
520
2868
6735
8603
11,471
14,338
17,'206
20,074
22,941
530
2923
5846
8768
11,691
14,064
17,537
20,460
23,382
640
2978
6956
8934
11,912
14,890
17,868
20.846
23824
650
3033
6066
9099
12,132
15,165
18,199
21,232
24,265
660
3088
6176
9265
12,353
15,441
18,529
21,618
24,706
670
8143
6287
9430
12,574
15,717
18,860
22.004
25.147
680
3199
6397
9596
12,794
15,998
19,191
22 390
25,588
590
3254
6607
9761
13,015
16,268
19,522
22,776
26,029
600
8309
6618
9926
13,235
16,544
19,853
23,162
26,471
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
433
TABLES.
Slwiring the Number of Bricks in Walls of different Areas, from^a Brick
up to 4 Bricks thick. Reckoned at 4500 Bricks to the Rod (272 feet
Mtp0r.), allowing for Waste.
TABLE IV. From 610 to 2000 Superficial Feet.
Area of Wall
Sup. Feet.
i Brick
on Bed.
1 Brick
thick.
A Bricks
thick.
Bricks
thick.
1 Bricks
thick.
Bricks
thick.
i Bricks
thick.
4 Bricks
thick.
610
3364
6728
10,092
13,456
16,820
20,184
23,548
26,912
620
3419
6838
10,257
13,676
17,096
20,515
23,934
27,353
630
3474 1 6949
10,423
13,897
17,371
20,846
24,320
27,794
640
3529 7059
10,588
14,118
17,647
21,176
24,706
28,235
650
3585
7169
10,754
14,338
17,923
21,507
25,092
28,676
660
3640
7279
10,919
14,559
18,199
21,838
25,478
29,118
670
3695
7390
11,085
14,779
18,474
22,169
25,864
29,559
680
3750
7500
11,250
15,000
18,750
22,500
26,250
30,000
690
3805
7610
11,415
15,221
19,026
22,831
26,636
30,441
700
3860
7721
11,581
15,441
19,301
23,162
27,022
30,882
710
3915
7831
11,746
15,662
19,577
23,493
27,408
31,324
720
3971
7941
11,912
15,882
19,853
23,824
27,794
31,765
730
4026
8051
12,077
16,103
20,129
24,154
28,180
32,206
740
4081
8162
12,243
16,324
20,404
24,485
28,566
32,647
750
4136
8272
] 2,408
16,544
20,680
24,816
28,952
33,088
760
4191 ! 8382
12,574
16,765
20,956
25,147
29,338
33,529
770
4246 \ 8493
12,739
16,985
21,232
25,478
29,724
33,971
780
4301 i 8603
12,904
17,206
21,507
25,809
30,110
34,412
790
4357 ! 8713
13,070
17,426
21,783
26,140
30,496
34,85*
800
4412 I 8824
13,235
17,647
22,059
26,471
30,882
35,294
810
4467 ! 8934
13,401
17.868
22,335
26,801
31,268
35,735
820
4522 1 9044
13,566
18,088
22,610
27,132
31,654
36,176
830
4577 1 9154
13,732
18,309
22,886
27,463
32,040
36,618
840
4632
9265
13,897
18,529
23,162
27,794
32,426
37,059
850
4688
9375
14,063
18,750
23,438
28,125
32,813
37,500
860
4743
9485
14,228
18,971
23,713
28,456
33,199
37,941
870
4798
9596
14,393
19,191
23,989
28,787
33,585
38,382
880
4853
9706
14,559
19,412
24,265
29,118
33,971
38,824
890
4908
9816
14,724
19,632
24,540
29,449
34,357
39,265
900
4963
9926
14.890
19,853
24,816
29,779
34,743
39,706
910
5018
10,037
15,055
20,074
25,092
30,110
35,129
40,147
920
5074
10,147
15,221
20,294
25,368
30,441
35,515
40,588
930
5129
10,257
15,386
20,515
25,643
30,772
35,901
41,029
940
5184
10,368
15,551
20,735
25,919
31,103
36,287
41,471
950
5239
10,478
15,717
20,956
26,195
31,434
37,673
41,912
960
5294
10,588
15,882
21,176
26,471
31,765
37,059
42,353
970
5349
10,699
16,048
21,397
26,746
32,096
37,445
42,794
980
5404 ! 10^809
16,213
21,618
27,022
32,426
37,831
43,235
990
5460
10,919
16,379
21,838
27,298
32,757
38,217
43,676
1000
5515
11,029
16,544
22,059
27,574
33,088
38,603
44,118
1100
6066
12,132
18,199
24,265
30,331
36,397
42,463
48,529
1200
6618
13,235
19,853
26,471
33,088
39,706
46,324
52,941
1300
7169
14,338
21,507
28,676
35,846
43,015
50,184
57,353
1400
7.721
15,441
23,162
30,882
38,603
46,324
54,044
61,765
1500
8272
16,544
24,816
33,088
41,360
49,632
57,904
66,176
1600
8824
17,647
26,471
35,294
44,118
52,941
61,765
70,588
1700
9375
18,750
28,125
37,500
46,825
56,250
65,625
75,000
1800
9926
19,853
29,779
39,706
49,632
59,559
69,485
79,412
1900
10,478
20,956
31,434
41,912
52,390
62,868
73,346
83,824
2000
11,029
22,059
33,088
44,118
55,147
66,176
77,206
88,235
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLES
Showing the Number of Bricks in Walls of different Areas from % a Brick
up to 4 Bricks thick. Reckoned at 4500 Bricks to the Eod (272 feet
super.}, allowing for Waste.
TABLE V. From 2100 to 250,000 Superjicial Feet.
Area of Wall.
Sup. Feet.
4 Brick
on Bed.
1 Brick
thick.
J Bricks
thick.
Bricks
thick.
Bricks
thick.
Bricks :8
thick.
i Bricks
thick.
Bricks
thick.
2100
11,581
23,162
34,743
46,324
57,904
69,485 81,066
92,647
2200
12,132
24,265
36,397
48,529
60,662
72,794 84,926
97,059
2300
12,684
25,368
38,051
50,735
63,419
76,103 88,787
101,471
2400
13,235
26,471
39,706
52,941
66,176
79,412 92,647
105,882
2500
13,787
27,574
41,360
55-.147
68,934
82,72l| 96,507
110,294
2600
14,338
28,676
43,015
57,353
71,691
86,029 100,368
114,706
2700
14,890
29,779
44,669
59,559
74,449
89,338 104,228
119,118
2800
15,441
30,882
46,324
61,765
77,206
92,647 108,088
123,529
2900
15,993
31,985
47,378
63,971
79,963
95,956i 111,949
127,941
3000
16,544
33,088
49,632
66,176
82,721
99,265 115,809
132,353
3100
17,096
34,191
5], 287
68,382
85,478
102,574 119,669
136,71 : 5
3200
17,647
35,294
52,141
70,588
88,235
105,882
123,529
141,176
3300
18,199
36,397
54,596
72,794
90,993
109,191
127,390
145,588
3400
18,750
37,500
56,250
75,000
93,750
112,500
131,250
150.0CO
3500
19,301
38,603
57,904
77,206
96,507
115,809
135,110
154,412
3600
19,853
39,706
59,559
79,412
99,265
119,118
138,971
158,824
3700
20,404
40,809
61,213
81,618
102,022
122,426
142,831
163,235
3800
20,956
41,912
62,868
83,824
104,779
125,735
146,691
167,647
3900
21,507
43,015
64,522
86,029
107,537
129,044
150,551
172,059
4000
22,059
44,118
66,176
88,235
110,294
132,353
154,412
176,471
4100
22,610
45,221
67,831
90,441
113,051
135,662
158,272
180,882
4200
23,162
46,324
69,485
92,647
115,809
138,971
162,132
165,294
4300
23,713
47,426
71,140
94,853
118,566
142,279 165,993
189,706
4400
24,265
48,529
72,794
97,059
121,324
145,588 169,853
194,118
4500
24,816
49,632
74,449
99,265
124,081
148,897
173,713
198,529
4600
24,368
50,735
76,103
101,471
126,838
152,206
177,574
202,941
4700
25,919
51,838
77,757
103,676
129,596
155,515
181,434
207,352
4800
26,471
52,941
79,412
105,882
132,353
158,824
185,294
211,765
4900
27,022
54,044
81,066
108,088
135,110
162,132
189,15
216,176
5000
27,574
55,3 r
82,72
110,294
137.868
165,441
193,015
220,586
10,000
55,147
110,294
165,44
220,588
275,735
330,882
386,02
441,176
15,000
82,72
165,44
248,16
330,882
413,603
496,324
579,04
661,76*
20,000
110.294
220,588
330,88
441,176
551,47
661,765
772,05
882,351
25,000
137,868
275,73
413,60
551,47
689,338
827,206
965,07
1,102.94
30,000
165,44
330,88
496,324
661,765
827,20fc
992,647
1,158,088
1,323.52'
35,000
193,01
386,02
579,044
772,059
965,07
1,158,088
1,351,10
1,544,11
40,000
220,588
441,17
661,765
882,353
1,102,94
1,323,529
1,544,11
1,764,701
45,000
248,16
496,32
744,48
992,64
1,240,809
1,488,971
1,737,13
1,985,29
50,000
275,73
551,47
827,206
1,102,94
1,378,676! 1,654,412
1,930,14
2,205,88
65,000
303,309
606,61
909,926
1,213,23
1,516,544
1,819,753
2,123,16
2,426,47
60,000
65,000
330,88
358,45
661,76
716,91
992,64
1,075,36
1,323,52
1,433,82
1,654,415
1,792,275
- 1,985,294
) 2,150,735
2,316,17
2,509,19
2,647,05
2.867,64
70,000
386,029
772,05
1,158,08
1,544,11
l,930,14 r
2,316,176
2,702,20
3,088,23
75,000
413,60
827,20
1,240,808
1,654,41
2,068,01,
> 2,481,616
2,895,22
3,308,82
80,000
441,17
882,35
1,323,52
1,764,70
2,205,88
> 2,647,05S
3,088,23
3,529,41
85,000
468,75
937.50C
1,406,250
1,875,000
2,343,75012,812,500
3,281,25
3,750,00
90,000
95,000
496,324
523,89
992,64
1,047,79
1,488,97
1,571,79
1,985,29
2,095,586
2,481,6182,977,941
2,619,4853,143,38$
3,474,26
3,667,27
3,970,58
4,191,17
100,000
551,47
1,102,94
1,654,41
2,205,88
2,767,8533,308,824
3,860,29
4,411,76
150,100
200,000
250,000
827,206
1,102,94
5,878,67
1,654,41
2,205,88
2,757,35
2,481,61
3,303,82
4,136,02
3,308,82
4,411,76
5,514,70
4,136,029|4,963,23
5,514,706 6,617,64 r
6,893,882!8,272,05<
5,790,44
7,720,58!
'9,650,73
6,617,64
8,823,52
11,029,41
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
MOETAE AND CONCRETE.
Mortar,
By Measure.
Lime .... ....... 1 part.
Sharp river sand ........ 3 parts.
or,
Linie . . ; ......... 1 part.
Sand ........... 2 parts.
Blacksmith's ashes or clinker, ground . . 1 part.
Coarse Mortar.
Lime ........... 1 part.
Coarse sand ......... 4 parts.
Hydraulic Lime Mortar.
Best blue lias lime ........ 1 part.
Clean sharp river sand ....... 2| parts.
or,
Best blue lias lime ........ 1 part.
Burnt clay ..'-..-:.. . . . . 2 parts.
or,
Best blue lias lime ........ 1 part.
Puzzolana .......... 1 part.
Clean sharp sand ........ 6 parts.
Cement Mortar.
Cement, Portland ........ 1 part.
Clean sharp sand ........ 3 parts.
The lime should be fresh burnt, and not more than sufficient of the
mortar for a day's work prepared at once. The cement mortar should
only be made as it is being used.
Blue lias lime concrete (for foundations) By Measure.
Gravel, shingle, broken stone, bricks, or old retorts,
1^ to 2 inches cube ......... 6 parts.
Clean sharp sand ....... ;- y ^-1 2 parts.
Blue lias or other hydraulic lime . . . . V :r '. 1 part.
Portland cement concrete (for tank walls)
Gravel, shingle, broken stone, bricks, or old retorts,
1 inches cube ... ....... 7 parts.
Clean sharp sand .......... 2 parts.
Portland cement . . . >';.* IwV i-i'^ j;';i . 1 part.
F F 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Mastic ( 'cincnt for Build in; /a.
1 part red lead.
5 parts ground lime.
5 parts sharp sand.
Mix with boiled linseed oil.
1 part red lead.
5 parts whiting.
10 parts sharp sand.
Mix with boiled linseed oil
Clean sharp sand (not having its particles rounded by attrition)
should always be used in the composition of mortar when it can be
procured ; but, otherwise, clean well-burnt ashes may be substituted.
In preparing ordinary mortar it is desirable to mix a small propor-
tion of smithy ashes with the lime a*nd sand. On this subject Mr.
Graham Smith remarks ("Engineering Papers," p. 20) : "The im-
portance of the admixture of ashes with mortar to be atmospherically
dried will be shown by the following results : The bricklayers'
mortar, with common bricks, after a lapse of 84 days, broke with
570 Ibs. ; when sand was substituted in place of ashes that is, when
the proportions were 1 slaked lime, 2 sand, and no ashes it only re-
quired 257 Ibs. to tear asunder the bricks. These are the averages of
three experiments. This is no doubt attributable to the ashes being
porous ; they thus allow greater facilities for the absorption of carbonic
acid from the atmosphere."
The more sand that can be incorporated with the lime, the better
the mortar, provided the necessary degree of plasticity is preserved,
A load of mortar is equal to one cubic yard.
A hod of mortar measures 9 in. x 9 in. x 14 in.
Two hods of mortar are nearly equal to a bushel.
The mortar in a rod of brickwork (4500 bricks) is taken at 1^ cwt.
of chalk lime and 2 loads of sand, or 1 cwt. of stone lime and
2i loads of sand.
Fire-Clay.
The value of Fire-clay consists chiefly in the proportion of the
alumina to the fusible matter (viz., oxide of iron, and the alkalies of
magnesia, potassa and soda, &c.) and to the silica ; these being the
principal ingredients of which it is composed. The larger the pro-
portion of alumina to the fusible matter, the more refractory the clay.
Of two clays containing alumina and fusible matter in the same pro-
portions, that which contains the least silica is the more refractory.
The celebrated clays of Stourbridge, Newcastle -on- Tyne, different
parts of Yorkshire, Scotland, and a few other places, are valuable in
the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and retorts used in furnaces for the
distillation of coal.
The table on next page will be found useful in this connection.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS.
437
I 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 1 1
g . . 8 S
6 ' ' o *
1
8 . S . 5
CO CD i T* _ i 0(M USO O
co co T* , to .coca -COOT -o
."S .
OCOOI^OSCSOQ
25 85 -t 5 o
tN^tMrH
II
438
NEWBIQGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Handy Multiplier fur Wromjht-lron.
If the area in square inches of the cross section of any specimen of
wrought-iron be multiplied by 3-34, the product will be the weight
in pounds of a lineal foot of such specimen.
FLAT BAR IRON. Weight in Ibs. of a Lineal Foot.
Breadth
Thickness in Parts of an Inch.
in
[
Inches.
l-4th.
5-16ths.
S-8ths.
7-16tbs.
1-half.
5-8ths. 8-4ths.
7-8ths.
1
1
835
1-044
253
1-461
1-670
2-088 2-506
2-923
3-340
1|
939
1-174
409
1-644 1-878
2-348 2-818
3-287
3-756
11
1-044
1-305
566
1-826
2-088
2-609 , 3-132
3'653
4-176
II
1-148
1-435
722
2-009
2-296
2-870 j 3-444
4-018
4-592
u
1-252
1-566
879
2-192
2-504
3-131
3-758
4-384
5-008
11
1-358
1-696
2-035
2-374
2-716
3-392 4-070
4-749
5-432
13
1-462
1-827
2-192
2-557
2-924
3-653
4-384
5-114
5-848
H
1-566
1-957
2-348
2-740
3-132
3-914
4-696
5-479
6-264
2
1-671
2-088
2-505
2-922
3-342
4-175 5'010
5-845
6-684
21
1-775
2-218
2-662
3-105
3-550
4-435 j 5-324
6-210
7-100
21
1-880
2-348
2-818
3-288
3-760
4-696
5-636
6-575
7-520
21
1-984
2-479
2-975
3-470
3-968
4-957
5-950
6-941
7-936
2J
2-088
2-609
3-131
3-653
4-176
5-218
6-262
7-306
8-352
3
2-193
2-740
3-288
3-836
4-386
5-479 6-576
7-671
8'772
23
2-297
2-870
3-444
4-018
4-594
5-740 ! 6-888
8-036
9-188
i
2-402
3-001
3-601
4-201
4-804
6-001 ! 7-202
8-402
9-608
3
2-506
3-131
3-758
4-384
5'012
6-262
7-516
8-767
10-024
31
2-715
3-392
4-071
4-749
5-430
6-784
8-142
9-498
10-860
i
2-923
3-653
4-384
5-114
5'846
7-306
8-768
10-228
11-692
33
3-132
3-914
4-697
5-479
6-264
7-828
9-394
10-959
12-528
4
3-341
4-175
5-010
5-845
6-682
8-350
10'020
11-690
13-364
41
3-549
4-436
5-323
6-210
7-098
8'871
10-646
12-421
14-196
4J
3-758
4-697
5-636
6-575
7-516
9-393
11-272
13-151
15-032
H
3-966
4-958
5-949
6-941
7-932
9-915
11-898
13-881
15-864
5
4-175
5-219
6-263
7-306
8-350
10-437
12-526
14-612
16-700
51
4-384
5-479
6-576
7-671
S'768
10-958
13-152
15-343
17-536
5*
4-593
5-741
6-889
8-037
9-186
11-480 ' 13'778
16-073
18-372
51
4-801
6-001
7-202
8-402
9-602
12-002
14-404
16-804
19-204
6
5-010
6-262
7-515
8-767
10-020
12-524
15-030
17-535
20-042
BOUND BAB IBON. Weight in Ibs. of a Lineal Foot.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
Diameter
in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
J
040
li
6-870
3J
25-400
4i
55-640
1
163
12
7-970
31
27-475
4|
58-688
i
363
li
9-150
3g
29-62o
*1
61-820
i
650
2
10-406
3J
31-870
5
65-040
i
1-006
a*
11-750
38
34-175
5i
68-330
I
1-456
21
13-106
33
36-575
51
71-700
I
1-990
2i
14-670
31
39-056
6|
75-150
1
2-590
24
16-256
4
41-620
54
78-700
li
3-300
21
17-925
4*
44-260
5g
82-300
11
4-070
2|
19-600
41
46-990
53
86-006
li
4-920
21
21-500
4i
49-790
H
89-800
H
5-860
3
23-400
4J
;i2-f;75
6
93-650
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
SQUAEE BAK IRON.
Weit/ht in Ibs. of a Lineal Foot.
Side in , Weight
Inches. in Ibs.
Side in
Inches.
Weight i
in Ibs.
Side in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
Side in
Inches.
Weight
in Ibs.
4 -052
H
8-82
3J
32-72
4|
71-60
J -208
U
10-23 i
31
35-28
41
75-36
1
469
11
11-74 i
31
38-16
4|
79-54
i
832
2
13-36
35
40-92
5
83-44
1-304
2i
15-08
3|
44-01
61
87-90
I
1-876
21
16-91
31
46-96
51
S2-40
2-557
2|
18-84
Si
50-38
61
96-67
i
3-340
2J
20-86
4
53-44
6|
101-04
H
4-227
2|
23-10
4J
56-97
61
105-87
li
5-216
21
25-25
41
60-32
51
110-80
if
6-314
2J
27-70
4|
64-08
5|
115-48
1* 7-504
3
30-02
4*
67-64
6
120-08
SHEET IRON AND STEEL.
Weight of a Superficial Foot in Pounds and Fractions, with Corresponding
Number and Thickness of Birminqliam Wire Gaw/e.
No. of
Birmingham
Wire Gauge.
Thickness
in Parts of an
Inch.
Board of Trade
Standard.
Weight per
Square Foot
in Ibs.
Iron. Steel.
No. of
Birmingham
Wire Gauge.
Thickness
in Parts of an
Inch.
Board of Trade
Standard.
Weight per
Square Foot
in Ibs.
Iron. Steel.
1
300
12-00
12-240 19
041
I
64 1 1-673
2
284
11-36 11-587 20
035
40 1-42&
3
260
10-40 10-608 21
032
28 1-306
4
238
9-52 i 9-710 22
028
12 1-142
5
220
8-80 j 8-976
23
025
00 1-020
6
203
8-12 8-282
24
022
0-88 0-898
7
180
7-20
7-344
25
020
0-80 0-816
8
165
6-60
6-732
26
018
0-72 0-734
9
148
5-92
6-038
27
016
0-64 0-653
10
135
5-40
5-508
28
014
0-56 0-571
11
120
4-80
4-896
29
013
0-52 0-530
12
109
4-36
4-447
30
012
0-48 0-490
13
095
3-80
3-876
31
.010
0-40 0-408
14
083
3-32
3-386
32
009
0-36 0-367
15
072
2'88
2-938
33
008
0-32 0-326
16
065
2-60
2-652
34
007
0-28 0-286
17
058
2-32
2-366
35
005
0'20 0-240
18
050
2-00
2-040
36
004
0'16 ' 0-163
940
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
STEEL.
Wcijht of One Foot of Round Steel.
FbT. j' 167 '373 669l-(W-052-05 | 2-673-384-185-066-027-07 8'2 I
WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF A SUPERFICIAL FOOT OF IRON,
COPPER, AND BRASS.
Thickness by
the Birming-
ham Wire
Gauge.
Iron.
Ibs.
Copper.
Ibs.
Brass.
Ibs.
'Thickness by
the Birming-
ham Wire
Gauge.
Iron.
Ibs.
Copper. Brass.
Ibs. Ibs.
1
12-50
14-50
13-75
16
2-50
2-90 2-75
2
12-00
13-90
13-20
17
2-18
2-52 2-40
3
11-00
12-75
12-10
18
1-86
2-15 2-04
4
10-00
11-60
11-00
19
1-70
1-97 1-87
5
8-74
10-10
9-61
20
1-54
1-78 1-69
6
8-12
9-40
8-93
21
1-40
1-62 1-54
7
7-50
8-70
8-25
22
1-25 I 1-45 1-37
8
6-86
7-90
7-54
23
1-12 ! 1-30 1-23
9
6-24
7-20
6-86
24
1-00
1-16 I'lO
10
5-62
6-50
6-18
25
90
1-04 i -99
11
5-00
5-80
5-50
26
80
92 -88
12
4-38
5-08
4-81
27
72
83 '79
13
3-75
4-34
4-12
28
64
74 -70
14
3-12
3-60
3-43
29
56
64 -61
15
2-82
3-27
3-10
30
50
58 -55
WEIGHT OF A SUPERFICIAL FOOT OF VARIOUS METALS.
Thickness
in Inches.
Wrought
Iron.
Cast
Iron.
Steel.
Copper.
Brass.
Lead.
Zinc.
Thickness
in Inches.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
Ibs.
l-16th.
2-526
2-344
2-552
2-891
2-374
3-708
2-344
l-16th.
l-8th.
5-052
4-687
5-104
5-781
5-469
7-417
4-687
l-8th.
3-16ths.
7-578
7-031
7-656
8-672
8-203
11-125
7-031
3-16ths.
l-4tb.
10-104
9-375
10-208
11-563
10-938
14-883
9-375
l-4th.
5-16ths.
12-630
11-719
12-760
14-453
31-672
18-542
11-719
5-16ths.
3-8ths.
15-156
14-062
15-312
17-344
16-406
22-250
14-062
3-8ths.
7-16ths.
17-682
16-406
17-865
20-234
19-141
25-958
16-406
7-16ths.
1-half.
20-208
18-750
20-417
23-125
21-875
29-667
18-750
1-half.
9-16ths.
22-734
21-094
22-969
26-016
24-609
33-375
21-094
9-16ths.
5-8ths.
25-260
23-437
25-521
28-906
27-344
37-C83
23-437
5-8ths.
ll-16tl)8.
27-786
25-718
28-073
31-797
30-078
40-792
25-781
ll-16ths.
3-4ths.
30-312
28-125
30-625
34-688
32-813
44-500
28-125
3-4ths.
13-16ths.
32-839
30-469
33-177
37-578
35-547
48-208
30-469
13-16ths.
7-8ths.
35-365
32-812
35-729
40-469
38-281
51-917
32-812
7-8ths.
15-16ths.
87-891
35-156
38-281
43-359
41-016
55-625
35-156
15-16ths.
linch
40-417
87 -500
40-883
46-250
43-750
59-333
37-500
1 inch.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
441
WEIGHT IN PARTS OF A POUND OF A SPHEEE 1 IN.
DIAM. OF VAEIOUS METALS.
Brass.
Cast.
B HamSd.
Iron.
Cast.
Iron.
Wrought.
Steel. Lead.
Tin.
Zinc.
156
159 -167
135
145
147 : '214
139
133
HOOP IRON.
Weight of 10 Limal Feet.
Width in Inches
i
and Parts.
S
*
i
1
li
li
11
14
11
2 i 2i
24
23 j 3
No. of Gauge .
21
20 19
18
17
16
15
15
14
IB
13
12
11 11
Weight in Ibs. and
685
8851-24
1-60
2-05
2-73
3-40
3-72
4-72
6-066-83
8-9fi
10-8511-84
Decimal Parts.
TAPER ANGLE IKON, OF EQUAL SIDES.
Length of Sides in
Inches.
Thickness of
Edges.
Thickness of
Root.
Weight of One Lineal
Foot in Ibs. and
Decimal Parts.
4
4 in.
fin.
14-0
3
4
1 10-375
2}
24
f
h
8-25
6-5
2J
A full
A
6-0
2
1 full
A fH
3-875
If
I
A
3-25
14
i bare
A bare
2-625
TAPER
Width of
Top Table in
Inches.
Total Depth
in Inches.
Thickness of
Top Table at
Root.
Thickness of
Top Table at
Edges.
Uniform
Thickness of
Rib.
Weight of One
Lineal Foot
in Ibs.
3
ai
4 in.
I in.
AM:
8-0
3
2|
1
4
8-0
2
3
TV
A
5-25
24
1
|
4 full
6-5
2
2
14
i
A
t
1
3-5
2-875
442
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
WEIGHT OF CORRUGATED IRON ROOFING.
B. W. Gauge
Size of SheetSt
Per Square.
Duper. r ee
16
6 feet
x 2 feet to 8 feet
X
3 feet
x
3icwt.
. Pe 800 n '
18
6
X 2 8
X
3
x
2i
. 1000
20
6
x 2 8
X
3
X
1} ,,
. 1250
22
6
X 2 7
x
2i
V
14 ,,
1550
24
6
x 2 7
x
2*
X
11
. 1880
26
6
X 2 7
X
24,,
X
1
. 2170
WEIGHT IN POUNDS OF NUTS AND BOLT-HEADS.
Diameter of Bolt in J | I
Inches.
i
i
267
}
S3
I
1
H
1*
If
2
24
3
Weight of Hexagon
Nut and Head.
017
057
128
730
1-10
2-14
3-77
5'62
8-75
17-2
28-8
Weight of Square Nut
and Head.
021
070
164
321
553
882
1-31
2-56
4-12
7-00
IO'5021-O
36-4
WHITWORTH'S SCREWS WITH ANGULAR THREADS.
Diameter in
Inches.
Number of
Threads per
Inch.
Diameter in
Inches.
Number of
Threads per
Inch.
Diameter in
Inches.
Number of
Threads per
Inch.
i
40
H
6
3
34
T a a
24
14
6
3|
3J
i
20
H
5
34
3i
A
18
1}
5
3i
3
16
U
44
4
3
r 7 .
14
2
4J
N
21
4
12
2i
44
44
2J
11
2 1
4
4J
2|
2
10
2g
4
5
28
I
9
8
li
4
4
It
2i
2
H
U
7
7
1
IS
51
i '
24
24
Angle of threads 55 in every instance.
The threads do not intersect at their sides, but are rounded off
one-sixth both at top and bottom, making their depth equal to two-
thirds of the pitch.
The number of threads to the inch in square -threaded screws is
generally half the number of those in angular-threaded screws, and
the depth equal to the space between the threads.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
WEIGHT OF CHAINS.
Diameter of
Link
in inches.
Weight per
Lineal Foot
in Ibs.
Diameter of
Link
in Inches.
Weight per
Lineal Foot,
in Ibs.
Diameter of
Link
in Inches.
Weight per
Lineal Foot
in Ibs.
A
33
3
5-33
1A
16-00
63
i a
6-16
11
17-66
A
91
5
7-16
19-25
1-33
it
8-16
14
20-83
TV
1-50
1
9-33
U
24-17
4
2-33
JJL
10-50
H
28-33
ft
3-00
li
11-83
15
32-50
i
3-67
13-16
2
38-33
H
4-50
11
14-50
To Find the Safe Load on Chain*.
(Diam. of link in eighths of an inch) 2
/ -= safe load in tons.
(8 x weight to be raised) = diam. of link in eighths of inch.
WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF BOUND BOPES OF HEMP
AND WIBE.
Hemp.
Iron Wire.
Steel Wire.
Girth or
Circum-
ference
Weight per
Fathom
of Six Feet
Breaking
Weight
in
Girth or
Circum-
ference
Weight per
Fathom
of Six Feet,
Breaking
Weight
in
Girth or
Circum-
ference
Weight per
Fathom
of Six Feet,
Breaking
Weight
in
in Inches.
in Ibs.
Tons.
in Inches
in Ibs.
Tons.
in Inches
in Ibs.
Tons.
i
15
i
i
56
I
1
1
24
1
26
i
1
1
14
11
U
31
li
59
4
14
14
31
11
14
41
2
1-04
I
li
2
4
14
11
54
24
1-70
ii
H
24
44
H
2
64
21
2-00
14
IS
3
51
11
21
74
3
2-34
M
2
34
6
H
21
81
ft
3-19
2*
SB
4
61
2
31
10
3i
3-66
2S
21
44
74
34
31
111
4
4-16
H
2i
5
81
21
41
124
44
5-27
4
24
54
91
2|
41
14
5
6-50
5
2|
6
101
24
51
154
54
7-86
6
21
64
Hi
2|
51
171
6
9-36
71
25
7
121
21
61
19
64
11-00
84
3
74
135
25
61
204
7
12-74
91
8i
8
144
3
71
224
74
14-63
HI
H
84
16
Bl
74
244
8
16-64
12|
3g
9
17
31
8
26*
84
18-78
144
34
10
184
31
8
284
9
21-06
181
i
11
191
34
10
304
94
23-46
18
31
12
21
31
12
35
10
26-00
20
35
13
225
4
15
40
105
28-66
22
4
14
24
11
31-46
24J
41
15
27
114
34-38
26J
4|
16
281
12
37-44
29
44
18
301
41
20
32
5
25
38
54
32
454
6
38
54
444 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
To find the Breaking Weight of Round Ropes of Hemp, Iron Wire,
and Steel Wire.
Hempi^ '- = breaking weight in tons.
Iron wire (circum. ins.) 2 x 1*5 = breaking weight in tons.
Steel wire (circum. ins.) 2 x 2-5 = breaking weight in tons.
Factor of safety for hemp, iron, and steel ropes = -J.
To find the Weight of Hemp Ropes.
(Circum. ins.) 2 x 26 = weight, m Ibs. per fathom.
ALLOYS OF METALS.
Yellow brass, 2 parts copper, 1 zinc.
Rolled brass, 32 parts copper, 10 zinc, 1-5 tin.
Brass casting, common, 25 parts copper, 2 zinc, 4-5 tin.
Gun metal, 8 parts copper, 1 tin.
Copper flanges for pipes, 9 parts copper, 1 zinc, 0'26 tin.
Bell metal, 3 parts copper, 1 tin.
IEON TO EESIST THE ACTION OF FIEE.
The following mixture of iron is recommended for fire bars, furnace
plates, gas retorts (iron) and any other ironwork required to resist the
action of fire :
80 per cent. Ridsdale.
20 per cent. Siemens Steel Scrap.
This is said to make a kind of pyrostatic iron, the high fusion point
being due to the small percentage of carbon present in the
mixture.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
TABLE
Of the Velocity and Force of the Wind.
Miles per Hour.
Feet per Second.
Pressure in Ibs. per
Square Foot.
Description.
1
1-47
005
Hardly perceptible.
2
3
2'93
4-4
020)
044J
Just perceptible.
4
5
5-87
7-33
079)
123)
Gentle breeze.
10
15
14-67
22-
492)
1-1074
Pleasant breeze.
20
25
29-34
36-67
1-968)
3-076f
Brisk gale.
30
35
44-01
51-34
4-429)
6-027)
High wind.
40
45
58-68
66-01
7-873)
9-996 f
Very high wind.
50
73-35
12-300
Storm or tempest.
60
70
88-02
102-71
17-718)
24 -153 f
Great storm.
80
100
117-36
146-7
31-490,
49-200 \
Hurricane.
The pressure or force of the wind is as the square of its velocity.
The square of the velocity of the wind in feet per second x 002288
= pressure in Ibs. per square foot.
The wind pressure upon a cylindrical surface is one-half, and on a
spherical surface one-fourth that which is exerted on a flat surface.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT OF VAEIOUS
SUBSTANCES.
Specific 1
Gravity
Weight i
Specific
Gravity
Weight
per
Name of Substance.
W^ght J C
"in'uDS * Name of Substance -
and
Weight
Cub.Foot
in Ibs.
Cb P Ft in \ A
voirdu-
Cb. P Ft. hi
Avoirdu-
Ounces. 1
pois.
Ounces.
pois.
Alcohol, pure ....
790 '
49-38 Brass, cast . . . .1 8,240
515
Ash (timber) ....
752 i
47 ! wire . . . .j 8,480
530
Asphalt, prepared . .
Basalt
2,496 j
2,992 '
156
187
Brick 1 2,080
Brickwork . .j 1,792
130
112
Bath stone ....
1,792 !
112
Cement, Portland . 1,424
89
Beech
688 i
43 , Roman. .j 960
60
Birch
704 !
44 'Chalk 1 9 Sfifi
148
Bitumen
992
62
Charcoal, Oak . .1 836
21
Boxwood 960
60
Clay 1,920
120
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
SPECIFIC GBAVITY AND WEIGHT OF VARIOUS
SUBSTANCES Continued.
Name of Substance.
Sp. Gr. I Weight
and | per
Weight Cub.Foot Name of Substan ce.
per ; in Ibs.
Cb. Ft. in 1 Avoirdu-
Ounces. j pois.
Sp. Gr. Weight
and per
Weight Cnb.Foot
per ! in Ibs.
Cb. Ft. in Avoirdu-
Ounces. pois.
Clay puddle . . .
Coal, anthracite, solid
bituminous .
oannel, Scotch
,, "Wigan
N'castle
stored in usual)
way . . . . i
Coke from coking )
ovens >
from gas-works)
slaked . . J
from gas-works )
unslaked . . *
Concrete
Copper, cast ....
sheet and wire
Cork . . . ... ..
Earth, loam ....
2,560
1,280
1,200
1,248
1,280
1,312
832
800
515
448
1,920
8,640
8,800
240
1,600
1,200
560
560
464
544
2,400
2,080
2,288
2,624
2,240
2,496
2,880
2,992
19,360
17,728
2,688
1,840
2,096
8,784
2,304
908
7,168
7,680
11,392
3,168
2,4%
2,848
864
640
720
Mean of
160
80
?!
80
82
52
50
32-2
28
120
540
550
15
100
75
35
35
29
34
150
130
143
164
140
156
180
187
1,210
1,108
168
115
131
549
144
56-75
448
480
712
198
156
178
54
40
45
the whol
Maple . . . , ' . .
Marble
784
2,720
1,728
2,240
13,584
1,760
1,600
848
800
864
944
912
928
880
896
912
2,560
1,280
2,704
880
1,152
19,520
20,480
20,800
2,096
2,640
1,888
1,440
2,528
2,592
1,520
10,480
10,528
2,880
128
7,840
2,000
592
1,040
1,792
7,360
2,720
1.000
1,024-8
2,752
448
800
2,288
7,040
5,664
49
170
108
140
849
110
100
53
50
54
59
57
58
55
66
57
160
80
169
55
72
1,220
1,280
1,300
131
165
118
90
158
162
95
655
658
180
8
490
125
37
65
112
460
170
62-5
64-05
172
28
50
143
440
354
Marl
Maso'hry
Mercury
Mortar . . . .
Mud
Naphtha . . .... .
Oak, English. . . .
American, red. .
Oil, linseed . . . .
olive
whale (train) . .
tallow . . . .
colza
Paviug
Peat ,."
Pebble stone ....
Petroleum. . . . ' .
Pitch
Platinum, pure .
hammered .
wire . . ...
Portland stone . . .
Quartz
Elm
Fir, red pine and spruce
American . . .
larch
Fire-Clay, natural . .
,, burned in blocks
Flag, Yorkshire . . .
Flint
Freestone
Glass, crown ....
, plate ....
flint ....
Gold, pure ....
,, standard . . .
Granite .
Sand, damp ....
dry
Sandstone. . . " . .
Shale
Shingle
Silver, pure ....
,, standard .
Slate
Snow
Steel
Sulphur
Sycamore
Tar
Gravel
Grindstone ....
Gun metal ....
Gypsum
Ice
Tile
Tiu
Trap
Water, pure ....
sea . . . .
Whinstone . . . .
Willow
Yew
Yorkshire flag . . .
Zinc
J earth
Iron, cast
Iron, wrought . . .
Lead
white ....
Limestone, lias . . .
magnesian .
Lime, quick ....
Mahogany, Honduras .
Spanish. .
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS. 447
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
Bale of flax (Russia) .... 5 to 6 cwt.
Barrel bulk 5 cubic feet.
Barrel of tar 26 gallons.
Battens Boards 7 inches wide.
Bushel of coal 80 Ibs.
Bushel of coke 45 ,,
Cable's length 240 yards.
Cask of black lead 11 cwt.
Chaldron of coal 25 ,,
,, coke 12 to 15 cwt.
Cord of wood 128 cubic feet.
Deals ......... Boards 9 inches wide.
Dozen 12 articles.
Faggot of steel 120 Ibs.
Fodder of lead 19 cwt.
Gross 12 doz.
Hundred of deals 120 in number.
nails 120
Keel of coals 21 tons 4 cwt.
Load of bricks 500 bricks.
inch boards 600 square feet.
2-inch planks .... 300 square feet.
lime 32 bushels.
new hay 19 cwt. 32 Ibs.
old hay 18
straw . , . r . 11 ,, 64
sand . . /'...;. . 36 bushels.
squared timber .... 50 cubic feet.
unhewn 40 ,,
tttes. . . . . . .1000 tiles.
Mat of flax (Dutch) . . ' . . , . 126 Ibs.
Pig of ballast . ; .". : ; : ;.'..- . 56
Planks .... . ; ,ui;- . . Boards 12 inches wide.
Quire of paper 24 sheets.
Ream of paper 20 quires, or 480 sheets.
Roll of parchment 60 skins.
Sack of coals. . /;/-;.' . . 224 Ibs.
Score. . '.' : 'V l?0 . -' . ''. ' '. . 20 articles.
448 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Sheet of paper folded into
2 leaves is termed . . . . folio size.
4 , 4to, or quarto.
8
12
16
18
24
48
8vo, or octavo.
12mo, or duodecimo.
16mo.
18mo.
24mo.
48mo.
Square of planking 100 superficial feet.
Thousand of nails .... -s 1200 nails.
Ton shipping 40 cubic feet.
Truss of old hay 56 Ibs.
,, new hay 60
straw 36 ,
OFFICE MEMOBANDA.
Books required in the Keeping of a Gas Company's Accounts.
1. Ledger (general).
2. Cash Book (general).
8. Gas Eegister, or Ledger, sometimes called " The Consumers'
Ledger."
4. Mill Register, or Ledger.
This book is devoted to the accounts of all the largest con-
sumers, such as millowners, and the proprietors of other
large establishments of any kind where the consumption 01
gas is heavy. They are handier classed together by them-
selves, than mixed up with smaller consumers.
5. Removals Book.
In this book is kept an account of all changes of residence that
have taken place amongst consumers during each quarter,
the substitution of meters, and the consumption of gas by
temporary consumers, &c. It is a most useful record, and
prevents confusion by interlineations in the regular register.
6. Quarterly Summary.
The several pages in the three foregoing books are added up,
and then brought together here, quarterly, in order to
ascertain the total consumption, amount due, &c. By
means of this book it is easy to compare the totals of the
different quarters during a number of years.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 119
7. Journal,
Containing entries of all goods sold from the works, with the
exception of gas. Separate columns should be arranged for
"Fittings, &c.," " Eesidual Products," "Miscellaneous,"
and " Total." At the end of each quarter the separate
amounts of all accounts remaining unpaid are transferred
to the
8. Arrears Fittings, &c., Book,
Which is entered up at the end of every quarter, and shows
the amount remaining due (arrears included) for Fittings,
Residual Products, and Miscellaneous.
9. Daily Receipt (Cash) Book,
In which is entered the amount of each separate payment
made to the company on account of " Gas," " Meter-Rents,"
"Fittings, &c.," "Residual Products," and other miscel-
laneous items.
10. Stock-Taking Books,
For taking the quarterly stock of gas consumed through each
meter. Two or more are always required, according to the
number of consumers. The one used (we will suppose) on
Monday is left at the office that night to be entered up into
the Register, by the clerk on the day following ; and so on
alternately.
11. Black Book,
In which a record of all bad debts is kept.
12. Collector's Book.
In some cases, checks only are used, with counterfoil.
13. Receiving Book,
In which all delivery notes for goods received by the company
are copied daily. The regular invoice, when received, is
checked by this book.
14. Wages and Time Book,
Containing, in separate columns, a daily account of the number
of hours worked by each man, the kind of work, and the
place where employed, with the amount due as wages at the
end of each week.
15. Stores Book, A.
16. Stores Book, B.
In the one is kept a record of goods sold out of stock, and in
the other of goods used out of stock for repairs and extension
of plant. The one may be said to relate to mcnue ; the
other chiefly to capital.
460 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
17. Stores Ledger,
Into which the entries in the previous two books are posted to
the credit of the several accounts (such as " Meters," " Lead
Pipe," " Wrought-iron Fittings," &c.), and the items from
the several invoices are posted to the debit of the several
accounts. At the end of each half year the balance of each
account represents the stock on hand. This latter is proved
to be correct or otherwise by the result of the actual stock-
taking.
18. Carbonizing Book Daily and Weekly Statements,
Containing a record of the' 4 state of the station-meter taken
twice in the 24 hours (in large works the state of the meter
is recorded every hour) ; the quantity of coal and cannel
used daily, the production of gas per ton, and the total daily
production ; the number of benches at work, stokers, &c.
Each page serves for a week, and is then added up ; an addi-
tional line is left at the foot of the page, on which is entered
for comparison, the particulars of the total of the correspond-
ing week of the previous year.
19. Public Lamp Eegister,
Gives particulars of the number of lamps lighted each night ;
the hours of lighting and extinguishing ; the hours burning
per lamp, the total hours burning ; a column into which the
number of hours, weekly, can be added, and another for
remarks.
20. Test Eegister,
For noting the results of the different tests of the illuminating
power and purity of the gas.
21. Shareholders' Register and Address Book.
22. Seal Eegister and Dividend List.
23. Eegister of Calls.
24. Eegister of Transfers.
25. Transfer Certificate Book,
Containing certificates of the registration of shares, to be torn
out, leaving counterfoil behind.
26. Invoice Book,
With blank leaves, into which are gummed all invoices for
goods received.
27. Minute Book.
A lettered index at the beginning of this book is handy.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS. 461
A few other account-books of a less important character may be
useful ; but the above are indispensable in a well-regulated gas
company.
Discount for Early Payment of Gas Bills.
The custom of allowing discount to consumers on gas bills paid
either during the first month after the expiration of a quarter, or
within a period of 21 or 30 days from the date of the delivery of the
account, is becoming very general amongst gas companies.
The most common allowance is at the rate of 10 per cent, on the
amount due for gas consumed (excluding the meter-rent), but the
premium varies throughout the country from 5 to 20 per cent. ; some
companies adopting a graduated scale of discounts according to the
quarterly consumption.
The practice, wherever adopted, has been found highly beneficial,
saving labour in collecting, and reducing the percentage of bad debts.
FOEMS.
Renouncement of Proposed Xeir Issue on the Transfer of Old Shares,
I, John Thompson, of Tipping Street, Newcastle, hereby renounce
my right to any of the new Shares about to be issued by the
Gas Company, in favour of William Jones, of Broad Street, Man-
chester.
(Signed) JOHN THOMPSON,
To the Secretary Jan. 1, 18
of the Gas Company.
Renunciation of Shares newly Allotted.
I, John Wilson, of Birmingham, being the holder [or proprietor] of
Shares in the - Gas Company, do hereby renounce the
same to and in favour of William Jackson, of Bristol. And I, the said
William Jackson, hereby agree to accept and take the said Shares,
subject to the conditions on which they are allotted. Dated this
day of , One thousand eight hundred and
Signed by the said^
John Wilson in the - JOHN WILSON.
presence of )
(Here Witness signs.)
Signed by the said}
William Jackson in L WILLIAM JACKSON.
the presence of )
(Here Witness signs.)
G o 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Declaration for Loss of Sealed Share (Jertijicates.
I, , of , do hereby solemnly and sincerely declare
that I am possessed of and entitled to in the Com-
pany, , and that the said are bond Ji.de my property,
and that they are not pledged or assigned to any person or persons
whomsoever for money advanced thereon, or for any consideration
whatever. And I further declare that I have made diligent search
for the , and can nowhere find the same. And I make this
solemn declaration conscientiously believing the same to be true, and
by virtue of the provisions of an Act made and passed in the 5th
and 6th years of the reign of His late Majesty King William the
Fourth, intituled " An Act to repeal an Act of the present Session
of Parliament, intituled ' An Act for the more effectual abolition of
Oaths and Affirmations taken and made in various departments of
the State, and to substitute declarations in lieu thereof,' and for the
more entire suppression of voluntary and extra judicial Oaths and
Affidavits, and to make other provisions for the abolition of un-
necessary Oaths."
Declared at , this day of , One thousand eight
hundred and , before me.
[The above Declaration is to be made before a Commissioner to
administer Oaths in Chancery in England. Any person making a
false Declaration is declared guilty of a misdemeanour.]
Indemnity for Loss of Share Certificates or Dividend Warrant.
Company.
Whereas , in the Company called the , numbered
, being the property of , the undersigned, h by accident
been lost or destroyed, and the said Company have consented to give
, on being indemnified for so doing. Now, in consideration of
the said Company so granting to me, the said , a , we
the undersigned and do hereby severally and respec-
tively undertake and agree to save harmless and keep indemnified
the Directors for the time being of the said Company of and from all
losses, damages, and expenses which they, any or either of them,
may sustain, incur, or be put unto, for or in consequence of their
so granting such new ; and also from and against all claim
or claims to be at any time hereafter made upon the said Company
for or in respect of the original by any person or persons
whomsoever.
Dated this day of , One thousand eight hundred
And .
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 45*
Declaration of Transmission of Shares (from wife to husband) in
consequence of Marriage.
I, John Smith, of in the county of , do hereby
solemnly declare that on the day of , One thousand
eight hundred and , I was married at church, ,
in the parish of , in the county of , to Mary Baker,
of aforesaid,* , and that the accompanying docu-
ment is a true copy of or extract from the marriage register of
church , and that the said Mary Baker referred to
in the above-named register is the same person whose name now
appears in the books as a shareholder in the Gas Company,
and that prior to the celebration of the aforesaid marriage neither any
deed of settlement or any other deed or document was prepared or
executed upon any trusts affecting the pecuniary interest or otherwise
of either myself or the said Mary Baker. And I do make this solemn
declaration conscientiously believing the same to be true, and by
virtue of the provisions of an Act made and passed in the 5th and 6th
years in the reign of His late Majesty King William the Fourth,
intituled " An Act to repeal an Act of the present Session of Parlia-
ment, intituled ' An Act for the more effectual abolition of Oaths and
Affirmations taken and made in various departments of the State, and
to substitute declarations in lieu thereof,' and for the more entire sup-
pression of voluntary and extra judicial Oaths and Affidavits, and to
make other provisions for the abolition of unnecessary Oaths."
Declared at , this day of , One thousand eight hun-
dred and , before me.
[The above Declaration is to be made before a Commissioner to
administer Oaths in Chancery in England.]
Authority to Pay Dividends.
Company,
18
Payment of Dividends.
I, the undersigned, , of , being a shareholder of
and in the undertaking called the Company, do hereby
request that all Dividends and Interest due to me on the Stock or
Shares now registered, or that may hereafter be registered in my
name may be paid to , of , until further notice,
whose receipt shall be a sufficient discharge to the Company for the
payment of the same.
Signature
Date
Spinster or Widow, as the case may ho.
454 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Certificate Shuiciny that Income-Tax has been Deducted.
This is to certify that on paying to John Brown the sum of 45,
being the amount of one year's Dividend (or, one half year's Dividend,
as the case may be) on Shares (or Stock) to December 31st, 18 , I
deducted for Income-Tax the sum of 18s. 9d.
Pro the A B Gas Company,
WILLIAM JONES,
Secretary.
Form of Proxy.
A. B., one of the proprietors of '" The Company," doth
hereby appoint C. D., of , to be the proxy of the said A. B.,
in his absence to vote in his name upon any matter relating to the
undertaking proposed at the meeting of the proprietors of the said
Company, to be held on the day of next, in such manner
as he the said C. D. doth think proper. In witness whereof the said
A. B. hath hereunto set his hand [or, if a corporation, say, the
common seal of the corporation] , the day of , One thousand
eight hundred and .
TERMS FOE LEASES, ETC.
England and Ireland. Scot! find.
Lady Day . . . March 25th
Midsummer June 24th.
Candlemas . . . Feb. 2nd.
Whitsunday . . . May 15th.
Michaelmas . . Sept. 29th. I Lammas. . , . August 1st.
-Christmas . . . Dec. 25th. | Martinmas . . . Nov. llth.
When a Scottish term falls on Sunday, the Monday following is
considered term day.
LAW TERMS.
England and Ireland.
Hilary or Lent . . Begins, Jan. llth. . Ends, Jan. 31st.
Easter .... ,, April 15th. . ,, May 8th.
Trinity .... May 22nd. . ' June 12th.
Michaelmas ... ,, Nov. 2nd. . ,, Nov. 25th.
Scotland.
Candlemas . . . Begins, Jan. 15th . . Ends, Feb. 3rd.
Whitsunday. . V" ,, May 12th . . ,, June 2nd.
Lammas. ... ,, June 17th. . ,, July 5th.
Martinmas . . . Nov. 24th. Dec. 20th.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES.
455
SIZES OF DKAWING PAPEE.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Antiquarian .
,, extra
Double Elephant
Atlas. . . .
Columbia
Elephant
4
4
3
2
2
2
4
8
4
10
10
Si
X
X
X
x
X
f x
2
3
2
2
1
1
7
4
3
2
11
m
Double Crown
Imperial .
Super Royal
Eoyal . .
Medium .
Demy ...<*
Ft. In. Ft. In.
6 X
6 X
3 X
2 X
10
1 8
1 10
1 7
TABLE OF COLOUKS
Used in ^Lechanical and Architectural Drawing.
Work.
Brickwork in plan or section
Brickwork in elevation .
Colour.
Carmine or crimson lake.
Venetian red or crimson lake mixed
with burnt sienna.
Brickwork to be removed by al-
terations Burnt umber.
Concrete works Sepia with darker markings.
Clay *!,:,.. Burnt umber.
Earth Burnt umber.
Flintwork Prussian blue.
Granite Purple madder or pale Indian ink.
Stone generally Yellow ochre or pale sepia.
Slate Indigo and lake or Prussian blue.
English timber (oak excepted) . Ptaw sienna.
Oak Burnt sienna or Vandyke brown.
Fir and other light timber . . Indian yellow or raw sienna.
Mahogany Indian red.
Cast-iron ....... Payne's grey or neutral tint.
Wrought-iron . . . . ; ~ ? Prussian blue.
Steel, bright Indigo with a little lake.
Brass Gamboge or Eoman ochre.
Gun metal Dark cadmium.
Lead Pale Indian ink, tinged with Indigo.
Meadow land Hooker's green.
Sky effects Cobalt blue.
The presence of any slight greasiness, preventing the laying on of
the colours evenly, may be counteracted in its effects by dissolving a
little prepared ox-gall in the water with which the colours are mixed.
The brush should always be used in mixing colours ; the latter being
rubbed in separate divisions of the slab.
456 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
EPITOME OF MENSURATION.
Of the Circle, Cylinder, and Sphere.
The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their
diameters.
The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3-1416.
The diameter of a circle multiplied by 3-1416 equals its circum-
ference.
The diameter of a circle is equal to % -31831 of its circumference.
The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals
7854.
The diameter of a circle squared and multiplied by -7854 equals its
area.
The internal circumference of a cylinder multiplied by its length or
height equals its concave surface.
The area of the end of a cylinder multiplied by its length equals its
solid contents.
The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its
depth equals its cubical capacity.
The square of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by 3-1416 equals
its convex surface.
The cube of the diameter of a sphere multiplied by '5236 equals its
solid contents.
The capacity of a cylinder 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in length
equals 4-895 imperial gallons.
The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot in length
equals -034 of an imperial gallon.
The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in length
equals -002832 of an imperial gallon. Hence
The capacity of any other cylinder in imperial gallons is ob-
tained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, and
by the number of imperial gallons contained in the unity of its
measurement.
The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter equals 3-263 imperial
gallons.
The capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter equals -001888 of an
imperial gallon. Hence
The capacity of any other sphere in imperial gallons is obtained by
multiplying the cube of its diameter by the number of imperial
gallons contained in the unity of its measurement.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 457
Of the Square, Rectangle, and Cube.
The side of a square equals the square root of its area.
The area of a square equals the square of one of its sides.
The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the square
of its side.
The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the square
of its diagonal.
The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square contains
double the area of the given square.
The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its breadth.
The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the breadth ;
or the breadth equals the area divided by the length.
The side or end of a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of
the diagonal and opposite side to that required, multiplied by their
difference.
The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the
squares of the base and perpendicular.
The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides multiplied
by the length or breadth of one of its sides.
The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube root of its
solidity.
The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 6-232 imperial gallons.
Of Triangles and Polygons.
The sum of the squares of the two given sides of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse.
The difference between the squares of the hypotenuse and given
side of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the required
side.
The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base multiplied
by the perpendicular height.
The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothegm, or
perpendicular, and by the number of its sides, equals twice the area.
Of Ellipses, Cones, and Frustums,
The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two diameters
of an ellipse, multiplied by 3-1416, equals its circumference.
The product of the two axes of an ellipse, multiplied by -7854,
equals its area.
The solidity of a cone equals one-third of the product of its base
multiplied by its altitude, or height.
The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum of a
cone added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum multi-
plied by its height, and by -2618, equal its solidity.
458
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Table of Common Fractional Parts and Equivalent Decimals.
Common
Fractional Decimals.
Parts.
Common
Fractional
Parts.
Decimals.
Common
Fractional
Parts.
Decimals.
1-lOOth
01
9-14018
<!428
7-10ths
7
l-90th
0111
ll-14ths
7857 9-lOtbs
9
l-80th
0125
13-14ths
9285
l-9th
1111
l-70th
0143
l-13th
077
2.9ths
2222
l-60th
0166
2-13ths
1538
49ths
4444
l-50th
02
3-13tha
;2307
59ths
5555
l-40th
025
4-13ths
3076
7-9ths
7777
l-30th
0333
5-13ths
3846
8-9ths
*8888
l-20th
05
6-13ths
4615
l-8th
125
l-19th
0526
7-13ths
5384
3-8ths
375
l-18th
0555
8-13ths
6153
5-8ths
625
l-17th
0588
9-13ths
6923
7-8ths
875
l-16th
0625
10-13ths
7692
l-7th
143
8-16ths
1875
ll-13ths
84(51
2-7ths
2857
5-16ths
3125
12-13ths
923
3-7ths
4285
7-16ths
4375
l-12th
0833
4-7ths
5714
9-16ths
5625
5-12ths
4166
5-7ths
7142
ll-16ths
9875
7-12ths
5833
6-7ths
8571
laiGths
8125
ll-12ths
9166
l-6th
1666
15-16ths
9375
1-llth
0909
5-6ths
833
l-15th
0666
2-llths
1818
l-5th
2
2-15ths
1333
3-llths
2727
2-5ths
4
4-15ths
2666
4-llths
3636
3-5ths
6
7-15ths
4666
5-llths
4545
4-5ths
8
8-15ths
5333
6-llths
5454
l-4th
25
ll-15ths
7333
7-llths
6363
3-4ths
75
13-15chs
8666
8-llths
7272
l-3rd
3333
1415ths
9333
9-llths
8181
2-3rds
6666
l-14th
07L4
10-llths
909
1-half
5
3-14ths
2142
l-10th
1
1
1
4-14ths
2857
3-10ths
3
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 459
ARITHMETICAL AND ALGEBRAICAL SIGNS.
= The sign of Equality, and signifies fqual to, as 2 added to 3 = 5.
-f Addition plus or more, as 4 + 6 = 10.
,, Subtraction ,, minus pr less, as 6 4 = 2.
X ,, Multiplication ,, multiplied by, as 5 x 3 = 15.
-T- ,, Division ,, diritled by, as 8^-4 = 2.
: : : : Proportion, : signifies is to, or to, : : signifies so is.
Thus, 2 : 3 : : 4 : 6 signifies that as 2 is to 3 so is 4
to 6.
Evolution, or the Extraction of Roots.
V The sign of the Square Root (termed the Radical sign), as
V 16 = 4, i.e., the square root of 16 is equal to 4.
A/ ,, Cube Root, as $ 6-1 = 4, i.e., the cube root
of 64 is equal to 4.
v ,, Bi-quadrate, or fourth Root, v" 16 = 2.
Involution, or the raising of Powers.
4 2 signifies to be squared, as 4 2 = 16. The small figure is termed the
Index or Exponent.
4^ ,, to be cubed, as 4 s = 64. _
- A vinculum placed over two or more figures, thus 3 + 5, signifies
_ that they are to be taken as one quantity. Thus :
3 + 5 X 4 = 32, signifies that 3 plus 5 multiplied by 4 = 32, and
V5 _ 8 2 = 4, signifies that 5 squared, minus 3 squared, and the
square root of the remainder = 4, and
ff 20 X 12 = 2) s i gm - fies that 20 multiplied by 12, divided by 30, and
30
the cube root of the quotient = 2, and
24 x 6 + 12 x 3 x 4 = 6Q ^ gi g nifieg that 24 multiplied by 6> and 12
multiplied by 3, added together, multiplied
by 4 and divided by 12, the quotient =60.
{] Brackets; e.g. 12 - [ 3 + (4 x 2)] = 1, signify that the
product of 4, multiplied by 2, added to 3, and the total sub-
tracted from 12, leaves 1.
.. . is used to signify the word there/ore.
. is used to signify the word because, or since.
2 is used in the Chain Rule to signify hon- many.
480 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
APPROXIMATE MULTIPLIERS FOR FACILITATING
CALCULATIONS.
Square inches x "007 = square feet.
Square feet x "111 = square yards.
Square yards x 0002067 = statute acres.
Square yards x -000000323 = square miles.
Statute acres x 4840 = square yards.
Statute acres x -0015625 = square miles.
Square links x - 4356 = square feet.
Square feet x 2-3 = square links.
Square feet x 183-346 = circular inches.
Circular inches x -00456 = square feet.
Links x -22 = yards.
Links x -66 = feet.
Feet x 1-5 = links.
Cubic inches x '00058 = cubic feet.
Cubic inches x -01638 = litres.
Cubic feet x -037 = cubic yards.
Cubic feet x 2200 = cylindrical inches.
Cylindrical inches x -0004546 = cubic yards.
Cylindrical feet x -02909 = cubic yards.
Cubic feet x 6-232 = imperial gallons.
Imperial gallons x -1604 = cubic feet.
Cubic inches x -003607 = imperial gallons.
Imperial gallons x 277'3 = cubic inches.
Imperial gallons x 4-541 = litres.
Cubic feet x '779 = bushels.
Cubic inches x -00045 = bushels.
Bushels x -0476 = cubic yards.
Bushels x 1-284 = cubic feet.
Bushels x 2218-2 = cubic inches.
Lineal feet x -00019 = statute miles.
Lineal yards x -0006 statute miles.
Statute miles x -869 = mean geographical miles.
Mean geographical miles x 1-151 = statute miles.
Pounds avoirdupois x 7000 = grains.
Pounds avoirdupois x -82286 = pounds troy.
Pounds troy x 1-2153 = pounds avoirdupois.
Grains x -0001429 = pounds avoirdupois.
Pounds avoirdupois x -009 = cwts.
Pounds avoirdupois x -00045 = tons.
Tons x 2240 = pounds avoirdupois.
Tons x 1-016 = tonnes, French.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
French tonnes x '984 = English tons.
Pounds on square inch x 144 = pounds on square foot.
Pounds on square foot x "007 = pounds on square inch.
Miles per hour x 1-467 = feet per second.
Feet per second x '682 = miles per hour.
Metres x 3-281 = English feet.
Litres x '2202 = imperial gallons.
Hectolitres x 2-7512 = English bushels.
Grammes x '002205 = pounds avoirdupois.
Kilogrammes x 2-205 = pounds avoirdupois.
Diameter of circle x 8-1416 = circumference.
Circumference of circle x -31831 = diameter.
Diameter of circle x -8862 = side of equal square.
Circumference of circle x -2821 = side of equal square.
Diameter of circle x -7071 = side of inscribed square.
Circumference of circle x -2251 = side of inscribed square.
Area of circle x -6366 = side of inscribed square.
Side of square x 1-128 = diameter of equal circle.
Side of square x 3-545 = circumference of equal circle.
Side of square x 1-414 = diameter of circumscribing circle.
Side of square x 4-448 = circumference of circumscribing circle.
Square of diameter x -7854 = area of circle.
Square root of area x 1-12837 = diameter of equal circle.
Square of diameter of sphere x 3-1416 = convex surface.
Cube of diameter of sphere x -5236 = solidity.
Diameter of sphere x -806 = dimensions of equal cube.
Diameter of sphere x -6667 = length of equal cylinder.
One atmosphere = 14-7 pounds on square inch.
=2116 pounds on squai-e foot.
,, 29-922 inches of mercury.
= 33-9 feet of water.
Each 1000 cubic feet of coal gas in a -holder x 37 = (approximate)
weight of gas in pounds.
The atomic weight of an elementary gas x -0691 = its specific
gravity.*
Half the atomic weight of a compound gas or vapour x -0691 = its
specific gravity.
In round numbers, d. per square yard is 10 per statute acre
(actually 10 Is. 8d.)
* Exceptions to this rule occur in the case of the vapours of phosphorus and
arsenic, whose atomic weights must be doubled, and in those of mercury, zinc, and
cadmium, the atomic weights of which must be halved.
NEWBIGGENQ'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE OF
DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND
AREAS
OF CIRCLES, AND SIDES OF
EQUAL SQUARES.
Diam.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal ; Diam.
Square.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
|
7854
0490
2215 13|
43-197
148-489
12-185
i
1-5708
1963
4431
14
43-982
153-938
12-406
2-3562
4417
6646
m
44-767
159-485
12-628
1
3-1416
7854
8862
144
45-553
165-130
12-850
11
5-9270
1-2271
1-1077 14J
46-338
170-873
13-071
14
4-7124
1-7671
1-3293 15
47-124
176-715
13-293
11
5-4978
2-4052
1-5508
151
47-909
182-654
13-514
2
6-2832
3-1416
1-7724
154 -.
48-694
188-692
13-736
21
7-0686
3-9760
1-9939 15|
49-480
194-828
13-957
24
7-8540
4-9087
2-2155 16
50-265
201-062
14-174
2}
8-6394
5-9395
2-4370 161
51-051
207-394
14-400
3
9-4248
7-0686
2-6586 ] 164
51-836
213-825
14-622
31
10-210
8-2957
2-8801 161
52-621
220-353
14-843
Si
10-995
9-6211
3-1017 17
53-407
226-980
15-065
Bi
11-781
11-044
3-3232 ; 171
54-192
233-705
15-286
4
12-566
12-566
3-5448 j 17J
54-978
240-528
15-508
41
13-351
14-186
3-7663 | 171
55-763
247-450
15-730
3
14-137
15-904
3-9880
18
56-548
254-469
15-951
43
14 -.922
17-720
4-2095
181
57-334
261-587
16-173
5
15-708
19-635
4-4310
184
58-119
268-803
16-394
5i
16-493
21-647
4-6525
181
58-905
276-117
16-616
54
17-278
23-758
4-8741
19
59-690
283-529
16-837
51
18-064
25-967
5-0956
191
60-475
291-039
17-060
6
18-849
28-274
5-3172
194
61-261
298-648
17-280
61
19-635
30-679
5-5388
191
62-046
306-355
17-502
6J
20-420
33-183
5-7603
20
62-832
314-160
17-724
61
21-205
35-784
5-9819
201
63-617
322-063
17-945
7
21-991
38-484
6-2034
204
64-402
330-064
18-167
71
22-776
41-282
6-4350
201
65-188
338-163
18-388
74
23-562
44-178
6-6465
21
65-973
346-361
18-610
7J
24-347
47-173
6-8681
211
66-759
354-657
18-831
8
25-132
50-265
7-0897
214
67-544
363-051
19-053
81
25-918
53-456
7-3112
211
68-329
371-543
19-274
84
26-703
56-745
7-5328
22
69-115
380-133
19-496
8|
27-489
60-132
7-7544
221
69-900
388-822
19-718
9
28-274
63-617
7-9760
22J
70-686
397-608
19-939
91
29-059
67-200
8-1974
221
71-471
406-493
20-161
9*
29-845
70-882
8-4190 ! 23
72-256
415-476
20-382
9$
30-630
74-662
8-6405 231
73-042
424-557
20-604
10
31-416
78-540
8-8620
234
73-827
433-731
20-825
101
32-201
82-516
9-0836
23|
74-613
443-014
21-047
104
32-986
86-590
9-3051
24
75-398
452-390
21-268
101
33-772
90-762
9-5267
241
76-183
461-864
21-490
11
34-557
95-033
9-7482
244
76-969
471-436
21-712
11J
35-343
99-402
9-9698
241
77-754
481-106
21-933
114
36-128
103-869
10-191
25
78-540
490-875
22-155
111
36-913
108-434
10-413
251
79-325
500-741
22 '376
12
37-699
113-097
10-634
254
80-110
510-706
22-598
121
38-484
117-859
10-856
251
80-896
520-769
22-819
12J
39-270
122-718
11-077
26
81-681
530-930
23-041
12|
40-055
127-676
11-299
261
82-467
541-189
23-262
13
40-840
132-732
11-520
264
83-252
551-547
23-484
13*
41-626
137-886
11-742
261
84-037
562-002
23-708
134
42-411
143-139
11-963
27
84-823
572-556
23-927
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Diam.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal Diam.
Square.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
27}
85-608
583-208
24-149
41J
131-161
1369-00
36-999
27A
86-394
593-958
24-370
42
131-947
1385-44
37-220
27i
87-179
604-807
24-592 421
132-732
1401-98
37-442
28
87-964
615-753
24-813
424
133-518
1418-62
37-663
28J
88-750
626-798
25-035
423
134-303
1435-36
37-885
284
89-535
637-941
25-256
43
135-088
1452-20
38-106
283
90-321
649-182
25-478
431
135-874
1469-13
38-328
29
91-106
660-521
25-699
43*
136-659
1486-17
38-549
291
91-891
671-958
25-921
433
137-445
1503-30
38-771
294
92-677
683-494
26-143
44
138-230
1520-63
38-993
29J
93-462
695-128
26-364
441
139-015
1537-86
39-214
30
94-248
706-860
26-586
444
139-801
1555-28
39-436
301
95-033
718-690
26-807
443
140-586
1572-81
39-657
304
95-818
730-618
27-029
45
141-372
1590-43
39-879
30I
96-604
742-644
27-250
451
142-157
1608-15
40-110
31
97-389
754-769
27-472
454
142-942
1625-97
40-322
311
98-175
766-992
27-693
45|
143-728
1643-89
40-543
314
98-968
779-313
27-915
46
144-513
1661 -90
40-765
31|
99-745
791-732
28-136
461
145-299
1680-01
40-986
32
100-531
804-249
28-358
464
146-084
1698-23
41-208
821
101-316
816-865
28-580
46|
146-869
1716-54
41-429
324
102-102
829-578
28-801
47
147-655
1734-94
41-651
321
102-887
842-390
29-023
471
148-440
1753-45
41-873
33
103-672
855-300
29-244
474
149-226
1772-05
42-094
331
104-458
868-308
29-466
47|
150-011
1790-76
42-316
33}
105-243
881-415
29-687
48
150-796
1809-56
42-537
332
106-029
894-619
29-909
481
151-582
1828-46
42-759
34
106-814
907-922
30-131
484
152-367
1847-45
42-980
341
107-599
921-323
30-352
482
153-153
1866-55
43-202
344
108-385
934-822
30-574
49
153-938
1885-74
43-423
34|
109-170
948-419
30-795
491
154-723
1905-03
43-645
35
104-956
962-115
31-017
49}
155-509
1924-42
43-867
351
110-741
975-908
31-238
493
156-294
1943-91
44-088
354
111-526
989-800
31-460
50
157-080
1963-50
44-310
35|
112-312
1003-79
31-681
501
157-865
1983-18
44-531
36
113-097
1017-87
31-903
50*
158-650
2002-96
44-753
361
113-883
1032-06
32-124
503
159-436
2022-84
44-974
364
114-668
1046-39
32-349
51
160-221
2042-82
45-196
361
115-453
1060-73
32-567
511
161-007
2062-90
45-417
37
116-239
1075-21
32-789
514
161-792
2083-07
45-639
371
117-024
1089-79
33-011
51!
162-577
2103-35
45-861
374
117-810
1104-46
33-232
52
163-363
2123-72
46-082
37|
118-595
1119-24
33-454
521
164-148
2144-19
46-304
38
119-380
1134-11
33-675
524
164-934
2164-75
46-525
381
120-166
1149-08
33-897
521
165-719
2185-42
46-747
38*
120-951
1164-15
34-118
53
166-504
2206-18
46-968
383
121-737
1179-32
34-340
531
167-290
2227-05
47-190
39
122-522
1194-59
34-561
534
168-075
2248-01
47-411
391
123-307
1209-95
34-783
531
168-861
2269-06
47-633
394
124-093
1225-42
35-005
54
169-646
2290-22
47-854
393
124-878
1240-98
35-226
541
170-431
2311-48
48-076
40
125-664
1256-04
35-448
544
171-217
2332-83
48-298
401
126-449
1272-39
35-669
543
172-002
2354-28
48-519
m
127-234
1288-25
35-891
55
172-788
2375-83
48-741
40|
128-020
1304-20
36-112
551
173-573
2397-48
48-962
41
128-805
1320-25
36-334
554
174-358
2419-22
49-184
411
129-591
1336-40
36-555
551
175-144
2441-07
49-405
51
130-376
1352-65
36-777
56
175-929
2463-01
49-627
464
NEWBIGGINQ'S HANDBOOK FOE
Diam.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
Diam
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
561
176-715
2485-05
49-848
71
223-053
3959-20
62-920
56*
177-500
2507-19
50-070
711
223-839
3987-13
63-141
563
178-285
2529-42
50-291
71*
224-624
4015-16
63-363
57
179-071
2551-76
50-513
713
225-409
4043-28
63-545
671
179-856
2574-19
50-735
72
226-195
4071-51
63-806
57*
180-642
2596-72
50-956
721
226-980
4099-83
64-028
181-427
2619-35
51-178
72*
227-766
4128-25
64-249
58
182-212
2642-08
51-399
723
228-551
4156-77
64-471
581
182-998
2664-91
51-621
73
229-336
4185-39
64-692
68*
183-783
2687-83
51-842
731
230-122
4214-11
64-914
583
184-569
2710-85
52-064
73*
230-907
4242-92
65-135
59
185-354
2733-97
52-285
733
231-693
4271-83
65-357
591
186-139
2757-19
52-507
74.,
232-478
4300-85
65-578
69*
186-925
2780-51
52-729
741
233-263
4329-95
65-800
593
187-710
2803-92
52-950
74*
234-049
4359-16
66-022
60
188-496
2827-44
53-172
743
234-834
4388-47
66-243
601
189-281
2851-05
53-393
75
235-620
4417-87
66-465
60*
190-066
2874-76
53-615
751
236-405
4447-37
66-686
03
190-852
2898-56
53-836
75*
237-190
4476-97
66-908
61
191-637
2922-47
54-048
753
237-976
4506-67
67-129
6H
192-423
2946-47
54-279
76
238-761
4536-47
67-351
61*
193-208
2970-57
54-501
761
239-547
4566-36
67-572
613
193-993
2994-77
54-723
76*
240-332
4596-35
67-794
62
194-779
3019-07
54-944
763
241-117
4626-44
68-016
621
195-564
3043-47
55-166
77
241-903
4656-63
68-237
62*
196-350
3067-96
55-387
771
242-688
4686-92
68-459
621
197-135
3092-56
55-609
77*
243-474
4717-30
68-680
63
197-920
3117-25
55-830
773
244-259
4747-79
68-902
631
198-706
3142-04
56-052
78
245-044
4778-37
69-123
63*
199-491
3166-92
56-273
781
245-830
4809-05
69-345
633
200-277
3191-91
56-495
78*
246-615
4839-83
69-566
64
201-062
3216-99
56-716
783
247-401
4870-70
69-788
641
201-847
3242-17
56-938
79
248-186
4901-68
70-009
64*
202-633
3267-46
57-159
791
248-971
4932-75
70-231
643
203-418
3292-83
57-381
79*
249-757
4963-92
70-453
65
204-204
3318-31
57-603
791
250-542
4995-19
70-674
651
204-989
3343-88
57-824
80
251-328
5026-56
70-896
65*
205-774
3369-56
58-046
801
252-113
5058-01
71-119
651
206-560
3395-33
58-267
80*
252-898
5089-58
71-339
66
207-345
3421-20
58-489
803
253-684
5121-24
71-562
661
208-131
3447-16
58-710
81
254-469
5153-00
71-782
66*
208-916
3473-23
58-932
811
255-255
5184-86
72-005
663
209-701
3499-39
59-154
81*
256-040
5216-82
72-225
67
210-487
3525-66
59-375
811
256-825
5248-87
72-449
671
211-272
3552-01
59-597
82
257-611
5281-02
72-668
67*
212-068
3578-47
59-818
821
258-396
5313-27
72-892
673
212-843
3605-03
60-040
82*
259-182
5345-62
73-111
68
213-628
3631-68
60-261
823
259-967
5370-07
73-335
681
214-414
3658-44
60-483
83
260-752
5410-62
73-554
68*
215-199
3685-29
60-704
831
261-538
5443-26
73-778
683
215-985
3712-24
60-926
83*
262-323
5476-00
73-997
69
216-770
3739-28
61-147
833
263-109
5508-84
74-221
691
217-555
3766-43
61-369
84
263-894
5541-78
74-440
69*
218-341
3793-67
61-591
264-679
5574-81
74-664
693
219-126
3821-02
61-812
84*
265-465
5607-95
74-884
70
219-912
3848-46
62-934
843
266-260
5641-18
75-107
701
220-697
3875-99
62-255
85
267-036
5674-51
75-327
70*
221-482
3903-63
62-477
861
267-821
5707-94
75-550
70}
222-268
3931-36
62-698
85*
268-606
6741-47
75-770
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGEES.
Diam.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
Diam.
Circum-
ference.
Area.
Side of
Equal
Square.
853
269-392
5775-09
75-994
991
311-803
7736-62
87-958
86
270-177
5808-61
76-213
994
312-589
7775-65
88-179
86J
270-963
5842-63
76-437
993
313-374
7814-79
88-401
S6J
271-748
5876-55
76-656
100
314-160
7854-00
88-622
863
272-533
5910-57
76-880
1001
314-945
7893-31
88-844
87
273-319
5944-69
77.099
1004
315-730
7932-73
89-065
87*
274-104
5978-90
77.323
1003
316-516
7972-21
89-287
874
274-890
6013-21
77-542
101
317-301
8011-86
89-508
873
276-675
6047-62
77-766
1011
318-087
8051-57
89-730
88
276-460
6082-13
77-985
1014
318-872
8091-38
89-952
881
277-246
6H6-74
78-209
1013
319-657
8131-29
90-173
88*
278-031
6151-44
78-428
102
320-443
8171-30
90-395
S8J
278-817
6186-25
78-652
1021
321-228
8211-40
90-616
89
279-602
6221-15
78-871
1024
322-014
8251-60
90-838
891
280-387
6256-15
79-095
1023
322-799
8291-86
91-059
894
281-173
6291-25
79-315
103
323-584
8332-30
91-281
89|
281-958
6326-44
79-538
1031
324-370
8372-80
91-502
'JO
282-744
6361-74
79-758
1034
325-155
8413-40
91-724
901
283-529
63'.)7'13
79-982
103J
325-941
8454-09
91-946
904
284-314
6132-62
80-201
104
326-726
8494-88
92-167
yoi
285-100
6468-21
80-425
1041
327-511
8535-77
92-389
91
285-885
6;' 03 -89
80-644
1044
328-297
8576-76
92-610
911
286-671
6539-68
80-868
1043
329-082
8617-85
92-832
91|
287-456
6573-56
81-087
105
329-868
8659-03
93-053
91 1
288-241
6611-54
81-311
1051
330-653
8700-31
93-275
92
289-027
6647-62
81-530
1054
331-438
8741-69
93-496
921
289-812
6683-80
81-754
1053
332-224
8783-17
93-718
924
290-598
6720-07
81-973
106
333 '(09
8824-75
93-940
923
291-383
6756-45
82-197
1061
333-794
8866-42
94-161
93
292-168
6792-92
82-416
1064
334-580
89<'8'20
94-383
931
292-954
6829-49
82-640
1063
335-365
8950-07
94-604
934
293-739
6866-16
82-859
107
336-151
8992-04
94-826
933
294-535
6902-92
83-083
1071
336-936
9034-11
95-047
94
295-310
6939-79
83-302
1074
337-722
9076-27
95-269
941
296-095
6976-75
83-526
1073
338-506
9118-54
95-491
944
296-881
7013-81
83-746
108
339-292
9160-90
95-712
943
297-666
7050-97
83-970
1081
340-077
9203-36
95-934
95
298-452
7088-23
84-189
1084
340-863
9245-92
96-155
951
299-237
7125-58
84-413
1083
341-648
9288-58
96-377
984
300-022
7163-04
84-632
109
342-434
9331-33
96-598
95J
300-808
7200-59
84-856
1091
343-219
9374-18
96-820
9(5
301-593
7238-24
85-077
1094
344-005
9417-14
97-041
961
302-379
7275-99
85-299
1093
344-789
9460-19
97-263
964
303-164
7313-84
85-520
110
345-576
9503-34
97-485
963
303-949
7351-78
85-742
120
376-992
11309-76
106-348
97
304-735
7389-82
85-964
130
408-408
13273-26
115-234
971
305-520
7427-96
86-185
140
439-248
15393-84
124-079
974
306-306
7466-20
86-407
150
471-240
17671-50
132-935
971
307-091
7504-54
86-628
160
502-656
20106-24
141-798
98
307-876
7542-98
86-850
170
534-072
22698-06
150-659
981
308-662
7581-51
87-071
180
565-488
25446-96
159-521
984
309-447
7620-14
87-293
190
596-904
28352-94
168-383
98|
310-233
7658-87
87-514
200
628-320
31416-00
177-247
99
311-018
7697-70
87-736
300
942-480
70686-00
265-869
466 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Troy Wcif/ht.
Pennyweights. Grains, gr.
Ounces. 1 = 24 dwt.
Pound. 1 = 20 = 480 07. .
1 12 = 240 = 5760 Ib.
A carat = 4 grains.
487*5 grs. troy 1 oz. avoirdupois.
7000 = ! Ib.
100 ozs. troy = 109f ozs. avoirdupois.
8-2 grs, troy = 4 diamond grs.
1 oz. = 150
The pound troy is the weight of 22-81 5 cubic inches of distilled
water, at the temperature of 62 Fahr., the height of the barometer
being 30 inches.
Troy Aveight is used in philosophical experiments, and in weighing
gold, silver, and jewels. The fineness of gold and silver coins means
the proportion of the precious metal which they contain. This is ex-
pressed in lOOOths of their total weight, or in carats 24ths of their
total weight. British gold coins are 22 carats fine, or 0-916| ; silver
coins, 0-925. Gold, if pure, is said to be 24 carats fine; if there be
one of alloy, with 23 carats of pure gold, it is 23 carats fine, and so on
downwards. The alloy in gold and silver coins consists of copper.
The true weight of a sovereign is 123-274 grains consisting of pure
gold, 11 parts, or 118-001 grains ; copper, 1 part, or 10-273 grains.
Silver coin consists of pure silver, 222 parts ; copper, 18 parts.
The weight of a shilling is 87J grains. 24 pence are made from an
avoirdupois pound of copper.
Septem and Decigallon.
The word septem (seven) is descriptive of the weight of the 1000th
part of a decigallon of distilled water at 62 Fahr., and under a baro-
metric pressure of 30 inches.
A decigallon of water is the tenth part of a gallon, and as a gallon
of water at the above temperature and pressure weighs 70,000 grains
( 10 Ib. avoirdupois), it follows that the tenth part, or a decigallon,
must weigh 7000 grains (1 Ib.)
Each decigallon is divided into 1000 soptems ; and therefore the
septem of pure water weighs 7 grains.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS.
ApotJwca rit's We ight .
Drams, Scruples. Grains, gr.
or Drachms. 1 = 20 scr.
Ounces. 1 = 3 = 60 dr.
Pound. 1 =8 = 24 = 480 oz.
1 = 12 =96 = 288 = 5760 Ib.
The sign of the scruple is 3 ; the dram, 5 ; the ounce, 5
This weight, which is now abolished, was formerly used for com-
pounding medicines. The grain, ounce, and pound are equal to those
of troy weight. Drugs are bought and sold by avoirdupois weight.
A voirdupoix Weight.
Ounces. Drams, dr.
Pounds. 1 = 16 oz.
Stones. 1 = 16 = 256 Ib.
Quarters. 1 = 14 = 224 = 3584 at.
Cwts. 1=2= 28 = 448 = 7168 qr.
Ton. 1 = 1= 8 = 112 = 1792 - 28672 cwt.
1 =20 =80 =160 = 2240 = 35840 = 573440 ton.
1 Ib. avoirdupois = 7000 grains troy.
1 oz. avoirdupois = 437*5 grains troy.
100 ozs. avoirdupois = Ol^ths ozs. troy.
The imperial pound avoirdupois is the standard unit by means of
which all commodities, except gold, silver, and precious stones, are
weighed, and is equal to the weight of one-tenth of an imperial
gallon, or of 27'7274 cubic inches of distilled water at the temperature
of 62 Fahr., and when the barometer stands at 30 inches. A. certain
piece of platinum of this standard weight is kept in the Exchequer
Office at Westminster.
Lineal or Long Measure.
Rods,
Perches or
Poles.
Chains. 1 =
1 = 4 =
10 = 40 =
80 = 320 =
Yards.
1 =
5* =
22" =
220 =
1760 =
Feet.
1
3 =
16* =
66 =
660
5280 =
Inches.
12
36
198
792
7920
03360
Furlongs.
Mile. 1 =
1 = 8 =
1 link = 7-92 inches.
100 links = 1 chain, or 66 feet, or 22 yards.
1 league = 3 geographical or nautical miles.
1 hand = 4 inches.
1 fathom = 6 feet.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
1 military pace = 2^ feet.
1 geometrical pace = 5 feet.
1 geographical or nautical mile = 1-15 statute miles.
1 geographical degree = 60 geographical or nautical miles.
1 Admiralty knot = 6080 feet.
The yard is the imperial standard measure of length, and is the
distance, at the temperature of 62 Fahr., between two marks on a
certain bar kept in the Exchequer Office, Westminster.
Ell.
1
Yards.
1
Cloth Measure.
Quarters.
1
= 4
= 5 =
Nails.
1
4
16
20
Inches.
2*
9
36
45
The yard is the same as in lonj
and subdivisions.
measure, but differs in its divisions
Spindle.
1
Yarn Measure Cotton.
Skeins. Yards.
Hanks. 1 120
1=7 840
18 = 126 = 15120
Spindle.
1 =
Yarn Measure Linen.
Cuts.
Hears. 1 =
12 =
48 =
Yards.
300
600
3600
14400
Square Measure.
Sq. Poles or Sq. Yards.
Perches. 1 =
Statute Sq. Roods. 1 = 80J =
Acre. 1 = 40 = 1210 =
1 4 = 160 = 4840 =
1 square mile = 640 statute acres.
In round numbers, d. per square yard is W per statute acre
(actually, 10 Is. 8d.).
Sq. Feet.
1
9 =
272i -
10890 =
43560 =
Sq. Inches.
144
1296
39204
1568160
6272640
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
469
4,840 square yards make 1 statute acre.
6150-4 Scotch acre.
Customary
Pleasure.
7,840
4,000
4,000
~\ 5,760
7,840
10,240
V 10,240
Irish acre.
Devonshire acre.
Somersetshire acre.
Cornwall acre.
Lancashire acre.
Cheshire acre.
Staffordshire acre.
To Reduce Statute Measure to Customary,
Multiply the number of perches statute measure, by the square
feet in a square perch statute measure ; divide the product by the
square feet in a square perch customary measure, and the quotient
will be the answer in square perches customary.
To Reduce Customary Measure to Statute.
Multiply the number of perches customary measure, by the square
feet in a square perch customary measure ; divide the product by the
square feet in a square perch statute measure, and the quotient will
be the answer in square perches statute.
Sq. Links.
625
10000
25000
100000
The chain with which land is measured is 22 yards long.
Square Measure
Land.
Sq.
Perch.
Sq.
Chains.
1 =
Sq. Eoods.
1
=
=
Acre.
1
2-5
=
1
- 4 =
10
Cubic Yard.
1
Gallon.
1
Solid or Cubic Measure.
Cubic Feet.
1
27
Liquid Measure.
Pints.
Quarts. 1
1=2
4-8
Cubic Inches.
1728
4665G
Gills.
4
8
32
The standard measure of capacity, both for liquids and dry goods,
is the imperial gallon, being equal to a volume of distilled water of
277-274 cubic inches, weighing 10 Ibs. avoirdupois, at the temperature
of 62 Fahr., and 80 inches atmospheric pressure.
470
NEWHIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Liquid Measures used by Apothecaries.
1 fluid minim = 0-0045 cubic inches. (IN.)
60 minims = 1 dram. (5)
8 drains = 1 oz. (5)
16ozs. = Ipint. (0)
Wine Measures. Quarts.
Gallons. 1 =
Tierces. 1 = 4 =
Hhds. 1 = 42 = 168 =
63 - 257 =
84 = 336 =
126 = 504 =
Punch. 1 = 1| =
Pipes. 1 = li = 2" =
Tun. 1 = H = 2* = 8 =
1 = 2 = 8" = 4 = 6 = 252 = 1008
Ale and Beer Measure. Quarts.
Gallons. 1
Firkins. 1 = 4
Kildkns. 1 = 9 = 86
Barrels. 1 = 2 = 18 = 72
Hhds. 1 = 2 = 4 - 86 = 144
Punch. 1 = l = 8=6=64 = 216
Butt. 1 =1JL = 2~=4=8= 72 = 288
1 '= H - 2' = 3 = 6 = 12 = 108 - 482
Pints.
8
336
504
672
1008
2016
Pints.
: 2
8
= 72
= 144
= 288
= 482
= 576
= 864
Dry Measure.
Pecks.
1
4
32
160
320
Gallons.
1
2
8
64
320
640
Pints.
8
16
64
512
60
120
Bushels.
Quarters. 1 =
Loads or \Veys. 1 = 8 =
Last. 1 = 5 = 40 =
1 = 2 = 10 = 80 =
8 bushels 1 sack = 8'85 cubic feet.
12 sacks = 1 chaldron = 46-2 cubic feet.
The imperial bushel contains 80 Ibs. avoirdupois of distilled water
and its content is 2218-192 cubic inches, or 1-283 cubic feet.
Table of Time.
Minutes. Seconds.
Hours. 1 = 60
Days. 1 - 60 = 3600
Week. 1 = 24 = 1440 - 86400
1 = 7 = 168 = 10080 = 604800
GAS ENGINEEK AND MANAGEKS.
471
28 days = 1 lunar month.
28, 29, 30, or 31 days = 1 calendar month.
1 common year = 365 days, or 52 weeks 1 day.
1 leap year 366 days, or 52 weeks 2 days.
1 Julian year = 365 days 6 hours.
1 solar year = 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 49 seconds.
30 degrees = 1 sign.
12 signs = 1 circle of the zodiac.
CIRCULAR AND ANGULAR SPACE.
60" (seconds) = 1' (minute).
60' = 1 (degree).
30 = Isign.
45 =1 octant.
60
90
= 1 sextant.
_ f 1 quadrant.
*1 right angle.
= A circle.
The earth moves through 360 in 24 hours, therefore 15 = 1 hour, and
1 = 4 minutes
TIME IN WHICH ANY SUM DOUBLES ITSELF, AT RATES
OF INTEREST BOTH SIMPLE AND COMPOUND.
Rate of
Interest
per cent.
Years in which the sura is
doubled, at
Rate of
Interest
per cent.
Years in which the sum is
doubled, at
Simple
Interest.
Compound
Interest.
Simple
Interest.
Compound
Interest.
1
2
P
3J
4
i
100
50
40
33J
28f
25
H|
(S9-6603
35-0028
28-0701
23-4498
20-1488
17-67303
15-7473
5
6
I
9
10
11
12
20
16
14?
Iflj
10
8J
14-2067
11-8957
10-2448
9-00646
8-04328
7-27254
6-64189
6-11626
472
NEWBIGQING'S HANDBOOK FOR
FRENCH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES DECIMAL SYSTEM.
Weights.
French. English.
Milligramme = T tfeo or '001 gramme = 0-01543
grains.
Centigramme = T ^ or -01 ,, 0-1543
n
Decigramme = T ^ or -1 ,, 1-5432
,,
15-432349
M
0-643
dwt.
GRAMME 1 , ,
0-03215
0-03527
oz. troy.
02. avoir.
.,
0-0022
Ib.
0-0000197 cwt.
154-32
grains.
Decagramme = 10 grammes = 0-3527
oz. avoir.
1 0-022
Ib.
1,543-23
grains.
Hectogramme = 100 ,, 3-527
ozs. avr.
0-22046
Ib.
15,432-349
grains.
32-15
ozs. troy.
35-2739
,, avoir.
Kilogramme = 1,000 ,, 2-2040
Ibs.
2679
,, troy.
0-01968
cwt.
0-00098
ton.
22-046
Ibs. aw.
Myriagramme = 10,000 0-1 96H
cwt.
I 0-00984
ton.
Quintal = 100,000 grammes = 220-46 Ibs. or 1 cwt. 3 qrs.
24 Ibs,
Millierorbar = 1,000,000 = 2,204-62 Ibs. or 19 cwt. 2 qrs.
20f Ibs.
The Gramme is the unit of measures of weight, and is the weight
of a cubic centimetre of distilled water at its maximum density
(39 Fahr.) in vacua, at sea level in the latitude of Paris, barometer
29-922 inches.
English.
Grain ...
Dwt
Dram ...
Ounce, troy .
Ounce, avoirdupois
Pound
0-064799
1-555
1-771846
31-1035
28-3496
453-59
0-454
French.
grammes.
kilogramme.
GAS ENGINEEKS AND MANAGERS.
478
Pound, troy .
Cwt. .
Ton .
j 873-226
grammes.
= { 0-373226
kilogrammes.
50-8
,,
( 1,016-05
}j
1-01605
tonnes.
( 1 tonne x
984.
Lineal or Long Measure.
French. English.
0-03937
inch.
Millimetre = TSTJJO or -001 metre . =
0-00328
foot.
0-00109
yard.
0-3937
inch.
Centimetre- ^ or -01 . =\ 0-0328
foot.
( 0-0109
yard.
( 3-9371
inches.
Decimetre = A, or -1 . =4 0-3281
foot.
{ 0-1093
yard.
( 39-37079
inches.
,, 1 3-2808992 feet.
" ' = 1-093633056 yards.
( 0-00062
mile.
393-7079
inches.
Decametre = 10 metres. =
82-809
10-936
feet,
yards.
0-0062
mile.
3,937-079
inches.
Hectometre - 100 . =
328-09
109-36
feet,
yards.
0-06214
mile.
39,370-79
inches.
Kilometre 1,000 . =
3,280-9
1,093-63
feet,
yards.
0-62188
mile.
( 893,707-9
inches.
Myriametre = 10,000 ,, . =
32,809-0
10,936-3
feet,
yards.
6-21382
miles.
Ligne or line =
0-088819
1-06583
inch,
inches .
Pouce or inch = 12 lines .
Pied or foot = 12 pouces . . . = 12-78996
,,
Toise = 6 French feet . . . . = 76-74
,,
The Metre is the unit of lineal measure, and is the 10
millionth
part of 90 of the meridian.
474
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Inch
English. French.
t 25-89954 millimetres.
2-54 centimetres.
Foot .
0-254 decimetre.
1 0-0254 metre.
. < ... 0-3048
Yard . .
Fathom
Pole
= 0-9144
. . . , . . = 1-8287 metres.
5-0291
Chain . .
20-116
Furlong
Mile . .
Milliare
(Jentiare \
or sq.
metre. )
Deciare
ARE or sq. i
decametre. )
Decare
Hectare
^ f 201-16
~ 1 0-20116 kilometre.
f 1,609-315 metres.
1 1-609315 kilometres.
Square Measure.
French. English.
nni C 155-00 sq. ins.
( TTHTO or ' 001 are ' i f\na t t *
RBHI^|C}-| ;;^
1 1,550-0 ins.
10-764 feet.
_ (^_ or -01 sq. | _ 1-196033292 ,. yard.
1 decametre . . ) 0-03954 perch.
0-00099 rood.
0-00025 ,. acre.
/ 15,501-0 ins.
107-64 feet.
JJL or -1 sq. deca- I 11-96033 ., yards.
~ ( metre . . . i ~ 0-8954 perch.
0-0099 ., rood.
0-0025 acre
1,076-4 feet.
119-6033 ,, yards.
= 1 sq. decametre. =- 3-954 ., prchs.
0-099 ,. rood.
0-0247 acre.
( 1,196-038 yards.
_ (10 ares or sq. l_ 39-54 ., prchs.
i decametres .-.'} 0-99 ,, rood.
1 0-2471 acre.
f 11,960-3 yards.
_ 1 100 ares or sq. I 395-4 ,, prchs.
~ 1 decametres . . J~ 9-89 ,, roods,
2-4712 acres.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
475
The are, which is a square de'cametre, is the unit of square
measure.
English.
Square inch
Square foot
Square yard
Square perch
Square rood
Square acre
Square mile
French.
645-187 sq. millimetres.
0-000645
0-0929
0-8361
25-292
1,011-7
4,046-7
2-59
metre.
metres.
kilometres.
Solid Measure.
French.
English.
Millistere
_ ( ToW or -001 stere )
{ or cubic metre . j
j 61-028 cubic inches,
t 0-035317 , foot.
Centistere !-
fjtytf or '01 stere ) _
~ 1 or cubic metre . )
< 610-28
1 0-35317
, inches.
, foot.
| 6,102-8
, inches.
Decistere j
' fife or '1 stere ) _
~~ ( or cubic metre . i
3-5317
1 0-1308
, feet.
, yard.
STEBE or \
cubic j-
fl stere or cubic )
= -. \, r =
| 61,028-0
35-317
, inches.
, feet.
metre j
I. metre . j
( 1-308
, yards.
Ddcastere =
10 steres or cubic metres =
j 853-17
1 13-0802
, feet.
, yards.
Hectostere =
100
I 3,531-7
1 180-802
, feet.
, yards.
Kilostere =
1,000
I 35,317-0 , feet.
1 1,808-02 ,, yards.
Myriastere =
10,000
13,080-224
The Stere,
which is a cubic metre, is
the unit of solid measure.
English
French.
Cubic inch .
| 0-000016386 stere or cubic metre.
"i 16,396-0 cubic millimetres.
Cubic foot .
. = 0-028315
stere or cubic metre.
1,000 cubic feet. = 28-315
steres or cubic metres.
Cubic yard .
. = 0-7645181
stere or cubic metre.
476
NKWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Dry and Fluid Measure. (Capacity.}
Millilitre =
Centilitre =
Decilitre =
French.
JT7nra9 r '9 . 1 !i tre I = j
(or cubic decimetre j (
(TSTT or "01 litre or ) _ j
(cubic decimetre . j = (
Ji^ or -1 litre or ) _ j
(cubic decimetre . j (
English.
LITRE or
cubic de-
cimetre
_ f 1 litre or
~ ( decimetre
cubic
Decalitre =
Hectolitre =
j 10 litres or cubic
(decimetres
( 100 litres or cubic }
(decimetres .
0-0610
0-00022
0-61028
0-0022
6-1028
0-022
61-028
0-0358
1-76172
0-220215
00275
610-28
0-353
2-2
0-276
6,102-8
3-53171
22-0
2-751
35-3171
220-02
27-512
353-171
2,202-15
275-121
The Litre, which is a cubic decimetre, is the unit of measures of
capacity.
English. French.
Cubic inch . = 0-016386 litre.
Cubic foot . . yf ' ' . . . . = 28-315 litres.
1,000 cubic feet . ^,, . . . . = 28,315-0
Imperial pint 0-5676
4-541
36-328
Kilolitre
= j 1,000 litres or)
(cubic decimetres. /
Myrialitre =
_ ( 10,000 litres or )
(cubic decimetres. }
cubic inch,
imperial bushel,
cubic inch,
imperial bushel,
cubic inches,
imperial bushel,
cubic inches.
,, foot,
imperial pints,
gallon.
,, bushel,
cubic inches.
foot,
imperial gallons.
bushel,
cubic inches.
,, feet,
imperial gallons.
,, bushels,
cubic feet,
imperial gallons.
,, bushels.
,, cubic feet.
imperial gallons.
bushels.
Imperial gallon
Imperial bushel
litre.
litres.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 477
MONEY TABLES.
France.
Name. English Value.
Centime = Jfc or -095d.
Franc = 100 centimes . . . = 9|d.
Sou = 5 . . . = $ or -475d.
Napoleon = 20 francs . . . . = 15s. lOd.
Accounts are kept in francs and centimes. For convenience in
reckoning, a sou may be taken as equal to d., a franc as 10d., and
25 francs as 20s.
Belgium.
The Belgian currency is in centimes and francs, having the same
English money value as those of France.
To convert centimes per cubic metre into pence per 1,000 cubic feet,
and vice versa.
Centimes per cubic metre x 2-7 = pence per 1,000 cubic feet.
Pence per 1,000 cubic feet x '37 = centimes per cubic metre.
To convert centimes per litre into pence per 1,000 cubic feet,
and vice versa.
Centimes per litre x 2700 = pence per 1,000 cubic feet.
Pence per 1,000 cubic feet x "00037 = centimes per litre.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Name. English Value.
Cent = Jd.
Dollar = 100 cents = 4s. 2d.
4$, or 4-8 dollars, or 4 dollars 80 cents. . = 1
Dollars x -2084 . = 1
To convert dollars and cents per 1,000 cubic feet into pence per
1,000 cubic feet, and vice versa.
Dollars and cents per 1,000 cubic feet x 50 = pence per 1,000
cubic feet.
Pence per 1,000 cubic feet x -02 = dollars and cents per 1,000
cubic feet.
478
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
TABLE.
Foreign and Colonial Equivalents of English Money.
(Actual or Approximate).
COUNTUY.
POUND STEELING.
SHILLING.
PENNY.
Argentine Bepublic .
10 Patacon or Dollars
50 Centimes . .
4 Centimes.
Austria ....
101 Florins . ->. '
f 5 Florin, or 50)
1 Kreutzers . I
4 Kreutzers.
Belgium ....
25 Francs . . .
11 Francs . . .
10 Centimes.
Bolivia ....
7 Dollars. . .
36 Centenas . .
3 Centenas.
Brazil ....
10 Milreis . . .
j J Milreis or 500 )
40 Beis.
1 Beis . . , J
Canada ....
4* Dollars . . .
25 Cents . . .
2 Cents.
Chili
5i Pesos . . .
25 Centavos . .
2 Centavos.
China . . . . j
5 Dollars, or 3J\
Taels, or 35
Mace . . . [
25 Cents, or 1-J
Mace . . .
2 Cents or 1J
Candareen.
Columbia. . . .
5 Pesos . . .
25 Centavos . .
2 Centavos.
Denmark ....
20 Krona . . .
1 Krona . . .
8J Ore.
Ecuador ....
5 Pesos . . .
25 Centavos . .
2 Centavos.
Egypt
100 Piastres . .
5 Piastres . .
f J Piastre, or iO
\ ' Paras.
Finland ....
25 Marks . . .
11 Marks . . .
10 Penni.
France ....
25 Francs .
11 Francs . . .
10 Centimes.
German Empire
20 Marks .
j 1 Mark or 100)
1 Pfennig . . j
8* Pfennig.
Greece ....
25 Drachma; . .
11 Drachmae . .
10 Lepta.
Holland ....
12 Florins. . .
60 Cents. . . .
5 Cents.
Hungary ....
101 Florins . . .
( J Florin, or 50)
t Kreutzers . )
4 Kreutzers.
India .... {
10 Bupees and 4\
Annas . . '
9 Annas . . .
8 Pies.
Italy
25 Lira. . . .
11 Lira . . .','
10 Centesimi.
Japan
5 Yen . . . .
25 Sen . . . .
2 Sen.
Java
12 Florins . . .
60 Cents . . .
5 Cents.
Malta
12 Scudi . . .
7 Tari, 4 Grani
12 Grani.
Mexico ....
5 Pesos or o Dols.
25 Centavos .
2 Centavos.
Norway ....
20 Krona . . .
1 Krona . .
8* Ore.
Paraguay. . . .
6| Dollars . . .
36 Centena
3 Centena.
Persia ....
2* Toman . . .
12 Shahis .
1 Shahi.
Peru
5~ Sol ....
2 J Dineros .
2 Centos.
Portugal ....
5 Milreis . . .
2* Testoes .
20 Beis.
Russia ....
tii- Silver Boubles
48 Copecks
4 Copecks
Spain
26 Pesetas . . .
11 Pesetas . .
10 Centimes.
Sweden ....
20 Krona . . .
1 Krona . .
8J Ore.
Switzerland . . .
25 Francs . . .
1 1 Francs . .
10 Centimes.
Tunis
40 Piastres . .
2 Piastres .
Turkey ....
120 Piastres . .
6 Piastres . .
f i Piastre, or 20
( Paras.
United States . .
4 Dollars. . .
25 Cents . . .
2 Cents.
Uruguay ....
5 Pesos . . .
25 Centavos . . '
2 Centavos.
Venezuela . . .
5 Pesos . . .
25 Centavos . .
2 Centavos.
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGERS. 479
INDEX.
Abrupt angles in pipes and fittings to be avoided, 261.
Absorption of the hydrocarbons by india-rubber tubing, 297.
of the light-giving constituents by glycerine, oil, &c., 90.
"Acme" regulating burner, 297.
Act, 1871, Gas Works Clauses, 149, 831.
on testing for purity, 149.
on testing for illuminating power, 381.
Act, 1859, Sales of Gas, 275, 279.
provisions as to stamping meters, 275.
Advantages of using an exhauster, 111.
a station governor, 214.
Aerorthometer, Vernon Harcourt's, 344.
Air and gas, loss of light by mixing, 850.
permanent gases expanded by heat, 98.
water, as cooling agents, compared, 98.
Airey's table showing the dilatation of gas in contact with water, 292.
Aitken and Young's analyzer, 106.
Algebraical and arithmetical signs, 459.
Allen's Beale's exhauster, 112.
Alloys of metals, 444.
Ammonia, affinity for water, 117, 119, 381.
carbonate of, 384.
caustic, purification by, 188.
impurity in coal gas, 129.
liquid, 373, 888.
muriate of, or sal ammoniac, 871.
sulphate of, 371.
yield of, per ton of coal, 372.
test for, 155, 160.
480 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Ainmoniacal liquor, 871.
Beaume's hydrometer, 875.
compared with specific gravity, 375.
quantity of, obtained to outlet of scrubbers, 871.
result of application of, to land, 380.
specific gravity and weight of, 874.
strength of, 872.
testing by saturation, 373.
to convert Twaddel into specific gravity, 372.
Twaddel's hydrometer, 372.
Will's method of testing, 373
Analysis of coals and cannels, 3 to 58.
the ash of a good Newcastle coal, 4.
Analyzer, Aitken and Young's, 106.
Anderson's combined washer and scrubber, 128.
exhauster, 111, 118.
tar furnace, 75.
washer, 118.
Angle of repose of earths with horizontal line, 166.
Angles in mains, services, and internal fittings, 261 .
Angular and circular space, 471.
Annual consumption of coal for gas purposes in the United Kingdom.
52.
Annual increase in gas consumption, usual, 417.
Annular atmospherical condenser, 99.
Kirkham and Wright's, 99, 100.
Warner's, 101.
Annular or ring tanks, 165, 188.
Anthracite or glance coal, 1.
weight per cubic yard, 52.
Apparatus for coal testing, 57.
required for testing meters, 277, 278.
illuminating power, 830, 845.
Approximate multipliers for facilitating calculations, 460.
Architectural and mechanical drawing, colours used in. 455.
Area of coal measures in the United Kingdom, 5.
Area required for atmospherical condensation, 104.
Areas, Ac., table of, 462 to 465.
Argand, Sugg's London, 885.
Arithmetical and algebraical signs, 459.
Arnold on the application of Sulphate of Ammonia in agriculture, 87(5.
Arson (M.) on masonry tank walls, 172.
Ascension or stand pip'ea, 86.
choking of, 86.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 481
Ash in coal and coke, 3 to 47.
Ash pan, furnace, 68.
Ashes in mortar, 435, 436.
Asphalte or tar mortar and concrete, 170, 171.
Atmospherical condensation, 99 to 104.
annular condensers, 100.
area required for, 104.
atmospherical and water condensers combined, 103.
Graham's condenser, 102.
horizontal condensers, 101.
Aurum mosaicum, or gold bronze powder, 303.
Automatic pressure changer, Cowan's, 216.
Average meter system for public lighting, 272.
Average yield of bituminous coal, 49.
Axioms worth remembering, 259.
Balance and weights, experimental, 830.
Ball and socket joint for main pipes, 226.
Bar, graduated photometer, 330.
Bars, grate or fire, 66, 67.
Barff-Bower process for protecting iron pipes and fittings, 261.
Barker's mill for distributing water in scrubbers, 122.
Barometer and thermometer used in testing illuminating power, 380.
Battery or tubular condenser, 103.
Beale's exhauster, 111, 112, 114.
Beaume"'s hydrometer, 375.
Bench, single and double retort, 59.
clear space in front of, 59.
flues and draught, 69.
Birmingham wire gauge, thickness of the, 439.
Bisulphide of carbon, 132, 133, 150, 388.
Bituminous coal, 1.
average yield of, 49.
weight per cubic yard, 52.
Blue or Bengal fire, 312.
Boiler and engine, steam, 115.
Bolts and nuts, 227, 442.
Bond in brickwork, 429.
Books required in the keeping of a Gas Company's accounts, 448.
Borders, illuminated, 811.
Bored and turned joints for main pipes, 220, 221, 228.
Box's retort-lid fastener, 82.
Box's table of the mean temperature of every tenth day, 99.
Brackets and chandeliers, height of, 295.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Braddock's public lamp, 270.
station governor, 215.
Brass or iron, mixture for tinning, 302.
Brass tube, plain, weight per foot, 301.
spiral and fluted, weight per foot, 301.
Brass work for lacquering, to clean, 306.
" Brasses" in coal, 54.
Bray's street lamps and burners, 269, 271.
ventilating globe lights, 296.
Brazing, 802.
Breeze and coke, 367.
Br6mond on Naphthaline, 110.
Bricks and brickwork, 428.
bond in brickwork, 429.
number of bricks in walls of different areas, 430 to 434.
usual dimensions of bricks, 428.
Brick and puddle tanks, 136, 165, 176.
Brick retorts, 71.
Brickwork in retort settings, 67.
Bridge and dip pipes, 87, 88.
Brin's oxygen process in purification, 136.
Bronze, 303.
copper bronze powder, 303.
gold bronze powders, or Aurum mosaicum, 308.
green, 303.
powders, 803.
size for bronze powders, 304.
Brown or lignite coal, 1.
Buckstaves for retort bench, 63, 64.
Bunsen photometer, the, 830.
Burner, " Needle " governor, 297.
Burners, number required for lighting large buildings, 298.
objections to horizontal, 295.
standard, 835.
Bye-pass mains and valves, 126.
Caking coal, 1.
Calcining spent lime, Hislop's process for, 181.
Calcium sulphide, purification by, 182.
Candle, standard sperm, 331, 332.
balance and weights, 831, 382.
corrections in consumption of, 832, 333.
Cannel, 1, 7.
and coal nuts, and slack or dross, 48.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Cannel continued.
and coals, analysis of, 3 to 58.
weight of, per cubic yard, 52.
apacity, gasholder, 192, 195.
of coal stores, 53.
of tar and liquor well, 127, 128.
Capital of gas works, 412 to 417.
Carbon in coal, 3.
in coal gas, 383.
in retorts, deposition of, 78.
Carbonic acid, test for, 147, 153.
Sheard's apparatus, 147, 148.
Carboniferous series, 2.
Carbonizing, fuel for, 73.
Carburetting condensers, 106.
Carcel lamp, the, 346.
Carr (W.) on cooking by gas, 363.
Cast and wrought-iron gasholder tanks, 165, 171, 175, 187, 188.
Casting of main pipes, 218.
Cast-iron pipes, 218 to 245.
cost of laying, 235, 236.
weight and cost of, per yard, 237 to 245.
weight of lead for jointing, 225.
ast-iron retorts, 64, 72, 444.
duration of, 72.
Fraser's ribbed, 72.
dathel's washer, 118.
Caustic ammonia, purification by, 138.
Caustic soda and sulphide of sodium, purification by, 138.
Cement, for joining ends of clay retorts, 82.
for jointing retort mouthpieces, 82.
for steam joints, 117.
for stopping leaks in boilers, 116.
glue, to resist moisture, 307.
iron or rust, 82, 225.
mastic, for buildings, 436.
mortar, Portland, 170.
or luting for retort lids, 88.
Portland, 170, 220.
Roman, 220.
Centigrade thermometer compared with Fahrenheit and Reaumur,
108, 109.
Centre and other change valves, 145.
Chains, safe load on, 443.
i i 2
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Chains continued '.
weight of, 443.
Chandeliers and brackets, height of, 295.
Change valves, 145.
Changer, Cowan's automatic pressure, 216.
Charging shovels, 83.
Chemical and other memoranda, 395.
common names of certain chemical substances, 898.
elementary substances, 396.
expansion of liquids from 82 to 212 Fahr., 408.
luting, for experiments in chemistry, 400
specific gravity, weight and solubility in water, of various
gases, 399.
specific heat of solids and liquids, 407.
substances, simple and compound, 897.
water, memoranda relating to, 406.
Cherry coal, 1.
Chief kinds of coal, 1.
Chimney stalks for retort houses, 70.
rule for size of, 71.
Chlorine and durability test, 48.
Choking of ascension pipes, 86.
Circular and angular space, 471.
Circumferences, c., table of, 462 to 465.
Cistern for tar and liquor, elevated, 127.
Classification of limestones, 134.
Claus's process of purification by ammonia gas, 138.
Clay and iron retort settings, combined, 72.
Clay, fire, 436, 487.
constituents of, 437.
Clay puddle, 171.
Clay retorts, 64 to 71.
temperature of carbonization with, 69, 79.
thickness of, 65.
Clegg's continuous stoking machinery, 86.
Cleland's slow-speed condenser, 101.
and Korting's steam jet exhauster, 111, 114.
Coal, 3 to 58.
analysis of, 3 to 58.
analysis of the ash of a good Newcastle, 4.
annual consumption of, for gas purposes in United Kingdom, 52.
anthracite or glance, 1, 52.
ash in, 8 to 47.
bituminous, 1 to 58.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Coal continued.
"brasses" in, 54
brown or lignite, 1.
carbon in, 3.
chief ingredients of which it is composed, 3.
chief kinds of, 1.
coke, production of, from, 3 to 49.
Cumberland, 11, 24.
Derbyshire, 3, 12, 24.
deterioration of, by exposure, 53.
gases occluded in, 55.
glance, or anthracite, 1, 52.
Gloucestershire, 3, 12.
hydrogen in, 8.
in hot climates, deterioration of, 58.
iron pyrites in, 5, 54.
Lancashire, 3, 12, 24, 49.
lignite or brown, 1.
measures, area of, in the United Kingdom, 5.
mixture of, with other substances, 26, 27, 28.
nitrogen in, 3.
Newcastle, 3, 4, 18, 23, 49.
nuts, slack and dross, 48.
oxygen in, 3.
parrot or cannel, 1, 52.
production of coke from, 3 to 49.
products, 381 to 894.
Scotch, 4.
sheds, 53.
Somersetshire and other, 4, 15.
Staffordshire, 10, 16, 24.
storage, 58.
sulphur in, 3 to 47.
testing, 56 to 58.
value of, in pounds of sperm, 50.
volatile matter in, 7 to 19.
Welsh, 5, 17, 24, 38.
Wigan, 49.
yield of sulphate of ammonia, per ton, 372.
Yorkshire, 18, 24.
Coating and painting of gasholders, 194.
of main pipes, 229.
Coefficients : cost of Gas Works, 422 to 428.
Cockey's charging barrow, 84.
486 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Coke and breeze, 367.
ash in, 7 to 47.
breaking hammer, 868.
breaking machinery, 367, 368.
production of, from coal, 3 to 47.
slaking or quenching of, 73.
sulphur in, 5 to 47.
Coloured fires for illumination, 311.
blue or Bengal, 312.
crimson, 812.
green, 312.
lilac, 811.
mixing the ingredients for, 818.
purple, 311.
red, 312.
white Indian, 818.
yellow, 312.
Coloured glass, loss of light through, 299.
Colours of high temperatures, 79.
used in mechanical and architectural drawing, 455.
Columns, height of lamp, 269
Combined settings of clay and iron retorts, 72.
atmospherical and water condenser, 108.
Commercial and structural value, 417.
Common names of certain chemical substances, 898.
Comparison of Fahrenheit's, Reaumur's, and the Centigrade ther-
mometers, 108, 109.
Compensating meters, 275.
Hunt's, 276.
Sanders and Donovan's, 275.
Urquhart's " Reliance," 276.
Warner and Cowan's, 275.
Composite tanks, 185.
Composition of gas lime, and its use in agriculture, 379.
Composition pipes, 301.
Concrete and mortar, 169, 170, 171, 435.
Concrete tanks, 169, 185.
Condensation, 96.
expansion of air and permanent gases by heat, 98.
extent of, 96.
loss of illuminating property in coal gas on exposure to the
temperature of freezing point, 97.
mean temperature of every tenth day in the year, 99.
rapid or sudden as well as excessive, 97.
GAS ENGINEEBS AND MANAGERS. 487
Condensation continued.
relative effects of water and air as cooling agents, 98.
rules for calculating the area required for atmospherical con-
densation, 104.
temperature as affecting registration, 97.
Condensers, 99.
Aitken and Young's analyzer, 106.
annular atmospherical, 99, 100.
area required for, rules for calculating, 104.
battery or tubular, 103.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
carburetting, 106.
Cleland's slow-speed, 101.
combined atmospherical and water, 103.
condensing surface at several London gas-works (1871), 107.
dry scrubbers as condensers, 105.
Graham's horizontal, 102.
horizontal atmospherical, 101, 102.
Kirkham and Wright's annular, 99, 100.
St. John and Rockwell apparatus, 106.
tubular or battery, 103.
underground, 105.
vertical atmospherical, 99, 100.
Warner's annular, 101.
Water channel, 105.
Condensable hydrocarbons, 89.
Conducting heat, relative power of metals for, 408.
Connecting pipes for purifiers, 145.
Consumers' gas meters, 275.
apparatus required for testing, 277, 278.
compensating, 275.
dilatation of gas in contact with water, 292.
dry meter, description of the, 275. .
effect of over-driving the meter wheel, 276.
Hunt's meter, 276.
inspection of, 276.
percentage tables for testing, 279.
protection of meters from frost, 276.
provisions of Sales of Gas Act, 1859, as to stamping, 275.
sizes of meters desirable to be used, 276, 293.
testing, 277, 279.
Urquhart's " Reliance " meter, 276.
Warner and Cowan's meter, 275.
wet meter, description of the. 275.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Consumption and pressure, 217.
Consumption of coal for gas purposes in the United Kingdom, 52.
of gas by one burner per month and for 12 months, 278.
of gas per head of population, 417.
of gas per mile of main, 417.
Contraction of cast-iron pipes in cooling, 222.
Cooking, use of gas for, 862, 864.
Copper bronze powder, 803
Corrections for temperature, pressure and moisture, 159, 882, 883, 336,
857.
in consumption of gas and standard candle, 383.
Cost of gas per hour when burnt at certain rates, 421.
Cost of gas works, 412 to 428.
Counterbalancing of gasholders, 191.
Cowan's automatic pressure changer, 216.
governor, 216.
ventilating globe lights, 296.
Coze's system of inclinedr etorts, 86.
Crimson coloured fire, 312.
Crosley's pressure and exhaust registers, 163, 164.
Cubic foot measure, Referees', 839.
Cusiter on the absorption of the light-giving constituents of coal gas, 90.
D- shaped retorts, 65.
Damp or wet coals, result of using, 5, 53.
Damper to control draught, 70.
Day and night, rule to find the length of, 272.
Decigallon and septem, 466.
Decimal and fractional parts, 458.
Decimal system of weights and measures, 472 to 476.
Dempster's exhauster, 111.
Deposition of carbon in retorts, 78.
Derbyshire coals, 3, 12, 24.
Deterioration of coal by exposure to weather, 53.
in hot climates, 53.
Devices for public illuminations, 809 to 329.
coloured fires, 811.
illuminated borders, 811.
prices of, 310.
Devonian rocks, 2,
Diameters, &c., table of, 462 to 465.
Differential or district governors, 217.
Dilatation of gas in contact with water, 292.
Dimensions of the principal materials in gasholders in actual working,
197 to 213.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Dinsmore system of gas making, 81
Dip in the hydraulic main, 88 to 93.
Dip pipes, 87, 88.
Dip-well for sealing pipes, 127.
Disc for testing illuminating power, 380.
Discount for early payment of gas bills, 451.
Distance apart of public lamps, 269.
District or differential governors, 217.
Donkin's exhauster, 112.
Double retort benches, 59.
Douglas's instructions for preparing concrete, 169.
Draught and flues, 69.
Drawing papers, sizes of, 455.
Drip or syphon wells, 229, 230, 268.
Drory's main thermometer, 146.
Dross or slack, 48.
Dry meter, description of the, 275.
Dry or stand pipe wells for gasholder tanks, 171.
Dry scrubbers as condensers, 105.
Drying gas, effect of, 110.
Dulong on the burning of hydrogen, carbon, and carbonic oxide, 70.
Durability test, 48.
Duration of retorts, 67, 69.
Earths, natural slope of, 166.
and rocks, weight of various, 166.
41 Eclipse " washer-scrubber, 125.
Economy of gas compared with other light-giving materials, 401, 402.
Edge's method of scurfing retorts, 78.
Effect of over-driving a meter wheel, 276.
of small and bad pipes and fittings, 293.
Elementary substances, table of, 396.
Elevated tar and liquor cistern, 127. ^
Elevating apparatus for purifying material, 140.
Elliott's mechanical stoking arrangement, 86.
Engine and boiler, steam, 115.
gas, 116, 362.
Epitome of mensuration, 456.
Equivalents of English money, foreign and colonial, 478.
Evans's analysis of coals and cannels, 28, 32.
Evaporation from water-slide pendants, to prevent, 295.
Evils attending the use of small pipes, &c., 262.
Examples of construction of gasholders, 197 to 213.
of gasholder tanks, 176 to 190.
490 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Excavations for gasholder tanks, 165, 16G.
Exhausters, 111.
advantages of using, 111.
Allen's Beale's, 112.
Anderson's, 113.
Beale's, 112.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
Cleland and Korting's steam jet, 114.
Dempster's, 111.
Donkin's Beale's, 112.
governor for, 115.
Gwyrme's Beale's, 114.
Jones's, 112.
Laidlaw's, 112.
Methven's, 111.
Musgrave's, 111.
Paterson's (R. 0.) experiments with steam jet, 112.
rotary and reciprocating, 111.
Waller's, 112.
Expansion joints for main pipes, 226.
of air and permanent gases by heat, 98.
of liquids in volume from 32 to 212 Fahr., 408.
of metals, 408.
Experimental governor, 330.
meter, 330, 339.
Explosions in main pipes, 232.
Fahrenheit's thermometer compared with Reaumur's and the Centi-
grade, 108, 109.
Faija on Portland cement, 170.
Fiddes' analysis of coals and cannels, 29, 33, 34, 35.
proposed standard light, 346.
Fire-clay, 436.
constituents of the chief English and foreign, 437.
retorts, 64.
Fire or grate bars, 66.
Fires, coloured, for illuminations, 311.
Fittings, internal, 293.
service, 260 to 268.
Flange joints for main pipes, 222, 227.
Floor, retort house, 59.
stage, 59.
Flues and draught, 63, 64, 69.
Fluxes for soldering, 302.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS 491
Force and velocity of the wind, 445.
Foreign equivalents of English money, 478.
Forms, 451.
authority to pay dividends, 453.
certificate showing that income tax has been deducted, 454.
declaration for loss of sealed share certificates, 452.
declaration of transmission of shares, from wife to husband, in
consequence of marriage, 453.
indemnity for loss of share certificates or dividend warrant,
452.
of proxy, 454.
renouncement of proposed new issue on the transfer of old
shares, 451.
renunciation of shares newly allotted, 451.
Foulis's hydraulic stoker, 84.
Fractional parts and equivalent decimals, 458.
Frankland (Professor) on the volumes of various gases absorbed by
100 volumes of water, 126.
on variations in illuminating power, 350.
Fraser's ribbed iron retorts, 72.
Freezing of water in gasholder tanks, 193.
of water in governor tanks, 217.
Freezing point, loss of illuminating property in coal gas on exposure
to the temperature of, 97.
French weights and measures, 472 to 477.
Frost, protection of meters during, 276.
public lights during, 269.
Fuel for carbonizing, 73.
tar as, 73.
Furnaces, generator and regenerative, 75.
retort, 66.
Fyfe's (Dr.) chlorine and durability test, 48.
Gadd's principle of guiding holders, 192.
Galvanized pipes, 261, 267, 269.
Gas, absorption of the light-giving constituents of coal, 90.
and air, expansion of, by heat, 98.
dilatation of, in contact with water, 292.
increase in illuminating power by drying, 110.
loss of illuminating property in, on exposure to the temperature
of freezing point, 97.
value of, per cubic foot in grains of sperm, 50.
Gas engine, 116, 362.
Gas industrv of the United Kingdom, the, 409 to 412.
492 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Gaseous hydrocarbons, 90.
Gases occluded in coal, 55.
various, their specific gravity, weight and solubility in water,
399.
Gasholders, 190 to 213.
capacity, 191, 192, 195.
counterbalanced, 191.
dimensions of the principal materials in, 197.
painting of, 194.
precautions to be observed in the working of, 192.
pressure of, to ascertain, 197.
recipe for coating, 194.
rise in the crown of, 192.
single lift, 191, 197 to 203.
telescopic, 191, 204 to 213.
trussed and untrussed roofs, 192.
weight of, to ascertain, 196.
without guide framing, 192.
Gasholder tanks, 165 to 190.
annular, 165, 188.
Arson (M.), on masonry walls of, 172.
asphalte or tar concrete and mortar for, 170, 171.
brick and puddle, 167, 176.
cast and wrought-iron, 144, 145, 165, 168, 175, 187 to 190.
cement mortar for, 170.
composite, 185. *
concrete, 169, 185.
Douglas's instructions for preparing concrete, 169.
dry wells, 171.
examples of construction of, 176 to 190.
excavations for, 166.
Faija on Portland cement, 170.
hydraulic lime mortar for, 170.
leakage of water from iron, 171.
materials of which tanks are constructed, 166.
natural slope of earths, 166.
Pole (Dr.) on masonry walls of, 172.
puddle clay for, 171.
stone, 166, 186.
thickness of walls of, 172 to 176.
weight of various earths and rocks, 166.
wrought-iron, 166, 190.
Gas lime, 379.
its composition, and use in agriculture, 379.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 493
Gas lime continued.
results obtained by applying certain manures to land, 380
Gas managers, golden rules for, 422.
Gas meters, consumers', 275.
apparatus required for testing, 277, 278.
compensating, 275.
dilatation of gas in contact with water, 292.
dry, description of the, 275.
effect of overdriving the measuring wheel of, 276.
Hunt's compensating, 276.
inspection of, 276.
percentage tables for use in testing, 279 to 292.
protection of, from frost, 276.
provisions of Sales of Gas Act, 1859, as to stamping, 275.
Sanders and Donovan's, 275.
sizes of, desirable to be used, 276, 29H.
testing, 277.
to ascertain the number of lights a meter will supply, 294.
Urquhart's " Eeliance," 276.
Warner and Cowan's, 275.
wet, description of the, 275,
Gas works, buildings and apparatus of a, 414.
capital of, 412 to 428.
conduct of a, 415.
cost of, 417, 422 to 428.
design of, 414.
ornamentation in, 414.
site for a, 413.
Gas-Works Clauses Act, 1871, on testing for illuminating power, 381,
on testing for purity, 149.
Gauges, pressure, 162.
coloured water for, 163.
differential, 163.
King's, 163, 330.
Referees', 342.
to clean the glass tubes of, 163.
Generator and regenerative furnaces, 70, 75.
Siemens', 76.
Webber on, 76.
Gesner on the distillation of Newcastle cannel for gas and oil, 48.
Glance or anthracite coal, 1, 52.
Glass, loss of light through, 298, 299.
for public lamps, weight and thickness of, 272.
Globe and sun lights, ventilating, 296.
494 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Globes and shades, loss of light through, 298, 299.
Gloucestershire coals, 3, 12, 84.
Glue cement to resist moisture, 307.
Goddard on scurfing retorts, 78.
Gold bronze powders, or aurum mosaicum, 303.
Golden rules for gas managers, 422.
Governor, district or differential, 217.
pressure and consumption, 217.
Governor, exhauster, 115.
Governor, experimental, 330.
Governor or regulator for internal fittings, 297.
Governor, station, 214.
advantages of the, 214.
Braddock's, 215.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
construction of the, 214.
Cowan's 216.
Cowan's automatic pressure changer for, 210.
freezing of water in tanks of, 217.
Hartley's improvements in, 215.
Hunt's, 216.
Peebles's, 215.
steam stove for governor house, 217.
valves as governors of pressure, 214.
variations of pressure according to level, 217.
Graduated bar of photometer, 330.
Graham's horizontal condenser, 102.
Gravity, specific, and weight of various substances, 446.
to convert into Twaddel, 109.
Green bronze, 808.
Green coloured fire, 312.
Grice's self-sealing retort lids, 83.
Gwynne's Beale's Exhauster, 114.
H or bridge pipes, 87.
Hammer for breaking coke, 368.
Handy multiplier for wrought-iron, 488.
rule for ascertaining the weight of gas in a holder, 196.
rule for finding the content of a pipe in gallons and cubic feet, 259.
Harcourt's aerorthometer, 844.
proposed pentane gas standard light, 847, 848.
sulphur test, 150.
Hartley's experiments on the loss of light through sheet glass, globes,
<fcc., 299.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Hartley's continued.
improvements in station governors, 215.
Hawkins's method of revivifying oxide of iron in situ, 135, 136.
Heat-conducting power of metals, 408.
expansion of air and permanent gases by, 98.
specific, of solids and liquids, 407.
Heating, use of gas for, 362.
Heats of retorts, 64, 69, 72.
Height of brackets and chandeliers, 295.
of retort-house chimneys, 70.
Hemp ropes, to find the weight of, 443.
Henry's (Dr.) table of quality of gas at different periods of distilla-
tion, 80.
Hill's experiments on purification by means of ammonia, 188.
Hislop's practical analysis of Scottish cannel coals, 36.
process for calcining spent lime, 181.
Holders, gas, 190 to 213.
capacity, 192, 195.
counterbalanced, 191.
dimensions of the principal materials in, 197.
painting of, 194.
precautions to be observed in the working of, 192.
pressure of, to ascertain, 197.
recipe for coating, 194.
rise in the crown of, 192.
single lift, 190, 197.
telescopic, 190, 193, 204.
trussed and un trussed roofs, 192.
weight of, to ascertain, 196.
without upper guide-framing, 192.
Holman's eccentric fastener for retort-lids, 83.
Horizontal burners, objectionable, 295.
condensers, 101, 102.
Hours, number of, during which gas is usually burned, 274.
Hughes's classification of limestones, 184.
Hulett's service cleanser, 261.
Hunt's compensating meter, 276.
station governor, 216.
Hydraulic centre-valve, 145.
Hydraulic lime mortar for gasholder tanks, 170.
Hydraulic lute for purifier covers, 143.
Hydraulic main, 87.
dip in the, 89.
size of the, 87.
496 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Hydraulic main continued.
the "Livesey,"88.
Hydrocarbons absorbed by india-rubber tubing, 297.
condensable, 90.
gaseous, 90.
volatile, 90.
Hydrogen in coal, 3.
Hydrometer, Beaume's, 375.
Twaddel's, 372 to 374.
Illuminating power, 330.
and value of coals and gas in pounds of sperm, 50.
apparatus for testing the, 330.
Bunsen photometer, 330.
calculations for corrections in the consumption of gas and the
standard candle, 333 to 337.
candle balance and weights, 330.
corrections for temperature and pressure, 333 to 837.
disc for testing, 330.
experimental governor, 330.
experimental meter, 255, 330, 339.
from different coals and cannels, 19 to 47.
graduated bar of photometer, 330.
impurities and, 150.
instructions of Eeferees on testing for, 831.
King's pressure gauge, 330.
Kirkham and Sugg's scale for jet photometer, 852.
Letheby-Bunsen photometer, 880.
loss of, on exposure to freezing point, 97.
loss of, through globes, shades, and flat glass, 298, 299.
Lowe's jet photometer, 851.
mode of testing for, 881.
pressure and, 297.
Eeferees' cubic foot measure, 339.
registration of observations, 833, 338.
standard burners for testing, 335.
standard sperm candle, 830. 331, 382.
statement of testings for, 838.
statutory regulations for testing, 831.
Sugg's illuminating power meter, 353.
Sugg's photometrical table, 343.
thermometer and barometer, 330.
Thorpe and Tasker's jet photometer, 854.
variations in the, 350.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Illuminating power continued.
various proposed standards of lights, 345.
Illuminating power meter, 353.
Illumination devices, 309 to 329.
Brunswick stars, 310.
coloured fires, 311.
crowns, garlands, plumes, scrolls, &c., 309.
illuminated borders, 811.
letters, single and double lined, 309.
mode of supply and charge for gas, 307.
service or supply pipes, 809.
Illuminations, public, 307 to 329.
Impurities and illuminating power, 150.
in coal gas, 129.
tests for the detection of, 146.
India-rubber tubing, absorption of the hydrocarbons by, 297.
varnish for, 297.
Ingredients, chief, of which coal is composed, 3.
Inspection of consumers' meters, 276.
Instructions for preparing concrete, 169.
of the London Gas Eeferees, 155, 831.
Internal fittings, 293 to 300.
absorption of the hydrocarbons by india-rubber tubing, 297.
Bray's ventilating globe lights, 296.
burners in the horizontal position, objectionable, 295.
Cowan's ventilating globe lights, 296.
effect of small and bad pipes and fittings, 293.
handy rule for estimating the number of burners for lighting
large buildings, 298.
height of chandeliers and brackets, 295.
lighting of ordinary rooms, 295.
loss of light through shades, globes, and flat glass, 298, 299.
Peebles's " Needle " governor burner, 297.
pressure and illuminating power, 297.
regulations as to, 293.
regulator or governor for, 297.
salad oil in water slide pendants, to prevent evaporation, 295.
sizes and lengths of pipes for number of lights supplied, 294.
sizes of meters for number of lights supplied, 293.
Strode's ventilating sun light, 296.
Sugg's ventilating globe lights, 296.
varnish to prevent the escape of gas through india-rubber
tubing, 297.
ventilating globe and sun lights, 296.
496 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Internal Fittings continued.
ventilation of rooms, 296.
Wright's "Acme " regulating burner, 297.
Iron and brass, mixture for tinning, 802.
breaking weight of ropes of iron and steel wire, 448.
contraction of cast-iron in cooling, 222.
corrugated-iron roofing, 442.
flat bar, 438.
handy multiplier, for wrought, 488.
hoop-iron, 441.
lineal expansion of metals, 408.
nuts and bolt heads, 442.
round bar, 488.
safe load on chains, 448.
sheet-iron and steel, 439.
square bar, 489.
steel, 440.
taper angle-iron of equal sides, 441.
taper T-iron, 441.
to resist the action of fire, 444.
weight of a sphere 1 inch in diameter, 441.
weight of a superficial foot of iron, 440.
weight of chains, 443.
Whitworth's screws with angular threads. 442.
Iron gasholder tanks, 165, 167, 171, 175, 187 to 190.
leakages of water from, 171.
Iron, lead, and composition pipes for internal supply, 298, 301.
Iron, oxide of, purification by means of, 131, 132, 183, 143.
Iron pyrites in coal, 54.
Iron retorts, 64, 72.
clay and, combined settings of, 72.
dimensions of, 72.
duration of, 72.
Fraser's ribbed, 72.
scurfing of, 72.
temperature suitable for, 72.
weight of, 72.
Jet photometer, 851.
Lowe's, 351.
scale, 352.
Thorp and Tasker's, 354.
Jet, steam exhauster, 111, 114.
Joining the ends of clay retorts, cement for, 82.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEKS.
Jointing retort mouthpieces, 82.
Jointing space in main pipes, 219, 225.
Joints of main pipes, 219 to 224.
service-pipes, 260 to 268.
Jones's exhauster, 112.
Keates's moderator lamp as a proposed standard of light, 346.
" Kimberley " joint for wrought-iron main pipes, 228.
King's pressure gauge, 168, 830.
King's table showing loss of light through glass shades or globes, 298.
Kirkham and Sugg's improved Lowe's jet photometer, 851.
scale for jet photometer, 852.
Kirkham and Wright's annular condenser, 99, 100.
Kirkham, Hulett, and Chandler's washer- scrubber, 124.
Korting and Cleland's steam jet exhauster, 111, 114.
Lacquer and varnish, 804.
deep gold, 805.
fine pale, 305.
gold, 305.
green, 306.
iron, 306.
red, 805.
simple pale, 305.
yellow, 306.
Lacquering brass work, 306.
Laidlaw's exhauster, 112.
Larning's experiments in purification by means of ammonia, 138.
Lamp, the Carcel, 346.
Keates's moderator, 846.
Lamp columns, 269, 270.
distance apart of, 269.
height of, 269.
size of pipe in, 269.
Lamps, street, 270 to 272.
average meter system for, 272.
Bray's, 269, 271.
regulators for, 272.
Siemens's, 270, 271.
Sugg's, 269, 271.
supply of gas to, 272.
thickness and weight of glass for, 272.
Lancashire coals, 3, 12, 24.
Law terms, 454.
K K 2
600 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Laycock and Clapham's washer-scrubber, 125.
Layers of purifying material in purifiers, 143.
Lead and composition pipes, 294, 801,
lengths and weight per yard, 301.
Lead, molten, 224.
red and white, 224.
weight of, for jointing mains, 225.
Lead paper, to prepare, 149.
Lead rings for jointing, 227.
Lead service pipes, 260.
Leakage in boilers, cement for stopping, 116.
indicator, Lyon's, 234.
main pipes, 218, 232 to 234.
of water from iron gasholder tanks, 171.
service pipes and fittings, 260.
Leases, terms for, 454.
Length of day and night, rule to find the, 272.
Letheby (Dr.), composition of London gas (1866), 400.
method of determining the specific gravity of gas, 356.
combustion, temperature, explosive power, and mechanical
power of gases, 404.
on proportion of products from coal tar, 369.
on purification of gas, 133.
on values of different illuminating agents, 401.
Letheby-Bunsen photometer, 330.
Lids and lid fasteners for retorts, 81.
retort, luting for, 83.
retort, Morton's and other self-sealing, 83.
purifier, apparatus for raising, 144.
Lifting apparatus for purifier covers, 144.
Light, loss of, through globes and flat glass sheets, 298, 299.
through mixing air with gas, 350.
Light, standards of, 889, 845.
Lighting of large buildings, 298.
of ordinary rooms, 295.
public, 269 to 274.
Lights, coloured, 811.
number of, supplied by different diameters and lengths of pipe,
294.
number of, supplied by different sized meters, 293.
ventilating globe and sun, 296.
Lignite or brown coal, 1.
Lilac coloured fire, 311.
Lime, Forstall's instructions for preparing, for the purifiers, 180.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGERS. 501
Lime continued.
gas, or spent, 879.
Hislop's process for calcining spent, 131.
hydraulic, 170.
preparation of, for purifying, 129.
purification by, 129.
quantity of, required to purify the gas obtained from cannel
and coal, 130.
quick, 130, 135.
Lime water, to prepare, 147.
weight and measurement of, 135.
Limestones, classification of, 134.
their composition and specific gravity, 135.
Liquids, expansion of, 408.
Liquids, solids, vapours, and gases, specific heat of, 407.
Liquor, ammoniacal, 371 .
Litmus paper, to prepare, 146.
Livesey's analysis of coal, 29.
experiments in purification by ammonia, 138.
gasholder, without guide framing, 192.
hydraulic main, 88.
hydraulic seal, 193.
scrubber, 119.
washer, 118.
London Argand, No. 1, Sugg's, 335.
London gas, composition of (1866), 400.
London Gas Eeferees' cubic foot measure, 339.
instructions for testing, 155, 381. ' /
pressure gauge, 342.
sulphur test, 150.
London Gas- Works, condensing surface at several, 107.
Loss of illuminating property in coal gas on exposure to freezing
point, 97.
of light by mixing air with gas, 850.
through globes and flat sheets of glass, 298, 299.
Lute or seal, depth of, for purifier covers, 143.
Luting for retort lids, 83.
of joints in chemical experiments, 400.
Lux's specific gravity apparatus, 860.
Lyon's leakage indicator, 234.
Machinery used for charging and discharging re torts, 84.
used for coke breaking, 367.
Main, hydraulic, dip in the, 89.
502 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Main laying, 229.
appliances used in, 280.
average cost per yard of, 285, 286.
Main pipes, 218 to 259.
appliances used in laying, 280.
average cost per yard of laying, 235, 286.
ball and socket joints for, 226.
casting of, 218.
coating of, 229.
discharge of gas per hour through, 246 to 259.
dimensions of sockets of, 221.
drip or syphon wells for, 230, 284.
expansion joints for, 226.
explosions in, 232.
flanged joints of, 222, 227.
formula for calculating the weight of, 218.
iron or rust cements for joint of, 225.
jointing space in, 219, 220, 228.
joints of, 219 to 228.
"Kimberley " joint for wrought-iron, 228.
laying of, 223, 229 to 233.
leakage from, 218, 232 to 234.
Lyon's leakage indicator for, 284.
metal of, 218.
open joints for, 219.
overweight in, 218.
recess for lead in front of turned joint, 220, 221.
red and white lead for joints of, 223, 224.
should be drilled, not cut, for the insertion of the service pipes,
261.
testing of, 218, 233.
testing of, in the ground, 283.
turned and bored joints, 220, 221.
Upward's drilling apparatus for, 261.
vulcanized india-rubber joints for, 223, 226.
weight and cost per yard of, 287 to 245.
weight of lead required for jointing, 225, 228.
wrought-iron, 228.
Mains, consumption of gas per mile of, 417.
population per mile of, 417.
rental per mile of, 417.
Main thermometer, Drory's, 146.
Malam's arrangement of purifiers, 140.
Mann's scrubber, 121.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGEES. 503
Masonry tank walls, 172.
Mastic cement for buildings, 43(5.
Materials in gasholders, dimensions of, 197.
of which gasholder tanks are constructed, 176.
Mean temperature of every tenth day in the year, 99.
Measure, Keferees' cubic foot, 339.
Measuring wheel or drum of a meter, 160, 161, 275, 293.
Measures and weights, 466 to 476.
decimal system of, 472.
Mechanical and architectural drawing, colours used in, 455.
Melting points, table of, 409.
Memoranda, chemical and other, 395.
miscellaneous articles, 447.
office, 448,
relating to water, 406.
Mensuration, epitome of, 456.
approximate multipliers, 460.
arithmetical and algebraical signs, 459.
circle, cylinder, and sphere, 456.
diameters, circumferences, areas T)f circles, and sides of equal
squares, 462.
ellipses, cones, and frustums, 457.
evolution, or the extraction of roots, 459.
involution, or the raising of powers, 459.
square, rectangle, and cube, 457.
triangles and polygons, 457.
Metals, expansion of, 408.
heat conducting power of, 408.
power of, for reflecting heat, 408.
Meter, average system, for public lighting, 272.
station, 160.
Meters, consumers', 275 to 292.
apparatus required for testing, 277, 278.
compensating, 275.
dry meter, description of the, 275.
effect of overdriving a measuring wheel, 276.
Hunt's compensating, 276.
inspection of, 276.
Parkinson's motive power, 277.
percentage tables used in testing, 279 to 292.
repayment, 277.
protection of, from frost, 276.
provisions of Sales of Gas Act, 1859, as to stamping, 275.
Sander and Donovan's, 275.
504 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Meters, consumers' continued.
size of meters desirable to be used, 276, 293.
testing of, 277-
Urqubart's " Eeliance," 276.
Warner and Cowan's, 275.
wet meter, description of the, 275.
Methven's exhauster, 111.
proposed standard of light, 346.
Meyer and Playfair's (Drs.) on the gases occluded in coal, 55.
Millar's table of amount and specific gravity of gas at different periods
of distillation, 79.
Millboard for jointing flanges, 227.
Miscellaneous articles, memoranda, 447.
Mixing of air and gas, effect of, 350.
Mixing of the ingredients for coloured fires, 313.
Mixture for tinning brass and iron, 302.
Mixtures of cannel and coal, 26.
coal and other substances, 28.
different coals, 27.
Moderator lamp, Keates', 346.
Moisture, corrections for, 357, 358.
glue cement to resist, 307.
Moon's rising and setting, 272.
Mortar and concrete, 169, 170, 435.
blue lias lime concrete, 169, 485.
cement mortar, 169, 435.
coarse mortar, 435.
hydraulic lime mortar, 169, 435.
kind of, employed for tanks, 169.
mastic cement mortar for buildings, 436.
Portland cement concrete, 169, 435.
tar mortar and concrete, 170, 171.
Morton's self-sealing retort lids, 83.
Motive power gas meter, 277.
Motive power, use of gas for, 862.
Mountings of retort bench, 63, 68, 81, 87, 88
buckstaves, 63.
coke slaking apparatus, 63.
furnace ash pans, 68.
hydraulic main, 87, 88.
lids and lid fasteners, 81.
retort mouthpieces, 81.
Mouthpieces, retort, 81.
Mutiplier for wrought-iron, 438.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEKS. 505
Multipliers for facilitating calculations, 438, 460.
Muriate of ammonia, 371, 389.
Musgrave's exhauster, 111.
Naphthaline, 92, 109.
Bremond on, 110.
Natural slope of earths, 166.
" Needle " governor burner, Peebles's, 297.
Newcastle coals and cannels, 8, 4, 13, 23, 49.
distillation of, for gas and oil, 48.
production per ton of, 49.
New red sandstone, 2.
Night and day, to find the length of, 272.
Nitrogen in coal, 3.
Number of bricks in walls of different areas, 430 to 434.
Number of burners required to light large rooms, 298.
Number of hours during which gas is usually burned, 274.
Nuts, cannel and coal, 48.
Objections to burners placed horizontally, 295.
Obstruction of light by globes and flat glass, 298, 299.
Odling (Dr.) on purification, 132.
Office memoranda, 448.
approximate multipliers, 460.
arithmetical and algebraical signs, 459.
authority to pay dividends, 453.
books required in the keeping of a gas company's accounts, 448-
to 451.
certificates showing that income-tax has been deducted, 454.
colours used in mechanical and architectural drawing, 455.
declaration for loss of sealed share certificates, 452.
declaration of transmission of shares, 453.
discount for early payment of gas bills, 451.
epitome of mensuration, 456.
French weights and measures, 472 to 476.
indemnity for loss of share certificates or dividend warrant, 452,
law terms, 454.
renouncement of proposed new issue on the transfer of old
shares, 451.
renunciation of shares newly allotted, 451.
sizes of drawing paper, 455.
terms for leases, 454.
weights and measures, 466 to 477.
Ohren, experiments in cooking by gas, 364.
506 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Ohren continued.
on the application of sulphate of ammonia in agriculture, 877.
Oil, salad, to prevent evaporation from water slide pendants, 295.
Old red sandstone, 2.
Ornamentation in Gas-Works, 414.
Oval retorts, 65.
Ovens and retorts of fire bricks and tiles, 71.
Oxidation of pipes, 229, 260.
Oxide of iron, 181, 134.
average composition of native bog ore, 182.
precautions required in using fresh', 1 132.
purification by, 131, 134.
spent, 377, 392.
Oxygen in coal, 3.
Oxygen, pure, use of, in purification, 136.
Paddon's washer- scrubber, 123.
Paper disc for testing gas, 830.
Paper, lead, to prepare, 149.
litmus, to prepare, 147.
tumeric, to prepare, 146.
Paper, sizes of drawing, 455.
Parkinson's motive power gas meter, 277.
Parlby's self-sealing retort-lids, 83.
Parrot or cannel coal, 1.
Paterson's (J.) analysis of coals and cannels, 37 to 47.
Paterson's (R. 0.) experiments with the steam jet exhauster, 112.
Patterson's (R. H.) discoveries in purification, 131 to 184, 188.
on keeping gas in contact with tar, 91.
Pavement, tar, 370.
Peclet's table showing the relative effects of water and air as cooling
agents, 98.
Peebles's " Needle " governor burner, 297.
station governor, 215.
Pendants, evaporation from water slide, 295.
Pentane gas, Harcourt's proposed standard light from, 347.
Permian series, 2.
Photometer, Bunsen's, 330.
illuminating power meter, Sugg's, 353.
Letheby-Bunsen, 380.
Lowe's jet, 851.
table, 348.
Thorp and Tasker's jet, 854.
Pipes and fittings, effect of small and bad, 298.
GAS ENGINEEES AND MANAGEES. 507
Pipes and fittings continued.
sizes of, for internal supply, 294.
Pipes, ascension, choking of, 86.
brass, plain, spiral, and fluted, 301.
bridge and dip, 87.
connecting, for purifiers, 145.
galvanized, 261, 268, 269.
lead and composition, 260, 301.
main, 218 to 259.
service, 260 to 268.
Playfair and Meyer (Drs.) on the gases occluded in coal, 55.
Pole (Dr.), on gasholder tank walls, 172.
Population per mile of main, 417.
Portland cement, 170.
concrete, 169.
mortar, 170.
Pouillet's table of colours corresponding to high temperatures, 79.
Powders, bronze, 303.
size for, 304.
Precautions required in the working of gasholders, 192.
Prepayment gas meter, 277.
Pressure changer, Cowan's automatic, 216.
Pressure, consumption and, 217.
illuminating power and, 297.
variation of, according to level, 217,
Pressure gauges, 162.
coloured water for, 163.
differential, 163.
King's, 163, 330.
Referees', 342.
to clean the glass tubes of, 163.
Pressure and exhaust registers, 164.
Crosley's, 164.
Wright's, 164.
Pressure and temperature, corrections for, 332, 336, 337.
Pressure of gasholders, 197.
Pressures, square root of, from l-10th to 4 inches, 258.
Price list of wrought-iron tubes and fittings, 266, 267.
Price's coal and coke barrow, 84.
Producing power of various kinds of coals and cannels, 6 to 44.
Production of coke from coal, 5 to 47.
of gas from coal, 5 to 47.
per retort mouthpiece, 69.
Products, coal, 381 to 394.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Products continued.
residual, 367 to 380.
Protection of meters from frost, 276.
Public illuminations, 307 to 329.
coloured fires, 311.
devices for, 309 to 329.
illuminated borders, 311.
mode of supply and price of gas, 307.
price of devices, 310.
service or supply pipes, 309.
Public lighting, 269 to 274.
average meter system for, 272.
consumption of gas by one burner throughout the year, 278,
distance apart of public lamps, 269.
during severe frost, 269.
galvanized pipes for lamp columns, 269.
height of lamp columns, 269.
lamp columns, 270.
number of hours during which gas is usually burnt, 274.
rule to find the length of day and night, 272.
size of service pipes, 269.
Sugg's, Bray's, and Siemens's lamps and burners, 271.
weight and thickness of glass for public lamps, 272.
Puddle and brick gasholder tanks, 165, 176 to 184.
Puddle, clay, 171.
Purification, 129.
bog ore, average composition of, 132.
by ammonia in closed vessels, 138.
by caustic ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia, 138.
by caustic soda, and sulphide of sodium, 138.
by lime (oxide of calcium), 129.
by lime, sulphide of calcium, and oxide of iron, 132.
by oxide of iron, 131.
Brin's process, 136.
Claus's process, 188.
classification of the best known limestones, 134.
extraction of bisulphide of carbon, 132.
Forstall's instructions for preparing lime for purifiers, 180.
Hawkins's method of revivification of oxide of iron in situ, 185.
Hislop's process for calcining the spent lime, 131.
impurities in coal gas, 129.
Letheby (Dr.} on, 183.
Odling (Dr.) on, 132.
Patterson's (R. H.) researches in, 182, 138.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS . 509
Purification continued.
precautions required in using fresh oxide of iron, 131.
removal of impurities by condensers, washers, and scrubbers,
96 to 126.
Use of oxygen in, 136.
weight and measurement of lime, 135.
Purifiers, 140.
apparatus for raising the lids or covers, 144.
centre and other change valves, 145.
construction and arrangement of, 140.
depth and best form of, 140.
depth of water lute, 143.
Malam's arrangement of, 140.
number of layers of purifying material, 143.
rules for determining the size of, 142.
sieves, trays or grids for lime and oxide of iron, 143.
size of connecting pipes, 145.
water lute for covers and hydraulic centre valve, 143.
Purifying house, 139.
arrangement of, 139.
ventilation of, 139.
Purple-coloured fire, 311.
Pyrites, iron, in coal, 5, 54.
Quantity of ash in coal, 3.
brickwork in retort settings, 67.
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in coal, 3.
gas and coke obtained from coal and cannel, 6 to 49.
gas per ton, and illuminating power, relation between, 52.
of sulphur in coal, 3 to 47.
volatile matter in coal, 3 to 19.
Radiation from retort bench, 67.
Bake for discharging retorts, 85.
Rapid or sudden condensation, 97.
Reaumur's thermometer compared with Fahrenheit's, and the Centi-
grade, 108, 109.
Recipe for tinning iron and brass, 302.
Reciprocating and rotary exhausters, 111.
Red-coloured fires, 312.
Referees' cubic foot measure, 339.
instructions of the, 155, 331.
pressure gauge, 342.
remarks on dry gas, 110.
510 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Referees' continued.
sulphur test, 150.
Reflecting heat, power of metals for, 408.
Regenerative and generator furnaces, 75.
Webber on, 76.
Registers, pressure and exhaust, 1C3.
Crosley's, 164.
Wright's, 164.
Registration as affected by temperature, 97.
Regulating burner, " Wright's " Acme," 297.
Regulations as to internal fittings, 293.
statutory, as to testing, 149, 275, 331.
Regulator or governor for internal fittings, 297.
Relation between quantity of gas per ton and illuminating power, 52.
Relative value of different coals and cannels, 51.
illuminating agents, 401.
" Reliance " meter, 276.
Rental per mile of mains, 417.
Residual products, 367 to 380.
ammoniacal liquor, 371.
average percentage products obtained from coal tav, 370.
coke and breeze, 367.
coke breaking hammer and machinery, 367.
coke produced from different coals, 3 to 49.
coke, weight of a chaldron of, 369.
coke, weight of, slaked and unslaked, 369.
retort carbon, 367, 883.
Sellers on coke breaking, 367.
spent lime, 379, 392.
spent oxide of iron, 377, 392.
tar, 369.
tar pavement, 370.
total production of tar in the United Kingdom, 36!).
utilization of the tar, 369.
yield of liquor and tar per ton of coal, 49, 369.
yield of sulphate of ammonia, 372.
Retorts, 64.
burning of clay, 65.
cast-iron, 64, 72.
cements for joining clay retorts and mouthpieces, 82.
clay retorts, 64.
colours corresponding to various high temperatures, 70.
combined settings of clay and iron, 72.
cost of settings, 71.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 511
Retort s contin ued,
different forms of, 65.
dimensions of retorts and settings, 65, 71.
duration of clay and iron, 69, 72.
Edge's method of scurfing, 78.
fire-brick retorts, 71.
flues and draught for, 69.
Eraser's ribbed iron, 72.
fuel used for carbonizing coal in, 78.
" gaiting " retorts, 68.
heat of retorts for efficient carbonization, 69, 72.
hints on the setting of, 66.
"letting down" and "standing off" of, 65.
materials of which retorts are made, 64.
quantity of brickwork in retort settings, 67.
regenerative and generator furnaces for, 75.
scurfing retorta, 78.
setting of retorts, 62, 66, 72.
single retorts, 65.
tar as fuel for, 78.
thickness of, 65, 71, 72.
" through" or double retorts, 66.
usual number of retorts in an oven, 69.
Retort bench mountings, 63, 68, 81, 87, 88.
ascension or stand pipes, 86.
bridge and dip pipes, 87.
buckstaves, 63.
cements for jointing retorts, mouthpieces, and lids,
coke slaking arrangements, 68, 64.
furnace ash pans, 68.
grate bars, 66.
hydraulic main, 87.
lids and lid fasteners, 82, 88.
Morton's and other self-sealing lids, 83.
mouthpieces, 81.
tie rods, 64.
Retort bouse, 59.
chimney stalk for, 70.
clear space in front of benches, 59.
dimensions of, 59.
paving of floor of, 59.
roof of, 59.
rule for the size of chimney?, 70.
ground floor, 59, 61.
.612 NEWBIGGING'S HA.NDBOOK;FOR
Retort bouse continued
stage floor, 59, 60.
ventilation of, 59.
Retort-house tools, and machinery, 83.
ash-pan, rake, and shovel, 85.
auger, 85.
charging scoop, 85.
Clegg's arrangement for continuous carbonization, 86.
discharging rake, 85.
Foulis's hydraulic stoker, 84.
machinery for charging and discharging retorts, 84.
Cockey's charging barrow, 84.
Price's coal and coke barrow, 84.
pricker and fire tongs, 85.
Ross's steam stoker, 86.
shovels, 83.
Warner's stoking machinery, 86.
West's stoking machinery, 84.
Retort stack, 62.
buckstaves and tie rods for, 63.
buttress walls, 64.
chimney stalk, 70.
coke slaking arrangements on, 63.
dimensions of, 62.
main flue of, 64.
Ring or annular tanks, 165, 188.
Robinson's experiments in cooking by gas, 366.
Rocks and earth, weight of various, 166.
Roofs of retort houses, 59.
Rooms, lighting of large, 298.
ordinary, 295.
Ropes, hemp and wire, 443.
breaking weight of, 444.
weight and strength of, 443, 444.
Roscoe (Professor) on the proportion of products obtained from coal
tar, 370.
Ross's steam stoker, 86.
Rotary and reciprocating exhausters, 111.
Round ropes of hemp and wire, 443.
retorts, 65.
Rule for estimating the number of burners required for lighting
large buildings, 298.
for roughly estimating amount of coal required to produce a
given quantity of gas, 52.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Rule con tinned
for size of retort-house chimney-stalk, 70.
specific gravity being known, to find weight and quantity of
gas, 361.
to ascertain the weight of gasholders, 196.
to calculate the discharge of gas through main pipes, 247.
to calculate the required size of service pipes, 264.
to determine the capacity of station meters, 161.
to find the content of a pipe in gallons and cubic feet, 259.
to find the length of day and night, 272.
to find the pressure of gasholders, 197.
to find the weight of gas in a holder, 362.
to find the weight of hemp ropes, 444.
Rules for calculating the area required for atmospherical condensa-
tion, 104.
for gas managers, golden, 422.
purifying area, 142, 143.
to convert Fahrenheit into Reaumur and Centigrade, and con-
versely, 109.
St. John and Rockwell apparatus, 106.
Sal ammoniac, 371.
Salad oil in water slide pendants to prevent evaporation, 295.
Sales of Gas Act, 1859, provisions of, as to stamping meters, 275, 277.
Salubrity, comparative, of different illuminating agents, 403.
Sand for mortar, 435.
Sanders and Donovan's compensating gas meter, 275.
Saturation, testing ammoniacal liquor by, 373.
Scale for Lowe's jet photometer, 352.
Scoop for charging retorts, 85.
Scotch coal, 114.
Scottish cannel coals, analysis by Hislop, 36.
Scrubber, 119.
Anderson's combined washer and, 123.
Barker's mill for distributing water in, 122.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
dry scrubbers as condensers, 105.
filling material for the, 119.
Kirkham, Hulett, & Chandler's " Standard" washer-scrubber,
124.
Laycock and Clapham's "Eclipse " washer-scrubber, 125.
Livesey's improvements in the, 119.
Mann's, 121.
514 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Scrubber continued.
number of volumes of various gases which 100 volumes of water
can absorb, 126.
open, 120.
Paddon's washer -scrubber, 123.
quantity of ammoniacal liquor obtained to outlet of, 371.
rule for determining the size of tower, 122.
tower, 120.
water distributing apparatus for the, 121.
Scurfing retorts, 78.
Self-sealing retort lids, 88.
Sellers on coke breaking, 367.
Separator for tar and ammoniacal liquor, 127, 128.
Septem and decigallon, 466.
Service pipes and fittings, 260 to 268.
abrupt angles to be avoided in, 261.
Barff-Bower process for preserving, 261.
casing for, when laid in ground, 260.
cast-iron, wrought-iron, and lead, 260.
construction of, 260.
diameter of, to supply lights at certain distances from mains,
265.
Hulett's service-cleanser, 261.
leakage from, 260.
pitch of the Whitworth taps and dies for, 263.
price list of, 266, 267.
sizes of, for supplying lights, 265.
syphon or drip well for, 261, 26H.
tinned or galvanized, 261, 2(57, 269.
to calculate the required size of, 264.
uniformity in the screws or threads of, desirable, 263.
Upward's drilling apparatus for, 261.
Settings, retort, 66.
Shades or globes, loss of light through, 298, 299.
Sheard's carbonic acid apparatus, 147.
Sheds for the storage of coal and cannel, 53.
Shovels, retort-house, 83.
Siemens's regenerative furnaces, 75.
street lamps and burners, 271.
Signs, arithmetical and algebraical, 459.
Silvering metals, mixture for, 805.
Single-lift gasholders, 190, 197 to 203.
Single retort benches, 59.
Site for a gas-works, 417.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 515
Size for bronze powder, 304.
Sizes of drawing paper, 455.
Sizes of mains, services, meters, and internal pipes desirable to be
avoided and used, 262, 276, 293, 294.
Slack or dross, 48.
Slaked and unslaked coke, weight of, 73, 369.
Slaking arrangements for coke, 63, 64.
Slope of earths with horizontal line, natural, 166.
Slow speed condenser, Cleland's, 101.
Smith, Beacock, and Tannett's coke-breaking machine, 367.
Smith (Graham) on mixing ashes with lime for mortar, 436.
Smithy ashes for mortar, 436.
Soldering, fluxes for, 302.
Solders, 301.
brazing, or spelter, 302.
fine, 301.
for copper, 302.
glazing, 302.
pewterer's, 302.
plumbing, 302.
steel, 302.
Solids, liquids, gases, and vapours, specific heat of, 407.
Solubility in water of various gases, 899.
Solutions, to prepare test, 156.
Somersetshire coals, 4, 15, 85.
Somerville's self-sealing retort lids, 83.
and Thomas's coke-breaking machine, 368.
Specific gravity of coal, and to determine the, 3 to 50.
apparatus, Lux's, 360.
of gas, 355 to 361.
a test of quality of gas, 355.
Beaume's hydrometer compared with, 375.
corrections for temperature, pressure, and moisture in taking,
857.
illuminating power and, compared, 349.
Letheby's (Dr.) method of determining the, of gas, 356.
Lux's apparatus, 360.
of ammoniacal liquor, 372, 374.
cf gases at end of each hour of distillation, 79.
of limestones, 185.
of various substances, 446.
ordinary method of determining the, of gas, 355.
specific gravity being known, to find the weight of a quantity
of gas, 361.
516 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOB
Specific gravity continued.
square roots of, from -850 to -700, 257.
to convert Twaddel into, 372, 874.
weight and solubility in water of various gases, 899.
Wright's method of determining the, of gas, 859.
Specific heat of solids and liquids, 407.
gases and vapours, 407.
Spence's metal, for jointing mains, &c., 225.
Spent lime, composition and use of, in agriculture, 879.
Hislop's process for calcining, 181.
Spent oxide of iron, 877.
quantity of free sulphur in, 377.
salts of ammonia and insoluble cyanides in, 878.
Stephenson's apparatus for estimating the sulphur in, 878.
Sperm candle, the standard, 330.
Sperm, value of coal and gas in pounds and grains of, 50.
Spiral and fluted brass tube, weight per foot, 301.
Splint coal, 1.
Spontaneous ignition of coal, 54.
Square roots of pressures from l-10th to 4 inches, 258.
Square roots of the specific gravity of gas from -350 to -700, 257.
Stack, retort, 62.
Staffordshire coals, 10, 24.
Stage floor retort houses, 59, 60.
Stalks, rule for size of retort-house chimney, 71.
Standard burners, 335.
sperm candle, the, 330.
unit of heat, 70.
washer-scrubber, 123.
Standards of light, proposed, 845.
Fiddes's, 846.
Harcourt's, 347.
Keates's, 846.
Methven's 846.
Station governor, 214.
advantages of the, 214.
Braddock's, 215.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
construction of the, 214.
Cowan's, 216.
Cowan's automatic pressure changer for, 210.
freezing of water in tanks of, 217.
Hartley's improvements in, 215.
Hunt's, 216.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 517
(Station governor continued.
Peebles's, 215.
steam stove for governor-house, 217.
valves as governors of pressure, 214.
variations of pressure according to level, 217.
Station meter, 160.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
cylindrical and rectangular, 160, 161.
mountings of, 162.
registering mechanism, 161.
rule to determine capacity of, 161.
tell-tale apparatus, 161.
Station meter house, 160.
Statutory regulations for testing, 149, 275, 331.
Steam boiler and engine, 115.
cement for metallic joints, 117.
cement for stopping leaks in boilers, 116.
diameters of cylinders of steam-engines, 117.
horse power of steam boilers, 117.
Steam jet exhauster, 111, 114.
Paterson's (R. 0.) experiments with the, 112.
Steam stove for governor house, 217.
Stephenson's apparatus for estimating the sulphur in spent oxide, 378.
Stone gasholder tanks, 168, 186.
Storage of coal and cannel, 53.
of gas, 192.
tar and ammoniacal liquor, 127, 128.
Storer and Pugh's lever handle for retort lids, 82.
Storer (F. H.) on loss of light through flat sheets of glass, 299.
Stove, steam, for governor house, 217.
Strength of ammoniacal liquor, 372 to 374.
Strode's ventilating sun lights, 296.
Structural and commercial value, 417.
Sudden or rapid condensation, 97.
Sugg's illuminating power meter, 853.
London Argand, No. 1, 835.
photometer table, 848.
street lamps and burners, 269, 271.
ventilating lights, 296.
Sulphate of ammonia, 871.
Arnold on the application of, in agriculture, 376.
Ohren ditto, 877.
yield of, per ton of coal, 372.
Sulphide of calcium, purification by, 132.
518 NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Sulphide of sodium, and caustic soda, purification by, 138.
Sulphur compounds in gas, test for the, 150, 157, 160.
Sulphur in cannel, coal, and coke, 8 to 47.
spent oxide of iron. 877.
Sulphur test, the Keferees', 150.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, test for, 149, 150, 158, 155, 160.
Sums paid on the purchase of gas-works by Local Authorities, 419
420.
Sun and globe lights, ventilating, 296.
Syphon or drip wells, 229, 230, 261, 268.
Tanks, gasholder, 165 to 190.
annular, 165, 188.
Arson (M.) on masonry walls of, 172.
asphalte or tar concrete and mortar for, 170, 171.
brick and puddle, 165, 176 to 184.
cast and wrought-iron, 165, 171, 175, 187 to 190.
cement mortar for, 170.
composite, 185.
concrete, 168, 169, 185.
Douglas's instructions for preparing concrete, 109.
dry wells, 171.
examples of construction of, 176 to 190.
excavations for. 166.
Faija on Portland cement, 170.
hydraulic lime mortar for, 170.
leakage of water from iron, 171.
materials of which tanks are constructed, 166.
natural slope of earths, 166.
Pole (Dr.) on masonry walls of, 172.
puddle clay, for, 171.
stone, 166, 186.
thickness of walls of, 172.
weight of various earths and rocks, 166.
wrought-iron, 176, 190.
Tanks or wells, content of, for each foot in depth, 128.
Tar and liquor separator, 127.
Tar as fuel, 78.
coal, 369.
pavement, 370.
products from, 869, 870.
utilization of, 369.
yield of, per ton of coal, 869.
Tar pavement, 870.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 519
Tar continued.
formation of, 871.
furnace, 74.
preparation of materials for, 871.
Tar well, 126.
capacity of, for different sized works, 127.
content of circular wells for each foot in depth, 128.
dip-well for sealing pipes, 127.
elevated cast-iron cistern, 127.
tar and liquor separator, 127.
Tassie's self-sealing retort lid, 83,
Technical quantities of miscellaneous articles, 447.
Telescopic gasholders, 191, 204 to 213.
counterbalanced, 191.
precautions necessary in the working of, 192.
Tell-tale apparatus for station meters, 161.
Temperature and pressure, corrections for, 382, 386, 337.
as affecting registration, 97.
for carbonization, 69, 72.
of clay retorts, 69.
of gas in the bridge pipe, 96.
of gas in the retorts, 93.
of iron retorts, 72.
Temperatures, colours of high, 79.
Terms for leases, &c., 454.
Test, Referees' sulphur, 150.
Testing ammoniacal liquor, 372, 873.
Testing coal, 56 to 58.
Testing illuminating power, apparatus for, 330.
Testing, instructions of the Referees on, 155, 331.
Testing of main pipes, 288.
Testing of meters, 277, 278.
Testing, statutory provisions on, 149, 275, 331.
Tests for the detection of the impurities in coal gas, 146.
ammonia, 146, 155, 160.
bisulphide of carbon, 150.
carbonic acid, 147, 153.
Gas- Works Clauses Act, 1871, on, 149.
Harcourt's sulphur test, 150.
sulphur, 150.
sulphur compounds, 150, 157, 160.
sulphuretted hydrogen, 150, 153, 155, 160.
test solutions, to prepare, 156.
Thermometer and barometer, used in testing illuminating power, 330
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOR
Thermometer, Drory's main, 145.
Thermometers, comparison of different, 108, 109.
Thickness of the Birmingham wire gauge, 439.
Thickness of gasholder tank walls, 172.
Thomas and Somerville's coke breaking machine, 368.
Thompson's (Lewis) analysis of coals and cannels, 5 to 19.
Thorp and Tasker's jet photometer, 354.
Through retorts, 66.
Time in which a sum doubles itself at simple and compound interest,
471.
Tinned or galvanized-iron pipes, 261, 26$, 269.
Tinning iron and brass, 302.
Tools, retort-house, 83 to 85.
Tower scrubbers, 119, 120.
Trays or grids for purifiers, 148.
Trias, Permian, and Carboniferous series in England and Wales, 2.
Trussed and un trussed gasholder roofs, 192.
Tubes, brass, weight per foot, 301.
wrought-iron fittings and, 268.
price list of, 266, 267.
Tubular or battery condenser, 103.
Turmeric paper, to prepare, 146.
Turned and cored joints for main pipes, 220, 221.
Twaddel's hydrometer, 372.
to convert into specific gravity, 372.
Underground condensers, 105.
Uniformity in the screws or threads of pipes and fittings, 263.
Unit of heat, standard, 70.
Untrussed and trussed gasholder roofs, 192.
Up ward's drilling apparatus, 261.
Urquhart's " Reliance " meter, 276.
Use of gas for cooking, heating, ventilating, and motive power, 862.
advantages of the, 362.
Carr (W.) on the, 863.
Ohren's experiments in the, 864.
Robinson's experiments in the, 865.
Woodall's experiments in the, 865.
Useful notes relating to gas-works, gas apparatus, gas manufacture,
and supply, 417.
buildings and apparatus of a gas-works, 414.
calorific power of various photogenic compounds, 403.
capital of gas-works, 412.
comparative salubrity of illuminating materials, 403.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS. 521
Useful notes continued
comparison of gas with other light-giving materials, 401.
conduct of gas-works, 414.
consumption of gas per mile of main, 417.
consumption of gas per head of population, 417.
cost of gas per hour at different prices and rates of consump-
tion, 421.
cost of gas-works, 417, 422 to 428.
golden rules for gas managers, 422.
London gas, composition of, 400.
ornamentation in gas-works, 414.
population per mile of main, 417.
relative cost of the magnesium light, stearin candles, and gas,
403.
relative cost of various illuminating agents, 401.
relative proportions which ordinary light-giving materials bear
to 1000 cubic feet of gas, 402.
relative value of different illuminating agents, 401.
relative value of illuminating agents, in respect of their heating
and vitiating effects on the atmosphere, 402.
rental per mile of main, 417.
site for a gas-works, 417.
sum paid for each 100 of share capital for gas undertakings
by Local Authorities, 419.
time in which the yearly consumption of gas is doubled at
different rates of increase, 418.
Usual annual increase in gas consumption, 417.
Usual dimensions of bricks, 428.
Utilization of tar, 369.
Valon on the use of pure oxygen in purification, 136.
Value of different coals and cannels, relative, 51.
of coal per ton in pounds of sperm, 50.
of gas per cubic foot in grains of sperm, 50.
Value, structural and commercial, 417.
Valves and bye-pass mains, 126.
Valves as governors of pressure, 214.
Valves, centre and other change, 145.
Vapours, gases, liquids, and solids, specific heat of, 407.
Variations in the illuminating power of gas, 350.
of gas pressure according to level, 217.
Varnish and lacquer, 304.
golden, 305.
for india-rubber tubing, 297.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Varnish continued.
for ironwork, 306.
for out-door wood work, 806.
Velocity and force of the wind, 445.
Ventilating globe and sun-lights, 296.
Ventilation of purifying house, 139.
Vertical atmospherical condensers, 99, 100.
Vitiating effects on the atmosphere, of various illuminating agents, 402.
Voelcker on gas lime and its use in agriculture, 379.
Volatile hydrocarbons, 90.
Volatile matter in coal, 7 to 19.
sulphur in, 7 to 19.
Volume of aqueous vapour in gas in contact with water, 358.
various gases which 100 volumes of water will absorb, 126, 399.
Vulcanized india-rubber joints for main pipes, 223, 226.
Waller's Exhauster, 112.
retort lid fastener, 82.
Walls, thickness of gasholder tank, 172.
Warner and Cowan's meter, 275.
Warner's annular condenser, 101.
stoking machinery, 86.
Washer and scrubber, Anderson's combined, 123.
Washers, 117.
advantages of using, 117.
Anderson's, 118.
Anderson's combined washer aud scrubber, 123.
bye-pass mains and valves for, 126.
Cathels', 118.
Kirkham, Hulett, and Chandler's washer-scrubber, 124.
Laycock and Clapham's washer-scrubber, 125.
Livesey's, 118.
Paddon's washer-scrubber, 123.
Water, dilatation of gas in contact with, 292.
leakages of, from iron gasholder tanks, 171.
memoranda relating to, 406.
proportion required for scrubbing purposes, 121.
and air as cooling agents, compared, 98.
and atmospherical condenser, combined, 103.
channel condenser, 105.
distributing apparatus in scrubbers, 121.
in governor tanks, freezing of, 217.
in lutes of telescopic holders, freezing of, 193.
its power of absorbing ammonia, 119.
GAS ENGINEERS AND MANAGERS.
Webber on regenerative and generator furnaces, 76.
Weight and specific gravity of ammoniacal liquor, 372, 374.
brass tube per foot, 801.
coal and cannel per cubic yard, 62.
composition and lead pipes, 801.
gasholders, 196.
gas in a holder, rule to ascertain, 362.
hemp ropes, rule to find the, 444.
specific gravity and solubility in water of various gases, 399.
various earths and rocks, 166.
various sections of iron and other metals, 488 to 443.
wire and hemp ropes, to find the breaking, 444.
Weights and measures, 466 to 477.
French decimal system, 472.
Well, dry, for gasholder tank, 171.
Welsh coals, 4, 7, 24, 33.
West's stoking machinery, 84.
Wet meter, description of the, 275.
Wet or damp coal, result of using, 5, 53.
Wheel or measuring drum of a meter, 160 to 162, 275.
White and red lead, 224.
White Indian fire, 213.
Whitworth's screws, 442.
taps and dies for gas tubing, 263.
Wigan cannel and coal, production per ton of, 49.
Williams ( Greville) on proportions of products from coal tar, 370.
Wills's method of testing ammoniacal liquor, 373.
Wilson on the results obtained by applying certain manures to land,
380.
Wind, velocity and force of the, 445.
Wood casing for service pipes, 260.
Wood's (A. H.) table showing light obstructed by globes or moons,
298.
Woodall's (H.) experiments in cooking by gas, 365.
Wright's " Acme " regulating burner, 297.
Wright's method of determining the specific gravity of gas, 359.
pressure register, 164.
Wright and Kirkham's annular condenser, 99.
Wrought-iron gasholder tanks, 166, 176, 190.
Wrought-iron main pipes, 228.
Wrought-iron, multiplier for, 438.
Wrought-iron tubes and fittings, 260 to 268.
weight of, 262, 263.
NEWBIGGING'S HANDBOOK FOE
Yellow coloured fire, 312.
Yield of gas and coke of various coals and cannels, 3 to 49.
Yield of sulphate of ammonia per ton of coal, 372.
tar per ton of coal, 49, 369.
Yorkshire coals, 18, 24.
Young's experiments on the condensation of the hydrocarbons,
Young and Aitken's analyzer, 106.
%
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