The DECORATIVE PERIODS ERRATA. Page 30t. Typographical error, Celtic 2000 instead of 200 B.C. Page 199. Thirteenth line, grandson instead of son. Page 100. Tenth line from bottom, after Romanesque read which instead of and. Repetition of illustrations like the German Renaissance on page 124 and the illustration on page 94 is unavoidable in presenting types that are often common to two phases of the same art: Byzantine and early Christian art; or Pom- peiian and Roman; or Cronnvcllian and Flemish. The Decorative Periods CHANDLER R. CLIFFORD Illu^rated with many Original and Facsimile Prmts of Contemporary and Hi^oric Intere^ WW^ New ^ ork CLIFFORD & LAWTON 1906 N i- iin i^ Copyright^ igob By CLIFFORD d- LA VVTO.V All rights reserved \^U PREFACE H E success of the author's pre- vious work, *•' Period Decora- tion," unpretentious and ele- mental as it was, has prompted the publication of this book, which delves more deeply into the subject. Decoration to be good must be consistent; to be valuable it must be historic. Results that are harmonious are those that are orderly, and the preparation of this volume aims to assist the man who would steer clear of the shoals of anachronism. The world appreciates correctness in trivial matters. The civilized woman is not gowned with an evening waist, a tennis skirt, shooting boots and an automobile hat; and little as the theorv may appeal to some minds, we venture to sav that convention and propriety are the attributes necessary to anv correct form of the arts decorative. In the hope that we may shed light upon the obscuri- ties of the subject, we send this volume forth. CLIFFORD & LAWTON 251920 JAPANESE, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY THE FOUR PARAMOUNT INFLUENCES IN DECORATION ERUDITION, RELIGION, COMMERCIALISM, TEMPERAMENT ART is the visible expression of one's belief in the beautiful. All that is good in decoration is old ; what is new is not good. New English is slang. The new in art is vulgar. One may have an individual method of conveying an idea, but the idea itself is old. Only the interpretation is new, and even that is suggested. From the beginning art has always simulated nature. Long before the Greek fret was used the Chinese employed a similar form of design, suggested by the overlapping waves of the sea. The Roman acanthus, the vetruvian scroll and fleur- de-lis came direct from the flora of Egypt. Every motif i the Renaissance period goes back in its origin 4,000 years to the palm, papyrus and lotus, the growth and bloom of which had a religious significance to the people of the Nile. In no single instance can we find a motif in decoration that has not been suggested by nature. Even animal life suggested motifs that have lived for centuries; the claw foot that we see upon a Chippendale chair was Roman ; the griffin, the sphinx, dolphin, bull, eagle and beetle, all contributed suggestions that are now classics in design. Decorative development is stimulated always by one of four 10 The Decorative Periods influences: P:RUUITI0N, RELIGION, COMMERCIAL- ISM or TEMPERAMENT. Each progressive stage of de- velopment constitutes what we term a period in design. Without Erudition the designer can accomphsh nothing. The Middle Ages were in darkness. The term Goth was a term of reproach — a synonym of vandaHsm. Out of the Gothic period there came an awakening in art, the Renaissance, a period of Erudition. ReHgion characterized the elementary principles of the By- zantine, Romanesque and Gothic periods of design, and the wars of the Crusaders spread Christian symbolism among the crafts- men of Northern Africa and the Far East. Where we have composite design merging the arts of one country with those of another we have usually the result of Com- mercialism. A composition may be said to have Temperament when it possesses individuality of expression. THE true periods, or the periods of Origin, are few. The periods of revival are based upon Erudition, for in art there is nothing new. Art Nouveau, the " newest " art, sprung from our knowledge of the Japanese. The works of the brothers Adam came from the knowledge of Pompeii and Herculaneum restorations. Burne-Jones's style was founded upon his knowl- edge of the pre-Raphaelites, the worshippers at the Renaissance shrine, and thence we hark back to Greece, whose art was Egyptian. It was the knowledge of geome- try, a science originated through the necessity of resurveyingthe Egyptian fields following each inundationof the Nile, that developed the beautiful in Moorish paneled ceilings, Gothic traceries, guil- loche work, Greek and 12 The Decorative Periods Roman band motifs and diaper pat- terns. We can go back to the time of Rameses II, 1340 B. C, to the practice of geometry, and all that was accomplished in geometrical design may be attributed to the Erudition of the ancient Egyptians. ASSYRIANS and Egyptians ex- pressed their Religion in their designs. The floriculture of the country had its meaning. The beetle, the winged serpent, the palm, the papyrus, the lotus — all had religious significance. In later years Christian symbolism permeated the Byzantine, Gothic and Romanesque forms of decoration, and influenced also the arts of the Mohammedans who conquered Constantinople, the arts of the Saracens who set- tled in lower Italy and Spain, and, through the conquests of the Crusaders, penetrated the Far East. Every line in true decora- tion is suggested by a thought that arises from Religious Con- viction or out of the effort to perpetuate some axiom of Truth or Beauty. COMMERCIALISM has been much deplored as a disturbing in- fluence in art, but I take it, nevertheless, that Commer- cialism is a stimulus which creates, like new soil or new seed. The Queen Anne period in England was a period created by the furnishings introduced by the Dutch traders. The Chinese in- fluence in England and France during the Eighteenth Century was primarily Commercial. The Persian spirit, conspicuous in the Sixteenth Century Italian work, and the East Indian spirit of the later century, as well as the influences which affected con- temporary Spanish and Portuguese design, were all Commercial. Prior to the discovery of America, Portugal and Spain, envious of the trade in the East controlled by their neighbors of the Mediterranean, endeavored to find a Western passage to India. We know the result of Columbus's voyage, but it is well in THE DOLPHIN connection with this subject to remember that it was prompted by that Commercialism which spread the Eastern influence throughout Europe, and which reflected the Eastern imprints upon the arts. AND Temperament ! Decorative art has been and always will be subjected to the influences of Temperament. Decora- tion is the impulse of nature. We find it in the budding of the flower. We find it in the child's delight over a bit of ribbon. The bud in nature will evolve new forms and colors according to the soil and culture, and Art shows the same subtle changes. In nature we note the change as we travel, north or south. In art we note the change, not alone as affected by topography. Erudition, Religion and Commercial influence, bqt Tempera- ment. Given, for example, a Renaissance theme of classic re- vival and we find the composition of the English^German, Italian, 14 The Decorative Periods the Fleming, Spaniard, Frenchman, all totally different. Into the work of each is unconsciously injected his native Tempera- ment. We may find a new handling of a theme, but it is simply Temperamental. The sturdiness of Dutch character stands out in Dutch workmanship. The Puritan spirit is betrayed in the Jacobean type of decoration. We have no need of history to follow the Temperament of the French people. Excess and sensuousness are suggested in the voluptuous decorations, which, encouraged in the time of Louis XIV, marked the history of the people down to the Revolution, when Temperament changed and adopted a simpler form, in turn succeeded by the martial spirit aroused by Napoleon's career. There are only five distinct orders in classic architecture, but out of these spring innumerable related parts, all stamped by the influences of Erudition, Religion, Commercialism and Temper- ament. Pilgrim Monks at the Court of Justinian, Byzantium, 527-560 A. D., disclosing silkworms smuggled from China This was the beginning of silk weaving in Europe. EGYPTIAN EGYPTIAN- BABYLONIAN— ASSYRIAN PERSIAN EGYPTIAN— Old Empire, 4000-3000 B. C. Middle Empire, 3000-2100 B. C. New Empire, 2100-324 B.C. Gr.cco Roman Revival, 324 B. C. to 300 A. D. Egpyt, 332 B. C, became a Greek kingdom ; 30 B. C. became a Roman province until the Mohammedan invasion, 640 A. D. ASSYRIAN — Colonized probably from Babylonia, 1900 B. C. Height of Assyrian influence in art, 1300 B. C.-625 B. C. The inhabitants of Media, Persia and Babylonia were subjects of Assyria. In 640 B. C. the Medes revolted and established the Median Empire. The Assyrian Kingdom ended 608 B. C, when the Empire of Babylon was establislied and the Persians also became independent. In 55S B. C. the Medes were conquered by the Persians and the Persian Empire was established. OLD BABYLONIAN— 4000 B.C. PERSIAN — In 538 the Babylonian Empire was incorporated by the Per- sians — thus, the Persians inherited the arts of Assyria, Media and Babylonia. THE Student should carefully analyze the above brief history, which explains the similarity between the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Babylonian and Persian characteristics of design. To Babylon both Egypt and As- syria owed much. The artistic influences of liaby- lonia were widespread, and were strongly exercised in decoration 1800 B. C. to 538 B. C. Assyrian art was substantially a THE rArYRUS.BVD \ \ The Decorative Periods 23 AS-~VK IAN example, in Fig- ure 5, the lotus bud, pad and blossom as they appear in nature. Figure 3 shows the blossom when it begins to wilt. Figure ■'^^^ '*''•"' 6 shows the bud, pad and blossom as represented on an ancient Egyptian monument ; I, 2 and 4 show the decorative forms. Figures i and 2, Plate 2, are from a ceiling in Athens; Figure 3 from a Me- di:cval tile ; 4 from an altar; 5 an an- cient Etruscan gem ; Figure 6, a conventionalized Egyptian form ; 7 is a detail from the Myth of Osiris ; 8, an ancient treat- ment ; 9 shows the Sphinx, and, to our mind, the origin of the fleur-de-lis in the lotus trefoil. The trefoil has been al- ways popular in decoration as well as heraldry, because anything symbolizing the Trinity seemed to confer blessing and protection. Very little is known of ancient Egypt except from what still remains as evi- dence of its former greatness : the Pyra- mids, the Labyrinth, containing 3,000 apartments and the Catacombs, consist- ing of excavations of great extent, used for the burial of the dead. Egyptian art was at its height 3,000 years ago, and its most distinguishing features consist of hieroglyphics, nude human figures, winged globes, the ram, the sparrow ASSYRIAN hawk, dung beetle, symbolic animals and 24 The Decorative Periods boo ^iA ^--^yj^:) foliage, especially that of the palm and lotus, the latter a symbol of » fecundity and life ; for the lotus was the first flower to spring up after the waters of the overflowing Nile had subsided and came as a harbinger of promise and pros- perity. The first houses built in Egypt ^"^ (o^ (^ were of stoutly bound bunches of papyrus gathered from the riverside, and ulti- mately when buildings were formed of stone an attempt was made to perpetuate this primitive form of architecture by im- itating in the stone the appearance of the old reeds. The decorative style of the papyrus reeds was impressed upon the people so strongly that they entered in some form into all manner of Egyptian decoration, from the full leaf to the strap-like roots. The lotus plant is frequently used as a symbol of im- mortality. The palm has been handed down to the Greeks as a symbol of victory, and the Christian church of to-day regards it as a token of peace. The winged globe consists of a ball or globe, on the sides of which are two asps with exten- ded wings, five to eight times the diam- eter of the globe. We see these in almost all treatments of 'Vil»VWM- l -'-J-*«JWJWIi.ti^:^^>g, EGYPTIAN V Egyptian work, ex- pressing by the ex- The Decorative Periods 25 tended wings the power of protection afforded by the Egyptian Government. A system of decoration called " labyrinth " decoration comes down to us from the Egyptians. An Egyptian palace, consist- ing of a number of buildings so arranged that one became lost in the corridors, was termed a labyrinth. A garden labyrinth consisted of winding walks interlaced so that one knew not which path to take. A decorative form con- sisting of interlacing lines is called, thus, labyrinth decoration. Erequently we find the so-called Sacred Tree, or the winged male figure, symbolical of the soul; the winged griffms, lions and bulls with human faces. The Assyrian form indulged in geometrical figures, interlacings, zig-zag lines and rosettes, but they all bore more or less the impress of Egyptian art. KIG. F FIG. CHINESE— JAPANESE Chinese— MYTHIC teriod 3500 n. C.-2200 b. c. ; first emperor 2200 B. C. (CONFUCIUS 500 B. C.) Japanese — 1200 B. C.-1901 A. D. — empire estaiu.ishkd 660 b.c Tin: Chinese decorative arts date back to 3500 B. C. This was the Mythic Period. Confucius was 3000 years later. The characteristics which we are called to deal with are of that form of color and design best expressed under the first Emperor, 22cx> B. C, and have lasted for over 4000 years. E.vactly when or how these design qualities became intro- duced into the Chinese crafts is of little consequence. Wc know that we find many of the details that we look upon as essentially Grecian, like the Greek fret, in Chinese design, antedating the Greek by hundreds of years. We notice also, especially in the floral work of the Chinese, a very great deal that is similar to that which has been perpetuated in the early Indian work. There is a close affinity between the design workers of India and China, due possibly to the Buddhist religion, which j^ermits the introduction of animal details, and as religion has always had much to do with the formation of the Decorative Periods this fact, while not especially important, is interesting. The priesthood of Egypt encouraged design symbolism ; the 28 The Decorative Periods returning Crusaders, with their Christian fervor, spread Byzan- tine influences ; the Gothic was a churchly art ; the Celtic was of religious origin, and the Buddhist faith undoubtedly influenced much that was in common between India and China. IT IS impossible to exactly define the distinguishing features of Chinese and Japanese productions. An active commercial intercourse had been for many years kept up between these countries, and the result of their mutual teaching and learning being similar, a uniformity of taste as well as technical practice resulted. The countries were so closely associated for centuries and there was so much in common in the flora, religion and the cus- toms that it was only natural that the decorative temperament should have been similar. In technical skill, however, the intel- lectual development of Japan induced in time an advanced style, and we find the Japanese more partial to geometrical figures, requiring a nicety of construction and a precision of drawing not always to be found in the Chinese work. While the Chinese ornamented their lacquer work, for instance, with types from nature, easily drawn, requiring little technical knowledge, the Japanese used linear ornaments. With the coming of Confucius, 500 B. C, other influences were brought to bear upon the Japanese ; but if we should attempt to go into religious symbolism the subject would be inexhausti- ble. For centuries the artists of China and Japan have talked to the masses by the symbolism of their design work. As certain lines on a child's map mean the mountains and certain parallel lines around the land mean the ocean, so certain lines in Japan- ese work expresses the earth, the heavetis and the ocean. The following is an outline of the sort of philosophy which is based on the principles of their art : All forms of art, either plant or animal, may be considered as the products of heaven and earth. Heaven means here rain, sunlight, etc. NeS-4t'iv/e Q.ye/^PzJ^ Positive I-IG. 3 Man is the crown of the creation, and it is therefore the representative of life. Heaven is called the positive or male principle, while earth or water stands for the negative or femi- nine principle. The universe is the phenomenon of these prin- ciples according to the idea of the ancient Japanese. The form of heaven was circular and is expressed according- to Figure i of the illustrations. The form of the earth is ex- pressed as Figure 2, with the water on the lower portion of the square. By cutting this square from the north or the south we have a triangle, and this triangle represents the combination of the east and west or the male and female. The triangular form thus obtained is a standard by which flowers and plants are trained to grow. The human figure is frequently shown standing upright with the two hands clasped in the front, forming thus, if joined by ^]^j^ ^ r^^ r^ ^^,4^^ The Decorative Periods 33 lines, a triangle. If the hands are extended to the right and left it forms a square or the shape of the earth. (Fig. 3.) These principles enter into the raising of trees, queer little stunted-looking forms that one hardly understands, but they have a certain religious significance which enters into designs and means much more than we have the space to explain. Symbolism of this character in the raising of flowers and plants, as well as in application to designs, has a meaning which takes a life study to thoroughly understand. The sort of grotesque which enters into the Chinese deco- ration is very seriously accepted by the people. We see a bow- legged man with arms extended, and we are inclined to regard the figure as ludicrous, but the attitude is one which is necessary to the philosophy of the symbolism, which stipulates that the head and the feet and the finger tips of this figure, intended to represent the world, shall be so proportioned that a perfect square may be drawn from the head to the finger tips and thence to the feet. To do this the arms must be lengthened and the legs must be shortened. Hence a grotesque figure. To the understanding, however, of one versed in the philoso- phy of such design this creature is beautiful ; for here dwell a people who, when the sun or moon is eclipsed, believe the lumi- nous orb has been swallowed by some monster, and they come with cans and kettles to make rough music and thus cause a dis- gorging of the luminary. These mythical monsters are jiictured by the artists as only people who believe in dragons and that sort of thing can ever hope to present them. I can scarcely imagine a disbeliever can produce such mar- velous examples of the chimerical ; it takes an artist saturated in the belief in them. The difference between the Celtic and the Japanese and Chinese grotesqueries rests in the treatment. The Celtic is purely decorative. The drawing of an animal figure is clearly subordinated to the decorative necessities, while the figures of Japan and China are so full of detail as to suggest a minute study of the real thing, and the design surroundings-are subordi- nated to the ficfure. JAPANESE The Decorative Periods 35 It has been said by Monsieur \'on Brandt that "a China- man is born a Confucionist, Hves as a Taoist and dies a Budd- hist," which simply means that while a nominal adherent of the old State religion he is all his life much given to superstitious practices and at his death is surrounded b)' the ceremonies of Buddhism. The State religion consists of certain rites laid down in tiic code of the Empire. The altar to heaven is round ; that to earth is square. When the Kmperor worships heaven he wears a robe of blue, and blue is the color depicting celestial matters. When he worships the earth his robes are yellow, and yellow is the color pertaining to all worldly affairs ; when the sun, he wears red ; when the moon, white. Dr. Morrison says "Buddhism in China. is decried by the learned, laughed at by the profligate, yet followed by all." Never- theless, there is a Mohammedan influence which has affected the design character and the arts as practiced in the north and west of China, and here the influences of India and Persia are noticeable In its hatred of idolatry thelvoran forbids the depicting of anything in earth or heaven, and ^his law has forced the art of the strict Mohammedan into narrow channels, and we have the outcome of the conventionalized flower treatment. But there are few strict Mohammedans in China, and the Buddhist faith gives full license to the representation of animal forms. The student is commended to the study of "Chinese Porcelain, " by W. G. Garland, issued with 485 illustrations, for nothing short of such a book can properly present the mytho- logical, the religious, the symbolic and emblematic characteristics of Chinese design. The Chinese employ, in their decorative work, an endless list of deities, demons, monsters, animals of all sorts. Their eight immortals are frequently introduced ui)on fan work and embroideries; in fact, the figure eight is somewhat of a favorite with them. They have eight lucky emblem.s, eight immortals, eight precious things, eight Buddhist symbols, eight ordinary symbols. They have four fabulous animals, and to the terrestrial branches twelve other animals bear svmbolic relations. WITH THE EMPRESS DOWAGER w z z < z w u o PERSIAN INUIAN EASTERN— ORIENTAL— MOHAMMEDAN The terms Eastern, Oriental and Mohammedan are used interchange- ably. TheOrient has, however, distinct geographic boundries which include India and China, but do not include the countries of the Mediterranean. For convenience, however, we include in the classification the Mohammedan districts. India— 2000 B. C. — first period 2000 n. c. — 1525 a. d. (hrah- MA 1400 B. C.-5OO H. C; BUDDHA 5OO B. C.) ; MOGUL EMPIRE 1525 A. D.-I748 A. D ; ENGLISH CONTROL I748 A. D.; ENGLISH EMPIRE 1858 A. D. Persia — 558 B.C. — Persian empire 558 b. c; extending with SOME interruptions TO 64I A. D ; CONQUERED BY THE SARACENS (ARABS), BECAME MOHAMMEDAN 64I A. D. Arabian — 571 A. D — mohammed born 571 a. d., died 632 a. d.; SARACEN dominion 57I-I258; TURKISH DOMINION I258. Moorish — 711 A. D-t6io A. D. — conquest of spain 711; MOORS EXPELLED FROM SPAIN 161O; ALHAMBRAIC PERIOD I2OO-I3OO. Turkish — 1298 A. D. — Asiatic empire established 1298 a. d.; EUROPEAN empire ESTABLISHED I453 A. D. Persian, Indian, Arabian, Moorish and Turkish designs have characteristics in common. It is not difficult to differen- tiate between these five forms of Oriental design if we bear in mind that — Persian art was mythological and assimilated much of the Assyrian and Egyptian. In 641 A. D. Persia was conquered by the Saracens, and from that period its art was dominated by the dictates of the Mohammedan creed interdicting the use of animal figures. Prior to Mohammedan influence animal life was commonly depicted in designs. Turkish design is hybrid, and bears the imprint of the arts 50 The Decorative Periods of Phoenicia and the Holy Land, Assyria, Babylonia and Chaldea. Religion Mo- hammedan. Indian design from 500 B. C. to 1748 had been Buddhist, and the laws of the Koran never affected Indian art. Arabian is purely Mohammedan and the Moorish descends from the Arabian. At the very outstart our study of Oriental art must be illuminated by an appreciation of the religious influences of the Koran, the Mohammedan bible, which forbade the depiction of life forms. United by a common faith, early INDIAN design was natur- ally pure. Nor was it hedged and confined by any interdictions. It was characterized by an overflowing abundance, showing a fantastic temperament, profuse in richness with ever-recurring motifs, to be found principally among the native plants and flowers. The first period of Indian art was influenced by the Brahman religion, and was replete with mythological motifs. The Mohammedan period showed naturally Mohammedan tendencies in art, but there is no form of Oriental art which was less conven- tionalized and more liberal to decorative treatment than the Indian. Scroll, floral and mythological suggestion appeared in •frequent juxtaposition with religious symbolism and the depic- tion of animal life, but it was all presented in good decorative spirit. Birds in life-like plumage, flowers and animals, verdure conventionalized design, like the cashmere pattern, were all util- ized. The PERSIAN Empire, prior to its conquest by the Ara- bians, was saturated with the spirit of mythology. Like the Eo-yptians and Assyrians, the fabled animals, serpents and birds, had a deep religious significance and were utilized in designs. When the Arabians conquered Persia the Arabian charac- The Decorative Periods 51 teristics were introduced, as may be frequently noted in the vase ornamentation of Persian design. Little by little the mythological character of Persian design, together with life forms, disappeared, and the floral, arabesque and strap character succeeded. The Mohammedan Persian is full of conventionalized florals. Like the Arabian, the design springs from one root ; it is seldom broken. It is what we nowadays call an all-over pattern, spring- ing from a base and broadening with branches and tendrils like vegetable life, elaborated with traceries. The orthodox ARABIAN, forbidden the depiction of animal forms, developed a style of design pompous with elaborate arabesques, scrolls and sweeping lines intertwining. After the conquests of Northern Africa the inhabitants of Roman and Greek descent accepted the Mohammedan faith and amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors. Soon after, in 711, the Moors crossed to Spain and established the MOORISH government. Thus, with Arabian origin, their arts, which de- veloped to extraordinary magnificence and grandeur, bore Arabian characteristics. The Mohammedan type of design was elabo- rated, more details of strapwork being interlaced most ingeni- ously. Series of designs were interwoven into a complex ensemble. The floral and geometrical details which were ignored by the Arabians, were each and every one ornamented ^ iga'irg "g? rgq ^"f ■•'4> '^^j/iai .^>Tif ^ ^i^^^^^^H^^-^^IH^^ ■ J^^^lff u: :?ii'>l®t«IS2§'S6 PERSIAN 52 The Decorative Periods with rare skill by the Moors. Gold, red and blue were much used. The Moorish treatment impresses one with the idea of one pattern interlacing another. Inscriptions were used deco- ratively ; hieroglyphics were used ornamentally. In the Al- hambra the walls were covered with inscriptions. The Turks were nomadic tribes converted to Mohammedan- ism in the Seventh Century. The TURKISH dynasties reigned in Palestine, Syria and Egypt, and under the name of Turko- mans covered Bokhara. The power of the Turks in Asia Minor and the rapid expansion of the Mohammedan faith in the Four- teenth Century gave great anxiety to all Christendom. Floods ALHAMBRAIC The Decorative Periods 53 of crusaders poured across the Bos- phorus, alarming the Greeks at Constantinople, who intrigued with the Turks to check the Crusade movement. But this alliance bred internal dissension and intrigue, and finally terminated in the surrender of Constantinople, 1453, to their old allies; thus the Turkish I^mpire in Europe was established. Christian churches in the conquered countries were either changed by the Turks into Masques or Christian artists were charged with the erection of new buildings. So this and later periods of Turkish ornamentation were influenced by Byzantine as well as Arabian modes, and what we are pleased to now call Turkish ornamentation, cover- ing the Turkish Empire in Europe, Armenia, Kurdistan and Mesopotamia, became much confused. It is significant that Mediaeval art was largely Christian, and when the Mohammedans established their European Empire in Constantinople Christian sybolism and Mohammedan symbolism were merged. The geometric forms so much used in Mohammedan design were apparently meaningless, but they frequently represented conventionalized animal life; the Koran forbidding any direct representation, the artist utilized the life form conventionalized. The two illustrations that we show are conventionalized butter- flies, and give an excellent idea of the method. DORIC IONIC CORINTHIAN GRECIAN GR.ECO-PELASGIC 1900 H. C.-13S4 R. C. ; DORIC 700 R. C. ; IONIC 600 U. C. ; CORINTHIAN 290 R. C. ; HELLENISTIC 29O }{. C.-16S R.C. ETRUSCAN 1040 B. C.-238 R. C. THE ancient Greeks received their first rudiments of art from the Egyptians, changing and elaborating the old forms. One decorative device purely Greek is the anthemion, which, with the acanthus, can be traced through subsequent centuries in various forms, and we recognize it as one of the distinctive features of the Renaissance of three thousand years later. The earliest and incipient period of Greek art is generally termed Graxo-Pelasgic. The three purely Greek orders are the Doric, a development of the seventh century, B. C. ; Ionic, a development of the sixth centur)-, B. C. ; Corinthian, a development of the third century 1^. C. The Doric capital, as shown by the illustration, is exceed- ingly simple. The Ionic is characterized by volutes. The Cor- inthian is rich in elaborati(jn, with rows of acanthus leaves placed one upon the other, with volutes above them at each corner. THE ANTHEMION i-l < < u w w p^ o The Decorative Periods 57 Of all the ornamental styles which have been borrowed from plants the acanthus is the most popular. It was introduced by the Greeks, but has been used repeatedly in innumerable other styles. Its popular application is due to the ornamental possibili- ties of its beautiful leaves. The Greeks treated the acanthus with sharp-edged, comparativaly narrow leaves. In the Roman style the tip of the leaves became rounder and broader. The Byzantine and Roman- esque styles again returned to stiffer, less delicate forms, and the Gothic gave the leaf large, round bulbous forms. The acanthus as illustrated here is Grecian in style. We hear of Grecian borders, Grecian friezes, and there in itself lies much of the dominant characteristic of Grecian decora- tion. Designs very seldom in Grecian were of an all-over char- acter. The mural character was undertaken usually in borders or friezes. The work was of a character to suggest nowadays a stencil form. They were lines little shaded. The Grecians took squares and built within them. They never indulged in broad sweeps. Thus the Greek fret was a design of squares, a lasting feature modified and elaborated by innumerable touches. The Greek school is purely classical. In fact, the term Classical in a strict sense is applied to the best periods of ancient Greek art, and to the Roman arts where the Roman work is the result of a direct following of Greek art. < H fc > O w pi < p; ■Si o 0^ si < X < u u c/l pi o a ^■y; Ui f'l ►-> a; O O O H a: H Z t o 1^ ei u < H X UJ n Pi CO H H [/I W W ^ OJ H Ph 1 1 W w 14 z ^ 1— 1 hJ a H z rn c Pi u w l^ tfl The Decorative Periods 59 The Etruscans were a people apparently of a northern race whose art closely resem- bled Greek. They lived in the country north of Rome, and >/ after a series of do •*»' 4. wars with the Romans lasting through the Fourth Century B. C. were subdued and assimi- ( ^^ lated in 280 V>. C. Early Roman art was influenced by the Etruscan; later Roman art by the Greek. The Romans themselves were too busy build- ing a world empire to develop an indepen- dent art. But after they had assimilated the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily and of the Peloponnesus and the country to the north — in the Third and Second Centuries B. C. — the new conditions under 1. WALL DfCO(\ATlOn in THE. CA5A DE.L LABlRlHTO POnPEll POMPEIIAN THE RENAISSANXE rREATMFNT OF I'OMFF.IIAN ETRUSCAN GREEK Cue lEAf C A RD'-vA'- di"vCm 3"'Ct'''HW ^^N^t■OM■ DOMESTIC EQ^V ITW] 1?^ tTCONSOKD f^ nflm 1111111 m m ^ |S1 [a 1 ill CELTIC JAPANESE AND GREEK JAPANESE 0»\CO<. WAVC. 62 The Decorative Periods which Greek artists worked and the immense size of the build- ings that were demanded by the world-conquerors created a distinctive Roman — or Graeco-Roman — architecture and orna- ment. With the spread of Christianity it became transformed into Christian Roman (Mediaeval Roman or Byzantine) art, whose most famous periods are those of Constantine, who adopted Christianity as the State religion of the Roman Empire and removed the capital of the Empire to Constantinople and of Justinian (527-565 A. D.). The Decorative Periods 63 Ml 11^ One associates the square fret with Greek art, but the Chinese used it two thousand years before, and the Japanese and Moors also utilized it in a modified form. The Greek wave and Greek guilloche can be traced back to the Egyptian and Assyrian, and the use of Celtic fret is also interesting in its relations to the Greek form. Another symbolism which is much used and which one finds in the Persian as well as the Christian art, is the Tree of Life. It is shown in different forms, the terminals showing sometimes the acanthus details here illustrated, and sometimes cones or lotus buds entwined in vines. Although closely associated with ecclesiastical decoration and representing the genealogy of Christ, the symbolism is traced back to Assyria and Egypt, 2CK)0 years before Christ. The Christian Tree of Life is usually termed the Jesse Tree. It represents the genealogy of Christ as it is given in the Gospel of W^^ Ct>T»TlAl« O^NrCO riMFt St. Matthew. The form of trees of life covers one gen- eral principle, but varies in de- tails. ROMAN— POMPEIIAN Roman— 753 B. €-455 A. D. PoMPEiiAN — 100 B. C.-79 A. D. THE Roman Empire, founded 750 years B. C, was the fourth great empire of antiquity. The Romans, for want of an artistic style of their own, were dependent at first upon the Greeks, but instead of following the simplicity of that style they exaggerated the decorative treat- ment. In accordance with their love for pomp and splendor, Ro- mans had a predilection for the Corinthian order, which they elaborated with fine artistic feeling ; the Panthenon at Rome is a good example. We find the Roman style full of dolphins and winged horses and volutes, extravagant but beautiful in decorative imagination. The different forms of leaves are idealized in a manner so that their natural origin is hardly to be recognized. The acanthus, oak leaves, laurel, pineapple, vine, palm, ivy, poppy and rich floral, fruits and figure work were much employed. It is difficult to treat of the Renaissance Period without bearing well in mind all these characteristics of Roman art. The more that one studies the five orders recognized in clas- sical architecture the more one is impressed by the unusual beau- ties embodied in the Greek Ionic, Doric, Corinthian and the Roman Composite and Tuscan, the latter being a form very simi < < u < c a c c o U . "e •- 5 C O a o >-l ■— • c o u c "5 B he O O ai y. - A o V u > (J= z < o C: ' 66 The Decorative Periods lar to the Greek Doric. There is a class of unthinking people who shrink at the suggestion of a thing that is classic, believing that it lacks the pleasure-giving qualities of what, for want of a better term, we are apt to call "popular" design; but the term classic is in reality an expression applied to the highest type of art, and whether it is of music, literature or decoration, a thing that is classic is the most lasting. To the people who like "popu- lar" things, the classical is really the most popular, a fact evident when you consider that, in the case of the Greek and Roman, it has lived for centuries. With music it is the same. The melody that we term "popular" and that we say we prefer be- cause it is not so severely "classical" as some other things, jingles in our ear for two or three months at most and is then forgotten, or if it recurs again, it is distasteful as a remem- brance. A study of the details of the Greek and Roman decoration has been a source of joy to all lovers of the beautiful. The Ionic, or style embodying the volute principles, was introduced 600 years B. C, the Corinthian, 290 B. C.; and it is the Corin- thian style which appealed to the splendor-loving people of the Roman Empire and developed the Composite, which combined the Greek Ionic and Corinthian. CLOSELY following the Roman came the Pompeiian. The most beautiful form of mosaic work was undoubtedly done by the Romans, who produced not only geometrical mosaics, as we observe in so many floors excavated at Pompeii, but flowers, animals, still life, human and divine figures, even completed pic- tures. The materials used were stones of different colors, chiefly marble, and the designs were exquisite. The wall paintings found at Pompeii and Herculaneum give us some idea of the lost Grecian paintings, for most of the Pompeiian as well as Roman works are reproductions of originals by Greek masters. The apartments of the Pompeiian house were all without windows. Walls were divided into a dado, a middle and an upper section. The dado generally had a black ground with simple ornaments or linear decorations. The Decorative Periods 67 The purple, green, blue or violet ground of the middle space was enlivened with one or more figures or landscapes having or- namental borders. The upper space was usually white, enlivened with graceful scenes in various colors. There were, however, apartments, the walls of which began with yellow dadoes and terminated with black friezes. Besides very rich arabesc|ues, there were garlands, fruit, masks, candelabra, animals, which, imitating nature with great fidelity, arrested the eyes of the beholder. The walls always terminated at the top in a small painted stucco concave, from which the ceiling rose. GREER BYZANTINE ROM.\N BYZANTINE POMPEIIAN I BYZANTINE— 328-1453- Byzantine — 328 A. D.-1451 A. D. — early 328 a. D.-550 a. d.; con- STANTINE I 272-337, EMPEROR 330 A. D. ; BEST PERIOD 550 A. D.-IOOO A. D. ; LATE OR ITALIAN PERIOD lOOO A. D.-1451 A. D. Constantine I, surnamed the Great, was born at Nissa 272 A. D., and died 337 A. D. He became Emperor of Rome 306 A. D., and defeated several rivals for the throne. He was the first Roman Emperor to adopt Christianity. In 328, while preparing for battle, a cross appeared in the sky, and accepting it as an omen he embraced the new religion. With his conversion Christian art emerged from the catacombs, and for 700 years all art and architecture was lavished on churches and ecclesiastical trappings. In 330 A. D. he removed the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium ; hence the name Byzantine is given to all Christian art previous to 1000 A. D. Subsequently the name of the city was changed to Constantinople, and in 1453 it became a Turkish city. WHEN Greece became a Roman province the taste of the Greeks spread over the Roman Empire. On the division of the Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western Empires, Greece became attached to the Eastern Division, sometimes called the Byzantine Empire, and afterwards the Greek Empire. In the fifteenth century an end was put to this Greek Empire by Mohammed II ; Greece became a Turkish province. The Greeks, however, never forgot that they were a distinct people, and although for four hundred years they were under subjection to the Turks they finally revolted. From this bit of history we can see where the Byzantine form of decoration be- came influenced by the Greek and Roman, and we can see also how many of the old Greek forms have found their way into The Decorative Periods 71 Turkish work, for the Turks were so closely associated for four hundred years with the Greeks that they absorbed much of the atmosphere of their art, especially that gorgeous, resplendent form which was practised in Byzantium. From the F'ourth to the Sixth Century we have what is called early Byzantine or Oriental Roman. It was permeated by the early Greek and Roman periods and influenced also by the East. It was a form resplendent in gold and brilliant color; the groundwork of many of the fabrics and many of the paintings was all gold, consequently the other colors, reds, blues and greens, required a very deep and full tone ; thus the Byzantine color schemes may be imagined ; even in enamel work gold was liberally used. It was an age of luxury. Byzantine art flourished into the Fifteenth Century, and the late Italian form found Byzantine fabrics, woven and embroid- ered, the most valued of all textile works the world over. This range of art treatment of over eleven hundred years was of a varied character, but in all that was attempted, either of a Greek or Roman character, or of the more Oriental type, the gold and deep primitive colors formed a distinguishing color characteristic. Byzantine style engrafted Christian sentiment upon remin- iscence of the Greek and Roman and exercised a powerful influence on all arts of the Middle Ages. Mohammed, or Mahomet, the founder of the religion bearing his name, was born at Mecca, Arabia, 571 A. D., died at Medina 632 A. D. His life was largely spent in poverty and in religious wars, and during his life art found no place in the Mohammedan religion. Later, however, when the Mohammedans overran Byzantium and established their capital in what is now Constan- tinople, they adopted liyzantine art and carried it through all Southern Europe and Asia. The extent to which Byzantine or Christian Roman art was dominant during the Middle Ages is not generally appreciated. Nor is an exact knowledge of what constituted Byzantine art possessed by many — even by those who are leaders in the decora- tive profession. 72 The Decorative Periods Yet the facts are to-day easily accessible, though in most books so presented as to obscure the fact that for nine hundred years (330-1204) Constantinople (Byzantium) was the capital of the Roman Empire and the centre of the world's commerce, civilization and art. After the capture of this Imperial city in 1204 by the Crusaders from the West, and the estabhshment of the Latin Empire (1204-1261), the Byzantine emperors, though able to re- store their dynasty, never attained their previous position of power and dignity. Even before 1204 Venice had succeeded Constantinople as the world's commercial and artistic capital, and with the capture of Constantinople in 1453 by the Turks, the last claim of Constantinople to leadership dis- appeared. The great, significant fact of Mediaeval art is that it was Christian. In all the ancient historic styles there is a close con- nection between religion and art. After Christianity under Constantine became the State re- ligion of the Roman Empire, it began also to dominate art and architecture. In the Eastern part, of the Empire the new art, like the new religion, was inclined to be Oriental in feeling. In the West, overrun and possessed by Ger- manic tribes — Visigoths, Ostro- goths, Burgundians, Franks, Lom- bards, Saxons, Danes and North- men — Germanic and Celtic in fluences tended to differentiate the Christian Roman of the West from | Byzantine forms. What did most, however, to alienate West from East was dif- ference of language — Greek being the language in Constantinople and BYZANTINE the East, while Latin was the The Decorative Periods 71 language of the West. The ^conquests of J ustinian (527-566), who recovered Italy from the Germanic conquerors, extended the domain of Greek at the expense of Latin, and for two cen- turies Italy was more Greek than Latin. But Charlemagne, descended from the Prankish invaders of Gaul, and founder of a brief but glorious Franco-German-Italian Empire, restored Italy to the Latins. His coronation as Kmperor in A. 1). 800 by the Pope of Rome marks also the definite breaking away of the Latin — Roman Catholic or Western — Church from Constantinople. Meanwhile, a third great language, Arabic, and a second great re- ligion, Mohammedanism, had come rapidly to the front. Founded in the first quarter of the Seventh Century, Mo- hammedanism spread with lightning rapidity, and in a few years Arabia, Persia, Syria, Sicily, Egypt and the rest of Northern Africa and Spain were in their possession. In 145 1 they completed their series of wonderful vic- tories by capturing Con- stantinople. About 800, in Ger- many, an independent style — Romanesque — began to develop, which was succeeded 400 years later by Gothic, a style born in P'rance. THRONE OK TSAR ALEXIS M I K IIAI LOVITCH (1619-1676) BV/ANTl.SK ITALIAN PERSIAN INFLURNCH SIXTEENTH CENTURY ITALIAN SIXTEENTH CENTURY INFLUENCES OF MOHAMMEDAN ART. O' jNE may feel reasonably sure in determining the pronounced periods of design, for in fixed periods the motives are traditional and definable, or spring from a germane root. We can comprehend the Greek, the Roman, the Renaissance and the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century French periods ; but the innumerable evolution stages, and the periods affected by commercial absorption or by conquest or by the spread of the Christian Re- ligion, are confusing. For example, the Saracenic conquests carried the arts of one country to another and combined and assimilated the Moham- medan and Byzantine characteristics. The Crusaders also scat- tered the Byzantine and Far Eastern art germs through all TREE OK LIFE USED LATER IN CHRISTIAN SYMBOLISM The Decorative Periods 7S Europe, and falling upon new soil, the seed developed art forms the analysis of which is frequently perplexing. Out of this chaos we shall attempt to give order. The student must understand at the outstart the meaning of the terms Byzantine and Saracenic. There is nothing which bewilders one so much as the failure to appreciate the synonyms of a term. For example, Early Christian is an expression frequently synonymous with Byzantine, for Byzantine was an art full of Christian symbolism. Saracenic is an expression interchange- able frequently with Moorish, Moresque, Morisco, Mussulman, Arabic, Arabian and Alhambraic. Sicilian (Siculo Saracenic) is largely Saracenic, and Vene- tian, Persian and Indian are included in the development of By- zantine or Saracenic art. SARACENIC THE Saracens were followers of Mohammed, who was born in 571 A. D., at Mecca, Arabia, and preached the unity of God. When in 622 he fled from his native land he gathered around him trusted followers who accompanied him and were called Ml ILIAN THIRTEENTH < ENTLRV BY Z A N T I N V. 76 The Decorative Periods Saracens. Mohammed gained many victories over his enemies, and at his death left behind him an ardent band who spread the faith by means of the sword. ^^^^ This was the beginning of Mohammed^HB|n(^^oham- medan art. ^B Among the strict rules laid down by the Koran wa^ne pro- hibition of any representadon of living form, human, animal, or even vegetable. Hence^^w' made general use of geometrical decoration, and some of^^Br designs were remarkable for in- tricacy and variety. The Mohammedans used also strap work and flat bands with intersecting lines. The next development was the employment of an alphabet at once beautiful and sacred. This inscriptional form of design was used very largely in SARACENIC ELEVENTH CENTURY SILK DAMASK, SHOWING PERSIAN AND BYZANTINE INFLUENCE The Decorative Periods ;; conjunction with Arabesques, the last of the distinctly Arabian motifs in decoration. The firs^^|uests of the Mohammedans were in Syria, at that time 2^^^^i the l^yzantine Empire ; thus Byzantine in- tluen<^^onTOie earhest days crept into Arabic art. S^nace decoration was common to both Byzantine and Arabic. Both adopted what we term flat carving. The Saracens penetrated Persi^Jj^d later India, and then living form crept into their decoratl :rm na ii^H^c ITALIAN, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SHOWING FIRST USE OF PINEAPPLE AS DESIGN MOTIVE 78 The Decorative Periods The law of growth was carefully observed. Every leaf came out of a stalk ; every stalk out of a stem ; every stem out of a root, often elaborate in its ramifications. The Mohammedans invaded Egypt, appropriated Turkey, established settlements in Sicily, where in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries Saracenic and Sicilian art were closely affiliated. The most vigor- ous type of the Saracenic style is the type that fol- lowed the invasion of Spain, where, assisted by the Moors, the Saracens found- ed an important kingdom in 711.* The Moors were a mixed people, constituting an important element in the population of Northern SICILIAN. SHOWING BYZANTINE INFLUENCE * Syria, Palestine, Persia and Egypt came under Moham- medan dominion between 632 and 641. By 709 the Saracens had extended their sway over Northern Africa and the Sar- acen Empire covered the country from Turkestan to the shore of the Atlantic. By 711 they had subjugated nearly the whole of Spain. Sicily was conquered between 827 and 858 and early in the Tenth Century they ex- tended their incursions into Burgundy. India was invaded in 711 and Constantinople fell to the Turks in i4'53. ALHAMBRAIC ALHAMBRAIC ALHAMBRAIC VENETIAN FIFTEENTH CENTURY ST. FRANCIS OK ASSIM. I182-1226 PREACHING THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINES TO THE MOORS ^^ '^S^- ^^ i5i 1 FOURTEENTH CENTURY DAMASK Illustrations on three preceding passes selected by Professor Paul Schulzty Director of the Royal Textile Museum^ Crefeld. The Decorative Periods 89 VENKTIAN. SIXTEKNTH CENTLRY Africa, Mauris, Numidians, Phoenicians, Romans and Arabs. They were con- quered and converted by the Arabs at the beginning of the Eighth Century, and having embraced Mohammedanism, joined the Arabs in the invasion of Spain. In the Tenth Century Moorish do- minion supplanted that of the Arabs in Northwestern Africa, and at the close of the Eleventh Century invaded Spain and swept away the Arab kingdoms that had arisen on the ruins of the Caliphate of Cordova. After half a century their reign fell to pieces. Although they retained do- minion as the Kingdom of Grenada, of which the Alhambra was the fortified citadel, and their arts reached a height of great splendor, constant warfares with the kings of Castile so weakened them, that they succumbed finally in 1492, and refusing to accept Christianity, were expelled from Spain, and began their piratical career in the Barbary States. Those who accepted the religion came to be known as Moriscoes ; they were subjected to the most rigorous su- pervision, and any lapses from their adopted religion were punished by the inquisition. Finally in 1610 the last of the Moors or Moriscoes were expelled from Spain. The Moorish style as displayed in the decoration of the Alhambra was called Alhambraic. Mohammedan art flourished in Southern Europe between the Eighth and Fourteenth Centuries. In Constan- tinople, which fell to the Turkish in 1453, and in India, it still survives — barely. ^^^^ ^^ ^^^.^ BYZANTINE THE character of the Byzantine form of decoration may be understood by the historic development of the nation. It included much that was Greek and Roman, with adaptions from Persia and Syria, and all subjugated by the influence of the Chris- tian religion and its symbolisms. The sharp Acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the Christian cross and circle, and the vine and the dove and here and there a peacock. The ceilings were domed and vaulted, Mosaics were liberally used and gold and silk and precious mar- bles and interlacing crosses, circles and vines, were conspicuous details. It must be borne in mind that silk culture (so goes the tradition) was introduced into Europe in 552 by two Persian monks who had discovered the arts and methods of silk raising in China and secretly conveyed the silkworm eggs to Con- stantinople, where soon a royal factory was established and a state monopoly was set up for the manufacture of silk fabrics. The Byzantine court thus held the monopoly in silk weaving for many years. Subsequently, silken stuffs were made in Greece, thence the industry was conveyed through the emigration of a Greek colony to Sicily, 1 1 30, although already at Palermo the Saracens had established silk weaving. At about this period Sicilian decorative design became, as one can well imagine, a confusion of the Byzantine, Greek and Saracenic. We see bird figures and animals placed back to back, or vis-a-vis; sometimes fishes grotesque and otherwise mixed with foliage and scrolls with Arabic inscriptions. To trace the analysis of pattern throughout this period is to trace the history The Decorative Periotls 91 of nations. Byzantine design frequently leans toward the Greek mythological and scriptural. PERSIAN WHEN the Arabs under Mohammed (then called the Sara- cens) conquered Persia, Syria and the countries south of the Persian Sea, and invaded the borders of China and India, Africa and Spain, the Mohammedan influence was bound to be felt. Byzantine art was actively taken up in Italy, the Venetians preserved it, the Sicilians were influenced by it, and, indeed, it is due to its magnificence and its dissemination by the Crusaders who disclosed to the barbarous West the artistic civilizations of Constantinople, that the late Gothic and Renaissance eras in art were aroused ; but the fact must not be disregarded that Persian art influenced Byzantine art as much as Byzantine art in- fluenced Italian. In early Persian design we see much that is derived from ancient Assyria and Babylon, the motifs of which were frequently the tree of life with divinities, priests and worshippers on either side, the whole being sometimes enclosed in circles ; this symbolism appealed to the Byzantines and was directly adopted. In the later Persian, animals take the place of the human figures, sometimes back to back, divided by a stem or floral orna- ment reminiscent simply of the sacred tree. The animals are usually lions, cheetahs or griffins, all ornamental abstractions and parrots and other birds of high plumage were conven- u U U « i » SB S ^ li) n XH-iAn 0'"CcnTUMr 92 The Decorative Periods tionally treated. The Saracens took these motifs and inter- polated Arabic inscriptions. In the Fourteenth Century these Persian motifs were ap- plied in set rows across a surface, following the methods of the Greek designers. Much that we see termed Sicilian is full of the Persian cheetahs and Indian parrots and antelopes, elephants, gazelles and African flora, due to the Saracenic dominion during the Twelfth Century. Subsequent to the Twelfth Century the Greek and the Christian elements of orna- mentation became much used, for about this time the spirit of the Crusaders per- vaded the arts, and Christian emblems were generally adopted — fabulous animals, birds, heraldic forms, sunbursts, Christian em- blems, angels with swinging censers, cloud forms and emblematic plants. By the end of the Fourteenth Century designs became more floriated ; vase forms and the pomegranate were used, and in the Sixteenth Century we find also the pineapple adapted to decorative uses. This fruit had just been discovered in the West Indies and was a nature form new to the artists of the East. It is all history. Follow the geographical history of civiliza- tion ; the history of civilization is the history of art. SICILIAN THIRTEENTH CENTURY ^ ffCM i ^>;.^ ^^M 3 f'^a^ 1 ^^0f^li^ ^ TROPHIES, FRENCH RENAISSANCE SYMBOLISM IN DECORATION D' jEcoRATiVEart, to be lasting, must convey a meaning. The un- educated mind perceives little in decoration beyond the pictorial, but the man who knows can obtain much satisfaction from his reading of a properly executed decorative work. One, in viewing a structure, may see nothing but a decorative result that is rather pleasing. The student, on the other hand, can fix, in the use of the symbolism employed, the ob- ject of the structure or the use to which it is applied. /The use of the circle, the ellipse, and their subdivisions in tracery all indicate the Gothic or re- ligious character. ^ The LAUREL and their introduction to their symbolic influ- ence. They were conspicuous in the tree worship of the ancient Greeks. The laurel was sacred to Apollo ; it was the ^^^j>^ THE GROTE.S«*^'p^; , 6.'- &ito The Decorative Periods 103 The use of curves and arches and combinations of curves forminv decoration as in the life of a nation or an ^''^^ individual. This chapter has to do with , /■ the turning points in period decoration, the crisis eras that mark distinct alteration of conditions. The Classic Greek Period developed into the Roman ; it continued through the Byzantine; it retrograded in the Middle Ages and awakened under the Renaissance following the IMedixval Period. India, Persia and Arabia influenced the early decorative arts in a marked degree, extend- ing from the Fourth to the Si.xteenth Cen- tury. As early as the Fifth Century the beautiful fabrics of Persia and India were carried to Byzantium. In the Eighth Cen- tury the Arabians assimilated the arts of Persia, India, Egypt and Spain, and brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. The Eastern weavers carried their art and traditions with them to various parts of Europe, and we find even in Italy during the whole of the Renaissance period, with the characteristic scroll forms and the Acanthus foliation of its architecture, that textiles followed very often the Arabian, Persian and Indian ornament. The Crusades, which extended from 1096 to 1270, had also the effect of absorbing much of the Byzantine and Saracenic art. They contributed, moreover, to the growth of the great Italian seaports by establishing closer commercial relations between Europe and the East. The Crusades enriched the church. They brought back to the West the products of the Orient. Heraldry developed. In Asia and Africa they acquired new tastes. At Alexandria and Antioch many fine green and gold silk fabrics, with brown outlines, were produced from the Sixth to the Tenth Century ; and when the Crusades began to influence the art, and in 1098 Antioch was taken, the spoils were distrib- uted throughout all Europe. It was the same in 1204, when Constantinople was taken by the Count of Flanders and the Venetian Doge Dandola ; the spoils were scattered throughout the western country and taken up and absorbed. It was un- doubtedly under the influence of the Crusades that the Sicilian weavers of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries produced many beautiful fabrics enriched with winged lions, foliated crosses and crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds with armorial bearings. Early in the Fourteenth Century this character of design was introduced into Italy, and at Lucca many beautiful fabrics were produced having the same technique and style as the Sicilian fabrics. The use of heraldic devices, particularly shields, became conspicuous decorative details during the latter part of the Fifteenth Century and during the Sixteenth Century. These devices sprung from the Eleventh Century Crusaders, whose shields and arms identified the bearer by the legend or device adopted. The shape of the shield varied and included many exceedingly decorative forms, some of them being never in actual use, but were simply ornamental inventions which during the Sixteenth Century were incorporated into the carvings of the furniture and became conspicuous decorative details. The shield No. i (see illustrations) was in use in the Twelfth, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. It is made from one-half to one-third the height of a man. The Fourteenth Century shield, straight at the top and rounded at the bottom, was used, but that shape and figures 4, 5 and 6 were probably never borne, but were merely heraldic. At the end of the Fourteenth Cen- tury figures 7 and 10 were introduced. Figures 19 to 26 were The Decorative Periods 119 shields of the Renaissance Period, used largely in decoration. Figures 11 and 12 were common in Italy at that time. Figure 16 is used for the arms of Great Britain and Ireland and France. Figure 18, the lozenge-shape shield, has been common in France since the Thirteenth Century. ^ Out of the heraldic device which began in its simplicity in 1 100 and developed profuse and highly ornamental decorative details, arose a general decorative treatment which is well illus- trated in the Renaissance panel here shown. We have in this panel the cartouche, the scroll and strap work which in combina- tion constituted the characteristic features of much of the work of the late Renaissance. The cartouche itself is an ornament with an empty space in its centre to receive an inscription, cipher or emblem ; but in this period it was frequently treated in heraldic form. Strap work consisted of bands interlaced and intertwined. It goes back to the Eleventh Century, but came into common use with the cartouche and scroll near the end of the Renaissance Period, and was much in favor with the Flemish, Germans and English. EU2A5CTHAn RENAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS, SHOWING THE PERSIAN AND SARACENIC INFLUENCE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE THE RENAISSANCE CHARACTERISTICS U' NTiL the Student has fully grasped the significance of classic orna- ment he will be always confused in studying the Renaissance. The Re- naissance period was the revival period in Italy, 1400; in France, 1500; in England, 1500 ; in Flanders, 1507 ; in Germany, 1550. The lingering Gothic and Mediaeval materially affected and influenced all effort at Revival. Roman motifs were seldom adopt- ed in their purity, or in a manner consistent with their symbolic sig- nificance, but were regarded princi- pally for their pictorial value, and sacred and secular motifs were combined indiscriminately and frequently merged upon a Me- dixval and Gothic background ; this fact must be borne in mind. The Renaissance followed the Romanesque and Gothic periods, and bore the imprint of the years of Mediaval influence. The Classic period was full of floral and animal forms — fruit tied in bunches with leaves and flowers, festoons with flowing ribbons, rosettes, candelabras, skulls of sacrificial animals, tri- pods, sacred instruments, heroic and grotesque masks. The Renaissance elaborated the festoons and floral treatments, elimi- nated to a great degree the masks and introduced cupids and GERMAN KKNAISSANCE ROMANESQUE angel faces. The acanthus was the most popular of all the orna- mental plant designs ; introduced by the Greeks, it recurs again and again in all subsequent periods. Sometimes it has broad, blunt leaves, sometimes pointed. Centaurs showing the fore part of a man and the hind part of a horse were much in evidence. In the Renaissance the cen- taur as well as other human and animal figures was introduced as part of an elaborate system of scrolls and acanthus ornamen- tation. The Romans often used half figures resting upon an inverted foliage cup. The Renaissance period took up this motif, utilizing usually the female form, arising from an extravagant system of scroll ornamentation. Heads and masks in grotesquerie were much affected in classic Rome, especially the Medusa head. But only in the German Renaissance has much of this been utilized. Classic ornament included the laurel, bay, and olive vines, the lotus leaf, palm, corn, hop, grain, oak leaves, rhododendron, wild rose, alpine rose, bell blossom, white lily, oak leaf, maple leaf, the tulip, the lion, grififin, goat head, panther head, ram, horse, boar and eagle. The dolphin enjoyed a kind of veneration. The palm signified peace and victory. The shell, serpent and mask were conspicuous, but they all had their sacred significance. The anthe- mion, sometimes called the honeysuckle ornament, closely connected with the conventionalized Egyptian lotus, and the Assyrian palmette takes the form of radiating clusters and leaves. The eagle was used as a symbol of strength, but in the Renaissance we frequently find simply the eagle wings used decoratively. The revival period was the period of adoption ; seldom was it pure; invariably it was affected by temperament. In Italy it was naturally most consistent. In Germany it was often gro- tesque, bizarre, Mediaeval. In France the Italian spirit prevailed. In all cases it was exaggerated. The Renaissance appeared in Germany much later than in France, where the union of Italian forms with French individu- ality soon developed a definite and independent French Renais- sance. In Germany the situation was highly unfavorable to the new style, and found little favor with the architects, who were wrapped up in Gothic mannerisms and openly opposed its introduction. The painters, at the head of whom was Al- brecht Diirer, showed themselves more receptive, and Diirer deserved the credit for the introduction, about 1550, of the Renaissance into Germany. He was the inspiration and the leader. Like Sir Joshua Reynolds, Diirer was entitled by his social and intellectual quali- ties no less than by his artistic genius to VK'Kfk^K^K^K'KfK'I.-'K'k^I.'K''I TTTTJ, RENAISSANCE GERMAN RENAISSANCE a place in the most exclusive circles, and in all that he did the social and heraldic spirit is conspicuous. In his designs a struggle between two duties can easily be seen. He could not entirely give up Gothic and had not the fine constructive understanding of the new forms possessed by the Italian painters from whom he had learned. Hans Borkmair was the first fully-informed and unmistakable propagator of the pure Renaissance style. Hans Holbein was a genuine Renaissance artist. The fact that painters first mastered the Renaissance forms and introduced them into Germany, and thus by a roundabout ITALIAN REVAISSANCE RENAISSANCE way led architecture and decoration to accept Renaissance motifs, gave to German Renaissance its bizarre character. Only at the close of the Renaissance century and at the begin- ning of the Seventeenth Century, when regular personal inter- course began between German masters in Italy and Italian masters in Germany, and the principal works on Italian architec- ture became generally known in Germany, did the Germans become conscious of what they had neglected. The trophy was a decoration consisting of a group of arms or implements of the sports or arts, bound together with ribbons and hung ^''^l^^T/Sr^ upon the wall. Mural surfaces are frequently decorated with painted or sculptured trophies. The term is also applied to a group of symbols significant of music. Thus, we have musical trophies. In the French periods ribbons, flow- ers and baskets were bunched together to sug- gest joy ; tambourines and masks were grouped (^2^:^^,%.i:=^3^ ^^ dances. In the Medixval days implements of war were clustered, sometimes with a shield ^>^ 1 for a background. ^. M ^•Nf IN CLOSING the chapter we would dwell upon the Renaissance spirit aroused during the Eighteenth Century by the Restoration work at the long-buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. It was only natural that the French and English artists David and the brothers Adam, with many others of less repute, should ROMAN ROMAN be aflfected by the discoveries at these long-buried Roman cities, and we find, in what we regard as the French Transition and Empire periods, characteristics naturally identical with those of the Sixteenth Century Renaissance. The work at Hcrculaneum and Pompeii rearoused enthusiasm for Roman art, and the Eighteenth Century decorators were quick to adopt Roman motifs, not in the Sixteenth Century spirit, however, but in a manner acceptable to a public saturated with the Louis XVI period of design. Thus, we find in the French periods of 1790, and in the contemporary English periods, the Renaissance character with the gro- tesque, the chimerical and the legendary eliminated and the whole subjugated to a simpler decorative feeling, dainty in line, delicate in treatment, excepting when ap- plied to the Empire school, and even then its severity was simple and freed of its bur- dens of elaborateness. It is important to realize that Renais- sance influences, while directly Italian, became superimposed upon a mind not only moulded to the traditional Gothic, but in- fluenced by the Saracenic, the Persian and the Indian, for it must be recalled that Venetian and Sicilian, in fact, all Italian craftsmanship, had been moulded to the sentiment of Persia and India, with which Far Eastern countries lower Italy was in constant intercourse. The Saracens brought RENAISSANCE 128 The Decorative Periods also Byzantine influences to Italy, and at the time of the Renais- sance movement we have this Eastern feeling strong in Italy. The English Renaissance, strictly speaking, was the Renais- sance of John of Padua (1500), who, under the patronage of Henry VIII, practised the Renaissance in England. But the Renaissance characteristics which have lasted are the work of men like Grinling Gibbons and Sir Christopher Wren, who, nearly two hundred years afterwards, introduced that form of classicism which is largely Renaissance, but termed Early Georgian to distinguish it from the more simple renderings of the brothers Adam in the Late Georgian. ITALIAN, FOURTEENTH CENTURY THE RENAISSANCE FEELING, ITALIAN SIXTEENTH CENTURY, WITH ORIENTAL INFLUENCE RENAISSANCE 1 400- 1 643 GOTHIC ornament became at the time of the ItaHan Reformation profuse, and losing thus much of the religious signficance which it possessed in its inception, it descended to what is termed the Gothic of 'he Decadence. At that time much of the symbolism of the church became unpopular and the study of clas- sic ornament was taken up. Fillippi Brunelleschi, born in Florence, 1377, died 1466, was an architect and studied in Rome the relics of Roman art and returned to Flor- ence in 1407. It is generally conceded that to his study of the Greek and Roman may be at- tributed the revival or Renaissance of classic art that had its birth in Florence and spread all over the Western World. While Brunelleschi devoted his art to architectural details, Ambrogio Borgognone, a contemporary artist, devoted himself to interior decoration. The Renaissance means simply revival, and it was accepted very largely by even the church builders of England and Germany on account of m .£ "o ? X £ .2 2 3 E ° — Gil =c: 5 - T <^ 1 -a Is =1- ■« "^ 1) I ^ •o = II I - B ,« ^ C u c K -^ c -a (X4 - j: -c ■a X rt — 3 JZ c u e i« X tf t. J£ £ 0) i^ o r5 U. rt SJ a, -S 1) t- 60 o c — ^ c 1) <-' ^ 5i rt rt c -a rt i rt i; rt rt IS . < •'~ a. * o ^' >. X k. 3 (u C < ^ tf) ♦^ •n is i^ .^ rt '■ tc O < C rt ^1 J, i >. 11 £ £ •T3 !/; w aJ aJ x: = O :j 3 c O l; ^1. a li S in c C rt rt •"" - rt c •a 3i Oi c ^ '^ %.% c rt "oii .2 'rt •n -a c E c c a< rt rt k. rt 01 a S ^ The Decorative Periods 135 their opposition to Catholicism and all that pertained thereto or was associated with Gothic ; it was accepted by France and Italy because of its innate beauties.* The Renaissance appeared in Italy at the beginning of the fif- teenth century. The acanthus leaf, the cornucojMa, vases, figures of women from the hips up, the bottom portion fading into ara- besque curves and vines and leaf details, were distinguishing char- acteristics. It was a free adaptation of the Roman, Pompciian and Grecian antl combined garlands and birds, and in many cases weird animal figures, which can also be traced back to the Roman. It was a composite style. The Italian form was poetic and full of the daintiest coloring ; the treatment was totally tlissimilar to that of the (lermans who followed the Renaissance in 1550. In brief, the Italian, French, German, Spanish, English and F"lemish Renais- sance differed ac- cording to their national tempera- ment. They all drew their inspirations from the same source, but while the French adhered to things essentially beautiful, in classic motifs, the Italians and Germans utilized the gro- tesque and fantastic motifs— the Italians, aesthetically ; the Ger- ITALI.AN CHAn< • Introduced into England by John of Fadua. architect to Henry VIII. Introduced into France bv Franci.s I. u If SHOWING PERSIAN AND CHRISTIAN INFLUENCE IN LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURV DESIGN EARLY DUTCH t..\Kl.\ UL IC II CRUDE DUTCH FRAMH WITH DUTCH RENAISSANXE KAHRIC ^^, FRANCIS I, SHOWING TRACES OF GOTHIC, 1515-1549 EARLY FRENCH RENAISSANCE HINRI II, Ii;4'>->;>9 EARLY FRENCH RENAISSANCE 148 The Decorative Periods mans, grotesquely. My illustrations give one an idea of the fund of material in hand which covered, in fact, all that had lived and descended from the Greeks and Romans. The French Renaissance was less mythological, less broadly whimsical ; it was dainty ; it clung more closely to the floral and conventional forms. In Italian Renaissance one sees the same characteristics, but in addition, dragons with men's heads and singular plant structures with women's bodies. German Renais- sance was more sturdy, although no less extravagant. The French Renaissance extended from 1502 to 1643 i we frequently hear of Decorative Peri- ods such as the Henry II, Henry IV, the Louis XIII, but they were all of the Renaissance. Catherine de Medici, wife of Henry II, and granddaughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and Marie de Medici, who married Henry IV of France, left indelible impressions on the art of France by reason of their liberal en- couragement of the Re- naissance ; but if one con- sults the Chronological Table om will see that the combined reign of Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, Henry HI and Henry IV was in the aggregate but sixty years, so it is unreasonable to presume that any one of them could have established a distinc- tive design epoch. SPANISH SPAIN, or the Peninsula Iberia, as it was known to the ancients, had no decorative art worth mentioning until the time when it was overrun by the Moors, 710-713, when the conquer- ors introduced the Moorish style. In Spain this, under the name of Morosc[ue or Hispano-Moresque, reached its highest develop- ment, in the Alhambra. The Moors were not entirely driven out of the Southern provinces until 1610, but in the nine hun- dred years intervening the Moresque style flourished sporadically throughout many portions of Spain. During the Romanesque Period a large part of the country was under Moorish dominion, but with the capture of Toledo, 1062, began the emancipation from Moslem rule, and in the Northern provinces art was influ- enced by the Romanesque, following the French models closely. This style continued until the close of the campaigns against the Moors, 1217-1252, when the ecclesiastical spirit became more prominent and the Gothic in Spain began. In this, also, French models were followed, but the decoration was more fanciful and arbitrary. This flamboyant Gothic sufficed for a while to meet the requirements of the lu.xuriant period which followed the e.\- pulsion of the Moors, but it was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its influence felt in Spain. Carlos I, who, on the death of Ferdinand and Isabella became king, had been born and educated in the Netherlands, of which he was ruler, and upon taking the Crown of Spain all his friends and his advisers were Flemish and all public offices were filled by Flem- ings. It was thus largely through the employment of P'lcmish artists that the Renaissance was introduced. This new style, termed the Plateresque, was a minutely detailed and sumptuous mingling of Gothic with delicate arabesques. It prevailed from 1500 to 1556. The successor of Carlos I, Phihp II, through his 150 The Decorative Periods religious intolerance, excited a revolt in the Netherlands in which the Northern states were lost to Spain. Philip was thoroughly- Spanish, and the period from 1 556 to 1650 was occupied by a crude Graeco-Roman, of which the escuriel is an example. From 162 1 to 1648 continual wars against the Netherlands and neighboring countries brought constant reverses to Spain, and from 1650 onward Spanish influence declined rapidly. Spain's supremacy in trade was lost to the Dutch, the remaining states of the Neth- erlands were conquered, and during this period of decay the style known as Churrigueresque was in vogue. This was a period of wild extravagance and debased taste, and while the influence of the Netherlands was kept alive by occasional Spanish victories in Holland and the consequent shipment of booty to Spain, the Spanish people had lost their industrial and artistic fervor. ^cs^«3^.:^^E: EARLY RENAISSANCE TAPESTRV FLEMISH Flemish— S50 A. D.-1750 A. D.— iNDErEXDENT countship 850-14047 AISTKIAN PROVINCE I4O4 (1507KLEMISH RENAISSANCE; RUBENS 1577-1640). THE Flemish were residents of Flanders, a district in Europe now taken up by the Netherlands, Belgium and 1^' ranee. Prior to the influences of the Renaissance, the Flemish style was exceedingly simple. The type of decoration known under the general term Dutch or Flemish, may be best understood when one considers the character of the people and the arts as prac- ticed by their painters, notably Rubens. Where the French Renaissance etherealized and the Italian idealized, the Flemish Renaissance invariably subjugated the design to the exigencies of construction. Their work, brought over to England in the time of William and Mary, was beautiful, but stolid. We see excellent examples in the early furniture that Chippendale took for his models. They were not people to follow the poetic ten- dencies. They took their art with serious observance and worked it out in a dignified form. It must be recalled that the reputa- tion of Flemish decorative work has rested very largely on the work of the wood carvers, and it is fair to presume that this work must have been of excellent character. F^or years old oak was used, but later, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries par- ticularly, other woods came in, and inlays of broad and florid style followed to vary the monotony of the dull old oak. Throughout its varied history (and it is beyond the province of this book to go into the history of Flanders) it has clung to its earlier traditions, and although a great deal of the Flemish work that we see shows traces of the French, Sj^anish and Austrian influences, there is native character in all I-lcmish work which the political changes of the country never seem to have affected. l600. FLEMISH CARVED WORK AND JACOBEAN PANEL WORK The Decorative Periods i53 Tae intluences exercised by Flemish art throughout all Europe were paramount. The towns of Arras, Valenciennes, Tournay, Oudenarde, Lille and Ikussels were the centres of world-famed manufactures of tapestries. Indeed, Arras became so famous that everything in the nature of a curtain was called an Arras. The workers in tapestry formed a most distinguished and eminent class. We can go back to idco, before any othernation undertook the encouragement of the Renaissance in art, and find that the Flemish, now generally classed under the category of Datch, were pre-eminently first in the arts and the manufactures of all Euro[)c ; and to this day we find the Flemish influence not only in England, but in Spain and France, for Flanders was suc- cessively under the domination of Spanish and French rule. The terms Dutch and Flemish are used so frequently as synonyms that it is well to understand the reason. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, originally covered the territory included in the present Netherlands and Belgium with Luxemburg. With the rise of feudalism the duchies of Brabant, the counties of Artois, Flanders, Holland, Hainault and the bishop- rics of Utrecht and Liege developed semi-independent authori- ties. While the people as a whole retained common traits, the northern provinces were distinctly Germanic ; the Flemings or central provinces showed a mingling of French and German, while the Walloons of the South were as French as the Dutch were German. In the latter part of the Middle Ages the States of the Netherlands rose to extraordinary prosperity, and some of these States were for a time virtually independent republics. Next to the Italian States they figured most prominently in the revival of art. Flanders and Brabant were especially flourishing. Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp led in all art pro- ductions. We will not attempt to follow the history of this frecjuently changing district. In 1555, when Charles V of Spain resigned the sovereignty over the Netherlands to his son Philip II, the territory comprised the four duchies of Brabant, Gelderland, The Decorative Periods 155 Limburg, Luxemburg, the Counties of Artois, Flanders, Hai- nault, Holland, Namur, Zutphen, Zeeland, the margravite of Antwerp and the seigniories of Friesland, Groningen, Mechlin, Overyssel and Utrecht. These provinces, as previously observed, were largely inde- pendent of one another and prized their independence. The country was part Protestant and part Catholic. Philip II was Catholic, and constant turmoil was the result of the oppression of the Protestants. In 1576 Holland, Zeeland (including Plan- ders), Gelderland, Utrecht, Groningen, Overyssel and Friesland entered into a union that was eventually the founding of the Dutch republic, while the southern provinces (modern Belgium) continued under the sovereignty of Spain. This country in- cluded Antwerp, Flanders, Limburg, Brabant, Liege, Luxem- berg, Hainault and Namur. Here, in brief, may be found the reason that we regard a certain type of work as Dutch, which is a term covering broadly a wide territory. GERMAN 'T'he Renaissance appeared in Germany at a time when the 1 German artists were wrapped up in Gothic mannerisms and were not receptive to the new feeling in art. Albrecht Durer VjLTIMVS ad MORTt POJT OMNIA FATA RECVRSVJ The Decorative Periods 157 deserves the credit for the introduction of the Renaissance style into Germany in 1550. We have reproduced three examples in Albrecht Durer's best style. In his designs a struggle between two duties can easily be seen. He could not entirely give up Gothic and had not the fine constructive understanding of the new forms possessed by the Italian painters from whom he had learned. Hans Borkmair DEV.S^MFVGrV7Vl^/V\rWw iL!B:j ^iL Vf' 1' i ^QUWkl^EBMi'J ■J. 158 The Decorative Periods was the first fully-informed and unmistakable propagator of the pure Renaissance style. Hans Holbein was a genuine Renais- sance artist. The fact that painters first mastered the Renaissance forms and introduced them into Germany, and thus by a roundabout way led architecture and decoration to accept Renaissance mo- tifs, gave to German Renaissance its bizarre character. Only at the dose of the Renaissance century and at the beginning of the Seventeenth Century, when regular personal intercourse began between German masters in Italy and Italian masters in Ger- many, and the principal works on Italian architecture became generally known in Germany, did the Germans become con- scious of what they had neg- lected. The character of the German Re- naissance mani- fests itself in architectural details based on the North Italian Renais- sance in the em- ployment of the ancient orders. Columns, piers and entablatures of the different styles are always richlydecorated, and balustrades are particularly in favor. "3 ■" 5 c -5 o 2 e/; 11 rt c ti 3 ^- Ui o k. C -1 _>, >» o c rt c ^ •>, rt W rt u •^ a ^ 3 *" a o 4) I. II) C U ri rt o 3 to j= "■ O Q o. O "ni t^ ••-* -C vO" C rt o c o X o E t/} 2 O c c r rt ►i^ Cfl u o. en -o E c o. D c w i) ^~T rt ^ ' j: V > '55 J2 O 3 rt rt B c V rt .2 b r- t-^ T3 C/l 4J C <« r1 4} aj rt 00 V P-U, VO ._ > r -a - c c m rt rt r^ bfl pfi u^ et •T3 u l—M C ^^ »— » -r rt ij , f ^ >. c "— h _ij n rt ir> ENGLISH RENAISSANCE— ELIZABETHAN THE GREAT BED OF WARE ELIZABETHAN ELIZABETHAN was a term applied to the character of English Renaissance that flourished during Queen Eliza- beth's reign, 1 558-1603. The English Renaissance began in 1509, under Henry VIII, whose reign continued to 1547. It immediately fol- lowed Perpendicular or Florid Gothic. The Renaissance move- ment swept all Europe and was introduced into England by the Italian architect John of Padua, under the patronage of Henry VIII, at a time contemporary with a similar movement in France under Francis I. It naturally showed lingering Gothic details, as well as the Italian influence of John of Padua, and the German influence of Holbein, who settled in England about 1524. Late Tudor, or Elizabethan, home furnishings owed much to the close commercial relations existing at that time between England, Spain, Holland and Germany. The English Renais- sance movement extended into the Georgian Period, but assumed so many distinct forms that we speak of the period before 1603 as Tudor or Elizabethan ; the period between 1603 and 1649 as Stuart or Jacobean. From Charles I, 1625-49, to Queen Anne, 1702-14, the Italian influence prevailed strongly in England. The student should distinguish between architecture and furnishings, bearing always in mind the commercialism that ELIZABETHAN ELUAI5ETHAN The Decorative Periods 169 Gothic (English Gothic) extended from Elizaijeth, 155S-1603.'' 1189-1509. Jacobean, 1603-1649. Henry \'II, 14S5-1509. James I, 1603-1625. Founder Tudor Line. Founder Stuart Line. English Renaissance, 1509. Charles I, 1623-1649. Henry VI H, 1509-1547. Inigo Jones dictator of style. Renaissance style introduced by Charles II, 1660-1685. John of I'adua. Ja.mes II, 1685-1689. Edward \'1. 1547-1553- William and Mary, 16S9-1702. Mary, 1553 155S. Queen Anne, 1702-1714. Flemish Renaissance influenced the period from 1507 to 1584. Dutch Republic founded 1576. "German Renaissance, beginning under Albreclit Diirer about 1550. Spanish Renaissance, beginning about 1500, also influ- enced the English styles. affected the furnishing of a house independent of any architectural and art movement. From the beginning of the English Renais- sance, 1509, down to, and including, the period of George I, much that was Dutch or Flemish was generously adopted. In fact, Flemish and English furniture and carving were similar in the Elizabethan and Jacobean epochs. The table here illus- trated is purely Flemish and yet Elizabethan ; and the great bed of Ware is likewise Flemish. The Elizabethan was a period of affluence in the arts, commerce and literature, an age that gave birth to Spenser, Shakespeare and Bacon, and produced the East India Company. It was an age of industrial em- ployment and great .,.J^JulT/^ZZ'-I.VIL.r maritime activity, and FLEMISH-ELIZABETHAN CARVING -' ' ELIZABETHAN, 155S-1603 ELIZABETHAN MERGES JACOBEAN, 1603-1649 INTO JACOBEAN GERMAN-ELIZABETHAN IRON WORK the commercial, political and religious sympathy that existed between England and Holland naturally introduced a great deal of Dutch feeling into the English furnishing arts. So " Eliza- bethan " has clung in the history of art as indicating the period when the English, although receiving classic Renaissance princi- ples in architecture through John of Padua and Holbein, used freely fabrics and furniture from Spain, the Netherlands, Ger- many and France. What is generally understood as Elizabethan was the strap design, interlaced bands, pierced scroll-work, festoons, fruit and drapery interspersed with roughly-executed figures of human beings, grotesque monsters and animals ; we see the same in Dutch or Flemish. Paneled compartments are often filled with coats-of-arms. Grotesque brackets are frequently used, and though the architects worked along classic lines, variety resulted from the imported furnishings. In the Jacobean Period the The Decoratixe Periods 173 classic influence became greater and the imports less, for laws were passed restricting imports. The rooms were furnished in panels ; the doors were pan- eled ; the ceilings and wainscots paneled ; in some instances the paneling went from floor to ceiling ; in other cases only the wain- scoting and doors were treated, the wall space above being covered with Flemish tapestry. It will be recalled that Hamlet killed Polonius behind the tapestry that covered the walls. Hang- ings of embossed leather from Spain were used, in gold, silver and colors. In small rooms chintzes from India were used. Pepys wrote in his diary : "I bought my wife a chint, that is, a painted India calico, to line her new study," and these chintz-treated walls be- came quite common. In some houses the ceiling was carved in elaborate fretwork, ornamented with bosses and coats-of-arms. The windows were in small diamond- shaped or square panes, and in the centre of each window were frequently the armorial bearings of the family. The arms were also placed upon the chimney piece; low- cushioned seats were bountifully supplied with movable cushions covered with rich silks. Indeed, for as far back as 1200 we find sofa cushions much in favor. The chimney-piece in the I^liza- bethan room was invariably the important feature. It was in arched panels, moldings, scrolls, coats-of-arms, flowers, inter- laced strap work, supported by grotesque terminal figures, which later in the Jacobean Period became more simplified and severe. The fireplace was large enough to admit of big logs ; the woodwork was deep and dark and time-toned, but there was no lack of color in the use of the silken stuffs and wall-coverings of tapestry or print. The character of the wood carving was usually flat, and the Fifteenth Century German type of ironwork here illustrated was often used. The heavy tables and chairs fre- quently stood upon bulging, bulky legs, borrowed from the Dutch. Ball feet were common. English stucco work of the Elizabethan period often con- English Period, showing the decline of^he Gothic influence and the begin- ning of the Renaissance, presenting one of the earliest turned wood chairs, examples of which were found in America among the Pilgrim settlers. The Decorative Periods 175 ^^ sisted of geometrical paneling, fan tracery ^IjjpiM- 1|-^ and pendentives of the preceding century. '—'£.. These pendentives were connected together by bands of pierced strap work, decorated with Arabesques in low relief. Later in the Jacobean period, which is arbitrarily fixed at 1603 and continued until 1649, the panels were composed of purely geometrical forms, circles, squares, loz- enges and interlacing quatrefoils. ELIiABETHAN THE Jacobean Period covered almost twenty-five years, from 1603 to 1625. The Tudor mix- ture of Gothic and Renaissance was gradually modified under the influence of Inigo Jones. The modification simplified the shape of the furniture and introduced classic detail, and the result of this influence may be called Jacobean. The Jacobean period was an art period, and may be best charac- terized as that period where simple classic details were in- troduced upon heavy and sub- stantial furni- ture, as distin- guished from the later classic revival of the brothers Adam or the Transition Period in France. The classic design details were applied to a sim- plified construction of the furniture of the Elizabethan Period. JACOBEAN SHELL DETAILS, SHOWING THE ORIGIN OF ROCOCO DESIGN. INTRODUCED ORIULNALLV LNDEK LOUIS XIII LOUIS XIV, LOUIS XV, LOUIS XVI LOUIS XIV, 1643-I715; LOUIS XV, 1715-I774; LOUIS XVI, I774-I793 WE ARE frequently asked : " What are the actual, tangible points of difference between the Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis X\'I periods of design ? " Louis XIV followed the Renaissance or Classical Revival, in a masculine spirit embodying the conventionalized Anthemion and Acanthus. Louis XV, while affecting the same forms, exaggerated and effeminated them, and showed them in unbalanced relations and used natural fiovvers and emplo)'ed ribbon and lace effects, fes- tooned flowers and hanging bas- kets with Rococo details — roc meaning rock, and coquillc mean- ing shell. Louis X\'I returned to the Classic simplicity of line incorpo- rating dainty florals ; in furniture the legs were usually straight and suggested architectural columns and capitals. Now, to comprehend clas- sicism one must at least know the Anthemion and Acanthus, and beA^jle to identify them, no matter/n what decorative spirit they may be treated. louis xv LOUIS XIV LOUIS XIV ROCOCO Any deviation from the Classic treatment of these motifs marks the departure from the Renaissance spirit. The Louis XIV or Ouatorze period developed richly decorative furniture with marquetry of tortoise-shell and brass, introduced by Andr6 Boule, frequently called Buhl work. The sumptuousness of the bed of the period of Louis XIV was due to the fact that it was the custom of fashionable ladies to receive their guests . abed. We frequently see examples of Seventeenth Century beds with bouquets of plumes or feathers rising from the head posts. These feathers were of various colors and sizes, and had no symbolism — simply decorative. This period encouraged the Gobelin tapestry weaving. The Louis XV or Quinze period (1715-74) was the period of ROCOCO I 82 The Decorative Periods the Rococo, and introduced the pastoral scenes of Watteau and the inlaid furniture of Jean Frangois Oeben for Madame Pompadour. The Louis XVI or Seize (1774-93) introduced fine marquetry work, by Riesener and David Roentgen, with ormulu mountings by Gouthiere. The first eight years of the reign of Louis XV constituted the Regency period. Under Louis XIV the Gobelin factory became royal property ; the Beauvais Tapestry Works were also estab- lished, and the style of decoration ran naturally to wall panels, for the purpose of presenting these pictorial fabrics. During the time of Louis XV panels were so much used that the walls were frequently designed with a view to this treatment. The subject is especially interesting when studied from the pictorial point of view, as expressed by either tapestries or painted panels. The scenes illustrated in the Louis XIV period were serious and classic, but under Louis XV, instead of these tableaux of pomp, grandeur, victory and battle, the subjects were frivolous, softer and more coquettish, and full of love >:iiini;iiifiai»'fi LOUIS XIV The Decorative Periods I S3 and pastoral sentiment as por- trayed by Watteau and his contemporaries. The ladies of the court circle were de- picted in fashionable attire. Dainty landscape scenes were jiresented. Romance and fashionable life were depicted. "The Lady in the Sleigh," the •' Lady in the Swing," the "Courtier and the Shep- herdess," "Frolic," "Folly," " The Dancing Girl " — were the subjects which succeeded historical and mythological treatments, and in this panel treatment, more than in any other form of design, the over-ornate character of the Louis XV period was con- spicuous. No hesitation was felt in adopting Chinese details, and while they were not always expressed in the carving of the woodwork of a room, they were in evidence continually in fabrics and wall panels. It was during this period that designs presented rib- bons and laces, togethe^r with a more naturalistic treatment of floral form. The Rococo details we of course understand as part of this period, although we frequently confuse what is apparently the shell period with the conventionalized Anthemion of the Louis XIV epoch. Again a detail that is always conspicuous is the irregular harmony of related parts. In the time of Louis XIV LuUlb XIV 1 84 The Decorative Periods a design balanced in details, but in the succeeding period, while there was a balance of harmony which was satisfying, it was not a balance of actual details. Stripes came in at the time of Madame Pompadour, and yet al- most invariably we associate the use of stripes with Marie Antoi- nette (Louis XVI). The difference between the periods is a difference frequently of temperament ; we can best con- ceive the spirit of the Louis XVI epoch by the knowledge that it was a return to the pure Classics. IN 1660, under Le Brun, manager of the Gobelin works, the first serious work towards establishing a characteristic school of French tapestry design was undertaken, and it must be said that Le Brun's work was grand, massive and all- satisfying, his pictorial subjects reflecting invariably the spirit of Valor and Conquest, the Purity of the Passions, Progress of the Arts and the Sciences and Allegories of an exalting nature. Throughout the Louis XIV period the tapestry cartoons were dignified, but towards the end of the regime they took on a lighter vein, developing at length, under Louis XV — especially the first eight years, known as the LOUIS XIV LOUIS XVI LOUIS Xll[ THE CHINESE SPIRIT, LOUIS XV C — ._, 1. ._ 1 . k« tl 4J r! a iJ lU 2_, c >, «; (,1 ■c u 4J (U JZ tfl Ifl J3 Ci« 3 ^ a vt -n: u n i' a. PERGOLESI great deal of the Chinese, and this was the beginning of the popular craze, which soon became widespread. Thomas Chippendale published the work which brought him fame in 1754. It is impossible to trace the characterizing details of this style excepting in the few pieces which outlived the popularity of all else that he did, because Chippendale gave his public anything that they demand- ed — Chinese, Gothic, old Dutch, any- thing. Some of his designs are almost identical with the French originals. The chair seats are usu- ally roomy to accommodate the ladies' hoops and the stiffened coat skirts of the Above, design by William Pain : below, on the left, by Hepplewhite; below, on the right, by Cipriani. THE CHINESE AND FRENCH INFLUENCE IN THE CHIPPENDALE PERIOD. GEORGE III CHIPPENDALE SHOWING CHINESE INFLUENCE period. The bandyleg of the Dutch and Queen Anne period is retained, and the claw and ball feet are preserved, though beauti- fied with rococo carving. Sometimes the arms arc decorated with lions' or goats' heads. The "ribband" back chair is re- garded as his best work. He saw everything with a carver's eye. and little gilding or japanning was done by him. His beds are frequently full of pagoda tops, sunk Gothic panels and "rib- band" effects, but no matter how mi.xed the styles, his graceful outlines carried them through. His wall decoration possessed much originality. To the broken scroll and shell work of the Rococo Period he added long-beaked birds, dripping waters, Chi- nese figures, pagodas and whole scenes from .Msop's Fables. He took the Queen Anne chair and kept what was graceful in its lines and curves and added designs inspired by other schools, producing a homogeneous and beautiful whole. Chippendale had hosts of contemporaries — Ince & Mayhew, CHINESE INFLUENCE OF SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS, CHIPPENDALE PERIOD. GEORGE III. 244 The Decorative Periods Manwaring, Copeland, Lock, Crunden, Johnson and- Edwards & Darley, but they all lacked his charm of workmanship. Indeed, the work of Ince & Mayhew seems almost like a caricature of the Chippendale style. Johnson's work was better. He was very profuse in his ornamentation, using flowers, birds, masques, fishes, beasts and human figures of fantastic character. Hepplewhite in 1789 brought out his "Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Guide." The Chinese atmosphere had been dis- pelled by the influence of the Brothers Adam. Houses were being built in the classic style and the interiors decorated with festoons of drapery, wreaths of flowers caught up by rams' heads. The shield or the heart-shaped chair backs were Hepple- white's hall mark. Chippendale's chairs were larger and more solid. The leg terminals of the Hepplewhite chair were frequently spade-footed, as the square terminal at the thin end of the leg was called. Hepplewhite frequently painted and japanned his chairs, and frequently the chair back was carved in imita- tion of festoon or drapery. Hepplewhite followed the Vernis-Martin or varnished process very closely, while Sheraton and Chippendale depended more for effect upon the plain wood. The royal plume within the shield back or crown- ing tops of pieces was a common Hepplewhite device. Sheraton, like Hepple- white, was quick to per- ceive the beauties of the Adam style; and he often CHIPPENDALE uscd classic Ornament, 246 The Decorative Periods reproducing it in the form of marqueterie, with carving added only as an accessory. He ignored the cabriole leg of Chippen- dale and used either a tapering square or turned leg. Inlaying was his specialty, and frequently presented vases and lyres as ornaments on the backs of his chairs. But little by little he tired of inlaid woods and resorted to gilded and painted furniture. Carved satinwood picked out with gilt and cameo panels with gorgeously colored wreaths, cornucopias and musical instru- ments, were details much used, and for these inlaid medallion treatments he co-operated with Wedgwood, the famous potter. As an indication of the hybrid character of the decorative art at this time, we clip the following from the preface of Chip- pendale's book : The main object is to induce the gentleman (customer) to buy. If his taste runs in the Chinese now so much in vogue, there is an assortment of frets to select from ; if Gothic, here are a few examples of window traceries. If he likes florid carving, here is a storehouse of suggestions conveyed from the French Renaissance. I am confident I can convince all noblemen, gen- tlemen and others who will honor me with their commands that every design in this book can be improved, both as to beauty and en- richment in the execu- tion of it. Influences of the discovery of long- buried Roman cities affected the late Georgian period to a marked degree. Pompeii, Hercula- neum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an erup- tion of Vesuvius in the year 79 A. D. DIRECTOIRE INFLUENCE THE SHERATON FEEl.INO o o -X) . — o CLASSIC COLONIAL The Decorative Periods 25; Herculaneum was discovered in 1709. Pompeii was discovered in 1748. Robert Adam, the originator of the style bearing his name, visited Italy in 1754, where he spent three years. As a result, all that he did for years after, and all that his associate artists accomplished, was Roman. His work was full of octagons, ovals, rounds, lozenge-shaped panels, fans, sphin.xes, Greek and Roman vases, medallions with figures, sometimes draped, fes- toons, fawns, cupids, goats, carryatids, rams' heads, griffins, sea horses and winged sphin.xes ; and the work of Pergolesi, Bartolozzi and con- temporaries of the KZO Cfkouno Brothers Adam, con- tinuing into the work of Hepplewhite and Sheraton, and, indeed, into the Thomas Hope period of the ICnglish Empire, all bore the influence of Roman research. This tendency be- came manifest, too, in the work of G. Richardson, Sir William Chambers, Columbiani, Thomas Milton, John Crunden, N. Wallis, J. Carter, Cip- riani, Shearer, W. and J. Pain, and innumerable lesser lights of the late Eighteenth Century period. We call it all Adam, but, as a matter of fact, it was simply the contemporaneous expression of the WALL DfCO^ATlOM in THE CA5ADE.LLABlPjnTO POHPtil 258 The Decorative Periods classic arts revived by the excavations of the long buried Roman cities. The international work of continuing these excavations in a systematic method and with modern engineering facilities will unquestionably revive public interest in the art of the ancients. It is not an easy matter to differentiate between the pro- nounced Classic and the Transition period. At the time of the rediscovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii the artists who studied the restorations were naturally purists. This we notice especially in the work of the brothers Adam and in the early work of Jacques Louis David of the Directoire period. In time artistic license took liberties with Classicism, and we find the simplicity of the Adam methods lessened and the details elaborated. With D-ivid the transition was directly the reverse. The lightness of his earlier style gave way to a sterner treatment, a more masculine expression, the Empire. While this Empire feeling in France developed a similar vein in England under Thomas Hope, it developed also contemporaneously a daintier form, full of the lingering suggestiveness of Louis XVI, as rep- resented in the work of Hepplewhite and Sheraton. SHERATON AND HEPPLEWHITE SHERATON AND HEPPLEWHITE COLONIAL c 1700. O L O N I A L furnish- ings reflected the contempo- rary furnishings of the mother country modi- fied intheearlier period by the simple tastes of the early col- onists. In 1607 Jamestown was settled by the British. In 1613 New York was settled by the Dutch. In 1620 began the Puritan settlement of New England. The Dutch commanded the seas, and by their commercial relations with Spain, Portugal and the East Indies, distributed the products of those coun- tries throughout the civilized world. Antwerp was the great centre of com- merce. Holland was receiving from Spain and Italy the cane seat furniture which, subsequently, under Charles II, became popular in England. English-made furniture was scarce and confined to the turned wood type or the wainscoted type, which to many people is known as the Jacobean. Some- TAHLES SHOWINC; EARLY DL'TCH, EAST INOIAN, SHERATON AND CHINESE INFLUENCES / >^ o o o o p^ w a o o a a hH j= W TJ -^ .-t; O P o ^ 13 fS o g a; i-i c o . W 5 C 4-. r- rt ^ iii J Q w -5 < ■5 ^ 3 1) M' ? ii ;^ o -. > e S. " -O a; g U n! O S :n "-: ?; o K" bo u O 2 n) 'E = rt CO? .5 t/3 „ tl. ^ d T1 Si OJ j:; n! -d X. rt C s n ^ - "Si-zs ■MLncOtO-rtSiC = ;scc*-3grt .W .2 I a 8K ») -a 3 rt aj — O ^ ctf J^ •2 -^ I 2 c ^ 5 c s S .2 « — . s a s. - ^ .5 2 ■M -2 5 u ? ■>; ^ 5 a 2 l,^x ae 7 a u M c^ O ^ ft. " tn M _. . u 3 5 - X O < u u E o §:=■ i I a" = = 1=0 u . c 1 1^ Q ^ 3 rt^ J"^ u*- E o .- -«.-^-- 3 fn.c-rt s„ '■2>ijXu= z = >.— = i^-7 Cj:^U« 3i!:5o -i:-^:ErSir§>yi$~=: „ .i< •2 fe ^ 5h o X. j2 Tl 4; = * ^ — ^ c •o - i! ^.5 t-« f^ a; u o 3 13 " c c J3 ■* "5 - < •s a S -^ J — — ^ id •J •T3 -O C C - T3 JJ o = — y 2 S •S •- ^ £ J2 08 c = c .JO 'T' ^i^ ^ rt aj a S g o ^ . . . : 15 O — R. E" *• = 2t: „ ^^aj-i-u 2 £0 rt X - - .5 CJ So S X -i T3 C -3 <5 V- ■t a•6- >.< w , o ? = = j: W ,^ 5 =^ a y D K t, -a « rt E i s !2 (i. ^' Xi ' r M 1 . •-. '/.J'" - 1 iffi If 1 iii[i mil Pill w 1 f*^ ^ i times it was Elizabethan in style, the carving being of the strap- work character ; sometimes it took on an Italian classicism, and while little of this form of chair treatment became popular in America, a great deal of it appeared on chests and carved cup- boards. Chairs were uncommon ; benches and forms were gen- erally used, the chair being reserved for the guest of honor. Sometimes this chair was square framed, but more fre- quently it was of turned wood. During the time of James I (1603) the table was in form long and narrow and fixed upon cross bars or on legs with heavy under-braces. Later in this same reign appears the thousand- leg table. In the reign of Charles I (1625-1649) couches made their appearance ; tables increased in size and drop leaves were added. In Holland, at this period, Span- ish pieces, upholstered with fabric and leather, were coming i6co Candle-raould Knife Box Pe*Ter into use among the wealthy, but the general use of chairs in Enj,land dates from the Commonwealth. Here we have, then, the earliest Colonial fur- nishings, influenced by the English and the Dutch styles, of the Elizabethan and Jacobean age. With the settlement of Virginia and Maryland and the later settlements" in New England, much wealth came into America, and the home furnishings were beautiful. In New Amsterdam (prior to 1674, when the English took control,) there was a great deal of wicker furniture. East Indian cabi- nets, ebony chairs and all that would naturally come to the East Indian trade which the Dutch controlled. While we are inclined to consider that the Colonial style developed its best qualities during the latter part of the Eighteenth Century, we believe that the most interesting period was the latter part of the Seventeenth Century, when the carved and wainscoted chests, Elemish cane chairs, beautiful Spanish pieces, heavy old oak cupboards, Indian ware and Dutch, Italian and Spanish curios were so generally used. It was a picturesque period, full of the charm of variety. ^ "Windsor" 268 The Decorative Periods •Wa5h -stand Buffet We have been asked, " How do you maintain this position when the Colonial museums and collections of New England show so little of this variety and so much of the severely simple ? " The explanation is, that with the exception of the seaport towns, the majority of the New England people were farmers. Moreover, they were a strictly English people. They were Puri- tanical. They were not poor. On the con- trary, the immigration laws up to the time of the Revolution were so strict that no one was permitted to land who was not financially qualified. If unable to give such proof they were bonded. But there were no railroads and no means of easy communica- tion, and as a rule only the necessary furniture was taken into the interior ; articles of luxury stayed in the seaport towns. The museums of New England represent the gathering of household effects from the interior. None of this Seventeenth Century furniture was mahogany, a wood that did not appear in England or America until the Eighteenth Century. There are records of mahogany in Ameri- can inventories as early as 1708. From about this period we date the Colonial tendencies toward a better class of furniture and furnishings, for the colonies had passed beyond the mere strug- gle for existence and were prosperous. The times have so changed that one is often confused by the terms sideboard and buffet. A buffet proper was simply a section of the wall of a room, usually in the corner and furnished as a Pembroke'NI china closet, and at that time .ff*»<''' The I)ec(^rative Periods 269 it was called beaufait. It was not movable ; it was a fixed section of the room. To-day the term buffet is applied more to the side- board, which term was first used in England in 1553, but at that time the sideboard was simply a table, with or without drawers, sometimes paneled. We are frequently asked what kind of coverings should go on Early Colonial floors, and there are those who assert that up to 1700 the floors were usually sanded. This is erroneous. We are told that the " sand man " went his rounds regularly, and that the housewife sprinkled the sand on the floor and traced patterns upon it with deft turns of the broom ; but as up to 1745 " the walls of these rooms were usually whitewashed," we conclude that the writer's research was confined to the poorer classes. In the country cottages and in many parts of Pennsylvania this custom for the lower floors of houses prevailed among the poorer people, and in the kitchen of the better classes it was frequently seen, but it was not a representative form of floor treatment. The Italian Renaissance, introduced into England by Inigo Jones, w^ho died in 1652, influenced the architecture of every early American village. John Eiske, the eminent historian, says, in his "Beginnings of New England:" "The Puritan exodus to New England, which came to an end about 1640, was purely English. Like the best part of the emigration to Virginia, it consisted largely of country squires, thrifty and prosperous. . . . The best part of the New England emigration consisted of people prosperous in their old homes, from which their devotion to an idea (reli- gious) made them voluntary exiles." Again quoting from this authority: "Up to 1688 there were 26,000 New Englanders, and from this number, in the fol- lowing one-hundred-and-fifty years, there have descended at least one-quarter of the present population of the United States. " The laws of the early colonies were discouraging to the poor people, who went to the Barbadoes, Honduras or elsewhere. Even as late as 1714 the emigration laws of the New England colonies were strictly enforced, forbidding one to enter who was unable to furnish proof of financial responsibility. During the 270 The Decorative Periods fifty years preceding the American Revolution there was much wealth in the colonies, measured by the standard of wealth in those days. A fashionable social life centred about the repre- sentatives of the Crown, and the pride of the wealthy found ex- pression in handsomely decorat-id homes. In Maryland and Virginia, where the High Church of England and the Catholics settled, there was an aristocratic tendency, the happy combina- tion of climate and agricultural facilities enabling the people to support a generous style of living as landed gentry." As early as 1674 there were fourteen burghers in New York whose estates were valued at more than 1,000 guilders each. There were twenty-two residents whose estates were valued at close on to io,oco guilders each ; and Cornelius Van Ruyven was said to be worth 18,000; Jeroninus Ebbing, 30,000; John Lawrence, 40,000; Olaf Van Cortlandt, 45,000; Nicholas de Meyer, 50,000; Cornells Steenwyck, 50,000; and Hendrick Philipsen, 80,000 — great wealth for those days. One hundred years afterwards, at the time of the Revolution, this wealth in New York, as well as elsewhere, was greatly increased, a fact made obvious when you consider that it was from private sources that most of the money was obtained which sustained the eight years' war against England. We had no overflowing treasury, and it was from private individual purses that the country had its war chest refilled. Nothing more stately can be imagined than the Chase House, the Harwood House, the Hammond or the Lockerman House, the Bryce-Jennings House, and Salem, Providence, Bristol, Annapolis and Middletown are full of historic interest. Indeed, we look to the smaller cities for these delightful examples which have disappeared before the ruthless commercial spirit of New York and Boston, which seem only to have preserved the Han- cock House and the Jumel Mansion. Much has been written about Mt. Vernon ; but Washington's old home was insignifi- cant when compared with Lower Brandon and Upper Brandon, the home of the Harrisons, or Westover, the home of the Byrds. An old document tells us that Charles Carroll, of Carrolton, Md., had an income estimated at $75,000 a year, and his home. p------ .-^-.H--- u — K. Doughoregan Manor, was one of a number of delightful places in Maryland. Hampton, the old Ridgely homestead, was another, and Jerome Bonaparte and his bride, Betsey Patterson, had a delightful place called the Homestead, furnished in regal style. Then there was Colonel Howard's residence, the Chew Mansion, the Vining House, Belmont Hall, in Smyrna, Del , and the resi- dence of the Ridgleys, whose royal grant in 1659 gave them 6,000 acres in Maryland ; and even in Portsmouth, N. H., there were at least fifteen houses which were models of good taste architecturally, including Langdon's home — the same Langdon who fitted out Stark's Brigade that helped to win the first deci- sive victory for America in the Revolutionary War. The home of the W'entworths, also, and hundreds of other old residences, which are fully treated in other publications, especially those on Colonial architecture, give evidence of the good taste and the wealth enjoyed by a large class of the early settlers. During the time of William and Mary and Queen Anne the close political and commercial relations between England and Holland developed a strong Dutch influence, and at the same time British rule in India stimulated a great demand for India goods, so that we have, during the Queen Anne Period in America, a preponderance of Dutch and India styles. In 1714, at thebeginning of the Georgian Period, Sir Christopher Wren and Grinling Gibbons took up the Renaissance movement in architecture ; but it was not until 1760, under George III, that we notice any pronounced change in 'nterior decorations. Then began the work of Chippendale, who departed Knrff Box 272 The Decorative Periods from the Dutch styles and introduced French and Chinese details. Sir William Chambers published a book on Chinese style which, with Chippendale's work, created a rage for Chinese decorations. The Louis XV Period, then in vogue in France, was liberally adopted in England in conjunction with the Chinese, and later, Robert Adam was appointed architect to George III and introduced a type of design which was influenced by Italian education and a study of the restoration of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Sheraton and Hepplewhite in their furniture showed a similar influence, and, contem- poraneously in France, David, af- fected by thisinfluence, was develop- ing the Direc- toire, the Transition, and finally the Empire style. So that in 1800 in America the Empire style, contem- poraneous with Presi- dent Jeffer- son's regime, directly affected the English and /imerican chippendale influenced by French tastes, and feeling The Decorative Periods -v.s wherever this form appeared in the United States it was given the term Late Colonial, a misnomer, for the States were no longer Colonies. Here, then, we have the historical epitome which may be divided into four divisions— from Elizabeth to Oueen Anne, iGoo to 1700, showing Elizabethan, Jacobean and Cromwellian influ- ences ; from Oueen Anne to George III, 1700 to 1760, showing the Dutch influence ; the George III Period, 1760 to 1800, show- ing the Classic revival and the introduction of the Erench and Chinese character in design, and the concluding years of George III to 1820, showing that type known as the English ICmpire. It is difficult to imagine anything more charming than the old rush-bottom, tufted-back wing chairs of the Seventeenth Century. The larger cities and towns of this country were well equipped with cabinet-makers at the time more famous than even Chippendale, who, until the appearance of his books, seems to have been little known. In fact, his biographer in the ex- haustive Dictionary of National Biography can find little to say of him except that he flourished about 1760. He certainly was not the only successful member of his craft in London, if we may believe the following advertisement, which appeared in a New York paper in 1771 : To morrow will be sold at public vendue a set of carved mahogany chairs The chairs were made by a person in the Jerseys who served his time and afterwards was eleven years foreman to the great and eminent cabinetmaker William Hallet, who bought the fine estate of the Duke of Shandos, called Cannon's in Middlesex. Now, even if the advertisement was a catch-penny scheme, it is plain that in 1771 the name of Hallet was considered a great bait in New York. It is furthermore worth noting that we have never seen in an American paper prior to the Revolution any mention of the name of Chippendale. ®^* In creating a Colonial atmosphere — be it early Colonial, and necessarily embryotic, or late Colonial — we may assume that the room trims, as a rule, are white. In the early days the dwellings were low-ceilinged, the windows were small and cut into little panes. Such a room was not well lighted, and the white wood- work helped illuminate it. In Canterbury Tales (1400) Chaucer mentions wicker chairs ; but it may be taken as a rule that up to the end of Henry VIII's reign (1547) furniture was usually oak. After oak came walnut furniture, often thin veneered. In the time of Charles II (1649), beautiful inlay work was accomplished. Mahogany fur- niture came into us,^ in 1700, and Chippendale was one of the first cabinet-makers to use it. Sheraton introduced inlaying of mahogany, stained wood, king wood and tulip wood. Hepple- white did considerable in painted furniture. Over-doors, over- windows and over-mantels were treated with leaded glass and fret work, especially during the Eighteenth Century. The walls were wainscoted or paneled, where they followed the Eliza- bethan and Jacobean style, or they were hung in tapestries or painted ; often leather was used as a wainscoting, but as a rule a gray tone of paint was employed, upon which pictures, mirrors and girandoles were hung. Wall-paper was not generally intro- duced until 1748, the late Colonial period, and although Oriental rugs were frequently used, being imported by the Dutch and English from India, they did not become common Omdie The Decorative Periods V? as floor coverings until 1750. Mahogany trims fur banisters, man- tels, cornices and furniture were not generally introduced until 1750. To be sure, mahogany was discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1597, and we have records in this country, among the old inventories of our forefathers, of mahogany furniture, 1708 ; but it is safe to assume that prior to 1700 furniture and wood trims were of oak, sycamore, pine, spruce, walnut, maple and other native woods. Wall-hangings of India prints were very common. Oriental furniture, brasses, Chinese porcelain, prints and copper ornaments were generally used throughout the entire Colonial period. In the earliest times they were brought over by the Dutch in great quantities, and a rage for Chinese porcelains pre- vailed during Queen Anne's time, and later, in the George III period. Thus, in place of the Colonial style being restricted to rag carpets, horse hair and mahogany, it was of a cosmopolitan character, full of variety. In 1749 Isaac Ware wrote: "The decoration of an Amer- ican room is of three kinds. First, where it is coated with a plastic material wrought into ornamental details; second, \Hiere covered by wainscote, and third, where hung with silks, tapes- tries or paper." In that year Stephen Callo advertised that he would hang rooms with paper or stuff in the newest fashion. In 1756 John Hickey was advertising that he "stamps or prints paper in a manner so that it will harbor no worms." As early as 1745 Charles Hargraves was advertising wall-papers in Philadelphia. Indeed, a few years later, Peter Fleeson was making paper- hangings, corner of P'ourth and Chestnut Streets, and the sub- jects were landscape views, Watteau figures and large rococo- Tramed patterns of the Louis XV period. Paper made in the roll did not appear in this country until about 1790. Prior to this the paper was brought over in squares. Old Nantucket is rich in specimens of old wall decorations, positive works of art representing the labor of some of the best designers of the period. Portsmouth, N. H., boasts of a number of fine old papers. Some of the old homesteads in St. Johnsbury, V't., are treated in these early papers. In one is a scene representing a 276 The Decorative Periods group of women at a table enjoying their tea, while above them, in the distance, Mt. Vesuvius pours forth a volume of smoke. Horsehair covers, where used, were employed to tone down the general brilliancy of the accessory furnishings. Plain fabrics were much used, but frequently they were embroidered, for gen- tlewomen regarded needlework as a necessary accomplishment. Some idea of the elaborateness of the furnishings may be had from the following letter written in 1757 by Thomas Han- cock to John Rowe, of London : Enclosed you have the dimensions of a room for a shaded wall-hanging to be done after the pattern I have sent to Capt. Tanner. It is for my own house, and if you can make it more beautiful by adding some birds flying here and there, and some landscapes at the bottom, I should hke it very well. At the top and bottom of this paper there ought to be a narrow bor- der, two inches wide. Three years ago my friend Francis Wilks bought a hanging done in the same manner, but it was much handsomer. It was made by one Dunbar, Aldermandury, where, no doubt, he or some of his successors, may be found. In other parts of these hangings are a great variety of different sorts of birds, peacocks, macoys, squirrels, monkej'S, fruits, flowers, etc. I think these papers are handsomer and better than painted walls in oil. The fabric furnishing of the Colonial times may be easily grouped if one only remembers that weaving, prior to Jacquard's invention, which came into use in England about 1790, was necessarily confined to simple figures ; to be sure, the famous tapestry weavers achieved results in large figures, but the masters of the art of tapestry weaving were few, and their work was limited. Stripes, blocks, squares, diagonals, and variations of velvet, serge and plain weaves, were in general vogue, and variety was obtained by the texture of the yarn used and by hand embroid- eries subsequently employed. In woven stuffs the figures, as a rule, were simple and small, and inasmuch as in the mahogany days the furniture all showed a high surface finish, it was desir- able to show relief in the fabrics, hence they were almost invari- ably dull and lustreless ; large figures, however, were much appreciated, and as they were not obtainable in woven goods, they were printed in cottons, English, Chinese or Indian. The Decorative Periods 277 The nomenclature of Early Colonial fabrics was simply endless. In East Indian stuffs alone \vc have a list of forty terms. In 1759 " flowered damask for furniture " was imported. In 1760 " crimson, blue, green and yellow harratet-ns with tassels " were imported. 1762, Indian gimp and binding. 176S, fine striped lutestring (plain silk) Marseilles quilts. 1770, moreens, stout woolen curtain stuffs. Harratcen cloth was made of combing wools. Printed cotton, handprinted, frequently of very large bird and animal designs. Scarlet and crimson cassimere, calico and dimity. Durance, a stout worsted cloth. Calamanco, a glazed linen stuff. Turkey work, a coarse, plain ground with pattern tufted like a rug pile. Paduasoy, a strong silk. Green cloth, crimson worsted, red cloth, red damask. Shalloon, soy, watchet, linsey woolsey, fustian. Silk muslin, chintz, Indian calico, tabby, sarcanet, taffeta, horsehair. Camak.or Comacoa, was silk and camel's hair mixed. Bancours, a kind of tapestry. Shalloon was a coarse woolen cloth. Darnix or darneck, coarse, taking its name from Dorncck. the Dutch for Tournay. Damask, first made in Damascus in such a way that " what is not satin on one side shows satin on the other side." Perpetuana (1650), a very durable woolen. Green and red paly is the heraldic term for alternate stripes of these colors. Camblet was a woolen, hair or silk twill, sometimes waved or watered. Tabby, a kind of coarse watered taffeta. Seersucker, a thin ridged and puckered material. At the outbreak of the Revolution the Georgian style had fully developed, and the Colonial had adopted much of the Georgian character. Rich furniture was much in use, and so great was the display that John Adams, who was always opposed to ostentation, wrote : "John Lowell at Newburyport had built himself a house like the palace of a nobleman and lived in great splendor." In the South, the centres of fashion were Annapolis, Williamsburg and Charlestown. The presence of monied Eng- lishmen and officers, with their retinue of servants and their X ADAM AND SHERATON CHARAGTERISTICS. TABLE TOPS The Decorativ^e Periods 2/9 families, brought fashion and gaiety and rich and costly furnish- ings to America. To-day the revival of the early or late Colonial style must be taken with that revision which always accompanies a Renais- sance movement. The modern home is so differently constructed that we cannot pretend to follow the old models, v.'hen parlor, bedroom and dining-room were frequently one of the same apart- ment. Between 1600 and 1650 a parlor was defined as a room to sup or dine in, and at this period "The Hall " was the prin- cipal room of a house, and here was the guest's bed, the huge fireplace and the dining-table. Until about 1G50 the hall was the showroom, and old inventories continually refer to this room and its furnishings to indicate its character as above defined. Beginning with 1650 the Colonists built separate rooms, and the hall gradually became, as it is to-day, an entrance room merely. — ^ ■ ^.. - . T. — : ^^ ' ^ / ■^rrYrfm^fnTTTTTfrT rTTnrrn n Here is shown a style of the French Transition period, dated 1800. It is from tlilfe type that much of the furniture called late Colonial is copied, i^nierican date o£ manufacture, about 1S15. ART NOUVEAlT EXAMPLE AT ST LOUIS EXPOSITION, FRENCH SECTION :)^^ Louis XVI liaumgarten tapestry. Made at the workshops of William Baumcarten, who, in 1893, established, at Williamsbndge, N. \ ., the first looms ever erected in America to produce tapestries, under ^he supervision of Foussadier, who left the Gobelin Works in France during the Commune and started soon after with Brignola. under the patronage of Fnncess Beatrice, the Windsor Tapestry Works in England. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN TMK beginning of the Nineteenth Century England was in- rtuenced by the Empire spirit in decoration as exemplified by the work of Thomas Hope. In this country a similar tenden- cy had vogue, especially during Jefferson's regime, and was stimulated by the work of Latrobe, decorator and architect, who in 1803 was appointed by Jefferson surveyor of public buildings in Washington, and whose taste prevailed in the plans and deco- rations of the capitol. Latrobe followed the classic character of the Empire school, eliminating the personal element interpolated by David to glorify Napoleon — Egyptian and Roman symbolisms of victory and conquest. The Latrobe decorations characterized a style popu- lar in this country early in the Nineteenth Century and termed by some the Jeffersonian. The antique shops have been full of the furniture of this period erroneously termed Colonial. The illustration is a fair type, date 1820. As the taste for the semi-classic declined, efforts were made , ^ri^^ :»' 292 The Decorative Periods to arouse interest in other directions. Conspicuous was the Eastlake craze, which seems to have taken its inspiration from the Jacobean. Eastlake boasted his contempt of festoons and fringes and fabric decorations, and preached simplicity. As a consequence, his ornamentation was superficial and half-hearted and worse than useless, a nightmare of abnormal and abortive work full of Greek diaper patterns and tiles inlaid in brass and wood. The work left no lasting impression. On the contrary, Morris, Burne-Jones, Ruskin and Rosetti constituted a pre-Raphaelite band which hied back to the Me- diaeval. Saturated with the spirit of the Guild work of the Mid- dle Ages, their labors were naturally along the old Guild forms The woodwork was primitive ; the fabrics and wall-papers showed a delightful balance of tropical floral motifs following the Sara- cenic Influence in Italy. They and their followers, Walter Crane, Voysey and later-day contemporaries, continued the craftsman theories of labor, and out of the efforts of these men have sprung innumerable Arts and Crafts societies primarily to follow the Guild or Crafts work of the Middle Ages, as distinguished from the factory or organization work which stultifies individual effort. In this country the Arts and Crafts societies appealed to a great number of free lance decorators who had little knowledge of period decoration, but who possessed the faculty of good color application. Discouraged by the exactions of strict period work, they found in the unclassified Arts and Crafts or Mission styles an opportunity to indulge their ideas unfettered. The lines and dark tones of the primitive furniture and wood trims formed a contrasting framework to color or design composition of Mediaeval, Gothic, Dutch or Japanese character. The Art Nouveau dates its origin from 1878, when a body of enthusiastic architects in Vienna, led by the architect Wagner, produced a style of design arising from the use of natural floral forms. Opposed directly to straight lines, Art Nouveau developed The Decorative Periods 293 a series of perplexing and confusing spirals and corkscrew term- inals. The underlying principle was based upon nature forms, and eventually introduced designs which suggested the (lothic as well as Japanese curved and sinuous tree trunks and vines idealized, elongated and exaggerated. Notwithstanding the hysterical craze for ephemeral art, the strict period designs were never more popular than now. America has been prolific, and we feel a sense of pride in l.\ E.V.^TLAKK 294 The Decorative Periods the work of Abbey, Blashfield, Blum, Kenyon Cox, Tiffany, Vedder, Sargent, La Farge, Reed and Simmons. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the public demand for the best decoration than the work being done every day in municipal buildings and hotels, structures which emphasize public sentiment. To-day our decorators are reflecting simply the works of the past masters. No religious fanaticism awakens our artists to fresh inspiration. No royal edict proclaims the advent of a Renais- sance. Our mathematics are prosaic ; there is nothing new in them to point the beauty of mechanical draughtsmanship. No vast surprises are brought to us by the traders in distant lands. The world is living elbow to elbow. There is nothing new in the new world, and to-day we are searching with ceaseless diligence the remote possibilities of art in the far back ages, and the best results are the work of the man who appreciates the best that has come to us through five thousand years of civilization, and is willing to adopt the art principles which have lasted popular through the ages. 'in ;r-i 1 y /->> r^ WHITE HOUSE DECORATIONS, TIME OF JEFFERSON '♦^♦^•*- X*^ -»A' THE PERIOD USE OF WOODS The Age of Oak, 1500-1660. The Age of Walnut, 1660-1700. The Age of Mahogany, 1730. The Composite Age, 1700-1820. WHEN we see one of the most famous houses in New York City with a Francis I room wainscoted in "antique mahog- any," and the furniture and furnishings "antique mahogany," it is time to cry out against the ignorance which prevails in matters essential to the consistent presentation of a period style. What matters it if fine tapestries and the finest cabinetwork and the most exquisite design treatment is undertaken, when so glaring an anachronism confronts us as the use of rtw/z^z/t- mahog- any in France in 15 15, two hundred years previous to its general use and eighty-two years before its discovery by Sir Walter Raleigh ? Mahogany, discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh in the West Indies in 1597, was used in England about 1700. Mahogany was utilized in Europe very rarely. Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch and Italian traders of the Sixteenth Century did not traffic in lumber, excepting in rare woods for rare purposes. Occa- sionally small and very costly pieces were done in mahogany during the Seventeenth Century. There are records in England of mahogany pieces made as early as 1700. We have records in this country of mahogany furniture mentioned in inventories filed 1708. Queen Anne furniture was seldom mahogany. It was a wood that came in during the Georgian period. GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE, IIOO-165O. Oak, wax polished or oiled or left natural. Varnish was not The Decorative Periods 297 used until the middle of the Sixteenth Century. As simplicity began to disappear a deep color stain was applied. IT.\L1AN KKNAISSANCE, I4OO-I643. Oak, lime, willow, sycamore, chestnut, ebony, walnut and cypress were all used. FRENCH, FLEMISH AND SPANISH RENAISSANCE, I5OO-1643. Oak, chestnut and walnut were the favorite woods. LdL'is XIII, 1610-1643. Woodwork oak, walnut, chestnut, sometimes ebony. The Dutch were bringing great quantities of new woods from the Far East, including rosewood, and the Spaniards were also intro- ducing beautiful woods from South America and the West Indies. Mahogany, however, was scarcely known, and was not used in France until a century later. LOUIS xiv, 1645-1715. The furniture was made of every kind of wood obtainable at this period — violet wood, cherry and cheaper woods enameled and gilded. LOUIS XV, 171 5-1774. Every kind of wood was used, including mahogany. LOUIS XVI, 1774-1793- The woodwork was of ten oak, painted white. Cabinets and tables were inlaid with woods of various colors ; tulip, rose, pear, holly, walnut and ebony were all in use, and bright colors wer||p obtained by chemical treatment. KMiMKE, 1804-1814. The framework of chairs was generally mahogany, or painted and bronzed and gilded woods. 298 The Decorative Periods ELIZABETHAN AND JACOBEAN, I558-1649. Furniture oak, cherry and cypress. Sometimes the wood was painted, sometimes gilt designed. Pearwood was used, stained black. Mahogany almost unknown. Towards the end of the Seventeenth Century a great deal of ebony was imported, and carved ebony from India found its way into many rich English homes. The middle of the Seventeenth Century marked the age of walnut. Walnut was imported from Persia into Italy about the date of the Christian Era, but the first distinct notice of its cultivation in England was 1562. Throughout Italy, France and Spain walnut was used freely during the Sixteenth and Seven- teenth Centuries, but, owing to its scarcity in England, it was introduced in Elizabethan and Jacobean times only as a deco- ration in conjunction with oak. The age of walnut lasted in England until about the end of the Seventeenth Century, when the English welcomed the new substitute provided in mahogany. QUEEN ANNE, 166O-I714. There was a great scarcity of walnut in the Jacobean age. During the period of Queen Anne walnut, beech, holly, birch, yew wood and marqueterie were common. Walnut was generally used in fine furniture, and the mahogany pieces frequently attributed to the Queen Anne period are almost universally of the times of George I or II. During the Queen Anne period walnut was often black, lacquered and decorated Oriental-like. AMERICAN COLONIAL, 162O-182O. In America the abundant woods — oak, ash, elm, walnut, maple, cherry and pine — supplied all that was required in the construction of American-made furniture during the early Colonial times, and the earliest reference to American mahogany furniture is 1708. Maple was much used up to 1780. A great deal of imported furniture was used. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tn the preparation of this work the author is indebted to — ^ His previous work, " Period Decoration." Professor Paul Schulze, Director of the Royal Textile Mu- seum, at Crefeld, for a number of Saracenic and Persian illus- trations. Yale and Towne, for the design of Egyptian feather and lotus motifs. " Der Ornamentsil," by Alexander Speltz "A Manual of Historic Ornament," by Glazier. The Century Company, publishers of " With the Empress Dowager." " Dictionnaire du Tapissier," by Deville. "The Illustrated History of P'urniture," published by John Lane. The late A. C. Nye, for Colonial P'urniture Sketches. "Meyer's Handbook of Ornament." Strange's "PVench Furniture." Xfl Q O (— I PM <1 P^ O a o w 5 s O Q O ^ o s (^ 5 W ^ o q Ph u CO pq .^ cd T ■■ rt m .^ O m CL( O 6 "^ 1 t o i<;o Q bl U CC O U pq 00 U Li pq pq o o .5 ^ u U cq rn ^ l-H ^ o r^ o 1. pq o o I— I C 03 DD O O CJ 't ID 2 ^ Oj pq U _ U pq U pq I. 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Oh o ,«^ > 3 03 0) PQ £ cu ■^ ^ o o u d ^ HH 1) )-U O 3 O o, eft w . Q u aj •> ^^ Co j_, C CTj c o CJ C o 03 4; c _U) 4-. 0) 1) > (U o U e/J ■i-> 0) en ^3 "IS 3 O ^ X! en 13 >- o en "^ T3 5^3 ^0 en ^ r tn .^ 0) o -M Pij 3 o3 ^ Ph ■1-1 ^ o; en hJ en o 't: o3 rt P5 j2 (1) U X o a r ^ bjo o '53 (^ C 03 03 3 s > ■i-> k'S 3 O Vh en c X .2i O en c 1-1 OS 1) o >^ ■LJ c^ X! ^ bx)r> fa CONTENTS Acanthus 9, 122, 177 Borgognonc '3', '32,303 Adam, lo, 124, 175, 203 211,235,244 Borkmair • 124, '57 250,257,261,265,272 278,280,303 Botticelli • '32,303 Alexandria . 116 Boucher 196,204 Alhambra 52,149,301 Boule 181, 304 America . 12 Brahma . • 300 American Colonial • 303 Brunelleschi '3', '32,303 American Revolution, 270, 273, 277 Brussels • '51 Animal Form . 23, 121, 172 Buddhist Rel igion, 2 7. 35- 50, 300 Anne, Queen, 12,38 39 160, 169,214 Bull 9 215, 21S, 219, 222, 223 233.235.241 Buonarroti • '32,303 264, 271, 275, 302 Burne-Jones 10, 109,292,303 Anthcmion . . 2 ,55. '77, 183 Byzantine-B} zantium. 10, 12, 14, 28 Antioch . 116 62, 83, 107, "4, "5, 116, 128, 300 Antwerp • 235,263 Arabesque . 149,175 Caffieri •. • 304 .*» . 246 Arabian . 43 ,-17, 115. 301 Cameo Panel s Arabian Medi.vval . 85 Candelabra . 121 Arched Panels • 173 Carlos I • '33, '49 Armorial . 116 Carryatides • 257 Arras • '53 Carter • 233 Arts and Crafts 107, 1 14, 292 Cartouche 1 15, 1 19, 205 Art Nouveau . 10, 286, 292, 304 Cascades . 1 96 Assyrian, 12, 15, 21, 22, 23,25,49,63 Catacombs • 23 123,300 Catharine de Medici . 148 Austrian . 151 Cellini . . • '32,303 Celtic 33 ,61,301,302 Babel, P. E. . • 304 Centaurs . 122 Babylonian I 5, 16,21,300 Chaldea . 50, 300 Bacon . 169 Chambers, 236, 242, 257,265,303 Baroque • 205,304 Charles I 169, 264, 266, 302 Barozzio • '32 Charles 1 1 169, 215,263,274 Bartolozzi • 257 Charles \' • '53. 303 Baskets • '25,177 Charles IX 148,304 Beauvais 182, 196, 304 Cherries . • '97 Beetle 9. '2 Chinese, 9, 12. 27-3 5.63, 191,212,236 Beetle, Dung • 23 239.241,246 2''5. 275- 300 Berain • 304 Chintz . • 173 Bicdermeier • 301 Chippendale. 9. 5'.^ 12, 223,236 Birds . 116 241, 263, 271 280 ,303 3o6 Contents 255 205 241 Christian Roman. 62. 300 ; Symbol- ism, 12, 107 ; Tree of Life, 63 Christianity . . 62,137,300 Churrigueresque . . . 150 Cipriani . 239,257,265,303 Circles 175 Classic, Classical, Classicism, 57 115, 121, 133, 184, 258, 266 Classic Colonial Classic Renaissance Classic Revival, 107, 177, 233. Claw and Ball Feet . 9 Colbert 304 Colonial, 250, 251, 254, 263, 265,267 273, 279, 303 Columbian! .... 265 Columns .... 158 Commercialism . 9, 10, 13, 14 Commonwealth, 264, 267, 273, 302 Confucius . . 27,28,35,300 Constantine-Constantinople. 12, 62 300 Consulat . Copeland Corinthian Corkscrew Terminals Corn Cornucopia Count of Flanders Crane Cromwell Crowns . Crunden Crusaders Cupids 116,304 844- 303 55- 64,3^0 • 293 122 i35>-46 . 116 83^ 292, 303 264, 302 . 116 • 244 107, 115 121.257 Dailey 303 Dauphin-Dauphiness . . 199 David, 125, 211, 258, 265, 272, 304 Da^'inci . . . 132,303 Diaper Patterns Directoire, 203, 207, 208, 209, 246 258, 265, 272, 304 Doge Dandola . . .116 Dolphin . . . . 9, 13, 122 Doric . . . 55,56,64,300 Dragons . . . .149 Du Barry .... 304 Diirer, 123, 133, 156, 169, 233, 301 Dutch, 12, 14, 139, 141, 144, 153, 154 155: 159, 169,215,218,219,239,241 263, 264, 265, 267, 271, 274, 292, 301 Dutch Renaissance . . 141 122, 159, 12, 292. Eagle . . • 9. i; Early English Eastern . East Indian Eastlake Edward I, II, III, IV, V, VI, 169 264,302 Edwards & Darley, 244, 265, 303 Egypt, 9, ID, 12, 15, 17. iS, 22. 49, 58 123 Egyptian . . . 21,300 Eighteenth Century. 125, 127, 257 260. 268 Eleventh Century . . 108, iiS Elizabeth, 160, 162, 163, 167. 169, 170 233, 264, 266, 273, 274, 302 Empire, 127, 206, 207, 208b. 208c. 210 211, 258,265, 304 English, 13,119,127,135.235.271 274, 276. 302 English Empire . . . 273 English Gothic . 169.174,302 English Renaissance. 12S, 133, 160 169, 174, 302 English Romanesque (Norman), 302 English Sixteenth Century . 159 Entablature Erudition Etruscan . 23, Fawn Ferdinand & Isabella 55 Festoons . 121,172,244, Fifth Century Fifteenth Century, ic8, 118, 133. 173 Finials . . . . .111 . ,58 9. 10, 14 59, 60, 300 • 257 • 149 257 115 ^37 Contents 307 Fiske,John .... 269 Flemish, 151, 159, 169,235,267,301 Flemish-Elizabethan . 169 Flemish Renaissance, 133, 135, 169 302 Fleur-de lis . . 9,21,23 Floral . . 121,177,197 F"lorentine Renaissance, 132,303 Foliage 24 Foliated Crosses .116 Fontaine 304 Fontainebleau .210 Fourteenth Century, 87, 116, 128 Fra Angelico . . 132,303 Fra Giaconda . 132,133,304 Francis I . . . 133.303 PVancis II . 148, 304 French, 127, 135, 145, 151, 159, 169 196, 211, 212, 226, 236, 265, 272 French Gothic 107, 108, 303 French Heraldry . 21,59 French Renaissance, 123, 133, 148 Gothic, 10, 106, 121, 127, 133, 156, 212 236, 239, 241, 246, 292, 293. 301 Gothic-Early English-Crude, 302 Gothic of the Decadence . 131 Gothic with Medi.vval Influence, "3 Gothic-Ornamental Gouthicre Gncco- Roman Gra?co-Pelasgic Grain Gravelotte Greek, 10, 21, 26, 27, 55, 57, 64, 122 148, 204, 211, 300 Greek Fret . . . 9,27,63 Greek Ionic . . 54,55,56,64 Cireek and Roman Band Motifs, 12 Griffins ... 9, 122, 257 Grotto 196 Guilds 292 Guilloche . . . 10,63 • 30- 182,304 62, 150 • 55 122 ■ 304 204, 246, 302, 303 Halfpenny 236 French Romanesque 303 Hallet, William 273 French Transition 127 •75 Harts 116 Fret Work •73 Hawkesmoor . 236 F"ruit 121, •72, 197 Hellenistic 55 300 Henri II, III, IV (France) . 304 Garland, W.G. 35 Henry I (England) 302 George I 169, 235. 265 Henry II 148 302 George II 265 Henry III MS 302 George III . 235, 242. 265. 271 Henry IV • 45- 148 302 Georgian, 128, 223, 226, 233. 246, 265 Henry V 302 271, 277,303 Henry \' I 302 German, 13, 1 19. 135, .56, 158, '50 Henry VII 302 30 « Henry VIII, 128, 133, •35- 160, 169 German-Elizabethan 172 274,302 German Renaissance, 122, 124, •25 Hepplewhite, 204, 211, 239. 243' 244 «33. 158,233.301,30: 245,248,257,258,259 260, 265, 274 Gibbons, 128,234, 23^ 265, 27! 2S0. 303 Gibbs, James . 236 Heraldry 116 Goats 257 Herculaneum. 10. 125. •27, 23^ 246 Goats' Heads 122, 241 257,265,272 Gobelin 181, 184, 304 Hieroglyphics 23 Goth 10, 107 H ispano-More.sque ■49 308 Contents Holbein Holland . Honeysuckle . Hope, Thomas Horse Hybrid . Hybrid Renaissance Hyvart, Louis 124, 158, 160, 172, 301 266, 271 258,265,291 122 . 246 . 205 • 304 Implements of War . 125 Ince & Mayhew, 241, 244, 265, 303 India, 45, 115, 265,271,274,276,300 Indian 267 Italian, 13, 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 135 159,267,292 Italian Renaissance, 121, 124, 132 148,158,264,269,302,303 Jacobean, 14, 152, 160, 169, 171, 172 173, 176, 215, 233, 263, 264, 273, 274 292,302 Jacquard .... 304 Jacques 304 James I . . 169,264,266,302 James II . 169,215,264,302 Japanese, 8b, 10, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 61 63, 292, 293, 300 Jefferson, President, 265, 291, 295 Jesse Tree .... 63 John of Padua, 128, 133, 135, 160 172, 233, 302 Johnson, Thomas . 244, 265, 303 Tones, Inigo . 175,233,264,302 Justinian .... 62 Kauffmann, Angelica • 303 Kent, William • 236 Labyrinth 23,25 Lalonde . . . . • 304 Langley, Thomas . • 236 Latrobe . . . . . 291 Lazzari . • 132 Leaves . . . . . 121 Le Brun . . . . 184, 304 Lion ... 10, 122, 241 Lock ..... 244 Lorenzo the Magnificent . 148 Lotus . 9,12,19,21,23,24,122 Lozenges .... 175 Louis XII . . . 133,303 Louis XIII . 148,191,204,304 Louis XIY, 4a, 14, 177, 179, 181, 1S2 183, 184,204,205,304 Louis XV, 177, 178, 181, 182, 183, 184 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200 201,204,205,265,304 Louis XVI, 177, 178, 182, 184, 189 199, 202, 204, 207, 211, 258, 304 Luca della Robbia . 132,303 Lyres 246 Mahogany . 268,272,275,296 Mansart 304 Manwaring . . 244, 265, 303 Marie Antoinette, 184, 199, 207, 304 Marot 215 Mary, Queen . . . 169, 303 Masks .... 121, 122 Medallions .... 257 Medusa Head . . .122 Media 15 Mediaeval 109,111,115,123,292 Middle Ages . 10,107,115,292 Mignard 304 Milanese Renaissance . 132, 303 Milton, Thomas . . . 257 Mission . . 107,114,2877^92 Mohammedan, 12,21, 35, 49, 50, 51, 300 Moors, 10, 49, 50, 51, 63, 81, 149, 301 Moresque Fret ... 63 Morris . . 109,121,292,303 Musical Instruments . . 246 Mythic Period . . 27,300 Myth of Osiris ... 23 Napoleon, 14,207, 208b, 211, 291,304 Nature ... -9 Netherlands . . 133, 149, 150 Contents 309 New Englisli . Nineteenth Century Norman . Northern Africa Nude Human Forms Oak Oak Leaves Octagon . Oeben Oriental . 49- >30i Oudry Ovals Pagoda 196 Pain .... 239,257 Palladio . ... .132,303 Palm . . . 9. 12, 24, 122 Palmette "23 Panther Head . .122 Papyrus . Parthian .... 300 Percier 304 Pergolesi, 237, 239, 257, 265, 303 Perpendicular or Florid Gothic, iCo 302 Persian, 12, 15, 21. 35, 49, 50, 1 15, 120 127, 137, 300 9 291 275, 29''> 122 • 257 1^2,304 236. 274 I ()6, 304 • 257 Phihp 11 PhtL-nicia Pineapple Motif Plateresque Plum Pointed Arches Pompadour. Madam, '49, >53, '55 50 85 149 i<)7 1 1 1 1S2, 1S4. 304 ^55^ Pompeiian, 10, 59, 64, 125, 127, 203 211, 236, 246, 257, 265, 272. 300 Porcelain .... 275 Portuguese '2,263 Pre-Raphaelite 10,292,303 Puritan . 14, 223, 263, 2^,4, 269 Pyramids .... 23 Ram Ram's Head 23, 122 244,257 Ramescs Raphael . Rayed Stars Regency . . 182, Religion . 9, Renai.ssance, 9, 10, 13, ; 107, 108, 109, 1 15, 1 18, 124, 125,127,128, 131, 157,158,160, 172,177, 302 Restoration Revolution, French Reynolds, Sir Joshua Ribband . Ribbon Richard 1, II. Ill . Richardson, G. Riesner . Rococo, 133. 177, iSi. 244, 304 Roentgen, David . Roman, 121, 122, 123, 148, 211, 257, 291,300 Roman Composite . Roman Media-val . Roman Renai.ssance Roman Tu.scan Romanesque, 10, 12. 301 Rosette Rosetti Rubens Ruskin Russian . 116 195,196,304 10, 12, 13, 14 '7, 55, 59,64 120, 121, 123 132, '34, '5'' i<)9, 204,271 . 125 14. 207, 304 . '23 . 241 121,177 . 302 238,257,265 . 182,304 183, 196. 205 . 1^2,304 124, 126, 127 . . 64 62 '32,303 . . 64 106, 121, 122 • 25,121 109,292,303 151,301 • 292, 303 • 30' 121 121 25 Sacred Instruments Sacred Motifs Sacred Tree . .Saracenic, 12,49, '°7, ''6, '20, 127 292,301 Sarto. Andrea del . . 132.303 .Sassanian ... 300 .Satinwood .... 246 .Scandinavian . 301 Scroll . . 172,173,205.241 310 Contents • 257 . 121 i33> 136,303 Sea Horses Secular Motifs Seralio Serpent 122 Seventeenth Century, 8b, 125, 181 267,268,273 Shearer 257 Shell Work . . . 122,241 Sheraton, 204, 244, 247, 248, 257, 258 259, 260, 263, 265, 274, 278, 280, 303 Shield . . 115,116,118,119 Sicilian ... 59, 116, 127 Sixteenth Century . 118,119,130 205 Sixteenth Century Italian . 12 Sixteenth Century Renaissance, 127 133 Skulls of Animals . . .121 Spanish, 12, 115, 121, 125, 135, 149 150, 151, 152, 153, 263, 266, 267, 301 302 Spanish Gothic . . . loS Spanish Renaissance, 133, 169, 301 302 Sparrow-hawk Spencer . Sphinx Spirals Square Stabia Strap Work Stephen . Stuart Swan. Abrahai Sycamore • 23 169 9)23, 257 • 293 • 175 . 246 5,172, 175 • 302 60, 264,302 • 236 • 275 Taoist 35 Tapestry-Bayeux . . . 302 Tapestry Designjrs, Dutch, 301 ; Italian, 303; French, 303 Tapestry Making in England, 302 Temperament . 9, 10, 13, 14 Tessier .... Thirteenth Century Transition, 206, 207, 208 236,258,265,272,279 Trefoil Trinity • 304 118, 1 19 209, 211 Tripod Trophy Tudor Tulip Turkish Twelfth Century Van Brugh Vases Venetian Venetian Renaiss Vernis-Martin Victorian Period Viollet-Ie-duc . Vitruvian Scroll Von Brandt Voysey • 23 • 23 . 121 . 125 160, 302 . '«(22 49,300, 301 . 118 . 236 246,257 . 127 132,303 24-4,304 • 303 . 108 9 • 35 282, 292 Wagner ..... 292 Wall-Paptr .... 274 Wallis . . . 236,257,303 Walnut 296 Ware . . 160,169,236,275 Watteau . 182, 183, 185, 196, 304 Wedgwood .... 246 William and Mary, 151, 169, 215, 235 264, 271, 302 William the Conqueror ; William 11,302 Winged Globe . . 23, 24 Winged Lions . . .116 Winged Male Figure . . 25 Winged Serpents ... 12 Woods, Period Uses . . 296 Wreath .... 244, 246 Wren, Sir Christopher, 128, 234, 265 303 / ^ RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO^-^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 - HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS l-month loans may t>e renewed by catting 642<}405 t-year loans may be recharged by bringing the books to the Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior tc due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW ■