I
.] -m
A NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON
GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY
BY
E. A. SONNENSCHEIN. D.Litt.
PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY
OF BIRMINGHAM
CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE
ON GRAMMATICAI, TERMINOLOGY.
OXFORD
AT THl-: CLARENDON PRESS
1912
/
HENRY FROWDE, M.A.
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK
TORONTO AND MELBOURNE
h
]
PREFACE
This volume and the companion volume of my French
grammar are based upon the work of the Joint Committee
on Grammatical Terminology whose final Report was issued
last year ; ' and they are designed to make the Committee's
scheme of grammar teaching available for use in schools. It
is a matter of great satisfaction to observe the rapid progress
of the movement to which the Committee devoted so much
labour; since the publication of our Report the recommenda-
tions contained in it have been adopted either in their entirety
or with seme modifications by the writers of at least four
English grammars, and it seems to be generally recognized
that the terminology and classifications recommended by the
Committee constitute a real advance in the direction ot
simplicity and uniformity in the teaching of grammar.
So far no Latin or French grammar has appeared on these
lines ; but the Committee's work is expressly designed to
include in its scope the grammar of other languages besides
English, and so to secure that the grammatical doctrine taught
to pupils shall be all of a piece. It is as a contribution to this
movement that I have undertaken the task of writing the
present books. It has involved no little labour ; for the
' On the Teimi)iologv of Giaiiniiar, being the Report of the Joint Com-
mittee on Grammatical Terminology ; revised 191 1 (John Murray, Albemarle
Street, W.). The Committee contained representatives of the Classical
Association, the Modern Language Association, the English Association,
the Incorporated Association of Head Masters, the Head Mistresses' Asso-
ciation, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary
Schools, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Mistresses in Public
Secondary Schools, the Association of Preparatory Schools, and two co-
opted members. r) k»j ') U Q I
4 ........ . .PREFACE
objects of the Committee cannot be attained by a mere
mechanical substitution of one term for another. The whole
scheme of grammar teaching had to be thought out from
a new point of view. Grammatical ideas are far more than
mere labels ; they are abstracts and brief chronicles of theories
and doctrines; so that the choice of a term means the choice
of one grammatical conception in preference to another. This
being so, the importance of a uniform system of grammatical
terminology in schools becomes obvious ; to teach pupils half
a dozen different names for the same thing is to demand of
them that they shall carry in their heads half a dozen different
ways of regarding the point in question, or to tempt them to
carry nothing in their heads, but rather to reject all gram-
matical terms as mere sound and fury, signifying nothing. The
principle that where the same grammatical feature presents
itself in different languages of the same family it should be
described by the same name will be generally conceded. But
it is also true that where these languages differ in their usage,
their differences should be stated in terms which will be in-
telligible to the pupil ; and this cannot be secured except on
the basis of a common system of terminology. To start the
study of a new language with a new stock of grammatical
ideas is a fundamental mistake.
This Latin grammar, however, contains many things for
which the Joint Committee is in no sense responsible. In the
first place, the outline drawn by the Committee had to be filled
in by the adoption of some terms not expressly countenanced
therein ; and secondl}', I have introduced into my book several
features which stand in no relation to the work of the Com-
mittee, but which have presented themselves to me in the
course of a long experience of teaching Latin as desirable
innovations.
(i) It is generally recognized that the rigid separation of
syntax from accidence involves many disadvantages ; on the
other hand it would not be desirable to present a complete
syntax to pupils in the first stage of learning. I have steered
!
PREFACK 5
a middle course by giving a simple account of some of the
prominent uses of forms as introductory matter to the study
of the forms themselves ; ' and I have called this part of the
book 'Forms and their chief meanings'. I have intention-
ally made the accidence brief and simple, on the principle
approved by the Curricula Committee of the Classical Associa-
tion." Odiiic sitpcn'acuiini plcuo dc pcctorc iiianat. The details
of accidence are relegated to an Appendix as matter of far less
importance and interest to the beginner than the fundamental
features of sentence construction.^
(2) I have throughout called attention to the similarities of
Latin to English, and to French ; for I assume that nearly all
pupils learning Latin have already begun or are beginning the
study of French. It seems to have been too much forgotten
by writers of Latin grammars that French sometimes throws
light on Latin/ and that the English derivatives formed from
Latin words may be turned to account in the learning of Latin
forms. This I have tried to do wherever possible."
(3) In dealing with the principal parts of verbs I have intro-
duced what I believe to be a substantial improvement. For
the first time, so far as I know, the forms of the Perfect Active
have been reduced to rule by means of a classification accord-
ing to the final sound of the stem from which they are formed.
1 e.g. §§ 11-13 on the meanings of the cases, and §§ 125-38 on the
meanings of the voices, moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and verb-nouns ; the
chief uses of the pronouns are given in §§ 101-24.
2 Reconiiiiendatioiis of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin
and Greek (London, John Murray, 1912;, pp. 29 f.
5^ It is hardly necessary to say that great care has been paid to correctness
of statement in regard to the details of accidence included. Some of the
authorities used in this part of the book are referred to in theAppendix.
* That French may be turned to account in the study of Latin is shown
throughout my Syntax. But I would also call attention to the fact that the
scanning of Latin verse would be greatly facilitated by the learning of
a simple rule of syllabic division in French ; see French Grammar, § 11, and
compare Latin Grammar, § 9.
'' e.g. in the examples for declension in §§ 34-9 and .\ppcndix § xiii, and
in the formation of the Perfect Participle Passive, §§ 172-237.
I
6 PREFACE
It seemed worth while to try how far such a catalogue raisoniic,
exhibiting the formations of the Perfect Active in all the four
conjugations at a single view, might prove to be in practice the
simplest method of dealing with these apparently anomalous
forms, which have always been the crux of pupils learning
Latin. When one realizes that the learning by heart of a list
of principal parts as so many isolated forms involves the
memorizing of, on a moderate estimate, 750-1000 facts, one is
not surprised that the forms are not actually remembered
without long practice. Incidentally the pupil will learn some
historical philology ; but the purpose of m}' classification is
not to explain how the facts came to be what they are, but
simply to lead to a practical mastery of the forms ; and it is in
this light that it must be judged. — The Supine is no integral
part of the system of any Latin verb, except in so far as it
is emplo3'ed in the periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive ; it
has, therefore, no proper title to the position which it has so
long usurped. By substituting for it the Perfect Participle
Passive we not only get rid of a multitude of bogus Supines
which have been manufactured by grammarians in order to
supply a fourth 'principal part ', but we also teach the pupil
a form which is of incomparably greater value both in itself
and as an element in the formation of the compound tenses
of the passive voice.
(4) The Subjunctive mood is treated on the lines indicated
by my previous work on the subject/ I have here attempted
to present the results of that investigation in a form intelligible
to the beginner, and I am encouraged to think that m}' expo-
sition of the mood will be found useful in practice. Here, as
in several other parts of my book, I have aimed at lucidity
rather than brevity. But I have not included, here or else-
where, any usages which go beyond what a pupil comes across
in his everyday reading of authors like Caesar and Virgil.
' The Unity oj the Latin Suhjundivc : A Quest i^Jolin Murray, Albemarle
Street, W., 1910).
PRKFACK 7
(5) Most of my examples in syntax arc designedly taken
from Caesar, and where possible from the books of the Gallic
War most commonly read in schools. Caesar is an admirable
exponent of Latin prose usage, and an interesting author if he
is studied properly. But, apart from this, the advantage of
teaching syntax by way of examples which may have been
already met with in the course of reading is very great ; and
I have rarely gone for my examples beyond the range of
books commonly read in schools.
(6) In the treatment of the ablative case I have adopted
a principle which is new in Latin grammar, though it is impli-
citly recognized by all grammarians, viz. that the meanings of
the ablative depend to a great extent on the meaning of the
noun used and on that of the verb or adjective or adverb with
which it is used (§ 12, §428). An ablative like hom stands on
an altogether different footing from ablatives like Roma and
sagiita ; and I believe this fact ought to be recognized in the
earliest stages of teaching, as an aid to undet"standing. I have
carried out the principle in §§ 429-51 of the syntax.
(7) In regard to the pronunciation of Latin, I have adopted
the scheme of the Classical Association,^ which has been
officially recognized by the Board of Education and is rapidly
coming into general use. In the matter of the marking of the
quantities of vowels I have carried out the principle recom-
mended by the Classical Association,'^ and recently endorsed
by a resolution of the Classical Association of Scotland. In
matters of phonology and S3'llable division I have been guided
by Niedermann's Outlines of Latin Phonetics.^
I am indebted to several friends for help and counsel.
With my colleague, Mr. C. D. Chambers, I have discussed
almost every point dealt with in this grammar, and he has
' The Pro)iunciation of Latin (John Murray, Albemarle Street, W., 1906}.
2 On the Teaching of Latin and Greek, p. 2 : ' That in texts of Latin autliors
intended for the use of beginners the quantities of long vowels be marked,
except in syllables where they would be also " long by position ■'.'
^ Translated by Strong and Stewart (George Routledgc and Sons, 1910.
8 PREFACE
given me much assistance in preparing parts of the MS. for
press. Dr. H. Blase, of Mainz, has been so good as to read my
MS. of the syntax on the Subjunctive and the Cases. He and
Prof W. R. Hardie, of Edinburgh, and Prof. R. M. Henry,
of Behast, who have read the whole of my proof, have ren-
dered me the inestimable service of sympathetic criticism, and
at man}' points my book has profited by suggestions they
have made. Mr. W. E. P. Pantin, Secretary of the Joint
Committee on Grammatical Terminology, has read part of my
proof, and to him too I owe several useful hints. My former
pupil, Dr. Henry Thomas, of the British Museum, has done
me the kindness of reading the MS. of my Subjunctive and
suggesting various modifications of detail.
My best thanks are also due to the officials of the Clarendon
Press for the help they have given me in the production of
the book.
E. A. S.
BL.
CONTENTS
PART I ACCIDENCE
FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS
SECTIONS
I-IO
11-13
14-54
55
56-65
66-72
73-77
78.79
80-95
96-101
102
103
104-109
no
111-118
119-121
122-124
125-138
'39-140
141,142
'I3-148
149-151
152, 153
154. 155
156-158
159-^63
164-169
170-237
238 249
Introduction
General meanings of the cases
Declension of nouns and adjectives
The Locative Case ....
Gender of nouns ....
Comparison of adjectives
Formation of adverbs from adjectives
Comparison of adverbs
Numeral adjectives ....
Personal pronouns ....
The emphasizing adjective r/>sc
Possessive adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns
Interrogative pronoun and adjective
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives .
Relative pronoun and adjective
Table of corresponding words
Meanings of voices, moods, tenses, verb-adject
and verb-nouns ....
Conjugation of voco, with meanings
Conjugation of simi, with meanings
Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives, and
verb-nouns in the four conjugations
The four conjugations, active voice
Formation of the passive voice
Conjugation of vocor, with meanings
The four conjugations, passive voice
Tlie mixed conjugation
Deponent verbs ....
Principal parts of verbs .
Irrcsrular verbs
PAGE
11
18
19
32
32
35
37
38
39
44
46
47
47
49
50
52
53
55
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
75
77
80
95
CONTENTS
Appendix to Part I
i-xxii Peculiarities of declension .... 104
xxiii-xxvii Exceptions to rules of gender . . . . 107
xxviii-xxxvii Notes on verbs 109
xxxviii-xl The Calendar, Roman money, Abbreviations iii
xli, xlii Alphabetical list of Principal Parts . . 114
PART II-SYNTAX
250-268
I.
The sentence and its parts
269-290
II
Agreement of the parts of the sentence
with one another
291-367
III.
iVIoods and tenses ...
292-312
Tenses of the indicative mood
313-317
The imperative mood
318-364
The subjunctive mood .
365 367
Sequence of tenses
368-454
IV.
Cases and prepositions ....
368-377
The nominative case and impersonal \(
:rbs .
378
The vocative case ....
379-397
The accusative case
380 393
(a) without a preposition
394-397
(b) with a preposition
398-415
The dative case ....
416-427
The genitive case ....
428-454
The ablative case .....
429^451
(a) without a preposition
452-454
(/;) with a preposition
455-509
V.
Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives .
456 485
The infinitive
486-499
The participles ....
500-502
The gerund adjective ....
503-506
The gerund
507-509
The supines
510 519
VI.
Pronouns and indicating adjectives
520-533
VII
Classification of sentences and clauses
534-550
VIII
Reported speech ....
55^-560
IX.
Order of words ....
INDEX
123
128
137
137
146
147
175
178
178
i8i
181
181
185
188
195
200
200
208
211
212
225
230
232
234
236
240
248
256
263
PART I. ACCIDENCE
INTRODUCTION
1 Laiin is a member of the great Indo-European famih- of
languages, to which English also belongs. Hence many
Latin constructions and some Latin forms are similar to
English constructions and forms.
French is an altered form of Latin. Hence French, too,
stands in a close relation to English. Moreover, after the
Norman Conquest many French words were taken over into
English, and the forms and constructions of Norman French
had an influence in moulding the structure of the English
language. In this way English was brought into a still
closer relation to French and Latin. And since that date the
vocabulary of English has been enriched by the introduction
of a large number of Latin and French words.
We shall see that Latin, French, and English have much
in common— a fact which is due partly to their common
ancestry, partly to the influence which French and Latin
have had on English.
2 Comparison of Latin with modern languages. When
we compare an ordinary Latin sentence with its English or
French translation, we notice two important differences, apart
from the differences in the words used.
Populus Romanus nationes barbaras Britanniac
Th" nation Roman the tribes barbarous of Britain
expedltionibus Caesaris non debellaverat :
by lite expeditions of Caesar not had subdued :
i. e. The Ro\nan )iation had not subdued the barbarous tribes of
Britain by {by means of) the expeditions of Caesar.
Haec hodie facere non possum :
These things today do not I can :
i. e. / cannot do these things to-day.
Note that
(i) the order of the words is quite different ;
(ii) some of the English words have no Latin words to
correspond to them : ' the ', 'of, ' by ', ' had ', ' things ', '1'.
12 INTRODUCTION
(ij Order of Words. The normal Latin order differs
from the normal EngHsh order in two important respects/
Rule i. Most adjectives, when not specially emphatic,
come immediately after the noun to which they belong in
sense, as in French : e. g. Rbmdnus after popitlns, barbards
after ndtioiies ; cf. French le pcuple roinain, Ics peuplcs bar-
bares.
Rule 2. Adverbs and objects usually come before (most
adverbs iminediatdy before) the words to which they belong
in sense : e. g. non (adverb) and ndtibnes barbards Britanniae
(object) both before debclldverat ) haec (object) and hodie
(adverb) both before /aa'r^ ; facerc (object) before possum;
non (adverb) before possum.
These rules apply also, for the most part, to words and
groups of words which are equivalent to adjectives and ad-
verbs ; for example, they apply to cases of nouns used
adjectivally or adverbially ; thus we have Caesaris ' of Caesar '
(adjectival^ 'Caesarian ') after cxpedttionibus, and expedltionibus
(adverbial) before debelldverat
The second rule causes the chief difficulty to the English
reader of Latin. For in any group of Latin words containing
an adverb or an object, the most important word, that on
which the sense depends, comes at the end of the group, and
not at the beginning, as generally in English. But in English,
too, the Latin order is sometimes found, especially in poetry :
How happy is the blameless vestal's lot
The zvorld forgetting, by the ivorld forgot. (Pope.)
The reader of Latin must therefore learn to break up Latin
sentences into groups of ivords that go together :
Populus Romanus | nationes barbaras Britanniae | expedl-
tionibus Caesaris | non dcbellaverat. The art of reading
Latin depends on forming the habit of breaking up sentences
' By tli(j ' normal order ' is meant the usual urder in i)rusc ; the order in
verse is much freer.
INTRODUCTION 13
ill this way, and of expecting the words to come in the order
demanded by the rules.
4 (ill English words not expressed by separate words
in Latin. Note tlie following points:
ia) Latin has no articles, definite or indefinite : thus ex-
pafltio might mean either 'an expedition ' or 'the expedition '.
[b) The subject of a Latin finite verb is often only
indicated by the inflexion of the verb : e. g. possiiiii, ' I can ',
possiaiius, 'we can.' But Latin also has pronouns, which
may be used in the nominative case for the sake of emphasis
or contrast : e. g. ego possum, fu non potes, ' / can, you cannot '
(French tnoi, je pciix; foi, in nc pcux pas).
(r) The compound tenses of the active voice of English
verbs are expressed by simple tenses of Latin : dlbeUdvcrat,
'had subdued', dcheUabat, 'was subduing', debclldbH, 'will
subdue.'
{d) The meaning of some prepositions maybe expressed in
Latin by the inflexion of a noun or pronoun. Thus in § 2
' of and ' by ' are expressed by the inflected forms called the
gcni/ii'c case and the ablative case (' by the expeditions 0/
Caesar ', expeditionibus Caesaris). Other English prepositions
whose meaning may be expressed in certain phrases by
a Latin case without a preposition are ' to ', ' for ', ' from ',
' with ', ' at ', ' on ', ' in ' ; see §§ 1 1, 12.
But Latin also has prepositions, which are sometimes
necessary to express the sense, especially in prose ; for
example, ' an expedition has been prepared by Caesar 'would
be in Latin ' expedltio a Caesare parata est ' ; even 'of may
in certain phrases be expressed by a preposition, e. g. ' one
of many ', ' unus dc inultts ' (compare French de). And
the meaning of the prepositions 'before', 'after', 'across',
' without ', and many others is always expressed by a pre-
position in Latin {ante, post, trans, sine, &c.).
14 INTRODUCTION
Pronunciation of Latin.
5 The Latin vowels had much the same sounds as they have
in French, Italian, and German. The chief difference
between Latin and French is that the Latin u was pronounced
like 00 in English, not like the French ii in /une.
In the following English words the vowels have nearly the
same sounds as the Latin a, e, i, o, it :
aha, d^m^sne, hitrlgiie, sorrow, c/vckoo.
a like French a in pate or English a m father : e. g. mater.
a (the same sound shortened) like French a in pa$ or the
first a in English aha : e. g. pater.
e like French e in e'te, but lengthened ; or English a in fate
without the faint /-sound at the end : e. g. me. The Lat. e
was what is called a 'close e\
e like English e in fret or French (' in nette : e. g. tenet.
The Latin e was what is called an 'open e\
i like / in English machine, French rire or i/e : e. g. imus.
i like / in English /;/, pit : e. g. regit.
5 like French o in tno/e or French eaii in beau ; or
English in home without the faint /^sound at the end : e. g.
Roma.
6 like in English hot or French Jiiol: e. g. hominem.
u like English oo in too or French oii in goiife : e. g. tu.
u (the same sound shortened) like English oo in took or
French on in gonite: e. g. conjLul.
y (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words) like French
// in Inne : sometimes long, e. g. Lydia ; sometimes short,
e. g. tyrannu?.
6 Diphthongs (double vowel sounds) are produced by running
two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single
long syllable.
The Latin diphthongs were pronounced somewhat as
follows :
ae like English (?/ in aisle: e.g. taedae.
au like English on in lotui ; e.g. laudo.
J
INTRODUCTION 15
ei like Knglish rv in gtrv : e.g. eia (Interjection).
eu like English ezv in new : e. g. seu, heu.
oe like English 0/ in boil: e.g. poena.
ui like French o///{'yes'): e.g. huic. The word cni (dat.
sing. q{ qnis and (/nJ) was sometimes pronounced as two short
syllables, cui, like the two vowels of the English ntiii.
7 The consonants were pronounced by the Romans much
as they are pronounced in English, except the following :
c, always like English r in can (= k): e. g. cano, cecini ;
condicio, scit.
g, always like English _i,' in good: e.g. reg5, regis,
regam, reges, regunt; regid.
s, always like English 5 in sea/, gas : e. g. sus, rosa.
z (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words), probably like
English (h in a(ke : e. g. Zephyrus, gaza.
t, always like English / in /<-;/ : tenet, natio, fortia.
i consonant (sometimes written y), like English y in yoke:
e.g. iugum, iacere, cuius, huius, eius.
u consonant (generally written z>), like English ti' in zlui//,
loiue: e.g. vallum, vinum.
qu and ngu before a vowel were pronounced as in the
English queen, anguish (not like the French qu in qui, que) :
e. g. qui, anguis. Similarly, su was pronounced like English
5a' in sweet m the three words suavis, suadeo, suesco, and
their derivatives.
Doubled consonants (./, ///;;/, //;/, rr, ti, iSrc.) were both pro-
nounced : e. g. col-lis, Cot-ta.
Quantity of Syllables.
8 By the quantity of a syllable is meant the amount of tim^
which is taken to pronounce it. A long syllable is considered
to be equal in duration to two short syllables.
A syllable is long in two cases :
(i) when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : e, g. me,
matres, regJ, taeciae, laudo ;
(ii) when it contains a short vowel followed by two or
i6 INTRODUCTION
more consonants other than a mute (c, g; t, d ; p, b) or/
and a liquid (r, /) : (k,i\i, troh?, ccnduni, aimant. The
double consonants x [= cs) and z (= dz, § 7) count as two
consonants ; thus dux and the first syllable o{ gaza are long.
The letter h and the u in qti. do not count as consonants.
Thus the first syllable of ad/ific, loquor, ncqiie, &c., is short.
A syllable is short when its vowel-sound is short and is
followed either by no consonant or by only one consonant :
ego, -que, dat, dabai, rapere. Syllables in which a short vowel-
sound is followed by a mute or/ and a liquid are properly
short, except when the mute and the liquid belong to different
parts of a compound word, as in abripcre, neglegerc.
) In order to understand the reason for these rules it is
necessary to consider the division of Latin words into
syllables, as pronounced. The rules for S3'llable division
are (as in French) : ^
(i) A single consonant is pronounced with the following
vowel : md-ter, ca-dit, bo-niis, iid-incn.
(ii) Two or more consonants are divided between two
syllables, except when the first consonant is a mute or/and the
second one of the liquids r or /. In this case the two con-
sonants are easily combined, and are therefore pronounced
together at the beginning of a syllable (except in compounds) :
la-crhna, a-gruni, pa-treiu, va-fra, lo-cu-ples, A-tlds, &c.
From these rules of syllable division the quantit}' ot
syllables is at once intelligible. A syllable is long when it
ends (i) with a long vowel or diphthong, (ii) with two or more
consonants [trabs, Jiieius, dant) or a double consonant {dux),
(iii) with a single consonant followed by a syllable which
begins with a consonant [ar-iua, ad-suui, con-dit, vac-ca, bel-lus,
ab-ripere, con-traho). In this case the first consonant is
separated from the second by a slight pause.
All other syllables are short : viz. (i) those ending with
a short vowel {e-go, be-ne, ma-le,pi-a, a-grl, padre, &c.); (ii) those
■* See French Gram. § ii.^The rule ot'the Roman grammarians wliicli led
to divisions like iiHi-giiiis, nc-ftds, ili-ciiis has been shown to be mistaken.
fj^ 1*VA /^^^ V- ..r>^ pa, t^a,
INTRODUCTION i?
containing a short vowel followed by a single consonant {liat)
and not followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant.
In connected discourse (prose or verse) the words arc run
on together, so that the first syllable of the next word counts
as the next syllable, within the limits of the sentence or clause
or, in verse, generally of the line.
In this grammar long vowels are marked (a, e, i, 5, u),
except where they are followed by two or more con-
sonants such as themselves make the syllable long, apart
from the length of the vowel.' Short vowels have no
mark over them, except for some special reason (as in
§ 5). Diphthongs, being necessarily long, are also not
marked,
o Accent. All Latin words of more than one syllable had an
accent (stress), which did not necessarily fall on a long
syllable. In words of three or more syllables, if the last
syllable but one was long it was also accented ; if short, the
accent fell on the last syllable but two : thus yocabo, hoiie'sftts ;
but vocdverit, hone'stior, hdniinis, hojniinbus.
In words of two syllables the first was accented, whether
it was long or short : thus iiiafcr, pater, v6cd, Mfisas.
The words -que, 'and ', -ve, ' or', -ne (used in asking questions)
and -CHDi ' with ' counted as part of the word to which they
were attached in speaking and writing; and the accents fell
in accordajice with the above rules : thus Musasque, pate'rve,
voconc ? ; but Miisaqiw, rdsdvc, ntilunc ?.
In words that had lost a syllable the accent might fall on
the last syllable remaining: e.g. taiiton (for iaiitoiie), istihic
(for isliin-ce). But apart from such cases no Latin words
of two or more syllables were accented on the last syllable.
Contrast French.
1 When a word, whose vowel is marked long on the above principle,
enters into composition with another word, the mark of length is retained ;
e. g. iioiiite, mosque, undeciitt, vciido.
\
FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS
General meanings of the Cases.
It Most Latin nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have inflected
forms called ' cases ', which differ from one another in
meaning, though not always in form. Note that (i) all
neuter nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have the same form
in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases, both in the
singular and in the plural number ; (ii) all nouns have the
same form in the dative as in the ablative plural; (iii) the
vocative does not differ from the nominative in form, except
in the singular number of nouns and adjectives of the 2nd
declension in us (§§ 16, 18, 22).
The general meanings of the nominative, vocative, accusa-
tive, genitive, and dative cases are the same as in English :
Nominative. Patria mihi est Britannia. My country is
(lit. To me the country is) Britain.
Vocative. Te, patria, amo. I love thee, my country.
Accusative. Patriam amo. / love my country.
Genitive. Litora patriae relinquo. / am leavitig my
country's sJiorcs (or the sho>es of my
country).
Vincet amor patriae, llie love of country
ivill prevail.
Dative. Patriae libertatem dedit. He gave his coun-
try freedom, or He gave freedom to his
country.
Non tibi ipsl sed patriae natus es. / You arc
born not for yourself but for your
country.
FORMS AND rillClR CllIKF iM KANINGS 19
12 riic Ablauve is a case peculiar to Latin. Its meaning
depends partly on the meaning of the noun used and of the
verb with which it is used. Thus with a verb denoting 'to
expel ' the abl. may express the idea of ' from ' : patria ex-
pulsus est, ' he has been expelled from his country '. The
abl. of a noun denoting an instrument may express the idea
of 'with', or 'by means of: aquilam sagitta necavit, 'he
killed an eagle with (or by means of) an arrow '. The abl.
of a noun denoting a period of time may express the idea of
' at ', ' on ', ' in ' : prima h5ra diel, ' at the first hour of the
day ' ; hoc die, ' on this day ' ; h5c anno, ' in this year.'
Note that the abl. of a noun denoting a material object
could not express the idea of * on ' or ' in ' in prose : for
instance f)rtiud nicnsd could not mean 'on the first table',
nor could hoc horto mean ' in this garden '. In these and
similar instances the abl. would take a preposition in prose :
/;/ prirnd nicnsd, in hoc horto. Similarly, ex patria (or a patria)
venit, ' he comes from his native land ' ; cum patre vtvit, ' he
lives with his father ' ; a patre aiiidtur, ' he is loved by his
father.'
13 Names of towns and a few other nouns (including names
of small islands which had only one town of importance in
them, after which they were called) have also a Locative case
denoting 'at', 'in', or 'on'; see § 55.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
14 Latin nouns are arranged in five declensions, according to
the endings of the genitive singular and the genitive plural :
Ending of Gen. Sing. Ending of Gen. Pliir.
1st Declension ae arum
2nd ,, i orum
3rd „ is um
4th ,, us uum
5th ,, ei erum
Latin adjectives have forms similar to (though not exactly
the same as) those of nouns.
13 2
20
ACCIDENCE
15
Nouns of the First Declension.
insula, f., island.
Singular
Plural
N., V.
insula
insulae
Ace.
insulam
insulas
Gen.
insulae
insularum
Dal.
Abl
insulae
insula
I insulls
16
ExAMPLlib FOR DECLENSION —
Fern.: fuga., /Itghl ; hora, hour; iniuria, injury; via, road ;
victoria, victory ; Iiilia, Julia.
Masc. : agricola, husbandman; nauta, sailor; perfUiga,
deserter; Catilina, Catiline.
Nouns of the Second Declension.
dominus, m., owner bellum, n., war
Sing.
Plur.
1 Sing.
Plur.
Nom.
dominus
domini
1
Voc.
domine
•bellum
bella
Ace.
dominum
dominos
Gen.
domini
dominorum
belli
bellorum
Dat.
Abl.
1 domino
dominis
bello
jbellls
17
Examples for declension are given in § 21. For nouns in
ins, ium see § 22.
magister, m., teacher puer, m., boy
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
magister
magistrl
puer
puerl
Ace.
magistrum
magistros
puerum
pueros
Gen.
Dal.
Abl
magistrl
magistrorum
puen
puerorum
magistro
[ magistris
puero
)
f puens
Examples for declension are given in § 21.
DKCLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 21
Vir, 111., man (as distinct iVom -woniaii) is declined as follows :
Si'/ig. viruni, virl, viro ; P/ur. virl, viros, virorum, viris.
Adjectives like nouns of the and and the ist declension.
18 I. cams, cara, carum, (/rar (like (/oniinifs, insula, hrllton, p. 20)
Singii/at
-
Plural
1
niasc.
/rni.
neiit.
inasc.
fcin.
neut.
V.
carus
care
cara
cara
carum
carum
[carl
carae
cara
Ac.
carum
caram
carum
caros
caras
cara
G.
carl
carae
carl
carorum
cararum
carorum
D.
Ab.
caro
caro
carae
cara
caro
caro
xarls
carls
carls
1
19 2. creber, crebra, crebrum, frequent (like magistcr in the /
masc)
A'.
V.
Ac.
G.
D.
Ah.
Sifigiilar
inasc.
fevt. neut.
creber
crebra crebrum
crebrum crebram crebrum
crebrl crebrae crcbri
crebro crebrae crebro
crebro crebra crebro
Plural
viasc. fern. neut,
[ crebrl crebrae crebra
crebros crebras crebra
crebrorum crcbrfuum crebrorum
\ crebrls crebrls crebrls
20 3. liber, libera, llberum, free (like piier in the masc. Here (/
the e of the nom. sing, is retained throughout)
Singular
Plural 1
masc.
fern. 7teul.
masc.
fein. 7teut.
N.
V.
\ liber
llberum
libera llberum
[ liberl
Ilberos
liberae libera
Ac.
ITberam llberum
Ilberfis libera
G.
liberl
liberae liberl
llberorum
llberarum llberorum
D.
Ah.
llbero
ITbero
ITberae ITbeio
libera llbero
[ ilbcrls
llbcrls llberis
Examples for declension (like i, 2, 3) are given in § 21.
22 ACCIDENCE
Examples for Declension (Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 20,21).
21 Likedominus: Maso. amicus, /nW/^; annus, vmr; nume-
rus, number.— F EM. Iagu5, Ijcech ; ulmus, elm (names of trees).
Like bellum : Neut. perlculum, danger, peril; proelium,
battle; signum, standard; consilium, /»/««, counsel.
Like carus, a, um: bonus, a, um, good; antlquus, a, um,
ancient; vacuus, a, um, empty; idoneus, a, um, fitted ; tertius,
a, um, third; datus, a, um, given; tuus, a, um, your; tantus,
a, um, 50 great; quantus, a, um, hoiv great? ; and all super-
latives in -issimus, a, um.
Like magister (magistr-) and creber, crebr-a, crebr-um
are declined most nouns and adjectives of the 2nd decl. in
er : e.g. arbiter, m., witness; faber, m., carpenter or smith;
minister, m., servant; ager, m., field; liber, m., book; aeger,
aegr-a, -vim,sick; integer, integr-a, -um, ivhole, entire ; pulcher,
pulchr-a, -um, fine ; sacer, sacr-a, -um, sacred ; noster, nostr-a,
-um, our.
Like puer and liber, a, um are declined only a iew nouns
and adjectives : chiefly (i) llberl (no sing.), m., children, lit.
' free-born ones ' ; (2) asper, a, um, rough ; lacer, a, um, torn ;
miser, a, um, unhappy; tener, a, um, tender; (3) compounds of
I -fer and -ger, like aquilifer, m., standard-bearer; armiger, m.,
/ aniiour-bearer ; frugifer, a, i\m, fruit-bearing.
Nouns in ius, ium.
22 I. Nouns (but not adjectives) in ius or ium properly form
the gen. sing, in i in prose (in verse often in -ii) :
e. g. filius, m., son, fill ; negotium, n., business, negoti ;
except proper names, e. g. Clodius, gen. Clodil.
2. Proper names in ius and the noun filius form the voc.
sing, in t:
e.g. Vergilius, Vergill ; Gains (three syllables). Gal.
3. Deus, m., god, has its voc. sing. = nom. sing., and
generally contracts two syllables into one in the nom., voc,
dat., and abl. plural : dJ, dis ; gen. sometimes deuni.
nrcLF.NSiox (^f xorNs and adjectives 23
Nouns of the Third Declen&ion.
23 Class A (Consonant stems with gen, plur. in -um).
Those nouns of the 3rd decl. which have one more syllable
in the genitive singular than in the nominative singular and
only one consonant before the ending of the gen. sing, form
the genitive plural in um.
24 (i) Nominative singular formed without any suffix.
M.ASCULI.NES AND FeMININES
victor, m., victor. natio, f., tribe.
N., V.
Ace.
Gen.
Dal.
Abl.
Sing.
victor
victor-em
vlctor-is
victor-i
victor-e
Pill
■ victor-es
victor-um
' victor-ibus
Sing.
natio
nation-em
nation-is
nation-T
nation-e
P/iir
I nation-Ps
nation-um
[nation-ibus
25
Neuters
nomen, n., name.
tempus, n., time.
Sing.
Phir.
N.,i^.,A. I nomen ' nomin-a
Gen. nomin-is
Dat. nomin-I
Abl. nomin-e
nomm-um
nomin-ibus
Sing.
tempus
tempor-is
tempor-I
tempore
Plur.
tempor-a
tempor-um
tempor-ibus
26 (ii) Nominative singular formed with the suffi.x -s (before
whicl^ a dental disappears).
Chiefly Feminine
hiems, f, winter. cTvita=;, f., state.
N., V.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Sing.
hiems
hiem-em
hiem-is
hiem-i
hiem-e
Plur.
r hiem-es
I hiem-um
[hiemibus
Sing.
civita-s
civitat-em
civitat-is
cTvitat-I
civitat-e
Plur.
■civitat es
civitat-um
■ civitat-ibus
Examples for declension (like i, ii) are given in §§ 34-9.
24
ACCIDENCE
27 Class B (Vowel stems with gen. plur, in -i-um). Those
nouns of the 3rd decl. which have either the same number of
syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing, or two con-
sonants before the ending of the gen. sing, form the genitive
plural in ium.'
28 (i) With the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as
in the nom. sing.
navis, f., ship.
caedes, f., inassaar.
Sing.
Plur. •'
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
navi-s
naves
caede-s
caedes
Ace.
navem
naves
caedem
caedes
Gen.
navis
navium
caedis
caedium
Dat.
Abl.
navl
nave
navibus ,
caedi
caede
[ caedibus
Obs. The abl. sing, of words like navis often ends in -T, and
the ace. plur. of nouns like Jidi'is and caedes in -Is.
29 (ii) With two consonants before the ending of the gen.
sing, (which has one more syllable than the nom. sing.).
urbs, f , eify. gens, f , clan.
N., V.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Sing.
urb-s
urbeni
urbis
urbl
u rbe
Plur.
urbes
urbes
urbium
urbibus
Sing.
Plur.
gen-s
. gentes
gen tern
gentes
gentis
gentium
gentI
gente
gentibus
Obs. The ace. plur. of nouns like urbs and gens often ends
in -ts.
30 (iii) Neuters in e with the same number of syllables in the
gen. sing, as in the nom. sing., and those which have dropped
the e of the nom. sing, and so end in al ov ar. Note the abl.
sing, and nom. plur.
' Most of these nouns come from stems in / 'iidvi-, tirhi-, I'nsiiriii-, &c.").
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECriX'ES 25
insignfe, n., badge. animal, n., (Uiiiiml.
Most of these neuters were originally adjectives. Thus
animal (originally annndk) meant 'possessed of life', from
aniiiia.
Examples for declension (like i, ii, iii) are given in §§40-5.
Adjectives like nouns of the 3rd declension.
-i^
31 Adjectives of this kind are declined hke the nouns of
Class B on the opposite page, excepting that the ablative
singular always ends in i (not e).
(i) brevis, m., f., breve, n., short, brief (like navis § 28, and
insigne § 30).
Singular
Plural
jnasc. and fern. neut.
niasc. and f em. neiit.
N., V.
brevi-s breve
breves brevia
Ace.
brevem breve
breves brevia
Gen.
brevis
brevium
Dat.
Abl.
[ brevT
brevibus
[2 (2) acer, m., acris, f., acre, n., keen, differs from brevis, breve
only in the nom. sing. masc.
Singular
Plural
1
masc. fern.
neut.
masc. and fern.
neut.
N.,V.
acer acri-s
acre
acres
acria
Ace.
acrem acrem
acre
acres
acria
Gen.
acris
acrium
Dat.
Abl.
acrl
acribus
26
ACCIDENCE
33 (3) ingeris, ni., f., n., huge (like gens § 29 in the niasc. and
fem. Note the nom. and ace. sinsr. neut.)
Singular
niasc. andfenu neut.
ingen-s ingen-s
ingentem uigen-s
ingentis
ingentl
Plural
uiasc. and fem. neut.
ingentes ingentia
ingentes ingentia
ingentium
ingentibus
Obs. The ace. plur. (niasc. and fem.) of adjectives lii/«/-•, as
follows :
Neuter Singular
Plural ■ \
niasc. and fern. neut.
Norn., Ace.
Gen.
Dat., Abl.
plus
plur-is
none
plur-es plur-a
plur-ium 1
plur-ibus 1
The compound coniplur-es (masc. and fem.), coniplui-a
(neut.), 'several,' found only in the plural, is declined in the
same wa y : complur-luni, complur-ibus.
Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
51 exercitus, m., army. cornu, n., horn.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
N., V.
Ace.
exercitus
exercitum
exercitus '
cornii
cornua
Gen.
exercitus
exercituum
cornus
cornu um
Dat.
Abl.
exercitui {or u)
exercitu
exercitibus
cornu (or ui)
cornu
[cornibus
rrr
^■^Hl
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJ ECl IVES 31
Examples of nouns of the 4T11 peclen.
1. Like exercitus.
Masc. : adventus, arrival; impetus, aUack ; xw^tiwa, fear ;
i'lsus, use ; currus, chariot.
Fem. : idils (plur.), the Ides ; nianus, hand.
2. Like cornu. Neut. : genu, knee.
\2 domus, f., house, home, belongs parti}' to the 2nd decl.
Singular
N., V. donuis
Ace. doniuni
Geti. domus
Dat. domui
Abl. domb (2/id decl.)
Loc.^ domi {-zud decl.)
Plural
domus
demos [2nd decl.) or domus (4//1)
domdrum {2.nd) or domuum (4///)
doniibus
)3
Nouns of the Fifth Declension.
res, f., thing, affair.
1
Singular
Plural
N., V.
res
res
Ace.
rem
Gen.
rel
rerum
Dat.
Abl.
rei
re
■ rebus
)4 The only nouns of importance belonging to the 5th decl.
besides res ■ are dies, day (generally masc), and the following
feminines, none of which have all cases of the plural in use :
acies, line 0/ battle ; {a.c\es, shape, face ; i\des, fidelity; pernicies,
destruction ; planities, plain ; species, appearance ; spes, hope.
Those which have an / before the cs of the nom. sing, have
a long e in the gen. and dat. sing., e. g. diet, aciel.
A shorter form of the gen. and dat. sing, is sometimes found :
die, acie.
' See § 13 and § 55.
- The combination rci publica .sometimes written as one word respiiblica),
liltially ' the public interest ', ' the common weal ', means republic, coiiiinon-
wcaU/i, or constitution. The plural res publicac found in all the cases) means
republics, contnionzvealt/is, or constitutions, and should never be translated
'public aflairs', whicii meaning is expressed by the singular number.
32 ACCIDENCE
THE LOCATIVE CASE (see § 13)
55 The endings of the Locative, which is used to denote
' at ', ' in ', or ' on ' (i. e, to answer the question ' Where ? '),
are as follows : —
in Singulars of the ist decl. ae : Romae, at Rome; mllitiae,
on military service :
in Singulars of the 2nd decl. i : BeneventI, at Beneventum,
Brundisii, at BriDidisitoii ; domi, at home (§ 52), belli, /// nmr,
humi, on the ground.
In all other nouns the locative has the same form as the
ablative : thus —
Singulars of the 3rd decl. : Carthagine, at Carthage ; Tibure,
at Tibur; rure, in the country; Neapoli, at Naples [^ 28, Obs.).
Names of towns of plural form :
ist decl. : Athenis, at Athens (nom. Athenae) ; Cannis, at
Cannae.
2nd decl. : Philippis, at Philippi ; Gabils, at Gabii.
3rd decl. : Gadibus, at Gadcs.
GENDER OP NOUNS'
56 The rule for the gender of nouns denoting persons is
the same as in French, and there are no exceptions to it
of any importance :
Nouns that denote a male person are masculine ;
Nouns that denote a female person a.v& feminine.
The gender of these words depends on their meaning, and
has nothing to do with the'ir/orm or declension.
ThusMASc: agricola, farmer; Sulla, Sulla; Horatius,
Horace ; puer, boy ; vir, man, husband ; pater, father ;
frater, brother ; rex, king ; senex, old man ; Cupidd, the
god Cupid.
Fem. : puclla, girl; Cornelia, Cornelia; regJna, queen;
' On this and the two following pages masculines are printed in heavy
type, teininines in italics, and neuters in CAPITALS.
GENDER OF NOUNS 33
inulier, woman ; iixor, wile ; soror, sister ; iiuiUr, motlicr ;
rcnus, the goddess Venus ; anus, old woman.
57 Nouns wiiich may denote persons of either sex are mascuUne
or feminine according to their application : e. g. parens meus,
my father ; parens )nca, my mother ; sacerdos castus, a holy
priest ; sacerdos longaiva, an aged priestess ; civis Romanus
or clvis Ronidna, a Roman citizen. Similarly masc. or tern. :
comes, companion ; dux, guide ; hospes, host or hostess ; hostis,
enemy; miles, warrior.
58 Note, (i) This rule does not apply to nouns which denote
a collection of persons ; these follow the rules for the separate
declensions given below : e. g. ndlio (fern.), tribe ; plebs (fem.),
the commons; cbpiae (fem.), forces (plur. oi copia, supply);
AUXiLiA (neut.), auxiliary forces (plur. oi auxilium, aid).
(ii) Words like the following do not properly denote
persons, though they are sometimes applied to persons :
J MANCiPiUM, chattel (neut., sometimes applied to slaves);
deliciac, delight (= darling).'
The gender of nouns not denoting perso:^s may be mostly
found by the following rules.-
gg I. Those of the ist declension are all feminine, e. g.
hora, hour ; insula, island ; Jra, anger ; rlpa, bank ; vita, liie.
60 II. Those of the 2nd declension in us or er are nearly all
masculine, e. g. annus, year ; hortus, garden ; numerus,
number ; ager, field ; liber, book : those of the 2nd declension
in L^^f are all neuter, e. g. donum, gift ; vInum, wine.
^61 III. I. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom.
sing, by adding the suffix 6' to the stem are mostly feminine :
e. g. liiem-s, winter ; civitd-s, state ; salH-s, welfare ; virtu-s,
virtue (Class A (ii), § 26) ; ndvi-s, ship ; caede-s, massacre
(Class B (i), § 28) ; urb-s, city ; gen-s, clan ; cohor-s, cohort
(Class B (ii), § 29).
^ In a play of Plautus a lady is humorously called ' my delight, my life,
apple of my eye, tip of my lip, my salvation, my honey, my heart, my little
cream cheese '.
* The chief e.\.ceplioii6 to ihc^e rules are given in the .\ppeiitJix.
801 C
34 ACCIDENCE
62 2. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom. sing,
without the addition of the suffix s are —
feminine if the nom. sing, ends in tid, tudb, go :
e. g. naiio, tribe ; drafio, oration ; niuliilfidd, multi-
tude, ortgo, origin ; imago, image (Class A (i),
§ 24).
Most other nouns in id and do are also feminine :
e. g. legio, legion ; formido, terror.
NEUTER if the nom. sing ends in men, us, ur, e, |^^ :
e. g. NO MEN, name ; temp us, time ; robur, strength
(Class A (i), § 25) ; insigne, badge ; mare, sea ;
ANIMAL, anirnal; exemplar, pattern (Class B (iii),
§30).
Note that these neuters in us differ from the feminines in us of
§ 39 in two ways : firstly, the u of the neuters is generally short,
that of the feminines is always long ; secondly, the neuters have an
r before the ending of gen. sing. Contrast tempus, tempor-is,
and GENUS, gener-ls with salu-s, salut-is.
masculine in all other cases :
e. g. labor, labour ; agger, mound ; sol, sun ;
mos, custom ; pulvis, dust ; sermo, discourse
(Class A (i), § 24).
fl^jP'Test the above rule by referring to the nouns on
pp. 26-9.
50 IV. Those of the 4th declension in tus and sus are all
masculine :
e. g. exercitus, army ; motus, motion ; usus, use.
So too are most of the others of the 4th decl. in us ;
e. g. currus, chariot ; gradus, step.
The two or three of the 4th declension in are all neuter :
e. g. GENU, knee.
64 V. Those of the 5th declension are all feminine, except
dies (§ 54).
65 The above rules apply in general to nouns denoting kinds of
animals, except that none of these arc neuter. Those which would
GENDER OF NOUNS
35
be neuter according to the above rules are masculine : e. g. mils,
mouse ; vultur, vulture. But some nouns denoting kinds of animals
are masc. when they denote the male, and 1cm. when they denote
the female : e. g. b5s, bull ; bos, cow. Some have difterent forms to
denote the two sexes : e.g. equus, horse ; lyjita, mare.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
66 The Comparative is regularly formed by adding /or (masc.
and fern.), ius (neut) to the part of the positive which remains
when the ending of the genitive singular is removed.
The Superlative is generally formed by adding to the same
part of the positive the endings issimus (masc.), issiina (fem.),
issiinidii (neut.) :
Positive
Gen. Sing.
Comparative
Superlative
carus
car-I
car-ior, -ius
car-issimus
dear
dearer, too dear
dearest, most dear
rather dear
very dear
brevis
brev-is
brev-ior, -ius
brev-issimus
utilis
util-is
util-ior, -ius
util-issimus
nobilis
nobil-is
nobil-ior, -ius
nobil-issimus
ingens
ingent-is
ingent-ior, -ius
ingent-issimus
But in some adjectives the superlative is formed by adding
the endings intus (masc), itna (fem.), i}nuiii (neut.) —
(i) to the same part of the positive, with the final letter (/)
doubled, in the four adjectives ^a7/'s, gracdis, humilis, similis
('easy', 'slender', 'lowly', 'like') and their compounds
{difficilis, ' difficult ', dissiindis, ' unlike ') :
facilis facil-is facil-ior, -ius facil-1-imus
(2) to the nom. sing, masc, with the final letter (r) doubled,
in all adjectives whose nom. sing. masc. ends in cr : thus —
liber
llber-I
liber-ior, -ius
llber-r-imus
pulcher
pulchr-i
pulchr-ior, -ius
pulcher-r-imus
acer
acr-is
acr-ior, -ius
acer-r-imus
celer
celer-is
celer-ior, -ius
c 2
celer-r-imus
36
ACCIDENCE
68
69
70
Many verb-adjectives (present and perfect participles) have
degrees of comparison formed regularly : e. g. amans, loving,
amant-ior, amant-issimus ; paratus, prepared, ready, parat-ior,
parat-issimus.
Adjectives in lis preceded by a vowel making a separate
syllable [c-us, i-iis, ii-tis) generally form the comparative and
superlative by means of the adverbs magis, ' more ', and
maxiine, ' most ' :
^'ms, faithful magis pius, a, um maxime pius, a, um
'\dbnc\xs, suitable magis idoneus, a, um maxime idoneus, a, um
A similar form of speech is always used to express the
ideas of ' less ' and ' least ' :
carus, dear minus carus, a, um minime carus, a, um
For the declension of comparatives see § 49 ; superlatives
are declined like other adjectives in us, a, um, § 18.
Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives
71 bonus, good
malus, bad
magnus, great
parvus, stiiall
multus, nuich
multi, many
iuvenis, young
senex, aged
novus, nciv
vetus (veter-), old
propinquus, near
mel-ior, -ius, better
peior, peius/ worse
maior, mains,' greater
mill or, -us, snmller
plus (n.), niore"^
pliir-es, -a, more
iun-ior, younger
sen-ior, elder
[recent-ior, -ius,/;r6V;^r]
[vetust-ior, -ius, oldcr^
prop-ior, -ius, nearer
optimus, best
pessimus, ivorst
maximus, greatest
minimus, smallest
plurimus, most
plurimi, very many
[natu minimus, youngest~\
f natu maximus, eldest^
novissimus, a, um, last
veterrimus, oldest
proximus, nearest, next
72
In the case of the following comparatives and superlatives
the corresponding positive adjective does not exist, or is
rare ^ :
1 Two syllables (with i pronounced as j, § 7).
2 The singular plus is used like a noun : plus vnil, ritoic ivinc (lit. more of
wine). For the declension of plus see § 50.
3 In this list only the masc. is given ; the fern, and neut. are formed
regularly.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 37
deterior, worse dcterrimiis, worst
exterior, onfcr cxtremus, on/crniost
inferior, hwrr Tmus ) / - ^ /
infimus)
interior, inner intimus, inmost
posterior, later postremus, fast
prior, former primus, first
superior, /lig/ier suprcmusl^^^.^^^^^^
summus ) -^
ulterior, fartlier ultimus, farthest
FORMATION OF ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES
73 I. From adjectives declined like nouns of the 2nd declen-
sion (§§ 18-20) adverbs are mostly formed by adding e to the
part of the positive which remains when the ending of the
gen. sing, is removed : —
74
Adjective
Gen. Sing.
Adverb
doctus
doct-I
doct-e
learned
learnedly
pulcher
pulchr-I
pulchr-e
fine
finely
liber
llber-I
llber-e
free, frank
freely, frankly
But in some cases is added instead of ^ :
citus, sti'//?; cito (shortened) rarus, rrt;r ; raro
crther, frequent ; crebro ' serus, late; sero
falsus, false ; falso subitus, sudden ; subito
meritus, deserved; merito tCitus, sr?/^'; tuto
necessarius, necessary ; necessario j
Distinguish the following formations :
verus, true ; vere, truthfully ; \ero, in truth, indeed ; verum,
but, yet (a conjunction).
certus, certain ; certe, at any rate (ego certe scio, / at any
rate know) ; certo, for certain (certo scio, / know for certain).
pvlvcwxs, first; prlmo, at first (of time; opposed to postea,
after-wards); primum, first, in the first place (French premiere-
ment), cf. § 77.
38 ACCIDENCE
75 II. From adjectives declined like nouns of the 3rd decl.
(§§ 3i~3) adverbs are mostly formed by adding iter to the
part of the positive which remains when the ending of the
gen, sing, is removed : —
brevis, brief brev-is brev-iter, briefly
felix, lucky felic-is fellc-iter, luckily
Note audax, bold audac-is audac-ter, boldly
tjQ But when the adjective has nt before is in the gen. sing.,
the adverb is formed by adding er instead of iter:
prudens, prudent prudent-is prOdent-er, prudently
77 III. Many adverbs are supplied by the accusative singular
neuter of adjectives, especially adjectives of quantity and
number: multum, niucli', aliquantum, considerably; nimium,
too much ; paulum, paululum, a little ; quantum, how much ;
tantum, so much (or only just so much, hence only) ; solum,
only ; primum, flrst, in the first place ; secundum, secondly ;
tertium, thirdly, &:c. So also (from facilis) facile, easily, and
all comparative adverbs (§ 78).
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
n8 The Comparative of adverbs formed from adjectives is
supplied by the accusative singular neuter of the comparative
adjective : the Superlative is formed by adding e to the part
of the superlative adjective which remains when the ending
of the gen. sing, is removed : —
Positive Comparative Superlative
vere, truthfully ver-ius, more truth- verissim-e, most truth-
fully fully^
pulchre, finely pulchr-ius, more finely pulcherrim-e, mostfinely
crebro, fre- crebr-ius, mo?'e fre- creberrim-e, most fre-
quently qucntly qucntly
breviter, briefly brev-ius, more briefly brevissim-e, most briefly
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
39
79 The tbllowing arc irregular (cither in tlic positive or in tlie
comparative and superlative) :
bene/ ivcll
male/ hadly
niagnopere," greally
multum, )}tnch
non multum) ,.,,,
- liltle
parum
melius, be tier
pcius, worse
magis, more
plus, more
minus, /ess
optime, hesl
pessime, ivorst
maxime, most
plurimum, )]iost
mini me, least
did, loiig (of time)
nuper, lately
[wanting]
prope, m'ar
saepe, often
diutius, longer
[wanting]
potius, rather
propius, nearer
saepius, oftener
diutissime, longest
nuperrimc, most recently
potissimum, especially
proxime, next
saepissime, oftenest
80
NUMERAL
Cardinal
some declinable
ADJECTIVES
89)
Ordinal
all declinable
primus, a, um
secundus, a, um
or alter, alter-a, -um
tertius, a, um
quartus, a, um
quintus, a, um
sextus, a, um
Septimus, a, um
octavus, a, um
nonus, a, um
decimus, a, um
vicensimus, a, um
tricensimus, a, um
quadragensimus, a, um
quinquagensimus, a, um
sexagensinius, a, um
septuagensimus, a, um
octogensinius, a, um
nonagensimus, a, um
centensimus, a, um
' Note the short final e in these adverbs.
* Magnopcre — wagtto opere (from opufi ' work', 3rd decl.).
I
unus, a, um (§ \.
II
duo, duae, duo
III
tres, tria (§ 89)
IV
quattuor
\'
quinque
VI
sex
VII
septem
VIII
octo
IX
novem
X
decem
XX
vlgintl
XXX
trlginta
XL
quadraginta
L
quinquaginta
LX
sexaginta
LXX
septuaginta
XXX
octoginta
XC
nonaginta
C
centum
40
ACCIDENCE
CC ducenti, ae, a '
CCC trecenti, ae, a
CCCC quadringenti, ae, a
D quingenti, ae, a
DC sescenti, ae, a
DCC septingenti, ae, a
DCCC octingenti, ae, a
DCCCC nongenti, ae, a
M mille (§ 83)
ducentensimus, a, um
trecentensimus, a, um
quadringentensimus, a, tim
quingentensimus, a, um
sescentensimus, a, um
septingentensimus, a, um
octingentensimus, a, um
nongentensimus, a, um
millensimus, a, um
Compound forms of Numeral Adjectives.
(i) The numerals 11-19:
Cai'diual.
81 XI undecim
XII duodecim
XIII tredecim
XIV quattuordecim
XV quindecim
XVI sedecim
XVII septendecim
XVIII duodevlginti"
XIX undevTgintr
82 (2) In compound numbers from 20-100 the smaller number
is generally placed first with ct 'and ' (as in the English 'one-
and-twenty '), but the other order without et (like ' twenty-
one') is often found; in compound numbers above 100 the
larger number is generally placed first (without et) : —
Cardinal. Ordinal.
XXI Onus (a, um) et vl- Onus (a, um) et vicensi-
ginti or vigintT Onus
(a, um)
Ordinal.
Ondecimus
duodecimus
tertius decimus
quartus decimus
quintus decimus
sextus decimus
Septimus decimus
duodevicensimus
Ondevlcensimus
XXVIII
XXIX
CXXXIII
mus (a, um) or viccnsi-
mus (a, um) primus (a,
um)
duodetrlcensimus (a, um)
undetricensimus (a, um)
centensimus (a, um) trl-
censimus (a, um) ter-
tius (a, um)
' The hundreds are declined regularly in the plural.
2 Numbers compounded witli 8 and 9 are generally expressed by means
of f/r, denoting subtraction ('two from twenty-, 'one from twenty', &c.) :
except 98 octo ei uCtidgiiitii, 99 novem et nondghiia.
duodetriginta ^
Ondetrlginta ^
centum triginta tres
(tria)
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES
41
Where fmiis occurs in compound minibers, it docs not
agree in number (though it does in gender and case) with the
plural noun, e.g. coitiini uni is pedes, ' loi feet'.
83 (3) Numbers above 1,000.
The numeral niillct 'thousand', is indeclinable in the sin-
gular and is an adjective: e.g. Diillc hoiiiines, 'a thousand
men', cum niillc /lotiiiiiibus, 'with a thousand men'; but the
plural viJ/in, ' thousands ' (used in multiples of 1,000), is
a neuter noun of the 3rd declension, declined like the plural
of wsigue (p. 25) — ni7/ia, inJh'uut, nulibiis; and it takes the
genitive after it: e.g. duo mllia homiuum, lit. ' two thousands
of men', i.e. '2,000 men'; cum dudbiis mllibiis hominuiu,
' with 2,000 men '. But compound numbers containing
hundreds as well as thousands (e.g. '3,333 men ') do not
need the genitive : iria m'llia trecentl trlgintd trcs homines or
iria mllia homimim et trecenfi trigintd ires.
84 Distributive Adjectives
answering the question ' how
many apiece ? ' {quotrnl?)
singuli, ae, a, one apiece
bini, ae, a, tiie)
of us [ |3Wt^hv>C
'Dat.
mihi me, to me
nob!s
us, to us
Abl.
me me
nobis
us
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
45
97
Second Person (i. c. the person spoken to).
Singular
Plural
N.,J\tu thou^
Ace. te thee
Gen. till of thee
Dat. tibi thee, to thee
Abl. te thee
vos - you, ye
vos you, ye
vestrl of you
Ivestrum of you
vobis you, to you
vobis yoic
^ or you (denoting one person).
2 not used to denote one person.
98 The ace, gen., dat., and abl. of the 1st and the 2nd person
may be used reflexively, i. e. may refer to the doer of
the action denoted by the verb ; they are then translated by
myself thyself [yourself), ourselves, yourselves : me occldam,
/ will kill myself ; te amas, you love yourself { = you are
selfish).
J9 Third Person (i.e. the person spoken of: he, she, it;
they).
Singular
Plural
masc. fcm. neut.
masc.
fern.
neut.
Nom.
is ea id
il(c'0
eae
ea
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
eum earn id
eius
el
eo ea eo
eos
eorum
\
eas
earum
ils leT
ea
eorum
The nom. sing, and plur. is used only for the sake of
emphasis or contrast.
The nom. and dat. and abl. plur. are sometimes spelled
e~i, els.
00 In the third person there is, as in French, a separate
46 ACCIDENCE
reflexive form for the ace, gen., dat., and abl. cases
j Sing, and Plur. ; masc.,fem., and neut.
Ace. se or sese himself, herself, itself; themselves
Gen. sui of himself , of herself of itself ; of themselves
Dat. ' sibi to {or for) himself ^ &c.
Abl. se or sese himself &c.
Examples : —
Cato se occldit. Cato killed himself {committed s«/-cide).
Homo non sibi soli natus est, sed patriae. A man is
born not for himself alone, but for his country.
loi Of the above forms of the genitive case (§§ 96-100) only
eius and corum, edrum have possessive meaning : liber
eius, the book of him = his book. The genitives in i are used
chiefly as genitives of the object ; memento mel, remember
me or be mindful of vie ; memor sum tui, / am mindful of
you ; amor sul, the love of self; odium vestri, the hatred of
you = the feeling of hatred against you. The genitives
nostrum and vestrum are used chiefly as genitives of partition ;
quis nostrum? who of us?, nemo vestrum, no one of you.
The possessive meaning in the ist and 2nd persons, and
in the 3rd person when reflexive, is expressed by possessive
(y adjectives (§ 103).
THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE
102 ipse m., ipsa f., ipsum n., -self differs from se (§ 100) in
two respects :
(i) it is an emphasizing adjective or pronoun ; se is
a reflexive pronoun : e. g. Brutus fllios suos ipse occidit.
Brutus himself put his own sons to death. Mulierem ipsam
vidi. / saw the woman herself.
(ii) it may agree with a pronoun (generally not expressed)
of the ist or 2nd as well as of the 3rd person, whereas se
refers only to the 3rd person : Ipse feci. / did it myself Ipse
fecistl. You did it yourself. Ipse dixit. He said it himself
Ipsi diximus. We said it ourselves, t&c.
THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE 47
Singular
Now.
ipse
ipsa
ipsum
Ace.
ipsum
ipsam
ipsum
Gen,
ipsius
Dat.
ipsi
Abl.
ipso
ipsa
ipso
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
03 Declined like other adjectives in us, a, uiii and er, ra, ntnt
(§§ 18, 19), except that the voc. sing, niasc. of mens is ;;//.
ist PERSON : mens, a, um, my or (reflexive) my'oivn ;
noster, nostra, nostrum, our or (reflex.) our own ;
2nd PERSON : tuus, a, um, your or (reflex.) your own ;
vester, vestra, vestrum, j'o«ror (reflex.) yowrozt;//;
3rd PERSON : suus, a, um, his own, her own, its own, their own
(reflex.).
Examples :
pater noster, patria nostra, consilium nostrum.
Liberos meos occldit. He has killed my children.
Me et liberos meos occidam. / ivill kill myself and my
own children.
Brutum et fllios eius (§ loi) occidam. / will kill Brutus
and his sons.
Brutus filios suos occidit. Brutus killed his own sons.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE AND PRONOUN
04 hie m., haec f., hoc n., this
Singular
Plural
Nom.
hie ^ haec
hoc ^
hi
hae
haec
Ace.
hunc banc
hoc
hos
has
haec
Gen.
huius
horum
harum
horum
Dat,
huic
■
his
Abl.
hoc hac
hoc
1 The
nom. sing. masc. and
neut. ar
i generally
ong syllabi
es : see
note at th
e foot of next page.
48
ACCIDENCE
The c at the end of most of the above forms (§ 104) is
a demonstrative suffix with the same force as the French ci
in cea and celiu-ci ; thus Lat. hie is Hterally 'this here*.
For the pronunciation oUiuius and hitic see § 7 and §6.
All the following adjectives and pronouns (demonstra-
tive, interrogative, indefinite, and relative, §§ 105-19) have
the neuter nominative and accusative singular in d.'
OTHER DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND
PRONOUNS
105 ille m., ilia f, illud n,, that, yon
Singular
Plural
Nom.
ille ilia illud
ilh
illae
ilia
Ace.
ilium illam illud
illos
illas
ilia
Gen.
illius
illorum
illarum
illorum
Dat.
Abl.
illi
illo ilia illo
illis
106
107
iste m., ista f., istud n., that, that of yours, is declined
exactly like ille, ilia, illud.
is m., ea f, id n,, that, the (unemphatic)
Singular
Plural
Nom.
is ea id
il eae ea
Ace.
eum earn id
eos eas ea
Gen.
ems
eorum earum eorum
Dat.
Abl.
el
eo ea eo
[ ils
^ The demonstrative hie, Iiaec, hoc (§ 104) had originally the (/-forma-
tion in the neut. sing., and this explains how it is that hoc is a long syllable,
though its vowel is short. The original form hod-ce became lioc-ce, hocc ;
and though the last c was dropped in writing it was pronounced before vowels,
making the syllable long (see § g, ii). The nom. sing, niasc. hie became
a long syllabic by imitation of the neuter.
DEMONSTRATIVES
49
i-dem in., ea-dem t\, i-dem n., ///<■ saiiif
(literally, that very one)
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Singular
idem eadem idem
eundem candem idem
eiusdem
eld em
eodem eadem eodem
Plural
Idem eaedem eadem
eosdem easdem eadem
eorundem earundem eorunderr
I Isdem
alius m., alia f, aliud n., other,
another
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
Singular
alius alia aliud
alium aliam aliud
alius 'a^iJWa,
alio alia alio
alii
alios
aliorum
Plural
aliae
alias
aliarum
alils
1
alia
alia
aliorum
^ The gen. sing, is rarely used, being commonly replaced either by the
adjective alienus, a, ttiii or by the gen. of al/er, a, tun (§ 91) : aes alienum,
debt, lit. money belonging to another; domus alteruis, one''s neigliboiir''s Iioiise.
alius r.~. alius, one . . . another: alius alium interfecit.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE
quis (mostly pron.)) . quid (always pron.)) , .
qui (mostly adj.) j ^■' ^^^^ ' ' quod (always adj.] ) "'' ^^^'^ ' '
The ace, gen., dat,, and abl. are either pronouns or ad-
jectives.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
quis
qui
Singular
(quid
quae j^ ,
' I quod
(quid
qui
Plural
quae quae
quem quam ]^ . quos quas quae
cuius ' quorum quarum quorum
cui 1 1 .,
„,- - - f quibu.s
quo qua t'" ' ' ^
50 ACCIDENCE
Exx.: Quis vocat ? Who is calling t^
Qui puer vocat ? What boy is calling ?
Quae puclla vocat? What girl is calling?
All the forms in the above table except quis and quid may
be not interrogative but exclamatory : qui sermones ! ivhat
talk {there loill he) !
For the pronunciation of cUiits and cui see § 7 and § 6.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
111 The Latin indefinite pronouns and adjectives are closely
connected in form with the interrogatives (§ no), but in
meaning with numerals. They denote indefinite number.^
(i) quis (qui) m., quae f,, quid (quod) n,, anyone, any ;
declined like the interrogative (§ no), except that the nom.
sing. fem. and the nom. and ace. plur. neut. are generally
shortened to qua.
Used after words like «, 'if, nisi, 'unless', ne, 'not' or
' lest ', nuni, ' whether ' :
Si quis quid rumore acceperit, ad magistratum deferat.
If anyone hears anything by report, he is to inform the
magistrate.
Ne qua multitudo trans Rhenum traducatur. Let no mass
of men be led across the Rhine.
112 (2) Compounds of the above (§ in) with an indeclinable
part.
Forms in -quis and -quid are generally pronouns : forms
in -qxii, -quae (or -qua), -quod generally adjectives.
aliquis) , , aliquid )
,. . m., aliqua f., ,. \w. someone, some.
aliqui ) ' ^ ' aliquod)
Exx. : Aliquem ad me mitte. Send someone to nu\
Cum aliquod bellum incidit, omnespugnant. JVheu
some ivar arises, they all fight.
1 Other words of the same kind are nemo ,- no ono ' and »?7»7, 'nothing',
, derived from lu'' ' not ' and ticniu (an Old Latin form of lioiiio, ' man '), Itlluni,
\ ' a whit' : nemo = not a man ; tii'/iil = not a whit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 51
13 quidam ni., quaedam (., quiddam (quoddam) n., a irr/aiii,
sonic : declined with n instead of;;/ beft^rc (/.
Exx. : Quentlani ad sc vocat. He calls a certain nian to him.
Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur. He con-
verses iv/tli some yo/mi^ men.
14 quivis m., quaevis f., quidvis (quodvis) n. ]
qullibet m., quaelibet f., quidlibet (quodlibet) ^y^y y^^ "^^
= every (-vis from void).
Exx. : Quilibet haec facere potest. Anyone (= ei'cry one) can
do this.
Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum. // is
not every one's good luck to visit Corinth.
15 qui^quam m. and f., quicquam (for quidquam) n.; used like
the English anyone at all, chiefly in negative and interro-
gative sentences (no plural).
Exx. : Ne quemquam oderis. Do not hate anyone at all.
Cur quicquam sibi postulat ? JVhy does he demand
anything at all /or himself F
16 The adjective which corresponds in meaning {= any at all)
is nlhts, a, tim (declined like rmus, a, am, § 86).
Exx.: Neque ullam vocemexprimere poterat. Norcotddhe
utter a single ivord.
Sine ullo maleficio abibimus. IVc shall depart ivithottt
any wrong- doing at all.
[17 quisque m., quaeque f , quidque (quodque) n., each one, each.
Exx. : Quaerunt quid quisque eorum de quaque re audierit.
They inquire what each one of them has heard about
each matter.
Materia cuiusque generis in Britannia est. There is
timber of each (= every) kind in Britain.
[18 quispiam m., quaepiam f , quidpiam (quodpiam) n., someone
or other.
Exx. : Cum quaepiam cohors ex orbc excesserat, hostCs re-
fugiebant. Whetiever some cohort or other quitted
the circle, the enemy fled.
Dixerit quispiam . . . Somebody is likely to say . . .
D 2
52
ACCIDENCE
RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE
119 The relative pronoun and adjective are connective ; i. e.
they introduce a new clause with a verb of its own, like
a conjunction. The word in the other clause to which the
relative refers is called the antecedent.
qui m., quae (., quod n., w/io, ivhicli
Singular
Plural
Norn.
qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Ace.
quern quam
quod
quos
quas
quae
Gen.
cuius
quorum
quarum
quorum
Dat.
Abl.
quo
CUl
qua
quo
.
quibus
The relative need not stand as near as possible to its ante-
cedent, as it does in French and generally in English :
Examples :
Corns ventus navigationem impediebat, qui in his locis flare
consuevit. The NW. ivind, which is ivont to bloiv in these
parts, was stopping navigation.
Pulvis in ea parte videbatur in quam [or quam in partem)
legio iter fecerat. Dust ivas seen in that (or the) direction in
which the legion had marched.
Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur, quorum erat
princeps Litaviccus atque fratres eius. He converses with
certain young men, the chief of whom tvcre Litaviccus and his
brothers.
120 In the above instances the clause introduced by the relative
is subordinate ; in the following it is co-ordinate :
Magnum numerum obsidum imperat : quibus adductis Mori-
nos in fidem recepit. He demands a great number of hostages :
which having been brought to him (= and when they had been
brought to him), he admitted the Morini to his protection (B. G.
iv. 22. 2). Instead of quibus adductis Caesar might have
RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECriVE 53
written ct Jus adducl'is or qui {— ct lii) cnin addiidl cssciit.
Compare B. G. vii. 5. 4.
121 Notes. — i. An old ablative (sing, and pliir., all gendei^s) is
mil, which is generally used as an adverb meaning 'how' or^
'wh^', but sometimes as a rcl. proii., c.^. quicum, a'//// iK.'lioin.^
2. Another form oi" the dat. and abl, plur. is quls (in poets).
3. Latin has two generalizing relatives, meaning ' whoever',
'whatever ' : (i) quicumque m., quaecumque L, quodcumque
n. — compounds of qui, quae, quod, § 119; (ii) quisquis m., f.,
quidj^iid n. — doubled form of an old-fashioned relative qui's,
quid.
122 Table of Corresponding Words
In the following table —
(i) the relatives correspond to the demonstratives: e.g.
Tantam eorum multitudinem interfecerunt quantum fuit diei
spatium. They killed as great a number of them as was the
length of the day} Duae naves eosdem port us quos reliquae
capere non potuerunt. Two ships could not make the same
ports as the rest. Dixerunt se ibi futures esse ubi Caesar
voluisset. They said they would be there where Caesar
wished.
(2) The adverbs correspond to the pronouns — demonstra-
tive to demonstrative and relative to relative : for instance,
ibi there (= in eo loco) corresponds to is that, and ubi lohere
(= quo in loco) to qui which.
123 Note the English word ' as ' in the table :
(i) with relative or conjunctive meaning (in the second
and the fourth columns) ;
(ii) with demonstrative meaning (in the first and the
third columns).
1 i. e, ' as the day was long '. The sentence means that the number of the
slain was proportionate to the length of the day.
54
ACCIDENCE
124 Demonstrative
Pronouns and
Adjectives
hie, haec, hoc,
this
ille, ilia, illiid
that, yon
is, ea, id
that, tJie
idem, eadem, idem
the same
Relative
Pronouns and
Adjectives
qui, quae, quod
ivho, which
iste, ista, istud
that of yours
tantus, a, um quantus, a, um
so great, as great as
talis, e qualis, e
of such a kind as
tot, so many,
as many
quot, as
Demonstrative Relative
Adverbs Adverbs and
Subordin-
ating Con-
junctions
hie, here
hue, hither
hine, hence
illie, there
illuc, thither
illinc, thence
ibi, there lubi, where
eo, thither \ quo, ivliithcr
hide, thence [unde,iiihence
[ibidem, ///
Jeodem, to
[indidem, /ro///^
[istie, there
J istue, thither
[istine, thence
tantopere quantopere
so much as
I tarn, so (before ad- quam, as
I jeetivesand ad-
verbs)
ita, sic, adeo, so ut, as
(before verbs)
totiens, so many quotiens, as
times, as many
times
THE VERB
I. Meanings of Voices, Moods, and Tenses.
125 Voices. There are two voices in Latin :
I. The Active Voice, which is used either transitively
or intransitively :
nuntium vocat, he calls the messenger (trans.),
quis vocat? ivho is calling? (intrans.).
I
rilK VERB 55
2. The Passive Voice :
nuiuius vocatur, llic messenger is ealled.
vocatur ad anna, there is a call to arms (impersonal
passive construction ; literally it is called to arms).
126 Moods and their Tenses.
I. The Indicative Mood relates to matters of tact :
vocat, he is calling.
num vocat ? is he calling ^
127 riiere are six tenses of the Indicative.
The Present, the Past Imperfect and the Future are
tenses of incomplete action :
Present : vocat, he is calling ' or he calls (habi-
tually).
Past Imperfect : vocabat, he was calling or he called
(habitually = he used to call).
Future : vocabit, he ivill call or ivill be calling.
128 The Perfect, the Past Perfect and the Future Perfect are
tenses of completed action :
. Perfect : vocavit, used either (i) as a Present
Perfect, marking the action as
completed at the time of speaking :
he has called;
or (ii) as a Past Historic, marking
the action as having taken place in
the past (i. e. before the time of
speaking) : he called.^
Past Perfect : vocaverat, he had called.
Future Perfect : vocaverit, he will have called.
129 2. The Imperative Mood is used like the English im-
perative, and has in addition a 3rd person (sing, and plur.).
It has two forms of the 2nd person (singular and plural) :
a short form : voca
a long form : vocato
' The Present is most commonly translated by the English Present
Continuous, except in verbs that denote a slate as distinct iVoin an act.
- Used like tlie French Past Historic : // a/iptla, il s'icrid.
I call.
56 ACCIDENCE
130 3. The Subjunctive Mood has the same kind of meaning
as the English subjunctive, but is more widely used.^ It has
four tenses, which are translated in different ways, according
to the context in which they stand. Their uses will be given
later (Syntax, §§ 318-67). Meanwhile note the following
translations, which, though they are not applicable to all
usages, express the fundamental meanings of the tenses of
the subjunctive, and will serve as a clue to their more difficult
uses : —
Present Subj. : vocet, he call, he is to call, he shall call.
Compare the Fut. Indie: vocabit,/?^
zvill call, which expresses no more
than future time. The Pres. Subj.
combines the idea of obligation with
that of future time.
Perfect Subj.: vocaverit, he have called, he shall have
called. Compare the Fut. Perf.
Indie, (which has the same form
in this person) : vocaverit, he will
have called.
The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive have the
corresponding meanings in past time :
Past Subj. : vocaret, he was to call, lie should call,
(a kind of Future in the past)
Past Perf. Subj . : vocavisset, he should have called.
(a kind of Future Perfect in
the past)
1 Examples of the English Present Subjunctive (from Shakespeare)
denoting what is to be done. — Call him my king? (= Am I to call him my
king^). — Somebody call (= somebody is to call, let somebody call) my
wife.— Now call we (= let us call) our high court of parliament.— Look you
call (-^look: you are to call) me Ganymede. — Past Subjunctive (from
a daily paper) :— No cabinet would be able to endure the odium attaching to
a government which called upon us to make peace on such terms [called —
should call .
11 lie VERB 57
131 But in some uses the s/ial/-meRn\ng of the tenses of the
bubjunctive is modified : sometimes they denote what ivoitld
be done or woii/d /ini'c been done under certain conditions :
vocem, voces, vocet \ I should [yon zvonld, he
vocarem, vocares, vocaret j ivouhi) call.
vocavissem, vocavisses, vocavisset,/s/«o?//(/(_>'OM would,
he ivould) have called.
In some subordinate clauses they may be translated by
English indicatives of the corresponding tense : e. g. Quis
vocet (vocaverit) nescio. / do not knoiv who is calling (has
called).
132 II. Meanings of Verb • Adjectives and Verb • Nouns
(formed from the stem of the verb).
I. The three Participles, called (i) Present (ii) Perfect
(iii) Future, mark the action as (i) going on or not completed
(ii) completed (iii) in prospect :
Present Participle Active : vocans (-nt), calling.
Perfect Participle Passive : vocatus, a, urn, called.
Future Participle Active : vocaturus, a, um, about to
call.
Note the absence of a Perfect Participle Active, a Present
Participle Passive and a Future Participle Passive.
133 2. The Gerund Adjective is a passive verb-adjective,
marking the action as to be done : vocandus, a, umjjo-be-called :
Nuntius revocandus est. The messenger is to be called
back (= must be called back).
Milites ab opere revocandi erant. The soldiers had to
be (lit. were to be) called back from their work.
The nom. sing. neut. of the gerund adjective is used with
a tense of esse in an impersonal passive construction (cf.
§125,2): ^ ^^^~ ^^^
Magna voce vocandum est. We must call (lit. // is to
be called) with a loud voice.
Magna voce vocandum erat. We had to call{\\\.. It was
to be called) wil/i a loud voice.
58 ACCIDENCE
In some cases the Gerund Adjective may be translated
by an English adjective in -able or -iblc, where these adjectives
have passive meaning :
liber laudandus, a laudable book, a praiscivoHliy book.
homo contemnendus, a contemptible person.
134 3- ^^^ Infinitives called (i) Present (ii) Perfect (iii) Future
mark the action as (i) going on or not completed (ii) completed
(iii) in prospect:
ACTIVE I PASSIVE
Present Infin. : vocare, to call, vocarl, to be called.
to be calling.
Future Infin. : vocaturus (a, vocatum iri (§ 137), to be about
um) esse, to be about to call. to be called.
Perfect "Tnfin. : vocavisse, to vocatus (a, um) esse, to have
have called. \ been called.
135 4. The Gerund is an Active Verb-Noun of the neuter
gender, corresponding to the English verb-noun in -ing, and
denoting the act of — ing; it is used only in the singular
number and chiefly in the genitive and the ablative cases :
vocandl causa, for the sake of calli)ig.
vocando, by calling.
It has no nominative case.^
136 5. The Supine in -um is the Accusative Case of a Verb-
Noun of the 4th declension (Nom. vocatus, a calling, a call);
the Accusative here denotes the end in view or purpose :
vocatum, to call (lit. with a vieiv to calling).
Venerunt rogatum ut sibi ignosceret. They came to ask
that he shoidd pardon them.
137 The combination of the Supine in -um with the Present
Infinitive Passive of eo 'I go' is equivalent to a Future
Infinitive Passive:^
Non credo mllites revocatum irI. / don't think that the
1 The form in -um given in the following tables (§ 139, &c.) is the
Accusative, which is used after certain prepositions (chiefly; ad).
2 This construction is impersonal : see Syntax, § 377.
Till-: VVAU)
59
so/dtcrs null be called back (lit. / do not believe there to
be a going zvith a view to calling bach the soldiers).
Many verbs have no supine in -uni.
138 A few verbs have also a Supine in -u, which is an Ablative
or Dative or Locative case of a Verb-Noun of the 4th declen-
sion ; but supines in -u are very rare :
facile facta, an easy thing to do.
Difficile dictu est. // is difficult to say.
The following tables show the principal translations
of the moods, tenses, verb-nouns, and verb-adjectives in
the active voice of two verbs : (i) the verb voco, * I call,'
(2) the verb sioit, * I am/ which is used in two ways :
(ij with full meaning, in sentences like Sti})i pins Aeneas
' I am the faithful Aeneas ' ; Est^profedbjdeus qui quae nos
geriinus audit et videt "There is (= exists) assuredly a god
who hears and sees what we are doing ' (Plautus, The Captives,
313)-
(ii) as an auxiliary verb, which, when joined with the Perfect
Participle Passive, forms the tenses of completed action of the
Passive Voice (§ 158).
6o
ACCIDENCE
VOCO— Active Voice
Tenses of incomplete
action— Stem voca-
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
VOCO / am calling
vocas you are calling
voca, vocato call
vocat he is calling
vocato let him call
vocamus ive are calling
vocatis you are calling
vocate, vocatote call
vocant they are calling
vocanto let them call
or / call, &c., § 127
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
vocabo / shall call
vocem \
voces V'
vocabis you will call
vocabit he will call
vocet -"
vocabimus we shall call
vocemus
vocabitis you ivill call
vocetis
vocabunt they will call
vocent
or I shall be calling, &c.,§ 127
For the meanings see §§ 130,
131 ^^
^ ^
Past Imperfect
Past V
vocabam / ivas calling
vocarem -^v::) ,
vocabas you were calling
vocares \^' \^ ./\
vocaret y rV
^
vocabat he was calling
vocabamus zve ivere calling
vocaremus v
vocabatis you were calling
vocaretis
vocabant they were calling
vocarent
or/<:a//tY/{habitually), = used
For the meanings see §§ 130,
to call, &c., § 127
131
1 Pres. Part.
FuT. Part.
VERB-
ADJS.
vocans (-nt-) calling
vocaturus, a, um about to
call
Pres. Infin.
Put. Infin.
vocare to call
vocaturus (a, um) esse to
VERB.
be about to call
NOUNS
Gerund
Supine
vocandum [///f act
vocatum [ivith a vieiv] to
of^ calling
call
IHE VERB
6i
VOCO — Active Voice (continued)
Tenses of completed action— Stem vocav-
INDICATIVE
Perfect
vocavi / have called
vocavisti yoii have called
vocavit he has called
vocavimus ive have called
vocavistis vo// have called
vocaverunt (-ere) they have called
or / called, &c., § 128
Future Perfect
vocavero / shall have ^
vocaveris ^ yon zvill have | ^
vocaverit he ivill have \_^
vocaverimus ' ive shall have [ "^
vocaveritis ' yon ivill have \
vocaverint they ivill have /
Past Perfect
vocaveram / had
vocaveras j'o/^ had |
vocaverat he had '^
vocaveram us ive had ""^
vocaveratis you had 1
vocaverant they had '
IMPERA TIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
vocaverim \
vocaveris ^ ,
vocaverit
vocaverimus ^
vocaveritis ^
vocaverint
For the meanings see
§§ 130* 131
Past Perfect
vocavissem
vocavisses
vocavisset
vocavissemus
vocavissetis
vocavissent
For the meanings see
§§ 130, 131
VERB.
VERB-
NOUN
[None]
Perf. Infin. vocavisse to have called
1 i often lengthened. - 7 often shortened.
The same statements apply in all other verbs [sec Appendix],
62
ACCIDENCE
SUM
Tenses of incomplete action
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
sum / am
esyou are
es, esto he
est he is
esto let him he
sumus voe are
estis jvo« are
este, estote he
sunt they are
sun to let them he
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
ero / shall he
sim / he
eris you will be
s\s you he
erit he imll he
sit he he
erimus we shall he
simus ive be
eritis you -will be
sitis you he
erunt they ivill he
sint they he
[Other translations in §§ 130, 131]
Past Imperfect
Past
eram I ivas
essem / zuere
eras j'ow were
esses you were
erat he was
esset he were
eram us ive were
essemus zve were
eratisj^'ow ivere
essetis you were
erant they ivere
essent they ivere
[Other translations in §§ 130, 131]
VERB-
[No Pres. Pel
rt.] Put. Part, futurus, a, um
ADJ.
about to he
VERB-
Pres. Infin.
esse FuT.lNF,N.{[°[j;^g(^^^^j^g^^
NOUNS
to he
1
to he about to be
[No Gerund
1
* Fore is the only non-compounded fiit. infin. which exists in Latin. It
also serves as a fut. infin. lo /id (§ 246). From the same stem comes a b3--
form of the Past Subjunctive : forcm, fores, foret ; forent — I sliould be, you
would be, Sec.
THE VERB
63
SUM (continued)
Tenses of completed action— Stem fu-
INDICATIVE
Perfect
\ fill I have been
k\\s>i\ yon Jiave been
fuit lie has been
fuimus ive have been
{\nsi\s, yon have been
fuerunt (-ere) theyJiavebeen
or / was, you ivere, he
icas, !kc., § 128
Future Perfect
fuero / sha/t have been
hieris yon ivill have been
fuerit he ivill have been
fuerimus ive shall have been
fueritis vo/< ivill have been
fuerint they -a'ill have been
Past Perfect
fueram / had been
fueras you had been
fuerat he had been
fueramus ive had been
' fueratis you had been
fuerant they had been
IMPERATIVE
[NoneJ
SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
fuerim ' ''^^' ^' V»/^
fuerls 1
fuerit
fuerimus
fuerltis !
fuerint
For the meanings see §§ 1 30, 13 1
Past Perfect
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset
fuissemus
fuissetis
fuissent
For the meanings see §§130, 131
VERB-ADJ.
1 NoneJ
VERB NOUN
Perf. Infin. fuisse to have been
.. C^fiJi^
u
64
ACCIDENCE
143 III. Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and
verb-nouns.
The personal inflexions of the active voice in all tenses of
the indicative and subjunctive, except the perfect indicative,
are as follows :
•mus
•tis
•nt
144
Sing. I. -o or -m Plur. i.
2. -s 2.
3- -t 3-
See the tables of voco and sidh (§§ 139-42).
Two of these inflexions are seen in English verbs — the m
of the ist pers. sing, in the verb ' am ', and the t of the 3rd
pers. sing, in forms like ' love/A '. Three of them survive in
some French verbs : tn coiir-s, il coiir-t, tls coure-nt.
The four conjugations.
Latin verbs are divided into four conjugations,' which are
distinguished by their characteristic vowels (seen in the
present infinitive active) :
Act.
ISt CONJ.
2nd CONJ.
3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
'res.
Infin.
vocare, to call
habere, to have, to hold
regere, to rule, to guide
audire, to hear
145
By removing the re of the pres. infin. act. may be found the
stem from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed,
and which is found unchanged in most forms :
Examples :
Stem Imperative Imperative Past Suhj. Past Subj.
Active Passive Act. Pass.
ISt CONJ.
2nd coNj.
voca-
habe-
voca
habe
voca-re
habe-re
voca-rem
habe-rem
voca-rer
habe-rer
3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
rege-
audi-
rege
audi
rege-re
audi-re
rege-re m
audl-rem
rege-rer
audl-rer
' These do not include a very important group of verbs vvhicii belong
partly to tlie 4th, partly to the 3rd Conjugation (Mixed Conjugation, § 159).
TIIR VER15 65
But in man}' of the forms belonging to the tenses of incom-
plete action the stem suflers modifications ; in some forms its
final vowel is shortened, as in voca-t, habc-t, audi-t ; in others
it is changed, as in rcgi-t, rcgii-nt. Some of the forms of
the 3rd and 4th conjugations are got from imitation of the
2nd conjugation; so rcgc-batn, audi-c-haui. It is, therefore,
necessary to learn these tenses separately in the separate
conjugations. They are given side by side in f§ 149, 150 for
purposes of comparison.
46 The tenses of completed action have exactly tlic same
endings in all the four conjugations, which differ only in the
formation of the stem from which these tenses come. Here
all the conjugations can be learned together: see § 151.
47 The stem of the perfect tenses active is formed —
in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix V to the stems in a and J: voca-v-, audi-v-;
in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding v to the
stem in e (here shortened to c)', but the 7' amalgamates
with the c so as to form h : habu- ;
in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation from a stem which
has no final vowel, e. g. rcg-. To this stem the suffix
5 is very commonly added : rex- (for rcg-s-)}
48 The stem of the perfect participle passive is formed—
in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding
the suffix /- to the stems in a and 1: voca-t-, audi-t- ;
in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding t to the
stem in c (here shortened to /) : habi-t- ;
in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation by adding / to a stem
which has no final vowel : rec-t- (for rrg-(-).
' Other ways of forming tin; perf. act. and the pcrf. part. pass, arc given
in §§ 171, 172.
2 This / is the same as the t ov d which is used to form the past participle
of most English verbs : dwcl/, los/, hearr/. The / which is found in the
future participle active and the supine is of different origin, being the same
as that which is used in nouns of the 4th declension. Hence these forms
have no sense of completion : vocaturus = ahotit to call, not about to hate called.
'•'01 !■
66 ACCIDENCE
The Four Conjugations— Active Voice
149
Tenses of incomplete action
1
ist CoN-j. 2nd CoNj. 3rd CoNj.
4th CoNJ.
Stem voca-, ca// habe-, //air, Iio/d rege-, rii/c
audi-, hear
INDICATIVE
voco
habeo ' rego
audio
2
vocas
habes ' regis
audls
u
vocat '
habet regit
audit
M
vocamus
habemus regimus
audlmus 1
Cm
vocatis
habetis regitis
audltis
vocant \
vocabo 1
habent regunt
audiunt
habebo regam
audiam
vocabis
habebis reges
audies
vocabit
habebit reget
audiet
H
vocabimus
habebimus regemus
audiemus
—
vocabitis
habebitis regetis
audietis
vocabunt
habebunt regent
audient
^
K-
(_
vocabam
habebam \ regebam
audiebam
'^
a
vocabas
habebas regebas
audiebas
(/5 U.
vocabat
habebat regebat
audiebat
'Zj
V
vocabamus
habebamus regebamus
audiebamus
"^
s
vocabatis
habebatis regebatis
audiebatis
?
^
vocabant
habe bant regebant
audiebant
VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-l
^OUNS
Pr.
Pt.
vocans habens regens
(-nt-) (-nt-) (-nt-)
audiens
(-nt-)
FuT. Pt.
vocaturus, habiturus, recturus,
auditurus,
a, um ; a, urn ' a, urn
a, um 1
Pr.
Inf.
vocare habere regere
audlre '
Ger.
vocandum habendum regendum
audiendum
1 FuT. Inf.
vocaturus habiturus recturus
auditurus
.n.'\
h
Sui
(a.umjesse
(a, umjesse (a,um)esse
(a, umjesse
».
vocatum
habitum | rectum
audltum
T11F-: VKRB
67
The Four Conjugations — Active V'oice (continued)
Tenses of
incomplete action (continued)
I St CONJ.
2nd CoNj.
3rd Con J.
4th CoNj.
Stem
voca-, en//
habe-, /lave
rege-, ru/e
audi-, hear
IMPERATIVE
S.2
< voca
1 vocato
1 habe
( habetu
rege
regito
audi
audlto
3
vocato
habeto
regito
audlto
P. 2
( vocate
1 vocatote
1 habete
(habetote
regite
regitote
jajidite-
faudltOte
3
vocanto
habento
SUBJUNCl
regunto
^IVE
audiunto
vocem
habeam
regam
audiam
1 H
voces
habeas
regas
audias
1 u
vocet
habeat
regat
audiat
If)
vocem us
habeannis
regamus
audiamus
vocetis
habeatis
regatis
audiatis
vocent
habeant
haberem
regant
- -
rege rem
audiant
audlrem
vocarem
vocares
haberes
regeres
audires
vocaret
habcret
regeret
audlret
<
2h
vocaremus
haberemus
regeremus
audlremus
vocaretis
habEretis
regeretis
audiretis
1
voca rent
haberent
rege rent
audlrent
E 2
68
ACCIDENCE
The Four Conjugations — Active voice (continued)
151
J-^
1
Tenses of completed action
Stems vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
INDICATIVE
IMPERA TIVE
Perfect
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. I. -I P. I. -imus
2. -isti 2. -istis
3. -it 3. -erunt
[None]
or -ere
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future Perfect
Perfect
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. I. -ero P. I. -erimus '
2. -eris ' 2. -eritis '
3. -erit 3. -erint
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. I. -erim P. i. -erimus -
2. -erIs " 2. -critis '■^ ,
3. -erit 3. -erint
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
S. I. -eram P. i. -eramus
2, -eras 2. -eratis
3. -erat 3. -erant
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv-
S. I. -issem P. i. -issemus
2. -isses 2. -issetis
3. -isset 3. -issent
VERB-NOUN -J
Perfect Infinitive
vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv-
-isse
■\.^ V
THE PASSIVE VOICE
152 The passive forms of the tenses of incomplete action
(indicative, imperative, and subjunctive) may be found from
the active forms in all the four conjugations by adding the
following endings and making some changes (i, ii, iii below) :
' /often lengtliened (§ 140).
2 Soften shortened (§ 140.
THE PASSIVE VOICE 69
Endings. - Indie, Subj. ami short forms of the Im[)ciativc :
S. 1. r P. I. r In P. 2 mini is
2. ris or re substituted for
3. ur 3. ur -/is and -fc
Long forms of the Imperative, 2nd and 3rd persons, r.
(i) where the active form ends in a consonant and the passive
ending begins with r, the last consonant of the active is
dropped ; (ii) the stem vowels, a, c, i of the ist, 2nd, and 4th
conjugation recover their length in some of the forms in which
they are shortened in the active; (iii) a fmal b in the active is
shortened to b in the passive; (iv) a short / before 5 in the
active becomes c in the passive.
Examples : voco, voc6-r ; vocem, voce-r (;// dropped) ;
vocamus, vocamu-r (5 dropped),
vocas, voca-ris (s dropped) ; vocatis, voca-minl.
vocat, vocat-ur {a long); vocant, vocant-ur.
voca, voca-re ; vocate, voca-minl.
vocabis, vocabe-ris ; regis, rege-ris.
153 The passive tenses of completed action are formed by com-
bining the perfect participle passive with tenses of the verb
sum (§ 141). The participle, being an adjective, agrees in
gender number and case with the subject of the sentence or
clause : populus Romanus ad arma vocatus est, the Roman
nation has been (lit. is) called to arms ; mater Gracchorum
vocata est Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi was caUed
Cornelia) numina magna vocata sunt, the great deities -were
invoked. The sense of completed action is given not by the
verb sum but by the participle : vocatus sum, / am a called
person (i. e. a person who has been called). Compare in
English 'All these articles are sold ' = ' All these articles have
been sold *. Vocatus sum is properly a present perfect (= Engl.
/ have been called), but it came to have the same double use
as the perfect active (§ 128); as a past historic it is translated
/ was called.
70
ACCIDENCE
VOCOR— Passive Voick
154
Tenses of incomplete action— Stem voca-
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
vocor / am being called
vocaris ' you arc being called
vocare, vocator be called
vocatur he is being called
vocator let him be called
vocamur ivc are being called
vocamini you are being called
vocamini be called
vocantur they are being called
vocantor let them be called
or / am called, kc, § 127
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
vocabor / shall be called
vocer
vocaberis ' you will be called
voceris '
vocabitur he ivill be called
vocetur
vocabimur ivc shall be called
vocemur
vocabimini you zvill be called
vocemini
vocabuntur they will be called
vocentur
Eor the meanings see §^ 130,
131
Past
Past Imperfect
vocabar / ivas being
vocarer
vocabaris ^ you ivere being
vocarcris '
vocabatur he ivas being 1 ^
vocaretur
vocabamur ive ivere being i"te
vocareniLir
vocabamini you ivere being\
vocaremini
vocabantur they were being '
vocarentur
or / tvas called (habitually)
= used to be called, § 127
Eor the meanings sec §§ 130,
131
VERB ^ .
ADJ. Gerund Adj. vocanc
ius, a, um to-be- called
VERB- Pkes. Infin. vocarl
to be called
NOUNS I Put. Infin. vocatu
m iri to be about to be called
' Or with -tc lor -ris ^vocare, vocabcre, vocabarc, vocere, vocarere\
THE PASSIVE VOICE
71
VOCOR— Passive Voice (continued)
Tenses of completed action-
Compounded with
Perf. Part. Pass.
INDICATIVE
I M PER A TIVE
Perfect
vocatus sum / have ^
vocatus es you have ^
vocatus est he has g
[None]
vocati sunuis zve have ~
vocati estis- yon have \ ^
vocati sunt )hey have
or / ii'as called, iSrc, § 153
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future Perfect
Perfect
vocatus ero / shall have > ^
vocatus sim
vocatus eris you will have
1
vocatus sis
vocatus erit he ivill have
vocatus sit
\ vocati erimus ive shall have
vocati slnius
vocati eritis you will have
vocati sitis
vocati erunt I hey will have
vocati sint
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
vocatus eram / had ^
vocatus essem
vocatus eras you had \ ^
vocatus esses
vocatus erat lie had ~g
vocatus esset
vocati eramus we had 5*
vocati essemus
vocati eratis you had ^
vocati erant they had
vocati essetis
vocati essent
For the meanings see
§§ 130. 131
In all the above forms the part
iciple may be masc,
fern., or neut.
Sing, vocatus, a, um
Plur. vocati, ae, a
VERB-
■ ADJ.
Perf. Part, vocatus, a, ui
n called, having been called
1 VERB-
! NOUN
Perf. Infin. vocatus (a, un
1) esse to have been called
72
ACCIDENCE
The Four Conjugations — Passive Voice
156
Tenses of incomplete action
I St CONJ.
2nd CoNJ.
3rd CoNJ.
4th CoNj.
stem
voca-
habe-
rege-
audi-
INDICATIVE
vocor
habeor
regor
audior
H
vocaris'
haberis '
regeris ^
audlris '
u
vocatur
habetur
regitur
audltur
w
vocamur
habemur
regimur
audlnuir
vocamini
habemini
regimini
audlmini
vocantur
habentur
reguntur
regar
audiuntur
vocabor
habebor
audiar
W
vocaberis ^
habeberis^
regeris ^
audieris'
vocabitur
habcbitur
regetur
audietur
vocabimur
habC'binuir
regemur
audiemur
U.
vocabimini
babebimini
regemini
audiemini
ci;
vocabuntur
habebuntur
regentur
audientur
vocabar
habe bar
regebar
audiebar
w
vocabaris *
habcbaris '
regebaris '
audiebaris ^
^t^
vocabatur
habcbatur
regebatur
audiebatur
Past ]
FE
vocabamur
habebamur
regebamur
audiebamur
vocabamini
habebamini
regebamini
audiebamini
vocabantur
habebantur
regebantur
audiebantur
I
^ERB-ADJh
:CTIVE AN
D VERB-h
^OUNS
VERB.
vocandus,
habendus,
regendus,
audiendus,
ADJ.
a, urn
a, um
a, um
a, um
VERB-
vocarl
haberl
regl-
audlrl
NOUNS
vocatum Irl
habitum Irl
rectum iri
auditum irl
1 Or with -re for -ris (vocarc, habere, regere, audire, &c.') ; see note p. 70.
2 Note the peculiar form of the Prcs. Infin. in 7 (regl), not, as might have
been expected, in rr'i.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
73
Tiii: Four Conjugations— Passive Voice (continued)
Tenses of
incomplete
action (continued)
ISt CONJ.
2nd CoNj.
3rd CoNj.
4th Con J.
STI■:^
voca-
habe-
rege-
audi-
IMPERA TIVE
S.2
1 vocare
Ivocator
\ habere
f 1 egere
faudire
(habetor
( regitor
(auditor
3
vocator
habetor
regitor
auditor
P. 2
vocamini
habemini
regimini
audimini
3
vocantor
habentor
SUBJUNC.
reguntor
TIVE
audiuntor
vocer
habear
regar
audiar
'^
voccris '
habearis '
regaris '
audiaris^
•J)
vocCtur
habeatur
regatur
audiatur
OS
vocCmur
habeamur
reganiur
audiamur
vocemini
habeamini
regamini
audiamini
k
1 vocentur
habeantur
regantur
audiantur
vocarer
haberer
regerer
audirer
' vocareris '
habere ris '
regereris ^
audlreris^
^o
vocaretur
haberetur
regeretur
audiretur
vocarmur
haberemur
regeremur
audlreniur
05
<
vocaremini
haberemini
regeremini
audiremini
Ou
I vocarentur
haberentur
regerentur
audlreniur
158 The tenses of completed action are formed by compound-
incf the Perf. Part. Pass, with a tense of esse 'to be'. The
participle may be masc, feni., or neut., and sing, or plur.
See table on next page.
' Or with -re for -ris (voccrc, liabcarc, regaic, auclirc ; vocarcrc, haberere,
regerere, audircre.).
74
The Four Conjugations — Passive Voice (continued)
PERF. IN Die.
S. vocatus, habitus, )
. j-4. r sum, es, est
rectus, auditus ) ' '
P. vocati, habiti, )
recti, audltl ) ^""^"^' ^*^'^' ^""^
FUT. PERF. INDIC.
S. vocatus, habitus, ) _ . .,
, J-. - ero, ens, erit
rectus, auditus ] ' *
P. vocatI, habiti, ) •
,- ' ,-^- ' - erimus, eritis, erunt
recti, audltl ) * '
PAST PERF. INDIC.
S. vocatus, habitus,
rectus
P. vocati, habiti, i _ . _ •
,- ' ,-.- ' I eramus, eratis, erant
recti, audltl ) ' '
IS, habitus, ) _ .
' ,-. \ eram, eras, erat
, auditus j ' '
PERF. SUBJ.
S. vocatus, habitus, • - ..
' ,-, ' r Sim, SIS, sit
rectus, auditus ) '
P. vocati, habiti, ) -
,- ' ,-.- ' ,- simus, sitis, sint
recti, audltl ' '
PAST PERF. SUBJ.
S. vocatus, habitus, 1 - ,
' ,-, ' V essem, esses, esset
rectus, auditus j ' '
P. vocati, habiti, 1 _ _,. ,
.- ' ,-,- ' essemus, essetis, essent
recti, audltl ' '
VERB-ADJECTIVE
VERB-NOUN
Perfect
Participle
Perfect Infinitive
I St CoNJ.
2nd CoNj.
3rd CoNJ.
4th CoNj.
vocatus, a, um
habitus, a, um
rectus, a, um
auditus, a, um
vocatus, a, unr
habitus, a, um 1 ^^^
rectus, a, um j
auditus, a, um
75
THE MIXED CONJUGATION
59 In the following important verbs in id the present infinitive,
the past subjunctive, and most of the persons of the present
indicative and imperative belong to the 3rd conjugation (with
the stem-vowel / or c short), while the rest of the tenses of
incomplete action belong to the 4th conj.
capio, capere, cepi, captus, take.
cupio, cupere, cuplvl, cupltus, desire.
facio,' facere, feci, factus, make.
fugio, fugere, fCigi, fugiturus, flee.
iacio, iacere, ieci, iactus, tliroiv.
pario, parere, peperl, partus, /);W//cr, bring forth.
rapio, rapere, rapul, raptus, seize.
sapio, sapere, saplvi be sensible.
And compounds of quatib and -spieid :
con-cutio, -cutere, -cussi, -cussus, shake violently.
con-spicio, -spicere, -spexl, -spectus, catch sight of.
Tenses of incomplete action— Active voice.
60
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
S. capio P. capimus
capis capitis
capit capiunt
S. cape, capitd P. capite
capito capiunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
capiam, capies, capiet, C^c
capiam, capias, capiat, ot^c.
Past Imperfect
Past
capiebam, capiebas, capiebat.
caperem, caperes, caperet.
c^r.
^-c.
VERB- 1 Pri:s. Part, capiens Fut. Part, capturus,
ADJS. (.nt-) a, urn
VERB-
NOUNS
Pres. Infin. capere Fut. Infin. capturus '
(a, urn) esse
Gerund capiendum Supine captum
' Facio forms the imperative and sing. Juc without the final e).
76
i6i
ACCIDENCE
Tenses of incomplete action — Passive voice.
INDICATIVE
Present
S. capior P. capimur
IMPERATIVE
caperis' capimini !S.capere,capitor P. capimini
capitur capiuntiir capitor capiuntor
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
capiar, capiaris/ capiatur, c^c.
Future
capiar, capieris/capietur,i>"c.
Past Imperfect
capiebar, capiebarls/ capie-
batur, c-^r.
caperer, capereris,^ capere-
tur, cr^c.
VERB- ADJ. {Gerund Adj. capiendus, a, um
VERB-NOUNS I Pres. Infin. capi FuT. In FIN. captum Irl
1 Or with -re for -ris ; compare notes on pp. 70, 72, 73.
Tenses of completed action- Active voice.
162 Perfect Indic. cepi, cepisti, cepit, e^c.
SuBj. ceperim, ceperls/ ceperit, i>T.
FuT. Perf. Indic. cepero, ceperis/ ceperit, e^"c•.
Past Perf. Indic. ceperam, ceperas, ceperat, e>^<:.
SuBj. cepissem, cepisses, cepisset, 6-f.
Verb-Noun — Perf. Infin. cepisse.
Tenses of completed action — Passive voice.
163 Perfect Indic. captus sum, captus es, captus est, c^y\
SuBj. captus sim, captus sis, captus sit, &-'c.
FuT. Perf. Indic. captus ero, captus eris, captus erit, 6~-t.
Past Perf. Indic. captus eram, captus eras, captus erat, &-'c.
SuBj. captus essem, captus esses, captus esset,C>-"c.
Verb-Adj. — Perf. Part, captus, a, um.
Verb-Noun — Perf. Infin. captus (a, um) esse.
' Sec notes on p. 61.
/
77
DEPONENT VERBS
6d Deponent verbs are verbs whose indicative, subjunctive,
and imperative are passive in form, but active in meaning,
and whose only active forms are those of the present par-
ticiple, future participle, future infinitive, supine, and gerund.
The gerund adjective of deponents is passive in meaning,
as in other verbs.
Deponents are the onl}' Latin verbs which have three
participles and three infinitives with active meaning.
Participles Infinitives
^ Pres. I horta-ns (-nt-), ex/iorfi'ng: horta-rl, fo exJiort.
Perf. I hortat-us, -a, -um, linvifig hortat-us (-a, -um) esse, io^
i exhorted. have exhorted.
FuT. hortat-urus, -lira, -urum, hortat-Lirus(-rira, -urum)esse,
about to exhort. to he about to exhort.
65 Some deponents had originally a reflexive meaning, i. e. denoted
an action done to oneself, e. g. orlrl, to raise oneself, French se lever;
hence to arise ; utT, to serve oneself, French se servir (argento meo
usus est, // s'est servi de mon argent) ; vescT, to feed oneself.
66 The tenses of incomplete action of deponent verbs are
exactly like those of the four regular conjugations {vocor,
habeor, regor, andior, §§ 156, 157), except in three deponents
which belong to the mixed conjugation (§ 161):
ad-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, attack : so too other com-
pounds of gradior : con-gredior, in-gredior, &^c.
morior, morl, mortuus (fut. part, moriturus), die.
patior, pati, passus, suffer.
67 Orior, orlrl, ortus (fut. part, oriturus), arise, is peculiar ; it
belongs to the 4th conj., but is conjugated like capior in the
pres. indie, and imperative, and in the past subj. forms orerer
as well as orlrer. Its gerund adjective oriundns (never orien-
dus) has the meaning of a present or perfect participle : dis
oriundus, springing or sprung from the gods.
The following tables show all the forms and meanings
of a deponent of the ist conjugation.
Examples in other conjugations : vereor, I fear {"znd conj.) ;
fungor, / discharge (31(1 conj.) ; potior, / get possession of
(4th conj.).
78
ACCIDENCE
CONJUGATION OF
A DEPONENT VERB
Tenses of incomplete action
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
1
hortor, / am exhorting
hortaris,\yo« are exhorting
liortare, hortator, exhort
hortatur, he is exhorting
hortator, let him exhort
hortamur, we are exhorting
hortamini, you are exhorting
hortamini, exhort
hortantur, they are exhorting
hortantor, let them exhort
or I exhort, &c., § 127
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
hortabor, I shall >
horter
hortaberis/ you will
•s*
horteris ^
hortabitur, he ivill \
hortetur
hortabimur, ive shall
■^
hortemur
hortabiminl, yon will \ ^
hortemini
hortabuntur, they wilr
hortentur
or / shall be exhorting
For the meanings see^ 130, 131
Past Imperfect
Past
hortabar, / ivas
hortarer
hortabaris/ jvo?< ivere
=^
hortareris *
hortabatur, he zvas
hortaretur
hortabamur, zve tvere
hortaremur
hortabamini, j'o/^ wei^e
hortaremini
hortabantur, they were'
hortarentur
or I exhorted (habitually
For the meanings see^ 130, 131
= tised to exhort)
Pres. Part. hortans(-i
It-), FuT. Part, hortaturus, a,
Dqco
exhorting
um, about to exhort
Gerund Adj. hortand
us,
a, um, to-be-exhorted
Pres. Infin. hortarl,
FuT. Infin. hortaturus (a,
to exhort
um) esse, to be about to
exhort
sg
Gerund hortandum,
Supine hortatum,
[the act of \ exhorting
[ivith a vieiv\ to exhort
^ Or with re for -ris (hortare, hortabere, hortabare, hortfire, hortarere)
cf. notes on pp. 70, 72, 73.
CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB 79
Conjugation of a Deponent Verb (continued)
Tenses of completed action
INDICATIVE
Perfect
{ swm, I have cxJiortcd
hortatus- es, you have exhorted
I est, he has exhorted
[sumus, ive have exhorted
hortati \ estis, yon have exhorted
( sunt, they have exhorted
or / exhorted, § 153 and § 128
Future Perfect
[ero, / shall have >
hortatus -! eris, yon -will have )
[erit, he -a'ill have
j erimus, ive shall have
hortati - eritis, you will have
{ erunt, they will have '
Past Perfect
feram, / had .
hortatus^ eras, yotc had I
j erat, he had
[eramus, ~a'e had
hortati J eratis, you had j
lerant, they had
IMPERATIVE
[None]
SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
(sim
sis
sit
I simus
hortati - sitis
(snt
For the meanings see
§§ 130* 131
Past Perfect
[essem
hortatus-' esses
( esset
I essemus
hortati j essetis
[essent
For the meanings see
§§ 130. 131
In all the above forms the participle may be masc,
fern., or neut.
Sing, hortatus, a, um Plur. hortati, ae, a
^ AdT Pe^^' t*ART. hortatus, a, um, having exhorted
VERB-
NOUN
Perf. Infin. hortatus (a, um) esse, to have exhorted
8o ACCIDENCE
170 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS OF ALL
CONJUGATIONS'
The Principal Parts given in the following list are —
1. The Present Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
2. The Present Infinitive Active.
3. The Perfect Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing.
4. The Perfect Participle Passive. This form is given in
the masculine gender whenever the Perf. Part. Pass, can be
used in all three genders : e. g. vocaius from voco. But
in verbs whose Perf. Part. Pass, can only be used in
vthe impersonal passive construction, the form is given in
\the neuter gender : e. g. niansuiu from nianeo, fantum from
favco. The active voice of the verbs to which these participles
in -uni belong is used intransitively or with a dative. In the
few verbs which have no Perf. Part. Pass, (masc, fern., or
neut.) the Future Participle Active is given as the 4th
Principal Part.^
The 3rd Conjugation is taken first because the most im-
portant Perfects to be mentioned under the ist, 2nd, and
4th Conjugations are formed in the same way as those of
the 3rd Conjugation.
Formation of the Perfect Active.
171 (i) Rule i." All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in one of the vowels a, e, i, or are
formed with the S-uffix <' : e.g. ist conj. voca-, vocdv- ;
1 In the list which follows (§§ 173-237) only the most important
verbs are included. Others are given in the alphabetical list in the
Appendix.
- The Supine in -mn is generally taken as the 4th Principal Part. But
the Perf. Part. Pass, is a far more important form than the Supine ; and,
moreover, many verbs have no Supine in actual use. The Supine may be
formed by changing -lis of the Perf. Part. Pass, into -iiiii.
^ The rules given here in heavy type have no exccption.s.
)
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS 8i
4th conj. aiufi; (JU(fiv-; 2nd conj. coinplc-, complcv- \
liobc; liabii- (for liabev-, § 147) ; 3rd conj. pa-sc-, pav- ;
crc-sc-, crcv- ; sci-sc-, sctv- ; iio-sc-, )idv-.^
(ii) Rule 2. All Perfects Active which are formed from
stems ending in the vowel 11 or the consonant i< or
in lid are formed without any suffix; e.g. 3rd conj.
statu-, statu- ; voh'-, volv- ; defend-, defend- ; 2nd conj. inov-,
inov- ; pciid; pcpciid-}
(iii) Perfects Active which are Ibrmed from stems ending in
a consonant other than v or nd arc formed in three
different ways [a, b, and c, below) :
either [a] with the sufiix 5 : e.g. 3rd conj. sciib-, scrips-.
If the stem ends in a guttural, the guttural generally
amalgamates with the 6": e.g. 3rd conj. reg-, rex- {§ 147); 2nd
conj. aug-, aux- ; 4th conj. vine-, viiix-.
But (Rule 3) if a liquid precedes the guttural, the
guttural is always dropped before the suffix s of the
Perf. Act.: e.g. 3rd conj. sparg-, spars-; 2nd conj. indulg-,
induls- ; \i\\ con], fide-, f tils-.
Rule 4. If the stem ends in a dental, the dental is
dropped before the suffix 6' or turned into another 5 : e. g.
3rd conj. claud-, claus- ; ccd-, cess- ; 2nd conj. rid-, rls-.
or (b) with the sui^ix u (chiefly when the stem ends in
/ or lit) : e. g. 3rd conj. coi-, coin- ; trein-, treinu-.
or (c) without any suffix : e. g. 3rd conj. vert-, vert- ; leg-, leg- ;
ag; eg- ; curr-, cuciirr-.
172 The stem of the Perfect Participle Passive is formed —
(i) by adding the suffix / to a stem ending in a vowel or
in any consonant except a dental : ist conj. vocd-, vocdt-;
2nd conj. eoinplc-, complet- ; liabe-, habit- ; 4th conj. audi-,
audit-; ven-, venl- ; 3rd conj. reg-, rect- (§ 148); scrib-,
' Note that here the stem from which the Perf. Act. stem is formed is not
the same as that from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed
(cf. §§ 178, 198, 199, 201% So too in many verbs of the ist, and, and 4th
conjugations; sec §§ 208. 213. 223.
82 ACCIDENCE
scrip-t- {p for b) ; consul-, consiil-t- ; inscr-, inscr-i- ; crc-sc-,
crc-t- ; nose-, no-U.
(ii) by adding the suffix s to a stem ending in a dental. In
this case the dental is either dropped or turned into
another s before the suffix s : eland-, elau-s- ; defend-,
defen-s- ; vert-, vers- ; mitt-, miss- ; sed-, sess-.
But there are some exceptions to the above rule ; these are
printed in heavy type in the following list of Principal Parts.
The best guide to the formation of the Perfect Participle
Passive is the English derivative which is formed from it.
THIRD CONJUGATION
I. Verbs in go, guo (pronounced gik>d) or ho.
173 (a) Most of these form the Perf Act. stem with the suffix s:
reg-o -ere rex-i rect-us [direction] rule
So tego, eover; intellego, understand; neglego, disregard.
dl-lig-o -ere -lex-I -lect-us [predilection] /ow;
ad-fllg-o -ere -flix-I -flict-us [affliction] dash down
fig-o -ere fix-I fix-us j suffix] fix
iung-o -ere iunx-I iunct-us [junction] join
cing-o -ere cinx-I cinct-us [succinct] surround
So ex-stinguo, quench [whence English ' extinct '].
fing-o -ere finx-i fictus [fiction] fashion
So pingo, paint; stringo, tighten.
trah-6 -ere trax-I tract-us [traction] draw
veh-o -ere vex-I vect-us [invective] carry
174 The guttural is dropped after a liquid [Rule 3, § 171].
merg-o -ere mers-I mers-us [immerse] dip
sparg-o -ere spars-I spars-us [sparse] scatter
175 {b) The following in go form the Perf Act. stem without
a suffix :
ag-o -ere eg-i act-us
leg-o -ere Icg-I lect-us
action] drive, do
collection] gather
THIRD CONJUGATION 83
frang-o
-ere
freg-T '
fract-us
fraction |
hirn/c
pang-o
tang-o
pung-o
-ere
-ere
-ere
pepig-I '
tetig-I '
pupug-I
pact-US
tact-US
' punct-us
compact 1
contact]
puncture ]
fix
tuiicli
prick
2. Verbs in c6, qu5 (pronounced kivo).
176 (rt) Perf. Act. stem formed with tiie suffix vS :
dlc-o'^ -ere dix-I dict-us [diction] 6Y?v
duc-o ^ -ere dux-i duct-us | reduction] lead
coqu-o -ere cox-I coct-us | decoction] cook
177 {b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
vinc-o -ere vic-i ^ vict-us | victory | conquer
re-linqu-o -ere -hqu-I ' -Hct-us | derehct] leave
parc-o -ere peperc-I pars-urus" [parsimony j spare
178 [c] The following verbs in sco form the Perf. Act. from
a stem ending in a vowel (viz. the vowel that precedes the
sc), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] :
pasc-6 -ere pav-I past-us [pasture] feed
ad-suesc-o -ere -suev-I -suet-us be accustomed
So cresco, grou) ; quiesco, go to rest.
scisc-6 -ere sclv-l sclt-us [plebiscite] decree
nosc-o -ere nov-I not-us [notion] get to know
179 But disco and posed are peculiar :
disc-o -ere didic-I learn
posc-o -ere poposc-I postulat-us* [postulate] demand
180 All other verbs in esco take a Perf. from the 2nd Conj. :
e.g. languesc-o -ere langu-I groiv weak
abolesc-o -ere abolev-i (§ 221)
181 3- Verbs in u6 or vo. Most of these form the Perf. Act.
from a stem ending in u or v, without a suffix [Rule 2,
§171]:
statu-o -ere statu-I statut-us [statute] set up
1 Formed from a stem which has no n before the guttural {frag-, pag-,
- Imperative 2nd sing, die, due ; ci.fac, § 159, /rr, § 241.
^ Tlic Perf. Pass, of pared is generally supplied by temperdtuyyi est from
the verb tempera, ist Conj. ' From the vcvh postulo, ist Conj.
F 2
84 ACCIDENCE
So exu-o, take off; inibu-o, tinge ; minu-o, lessen ; tribu-o,
assign ; nietu-o (no part, pass.), /mr.
ru-o -ere ru-I -rut-us ' tumble
ruit-urus
solv-o -ere solv-i solut-us [solution] loosen
So volv-o, roll.
182 But vlv-o, stru-o, and Jlu-o form the Perf. Act. from a stem
ending in a guttural (not seen in the Pres. Indie), with the
suffix 5 :
I victuals] live
[construction] pile up
(influx] Jlow
4. Verbs in do.
183 {a) Most of these verbs, except those in ndo (§ 186), form
the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix s [Rule 4, § 171] :
e-vad-o -ere -vas-i -vas-um
claud-o -ere claus-i claus-us
divid-o -ere divis-i divls-us
So laed-o, hurt; plaud-o, clap; lOd-o, play ; ivnd-o, thrust.
ced-o -ere cess-I cess-um [concession] yield
184 (^) ^^^ following form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix :
viv-o
-ere
VlX-l
victurus
stru-o
-ere
strux-I
struct-us
llu-6
-ere
flux-I
flux-us -
evasion] go out
clause] shut
division] divide
ed-o
esse
ed-i
-es-us
eat
con-sld-o
-ere
-sed-i
-sess-um
session]
seat oneself
cad-6
-ere
cecid-I
cas-urus
occasion]
fall
caed-o
-ere
cecld-l
caes-us
fell, slay
cred-o
-ere
credid-i
credit-US
[credit]
trust
185 Like credo are all compounds of dare (§ 210), if formed with
a preposition of one syllable, e.g. abdo, hide; addo, add;
condb, found; edo, give out, utter; indo, put in; perdo, lose ;
prodo, betray ; reddo, give back ; subdo, put under ; trado,
hand dozvn ; similarly vendo, sell (from venum do, / offer for
sale).
1 In transitive compounds : di-tu/ns, ' destroyed^ ; o!j-fii/iis, ' buried'.
' Fluxus means ' flowing ', ' slacliened ', ' lax '.
FHIKD CONJUGATION 85
186 (r) All verbs in mid form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix [Rule 2, § 171J :
de-fend-o -ere -fend-I -fens-us [defensive] defend
So a-scendo, climb ; ac-cendo, kindle ; prehendo, grasp.
pand-0 -ere pand-i pass-us spread out
pend-6 -ere pepend-i pens-us [pension] K>cigli, pay
tend-o -ere tetend-I tent-us [attention] slreleli
fund-o -ere fud-P lus-us [fusion] pour
scind-o -ere scid-P sciss-us [scissors] tear
5. Verbs in t5.
187 [a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix s:
188
189 (r) Peto forms its Perf. Act. from a stem ending in /
(added to pet-), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] :
pet-o -ere petTv-I petlt-us [petition] aim at
6. Verbs in b5, po.
190 [a] Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5:
scrlb-o -ere scrips-i script-us [description] write
So nubo, maj'ry ; carpo, pluck.
191 . (b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
mitt-6
-ere mis-l
miss-US
mission]
send
flect-o
-ere flex-i
flex-us
; flexible]
bend
nect-6
-ere nexu-I '
n ex-US
connexion]
bind
(b)
Perf. Act. stem
formed without a suffix :
vert-o
-ere vert-I
vers-us [version]
turn
sist-o
-ere -stit-I ^
stat-us* [station 1
5/o/)(tr.and
infixed)
intr.)
bib-o -ere bib-I potat-us '
pot-US "
rump-o -ere rup-I rupt-us
potation ] drink
potion]
rupture] burst
' Formed from a stem which has no n before the d (/nci-, sad-).
' nexu J\s a double Perfect formed by adding ti to iicv-.
^ Chiefly in compounds like con-sfttt, re-stilt.
* From the stem sta-.
•' From the verb putO, ist Conj.
*' Often active in meaning = ' having drunk ' like tlie English ' drunken '.
86 ACCIDENCE
192 [c] Perf. Act. stem formed with the siififix a :
pro-cumb-o -ere -cubu-I -cubit-um fall forward
strep-o -ere strepu-I makeanoise
7. Verbs in 15.
193 (a) All verbs in lid form the Perf. Act. stem without
a suffix :
vell-o -ere vell-I vuls-us [convulsion] pluck
fall-o -ere fefell-I fals-us ' I false] deceive
pell-o -ere pepul-i puls-us [compulsion] push
per-cell-o -ere -cul-i -culs-us cast down
toll-o -ere sus-tul-I sub-lat-us lift
194 {b) All other verbs in Id form the Perf. Act. stem with the
suffix u :
al-o -ere alu-T alt-us nourish
col-o -ere colu-I cult-us [culture] cultivate
consul-o -ere consulu-i consult-us [juris-consultj consult
So occulo, hide; and compare volo, nolo, malo, § 242.
8. Verbs in mo, no.
195 (<^) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix ti :
trem-o -ere tremu-I tremble
So gem-o, groan ; fremo, make a noise.
gign-o ^ -ere genu-i genit-us [genitive] beget
196 {l>) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
em-o -ere em-i empt-us
can-o -ere cecin-I cantat-us''
^redemption] buy, take
incantation] sing
197 (^") ^QvL Act stem formed with the suffix s :
prem-o -ere press-I press-us | pressure] press
con-temn-o -ere -temps-I -tempt-us [contemptible] despise
prom-o -ere promps-i prompt-US [prompt] take forth
sum-o -ere sumps-I sumpt-us | consumption] /rr/vV ///>
' The meaning 'deceived' is generally expressed by itcccj'lus.
2 For gi-gen-o.
3 From the verb canto, ist Conj.
rillKl) eONj LIGATION 87
198 (^1^ The following verbs in no form their I*erf. Act. from
a stem ending in a vowel (, a or /), with the suffix i< \ Rule r,
§ 171]-
cern-6 -ere crcv-T -crCt-us' [ discretion] disfiiii^nis/i
So sperno, scorn.
stern-o -ere strav-T strat-us | prostration j sf/rw,/ay/oio
sin-o -ere siv-l sit-us [site] prrniit
p6n-o- -ere po&u-I posit-us [position] place
9. Verbs in ro.
199 {a) The following form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending
in a vowel [c or /), with the suffix 'o [Rule i, § 171].
ser-6 -ere sev-I sat- us soiv
ter-o -ere triv-l trit-us [detrition ] rub
quaer-o -ere quaesiv-i quaeslt-us seek
ac-qulr-o -ere -quIsTv-I -quIsTt-us [acquisition] acquire
200 [b] The following form the Perf. Act. stem variously :
gesture] cany
combustion] btirtt (trans.)
cursory] run
insertion] tivine
translation] bear
10. Verbs in sso, so, xo.
201 [a] Verbs in sso form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending
in a vowel [i added after the .s\s), with the suffix t' | Rule i,
§ 171]:
arcess-o -ere arcesslv-l arcessit-us sinnnion
So lacesso, provoke ; capesso, ca/c/i at ; facesso, do eagerly ;
incesso, assail.
202 {b) Vjso forms the Perf. Act. without a suffix, and lexo
with the suffix u :
vis-o -ere vis-l visit
tex-o -ere texu-I text-us [texture] iveave
• In compounds de-crctus, dis-cifltts, se-cirlns.
* PoMo is a compound of sino; its original form was po-f^iiw, Perf. po-sivt,
of which posiii is only another form. - Only in compounds, e.g. inserii J.
' Fctu forms its principal parts from llucc entirely difTercnt stems.
ger-o
-ere
gess-t
ges-tus
ur-o
-ere
USS-l
ust-us
curr-o
-ere
cucurr-i
curs-um
ser-o
-ere
-seru-I ■■'
sert-us
fer-o *
ferre
tul-T
lat-us
88 ACCIDENCE
MIXED CONJUGATION (§ 159).
203 I. Most verbs of the Mixed Conjugation form the Perf.
Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the part
of the Infinitive which comes before the ending ere).
In the following list the Infinitive is divided so as to show
this stem.
204 (a) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix :
capi-o cap-ere cep-i capt-us [capture] take
faci-o fac-ere fec-i fact-us [faction] make
iaci-o iac-ere iec-I iact-us throw
fodi-o fod-ere fod-I foss-us [fosse] dig
fugi-o fug-ere fug-i fugit-urus [fugitive] flee
pari-o par-ere peper-I part-us bring forth
205 [b] Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5 :
con-cuti-o -cut-ere -cuss-i -cuss-us [concussion] shake
con-spici-o -spic-ere -spex-i -spect-us [inspection] look at
So in-lici-o, hire on ; but e-lici-o, hire out, forms e-licu-T,
e-licit-us [elicit].
206 (f) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix n :
rapi-o rap-ere rapu-i rapt-us [rapture] seise
207 2. Cnpio and sapid form their Perf Act. from the stems
cupj; sapl-, with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] like audio {/[i\\
Conjugation) :
cupi-o cupere cuplv-i cuplt-us desire
sapi-6 sapere saplv-l be sensible
FIRST CONJUGATION
208 I. Four verbs of the ist Conjugation form the Perf.
Act. from a stem ending in a consonant (= the part of
the Infinitive which comes before the ending dre), Hke
verbs of the 3rd Conjugation. In the following list the
Infinitive is divided so as to show this stem.
FIRST CONJUGATION 89
These four form the Perf. Act. stem without a suffix :
209 {n) iiivo and lord without reduplication [Rule 2, § 171 | :
iuv-t)
iuv-are
iuv-I
iut-us
[adjutant] aid
lav-o
lav-are
lav-I
laut-us
ivash
210 [b] do and slo with reduplication :
d-o d-are ded-I dat-us [dative] give
Do ditTers from all other verbs of the ist conj. in having
the stem vowel a short in all forms except das (2nd sing.
Pres. Indie. Act.) and c.
Past Siibj. : prod-essem, -esses, -esset, C^c.
Imperative : prod-es, -esto, -este, -estote.
Infinitive : prod«esse.
' Only the forms printed in heavy type in §§ 239-47 need to be learned-
96 ACCIDENCE
240 possum, / can, is compounded of siun and an indeclinable
adjective potts or potc meaning 'able ' : possum, ' I am able.'
This adjective, which assumes the form />os- before 5, resumes
the form pof- before a vowel. In the pres. infin. and the
past subj. the syllable cs- of esse and esseiii disappears.
This verb is also peculiar in the formation of its perf. active
stem : potii-.
Possum forms no imperative, and the onl}' verb-noun which
it has is the infin. (pres. and perf.).
Pres. Indie. : pos-sum, pot-es, pot-est ;
pos-sumus, pot.estis, pos-sunt.
Fiif. Indie. : pot-ero, -eris, -erit, c-r.
Past Impcrf. Indie. : pot-eram, -eras, -erat, ^c.
Pres. Subj. : pos-sim, -sis, -sit, <^e.
Past Subj. : pos-sem, -ses, -set ; pos-semus, -setis, -sent.
Pres. Itifin. : pos-se.
Principal Parts : possum, posse, potu-i, .
drops I .
241 fero, / bear ; ferre, tul-i, lat-us
i before 5 and /,
-a short e between two rs-
The Imperative 2nd sing. '\s fer; cf. die, due (§ 176), fae
(§ 159)-
[See table next page.
IRREGULAR VERBS
Tenses of incomplete action.
97
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
Present
S. fero P. ferimus
fers fertis
fert ferunt
IMPERATIVE
Future
feram, feres, feret, ^c.
Past Imperfect
5. fer, ferto P. ferte, fertote
fertd feruntd
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
feram, feras, ferat, d^r.
Past
ferebam, ferebas, ferebat, d-^f. ferrem, ferres, ferret, e-r.
VFRR Pr^-S- Part, ferens (-nt-) Fut. Part, laturus, a, um
ADjs I Fut. Infin.
laturus (a, um) esse
VERB- ; Pres. Infix, ferre
NOUNS Gerund ferendum
Supine latum
PASSIVE
IN Die A TIVE , IMPERA TIVE
Present
S. feror P. ferimur
ferris ferimini
5. ferre, fertor P. ferimini
fertur feruntur
fertor feruntor
Future
ferar, fereris, feretur, d^c.
Past Imperfect
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
ferar, feraris, feratur, d-c.
Past
ferebar, ferebaris, ferebatur,d^r. ferrer,ferreris,ferretur,d^T.
^^jj ' Gerund Adj. ferendus, a um
VERB-
NOUNS
Pres. Infin. ferri
Fut. Infin. latum Irl
98
ACCIDENCE
242 V0I5, / -a'ill, velle, volu-i, and its compounds nolo, / ivill
not [from ue-volo], nolle, nolui, and malo, I prefer [from magis
and volb\ malle, malui.
Tenses of incomplete action.
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
vols nolo malo
vis non vis mavis
noli, ndlito
vult non vult mavult
nolito
volumus nolumus malumus
; vultis non vultis mavultis
nolite, nolitote
, volunt nolunt malunt
1
1
nolunto
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
1 volam nolam malam
velim nolim malim
1 voles noles males
velis n51is malis
volet nolet malet
velit nolit malit
volemus nolemus malemus
velimus nolimus malimus
voletis noletis maletis
velitis nolitis malitis
volent nolent malent
velint nolint malint I
Past Imperfect
Past
volebam nolebam malebam
vellem nollem mallem
volebas nolebas malebas
velles nolles malles
volebat nolebat malebat
vellet nollet mallet
o"^T. e^r. e^r.
C"-'6'. C'~-"t'. C^T.
VERB-
Pres. Part.
j
ADJ.
volens nolens —
[No Put. Part.] !
,
Pres. Infin.
[No Supinel
VERB-
: NOUN
velle nolle mal
1
le
[Gerund only in late
Latin]
243 e5, 1 go, ire, i-i, it-um
belongs to the 4th conjugation ; but it forms an old-fashioned
fut. and past imperf indie, b}' adding -bo and -bant to the stem
i-, just like a verb of the ist or 2nd conjugation (vocabo,
habebo ; vocabam, habebam). Note the short / in ttu})i.
IRREGULAR VERBS
99
1
Tenses of inc
omplete action
IN Die A TIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
' 5.
eo
P. imus
Is
itis
5.
I, Ito P. Ite, Itote
It
eunt
Ito euntd
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future
Present
5.
ibo
P. ibimus
S.
earn P. eamus
ibis
ibitis
eas eatis
ibit
ibunt
eat eant
Past Imperfect
Past
S.
ibam P. ibamus
S.
Irem P. iremus
ibas ibatis
Ires iretis
ibat ibant
Iret Trent
VERB-
Pres. Part, iens
FuT. Part, iturus, a, urn
ADJS.
(stem eunt-)
VERB-
NOUNS
Pres. In kin. Ire
Gerund eundum
FuT. Infin.
iturus (a, urn) esse
Supine itum
The passive is formed in the same way, but is only used
impersonally, e. g. Itur, there is a going ; but those compounds
which are used transitively in the active voice have a fully
conjugated passive voice (ad-Irl, to be approached, in-Iri, to be
entered, sub-Irl, to be undergone, &c.).
244 Peculiarities in the tenses of completed action : —
The perfect active is iJ (not Jvi), and these two vowels
are contracted into one long /' before s :
Per/. Indie. : il, isti, iit ; iimus, Istis, iCrunt.
Past Per/. Subj. : issem, Isses, isset, 6^c.
Per/. Infin. : isse.
G 2
loo ACCIDENCE
245 queo, / can, quire, quivi, quitum
nequeo, / cannot, nequire, nequlvi, nequitum
are conjugated like cb (§ 243), but are used only in a few
forms.
246 fio (i) / become •■ „ . . ,
,..; r , \ fieri, fact-us sum.
(n) 1 am made j
In its second meaning fid serves as a passive to facio,
which does not itself form a passive of the tenses of in-
complete action, except in those compounds which are used
transitively in the active voice (afficT, io be affected, interfici,
lo be killed, &;c.).
Tenses of incomplete action.
INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE
Present
S. fid P. [Only in Old Latin and Late
fis LatinJ
fit fiunt
SUBJUNCTIVE
Future Present
fiam, fles, flet, &'c. flam, flas, fiat, C^'c.
Past Imperfect Past
fiebam, flebas, flebat, &-'c. fierem, fieres, fieret, c>t.
VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-NOUNS
[Pres. Part, and Gerund only in Fut. Part, futurus, about
Late Latin.] to become
Pres. Infin. fieri, Fut. Infin. fore, or futurus
(i) to become esse, to be about to be-
(ii) to be made ,, ^'^^"^ , ,
[factum TrI, to be about to be
made, belongs io facio]
IRREGULAR VERBS loi
247 edd, / cat, esse, ed-i, -es-us (only hi compounds, I'.g. ex-csus,
eaten out, amb-esus, gnawed around).
! Tenses of incomplete action
! IX Die ATI VE IMPERATIVE
Present
S. edo P. edimus 1
es estis S. es, esto P. este, estote
est edunt esto edunto
j SUBJUNCTIVE
Future ] Present
S. edam P. edemus S. edim P. edimus
edes edetis 1 edis editis
edet edent j edit edint
Past Imperfect | Past
edebam, edebas, edebat c-^c. \ essem, esses, esset, ^c.
ADIS. , Prus. Part, edens(-nt-) Fut. Part, esurus, a, um
i '
T-rr-nn Pres. Infin. esse Fut. Infin.
VERB- _ _ . ^
I NOUNS esurus (a, um) esse
I . Gerund edendum Supine esum <
248 The following verbs of 'saying' are used chiefly in the
tenses of incomplete action, and in these they are defective :
(i) inquam, say /(used parenthetically), forms: —
Pres. Indie. : inquis, inquit ; inquiunt.
Fut. Indie. : inquies, inquiet.
Past Inipcrf. Indie. : inquicbat.
{"l) aid, / say, forms : —
Pres. Indie. : ais, ait (two syllables : a-is, a-it); aiunt.
Past Imperf. Indie. : aiebam, aicbas, aiebat, Cs^e.
Pres. Subj. : aiat.
(3) fan, to speak, forms chiefly : —
Pres. Indie. : fatur, he speaks. Fiit. Indie. : fabitur, lie
, zvi/l speak. Lnperat. : fare, speak.
Gerund: fandl, fando, of speaking, by speaking.
Per/. Part. : fatus, a, um, having spoken.
<
I02 ACCIDENCE
249 The foliowing verbs have no tenses of incomplete action.
(i) The Perfect coep-I, / have begun, I began, coep-isse,
coept-us :
Perf. Indie. : coepi, coepisti, coepit, o^c.
Ftit. Perf. Indie. : coepero, / shall have begun, coeperis,^
coeperit, o^c.
> I Past Perf. Indie. : coeperam, / had begun, coeperas, coep-
erat, 6-t.
Perf Subj. : coeperim, coeperls,' coeperit, e^c.
Past. Perf. Subj. : coepissem, coepisses, coepisset, &-'c.
Fut. Part. : coepturus, a, urn, about to begin.
% J Perf. Part. : coeptus, a, urn, begun.
< 1 Perf. Indie. : coeptus (a, um) sum, / have been begun.
The tenses of incomplete action are supplied by incipib,
incipiant, incipicbam.
The chief use of both coepl and incipib is with an infinitive
as object :
j.~ _ (coern, I have bemn 1, , .,,
aedificare \. . ._ ^ / • • \to build.
(incipio, / am beginning)
Sometimes, however, with other objects or without any object :
orationem coepisse (incipere), to begin a speech.
The Passive forms are mostly used with a Passive Infinitive,
and are translated by active forms in English : urbs aedificarl
coepta est, the city began to be built.
Sometimes, however, in other constructions : amicitia coepta est,
friendship ivas begun.
(2) The Perfect memin-i, / remember, memin-isse (unlike
coept) has the meaning of a Present tense :
Perf. Indie. : memini, meministi, meminit, &-'c.
Fut. Perf. Indie. : meminero, I shall remember, memineris,'
meminerit, c^'c.
Past Perf. Indic. : memineram, I remembered, memineras,
meminerat, cr'C.
Perf Subj. : meminerim, meminerls,^ meminerit, ^'c.
Past PerfSubf: meminissem, meminisscs, meminisset, 6^t.
Imperative : S. 2 memento 1 ,
' r> .'i. i remember.
P. 2 mementotej
' See notes on pp. 6i. 68.
IRREGULAR VERBS 103
(3) The Perfect 5d-i, I hate, 5d-isse, 6s-us has (like tiicniinl)
the meaning of a Present tense :
Per/. Iiidic. : odl, odisti, odit, <^c.
Flit. Per/. Indie.: odero, I shall hate, oderis/ oderit, &-c.
Past Pcrf. Indie. : oderam, / hated, oderas, oderat, d-r.
Perf. Suhj. : oderim, oderls,' oderit, &-e.
Past Perf. Subj. : odisseni, odisses, odisset, cr-'c.
Flit. Part. : osurus, a, um, about to hate.
Perf. Part. : osus, a, um, hating.
The meaning of the Perf. Part, is neither passive (in spite
of its passive form, cf. in French r?//t'' ' gone ') nor perfect.
* See notes on pp. 6i, 68.
APPENDIX TO PART I
PECULIARITIES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
Second Declension.
i Locits, m. 'place' generally forms a'neuter nom. and ace. plural
loca. The masc. forms loci, locos mostly mean ' passages in books '.
ii A few nouns in us are neuter, with ace. sing, the same as nom.
sing. ; so vulgiis ' the rabble ' (rarely masc.).
iii Some adjectives in us, a, uiii, form gen. sing, in Tiis, and dat. sing,
in I, see §§ 86, 88.
iv Some nouns retain an old form of the gen. plur. in um (generally
side by side with the later form in drum) :
(a) nouns denoting coins and measures ; e. g. nuinmus, m.' coin ' ;
sestertius, m. 'sesterce' (a small silver coin) ; talcntum, n. 'talent '
(a Greek word denoting a sum of money — about ^200).
(b) some nouns denoting persons: e.g. deus 'god', gen. plur.
often deum in poets (§ 22. 3) ; llberi ' children ' (§ 21) ; socius ' all}^ '.
Vir ' man ' (§ 17, p. 21) often forms gen. plur. virum in poets.
(c) some nouns denoting nationalities, especially in poets :
Achlvl ' Achaeans ', Teucrt ' Teucrians '.
Similarly some numeral adjectives : duo (§ 89), compounds of
centum (§ 80), and distributive adjectives like binT{§ 84) ; thus pedum
quadragenum intervallo ' at an interval of 40 feet in each case '
(Caesar, B. G. iv. 17. 5).
Third Declension.
(i) Forms with i instead of e.
V {(i) The accusative singular of a few nouns in is (Class B, § 28)
ends in im instead of em : thus Z'Js, f. 'violence ' forms tv/;/ ; sitis, f.
' thirst ', sitifii ; puppis, f. ' stern of a vessel ', puppim ; so too proper
names of rivers and towns, e.g. Tiberis, m. 'the Tiber', Ncapolis,
f ' Naples '.
A few nouns have both the form in /;// and that in em, e.g. securis,
f. 'axe', sccurim ov>secureui.
Tiberim, vim, Ncapolini ; scciirim, sitim, puppim.
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 105
{/>) The ablative singular of the nouns that form the ace. sing,
in i»t ends in /" instead of c : thus i>J ' by violence ', sift ' by thirst '.
So too the ablative singular of some nouns which are properly
adjectives, such as natalis (originally dies udtalis), m. ' birthday '.
(c) ignis, m. ' fire ' forms abl. ignl in certain phrases, e.g. ferrd
igtilque ' with fire and sword '.
(ii) Genitive plural in //;;/ instead of itoii.
(a) The nouns pokr, m. 'father', uulter, f. 'mother', frdkr, m.
' brother' have lost an e in the ace, gen., dat. and abl. cases : pater,
patr-e)ii, pntr-is, patr-1, patr-e; phir. pafr-es, pnir-uni pafr-ibus. Thus
the genitive plural comes to be contrary to the rule given in § 27.
(b) The words cam's, m. or f. 'dog', mensis, m. 'month', itive-
iiis, m. or f. 'young man ' or 'young woman ', and seiiex (gen. sou's),
m. 'old man' form the genitive plural irregularly in ;/;« : caniini,
mensttin,'^ iuvenum and senum.
(c) Parens (gen. parentis), m. or f. 'parent' forms both paren-
tuni and parentiuni.
(iii) Genitive plural in iuni instead of //;//.
ia) The following nouns form the genitive plural in ///;;/, con-
trary' to the rule given in §23: vis, f. 'violence' (plur. vires,
'strength'); lis (gen. litis), f. 'dispute'; faux (plur. fauces), f.
'throat', 'jaws'; imber fgen. imbris), m. 'rain'; )iix (gen. nivis),
f. ' snow ' ; Penati's (plur. I, m. ' household gods ' ; optimdtes (plur,),
m. 'aristocrats' ; and proper names of tribes ending in is (gen. Itis)
or as (gen. dtis) :
vlriuni, tltiunt, faiicinm, Peiidtinni ;
i)nbriiit)i and niviiiin, Saninltiiini, optintdfinni.
{b) Many feminine nouns in tds (gen, tdtis) have a by-form of
the gen. plur. in tdtiinn, as well as the more usual form in tdtnni ;
e. g. clvitds, f. ' state ', clvitdlum or clvitdtiunt.
(iv) The following nouns are irregular in respect of their stems
or their endings. English derivatives showing the stem are given
in square brackets,
' Mensiim is tlie ordinary form in classical times; nicnsium and incitsuuin
are later (as has been shown by Wagener, Beilrds;e ziir lateinischcn Gmtn-
iitatik, 1905'.
io6 APPENDIX
bos, m. or f. ' ox ' [bov-ine] : hov-em, bov-is, bov-l, bov-e ; plur.
bov-es, bo-iint, bubus or bobiis.
card, f. ' flesh ' [carn-al] : cam-em, cam-is, cant-1, carn-c ; plur.
= ' pieces of flesh ' rare.
cor, n. 'heart' [cord-ial] : cor (ace), cord-is, cord-l, cord-e; plur.
cord-a [cord-ium, cord-ibus, rare).
iter, n. 'journey' [itiner-arj^] : Her (ace), itiner-is. -J, -e, plur.
itiner-a, -um, -ibiis.
luppHer, m. 'Jupiter ', lit. ' Father Jove ' [jov-ial] : Iov-em,Iov-is,
lov-J, lov-e.
iusiurandiim. n. ' oath ', should be written as two words, ius
a noun of the 3rd decl. (§ 37), ifirandum an adj. of the 2nd
decl. : thus ins iurandum, inn's inrandi, iiirt iurando, iure
inrando ; no plur. in use.
OS, n. 'bone' [oss-ify] : os (ace), oss-is, oss-i, oss-e ; plur oss-a,
oss-ittm, oss-ibus.
senex, m. ' old man ' [sen-ior] : sen-em, sen-is, sen-J, sen-e ; plur.
sen-es, sen-um, sen-ibus.
sUs, m. or f. 'pig', sn-em, su-is, sii-T, su-e; plur. sn-es, su-nm,
su-bus or sn-ibus.
vis, f. 'violence', ace. vim, no gen. or dat., abl. vl ; plur.
= 'strength ', vJr-es, vJr-inni, vlr-ibns. [Compare above xi.]
xiv fv) Some adjectives, with no separate form for the feminine or
neuter in the nom. sing., are declined like nouns of the 3rd decl.
(Class A, §§ 23-6), i.e. they have the abl. sing, in e and the gen.
plur. in nm, or one of these two forms. Contrast iiigrns, § 33.
XV {0) Verb-adjectives in ns, gen. niis (Present Participles) form
the abl. sing, in e, when they are used either as nouns or predica-
tively in the abl. absolute; thus ab ainan/e 'by a lover', flTimine
cnrrente 'as the river is flowing'. But when they are used as
attributes of a noun they have the form in 1 (like ingens, § 33) ;
thus in flhmine cnrrentl^ in a flowing river'. In poets they some-
times form the gen. plur. in nm ; thus amaninm (for amantinm).
cvi ih) The following adjectives form the abl. sing, in -e and the
gen. plur. in -nm :
vetns ' old ' (stem vcter-, whence English ' veter-an ').
dives ' rich ' (stem dJvit-).
pauper ' poor ' (stem pauper-) .
princeps 'chief (stem princip-, whence English ' i-)rincip-al ').
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 107
Abl. sing, veicre, dlvt'ie, patipere, pnndpe.
Gen. Plur. vetenou, dlvilum, paupentm, principum.
Such adjectives generallj' have no neuter plur. (noni. or ace);
but veins forms Vetera, and dives forms dltia (contracted).
(vi) ceJer m., ceteris f., celere n. ' swift' is declined like Acer, acris,
acre (§ 32), excepting that it does not drop the e of the stem. The
genitive plural in the form ceternm is used only as a noun = 'of the
cavalry '.
(vii) A few adjectives are indeclinable, as tot' so many', nequatii
' good for nothing' (lit. ' no-how '). frfigl 'good for something' (lit.
* for use ', dat. of/riix).
Fourth Declension.
A few masc. and fem. nouns form the dat. and abl. plur. in tibus :
e.g. tribiis, f. 'tribe '.
Alternative spellings in adjectives and adverbs.
(i) Instead oiimtts in superlatives and ordinal numerals an older
form in iiniiis is sometimes used : e.g. pesstnims, deciiimis (whence
porta dccitviana 'the decuman gate', decumae 'tithes'); also in
some other adjectives, c.g.fmitituuts.
(iil Instead of -eitsiiitiis and -ieiis in numeral adjectives and
adverbs (§ 80 f.) the spellings -esimiis and -ics are found.
(iii) Instead of -eiidits in gerund adjectives belonging to verbs of
the 3rd and 4th conjugation an older form in -itndus is found : e.g.
repetimdus (whence pecuniae repetiindae ' moneys to be recovered '
= money illegally extorted) ; orinndtis, which has come to be used
with the meaning of a present participle active, 'arising.'
CHIEF EXCEPTIONS TO RULES OF GENDER (§§56-65)
Exceptions to Rule for 2Nn Decl. (§ 60).— Proper names of
towns and countries in us, and nouns in us denoting kinds of trees,
are fem.: e.g. Coriuthus 'Corinth' {captlva Corinihus), Aegyplus
' Egypt ' ; ulmus ' elm ' {uhnus oiitiqua ' an immemorial elm ') ; also
the word humus ' earth ' (humus atra ' the black soil '). A few in
US are neuter: note VULGUS 'the rabble' (PROFANUM
VULGUS 'the profane rabble'), PELAGUS 'the sea' (a Greek
word, used by poets : PELAGUS APERTUM ' the open sea ').
io8 APPENDIX
Exceptions to Rules for 3RD Decl. (§§ 61, 62).
1. The following, which form the nom. sing, by adding the suffix
s to the stem, are masc. :
(a) Nouns ending in es, gen. itis, and ex, gen. ids: thus
caespes ' turf (in caespite viv5 ' on the live turf), gurges 'whirl-
pool ' (in gurgite vasto ' in the wild whirlpool '), vertex ' summit '
(in summo vertice ' on the topmost summit ').
lapis, sanguis, mons and fons I stone, blood, mountain, fount
pes, grex (greg-is), dens and pons ! foot, flock, tooth, bridge
(c) Nouns ending in nis, with the same number of syllables in
the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing. : amnis ' river ', crinis ' hair ',
finis 'end' (sometimes fem. in the singular), fiinis 'rope', ignis
' fire ', panis ' bread '. Also the following, with some others less
important :
axis, orbis, collis, ensis | axle, orb, hill, sword
fascis, piscis, unguis, mensis j bundle, fish, nail, month
2. The following, which form the nom. sing, without the addition
of the suffix 5, are exceptional :
Masculina — ordo, card5 ; rank, hinge ; cf. 'ordin-al', 'cardin-al
pugio^ and scipiS dagger, staff
'Heutra.^—COR£>-A,CAP/T-A : heart (a^i^), head (c.-i/'i/ 7-)
LAC MEL, \'ER,iTiNER-A \ milk, honey, Spring, journc}' (/TA' A")
lash, corpse
mouth [ps), bone {ps\ sea
bronze {^aes), vessel, marble
bare tree
violence, earth, raw flesh
VERBER-A, CADAVER-A
OR-A, OSS- A, AEQUOR-A
AER-A, VAS-A, 1^! ARMOR- A
Feminina— «r^or nnda
vis et tellus, card crudo
Feminines of the 4TH Decl. (cf. § 63)
The following in us are fem. :
domus, nianiis, Idus, tribits ; I house, hand, the Ides, tribe ;
also porticits and querciis \ colonnade, oak
Exception to rule for 5TH Decl.— The word dies ' day ' is
generally masc, but sometimes fem. in the singular number, when
it denotes 'lapse of time', e.g. longa dies, or an appointed date,
e.g. dies dicta, ante cam diem, ad hanc diem.
1 The quantity of the n in pugio is shown by an epigram of Martial
(xiv. 33).
2 The plural of the neuters is given, where it exists, to show the stem.
I09
NOTES ON VERBS
(i) The ending -ere for -rntiit in the 3rd person plural of the
Perfect Indicative (§§ 140, 142, 151) is especially common in poets
and historians.
(ii) The ending -;r for -ris in the 2nd person singular of the
passive forms of verbs (§§ 152, 154, 156, 157, 161, 168) is found in
prose as well as verse of all periods. Cicero generally used -ris in
the Pres. Indie, but in the Put. Indie, and Pres. Subj. and in the
Past Imperf. Indie, and Past Subj. he more commonly used -re.
Virgil and Horace used both -ris and -re.
(iii) Some forms of the Perfect Active are occasional!}' con-
tracted : e. g. amasii (for omdv-istl), audisse (for aiidiv-isse).
Perfect stems in Iv sometimes drop the t' and shorten the i: e. g.
aiidi-erat, peti-erat (for aiidlv-erat, petJv-erat).
(iv) The verbs died 'I say \ dFico 'I lead', faciu 'I make 'j/frw
' I bear' drop the final e of the 2nd pers. sing, imperative active ;
die, dHC,fac,fer.
(v) In some verbs the Future Participle cannot be found from
the Perfect Participle Passive: e.g. moritnnis (§ 166), orititrits
(§ 167), ruilurus (§ 181).
(vi) The quantity of the ;' in the endings of the 2nd pers. sing,
and plur. and the ist plur. of the Fut. Perf. Indie, of all conjugations
{-eris, -critis, -erivnis) is properly short (representing, as it does,
what is called a short 'thematic vowel' in Greek) ; the quantity of
the ;■ in the corresponding forms of the Perf. Subj. is properly
long (representing an optative i in Greek), But, owing to the
similarity of these two tenses both in form and in meaning, they
were confused at an early date ; and poets treated the quantity of
the i in both tenses as either long or short according to metrical
convenience : cf. placdris {— pldcCweris, Fut. Perf., Hon Od. iii. 23. 3),
feceriniHS (Fut. Perf., Catullus 5. 10), egeritnus (Perf. Subj., Virg.
Aen. vi. 514).
(viij The quantity of the e in edu (ist pers. sing. Pres. Indie,
§ 247) and in all forms of the Future and Past Imperfect Indie, and
of the Pres. Subj. is short; so too in the forms editntu, edeus
(st. edent-), edeuditm. The quantity of the e in es (2nd pers. sing.
Pres. Indie), and before 5S (as in essem) or st (as in est, estu) is
no APPENDIX
uncertain ; till recently it was supposed to be long ; but some
recent authorities maintain that it was short, as in the corresponding
forms of the verb smjh. [VoUmer, Glotta i. i, pp. 1 13-16, 1907 ;
Niedermann, Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1908, p. 664 ; Classical
Review, vol. xxvi (1912), pp. 78-80.]
(viii) Old Latin forms in -so and -sim.— Old Latin had many
forms in -so and -sim which do not belong to any of the ordinary
tenses of the verb, and a few of these were still used in the classical
period :
faxo, e. g. Virg. Aen. ix. 154, xii. 316, Livy vi. 35. 9.
faxis, faxit, faxitis, faxint, e.g. Hon Sat. ii. 3. 38, ii. 6. 5, Livy
xxii. 10. 4, xxix. 27. 3, xxxvi. 2. 5, Cic. Sen. 73.
iusso, e. g. Virg. Aen. xi. 467.
recepso, e. g. Catullus 44. 19.
attsim, ausis, attsif, ausint, e.g. Cic. Brutus v. r8, Virg. Eel. iii.
32, Georg. ii. 289, Hon Sat. i. 10. 48, Ovid, Met. vi. 466.
The stem from which these forms come is a Perf. Act. stem
formed with s: fax- {=/ac-s-; contrast the ordinary Perf Act.
stem without 6-, fee- § 204) ; iuss- like the ordinary Perf. Act. stem
ofittbeo, § 220 ; aits- (= aud-s-, cf the Perf. Part, ans-iis, § 236).
The ending itn is the same as that in sim, velim, nulim, malim,
edim. The above forms in im may, then, be described as old-
fashioned Perfect Subjunctives (often with future meaning, like
other Perf Subjunctives).
The ending b is the same as that in the Put. Perf Indie, of other
verbs : faxo and iusso may, then, be called old-fashioned Put. Perf.
Indicatives (sometimes without the sense of completion, see § 309. i)
The forms in is, it, itis, iiit may belong either to the forms in
or to those in im.
(ix) Some old-fashioned Present Infinitives Passive in -ier are
found in poets of the classical period, and in some old laws quoted
by Cicero :
e.g. (ist conj.) domindrier, Virg. Aen. vii. 70; landdrier, Hor.
Sat. i. 2. 35.
(2nd con'].) fa lerier, Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 148 ; torquericr, Propertius
iii. 6. 39.
(3rd conj.) r?am^/>r Virg. Aen. iv. 493; spargicr, Hor. Od. iv.
II. 8.
NOTES ON VERBS iii
(x) The gerund adjective (§ 133) is not to be regarded as an
adjectival form of the gerund (verb-noun, § 135). On the contrary
the gerund grew out of certain uses of the gerund adjective (see
Syntax, § 503, note). That this is the true account of the relation
of these forms was shown by Wcisweiler in his book on the
Participimn Fiitiiri Passivi (Future Participle Passive, the name
by which the gerund adjective was always described by the Roman
grammarians I, published in 1890. The gerund is a declined form
of the neuter of the gerund adjective, used as a noun. [From a
construction like cundiim est nobis (§ 501) the form eutuiuni was
detached in the sense ofiUr; cf. i/er est nobis 'our way is', Virg.
Aen. xi. 17: and from this was formed a genitive eitndf 'of the
going' and an ablative eiindb 'by the going'.]
THE CALENDAR
Names of the months : — laniidrius, Februarhts, Martins, Aprl/is,
Maius, lunitis, Ouiuctllis (or Inlitis, after lulius Caesar),
Sextllis (or Augustus, after Augustus), September, October,
Nove})tber, December. These words were originally adjectives :
Iduiidrius mensis ' the January month '. — The number of
days in each month subsequent to the reform of the calendar
by Caesar in b.c. 46 was the same as at the present day.
The 1st day of each month was called Kalendae (ist Decl., fem.).
,, 5th „ most months „ Nonae „
„ 13th ,, „ „ ,, Idiis (4th Decl., fem.).
But :— In March, July, October, May,
The Ides were on the 15th day,
(and the Nones on the 7th).
The intervening dates were expressed as so many days be/ore
the Nones, Ides, or Calends. In reckoning backwards the Romans
were accustomed to count the 'terminus a quo' as well as the
' terminus ad quem.' Thus Nunae means the 9th ( = 8th) day before
the Ides. (A good practical rule is to add one in subtracting from
Nones or Ides, and two in subtracting from the number of days in
the month, for dates before the Calends of the next month.)
112 APPENDIX
Examples.
' On the ist of January,' Kalendls lamidrus (abl. ; § 444).
„ and „ ante diem quartum Nonas Iamiarias{zA.
IV. Non. Ian.).
,, 3rd „ anie diem teriium Nonas lann arias (a. d.
III. Non. Ian.).
,, 4th ,, pridie Nonas Idnudrias{-^Y\d. 'Hon. Ian.).
„ 5th „ NonJs Idnudrits (Non. Ian,).
„ 14th ,, ante diemundevJcensiniumKal.Febriidrids
(a.d. XIX. Kal. Febr.).
The accusative after anie in these expressions is due to the
position of the word in the sentence : ante diem qiiartimi Nbnds
Idnitdrids for die quarto ante Nonas Idnudrids; compare the
expression ante tertium annum for tertio anno ante.
ROMAN MONEY
Amounts of money were reckoned as so many sesterces.
Sestertius was the name given to a small silver coin, of the value
of two and a half «ss^s. The word is a compound of semis 'half
an ds ' [from semi and as] and tertius * third ' : thus it means literally
' the third {ds) half an ds ', and was used in the sense of 'two and
a half «s5^s' (two asses and half of the third).
Note the following expressions :
(i) duo sestertii, 2 sesterces ; centum sestertii, 100 sesterces.
(ii) duo milia sestertiorum or sestertium, 2,000 sesterces, lit.
two thousands of sesterces (§ 83). Sestertium is an old form
of the gen. plur., which is found also in the gen. plur. of
some other words of the 2nd decl. ; see above iv, p. 104.
(iii) duo sestertia, 2000 sesterces. In this expression the geni-
tive sestertium has been detached from its governing word
in expressions like duo mllia sestertium (ii), and treated as
a neuter singular; hence plur. sestertia.
(iv) deciens centena mllia sestertium, lit. tert times a hundred
thousands of sesterces = 1,000,000 sesterces ; viciens centena
mllia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces, &c.
ROMAN MONEY
"3
These long expressions were generally shortened by omitting
the words ccntcna mllia :
deciens sestertium, 1,000,000 sesterces,
and sometimes the gen. scstcrlium was detached from these ex-
pressions and used as a neuter singular in the sense of 100,000
sesterces: e.g. emT fundiim sestertib undeciens, *I purchased an
estate at the price 0/1,100,000 sesterces ' (abl. § 438).
Cention sestertii maj' be roughly valued at £1 (reckoning the as
as id.) ; thus septem niilia sestertiion or septein sestcrtia = £-jo.
The abbreviation HS or (better) IIS stands for iis{emis).
ABBREVIATIONS
PraenSmina.
A.
C.
Cn.
D.
K.
L.
M.
M'.
Mam.
A.U.C. =
Aed. =
Cos. =
Coss. =
D.
D.D. =
D.D.D. =
D.M. =
Des. =
F.
HS. {or
IIS) =
Imp.
N.L.
O.M
P.C.
= Aulus
= Gains
= Gnaeus
= Decimus
= Kaeso
= Lijcius
= Marcus
= Manius
= Mamercus
N. or Num.
= Numerius
P.
= Publius
Q.
= Quintus
S. or Sex.
= Sextus
Ser.
= Servius
Sp.
= Spurius
T.
= Titus
Ti.
= Tiberius
Other Abbreviations.
anno urbis conditae
aedllis
consul or consule
consulesorconsulibus
dlvus
dono dedit
dat, dicat, dcdicat
dis manibus
designatus
: fllius
sestertius (or plur.)
= imperator
= non liquet
— optimus maximus
— patrcs conscripti
Pr.
Pro C.
Pro Pr.
ProQ.
Q.
S.
S.C.
S.P.D.
S.P.Q.R.
S.V.B.E.E.V,
V.R.
= praetor (or -es)
= pro consule or
proconsul
= pro praetorc
= pro quaestore
= quaestor
= salutem
== senatias consul-
tum
= salutem pluri-
mam dicit
= senatus populus-
que Romanus
= si vales bene
est, ego valeo
— uti rogas
114
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
ORDER
IN ALPHABETICAL
xli In this list compound verbs are inserted under the uncom-
pounded tbrm, e.g. abdo under do. When a verb has several com-
pounds formed exactly in the same way, only one or two of them
are given as examples.
Rules for the formation of the Perfect Active of compounds.
1. The Perf. Act. of the compound has generally the same vowel
as the Perf. Act. of the uncompounded verb, even when the vowel
of the compound is weakened to a short / in the Present ; see ago,
premo.
But compounds oiJiaheb, teiico, rapid, salio, and statiio retain the
short i of the Present in the Perf. Act.
2. Compounds which have a weakened vowel other than a short
/ in the Present retain that vowel in the Perf. Act. and Perf. Part.
Pass. ; e. g. claudb, qiiacrb, qnatib.
3. Reduplication is generally dropped in the Perf. Act. of com-
pounds, except in those of disco, do, posed, sisto, sto ; see cado, pellb.
Traces of reduplication are preserved in some compounds with
re- : see recido, rcpellb.
xlii aboleo
abolere
abolevi
abolitus
get rid of
^221
acuo
acuere
acul
sharpen
^i8i
adolesco
adolescere
adolevi
adultus
grow up
^178
ago
agere
egl
actus
drive, do
§175
per-ago
-agere
-eg!
-actus
accomplish
ex-igo
-igere
-egl
-actus
demand
cogo
cogere
coegi
coactus
compel
algeo
algere
alsT
be cold
§215
alo
alere
alul
altus
nourish
§194
apiscor
apisci
aptus sum
get
ad-ipiscor
ad-ipisci
ad-eptus
sum
acquire
§231
arcesso
arcessere
arcesslvl
arcessTtus
summon
§ 201
ardeo
ardere
arsi
arsQrus
be on fire
^216
arguo
arguere
argui
accuse
§181
audeo
audere
ausus sum
dare
§236
augeo
augere
auxl
auctus
increase
§214
bibo
bibere
bibi
f potatus
1 potus
casurus
drink
§191
cado
cadere
cecidi
fall
§184
oc-cido
-cidere
-cidi
-casurus
sink
re-cid5
recidere
reccidi
recasurus
fiill back
caedo
caedere
cecldl
caesus
fell, slay
§184
oc-cldo
-cidere
-cldi
-cisus
kill
cano
canere
cecini
cantatus
sing
§196
capesso
capesscrc
capesslvl
catch at
§201
PRINCIPAL FARTS OF VERBS
115
capio
ac-cipio
carpo
de-cerpo
caveo
cedo
capere
-cipere
carpere
-cerpere
cave re
ccdere
-cendo not in use
ac-cendo -cendcre
ccpl captus tnkr
-ccpl -ccptus receive
carpsi carptus pluck
-cerpsT -ccr^ins pluck off
cavl cautuiii beware
cessT cessLim yield
censeo
cerno
de-cerno
cieo
ex-cio
cingo
claudo
in-cludo
colo
censcre
cernere
-cernere
ciere
-cTre
cingere
claudere
-cliidere
colere
comminiscor comininisci
congruo congruere
consulo consulere
coquo coquere
credo see under do
crepo crepare
cresco crescere
cubo cubare
-cumbo not in use
pro-cumbo -cuinbere
cupio cupere
curro currere
-ceiidi
censui
ere VI
-crevi
civl
-civl {or
cinxT
clausl
-clusl
colul
commentus sum
congrul
consulul consultus
coxl coctus
-census
census
-crctus
citus
-ciT) -citus
cinctus
clausus
-clusus
cultus
pro-curro
deleo
dico
disco
de-disco
divido
do
circum-do
ab-do
cred-5
ven-do
doceo
domo
dOco
edo
emo
ad-imo
promo
sumo
eo
red-eo
ven-eo
-currere
delere
dicere
discere
-discere
dividere
dare
-dare
-dere
-dere
-dere
docere
domare
ducere
esse
em ere
-imere
promere
sumere
Ire
-Ire
-Ire
crepui
crevi
cubul
-cubul
cuplvl
cucurri
-curri ]
-cucurri I
dclcvl
dixl
didici
-didici
divlsl
dcdl
-dedl
-didi
-did!
-didI
docul
domul
duxl
edi
-emi
-cml
p romp si
sumpsi
il
-il
-il
H 2
crepitum
cretus
cubitum
kindle
decide
distinguish
decree
rouse
call fortli
surround
shut
shut in
cultivate
devise
agree
consult
cook
creak
grow (intran.
lie doivn
$204
^ 190
§219
§183
§ 186
§222
§198
§221
§221
§173
§183
§194
§231
§181
§194
§176
§ 212
)§I78
§212
§192
§207
§200
-cubitum fall forward
cupltus desire
cursum run
-cursum run forward
deletus destroy §221
dictus say ^ 176
learn § ^79
unlearn
divlsus divide § 183
datus give §210
-datus surround § 210
-ditus hide 1 185
-ditus trust $ 184
-ditus sell § 185
doctus teach 5 222
domitus tame ^212,
ductus lead $ 176
esus eat 1 184
emptus buy, take § 196
-emptus take aivay
promptus take forth § 197
sumptus take up \ 197
itum go i^ 243
-itum return
be sold
ii6
APPENDIX
cxpergiscor
expergisci
experrectii
s sum
aivalce (intr.)
§231
cxuo
exuere
exul
exutus
take off
§181
facesso
facessere
facessTvI
do eagerly
^ 201
facio
facere
feci
factus
tnake
§204
pate-facio
-facere
-feci
-factus
throw open
ad-ficio
-ficere
-feci
-fectus
affect
iallo
fallere
fefelll
falsus
deceive
§193
re-fell6
-fellere
-felll
refute
farcio
farcire
far si
fartus
cram
re-fercio
-fercire
-fersl
-fertus
cram
§225
fated r
fateri
fassus sum
confess
§234
confiteor
-fiteri
-fessus sum
confess
faveo
favere
favl
fautum
be favourable
§219
-fendo not in use
de-fendo
-fendere
-fendl
-fensus
ivard off
§186
terio
ferlre
percussi
' Id
percussus
ictus
strike
§229
fero
ferre
tull
latus
bear
§200
ad-fero
adferre
attull
allatus
bring to
au-fero
auferre
abstull
ablatus
take aivay
con-fero
conferre
contull
collatus
bring together
d if- fero
difterre
distull
dilatus
defer
ef-fero
eflerre
extull
elatus
carry forth
in-fero
in ferre
intull
illatus
carry in
of-fero
oflferre
obtull
oblatus
offer
refers
referre
rettull
relatus
bring back
suf-fero
sufferre
sustull
endure
fido
fid ere
fisus sum
trust
§237
figo
figere
fixl
fixus
/•v
§173
findo
findere
fidi
fissus
split
|i86
fingo
fingere
finxl
fictus
fashion
^173
flo
fieri
factus sum
become
§237
flecto
flectere
flexl
flexus
bend
§187
fleo
flere
flevi
fletus
iveep
§221
fligo not in use
ad-flTgo
-fllgere
-flixl
-flictus
dash doivn
§173
pro-fllgo
-fllgare
-fllgavi
-fligatus
overthrow
fluo
fluere
fluxl
fluxus
flow
§182
fodio
fodere
fodi
fossus
dig
§204
foveo
fovere
fovl
fotus
ivarm
§219
frango
frangere
fregl
fractus
break
§175
per-fringc
-fringe re
-fregl
-fractus
sJiatter
fremo
fremere
fremul
make a noise
§195
fruor
frul
usus sum
enjoy
$231
fugiS
fugere
fugl
fugiturus
ffee
§204
fulcio
fulclre
fulsl
fultus
prop
$225
fulgeo
fulgere
fulsl
flash
§215
§186
iundo
fundere
fudi
fusus
pour
fungor
fungi
functus sum
discharge
§231
gaudeo
gaudere
gavlsus sum
rejoice
§236
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
T17
gemo
gemere
gemuT
groan
§195
gero
gerere
gessT
gestus
carry
§200
gigno
gignere
genul
genitus
beget
§195
gradior
gradi
gressus sum
step
con-gredior -gredl
-gressus
sum
meet
§232
haereo
haerere
hacsl
haesurus
cling
§220
J 226
haurio
haurire
hausi
haustus
drain
imbuo
imbuere
imbuT
imbutus
tinge
§181
incesso
incessere
incessTvT
assail
§201
indulgeo
indulgere
indulsT
indulge
induo
induere
indul
indijtus
put on
§i8t
Irascor
Irasci
suscensul
get angry
§ 231
iacio
iacere
iecl
iactus
//iroiv
§204
de-icio
deicere
deieci
delectus
cast doci'n
iubeo
iubere
iussi
iussus
bid
§220
iungO
iungere
iunxl
iunctus
Join
§173
iuvo
iuvare
iuvT
iutus
aid
§209
§231
labor
lab!
lapsus surr
I
slip
lacesso
lacessere
lacessTvi
lacessltus
provoke
§201
Iacio not in use
e-licio
-licere
-licul
-licitus
lure out
§205
in-licio
- licere
-lexi
-lectus
lure on
§205
laedo
laedere
laesl
laesus
hurt
§183
e-lTdo
-lldere
-lis!
-llsus
shatter
languesco
languescere langul
grow weak
§180
lavo
lava re
lavl
lautus
zvash
§209
lego
legere
legl
lectus
gather
§175
col-ligo
-ligere
-leg!
-lectus
collect[so e-(d
e-)ligoJ
dl-ligo
-ligere
-lexT
-lectus
love
§173
intel-lego
-legere
-lexT
-lectus
understand
§173
neg-lego
-legere
-lexI
-lectus
disregard
§173
lino
linere
levl
litus
smear
§199
linquo
linquere
llqui
leave
re-linquo
-linquere
-iTquT
-lictus
leave
§177
loquor
loquT
locutus sum
talk
5^231
luceo
lucere
luxl
shine
§214
ludo
lijdere
lusT
lusum
play
v^i83
lugeo
lijgere
luxT
mourn
§214
luo
lucre
lui
{}) loose {u)wa.
7/ §181
ab-luo
-lucre
-luT
-Iutus
wash off
malo
malle
maluT
prefer
§194
maneo
manere
man si
mansum
remain
§220
mergo
merge re
mersi
mersus
dip
§174
metior
metlrl
mensussuin
measure
§235
meto
metere
messem feci messus
moii)
metuo
metuere
metui
fear
§181
mi CO
micare
micuT
glitter
§212
ininuo
minuere
minuT
minutus
lessen
|i8i
misceo
mi see re
miscuT
mixtus
mix
^ 222
mittu
mittere
mlsi
missus
send
§187
ii8
APPENDIX
mordec)
mordere
momordi
morsus
bite
§217
morior
morl
mortULis sum
die
§232
moveo
movere
movl
motus
move (trans.)
§219
mulceo
mulcere
mulsl
mulsus
soothe
§215
j nactus sum
( nanctus sum
nanciscor
nancisci
get
§231
nascor
nasci
natus sum
be born
§231
necto
nectere
nexuT
nexus
bind
§187
neglego see under lego
nitor
nitl
j nisus sum
strive \
§231
( nixus sum
rest on j
nolo
nolle
nolul
be unwilling
§194
nosco
noscere
novT
notus
p-et to know
§178
ignosco
ignoscere
ignovT
ignotum pardon
agnosco
agnoscere
agnovT
agnitus
recognise
cognosco
cognoscere cognovi
cognitus ascertain
§178
nubo
nubere
nupsi
nupta
marry
§190
-nuo not in use
ab-nu6
-nuere
-nul
deny
§181
oblTviscor
obllvisci
oblTtus sum
forget
§231
^194
occulo
occulere
occuluT
occultus
hide
ordior
ordirl
orsus sum
begin
S^235
orior
orlrl
ortus sum
arise
§235
paciscor
pacisci
pactus sum
7Jtakea bargain § 231
pando
pandere
pandl
passus
spread out
§186
pango
pangere
pepigl
pactus
fix
§175
com-pingo
-pingere
-peg!
-pactus join together
parc5
parcere
peperci
parsurus
spare
§177
pario
parere
peperl
partus
get
§204
aperio
aperire
aperuT
apertus
open
§227
operio
operlie
operuT
opertus
cover
^227
com-perio
-perire
-perl
-pertus
learn
§226
re-perio
reperire
repperl
repertus//;/^
§ 226
ex-perior
-perIrT
-pertus sum
make trial of
"§235
pasco
pascere
pavT
pastus
feed (trans.)
^78
patior
pati
passus sum
suffer
§232
per-petior
-petl
-pessus sum
endure
pello
pellere
pepulT
pulsus
push
§193
im-pello
-pellere
-pull
-pulsus
impel
repello
repellere
reppull
repulsus repel
pendeo
pendere
pependT
hang{miv^r\s
)§2i8
pendo
pendere
pependl
pensus
lueigh
§186
im-pendo
-pendere
-pendl
-pensus
iveigh, pay
perce 16
percellere
percull
perculsus
cast doivn
§193
pergo see under rego
peto
petere
petlvT
petltus
aim at
§189
pingo
pingere
pinxl
pictus
paint
§173
plaudo
plaudere
plausT
plan sum
clap
§183
ex-plodo
-plodere
-plosT
-plOsus
hiss off
plecto poetical and rare
com-plector -plecti
-plexus sum
embrace
§231
PRIN'CIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
119
-pleo )iot ill list'
coni-pleo -plcre
pono see under sino
posco poscere poposcT
de-posco -posoerc -poposcT
possum sec tinder sum
prehendd prehcndcre prchendi
premo premcre press!
op-primo -priniere -press!
proficiscor proficisci
promo ser under emo
plev! -pletus fill up
postulatus demand
demand
prchcnsus^^;-(75/>
pressus press
•pressus surprise
profectus sum set out
pun go
quaero
re-qu!ro
quatio
con-cutio
queror
queo
quiesco
rado
rapio
d!-ripio
rego
cor-rigo
pergo
surgo
reor
r!deo
de-r!de6
rodo
rumpo
ruo
ob-ruo
saepio
salio
de-silio
sancio
sapio
sarcio
scando
de-scendo
scindo
scisco
scr!bo
seco
sedeo
ob-sideo
sentio
con-sentiu
ad-senlior
pungcre
quaercre
-qu!rere
quatere
-cutere
quer!
qu!re
quiescere
radere
rape re
-ripere
regere
-rigere
pergere
surge re
rer!
r!dere
-ridere
rod ere
rumpere
ruere
-ruere
saep!re
sal!re
-sil!re
sanc!re
sapere
sarare
scandere
pupug!
quaes!v!
-qu!sTv!
-cuss!
questus sum
qu!v!
quiev!
ras!
rapu!
-ripu!
rex!
-rex!
perrex!
surrex!
ratus sum
r!s!
-r!s!
ros!
rup!
ru!
-ru!
saeps!
salu!
-silu!
sanx!
sap!v!
sars!
scand!
punctus prick
quaes!tus seek
-quTs!tus require
shake
shatter
quassus
-cussus
quitum
quietus
rasus
raptus
-reptus
rectus
-rectus
complain
he able
go to rest
scrape
snatch
plunder
rule
correct
perrectum go on
surrectum arise
think
laugh
deride
-scendere -scend!
scindere scid!
sciscere
scr!bere
secare
scdere
-sidere
sent!re
-sentirc
-sentFri
sc!v!
scrips!
secu!
sed!
-scd!
sens!
-sens!
-sensus sum
r!sum
-r!sus
rosus
ruptus
ruiturus
-rutus
saeptus
sanctus
sartus
-scensus
scissus
sc!tus
scriptus
sectus
sessum
-sessus
sensus
-scnsum
gnaiv
hurst
tumble
overivlielm
fence in
leap
leap doiK'ii
ratify
be sensible
patch
climb
descend
tear
decree
write
cut
sit
besiege
feel
agree
assent
§221
§179
§186
§231
§175
S^i99
§205
§231
§245
^Si78
SW83
^> 206
§173
§234
§216
§ 216
§183
$191
§i8r
§i8r
§ 226
§227
§224
^ 207
§225
§186
§186
§178
§190
$212
^2T7
^ 226
§235
I20
APPENDIX
sepelio
sepelTre
sepellvT
sepultus
bury
§228
sequor
sequi
secutus
folloiv
§231
sero
serere
sertus
twine
§200
de-sero
-serere
-seruT
-sertus
desert
sero
serere
sevi
satus
sow
§199
con-sero
-serere
-sevi
-situs
plant
serpo
serpere
serpsT
craivl
§190
sido rare
con-sldo
-sidere
-sedr
-sessum seat oneself
i§i84
sino
sinere
sivl
situs
permit
§198
de-sino
-sin ere
-sil
-situm
cease
pono
ponere
posul
positus place
§198
sisto
sistere
stiti
status
stop
§188
con-sisto
-sistere
-stiti
stop
soleo
solere
solitus sum
be accustomed § 236
solvo
solvere
solvT
solutus
loosen
§181
sono
sonare
sonul
sonatijrus
sound
§212
spargo
spargere
sparsi
sparsus
scatter
§174
dis-pergo
-spergere -spersi
-spersus
scatter abroad
specie ttot m
use
con-spicio
-spicere
-spexi
-spectus look at
f205
sperno
spernere
sprevi
spretus
scorn
S^i98
spondeo
spondere
spopondl
sponsus
pledge
§218
re-spondeo
-spondere -spondl
-sponsum<7«szwr
statuo
statuere
statu!
statutus
set up
§181
con-stituo
-stituere
-stituT
-stitijtus establish
sterno
sternere
stravl
stratus
strew
§198
stinguo poetical and rare
ex-stinguo
-stmguere -stinxl
-stinctus quench
§173
sto
stare
stetl
statijrus
stand
^211
circum-sto
-stare
-stetl
surround
§211
in-sto
-stare
-stiti
-statiarus
pui'sue
v^ 211
strepo
strepere
strepuT
make a noise
§192
stringo
stringere
strinxT
strictus
tighten
§173
struo
St rue re
struxT
structus
pile up
§ 182
suadeo
suadere
suasT
suasum
advise
§216
suesco poetical
ad-suesco
-suescere -suevT
-suetus
be accttstomed
§178
sum
esse
fuT
be
§141
prosum
prodesse
profuT
be serviceable
S^239
possum
posse
potuT
be able
§240
sumo see under emo
surgo see under rego
tango
at-tingu
tego
tern no
con-temnd
tendo
con-tendo
os-tendo
tangere
-tingere
tegere
temnere
-temnere
tendere
-tendere
-tendere
tetigT
-tigl
texT
-tempsT
tetendl
-tendl
-tendl
tactus touch
-tactus touch
tectus cover
despise
-temptus despise
tentus stretch
-tentus strain
show
§175
§ 173
§197
§186
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
121
teneo
tenere
tenul
hold
§222
re-tineii
-tinere
-tinuT
-tentus
retain
tergeo
tergere
tersT
tersus
li'ipe
§215
tero
terere
trivl
tritus
rill)
^199
texo
texere
texuT
textus
iveave
§202
tingo
tingcre
tinxT
tinctus
dip
|i73
^193
tolls
tollere
sustull
sublatus
I'fi
tondeo
tondere
totondi
tonsus
shear
§218
at-tondeo
-tondere
-tondi
-tonsus
shear
tono
tonare
tonuT
thunder
§212
torqueo
torquere
torsi
tortus
t-a'ist
§2r5
torreS
torrere
torrul
tostus
parch
§222
traho
t rah ere
traxi
tractus
draiu
§173
tremo
t re mere
tremul
tremble
§195
tribuo
tribuere
tribul
tributus
assign
$i8t
trudo
trudere
trusi
trusus
thrust
§183
tundo poetical and rare
con-tundo
-tundere
-tudi
-tusus
bruise
§184
ulciscor
ulciscl
ultus sum
avenge, punish §231
ungo
ungere
unxl
unctus
anoint
S^T73
urgeo
urge re
ursi
urge
§215
uro
urere
ussi
ustus
burn
§200
comburo
comburere
combuss
I -bustus
burn up
utor
uti
usus sum
tise, enjoy
§23t
vado
vadere
SO
e-vado
-vadere
-vasi
-vasum
go out
§183
veho
vehere
vexl
vectus
carry
§173
vello
vellere
vein
vulsus
pluck
§193
vends see under do
veniS
venire
veni
ventum
come
§226
verts
vertere
vertI
versus
turn
§188
con-verto
-vertere
-vertI
-versus
turn
re-vertor
-verti
-vertI I
-versus
return
s^237
vescor
vescT
edi
feed (intrans.
) ^231
veto
vetare
vetui,
vetitus
forbid
§2T2
video
videre
vidl
visus
see
^217
vincio
vincTre
vinxi_
vinctus
bind
§224
vinco
vincere
vicl
victus
conquer
§177
viso
visere
visl
visit
^202
VIVO
vivere
vixl
victurus
live
|l82
vols
velle
volul
-
wish
$194
volvS
volvere
volvl
volutus
roll
^i8r
voveo
vovere
vSvI
vGtus
vow
§219
PART II— SYNTAX
I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS
250 In Latin, as in English and French, a sentence consists of
two parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the
word or group of words which denotes the person or thing of
which the predicate is said : the predicate is all that is said of
the person or thing denoted by the subject :
Subject
Exercitus
The army
Labienus
Lab ic mis
Exercitus
The armv
Predicate
rediit.
returned.
exercitum reduxit.
brought back the ainnv.
salvus et incolumis erat.
zvas safe ami soiuid.
251 Subject + predicate may be contained in a single word :
red!, rctitni. In Latin the subject is often expressed or
implied by the inflexion of the verb : redi-s, you return ; redi-t,
he returns; redi-mus, av ;Y///r;/ ; redl-tis, j'o?/ nV//r// ; redeu-nt,
they return.
The parts of the predicate.
252 (1) The verb.
A verb may form the whole of the predicate : exercitus
Ted.\\i, the army returned ; Troia fuit, Troy JmsJiad its day. On
the other hand predicates may be expressed without a verb :
pavidi duces, mllites ducibus infensi, the officers [were\ terri-
fied, the )nen \were^^ enraged with the officers; nc quid nimis,
[one shouhi do] nonglit to excess; unde mihi lapidem ? ivhere
[can I get] me a stone ?
253 {2) The object, governed by the verb : Labiriuis exerci-
tum reduxit, Labienus brought bach the army.
124 SYNTAX
^54 (3) The predicative adjective, predicative noun or pre-
dicative pronoun :
(a) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the sub-
ject is declared to be, to become, to be made, to be named,
or to seem : exercitus salvus et incolumis erat, the army
was safe and sound; Ubil vectigales Sueborum flunt,
the Ubii become (or are made) tributaries of the Suebt;
Labienus certior fit, Labiemts is informed, lit. becomes (or
is made) more certain ; silva munlta oppidum a Britannls
vocatur, a fortified wood is called a toivn by the Britons ;
ascensus minime arduus videbatur, the ascent seemed not
at all steep; ego is sum, / am he (=1 am the person in
question).
{b) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the
object is declared to be made, or to be named : haec res
omnia tuta reddidit, this rendered everything safe ; Suebl
Ubios vectigales faciunt, the Suebt make the Ubii tribu-
taries; Labienum certiorem facit, he informs Labienus,
lit. makes Labienus more certain ; BritannI silvam muni-
tam oppidum vocant, the Britons call a fortified ivood
a toivn.
255 Predicative adjectives and nouns may be used in sentences
which do not contain verbs of ' being ', ' becoming ', ' seeming ',
'making', or 'naming': exercitus salvus et incolumis re-
diit, the army returned safe and sound (this does not mean 'the
safe and sound army returned ', but ' the army was safe and
sound when it returned ') ; exercitum salvum et incolumem
reduxit, he brought back the army safe and sound ( = the army
was safe and sound when he brought it back) ; naves humiles
factae sunt, the ships ivere built low ; naves actuarias fecit, he
built the ships as row-barges; Ubios multo humiliores rede-
gerunt, they rendered (lit. reduced) the Ubii nnich more humble,
i.e. reduced them so that they becante more hutnble (B. G. iv.
3. 4) ; nobilissimos civitatis legates miserunt, they sent the
men of highest position in the state as delegates ; me adiijtdre
utere, use me as a helper.
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 125
Other parts of the sentence.
256 Any noun in the sentence ma}' be qualified by an adjective
or the equivalent of an adjective. An adjective or adjective
equivalent which merely qualifies and is not predicative is
called an epithet: exercitus Rdmanus rediit, ilic Roman
aniiy rctiinied (epithet adjective). On the ordinary position
of the epithet adjective see § 3.
257 An epithet noun may stand either before or after the noun
to which it belongs. The two nouns often form a kind of
compound noun, of which either the first or the second part
may be regarded as the epithet : urbs Roma, fhc city of Rome
(i. e. either the Roman city or Rome which ivas a city) ; rex
Galba, King Galba ; flumen Rhenus, the river Rhine; Garumna
flunien, the river Garomie ; bellator deus, a ivarrior god.
258 An epithet noun which stands after the noun to which it
belongs and is added as by an afterthought is said to stand
in apposition : Galba, rex Suessionum, Galba, the king of the
Siiessiones.
259 The verb, or any adjective or adverb in the sentence, may
be qualified by an adverb or the equivalent of an adverb :
deinde (or proxima hieme) Rhenum transierunt, thereupon
(or in the next ivinter) they crossed the Rhine ; longius
anno | uno in loc5 | incolendi causa | non remanent, tiiey do
not remain \ in one place \ longer than a year \ for the purpose
of residing there.
260 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva-
lent to a noun, an adjective or an adverb, and not having
a subject and a predicate of its own, is called a phrase :
mllites naves conscendere iubet, he bids the soldiers
embark (noun phrase, cf. § 461).
homines capill5 promisso, men ivitli long hair, long-
haired nu'ii (adjective phrase).
trans Alpes habitant, they divell across the Alps (adverb
phrase). Other examples in § 259.
126 SYNTAX
261 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva-
lent to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb and having a sub-
ject and a predicate of its own is called a subordinate clause :
causa transeundl fuit quod bello premebantur, the cause
of their crossing zuas that they ivcre hard pressed by ivar,
or the fad that they luere hard pressed by war was the cause
of their crossing (noun clause).
ea hieme quae secuta est GernianI Rhenum transierunt
non longe a marl quo Rhenus influit, /;/ the ivinter which
followed the Germans crossed the Rhine not far from the
sea into which (lit. ivhither) the Rhine flows (adjective
clauses).
Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulteriorem
contendit, ivhcn this was reported, Caesar hastened into
Further Gaul (adverb clause).
262 A sentence containing only one predication is called a
simple sentence :
longius anno uno in loco incolendi causa remanere iis
non licet, it is not permitted to them to remain longer than
a year in one place for the purpose of residing there}
263 A sentence consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts is
called a double sentence or a multiple sentence :
privati agri apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno
remanere uno in loco licet, there is no private land
among them, nor are they alloived to remain longer than
a year in one place (double sentence) ; hi in armis sunt,
illi domi remanent, the latter bear arms, the former remain
at home (here the two parts of the double sentence are
not connected by any conjunction) ; multum sunt in
venationibus : quae res vires alit, they are much engaged
in hunting: ivJiich circumstance increases their strength
' The instances in this and the two following sections arc taken from
Caesar, B. G. iv. i.
THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 127
(quae res = el ea res, connecting the two co-ordinate parts
of the sentence ; contrast the use of quae in § 261). Each
of the parts of such a sentence may be called a co-ordinate
clause.
264 Similarly any member of a sentence may be double or
multiple :
hi atque illi in vicem in armis sunt, Ihc latter and the
former bear arms in turn (double subject) ; quae res et
vires alit et immani corporum magnitudine homines
efficit, which circitinstance both increases their strength
and makes them tncn of vast bodily size (double predicate) ;
se atque reHquos alunt, they support themselves and the
rest (double object); gens est maxima et belUcosissima,
the tribe is the largest and most ivarlike (double predicative
adjective); quae res et cibi genefe et cottidiana exerci-
tatione et libertate vitae vires alit, idiich circumstance
increases their strength both by the nature of their food
and by their daily exercise and by the freedom of their lives
(multiple adverbial qualification) ; ager privatus ac
separatus, private and separate land (double epithet).
265 A sentence containing one main predication and one or
more subordinate predications is called a complex sentence.
266 All sentences containing a subordinate clause (§ 261) are
complex. In most complex sentences the part which is not
subordinate has a subject and a predicate of its own, and is
called the main clause : opportiinissima res accidit, quod
German! ad Caesarem sul purgandl causa venerunt, a most
fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to
Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves [quod . . . vcnerunt is
a noun-clause in apposition to res) ; ii qui trans Mosam ierant
non redierant, those ivho had gone across the Mense had not
returned [qici . . . ierant is an adjective-clause, qualifying il) ;
si gravius quid acciderit, abs te ratidnem reposcent, //
anything serious happens they ivill call you to account [si . . .
accident is an adverb-clause, = under certain conditions).
128 SYNTAX
267 But in some complex sentences containing a noun-clause
the rest of the sentence is incomplete without the noun-clause :
causa transeundi fuit quod hello premebantur, the cause of
their crossing (subject) ivas (main verb) tliat they were driven by
ivar (noun clause, used predicatively) ; or the fact that they
cverc driven by ivar (subject) ivas (main verb) the cause of their
crossing (predicative noun),
268 A complex sentence may form one of the co-ordinate parts
of a double or multiple sentence (§ 263) : opportunissima
res accidit, quod Germani ad Caesarem sui purgandi
causa venerunt (complex sentence) ; quos Caesar retineri
iussit, a most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans
came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves ; and Caesar
ordered them to be detained.
II. AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS OF THE
SENTENCE WITH ONE ANOTHER
269 The parts of the sentence are said to ' agree ' when they
are made like one another in certain respects. Agreement
binds them together and shows that they form a unity.
I. Agreement of the verb.
270 The verb agrees with the subject in number and person, as
in English and French :
Hostis fugit. The enemy is running aiuay (sing.).
Hostes fugiunt. The enemies are running aivay (plur.).
Ite, filil, celebrate exsequias Sclpionis Africanl. Go, my
sons, attend the funeral of Scipio Africaniis.
Quem quaeritis adsum Troius Aeneas. /, Aeneas of
Troy, ivhom you are seeking, am here.
271 A double or multiple subject takes a plural verb :
Cicero et Terentia valent. Cicero and Terentia are ivell
(3rd person).
Tune et uxor tua valetis? Are you and your ivife ivell?
(2nd person, because the double subject = vbs).
AGREEMENT OF THE IVVRTS 129
Ego ct uxor niea libcriquc nostri valcnius. My ivijc and
I and our child) en arc ivcll. (1st person, because the
nuiltiple subject = )ius.)
Constructions according to sense.
272 (i) A singular noun denoting several persons or things niay
take a plural verb : pars so rcccporunt, part (- some of thenij
retired.
273 (2) When the parts of a double subject are so closely connected
that they form one idea, the verb may be singular : senatus
populusquc Romanus decrcvit, the senate and Roman people has
resolved.
274 2. Agreement of the predicative adjective and predicative
noun.
The predicative adjective and the predicative noun agree
as far as possible with the word of which they are predicated
(as in French)' — the pred. adj. in gender, number, and case;
the pred. noun in case :
Exercitus salvus et incolumis est {or rediit, § 255). The
army is (or returned) safe and sound.
Roma erat caput Italiae. Rome ivas the head [capital) of
Italy.
Vita rustica magistra parsimoniae est. A country life is
the teacher of thrift, {nmgister happens to have a cor-
responding feminine magistra.)
Ciceronem populus Romanus consulem creavit. The
Roman people elected Cicero consul.
Milites salvos et incolumes praestitit. He secured the
safety of the soldiers (lit. he secured the soldiers safe and
sound) : cf. Cicero, pro leg. Man. § 55. Praesto in this
sense is derived from praes and sto, ' I stand surety.'
^ The predicative adj. or noun is only part of what is predicated (see § 250).
The agreement of predicative words with the words of which they are
predicated is not found in all languages. In German, for example, predicative
words unlike epithets; are uninflected.
I30 SYNTAX
Licet iis incolumibus exire. // is alloivt'd to than to depart
unharincd : here incolumibus is predicated oi ils, which
is governed by licet.
Administrls ad ea sacrificia Druidibus utuntur. As
agents for those sacrifices they make use of the Druids :
here administris is predicated of Druidibus, which is
governed by utuntur.
275 So too with an infinitive :
Balbus civis Romanus esse vult. Balbus desires to be
a Roman citizen : here cJvis is predicated of Balbus.
Cicero dixit Balbum civem Romanum esse. Cicero
declared Balbus to be ( = declared that Balbus was)
a Roman citiwn : here clvem is predicated of Balbum.
276 Double or multiple subject.
(i) When a double or a multiple subject consists of words
denoting persons of different sexes^ and the predicate contains
a predicative adjective, the plural adjective is put in the mas-
culine gender, as in French :
Pater mens et mater mea salvl sunt. My father and
mother are well. (The double subject = duo homines,
' two human beings ', and homo is always masc.)
(2) When a double or multiple subject consists of words
of different genders but not denoting persons, and the predi-
cate contains a predicative adjective, the plural adjective either
agrees with the part of the subject which stands nearest to it
or is put in the neuter gender :
Bracchia modo eorum atque umerl llberl ab aqua erant.
Oiu'y their amis and shoulders cvcre free of the water.
Mors et somnus similia sunt. Death and sleep are similar
(similar things).
277 The rules given above for predicative adjectives apply also
to verb-adjectives (perfect participles) in compound tenses of
verbs : pater meus et mater mea mortui sunt (capti sunt), my
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 131
father ivid iiiy inollier arc dead [have been taken prisoners) ;
Cicero a populo Romano consul creatus est, Cicero ivas elected
con SI d by the Roman people.
278 Peculiarity. If the subject is a demonstrative, interrogative, or
relative pronoun, and the predicate contains a predicative noun,
the subject is generally made to agree with the predicative noun,
as in French :
Hie vitae Hannibalis exitus fuit. This ivas the end of Hannibal's
life.
Haec est nobilitas mea, hac imagines meae. This is my title
to nobility, this my gallery of ancestral busts.
Quae est causa ? IVhat is the reason /
Roma, quod caput crat Italiac. Rome, whieh was the capital of
Italy.
Sunt item quae appellantur alecs. There are also ivhat (/. c.
animals which) are called elks (B. G. vi. 27 : (jiiae is feni.,
agreeing with alces).
279 3. Agreement of epithets.
The epithet adjective agrees in gender, number and case
with the word which it qualifies :
vir bonus, a good man ; hie vir, this man (demonstrative
adj.); qui vir? which man ^'^ (interrogative adj.); quota
hora est? what o'clock is it? (interrogative numeral adj.);
adulescentes quidam, so}ne young men (indefinite adj.);
patriam suam relinquit, he is leaving his native land
(possessive adj.) ; duo erant itinera quibus itineribus
exire posscnt, there were two roads by -which roads they
would have been able to march out (relative adj.) ; castra
munlta, a fortified camp (verb-adj.).
280 If an epithet adjective qualifies two or liiore nouns of
different genders, it either {a) agrees with the noun that
stands nearest to it, or {b) is repeated :
[a] signum et manum suam cognovit, he recognized his
seal and hand ;
omnes terrae et maria ) // / j ,, j . ,,
r (ill lands aiut seas.
terrae et maria omnia J
I 2
132 SYNTAX
(b) maior alacritas studiumque pugnandi mains, greater
keenness and love of fighting ;
omnes terrae et omnia maria, all lands and seas.
281 The epithet noun agrees in case with the word to which it
belongs :
urbem Romam relinquit, he is leaving the city of Rome ;
silva Arduenna a flumine Rheno ad initium Remorum
pertinet, the forest of the Ardennes stretches from the
river Rhine to the frontier of the Renii [flfimen neut.,
Rlienus masc).
Nouns in apposition : agrum Helvetiorum, gentis GalHcae,
vastat, he lays waste the territory of the Helvetii, a Gallic
tribe ; Athenas, inventrices artium et scientiarum, viset,
he will visit Athens, the mother of arts and sciences {in-
ventor happens to have a corresponding feminine in-
vent ri.v).
4. Agreement of pronouns.^
282 Pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun or
noun-equivalent which denotes the person or thing indicated :
Silva Hercynia magna est : in ea (fem. sing.) sunt multa
genera lerarum, quae (neut. plur.) reliquis in locis visa non
sint : ex quibus quae maxime diflferant a ceteris haec sunt.
Est bos cervl figura, cuius (masc. sing.) a fronte unum cornii
exsistit : ab eius (neut. sing.) summo sicut palmae ramique
diftunduntur. Eadem est leminae marisque natura. Sunt
item alces : harum est consimiiis caprls figura. . . . His sunt
arbores pro cubllibus : ad eas se applicant (B. G. vi. 25-7).
The Hercynian forest is large : in it there are many kinds of
wild beasts, -which [i. c. kinds) have nut been seen in other places :
of -which {i.e. kinds) those -which differ most from the rest are
the following. There is an ox with the shape of a stag, from
whose forehead springs a single horn : from the top oj this
1 The term ' pronoun ', as used here and in the Accidence, docs not include
indicating adjectives, such as hie in hie vir, * this man ' ^see § 279;.
AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 133
Zi'lial 7rsciiib/rs /laiids and hranc/irs s/nrads out. The appear-
ance of the male and of the female is the same. There are
also elks : their shape is like goats ( = tliat of goats). Trees
senr them as beds : they lean against them (/'. r. the trees).
283 The person or thing indicated by a pronoun is not always
expressed by a noun or noun-equivalent in the sentence or
context ; sometimes the speaker has a person or thing in
mind without mentioning it :
Ei qui in statione erant interfecti sunt. Those {i.e. the
men) who were on sent?y duty -were killed.
Ea quae acciderant nuntiant. They report the things 'which
had happened.
Caesarl cum id nuntiatum esset, eos per provinciam iter
facere conarl, maturat ab urbe proficiscT. IVhcn that
{i. c. that fact) had been reported to Caesar, namely that
they iverc attempting to march through the province, he
hastens to set out from Rome.
284 The pronoun ego indicates the person speaking, who may
be male or female ; nos indicates the person speaking and
other persons associated with him—/ and you or / and he
{she, they) : tfi and vos indicate the person or persons spoken
to, who may be male or female. The gender of these pro-
nouns varies accordingl}' :
Ful ego {masc.) liber ; nunc servus sum. — Ego te [masc.)
llberum praestabo. / have been free ; noiv I am a slave.
— / will guarantee you free.
Ful ego (/c/;/.) libera; nunc serva sum. — Ego te {fem.)
llberam praestabo.
285 Predicative pronouns agree not only in gender and number
but also in case with the word of which they are predicated :
Tune is es, qui fecistl?— Ego is sum. Are you he -who
did it ? — / am he.
Tune ea es, quae fecistl? — Ego ea sum. Are you she
who did it ? — / am she.
134
SYNTAX
286 The relative pronoun agrees, like an}' other pronoun, in
gender and number with the noun or noun-equivalent which
denotes the person or thing indicated. This noun or noun-
equivalent is generally found in another clause of the sentence,
and is called the antecedent of the relative; see some examples
in § 282. The case of the relative depends on the construction
of the clause in which it stands, just as the case of other pro-
nouns depends on the part which they pla}' as subject, object,
&:c., in the sentence :
/quae ad portum ferebant.
Zi'/iic/i led to the harbour.
quas hostes sine custodils rellquerant.
ivhicJi the riiniiv had hft unguarded.
quarum una angusta erat.
of which one ivas narrozv.
J quibus nullae custodiae praesidio re-
lictae erant.
to which no sentries had been left as a
protection.
quibus hostes exierant.
by ivhich the enemy had marched out.
. in quibus nullae custodiae erant.
\ /// ivhicli tlicre zvere no sentries.
Duas vias occupavit
He seized the two roads
Haec a me beneficia habetis, quem proditionis insimulatis.
These benefits you have from me, whom you accuse of treachery.
287 The relative is always to be regarded as of the same /'n\w;/
as its antecedent ; the person of the relative is shown by the
verb of the relative clause, when the relative is the subject :
Ego, qui tc confirmo, ipse me non possum. /, ivho am
reassuring you, cannot reassure myself (Cicero).
luppiter, ingentes qui das adimisque dolores. O Jupiter,
who dost inflict and take away great sufferings. I lor.
Sat. ii. 3. 288.
AGREEMENT OF TFIE PARTS 135
Obs. If the antecedent is a predicative noun or predicative pro-
noun, it is generally treated as of the same person as tlie subject
of the main clause:
Sum pius Aeneas, raptos qui ex hoste penates classe veho
mecum. / am the faithftd Aeneas, ivlio cany ivith me in my
fled my household gods rescued from the enemy : Aen. i. 378.
Non is sum qui mortis perTculo terrear. / am not one who
is to be terrified by the danger of death : in Enghsh the
antecedent ' one ' is treated as of the 3rd person.
See other examples in § 285.
288 If a relative pronoun refers to the whole statement of
another clause, it stands in the neuter singular (often preceded
by id, 'that '; so in French cc qui), or agrees with res inserted
in the relative clause :
Ex litterls Caesaris dierum quindecim supplicatio dC-creta
est, quod (or id quod) ante id tempus accidcrat null!. As
a result of the dispatch of Caesar a public thanksgiving
of fifteen days ivas decreed— a thing ivhich had not ha p-
pened to any one before that time.
Flumen Axonam exercitum traduxit : quae res omnia
tuta ab hostibus reddebat. He crossed the riverAisne:
ivhich manoeuvre rendered everything safe from the enemy.
These are double sentences (§ 263).
289 Relative clauses without any antecedent expressed are
common in Latin ; qui = is qui, 'he who,' French celui qui;
qiiod — id quod, 'that which' or 'what', French ce qui; quJ-
cumque, 'whoever,' French quiconque. Compare in English
' Who steals my purse steals trash ' (Shakespeare).* In such
cases the relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with
the antecedent which the speaker has in mind :
Qui ex ils novissimus convenit, in conspectu multitudinis
' A relative clause of this kind tnlaeii togetlicrivilli ils iiiie.xfHrsscd aiitecedcut
is equivalent to a noun (' //« who steals my purse' = 'a pickpocket') ; but
the relative clause alone should not be spoken of as a noun-clausc.
136 SYNTAX
necatur. He ivho is the last to present himself, is put to
death in the sight of the multitude.
Feras, non culpes, quod mutarl non potest.^ One should
put up ivith, not find fault iias he speaking Latin ?.
Hbros scrlbebat, he zvrote (= used to write) books; Latinc
loquebatur, lie spoke ( = used to speak) Latin ; loque-
baturne Latlne?, did he speak (—-used he to speak)
Latin ?.
1 The Latin Past Imperfect Indicative has in general the same meanings
as the French Past Imperfect (French Grammar, §§ 294, 296) ; but it is not
used like the French Past Imperfect in //"-clauses which refer to present or
future time (French Grammar, §§ 295, 315).
THE INDICATIVE MOOD 139
In verbs which denote a state the non-continuous form of
the English Past is generally used : erat, he was; habebat, lie
had; amabat, //r /orvr/; sciebat, //^' /v/rrc.
Homines nomen horum amabant. People loved the
fianie of these )neu: Cicero, pro Sestio, § 105; the time
at which they loved is expressed in a previous sen-
tence : illls temporibus, /// those days.
295 The Past Imperfect sometimes marks an act as attempted
or begun :
BritannI nostros intra munitiones ingredl prohibebant.
The Britons tried to (or began to) prevent our men from
entering ivithin the fortifications.
Special use.
296 In connexion with adverbial expressions of time how long' the
Past Imperfect denotes what had been going on up to some point
of time in the past (of. § 293 (i)) :
iam diu librum scrlbebat, he had been tcriting a booh for a long
time: domiciliimi ibi multos iam annos habebat, //^ //a<^/ //rrr/
his home there for many years ; French, // demeiirait la depuis
plusieiirs ans.
The Future.'
297 The Future tense marks the action of the verb as about to
take place after the time of speaking:
librum scrlbam (scribes, scrlbet), / shall {yon will, he ivill)
write a book ; sciam (scies, sciet), / shall [yon a'///, he
will) kno'a'.
298 A substitute for the Future, sometimes used with special
meanings, is formed by snni with a Future Participle :
librum scriptQrus est, he is about to :iist being under the
authority of the Romans: cf. B. G. i. 31.
331 When the main clause is negatived or interrogative the
noun clause is usually introduced by (/uin (derived from qul-ne,
originally = ' why not ? ' or ' how not ? ') :
GermanI retinerl non poterant quin tela in nostros
■ For some Latin verbs of tliis class wliicli take an infinitive (without
a negative; see note to § 329.
154 SYNTAX
conicerent. Tlie Germans could not be restrained from
hurling missiles against our men : B. G. i. 47. — Non
recOsamus quin armis contendamus. We do not refuse
to fight (originally 'Why should we not fight? we
have no objection ').
332 (iii) Noun clauses depending on verbs of ' fearing'. Here
too the noun clause expresses (from the Latin point of view)
a desire that something shall not be done : hence it takes ne
where the English uses ' that ' or ' lest ', Compare the use
of ne in French : je crains que jc ne mcurc = ' 1 fear that
I shall die '. The Latin ne nioriar metub meant originally
' may I not die ! I have my fears'.
Veritus ne ab omnibus deseratur, legates ad Caesarem
mittit. Fearing lest he be deserted by all, he sends envoys
to Caesar: cf. B. G. v. 3. — Veritus ne hostium impetum
sustinere non posset litteras Caesarl remlsit. Fearing
lest he should not be able to resist the attack of the enemy
he sent a dispatch to Caesar : B. G. v. 47.
Instead of ;/^ non ' that not ' ut is often used :
Ut res frumentaria supportaretur timebant. They feared
lest supplies should not be brought up : cf. B. G. i. 39.
The ut was originally interrogative (like utinain in wishes,
§ 321) : ' how were the supplies to be brought up ? they had
their fears.'
333 (i\') Noun clauses depending on a noun or noun-equivalent
(pronoun or adjective used as a noun) :
lus est belli ut victores victis imperent. // is the law of
ivar that the victors shall give commands to the vanquished:
cf. B. G. i. 36. — De senatus consulto certior factus est
ut omnes iuniores Italiae coniurarent. He zvas informed
of the vote of the Senate [to the effect] that all the younger
men of Italy should (were to) take the military oath :
B. G. vii. I. Similarly in dependence on nouns like
sententia,fdtum, mos, potcstds, occdsio.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 155
Suuni ilkui. nihil ut adfirmct, tenet ad extrenuini. He
maintains to the last that habit of his 0/ affirming nothing
(that he shall affirm nothing) : Cic.^Tusc. i. 99. — Quid
melius est quani ut nihil adfirmem ? IVhat is better
than that I should affirm nothing ?
Verum est ut boni bonos dlligant. It is right that
good men should love good meti : Cic. de Amic. 50. — An
verlsiniile est ut civis Romanus haec fecerit ? Is it
probable that a Roman eitizen should have done this ?
Cic. Sest. 78.
{b) In adjective and adverb clauses.
334 Here the ^//^//-subjunctive assumes various shades ol
meaning.
(i) It may denote what is obligatory or proper or necessary
or destined :
Circumscrlbit nos terminis quos non excedamus. He
confines us icithin limits ivhich we are not to (= must not)
pass over: Livy xxi. 44. 5. — Quam mult! dies reperlrl
possunt qui tall nocti anteponantur ? Hoiv many days
can be found ivhich are to be preferred to such a night
(/. e. to the sleep of death) ? Cic. Tusc. i. 97. — Accipe
quod numquam reddas mihi. Here is a sum of money
ivhich you need never repay me (lit. ivhich you arc not
bound ever to repay me) : Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 66. — Nasce-
tur Troianus . . . famam qui terminet astrls. There
shall be born a Trojan ivho shall extoid his glory to the
stars : Aen. i. 286 f.
335 (ii) It may denote the necessary or natural eftect of an
antecedent: English 'such {or so) as to' with the infinitive.
Compare ' Build me straight a goodly vessel which shall
laugh at all disaster' (Longfellow) : which shall laugh = such
as to laugh. 'There was no reason why I should rejoice ' =
no reason such as to make me rejoice. Such clauses are
often preceded by a word meaning ' so ' or ' such ' or ' enough ',
156
SYNTAX
'worthy', 'fitting', &c., in the main clause; compar the
French td que and de sorte que with the subjunctive,
0«7-clauses. — Neque ulla tanta vis reperietur quatcon-
iunctionem vestram labefactare possit. Nor wi any
force be found so strong as to be able (h't. ivhichhall
be able) to weaken your alliance : Cic. Cat. iv. 22.-Xon
is sum qui mortis perlculo terrear. / am not a nut of
such a character as to be terrified [not one ivlio is >j be
terrified) by the danger of death: B. G. v, 30.-->atis
erat causae quare Caesar in Dumnorigem advenret.
There ivas sufficient reason -why Caesar should pnish
{was to punish) Dunmorix: B. G. i. 19. — Digni-unt
quorum saluti consulatis. They deserve (lit. the\are
worthy) that you should consider their welfare : cf.Cic.
leg. Man. 13. — Idonea niihi Laelil persona vis est
quae de amicitia dissereret. / thought Laelius uiuit-
able character to discuss (lit. who should discuss) jrnd-
ship : Cic. Amic, 4.
Secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castrls cnti-
nerent. There followed storms ivhich were to keepour
men in camp {= storms so severe as to keep): B G.
iv. 34. — Quid est quod rideas? I That is there tlw.ou
should (or have to) laugh at? — Nihil habeo quod aom.
/ have nothing to do {= nothing which I am to o) :
Hor. Sat. i. 9. 19. — Haec habul de senectute uae
dicerem. / had this much to say about old age (=:his
much which I was to say) : Cic. Sen. 86.
^7-clauses. — Haec omnia sic agentur, ut bellum inistl-
num sedetur. All this shall be done in such a maner
that the civil war shall be ended: Cic. Cat. ii. 28.-Ita
currus collocant, ut expedltum ad suos recepum
habeant. They place their chariots in such a positiu as
to have a ready retreat to their friends : B. G. iv. 3 —
Mihi cuiusquam salus tanti fuisset, ut meam neglegerci?
^k^
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 157
SJiould anyone's welfare have been (§ 319) of so great
importance to 7ne that I was to (as to make me) disregard
my own ? Cic. Sulla 45. — Quid in me admisl, ut
loqui non audeam ? What crime have I committed that
I should not venture to speak ? Plaut. Men. 712. — Nee
tantum maerorem senatui mors Clodil afferebat, ut nova
quaestio constitueretur. Nor did the death of Clodius
cause the senate so much grief that a new court of
inquiry had to he constituted: Cic. Mil. 13. — Nemo erat
adeo tardus, quin (= ut non or qui non) statim castrls
exeundum et occurrendum putaret. No one -was so
sluggish as not to think that he must immediately march
out of the camp and oppose us : B. C. i. 69. — Non
possunt una in civitate multi fortunas amittere, ut non
plures secum in eandem trahant calamitatem. // is not
possible for many men in one and the same state to lose
their property -without dragging (lit. in such a -way as
not to drag) a greater number -with them into the same
misfortune : Cic. leg. Man. 19).
337 (ii An adjective or adverb clause with a 5//rt//-subjunctive
ma} >e subordinated to quam 'than', preceded by a com-
para.ve adjective or adverb in the main clause :
laior sum quam cui {or quam ut mihi) possit Fortuna
nocere. / am too great for Fortune to be able {than
that Fortune should be able) to injure me: Ovid, Met.
vi. 195. — Longiusaberant quam quo telum adici posset.
Tiny -were too far off for a javelin to reach them.
Similarly quasi ' as if = quam si (with a postulative
subj., § 343 : loqueris quasi nescias.
338 (n Many adjective and adverb clauses with a s//a//-subjunc-
tivelenote what is desired. The subordinate clause (called
a cluse of purpose) is introduced either by a relative pronoun
or b ut ' that ', ne ' that . . . not ', or quo ' whereby ' [quo being
gen rally followed by a comparative). They ma}^ often be
trar.lated by an English infinitive.
158 SYNTAX
Exploratores mittit qui locum idoneum castris deligant.
He sends scouts to choose a suitable place for a camp ;
lit. K'/?o shall choose, or n^ho are to choose: B. G. ii. 17.
Labienum in continenti rellquit ut portus tueretur. He
left Lahiemis on the continent in order that he should
(might) protect the harbours : B. G. v. 8.
Ne aestatem in Treverls consumere cogeretur, Indutio-
marum ad se venire iussit. Lest he should (or In order
that he might not) b& compelled to zoaste the summer in
the country of the Treveri, he commanded Imhitiomarus
to come to him : B. G. v. 4.
Mllites manipulos laxare iussit, quo facilius gladils uti
possent. He ordered the soldiers to open up their ranks,
whereby the more easily they should (might) be able to use
their swords : B. G. ii. 25.
339 In some adjective and adverb clauses the 5//rt//-subjunctive
denotes little more than the idea of future time. Such sub-
junctives may be called 'prospective', because they mark the
action as in prospect either at the time of speaking or at some
point of time in the past which the speaker has in mind.
340 Prospective subjunctives are often found in clauses of time
introduced by words meaning 'until ' or ' before ' :
Exspectare dum hostium copiae augeantur summae
dementiae est. To wait till the forces of the enemy shall
be increased is the height of folly : B. G. iv. 13. — Non
prius duces ex concilio demittunt quam ab iis sit con-
cessum ut arma capiant. They do not let the leaders
go out of the council till permission to take up arms has
been (lit. sJiall have been) gra)itcd by them : B. G. iii. 18.
— Dum reliquae naves eo convenlrent in ancoris ex-
spectavit. He waited at anchor till the rest of the ships
should assemble there : B. G. iv, 23. — Priusquam se hostes
ex terrore reciperent, exercitum in Suessiones duxit.
He led his army into the country of the Suessiones before
the enemy should recover from their alarm : B. G. ii. 12.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 159
34T Prospective subjunctives are especially common in adjective
and adverb clauses which are subordinated to a clause which
itself refers to future time : ^
Fraus fidem in parvis sibi praestruit, ut, cum operae
pretium sit, cum mercede magna fallat. Fraud con-
trives for itself credibility in small things, in order that,
•a'hen it shall he ivorth ivhile, it may deceive with great
profit : Livy xxviii. 42. 7. — Exspectabat ut, si forte hostes
elicere posset, citra vallem contenderet. He ivas waiting
in order that, if perchance he should be able to lure out the
enemy, he might fight on this side of the valley : B. G.
V. 50. (Contrast 5; with the Past Subj. in § 350. 2.) —
Imperavit ut sustinerent quoad ipse propius accessisset.
He ordered them to hold out till he himself should have
come nearer: cf. B. G. iv. 11. — Sabellls docta ligonibus
versare glebas . . . sol ubi montium mutaret umbras,
taught .to turn the sod with Samnite mattocks tvhen
the sun should lengthen the shadows of the mountains :
Hor. Od. iii. 6. 38-41 {Sabcllus means 'Samnite', not
'Sabine').
342 In some adjective and adverb clauses the 5//rt//-subjunctive
expresses a supposition ('supposing that'). In this use the
subjunctive may be called ' postulative ', because it denotes
what is assumed or demanded for the purpose of argument.
The origin of this use is seen in simple sentences (§§ 317,
321) :
Vendat aedes vir bonus ; norit ipse vitia earum, ccterl
ignorent : vitia emptorl dlcere debet. Let an honest
nnm sell a house ; let him know its defects himself, but let
all other men be ignorant of them : he ought to point out
the defects to a purchaser (cf. Cic. Oft', iii. 13). Here
the sentences with the subjunctive are conmiands ;
but they are equivalent to suppositions : should an
honest man sell a house . . .he ought to point out its defects.
Compare in English ' Lot two parallel lines be pro-
i6o SYNTAX
duced to infinity : they will never meet '; ' Be he alive
or be he dead'; 'will he nill he'; and in French soil
= 'supposing it to be so.'
Modo luppiter adsit : tertia lux classem Cretaels sistet in
oris. On/y let Jupiter stand by its : the third dawn shall
set our fleet on the shores of Crete : Aen. iii. ii6 f.
A postulative subjunctive of the past is seen in instances
like the following : —
Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, quinque diebus nil
erat in loculls. Supposing that yon had given a niillion
sesterces to this thrifty man, in five days there was nothing
in his money box : Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15 f.
343 But postulative subjunctives are generally introduced by
a subordinating conjunction — sJ 'if'/ nt 'supposing that',
dum or ditmmodo 'so long as', qitanwls 'even if, 'although '
(literally 'as you will', from quam and the 2nd pers. sing,
pres. indie, of void) — or by a relative pronoun :
Si vendat aedes vir bonus, &c. If an honest man should
sell a house, Szc. For the use of the tenses of the sub-
junctive in such ^/'-clauses see§ 350.^ — Ut omnia contra
opinionem acciderent, tamen se plurimum navibus
posse. [They reflected that] supposing that everything
1 Si means literally ' so ' ; the same word is seen with the suffix c in sTc
{si 'in case', sT-c 'in that case'). In Shakespeare's time 'so' was some-
times used in the sense of ' if ' ; e. g. ' No matter whither, so you come not
here' (As You Like It, ii. 3. 30) ; Latin Non rejert quo eds, si non hue vcnids.
2 But the tenses of the subjunctive may be used without the special
implications which they have in the sentences quoted in § 350 : e. g. Muriis
oppidt a pldiiitie atqiie initio ascensus rectd regione, st niilltis anfrachis inlcr-
cederet, MCC passfis aberat, 'The wall of the town was 1,200 paces distant
from the plain and the beginning of the slope in a straight line, supposing
no bend in the road to intervene' (= disregarding bends in the road) :
B. G. vii. 46 — St in Itolid cousistai, eiiiniis und ; sin ccdct, consilt res est,
' Supposing him to make a stand in Italy, we shall meet ; but if he yields
(lit. shall yield), the matter demands thought' : Cic. ad Att. vii. 10 : cf. Hor.
Od. ii. 14. 6, ii. 17. 14, iii. 3. 7.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD i6i
shoitliiliappoi coiilrary lo llicir cxpcclalion, tiny zvcir iicirr-
//ir/css very strong in ships: B. G. iii, 9. — Oderint dum
metuant. Lei thou hate, so long as {— provided that) they
fear. — Ea voluptas, qiiamvls pcltA'a sit, pars tanicii est
vltae. That pleasure, be it ever so small (lit. be it small as
you will) is nevertheless a part of life.— Qui rel publicae
sit hostis, folix esse non potest. IVhoso shall be an
enemy of the state, cannot be a happy nian.
344 Such clauses often have a limiting or restrictive sense.
[a\ Relative clauses limiting a superlative or negative :
Omnium oratOrum, quOs quidem ego cognoverim, acu-
tissimus. The most keen-voitted of all orators, at any rate
of those zvhom I have known (all, provided that I have
known them): Cic. Brutus i8o. — Servus est nemo,
qui modo tolerabill condicione sit servitutis, qui non
audaciam horum civium perhorrescat. There is no
slave, provided only that he be in a not unendurable state
of servitude, ivho does )iot (§ 335) shudder at the crimi-
nality of these citizens : Cic. Cat. iv. 16, — Often in the
expression quod sciam ' so far as I know ' (lit. ' supposing
me to know it ').
345 {b) ^'/-clauses preceded by ita =ed condicione : Equites vobis
ita concedunt ut vobiscum de amore rei publicae cer-
tent. The knights yield to you [senators) only on the
understa/uling that they shall vie with you in patriotism :
Cic. Cat. iv. 15. — Ita illl audire poterunt ut vos quoque
audiatis. Thiy will not be able to hear without your
hearing also : cf Cic. Sulla 31.
346 A postulative (//^-clause (especially with quippc or ut * as ')
may assume causal meaning: cf. siquidem, originally = 'if
indeed ', hence ' since ' :
Insipiens sum, qui quidem contra eOs tarn diu disputem.
/ am foolish to argue so long against them (Cicero) ; lit.
if I argue, considering that I argue.
•-'01 L
162 SYNTAX
{B) SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING WHAT WOULD
HAPPEN UNDER CERTAIN IMAGINED CON-
DITIONS
347 These subjunctives are translated by 'should' in the ist
person and ' would ' in the 2nd and 3rd persons.
What would happen is what will happen (or is likely to happen)
under certain imagined conditions : e.g. ' What would you do ? '
means ' What are you likely to do in that case {or under those
circumstances) ? ' The idea is that of a future action, the
occurrence of which depends on a condition which the speaker
has in mind.
These subjunctives, then, may be called subjunctives of
conditioned futurity.^ The}' express the meanings which
are generally expressed in French by the Futures in the
past.
I. In Simple Sentences.
348 The Present and the Perfect Subjunctive denote what is
likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of the
present or future :
Hoc Ithacus velit et magno mercentur Atridae. 77//^ t/ic
Ilhacan ivoiild desire and the sons of Atreits would pur-
chase at a great price ; ' would desire ' = ' is likely under
these circumstances to desire': Aen. ii, 104; cf. ii. 8
quis tdliafando teniperet a lacrinns ?
Dicere non ausim (= audeam). / should not venture to
say. Similarly velini ' I should like', ndlim 'I should
not like ', nialim ' I should prefer '.
Hoc non facile dixerim. I should not readily assert this,
I am not likely to . . . : Cic. Verr. iv. 94.
^ Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may have originally denoted what
ought (logically) to be the case, marking a statement as a necessary inference
from some supposition : si hoc verum sit, illud sit falsum^ supposing litis to
be true, that tnust be {ought to be) false. If so, these subjunctives are in origin
subjunctives denoting what isto be (see §§318, 319). Note that in the fourth
example above qiiis aibilnlretitr might be translated ' zvlio zcas to lliink .^''
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 163
The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive denote what
tvas likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of
the past : ' ^
Quis arbitraretur hoc belluni uno anno confici posse?
lllio zvoiild havf thought [under those circumstances]
that this ZiUjr conhi be brought to an end in one year?
Cic. leg. Man. 31.
Crederes victos. You ivouhi have supposed them eon-
quercd : Liv. ii. 43. In such sentences 'you' may
mean either the person addressed or an}' one ('one').
Nulla alia gens tanta clade non obruta esset. ylny other
nation would have been ovenvhehned by so great a disaster:
Liv.xxii. 54.
Similarly veUeiii ' I should have liked ', nolleni, malleni.
2. In the Main Clause of a Complex Sentence.
349 Ihe combination ot a clause containing a subjunctive of
conditioned futurity with a clause containing a postulative
subjunctive (§342) forms a conditional sentence of a particular
kind, in which there is an implication that the speaker does
not vouch for the condition being (or having been) fuUilled.
The use of the subjunctive in the //-clause marks the con-
dition as a mere assumption [if it be supposed that), and in
some cases implies that it is contrary to fact.
350 In conditional sentences of this kind ■ the tenses of the sub-
junctive are used in special senses by writers of the classical
period.^
I. When the //-clause refers to future lime, it takes the
> The same idea is sometimes expressed by the FuUire Participle wilii
a past tense of bUVH : see § 352.
- There is another kind of conditional sentence, in which the //-clause is
open, i. e. in which there is no implication as to the lulfihnent of the con-
dition. Such //-clauses take the indicative mood : see § 531.
^ In tiie Old Latin writers the tenses of the subjunctive are somewhat
dillcrenlly used.
L 2
i64 SYNTAX
Present Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Present Sub-
junctive in the main clause, denoting what would happen : '
Si vir bonus habeat banc vim, ut digitorum percussione
nomen suum in locupletium testamenta inserere possit,
hac vl non utatur. 1/ a good man were to have the
poiver of being able by snapping his fingers to introduce
his name into the ivills of wealthy persons, he would not
use the power: cf. Cic. Off. iii. 75. — Si habeat 'if he
were to have' or 'if he should have' or 'should he
have' implies ' I do not say that he ivill have'. The
speaker (or writer) guards himself against being sup-
posed to mean that the condition will be fulfilled.
Si per te liceat, perendino die communem cum reliquis
belli casum sustineant. If you iverc to permit them,
they ivoitld the day after to-morrow face the chances of
zvar in common ivitli the others : B. G. v. 30. 3.
2. When the //-clause refers to present time, it takes the
Past Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Past Subjunctive
in the main clause, denoting what loould happen :
Si vir bonus banc vim haberet, ea non uteretur. If
a good man had this poivcr, he zvould not use it. — Si
haberet ' if he had ' implies that he has not the power.
The condition is contrary to present fact.
Cuius rei si exemplum non habcremus, tamen institui
pulcherrimum iudicarem. Even if noe had no precedent,
I should nevertheless regard it as a fine thing that one
should be established \ B. G. vii. 77. 13.
3. When the //-clause refers to past time, it takes the Past
Perfect Subjunctive (or sometimes the Past Subjunctive-),
1 The Perfect Subjunctive is occasional!}' used in this case, but it is very rare.
2 The use of the Past Subjunctive with reference to past time is tlie older
usage, often found in Plautus, e.g. deos voluisse credG ; nam ni vellent, nOn
fieret, / believe that the gods willed it ; for if they had not willed it, it -wotdd not
have happened {AuXulana 742). But, as in English and French, a form which
originally denoted past time, came to be used with reference to present
time: nisi Alexander esscm, Diogenes esse vellem, if I ivere not Alexander,
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 165
and is accompanied b}' a Past Perfect (or sometimes by a Past)
Subjunctive in the main clause, denoting what 'aKUilii have
liappoied :
Si M. Crassus banc vim habuisset, eil usus esset. IJ
Marcus Crassus (an unscrupulous man) /lad had this
poivcr, he would have used it. — S'i habuisset ' if he had
had ' implies that he had not the power. The con-
dition is contrary to past fact.
Dares banc vim M. Crasso, in foro saltaret. Had you
given [supposing you to have given) this power to Marcus
Crassus, he -u'oidd have danced for joy i)i the forum
(Cicero, in the continuation of the passage quoted
above. Crassus was dead when Cicero wrote).
Nisi mllites defessi essent, omnes hostium copiae delerl
potuissent. If the soldiers had not been tired out, all
the forces of the enemy might have been destroyed : B. G.
vii. 88. Nisi or nJ means ' if . , , not ' or ' unless '.
351 An //"-clause referring to past time may be accompanied by
a main clause referring to the time of speaking :
Si mens non laeva fuisset . . . Troia nunc stares. If our
hearts had not been blinded, thou, Troy, would'st now be
standing: Aen. ii. 54 f.
352 Instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive in the main clause
the Future Participle with eram or fuT is sometimes used :
Emendaturus, si licuisset, eram. / should have corrected
the faults, if I had been ailoived to do so : Ovid, Tristia
i. 7. 40 ; lit. / li'as likely to (or going to) correct the faults.
353 Instead of the subjunctive of a verb denoting ' can ', ' must ',
or 'ought' in the main clause, the indicative may be used :
Quodsl Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad
/ should wish to be Diogenes. The English were Siibj. of ivas) originally
related to past time, as in ' If it were so, it was a grievous fault ' (Shake-
speare) ; but it generally expresses a contrary-to-fact supposition of the
present. So too the French Past Imperfect Indicative ('see French
Grammar, § 315).
t66 syntax
tantum belliim is erat deligendus. But even if Ponipey
were a private citizen at the present time, nevertheless it
is he ivho ought to he chosen for the conduct of so great
a war: Cic. leg. Man. 50. Similarly deligl eum oporte-
hat ' he ought to be chosen ' ; deligt poterat 'he might
be chosen '.
St privatus turn fuisset, deligendus fuit. If lie had been
a private citizen at that time, he ought to have been chosen.
Similarly deligl cum oportuit 'he ought to have been
chosen ' ; deligl potuit ' he might have been chosen '.
Contrast the Past Perfect Subj. potuissent in the last
example of § 350.
354 In conditional sentences with a subjunctive in the //"-clause,
the subjunctive of conditioned futurity in the main clause
generally assumes a negative shade of meaning, i.e. denotes
some degree oi unlikelihood. But not necessarily; for when
a word meaning 'even ' is added in the //"-clause, or when si
alone means 'even if (as in some of the examples above), the
speaker means that the action of the main clause is or was
likely to happen in any case. For example, the passage
quoted above (§ 350. i) from Cicero goes on as follows :
Si vir bonus banc vim habeat, non utatur, ne si explora-
tum quidem habeat id omnino neminem umquam sus-
picaturum. If a good man ivcre to have this poiver,
he would not use it, not even if he zvere to be sure that not
a single person would ever suspect him : ' he would not
vise it' = his refusal to use it is likel3\
3. In Subordinate Clauses.
355 Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may bo subordinated
to a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction :
Nemo est qui ilium non ad Manlium quam ad Massi-
lienses Tre mTdit. Their is no one 7oho 7i'ould not prefer
that he should go to Manlins rather than to the people oj
Marseilles : Cic. Cat. ii. 16.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 167
Maestl redierunt, ut victos eos credcres. Tluy returned
sad at heart, so that one woahMiave supposed them coth
qucred: cf. § 348.
Honestum tale est, ut vel sT igndrarent id homines vel si
obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset laudabilc.
Rightcousuess is of such a nature that even if men ivere
unacquainted ivith it or had said nothing about it, it ivouhi
neverthe/ess be connnendable by reason of its own beauty:
Cic. Fin. ii. 49.
Nescio num si banc vim haberem ut digitorum per-
cussione heres locupletium scrlbl possem, hac vl uterer.
/ do not know whether, if I had the poivcr of being ab/e
l)y snapping my Jingers to be written doivji as the heir of
wealthy persons, I should use it (cf. § 350. 2).
Non dubito quin si homines banc vim habuissent, saepe
usurpata esset. / do not doubt that if people had had
this power, it ivould often have been used}
356 Rut instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive denoting con-
ditioned futurity in subordination to a conjunction which
itself requires the subjunctive,- or in a dependent question,
the Future Participle with fucrim, fuerls, fuerii is generally
employed, if the meaning is active and the verb has a Future
Participle :
Non dubito (or Non dubitabam) quin siM. Crassus banc
vim habuisset, ea usurus fuerit. / do not (or did not)
doubt that if Crassus had had this po-wer, he ivould have
used it : lit. 'was likely to use //.'—Die quidnam facturus
fucrls, si eo tempore censor fuisses. Say 'what you
ivould have done (lit. were tdcely to do), if you had been
censor at that tinw : Livy ix. 33. 7.'— Adeo inopia
coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi cum fugae specie abeun-
> Note that in all these subordinate expressions of conditioned futurity no
regard is paid to the rule of sequence of tenses f§ 365).
- E. g. 11/ or /»// (§ 362) or cum (§ 358 . By means of the combination
of the future participle with /(/<■;/;;/ Latin is able to express futurity and at the
same time to maintain the subjunctive construction required by the conjunction.
i68 SYNTAX
dum timuisset, Galliam repetlturus fuerit. Hannibal
was driven to such straits by ivant, that if he had not
feared that his departure ivould have involved the appear-
ance of flight, he would have retreated to Gaul : Li vy
xxii. 32. 3.'
For the way in which conditioned futurity is expressed in
dependence on a verb of 'saying' or 'thinl^ing' see §471
[Died M. Crassitni hdc vi usurum fuisse, si earn habiiissct).
[Q SUBJUNCTIVES WITH WEAKENED MEANING
IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
357 In course of time the subjunctive came to be used in some
constructions with a weakened meaning, little different from
that of an indicative. These weakened subjunctives are,
however, found only in certain subordinate constructions
(five in number) ; and the origin of most of them can be
traced. In some cases it is the s//«//-meaning, in others the
ivould ■vi\c?^r^mg, that has been weakened. The loss of the
s//(7//-meaning is similar to the loss of the sense of obligation
or necessity in some constructions of the gerund adjective
(§ 502).
Note the following features which are common to all these
weakened uses of the subjunctive :
(i) The tenses of the subjunctive are translated by the
corresponding tenses of the English indicative :
the Present Subj. by a Present Indie.
the Past Subj. by a Past Indie, or by its continuous form.
the Perfect Subj. by a Perfect or a Past Indie.
the Past Perf. Subj. by a Past Perf. Indie,
(ii) Where future time has to be expressed, it is expressed
by adding the Future Participle : e.g. interrogo num venturus
sit, / ask whether he ivill cojne : interrogavl num venturus
esset, / asked whether lie ivould roiue.
* Note that in the subordinate expression of conditioned futurity no regard
is paid to the rule of sequence of tenses (§ .365).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 169
(iii) The negative is always iid)i, Jllontrast the use of 7ie as
the negative of some of the subjunctives which denote what is
or tvas to be done (§§ 320, 327, 330, 332, 338).
358 T. Certain clauses of time, cause, and concession take
a subjunctive with weakened meaning.
[a) Ciiiii meaning 'when' generally takes the subjunctive
in past time (/. e. when the time of the main clause is past).
The tenses of the subjunctive used in such r«;//-clauscs are
the Past and the Past Perfect.
The r//;;;-clause is best translated by a participle without
any conjunction : the aim does not mean exactly ' at the time
when ' (in which sense it takes the indicative), but rather
'whereas', denoting the circumstances under which the
action of the main clause takes place' :
Cum esset Caesar in Gallia Citeriore, certior fiebat Belgas
coniurare. Being in Hither Gaul, Caesar was infonned
that the Belgae iverc leaguing together: B. G. ii. i.
Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulteriorem
contendit. This having been reported, Caesar hastened
into Further Gaul : B. G. i. 7.
(Z») Cum meaning 'because' or 'although', and qui, quae,
^ The word ctiiit is in origin an accusative of the relative pronoun (stem
quo-); its root-meaning is, therefore, 'as to which,' or 'whereas'. 'Whereas'
is not very difTerent from the meaning which si originally 'so') acquired
when it became a subordinating conjunction ; cf. § 343 note. In English
'^when ' and 'if are often interchangeable : 'when it rains (= whenever it
rains), I stay at home,' ' if it rains, I stay at home.' Similarly in Latin :
difficile est iacere ciim doleds, 'it is difficult to hold one's peace when one is
hard hit' {si doleds, 'if one is hard hit'): Cic.Sull. 31. It is possible, then,
that the subjunctive which is used in circumstantial f//»;-clauses is in origin
postulative, like the subjunctive with sJ : si Ha esset, 'supposing that it was
so,' cnm Ha esset, ' under whatever circumstances it was so.' The past
tense of the postulative subjunctive does not necessarily imply that the
supposition is contrary to fact : see § 343, note 2. Cicero uses si ita esset
without this implication in Tusc. v. n. 33 ; cf. Shakespeare's ' If it were so
(= supposing that it was so), it was a grievous fault': Julius Caesar iii.
2. 84. The subjunctive in f«;>/-clauses of time, cause, and concession did
not become common till the time of Cicero.
170 SYNTAX
quod, meaning 'because he (she, it)', 'although he (she, it)',
take the subjunctive in both present and past time.
Here, too, the r//;//-clause and the (7//r-clause are best trans-
lated by a participle : —
Quae cum (= Et cum ea^ ita sint ! ^g'-edere ex urbe (Cic. Cat. i. lo)
( tamen pacem faciam (B. G. i. 14^.
this being so = (i) because this is so, (2) although this is so.
Cum non amplius octingentos equites haberent, impetum
fecerunt. Having {= Though they had) not more than
800 horsemen, they charged : B. G. iv. 12.
Titurius, qui nihil ante provldisset, trepidare. Titiirins,
■Jiaving foreseen nothing, became alarmed: B. G. v. 33.
359 In translating from English into Latin, cum with the sub-
junctive is a very useful equivalent for the English participle.
One reason for this is that Latin has no perfect participle
with active meaning, except in deponent verbs, and no present
participle passive of any verb : nor has it any present par-
ticiple of the verb 5/////. The r//;//-clause came to be used as
a substitute for these wanting forms.
360 2. Certain clauses of result introduced by uf, or by qui,
quae, quod, take a subjunctive with weakened meaning ' :
Tanta tempestas coorta est ut naves cursum tenere nun
possent. So great a storm arose that the ships luere not
able to Jiold their course : cf. B. G. iv. 28.
Cicero ne nocturnum quidcm sibi tempus ad quietem
relinquebat, ut ultrd militum vdcibus sibi parcere
cogeretur. Cicero did not allow himself even the night
1 The origin of this construction, which is such a curious feature of the
Latin language, is shown in §§ 335 6. The Romans regarded a result as
the iifcessnry effect of a cause— as something louud to liappeii, something
wliich is or 2vas to come about. The subjunctive mood was very well fitted
to express this idea, which is closely akin to that of the root meaning of the
subjunctive. And the Romans employed this mood in all clauses of result —
not only those in which English often uses the infinitive with 'as to' and
French the subjunctive .nfter cle sorte que and similar expressions, but also
those which are expressed in English and French and other languages as
statements oifact (by the use of the indicative mood).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 171
for slerp, so tJiat he was actiialh' co)iiprlled by the prolesls
of the soldiers to spare Jiiiuself: B. G. v. 40.
Tam paratus fuit ad dimicandum animus hostium iit ad
galeas induendas tenipus defuerit. So eager 'were the
eiie/iiy for fighting that time faih'd our men for putting
on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21.
Habctis eum consulem qui parere vestrls dccretls nOn
dubitet. Yon have a consul of such a character that he
does not hesitate to obey your decrees : Cic. Cat. iv. 24.
Obs. Ouln may be used for ut non or qicJ {quae, quod) non,
when the main clause is negative or interrogative :
Numquam tam male est SiculTs quin aliquid facete dicant.
The Sicilians are never in such trouble that they do not
say {as not to say) something ivitty (lit, wittily) : Cic.
Verr. iv. 95.
361 Out of this construction grew another in which the sub-
ordinate clause loses all its sense of result and becomes
purely descriptive. When a relative clause (with or without
the antecedent is) is an essential part of the sentence, which
cannot be removed without destroying the sense, it gencrall}'
takes the subjunctive :
Nulla navis quae mllites portaret deslderabatur. No
ship that carried soldiers tvas missed: B. G. ■/. 23.
Neque quicquam edrum quae apud hostes agercntur cum
fallebat. Nor did any of the things which were going
on among the enemy escape his notice : Livy xxii. 28. t.
Sunt qui dicant . . . There are people ivho say . . .'
Erant qui censerent . . . There were people who r.xpirssed
the opinion . . . Livy xxi. 6.^
' The origin of subjunctives of this type may pcrlmps I)c found in sentences
like repoiutiliir ijtil dicant, ' people arc found to say ' : e. g. qiit sJ iillid
morn offcrant faciliits repeniiutitr quam qui doldrettt palieuler fcraitt, people
are more readily found to expose themselves i who shall expose themselves)
unasked to death than to bear pain with fortitude: B. G. vii. 77. 5.- It
should be noticed that the indicative is sometimes used after su)it qiCi,
e. g. Caesar, B. G. iv. 10 aunl qui ptscibus et ovTs avium vlvere existuuaiilio ;
Horace, Od. i. i. 4.
172 SYNTAX
362 3. Certain noun clauses introduced by ut or qitlii take
a subjunctive with weakened meaning.'
[a) 67-claiises depending on verbs of ' happening ' :
Factum est ut impetum nostrorum non ferrent. The
result was (lit. // resulted) that they did not stand the
attack of our men : B. G. iii. 19.
Accidit ut luna plena esset. It happened that there was
a full moon : B. G'. iv. 29.
(Z>) 0?/7«-clauses depending on negatived or interrogative
expressions of ' doubting ' :
An dubitamus quin RonianI ad nos interficiendos veniant
[ventOrl sint, venerint] ? Do we doubt that the Romans
are coming [wdl come, have cojne] to nntrder us ? cf .
B. G. vii. 38.
Non erat dubium quIn RomanI ad eos interficiendos
venlrent [venturi essent, venissent]. There was no
doubt that the Romans were coming [were about to come,
had come] to murder them.
363 4. Dependent questions as to a matter of fact and de-
pendent exclamations take a subjunctive with weakened
meaning."
1 The subjunctive in these M/-clauses is of the same origin as that in clauses
of result (§ 360) : compare id ne fie) t posset, obsidioneftebat, ' that this should
not be possible, was brought about by the siege' (Caesar, B. C. i. 19), where
fiebat takes ne and a s/;rt//- subjunctive, — Q//i;«-clauses with the subjunctive
were originally interrogative. A question like qutn rogeni? ' why should
I not ask?' ( Plautus, Mil. 426), or qiiln qiiod iiivat id semper faciaiit ? 'why
should they not always do what pleases them?' (Sallust, Jug. 85. 41) may
be subordinated, like any other question with the subjunctive (§§ 319, 325) ;
compare § 331. In the following instance qinn preserves its original meaning
of ' why not ? ' and the subjunctive its 5/;a//- meaning :
Dubitandum non existimavit quIn proficisceretur. He thought there ought
to be no hesitation as to setting out : B. G. ii. 2 ; originally ' why should he
not set out? He thought there ought to be no hesitation'. It would be
impossible here to translate proficisceretur by an English indicative ('was
setting out ').
2 The use of the subjunctive in dependent questions as to a matter of fact
(which take the indicative in English, French, and Greek) did not become
3 rule of Latin syntax till the time of Cicero, though it is often found in Old
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 173
(a) Dependent questions as to a fliatter of fact :
Quid quisque audierit quaerunt, et cogunt eos pronun-
tiare quibus ex regionibus veniant quasque ibi res cog-
noverint. T/icy inquire zvhat each has heard, and compel
them to declare from what country they come and ivhat
they have learned there : B. G. iv. 5. — Quid fieri velit
ostendit. He indicates what he ivishes to be done : B. G.
V. 2. — Intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur. He
perceived ivhy those things were said: B. G. v. 4. — I line
intellegl poterat utrum apud eos pudor an timor plus
valeret. Hence could be seen ivhether honour or fear
had more injluence with them: B. G. i. 40. — Matres
faniiliae sortibus declarabant utrum proelium coni-
mittl ex usu asset necne. The matrons used to show by
drawing lots whether it was expedient that a battle should
be fought or not : B. G. i. 50; contrast § 325, third ex.
[b] Dependent Exclamations :
Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You see how
Soracte stands out glistening with deep snow : Hor.
Od. i. 9. I (dependent form of the exclamation Ut alta
stat nive candidicm f). — Mirum quantum illi viro fides
fuerit. Strange it is, to what an extent that man ivas
believed: Liv^y i. 16 (dependent form of Quantum illi
viro fides fu it.').
Obs. I. In reported speech dependent questions and
dependent exclamations are sometimes expressed by the
accusative with infinitive construction : see § 545.
Obs. 2. In dependent exclamations the indicative is some-
times found in poets :
Aspice ut insigiiis spolils Marcellus opImTs ingreditur.
Look hoii) Marcellus steps along conspicuous in a general's
spoils : Aen. vi. 855, cf. viii. 192, Georg. i. 57.
Latin. It may be connected vvitli the use of the subjunctive to denote the
words or thoughts of another person (§ 364; : sec note below.
174 SYNTAX
364 5. Adjective and adverb clauses take the subjunctive
when they express the thought of another person or of
the speaker himself on some other occasion.^
The adjective or adverb clause may be —
Either [a] subordinate to a noun clause which is itself
dependent on a verb of ' saying ' or * thinking ':
Helveti! dixerunt sibi in aninio esse iter j^er provinciam
facere, quod aliud iter haberent nullum. The Hclvetii
said that they intended to niareh throiigli the Roman pro-
vinee beeanse ///r\'had no other road : B. G. i. 7. The ad-
verb clause ijiiod aliud iter haberent niillunt is part of the
thought not of Caesar but of the Helvetii, whose speech
Caesar is here reporting. In their original speech they
would have used the indicative : Nobis in aninio est iter
per provineiani facere, quod aliud iter habemus nullum.
Caesar dixit haec esse quae ab eo postularet. Caesar
said that these iverc the things ichieh he demanded of
him : B. G. i. 35. The adjective clause quae ab eo
postularet is part of the thought of Caesar at the time
when his speech was made : Haec sunt quae abs te
postulo.
Or [l)) suburdinate to a main clause (without any noun
clause intervening) :
Cuttac ct Titurii calamitateni, qui in eodem castello occi-
derint, sibi ante oculOs ponunt. They picture to them-
selves the misfortune of Cotta and Titurius ivho (as the}'
said to themselves) fell in the same fort : B. G. vi. 37.
^ A use of the English 'should' to denote what was said or tiiought by
another person suggests a possible origin for the Latin subjunctive in this
sense, hi Elizabethan English instances are found like ' I heard a strange
thing reported ... of a raven that slioidd build in a ship of the King's ' (Bcw
Jonson, Volpone, ii. i), which might be translated iiiha res nitniidla est dc
cui vo tjiil ill tulvc ixgid ntdijicdict. And the same usage still exists in some
dialects of English : e. g. ' He goes about saying that I slioidd be a thief.' —
Compare also the use of the French Future in the Past in the same sense (see
French Grammar, § 310. iv^. Thus in the third example above qui iKcidiiiiil
might be translated in Vixnchqui uuiaicitl piii.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 175
Rcnu dc suls privatis rebus pctcrc cocpcruiit iiuoniani
civitati consulere non possent. The Rcmi began lo
entreat about their private affairs because (as they said)
they were iiot able to take thought for the state : B. G.
V- 3-
Obs. I. This construction is sometimes iound in clauses ot
cause preceded by iiou :
Perseverabo, non quod confidam sed quia adhuc spero.
/ sha/I persevere, not (as might be supposed) because
I have confidence, but because I still have hopes ; French
je continuerai, non pas quefaie confiaiice, nuiis fespire
encore (French Grammar, § 359).
Obs. 2. There is a similar use of the subjunctive in noun
clauses introduced by quod and depending on verbs of
'rejoicing', 'grieving', and 'wondering^:
Milites indignabantur quod conspectum suum hostes
ferre possent. The so/diers ivere iiuiignant that the
enemy shouUi be able to face them : B. G. vii. 19. In
such clauses English very often uses 'should' and
French the subjunctive (see French Grammar, § 362):
compare the following instances from Shakespeare :
' This I wonder at that he shoidd be in debt ' (Com. of
Err. IV. ii. 481 ; 'Alas that love shouhi be so tyrannous !'
(Rom. and Jul. i. i. 176).
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
365 The tenses of the subjunctive used in subordinate clauses
generally correspond to or follon: front the tense of the verb
of the main clause. The following rule is illustrated by all
the examples of 5//rt//-subjunctives in subordinate clauses given
in §§ 324 46, and by all but one ' of the examples of sub
junctives with weakened meaning in §§ 358-64.
' U. G. ii. 21 in § 360. lliis exception ib cxjilaincd bcluw (^Remark 2 .
176 SYNTAX
Rule : i. When the main clause has a tense of present or
future time, the subjunctive of the subordinate clause is either
Present or Perfect :
Present to denote action not completed : e.g. Quid faciat
nescit, He does ttot know what lie is doing (§ 363)
or what he is to do (§ 325) :
Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid fecerit
nescit, He does not know what he has done (or
(ii<^)', §363-
2, When the main clause has a tense of past time, the sub-
junctive of the subordinate clause is either Past or Past
Perfect :
Past to denote action not completed : e. g. Quid
faceret nesciebat. He did not know what he ivas
doing (§ 363) or ivJiat he was to do (§ 325) :
Past Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid
fecisset nesciebat, He did not know what he had
done ; § 363.
366 Subordinate clauses with the Present or the Perfect Sub-
junctive are said to have 'primary sequence'; those with the
Past or the Past Perfect Subjunctive are said to have
' secondary sequence '.
Remarks.
367 (i) The Perfect Indicative when used as a Present Perfect
is a tense of present time and properly takes primary
sequence; when used as a Past Historic it is a tense of past
time and properly takes secondary sequence :
Ne qua civitas Romanes suls finibus recipiat a me pro-
vlsum est. I have taken precautions that no state shall
receive the Romans within tJieir borders : B. G. vii. 20.
Dixit mihi quid faceret (fecisset). He told uic what he
was doing {had done).
But there are exceptions ; for even when the Perfect is
SEQUENCE OF TENSES 177
used as a Present Pcrt'eet it sonietinies takes secondary
sequence :
Ne vobis nocere possent ego pruvidi; ne milii noccant
vestrum est providere. / Jtave taken precautious that
they shoitld uot be abh' to injure you ; it is your business
to take precautious that they shall not injure nte : Cic. Cat.
iii. 27.
In noun clauses introduced b}^ ut or qulii (§ 362) the Perfect
always takes secondar}' sequence ; and the onl}- tense of the
subjunctive used is the Past : see the examples in § 362.
Perfects which have become Presents in meaning always
take primary sequence: e.g. Novimus | Meminimus] quid
proxima nocte egerls. IVe know [remember] what you did last
night: cf. Cic. Cat. i. r.
(2) In clauses of result {§360) the tense of the subjunctive
is often independent of the point of view of the main clause :
Tarn parfitus fuit ad dlmicandum animus hostium ut ad
galeas induendas tempus defuerit. So eager zvere the
enemy for fighting that time failed our men for putting
on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21. Here the action o{ defuerit
is marked as having taken place before the time of
speaking, not in relation to/////, which would naturally
have been followed by deesset.
Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui in antiquum statum
nullo modd possit. He ruined Sicily to such an extent
that it ca>i nowise be restored to its ancient condition :
Cic. Verr. Act. I. 12. Here the action of possit is
marked as going on at the time of speaking, and not
in relation to perdidit.
(3) The Historic Present (§ 293. ii) is treated sometimes as
a tense of past time, sometimes as a tense of present time
(this latter usage is the commoner in Caesar) :
Speculatores mittit ut quid agerCtur sclret.
„ ,, ut quid agatur sciat.
901 M
178 SYNTAX
(4) The Historic Infinitive (§ 480) is always treated as
a tense of past time :
Obsecrare ut Caesar certior fierct. Tliey entreated that
Caesar iniglit be informed: B. C. i. 64.
(5) In the course of a long passage of reported speech
depending on a tense of past time, some of the adjective
and adverb clauses may have primary sequence: e.g. in
B. G. i. 14. 6 the Present Subjunctives depend on respondit
(not on consuesse, which is a present in meaning). This
varied construction is common in Livy.
(6) It follows from the Rule (§ 365) that a sentence like
' I know what he was doing last night ' cannot be translated
literally into Latin ; we must say ' I know what he did last
night', Scio quid proximo, nocte fecerit. And a sentence like
' He did not know how much twice two is ' must be trans-
lated Nescicbat quot bis bina essent (literally ' He did not know
how much twice two was ').
IV. CASES AND PREPOSITIONS
THE NOMINATIVE CASE
368 The nominative is the case of the subject :
Haedul, gens valida, Romanis amlci erant. The Haedui,
a powerful tribe (§ 281), ivei-c friends to the Romans. —
Exercitus salvus et incolumis rediit. The army returned
safe and sound (§ 274). — Orgetorix dux deligitur. Orge-
torix is chosen leader (§274).
369 When the subject is indicated only by the inflexion of the
verb (§ 251), it is often vague in meaning: Dicunt. They
say, people say. — Pluit. It is raining ('it' = something, i.e.
the sky or the rain ^). — Alios effugere saepe, te numquam
potes. You (= One) can often escape from others, but never
1 Compare in English 'The rajn it raineth every day' (Siiakespeare).
THE NOMINATIVE CASE 179
y)'o;// vo/z/'^r//" (=: oneself). — EciTis,. noil cnlprs, cinocl nnltarl
non potest. One s/ioit/(f put ///> a'////, not Jhid fault hu't/i, ivluit
cannot be altered (§ 289).
370 Verbs which are used only in the 3rd person (generally
without a nominative') and in the infuiitive are called imper-
sonal verbs: e.g.
pluit (ere), // is raining
lucescit (-ere), it is daivjung
ton at (-arc), // is thundering
fulgurat (-are), // /s lightening
371 The following impersonal verbs are either used without
any subject expressed, or take as their subject either the
nominative of a neuter pronoun or more commonly an in-
finitive or (in a complex sentence) a noun clause : —
372 (i) pigct, pudet, paenitct, taedet, and miscret, which express
the feelings of vexation, shame, regret, weariness, and distress.
These verbs may take an accusative of the person who has
the feeling and a genitive of that which causes the feeling
(unless this is expressed as the subject) ; compare ' It re-
pented the Lord that he had made man, and it grieved
him ' (Genesis vi. 6); ' He is slow to anger and repenteth him
of the evil ' (Joel ii. 13) :
Faterl pigebat. It zvas annoying to con/ess {To conjess
was annoying). — Factorum meorum {or Haec fecisse)
me numquam paenitebit. / shall never repent of my
deeds (or of having done these things). — Nequitiae tuae
me pudet. / atn ashamed of your iviclcedness.—Me tul
miseret. / atn sorry for you, I pity you.
373 (ii) interest 'it makes a difference' and refert 'it matters'.'
These verbs may take a genitive of the person to whom it
makes a difference or matters ; but instead of the genitive of
a pronoun of the ist or 2nd person, or of the 3rd person
^ A nominative case is sometimes added : luppiter pluit, Jtipikr is lainiiii^
(i.e. is sending rain); saxa pluiint, stones are raining dozun {i.e. coming
down like rain } ; hoc lucescit, this is the dawn coming ; caelum tonat, t/ie sky
is thundering.
M 2
i8o SYNTAX
when reflexive, the ablative singular feminine of the possessive
adjective is used : '
Ad nostram laudem non multum interest. // does not
make viueli difference to our reputatioji.— Quid MilOnis
intererat interfici Clodium? IV/iat (§ 392) did it con-
cern Milo that Clod ins sJionld be killed ?—M.e^\ nihil
interest scire, sed illius multum. // matters nothing
(§ 392) to nw to knoiv, hut it matters very much (§ 393,
§ 77) '^ ^^'"'- — Quod tua nihil refert ne curaverls. Do
not take thought for ivhat does not concern you (=Mind
your own business). — Illorum magis quam sua retu-
lisse credunt. They think that it concerfted those persons
rather than themselves (Sallust). — Neque cuiusquam
refert. Nor does it co)icern anyone (Tacitus).
374 (iii) libet 'it pleases', licet ' it is allowed', and liquet 'it is
clear'.
These verbs may take a dative of the person to whom
something is pleasing, allowed, or clear :
Licet ils incolumibus discedere. They may depart un-
harmed (§ 274). — Hoc feci dum licuit. This I have
done, so long as it was permitted. — Quod cuique libet
loquatur. Let each man say what he likes. — Hoc non
liquet, neque satis cogitatum est. This is not clear,
nor has it been sufficiently pondered.
375 (iv) oportet 'it is fitting ', decet ' it is seemly ', and dedecet 'it
is unseemly' :
Me ipsum ames oportet, non mea. // is fitting \that\you
should love [^ 325. ii) me myself, not my possessions (Cic.
Fin. ii. 85). — Amicitiam popull Romani mihi praesidio,
non detriments esse oportet. // is fitting that thefriend-
' The origin of this ablative is uncertain, as is also the case of re- in refert.
Med refert comes either from meCi res [nom. ) fert ' my interest involves ', or
from iiicarit rem fert ' it tends to my interest ' {incaiit rem = ad meant rem).
In either case the re- was misunderstood as an ablative, and the possessive
adj. made to agree with it.
THE NOMINATIVE CASE i8i
sliip of the Roman nation slTould be (§ 466) a protection,
not a disadvantage to inc (cf. B. G. i. 44. 5).— Perge,
decet. Go on, it befits you (Aen. xii. 153). — OmnCs
homines ab odio vacuos esse decet. It is seemly that
all men should be free froni hatred.
176 I he Past Imperfect and the Perfect Indicative of these
\erbs denote what ouglit to have been done, i. e. what would
have been fitting (see § 353) :
Amicitiam popull RomanI mihi praesidio esse opoitCbat
{or oportuit). The friendship of the Roman nation
ought to hair been a protection to me (implying that
it had not been a protection).
Note that where English has a perfect infinitive with
' ought ' Latin has a present infinitive with a past tense of
oportet. The reason is that the EngHsh ' ought ' (originally
a past tense of 'owe') has come to be used like a present
tense, and so there is no means of indicating past time
except the perfect infinitive.
J77 Verbs which are used intransitively in the active have an
impersonal passive use, expressing that an action takes place :
Itur, there is a going, a journey is nuide ; pugnatum est, there
was fighting, a battle was fought.
THE VOCATIVE CASE
178 The vocative is the case of the person (or personified thing)
addressed :
DCsilile, mllitC-s, nisi vultis af[uilani hostibus prodere.
Leap down, fellow soldiers, unless you -want to betray
the standard to the enemy.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE
J79 (^i) The Accusativl: wrriiouT a PRiiPosmoN
The accusative without a preposition has two main uses :
(i) as the direct object of a verb used transitively,
(ii) in certain adverbial expressions.
i82 SYNTAX
380 (i) Accusatives of the direct object:
Commium, regem Atrebatem, reniittit. He sends hack
Coiiuiiius, the Atrcbaiian ki/ig (§ 281). — Exercitum sal-
vum et incolumem reduxit. He brought back the army
safe and sound (§ 274). — Commium regem constituerat
Caesar. Caesar had appointed Comniius king {as king,
§ 274).
381 Many verbs which are used intransitively in their uncom-
pounded form acquire a transitive use when compounded
with a preposition; e.g. piigno 'I fight', oppiigno 'I fight
against ', ' I attack '. Especially verbs of motion, when com-
pounded with certain prepositions [circum, per, praeter, trans,
and some others), may be used transitively :
hostem circumvenire, to snrroiind an enemy ; agros per-
currere, to overrun a country; aliquem praeterire, to
overlook {pass by) some one ; flumen transire, to cross
a river; civitates adire, to approach tJie states (literally
or figuratively) ; consilium inire, to enter on a plan ;
mortem obire, to meet death ; perlculum subire, to face
danger.
382 Many verbs whose ordinary use is intransitive may be used
transitively with an object which is akin in meaning to the
verb. Such 'cognate objects ' are generally either {a) nouns
qualified by an epithet, or \b) neuter adjectives or pronouns :
{a) vitam longam vivere, to live a long life; vltam exsulis
vivere, to live the life of an exile ; bidui iter progredl,
to advance a tivo days' march,
{b) pingue et peregrinum sonare, to have a coarse and
foreign sound {to ring coarse and foreign); illud laetor,
/ a)n glad of that {I have that jo}>).
383 Verbs of 'teaching' and 'asking' sometimes take two
direct objects, especially when one of them is a neuter pro-
noun or adjective :
Captlvl RomanI Nervios haec (= usum turrium) docue-
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 183
rant. The Roiiudi prii^imcrs had (aught the Ncrvii
these things {—the use of turrets). — Caesar Haeduos
fiunientuin flagitavit. — Caesar th'iiiauded corn of the
llaedni (B. G. i. 16; but this construction is rare). —
Illud te oro. / beg that of you. — Multa deos orans.
E)itreati)ig many things of the gods. — Hoc tc interrogo
(or rogo). / as/c you this question.
3S4 But these verbs more commonly take a phrase formed with
a preposition instead of one of the accusatives :
Boios de adventu suo docet. He informs the Boii of
{= about) his arrival. — De te ipso te rogo. / ask you
about yourself— PiUxWixxm a populo Romano non im-
plorabimus. IVc shall not ask aid of {from) the Romans.
— Haec Caesar ex Lisco quaerit. Caesar asks these
questions of Liscus.
385 Some verbs compounded with a preposition (especially
trans) take two direct objects :
Exercitum Ligerim traducit. He leads his army across
the Loire (B. G. vii. 11. 9).
386 A passive construction is occasionally found, in which the
accusative denoting the person becomes the subject of the
sentence and the accusative denoting the thing is retained :
Nervil haec a captlvis Romanis docebantur. The Nervii
were being taught these things by the Roman prisoners
(B. G. V. 42).
Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt. The Belgae were led across
the Rhine (cf. B. G. ii. 4).
387 The accusative after some passive verbs (chiefly in poets)
is to be regarded as due to a reflexive use of the passive, in
which it denotes an action done to oneself. But the Romans
drew no clear line of distinction between this construction
and that of a passive verb with a retained accusative (§ 386) :
Induor vestem. / put on a garment {=■ Induo mihi
vestem, or Induo me veste). — Exuitur cornua. She
i84 SYNTAX
s/ic(/s her horns. — Inutile ferrum cingitur. He girds on
the useless sword (= Accingit sibi ferrum). — Antiquum
saturata dolorem. Having sated her ancient grudge.
388 By the omission of the verb of the sentence the accusative
of the object sometimes becomes an exclamation :
nugas ! nonsense! (from nugds agis, 'you are talking
nonsense ') ; dl, vestram fidem ! ye gods, your protec-
tion! (supply iniplorb 'I entreat'). Cupldinem Praxi-
telis H. S. MDC ! A Cupid by Praxiteles for 1,600 sesterces !
(Cic. Verr. iv. 12). Compare 'A horse ! a horse ! my
kingdom for a horse ! ' (Shakespeare).
(ii) Adverbial accusatives :
389 {a) The accusative of a noun denoting a period of time
may be used to express duration, answering the question
'How long?":
Multos annos regnaverat. He had reigned many years
(or for many years). French // avatt regne beaucoup
d'ans.
390 (b) The accusative of a noun denoting a measure of space
may be used to express extent, answering the question ' How
far?":
Decem milia passuum progress! sunt. They advanced
ten miles. French lis se sont avance's di.x kilometres.
So with abesse ' to be distant'. — Aggerem pedes cccxxx
atum, pedes lxxx altum exstruxerunt. They constructed
a rampart jjo feet broad and So feet high.
391 [c) The accusative of names of towns and of the words
domus and rus may be used to express 'to' or 'towards',
answering the question ' Whither ? "- :
Lutetiam Parisiorum proficiscitur. He inarches to Paris.
— Domum ' contenderunt. They hastened home (or
' In this usage Latin is exactly like English and French.
2 A similar use of the accusative of an abstract noun of the 4th declension
is the origin of the supine in xitn (§ 136) : spectatum eo, / am going to the
spectacle = I am going to see.
IIIK ACCUSATIVK CASE i85
/loiiii-a'onfa). — Rus mc r<*cipiain. / n'l'/l bcUikc inysclj' to
the conntry.
392 [d] The accusative of neuter pronouns and ;//'//// may be
used adverbially :
Quid venls? Why (h you conic? — Caesar ea re nihil
commovebatur. Caesar ivas not at all moved [nothini^
moved) by this.
393 The accusative singular neuter of many adjectives of quan-
tity has become an adverb : see § 77.
(B) The Accusative with a Preposition
General rules.
394 (0 Most prepositions take the accusative. Nine take the
ablative (see § 452) and four take either the accusative or the
ablative (see § 397).
395 (2) Phrases formed with prepositions are nearly always
adverbial, qualifying a verb or an adjective, not adjectival, as
they often are in English, c.^. 'the camp across the river',
'the soldiers outside the walls'. In most instances where
this adjectival use is found in Latin, the noun qualified by
the phrase is akin in meaning to a verb, as in ascciisus ad
mu)ntiducs, rcditiis in patriam. In other instances the phrase
belongs to a noun qualified by an adjective, in which case it
stands between them, as in magna inter Gallos auctoritas, ' great
authority among the Gauls.' Apart from the above uses and
a few special uses mentioned below,' English phrases which
are adjectival should be translated into Latin by turning them
into adveib phrases: e.g. castra trans flumen sita ; militCs
fjiii extra mOros erant.
396 The following prepositions always take the accusative.
ad : (ij to : ad oppidum proficisci, to march to a toivn (cf § 391) ;
ad locum venire or pervenire {= to arrive at); ad
militum salutem pcrtinCre {to relate to) ; ad decern
> E.g. under erga, § 396; /// ^ii), § 397 ; ex ^\j, § 453 ; i>inc, § 453.
i86 SYNTAX
milia hominum (/o the niuiiber of 10,000); ad iinum
omnes {fo the last man) ; ad mediam noctem (////
midnight).
(ii) to the neighbourhood of: ad Genavam pervenire (con-
trast Genavam pervenire, § 391).
(iii) at or by, near : ad portas esse ; pons qui ad Genavam
erat ; ad solis occasum ; ad tempus {at the right
tmte) ; ad extremum [at last).
(iv) according to : ad suum arbitrium imperare ; quern ad
modum (= as),
(v) for: diem ad deliberandum sumere ; satis ad laudem
et ad utilitatem proficere.
(vi) among {= apud) : nomen ad omnes nationes sanctum.
adversus, towards : adversus montem progredl ; iustitia etiam
adversus infimos servanda est ; adversus hostem copias
ducere [against the enemy').
ante, before : ante portas ; antepugnam; ante horam sextam.
apud: (i) among, in the presence of: apud mllites contionari.
(ii) in the opinion of: apud barbaros multum valere.
(iii) at the house of (French ches) : apud Ciceronem
vivere.
circum, circa, and circiter, around, about: circum urbem
hiemare ; circum municipia mittere ; circum se habere ;
circa secundam horam venire ; circiter meridiem.
citra and cis, this side of: citra flumen ; cis Alpes.
contra : (i) against : contra hostem pugnare.
(ii) opposite to : regiones contra GalHam sitae ; contra
opinionem [contrary to expectation).
erga, toivards : perpetua erga populum Romanum fides
(adjectival, § 395).
extra, outside of: extra munltiones procedere ; extra ordinem
(= irregularly).
infra, below : infra locum ubi pons erat.
inter : (i) between : inter montem et flumen situs.
(ii) among : inter omnes constat ; inter se bellare ; inter
se ius iurandum dare [nuitually).
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 187
(iii) /'// the upinion 0/ (ci'. apud) ; plurinumi inter suos
valere.
(iv) ihtn')ig; inter bcllum.
intra, within : intra portas esse ; intra niunitiones ingredl (tela
coniccre) ; intra paucos dies,
iuxta, )icar: iuxta murum castra ponere.
ob, on accoiDit of: ob earn rem ; quam ob rem.
penes, in the power of: penes eos victoria est.
per, through : per fines Sequanorum copias ducere ; per Alpes
iter est ; per agros nuntios mittere [over the country) ; per
tres annos (cf. time how long, § 389) ; per exploratores
cognoscere [by means of scouts) ; per aetatem in armis
esse non poterant {owing to their age); per vim oppidum
occupare {by force, forcibly).
post: (i) after: post pugnam ; post diem tertium.
(ii) behind: post montem se occultare ; post tergum.
praeter : (i) beyond, past : praeter castra copias ducere ; prae-
ter spem ; alium praeter se habere nullum (/;/
addition to hiniself).
(ii) except : nihil praeter pelles.
prope, near, near to : prope castra esse; castra prope oppidum
ponere. Similarly the adverbs propiiis and proxinie (§ 79) :
propius tumulum accedere.
propter, on account of because of: propter fertilitatem loci ibi
consldere ; propter gravitatem armorum pugnare non
posse.
secundum: (i) along: secundum flunicn legiones ducere.
(ii) after : secundum proelium ; secundum ea
{= next to that); secundum naturam flumi-
nis {according to).
supra, above : supra pontem {= in the upper part of the river).
trans, across : trans RhCnum colonias mittere; trans Alpes
habitarc.
xiltra., beyond : ultra Iliberum locum deligere ; ultra modum
progredi.
versus, towards: oppidum versus proficiscl.
i88 SYNTAX
397 The four following prepositions are used either with
the accusative or with the ablative.
in with the accusative corresponds to the English ' into ' or
' onto ' or 'to ', answering the question ' Whither ? ':
(i) in urbem venn-e ; in Sicilian! iter facere ; in fines
Treverorum pervenire (/o coDic-ihruugh iiitu = to
arrive at) ; in unum locum convenire {to come-
together into = to assemble in) ; in collem confugere
{on to a hill).
(ii) in a figurative sense : in conspectum agminis venire ;
in fidem recipere ; hostes in fugam conicere ; in
hostes impetum facere {upon the enemy) ; odium Gal-
lorum in Romanes {against the Romans : adjectival) ;
bono animo in populum Romanum esse {ive/I dis-
posed toivards the Romans).
sub, under, with the accusative answers the question
'Whither?':
(i) sub iugum mittere ; sub terram Ire ; milites sub muros
urbis mittere {up to the ivalls).
(ii) in a figurative sense : Galliam sub imperium Romano-
rum redigere.
Sub with the accusative is also used of time, denoting
towards, i. e. shortly be/ore : sub occasum solis ; sub ves-
perum.
subter, under, and super, over, with the accusative answer the
questions 'Whither?' and 'Where?': subter murum
advehl; alios super ahos praecipitare ; Nomentanus erat
super ipsum, Porcius infra {N. sat above the host, P. be/ow
him : Horace); super subterque terram pugnare (Livy).
THE DATIVE CASE
398 The dative is mainly a persona/ case, /. e. words denoting
persons (nouns and pronouns) stand in the dative far more
conmionly than words denoting things.
THE DATIVE CASE 189
The dative is never used with a preposition ; but it is very
frequently used with verbs compounded with a preposition.
This is, indeed, the commonest of all its uses.
The uses of the dative may be divided into two main
classes : '
(i) those in which it is an object;
(ii) those in which it is adverbial.
(i) Datives used as objects.
399 id) as the indirect object of a verb which also takes
a direct object in the accusative :
Ilaedui Boils agros dedcrunt. T/ic Hna/i/i gave the Boii
lands or gave loiuh to the Boii. — Caesarl rem renuntiant.
They report the ii/attir to Caesar. — Alter! negotium cx-
hibes. Yon are eaiisiiig your neighhoiir trojiMe [troiiMe
to your 7ieig/ihoitr).~l\5 auxilium suum pollicitus est.
He promised them his help. — Trinobantibus xi. obsides
frumentumque imperat. He gave orders to the Triiio-
ha)ilesfor 40 hostages and corn. — Mihi honorem invi-
drnt. They envy me my distinction. — Id iis suasit (per-
suasitl Orgetorix. Orgetori.x recommended this to them
[persuaded them of this). — Se suaque omnia aliCnis-
simls crediderunt (commlserunt). They trusted them-
selves and all their possessions to perfect strangers. —
Hoc mihi ignosce. Pardon me this {— this offence).
400 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative
and an accusative, the dative being closely connected in sense
with the preposition :
legionl aliquem praeficere, to put some one in charge of
{at the head of) a legion) hostibus bellum inferre, to
wage war upon the enemy {= in hostes) ; hostibus metum
^ Many uses of the dative may be regarded as falling under either of these
heads. Where the dative is governed by (or 'taken by') a verb it is an
object ; where it might be removed from the sentence witliout destroying
the construction it is adverbial.
I90 SYNTAX
inicere, to inspire fear in the enemy, alicui vestem in-
duere, to put clotliing on sonic one ; morti aliquem eri-
pere, to rescue some one from death (= ex morte) ; mortl
aliquem ofiferre, to expose some one to death ; magnis
parva conferre, to compare small things ivith great
(= cum magnis); voluptati salutem anteponere (post-
habere), to put ivelfare before {after) pleasinr ; = ante
voluptatem, post voluptatem ; urbl murum circumdare,
to put a ivall round a city {=^ circum urbem).
401 Note the verb adimere ' to take away', which takes a dative
denoting 'from' (like eripere, §400), though this meaning is
not expressed by the preposition ad:
Omnia nobis ademit. He has taken everything aivay from
us (lit. he has robbed us everything) ; conipare French
il nous a enleve [arrache) tout.
402 In the passive construction of these verbs (§§ 399-401)
the direct object becomes the subject of the sentence and the
dative remains :
AgrI dati sunt Haeduls- a Boils. Lands were given to the
Haeduibyth Boii. — Omnia nobis adempta sunt. Every-
thing has been taken away from us.
403 {b) as the sole object of certain verbs : *
Some of the verbs which have the dative as a sole object
are verbs which may also take a direct object (§ 399), and
verbs of similar meaning to these : imperare, to command ;
ignoscere, to pardon ; parcere, to spare ; indulgere, to be
indulgent; faxevQ, to favour ; credere, /o believe; confidere,
to trust :
Populus Romanus victis imperare consuevit. The Roman
people is wont to give orders to the vanquished.-. — parcere
* A Dative put — remember pray —
With imperare and obey,
Stitdcre, mlbcre, noccre,
Favere, parcere, placere ;
To these add eiivy, trust, forgive,
Resist, indulge, persuade, believe.
THE DATIVE CASE 191
subicctTs ct dC'bellare siipcrbos, fo be merciful to the
conquered and to war don'/i t/ie defiant (Acn. vi. 853). —
Orabant ut sibi ignosceret. T/iey begged liini to pardon
them : French pardonner with dat. — Dccimae Icgidnl
indulserat Caesar et maxime confidebat. Caesar had
been indulgent to the tenth legion and he trusted it more
than the others. — Fortuna fortibus favet. Fortune favoms
the brave. — Flnitinil nobis invident. Our neighbours
envy us (cf. B. G. ii. 31).
404 Others are verbs which cannot take two objects :
verbs of 'obe3'ing ' and ' resisting' :
parere and oboedire (a compound of audio, § 405), to
obey, French obeir; servire and inservire (§ 405), to
be a slave to, fo serve.
resistere, repugnare, adversari, fo 7'esisf, fo oppose,
French rc'sister.
verbs of 'pleasing ' and 'displeasing':
placere, to please, French plaire.
displicere, to displease.
verbs of 'benefiting' and 'injuring':
prodesse (§ 405), to benefit ; mederi, to remedy.
nocere and obesse (§ 405), fo infitre, French nuire ;
the verbs studere, fo pursue zealously ;
nubere, fo marry (said only of the bride : viro
nubere, fo marry a husband; contrast uxoreni
ducere, fo marry a wife).
Decima legio Caesarl parebat. The tenth legion obeyed
Caesar. — Cicero coniurationi Catilinae restitit (adver-
satus est). Cicero resisted [opposed) the conspiracy of
Catiline.
Cicero bonis civibus placere cupiebat. Cicero desired fo
please good citizens. — Maiorl parti placuit castra defen-
dere. // seemed good fo the majority to defend the camp.
— Id consilium multls displicebat. That plan displeased
many.
192 SYNTAX
Haec res alils proderat, aliis oberat (nocebat). Tin's zvas
advantageous to sojiie and disadvantageous to others. —
Inopiae rei frumentariae mederl conabatur. He was
tryfjig to remedy the lack of provisions.
Dumnorix novis rebus studebat. Duiniiorix zvas bent on
a change of government (lit. nezv things).
lulia, filia lulil Caesaris, Pompeio nupsit. Jidia, the
daughter oj Julhis Caesar, married Pompey. Contrast
Pompcius iTdiani in mdtrinidnitim diixif.
405 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative as
their sole object, the dative being closely connected in sense
with the preposition :
legionl praeesse, to be at the head of a legion ; alicui sub-
venire (succurrere), to come to the assistance of some one ;
alicui succedere, to come after some one, or to turn out
well for some one {e.g. nulla res iis successerat, they had
not succeeded in anything) ; alicui occurrere, to run up
against some one ; alicui praestare (antecellere), to sur-
pass some one.
406 The only passive construction which is possible with
verbs that take a dative as their sole object is the impersonal
passive construction (§ 377) :
Decimae legionl a Caesare indulgebatur. Indulgence
luas shoivn (lit. // zuas indulged) to the tenth legion by
Caesar ; equivalent in meaning to ' The tenth legion
was indulged by Caesar'. — Nobis a finitimis nostrls
invidetur. PVe are envied by our neighbours. — Bello-
vacls persuaderl non poterat ut diQtius morarentur.
The Bellovaci coidd not be persuaded (lit. it could not be
made acceptable to the B.) to zvait any longer (§ 329).
(ii) Adverbial datives.
407 {^) With verbs.
The dative may denote, as in French, the person in whose
THE DATIVE CASE 193
I interest (or against whose interest) the action is clone. Here
I the dative may be translated by ' for ' :
Quid sibi vult ? IVIial docs he ivajit for himself ? — Non
tibi ipsi sed toti rel publicae vivis. Yoic live not for
yourself but for the idiole state (Cicero). — His numerum
obsidum duplicat. He doubles the niDnber of the hostages
for them [i.e. demands twice the number of hostages
from them, B. G. iv. 36). — Sibi quemque consulere
(cavere, providere) iussit. He bade each man to take
thought for himself. — Ea res legionl fellciter evenit.
This turned out fortunately for the legion. — Pugna
adversa el evenit. The battle fell out adverse for him
[z= he was defeated).
\o% In some instances the dative of a personal pronoun marks
a person as interested in a statement, command, or question
about an action, rather than in the action itself:'
At tibi repente venit ad me Caninius. But you will be
interested to hear that all of a sudden Caninius canw to
me (Cicero). — Quid miiii Celsus agit? IVhat is Celsus
doing, I should like to know ?
Compare ' Knock me at that door. Sirrah ! ' (Shakespeare).
09 Esse with the dative may denote possession :
His erat inter se de principatu contentio. They had (lit.
There was for them) a quarrel among themselves about
■ the leadership.
Est mihi nomen Antonius {or Antonio, attracted into the
case of mihi). My name is Antony.
\\o With esse or a verb meaning ' to come ', ' to send ', ' to give',
' to regard ', or the like, the dative singular of certain nouns
(mostly abstract) denotes what some one or something is to be
or IS to sef~>e as. The meaning of the dative in this construc-
' In such cases the dative is sometimes called ' ethical ' (i.e. emotional).
901 .\'
194 SYNTAX
tion comes out clearly in a passage of Lucretius (v. 875, with
the verb iaceo) :
Alils praedae lucroque iacebant. They lay there to be
a prey and a profit to others.
In this use the dative is generally translatable by a predica-
tive noun or adjective :
Alter alterl inimicus auxilio salutlque erat. The one rival
ivas a supporter and rescuer to the other: B. G.
v, 44. 14 ; lit. existed to be a support and salvation.
dono aliquid dare, to give something as a present {= to
be a present), to give something for a gift.
res quae usui sunt, things which are useful (lit. for use).
411 This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the
person interested :
Amicitia popull RomanI nobis ornamento et praesidio,
non detrlmento, esse oportet. The friendship of the
Roman people ought to be a distinction and protection,
not a loss to us : B. G. i. 44. 5.
curae (auxilio, subsidio, solacio, honorl, probro, con-
temptul, onerl) esse alicui, to be a charge [help, support,
consolation, honour, disgrace, laughing stock, burden) to
any one
auxilio venire (mittere) alicui, to come [to send) as an aid
to some one
legionem praesidio relinquere castrls, to leave a legion as
a protection for the camp
laudl esse (habere, ducere, &c.) alicui, to be [to regard) as
an honour to some one
412 In writing Latin two cautions should be borne in mind :
(i) The only nouns which can be used in this construc-
tion are nouns like the above (mostly abstract). Other English
predicative nouns preceded by 'as' agree in case with the
noun of which they are predicated (§ 274).
(2) The dative in this construction is never qualified by
THE DATIVE CASE 195
any adjective except one of quantit}' : inagno solacio, a great
coiisolatioji. Expressions like the English 'an everlasting
disgrace ' are not Latin.
^I3 With the gerund adjective, and sometimes with the perfect
participle, the dative may denote the agent :
Sequanis onines cruciatus erant perferendl. The Sequani
had to endure all kinds of torture = all kinds of torture
had to be endured by the Sequani ; cf. § 453 ab (iii). —
Quam multa poetae dicunt quae philosophls aut dicenda
sunt aut dicta ! How many things the poets say which
either ought to be said or have been said by philosophers !
(Seneca).
^14 [b] With adjectives which in EngHsh take 'to' or 'for',
/. e. those meaning' necessary', 'useful ', 'pleasant ', 'friendly',
'suitable', 'similar', 'equal', and their opposites :
locus castrls idoneus, a place suitable for a camp
Helve tils inimlcus, hostile to the Helve til
nostru exercitui par, equal to our army
ceteris similis, like the rest (but with sinu'lis the genitive is
commoner, § 424).
^15 The adjectives propior ' nearer ' and proximus ' nearest'
generally take the dative ; but the corresponding adverbs
propius and pro.xime take the accus. or ab with the abl., like
prope ' near ' when it is a preposition (§ 396) :
Belgae propiores (proximi) sunt Germanls. The Belgae
. are nearer {the nearest) to the Germans.
propius (proxime) tumulum accedere, to drazo nearer {very
near) to the mouna
propius abesse ab aliquo, to stana neai'cr to some one
THE GENITIVE CASE
.16 The genitive is chiefly an adjectival case, used to qualify
nouns. But it is also used adverbially (§§ 423-6), and as the
object of certain verbs (§ 427). It is never used with a pre-
position (except with letms sometimes, in poets).
N 2
196 SYNTAX
I. Adjectival Genitives.
(a) Answering the question ' What sort of a ? '
4117 (i) Denoting 'belonging to' :
(a) in the sense of ' possessed by ' :
domus Caesaris, Caesar's house, the house of Caesar.
This genitive of the possessor may be used predicatively :
Haec domus est Caesaris. This house is Caesar's. —
GalHa popidl RomanI non AriovistI est. Gaul is the
property of the Romans not of Ariovistus.
(b) in the sense of 'connected with'. What special kind
of connexion is indicated by the genitive depends on the
context :
expedltio Caesaris, Caesar's expedition ; imagines Caesaris
Caesar's images, likenesses of Caesar; statua Phldiae,
a statue of (i. e. made by) Phidias ; civitates GalHae, the
states of {belonging to) Gaul, the Gallic states ; radii solis,
the sun's rays ; facultas itineris faciendl, the opporhinity
of making a journey ; signum proelT committendi, the
signal for engaging; speculandl causa {or gratia), /or
the sake of scouting ; copiae equitatus peditatusque,
forces of (i. e. consisting of) cavalry and infantry ; in-
iuria retentorum equitum, the wrong of (i.e. ivhich con-
sisted iri) detaining the cavalry.
Used predicatively : liber sum et llberae civitatis, / am
a free man and I belong to a free state (B. G. v. 7. 8) ;
imperatoris est non minus consilio quam gladio supe-
rare, it belongs to {= is the part or duty of) a genera
to prevail by strategy as nnich as by the sivord.
418 (ii) Used objectively (i. e. as the object of a noun which
is akin in meaning to a verb) :
interfectores Caesaris, Caesar's murderers, the murderers
of Caesar {= il qui Caesarem interfecerunt) ; metus
mortis, the fear of death ; amor patriae, the love oj
THE GENITIVE CASE 197
coiDi/rv ; amor suT, self-love (of. § 101); cupiditas
belli gerendl, Ike desire of imaging icar ; imperium
totlus Galliae, llie eo)}uiiaiid of the ivholc of Caul ; spes
impetrandi, llie hope of oblaiin'ng one's reqtiesl.
Contrast the genitives in amor iiiatris (in the sense of
a))ior »tateriuis) ' a mother's love ', ' the love felt by
a mother ' ; niinac Clodil * the threats of Clodius '
419 (iii) Used to describe a person or thing.
In this use the genitive is always qualified by an adjective :
homines parvae staturae, men of small stature (= parvi
homines, little men); belua multorum capitum, a many-
headed beast ; puer decern annorum, a boy ten years old.
Used predicatively : res incerti exitus est, the affair is of
uncertain issue.
(b) Denoting partition.
420 In this use the genitive denotes the whole of which a part
is mentioned ; it therefore corresponds to the denominator
of a fraction. This meaning is closely connected with the-
idea of 'from' or 'out of; hence it may generally be ex-
pressed in Latin by ex or dc with the abl. : unus ex multJs
or unus de multls ' one of many ' ; perpaucae ex )idvibus (or ex
numero navium) 'very few of the ships (or out of the number of
the ships) '.
421 The English genitive in 6' cannot be used to translate the
Latin genitive when it denotes partition ; here it is necessary
to employ a genitive-phrase formed with of:
multl Gallorum, t)iany of the Gauls; omnium hominum
doctissimus, the most learned of all men ; duo nostrum
{or vestrum), two of us (or of you).
422 rhe genitive of partition is very frequently used after the
neuter singular of a pronoun or adjective of quantity used
as a noun, like aliquid, id, quid, qtiiequam, nihil, hoc, quod,
198 SYNTAX
tantuin, qnantuui, aliqnanlnui, multuni, plus, iiiiiiiis, and after
sn/is, nimis, paruni (adverbs used as nouns) :
quid novl?, lit. ivJiat of neiv F (gen. of the neuter adj.
novum ' a new thing '), = ivhat neivs ? ; hoc solaci, //;/6-
uiuch consolation ; tantum spati, so much distance ; mul-
tuni aestatis, much of the summer-, plus doloris, more
pain ; satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, plenty of
eloquence, but too little wisdom.
The only adjectives which can stand in the genitive in this
construction are those whose genitives end in -J (adjectives
like nouns of the 2nd decl., § 18).
II. Adverbial Genitives.
423 The genitive of some neuter adjectives of quantity and
some words of similar meaning may denote the price at which
a thing is valued or bought, sold, hired, &c. : '
Auctoritas Commii in his regionibus magnl habebatur.
The authority of Comniius was highly regarded (lit. was
held at a high price) in these quarters.
Quanti equuni emit ? At what price did he buy the horse ?
— TantI quanti voluit. At the price 'which he wished.
Note the comparative and superlative of /«a^«Fand parvi:
magnl, pluris, plurimi, at a high [higher, very high) price.
parvl, minoris, minimi, at a low {lower, very loiv) price.
424 The genitive may be used with adjectives which in English
take 'of, and a few others of similar meaning: e.g.
plenus fiduciae, ///// of confidence (cf. abl. § 437).
cupidus (avidus, studiosus) bellandl, desirous of making
war.
memor (immemor) praeceptorum, mindful [unmindftd) of
the precepts.
gnarus (ignarus, inscius) omnium rerum, aivare of [igno-
rant of) everything.
perltus (imperltus) belli, experienced in [ignorant of) war.
^ Compare the similar use of tlie ablative (§ 438).
THE GENITIVE CASE 199
siinilis (dissiniilis) nicT, like {loilikr) i/ic. Merc English
uses tlic dative ; and the Latin si)in7is may also take
the dat. (§ 414), but less commonly.
425 The genitive may be used with the impersonal verbs piij^cf,
pudct, pacnitct, and tacdct to denote the cause of the vexation
(§ 372).
Piget tacdetque me morum clvitatis. / am annoyed at
and sieic of the manners of the state (Sallust). — Pudet me
stultitiae meae. / am ashamed of my folly. — Gallos
consiliorum suorum saepe paenitet. The Gauls often
repent of their resolutions. Compare French se re-
pe)itir de.
426 The genitive of nouns denoting a charge or accusation may
be used with verbs of ' accusing ', ' acquitting ', ' condemning ' :
aliquem proditionis accusare (insimulare, arguere, reum
facere, (S:c.), to accuse some one of treachery; aliquem
inertiae ncquitiaeque condemnare, to condemn some otic
on the charge of idleness and profligacy.
These genitives, like tiie corresponding genitive-phrases
formed with ' of ' in English, are to be explained as qualifying
a noun in the ablative understood, i.e. as originally adjectival:
crhnine furtl accusatus est ' he was accused on the charge of
theft'. The genitive capitis, which is sometimes used with
these verbs, is to be explained in the same way : capitis dam-
tidtusest 'he was condemned on a charge involving his caput'
(a capital charge).
III. Genitives used as objects.
427 Most verbs meaning ' to pity ', ' to remember ', or ' to forget '
take a genitive as their object :
Miserere mel. Pity me.
Horum hominum me miseret. / pity these people (§ 372).
Memini neque umquam obllviscar illius noctis. / remem-
ber and shall never forget that night.
200 SYNTAX
So too with the impersonal expression veiiit uiihi in iiiciitcni,
lit. 'it comes into the mind to me ' = ' I call to mind '.
But (i) uiiserdn ' to pity ' (ist conj.) takes the accusative :
Communem Galliae fortunam miserantur.
(ii) with verbs of 'remembering' and 'forgetting' the
object may stand in the accusative if it denotes a thing :
Hoc memini neque obllvisci possum. Iniurias meminisse
nolo.
THE ABLATIVE CASE
428 The ablative is mainly an adverbial case, used to qualify
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The particular kind of ad-
verbial meaning which it expresses depends partly on the
meaning of the noun which stands in the ablative, partly on
the meaning of the verb, adjective, or adverb with which it
is used.^
The ablative is used either (A) without a preposition, or
{B) with a preposition.
(A) THE ABLATIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION
I. Adverbial ablatives.'^
429 (i) The ablative may denote 'from':
{a) answering the question ' V^hence ? ', when the noun is
the name of a town, or doiuits, rus :
Roma (domo, rure) proficisci, to start from Rome [from
home, from the country).
' The meanings of the Latin ablative are derived from three different cases
of the parent language : (i) an ablative proper, denoting/row ; (2) an in-
strumental or sociative case, denoting by, witli ; (3) a locative case, denoting
at, in, on. This fact explains how it is that the Latin ablative has such
different meanings. But it is not alwaj's certain from which of these original
cases a particular Latin usage is derived ; and it is probable that some Latin
usages have been formed by contributions from more than one of these
sources.
- The first five of these adverbial ablatives (^§ 429-41) correspond to
adverb-phrases formed with rfc in French. See French Grammar, §§ 417-28.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 201
430 [h) when used with a verb which itself denotes separation :'
patria cedere, /o ivitlidraw from ones native land ; conatu
desistere, to licsist from an attempt; ahquein equo dei-
cerc, to nnhorse some one ; oppidum obsidione llberare,
to free a town from siege ; aHcui aqua atque ignl inter-
dicere, to cut some one off' from water and fire ; aliqueni
urbe expellere, to drive some one from the city; elves
calamitate prohibere, to keep the citizens out of harm's
way: Cic, pro leg. Man. 18. [For the construction of
adimcre 'to take away' see § 401.]
431 {(') when used with a verb of 'depriving' or an adjective
meaning 'deprived ' the abl. is translated by 'of :
armls aliquem spoliare, to strip some one of /lis armour)
oppidum vacuum defensoribus, a town deprived of de-
fenders.
432 (ii) The ablative may denote 'owing to', 'because of
('from' in a figurative sense). The noun whose ablative is
so used is generally abstract :
inopia pabull perire, to perish from {o'wing to) -want of
food; sive casu, sive consilio deorum, ivhcther owing
to accident, or to the design of the gods (B. G. i. 12. 6) ;
non voluntate sua sed coactu civitatis, not owing to his
free will but through the compulsion of the state (B. G.
v. 27. 3) ; temeritate hostium, owing to the rashness of
the enemy; studio pugnandl aut spe praedae, through
zeal for fighting or hope of booty.—'l'his use of the abl.
is often found with verbs denoting emotion or the
expression of emotion : delicto dolere, correctione
gaudere, to feel pain at having done ivrong and to re-
joice in punish nunt (Cic. Amic. 90J ; victoria gloriarl, to
boast of a victory.
433 (iii) The ablative may denote ' by ', when the verb is
passive and the noun denotes something not living :
vento tenerl, to be detained by the -wind; flumine tegl, to
' There arc not many verbs of this kind. The verb scparo itself takes ab. ti.
202 SYNTAX
be covered by the river; onere armoruni opprimi, to be
burdened by a weight of armour; religionibus impediri,
to be hampered by scruples.
[Contrast ab, a with the abl. of nouns denoting hving agents,
§ 453-]
434 (iv) The ablative may denote manner or means, answer-
ing the question ' How? ' : the English 'with ' often serves as
a translation.*
[a) when the noun (generally qualified by an epithet)
denotes attendant circumstances — often something connected
with the body or mind :
magna voce exclamare, to cry with a loud voice, French
crier d'une voix forte ; passTs manibus pacem petere,
to sue for peace ivith outstretched hands ; omnibus cru-
ciatibus aliquem adficere, to visit some one with every
kind of torture ; impetum magno animo sustinere, to
resist an attack with great resolution {very resolutely) ;
summo studio et alacritate nitl, to strive with the greatest
seal and eagerness {very zealously and eagerly) ; magna
dlligentia, luith great diligence {very diligently).
435 (^) when the noun denotes an instrument or something
which can be used as an instrument :
armis contendere, to fight with arms ; castra vallo fos-
saque munire, to fortify a canip luith a rampart and
a ditch ; navibus transire, to cross by ship {by means
of ships) ; sagittarils et fundatoribus hostem terrere, to
frighten the enemy by means of archers and slingcrs ; -
magnis prdemiis aliquem adlicere, to attract some one by
means of great rewards ; se aliorum copils alere, to
1 But when ' with ' means ' together with ' it is expressed by cum with
tlie abl., § 453. So too when the noun denotes attendant circumstances and
is not quahfied by an epithet; see ex. in § 453 cum.
^ ' By means of followed by a noun denoting a person is ordinarily
expressed by per with the accusative : litlcnis per niiniiitm tiiitlerc, ' to send
a letter by a messenger.'
THE ABLATIVE CASE 203
suppori oneself on the supplies of others (B. G. iv. 4) ;
piscibus vesci or vivcre, to live on fish, to support life
by means of fish (B. G. iv. lol.
436 (t) when the noun denotes a road or route :
eodeni itinere revert!, to return by the same road ; esse-
darios omnibus viis emittere, to send out charioteers by
all routes.
437 ('^ when used with a verb of 'filling' or 'equipping' or
an adjective meaning 'filled ' or 'equipped ' :
navigia mllitibus complere, to man the ships n.'ith soldiers
(of. French remplir de) ; donare aliquem civitate, to
present some one ivith the citizenship ; omnibus rebus in-
structus (ornatus), equipped ivith everything; singular!
audacia praeditus, gifted ivith unique effrontery.
The adj. plcniis sometimes takes an abl. : navis frumento
plena, a ship filled with corn ; but cf. § 424.
438 (f) when the noun denotes price or cost and the verb
denotes ' buying ', ' selling ', ' hiring ', or ' costing ' : *
parvo pretio rediniere, to purchase {redeem) at a small
cost; patriam auro vendere, to sell one's country for
gold; magno detr!mento constare, to be secured at a great
loss; victoria multo sanguine constabit (orstabit), victory
will cost much blood. Compare the use of the genitive
of neuter adjectives of quantity, § 423.
439 (/) when used with the adjectives dignus and indignus
(cf. French digne de) : "^
memoria dignum, a thing w'orthy of mention ; vox popul!
^ With verbs of 'buying' the price paid is the means of acquisition.
The other verbs of this group took the same construction by imitation of
verbs of ' buying'.
^ The abl. with digitus is perhaps connected with the abl. of price ; cf.
'worthy' and 'worth' in English : sextanie sal Romae erat 'salt cost (was
worth) a sixth of an as at Rome ' (,Livy xxix. 37. 3). Others connect dignus
with decet : corona dignus ' adorned with a garland ', hence ' worthy of
a garland '.
204 SYNTAX
RomanI niaiestate indigna, a speech unworthy of the
dignity of the Roman people.
440 [g] in expressions like the following, in which the abl.
answers the question 'In what respect?' (a modification of
'How?'):
par virtute, equal in valour; naves numero lx, ships 60
in number; magnitudine paulo infra elephantos, iyi size
a little below elephants ; meo arbitratu vir iustus, in my
judgement {opinion) a just man ; nomine Bibrax, Bibrax
by 7iame.
441 (v) With comparatives the ablative may denote two dis-
tinct things :
[a] the degree of difference (English ' by ' ') ; the words
which stand in the abl. are neuter adjectives of quantity or
pronouns or nouns denoting measurement :
carinae aliquant© planiores, keels considerably (lit. by a con-
siderable amount) flatter ; multo gravior, much heavier
(lit. heavier by much) ; multo gravius, nnich more seriously ;
paulo humaniores, a little more civilized; eo minus, so
much the less; hoc {or tanto) angustior, so much the
narrower; quo facilius, whetrby the more easily ; nihilo
magis, none the more; Hibernia dimidio minor est quam
Britannia, Ireland is smaller by a half than Britain ;
decern pedibus altior, higher by ten feet; multls parti-
bus maior, many times as great. Similarl}' with ante
and post, used as adverbs or as prepositions : viginti
annis ante, twenty years before (adv.) ; paucis ante
diebus, a few days before (adv.) ; paulo post mediam
noctem, a little after midnight."
1 This meaning is connected with the meaning • by means of (§ 435 ff.).
" The meaning 'ago' may be expressed by abhinc, but with the accu-
sative : (ibliinc annos quattiiordcciiti inoitiiiis est ' he died fourteen years
ago'.
THE ABLAT1\'E CASE 205
442 (/,) 'than':'
Ubii ceteris Germaiils paulO liumaniores sunt, the LJhii
air a little viorc civilized thau the rest of the Germans
(= quam ceterl GermanI) ; Caesar nillitum vTtam laude
sua habcbat cariorem, Caesar held the lives of his soldiers
dearer than his oivn glory (= quam laudem suain) ; am-
plius horls sex pugnabatur, the fight zuent on for more
than six hours {= quam horas sex, accusative of time
how long),
443 The ablative may always be used instead of quam with
a nominative or accusative (except where it would cause
ambiguity), and tnust be used instead of quam with the nom.
or ace. of a relative pronoun :
Misenum Aeoliden, quo non praestantior alter. Misenus
the Aeolid, than 'whom none other tvas more excellent
(Aen. vi. 164).
The English accusative n'hom, which is always used instead
of ci.'ho after than, is an imitation of this Latin abl. But the
abl. cannot be used instead of quam with other cases : e. g. in
tibi plus quam mihi dedit. Ambiguity would arise if the abl.
were used in Brutum plus amd quam Cassium ; for Cassio
might mean quatn Cassius amat. But there is no ambiguity
in nl te plus oculis mels amarem 'if I did not love thee more
than m}' eyes ' (Catullus).
444 (vi) The ablative may denote 'at', 'on', 'in', or 'within'.
These meanings are closely connected with the meaning of
the locative case (§ 55).
[a] When the noun denotes a period of time, its ablative
may answer the question ' When ? ' :
vere, in the spring; aestate, in the summer; autumno, /;/
the autumn ; hieme, /';/ the ivinter.
' The meaning ' than ' was probably derived from the meaning • from ',
' starting from' (§ 429) : litlmdniores ceteris Cermdnts ' more civilized starting
from the rest of the Germans as a standard \
2o6 SYNTAX
The ablative of the words liora, dies, iiox, inensis, annus,
tempus is generally accompanied by an epithet :
h5ra sexta, at the sixth hour; die quarto, on the fourth
day; Idibus Martils, on the Ides of March ; proximo
anno, iii the next year; eo tempore, at that time.
445 The ablative of words which do not properly denote
a period of time, such as pucritia 'boyhood', beUnni 'war',
. proelium ' battle ', adventus ' arrival ', are sometimes used to
answer the question 'When?', but only when accompanied
by an epithet or preceded by the preposition in : '
extrema pueritia, at the end of his boyhood (Cic. pro leg.
Man. 28) ; in pueritia, i)i boyhood (Cic.) ; hoc proelio,
in this battle; equestribus proelils, in cavalry battles
(B. G. iv. 2) ; in bello, in time of war; Luculli adventu,
on the arrival of Lucullus,
446 (b) The ablative of nouns denoting a period of time and
some other nouns of similar meaning may answer the ques-
tion ' Within how long a time ? ' :
XXV diebus aggerem exstruere, to construct a rampart
■within 2^ days (= intra xxv dies); his decem diebus,
within the last ten days ; eo biduo, ivithin ttvo days from
then ; patrum nostrorum memoria, within the memory of
our fathers.
447 (^) The ablative of the nouns terra, marc, locus and a few
others of less importance may answer the question 'Where ? ':
terra marlque pollere, to be poiverful on land and at sea ;
idoneo (aequo, inlquo) loco pugnare, to fight in a con-
venient {favourable, unfavourable) position ; hoc (eo,
eodem, quo) loco esse, to be in this [that, the same,
which) place; suo loco esse, to be in one's proper place :
scrlbae loco aliquem habere, to have some one as secre-
tary (lit. in place of a secretary). So too nouns denoting
place with the epithet totus : tota urbe, throughout the
city; tota Italia, throughout Italy.
^ Exceptions are rare.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 207
148 [(/) With verbs of ' rel3'ing ' and the adjective fretus the
ablative of any noun may answer the question ' On what ?' :
virtute sua niti, to rely on one's own valour; natfira loci
confldere, to rely on the nature of the ground ; superiOri-
bus victorils fretus, relying 0)i prei'ions victories.
For the ablative absolute construction see Participles,
§§ 494-7-
II. The adjectival ablative.
449 The adjectival ablative describes a person or thing. The
noun which stands in the ablative generally denotes a feature
of body or mind, and (as in the corresponding use of the
genitive, § 419) is always qualified by an adjective :
homines magna statiira, men of great stature {=^tall men) ;
homines capillo promisso, men luith long hair {= long-
haired men) ; summa virtute adulescens, a young man
of great courage; simulacra immani magnitudine, /;;/(7_§-t'5
of vast sice.
Used predicatively : BritannI capillo promisso erant, the
Britons zvere long-haired ; bono animo esse videbantur,
they seemed to be oj good disposition {= ivell disposed).
III. Ablatives used as objects.
450 The ablative is used as an object —
\a) With the deponent verbs Utor, fruor, fungor, potior —
verbs which express the kindred ideas, 'enjoying,' 'getting
possession of ' :^
navibus (iumentls, o^f.) utl, to employ ships [beasts oJ
burden, (S:c.) ; suo iure utl, to exercise one's right ; ve-
stltu utl, to wear clothing ; commodls vitae frul, to enjoy
the comforts of life ; eodem munere fungi, to perform
the same task ; ter aevo functus, having enjoyed a triple
life (Horace).
> With these verbs the abl. originally denoted means (§ 434) : utl navibus,
to serve oneself with slxips^ French se servir de.
2o8 SYNTAX
451 [b) With the verbs cared, eged —verbs of ' lacking ' or ' need-
ing' (the opposite ideas to those of §450) — and the impersonal
expressions opus rs/ and fisus est ' there is need ' : ^
cibo carere, /o lack food, to be zvi/houl food ; omnibus
rebus necessariis egere, to be destitute of all necessities ;
auxilio nobis opus est, we need aid (lit. tJiere is need to
us of aid) ; navibus consull non usus erat, the consul had
no need of ships (lit. there was not use of ships to the
consul).
[B) THE ABLATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION
452 I. ab, cum, sine, ex (or e),
coram, tenus, prae, pro, de.
Phrases formed with these, as with other prepositions
(§ 395)> ^^^ nearly always adverbial. Exceptional instances
of adjectival phrases formed with cum, sine, and ex are given
below.
453 ab, or (only before a consonant) a, or (only before te) abs :
(\) fro}}i: ab Haeduls venire ; octo milia passuum a ca-
strls abesse ; ab oriente ad occidentem ; non longe
a marl ; aliquid ab aliquo accipere ; abs te rationem
reposcent (B. G. v. 30) ; a prima luce ad vesperum.
(ii) on the side of (i. e. regarded from . . .) : a Septen-
trionibus {on the north) ; ab hac parte (French de ce
cote) ; a fronte ; a tergo.
(iii) by, with passive verbs, the ablative denoting a living
agent (person or animal) : ab equitibus {or equi-
tatu) repelh ; ab duce et a Fortuna deserl {Fortnna
is here personified) ; a lupa nutrlrl {to be fed by
a she-wolf; contrast the abl. without a prep. § 433).
1 For the origin of the abl. with these verbs see verbs of ' depriving '
(§ 431). DsHs est followed the construction of fitor (§ 450), from the stem
of which the noun usus is derived.
THE ABLATIVE CASE 209
coram, /// Ihc presence of-, coram populo.'
cum, a'//// :
(i) denoting accompaniment : cum omnibus copiis exirc ;
legio quam secum habcbat ; legates cum mandatis
mittere ; cum hostibus bellum gerere (or pugnare) ;
pacem facere cum HelvetiTs; cum dignitate otium,
peace ivitJi honour (adjectival),
(ii) denoting manner : cum cruciatu necari {with torture)]
citin is used here because there is no epithet ; cf-
§ 434-
de : (i) about, coucerm'ug: de aliquii re dicere (or loqul, or
docere) ; de aliqua re audire {or cognoscere or cer-
tiorem fieri) ; legates de pace mittere ; desperare
de salute {0/ deliverance) ; cf. French dc with verbs
of 'speaking ' and 'thinking'.^
(ii) doivn from or from : de muro iacere ; de navibus
desillre.
(iii) (f, denoting partition : pauci de nostris {few of our
men; cf. genitive, §421).
(iv) owing to, according to : qua de causa {for luhich reason) ;
de more ; cf. ex (iv), below.
ex or (only before consonants) e :
(i) out of, from : ex navl (or e navT) desillre ; ex omni-
bus partibus venire ; ex equls conloqui {from horse-
back) ; ex captlvis quaererc {or comperire or inve-
nire) ; quidam ex Hispania {a person front Spain,
adjectival) ; ferventes ex argilla glandes {red-hot
baits made out of day, adjectival ; B. G. v. 43).
1 Coram is often an adverb ( = ' face to face ',. Conversely the adverbs
of kindred meaning, palani ' openly ' and clam ' secretly ', are sometimes
used as prepositions : palam popiilo (Livy), clam me ' without my know-
ledge '.
2 A phrase formed with de is sometimes nearly equivalent to an object :
iniquum est de stipendio recusare, // is unreasonable io irjuse about the tribute
(B. G. i. 44. 4) is almost -- it is unreasonable to refuse tlic tribute. Compare
significdre de Juga, nearly = signiftcdre fugaui (vii. 26. );; addiint dc Sab'uii
utorte ^v, 41. 4) .
801 O
210 SYNTAX
(iij ajicf : ex terrore ac fuga se recipere (/o recover after
their alarm and flight, B. G. ii. 12).
(iii) ofy denoting partition : quattuor et septuaginta ex
equitibus (B. G. iv. 12); unus ex captlvis ; ex omni-
bus human issimi : paucae ex numero navium ; cf.
dl (iii), above, and the genitive, § 421,
(iv) according to : ex communi consensu {by common con-
sent) ; ex consuetudine sua.
prae : (i) in comparison zvith : Gallis prae magnitOdine cor-
porum suorum brevitas nostra contemptui est.
(ii) for = owing to (in negative sentences) : colHs prae
multitijdine hostium vix cerni poterat.
pro : (i) in front of: pro portis castrorum in statione esse ;
pro oppido conlocare.
(ii) for = instead of: innocentes pro nocentibus.
= on behalf of: pro patria morl.
= in return for: pro beneficiis gratiam referre.
= as : pro amico habere {to regard as a friend).
(iii) according to : pro tempore et pro re.
sine : without : sine ullo labore et periculo ; non sine aUqua
spe ; gladius sine mucrone {pointless, adjectival).
tenus (placed after its noun) ^5 far as : pectore tenus ;
Aethiopia tenus.
2. in, sub, super, subter.
[For the accusative with these prepositions see § 397.]
454 in with the ablative corresponds to the English /// or on,
answering the question ' Where ? ' (cf. the locative,
§55):
(i) in urbe esse ; in Sicilia habitare ; in Treverls esse {in
the country of the Trcveri) ; in colle consistere {o)i
a hill); in ponte turrim constituere praesidiumque
ponere ; sua in silvls deponere.
(ii) in a figurative sense : in celeritate posita est salus
{deliverance depends on swiftness) ; in repentino hos-
THE ABLATIVE CASE 211
tium adventu multuni fortuna potest (/// tin- case of
the sudden arrival of the enemy).
sub, under, with the ablative answers the question ' Where ? ' :
(i) sub aqua esse ; sub terra habitare ; sub muro stare ;
sub monte consldere {at the foot of a mountain).
(ii) in a figurative sense ; sub oculis omnium pugnare ;
sub imperio Romanorum esse ; sub umbra amicitiae
Romanae latere.
super with the ablative generally means about, concerning :
super aliqua re dicere (scrlbere, rogare). In poets it
sometimes means over, above; cui ensis super cervlce
pendet {over whose neck hangs a sivord ; Horace).
subter, under, with the ablative (rare) answers the question
' Where ? ' : subter densa testudine {beneath a close shed of shields ;
Aen. ix. 514).
V. VERB-NOUNS AND VERB-ADJECTIVES
55 Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are nouns and adjectives
formed from the stems of verbs. They therefore denote acts
or states, like some other nouns and adjectives connected
with verbs. Compare jnorJ 'to die ' and mortuus -dead ' with
mors ' death '.
But verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are like verbs in three
respects :
(i)They have tenses and voices.
(2) They take the same case as the verb from which they
are formed :
legibus parere, to obey the laws
legibus parendo, by obeying the laws
legibus parens, obeying the laws
{3) They are qualified by adverbs (not adjectives) :
legibus semper parere (parendo, parens), always to obey
{by always obeying, always obeying) the laws.
o 2
212 SYNTAX
USES OF THE INFINTHVE
I. The Infinitive as an Object
456 The chief use of the infinitive is as an object :
(i) as the sole object of certain verbs (chiefly verbs
denoting some activity of the mind).
The same kind of verbs take an object-infinitive in Latin as
in English :
[a) verbs of ' desiring ', ' resolving ', ' striving ', and the
like:
volo, / lut'll ; nolo, / ivi7/ not; malo, I prefer; cupio, /
desire ; studeo, / am eager ; audeo, / dare
statuo, constituo, decerno, animum induce, / resolve
Conor, contends, intendo, / strive
cogito, in animo habeo, / intend
festino, mature, propero, I hasten
cunctor, moror, I delay
dubito, vereor, / hesitate
non euro, I do not care ; non recuso, / do not refuse
[b) verbs of ' being able ' and ' being bound ' :
possum, / can ; nequeo, / cannot
scio, I know how {= I have the ability); nescio, I knoiv
not Jioiv
disco, / learn ; dedisco, / unlearn
debeo, / ought
[c) verbs of 'beginning', 'ceasing', 'continuing', 'being
accustomed ', and the like :
coepi, incipio, instituo, / begin
desino, desisto, mitto (intermitto, praetermitto), / cease ;
neglego, / neglect
pergo, persevere, 1 go on, I persevere
soleo, consuevi, / am accustomed, assuesco, consuesco,
/ accustom myself
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 213
57 Examples.
[n) Sciibere volo. / ri'/// wrifr or / wis/i to •writt'.
Scrlbere nOlI, JVill-jiof to n'rite {= Please do not
write, § 316).
Sapere aude. Resolve [Dare) to be a 7uise man.
(b) E5s longius prosequi non potuCrunt. T/irv could not
pursue them further \ B. G. iv. 26.
\'incere scTs, Hannibal, victoria utl nescls. You under-
stand how to win a victory, Hannibal, but you do not
understand how to use it : Livy xxii. 51. 4.
{c) Nostros lacessere coeperunt. They began to attack our
men.
Fugere destiterunt. They ceased to run a-a'ay.
For the agreement of predicative adjectives and nouns
attached to an object-infinitive (e. g. with esse) see e ; video, / see ; audio, / Iienr ;
cognosco, disco, I /earn
arbitror, iudico, existimo, / judge, I t/iink; cogito,
/ reflect ; opinor, puto, I fancy
credo, I believe ; confldo, I am confident ; spero, I hope ;
suspicor, I suspect
novl, scio, / knoiv ; nescio, / do not knoiv ; nieminl,
/ remember
and the like,
verbs of 'saying ' : dico, / say ; nego, / deny ; respondeo,
I answer \ doceo, / show, fateor, I confess ; nuntio,
trado, / report ; glorior, / boast ; queror, / complain ;
simulo, / pretend
promitto, polliceor, I promise ; minor, I threaten
and the like (including equivalent expressions such
as scrlbo, ' I write to say', certiorem facio ' I inform ') ;
verbs of ' feeling ' ^ : gaudeo, laetor, / rejoice ; doleo,
/ grieve ; indignor, / am indignant ; miror, / am
surprised
and the like (including aegre fero, I am annoyed).
469 Examples.
I nos copias deducere us to be u'ithdra wing {that we
are withdrawing) our forces.
Credunt . nos copias deduxisse 71s to have zvithdrawn (that
They believe we have withdrawn) our forces.
I nos copias deducturos esse us to be about to ivith-
draiv (that we shall withdraw) our forces.
1 These verbs may also take a y;/o(i'-clause, corresponding to a ///^/-clause
in English or a (/?/(?-clause in French : Gaudent qiiod copias dedficimus
(deduximus, dCductrirl suinus, &c.^. Tliey rejoice iliat zve ore wif/idrawiiig
(Jiave ivitlidrauni, are about to withdraiv, &c.) our forces.
I
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 219
nos copias deducere us lo be mthdraKHu^ (that
we were withdrawing) our forces.
Credebant nos copias deduxissc us to have -ivilluh'OKni (that
They helicvra] we had withdrawn) our forces.
nos copias deducturos esse us to l>e about to uersonal passive construction ^§ 406J.
222 SYNTAX
to have uninhabited country around them to as great
a distance as possible : B. G. vi. 23, — Magnl interest
oppido potlrl. To get possession of the town is very
important: B. G. i. 21. — Accipere quam facere iniuriam
praestat. // is better to suffer than to injlict an injury :
Cic. Tusc. V. 56. — Non longius anno uno in loco re-
manere licet. To stay longer than a year in one place
is not permitted: B. G, iv. i.
Infinitive as predicative noun :
Loquor de homine docto, cui vivere est cogitare. / speak
of an educated mail, to ivhom to live is to think (= life is
thought): Cic. Tusc. v. 11 1.
478 When a predicative adjective or noun is attached to the subject-
infinitive (e.g. to esse ov fieri or viderl), it stands in the accusative
case. The explanation is that it agrees with an accusative (subject
of the infinitive, § 462) understood ; epithets, too, of this unexpressed
subject may stand in the accusative :
Est aliquid, fatoque suo ferroque cadentem | in solida nioriens
ponere corpus humo, | et mandare suls ahqua, et sperare
sepulcrum, | et non aequorels piscibus esse cibum. It is
something, ivhen falling l)y decree of fate and by the sword to
lay one's dying body on solid earth, and to i^ive some last com-
missions to one's" friends, and to hope for a tomb, and not to be
food (predicative noun) for the fshes of the sea : Ovid, Trist.
i. 2. 53-6. Supply aliquem ' some one '.
479 But after licet with a dative the predicative adj. or noun attached
to the infinitive generally stands in the dative (cf § 274):
Licet vobis incolumibus discedere. You may depart unharmed'.
B. G. V. 41. 6.
III. The Historic Infinitive
480 The Present Infinitive may be used in lively narrative as
equivalent to a finite verb in a simple sentence (Historic Infinitive) :
Cottidie Caesar frumentum flagitare ; diem ex die ducere
Haedul. Caesar kept demanding the corn daily : the Haedui kept
putting him off day by day : B. G. i. 16. In origin the historic
infinitive may have been adverbial, with the verb understood
(cf. § 252) : flagitiire [erant], ' they were for demanding ' :
USES OF THE INFINITIVE 223
hence 'they proceeded to demand' or 'they kept demand-
ing' ; compare ctrc a with the infinitive in French, and the
EngUsh idiom ' What are you at ? ' Or the usage may have
originated in a verb-less sentence of which the infinitive was
the subject.
IV. The Infinitive in Exclamations
^.Si The infinitive is sometimes used in exclamations and indignant
questions (depending on a verb of emotion understood) :^
Te nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexarl ! idque fieri mea culpa I To
think that you, my Tcnnfio, are thus troubled / and that this is
due to my fault.' (Cicero.) Understand doled 'I grieve' or
indignor ' I am indignant '.
Mene incepto desistere victam ? / desist from my purpose
baffled? (Aen. i. 37.) Equivalent to egone desistam? 'Am
I to desist ? ' (§ 319.) Here the infinitive is probably adverbial,
as in § 480 : desistere 'for desisting'. English has the same
use ; for sentences like ' I desist ? ' ' I honour thee ? ' contain
infinitives, not indicatives.
The original meaning of the infinitive.
482 In origin the infinitive is a dative or locative case : for example
regere ' to rule ' is formed from the stem reges-, meaning ' the act of
ruling ' ; dative or locative reges-i or -e ' for {or in) the act of ruling '.
Compare gener-1, dative of genus, from the stem genes-, which
became geiter- (§ 37).^^ The passive infinitives show the original
dative or locative ending more clearly : dart ' to be given ', from
das-J, lit. 'for the giving'. The passive meaning was acquired
later. In the passive infinitive of the 3rd conjugation the inflexion
7 was added directly to the root {reg-i).
483 Many uses of the infinitive show traces of its original meaning.
In most constructions it stands nearer in meaning to a dative, in
some to a locative. The following instances come mainly from
poets ; for infinitives with their original datival or locatival meaning
are for the most part avoided in classical prose, where some other
construction is generally substituted (especially ut or qui with the
subjunctive, the genitive of the gerund, ad with the accusative ot
the gerund, or in a few cases the supine in u).
' Compare the accusative of exclamation, § 388.
* By the change of s into r between two vowels.
224 SYNTAX
484 The original meaning of the infinitive is adverbial :
(i) with verbs :
Libycos populare penates non venimus. We have not come to
lay waste the Libyan homes : Aen. i. 527 f. (of. Hor. Od. i. 2. 7 ;
iii. 8. ii). Populare here denotes purpose, which would be
expressed in classical prose by ut popnlemus or ut popiilcinur
(deponent).
Argent! magnum dat ferre talentum. He gives them a great
talent of silver to carry away : Aen. v. 248. Ferre * for carrying
away ' ; classical prose quod fer ant.
Interea soror alma monet succedere Lauso Turnum. Mean-
while his kindly sister ivarns Turnits to take the place (classical
prose ut siiccedat) of Lausus : Aen. x. 439.
Flectere iter socils imperat. He commands his comrades to
change (classical prose idflectant) their course : Aen. vii. 35.
Hortamur farl. We exhort him to speak (classical prose lit
loquatur) : Aen. ii. 74.
Quid habes dicere? What have you to say? (classical prose
quod dicas): Cic. Balb. 33. — From this usage of the infinitive
with habed comes the French Future : diras from dire as,
Lat. diccrc habrs, ' you have to say', hence ' you will say'.
485 (ii) with adjectives :
avidus committere pugnani, eager to join (for joining) the fray :
Ovid, Met. v. 75. Classical prose avidus pugnac committcndac.
bonus dicere versus, good at composing verses (locatival meaning
of infin.) : Virg. Eel. v. 2. Classical prose peritus with gen.
dignus amarl, ivorthy to be loved: ibid. 89. Classical prose
qui amctur.
paratus decertare, ready to fght (for fighting), is found in
Caesar, B. G. i. 44 ; but would more commonly be expressed
by paratus ad decertandum.
vultus liibricus aspici, a countenance hazardous to behold (in the
beholding, locatival meaning) : Hor. Od. i. 19. 8. Classical
prose irdn'icus visu (supine).- Constructions like facilisfacrre
( = facilis facta) arc common in Propertius,
225
USES OF THE PARTICIPLES
^86 The participles are used
(i) as epithets {§ 256):
gladiator moriens, a (fyiiig ij^Iaih'ator ;
gladiator mortuus, a dead gladiator.
^87 The epithet participle may be appositive (cf. § 258) :
Orgetorix, regnl cupiditate inductus, coniurationem fecit.
Orgcton'x, proDipted hv the desire of being king, formed
a conspn-aey : B. G. i. 2.
A phrase containing an appositive participle may often be
translated by a clause of time, cause, condition, or concession,
according to the context : thus indnctns in the above example
might be translated 'when he had been prompted ' or ' because
he had been prompted ' ; and in other contexts by * if he had
been prompted ', ' though he had been prompted '.
Hanc adept! victoriam, in perpetuum se fore victores con-
fldebant. If they gained this victory, they felt sure that
they zvould he victorious for ever: B. G. v. 39. 4 [adeptl
for adeptos ; cf. vii. 56. 2).
In conloquium venire invltatus gravaris. You refuse to
co))ie to a conference, though invited : cf. B. G. i. 35. 2.
[.88 But more commonly the participle denotes attendant cir-
cumstances :^
Flens me obsecravit. Weeping he entreated me = He
entreated me with tears in his eyes. — Aquilifer fortis-
simo pugnans occlditur. The eagle-bearer falls, fighting
bravely: B. G. v. 37. — Centuriones armati Mettium
circumsistunt. The centurions in arms surround Mettius :
Livy i. 28.
1 This meaning is often expressed by cunt with the subjunctive : see
§§ 358, 359-
901 P
226 SYNTAX
489 (2) as predicative adjectives (§ 254) :
InvenI eum morientem. / found Jiiui dying.
InvenI eum mortuum. I found him dead.
490 Often with verbs of ' perceiving ' :
Sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidit. He
saw the consul sitting on a rock covered with blood : Livy
xxii. 49. 6. — Tiblcinem cantantem audio. / hrar the
piper playing.
Here the participle is nearly equivalent to the infinitive in
the use mentioned in § 459 (<:),
491 The nominative of the Perfect Participle Passive, used pre-
dicatively with a tense of esse, forms the tenses of completed
action of the passive voice : vocatus sunt, ' I have been called '
or ' I was called ' (§ 153) ; vocatus erani, ' I had been called ' ;
vocatus ero, ' I shall have been called '.
492 The nominative of the Future Participle Active, used pre-
dicatively with a tense of esse, forms an equivalent for three
active tenses :
Moriturus sum. / am likely to {about to) die = / shall die
(Future Indie),
Moriturus eram {or ful). / was likely to {about to) die :
equivalent to a Future in the Past of French or English
when used to denote futurity from a past point of view :
*je mourrais,' ' I should die.'
Moriturus ero. / shall be likely to {about to) die.
493 The nominative of the Present Participle Active is never
used predicatively with a tense of esse, except when the par-
ticiple has acquired the character of an ordinary adjective or
noun {§ 498): dJligens est 'he is diligent', sapiens erat 'he
was wise {or a philosopher) ', e.xcellens erit ' he will be eminent ' ;
dicto audiens sum ' I am obedient to command '. So too in
French : // est savant ' he is learned ', but not // est lisant ' he
is reading ' (French Gram. § 481).
USES OF Tlir: participles 227
194 A very important use of the partieiple as a preilicative
adjective is that which is foiind in the construction called the
ablative absolute,' which corresponds to the Enghsh nomina-
tive absolute construction :
Ponuntque ferocia PoenI corda, volente deo. And tlie
Cartliagi)iia)is lay aside tlwir haughty temper, a god
Zi'i//i>ig it (= because a god willed it): Aen. i. 303.
Compare the English nom. abs. in 'God willing (= if
God wills it), I shall do it '.
Paucis defendentibus, oppidum expugniire non potuit.
He could not take the town by storm, few defending it
(= though few defended it) : B. G. ii. 12.
Omnibus rebus comparatis diem dicunt. Everything
havi)ig been got ready {=^ wX'xo.w everything had been
got ready), they appoint a day : B. G. i. 6.
Signis in unum locum collatis mllites sibi ipsos impedi-
ments esse vidit, quartae cohortis omnibus centurioni-
bus occIsTs, signifero interfecto, signo amisso. He saw
that the soldiers were an impediment to themselves, the
standards having been crowded together in one place
(= because the standards had been crowded together),
all the centurions of the fourth cohort having been killed
a)id the standard -bearer having been slain and his
standard lost : B. G. ii. 25.
495 In this construction the ablative is an adverbial ablative
and the participle is predicated of it, so that the ablative and
its participle together form an equivalent of an adverb-clause
(as is indicated by the translations given in brackets above).
On the predicative character of the participle depends the
difference between the ablative absolute construction and
other ablatives with adjectives attached to them. Contrast
signis collatis 'the standards having been crowded together'
(§494) with infestis signis 'with hostile standards ' (= in battle
' Ablalivtis absolutus ' .iblative set free ', 'dissociated ablative' — so called
because the ablative and its participle form a group by themselves.
P2
228 SYNTAX
array ; see example in § 460 r). In the latter case the adjective
is an epithet ; in the former it is predicative. Similarly
volcntc deb in § 494 means not ' owing to a willing god ' but
'owing to a god willing it '.
496 The ablative in this construction denotes attendant circum-
stances (cf. § 434) ; it may generall}^ be translated by the
English 'with'.' 'Y\-\\\?, panels dcfcndciitihus 'with few de-
fending it', ojiiuibiis rebus coniparatls 'with everything got
ready'. Compare the following sentences in English, where
the omission of ' with ' would leave an absolute construction :
' But Marlborough zvHli the rapture of the fight still daueiug in
his blood pulled up his horse on a little rustic bridge and
scribbled a dozen lines to his wife to tell her of the great
event.'' ' The latter plan would relieve the British communi-
cations from danger, and ivith this accqiuplished Lord Roberts
could deal with the Transvaalers east of Pretoria at his
leisure.''' But this construction may assume various shades
of meaning according to the context in which it stands. Thus
the abl. abs. may be equivalent to a clause of —
(i) time (cf. the abl. of time when, § 444) :
signo dato, the signal having been given = when the signal
was given ; crescunt loca decrescentibus undls, the laud
comes into vieiv as the water subsides : Ovid, Met. i. 345.
(ii) cause (cf. the abl. of cause, § 432) : see examples § 494.
(iii) condition or concession :
Prohibentibus nostris hostes sine periculo vitae flumen
adire non possent. If our men made opposition the
enemy zvould not be able to approach the river without
risking their lives : B. G. viii. 40. 4.
1 The preposition cum is sometimes added in Latin : cum dts bene
iiivantibus anna capite ' arm yourselves, with the gods graciously assisting
you ' : Livy xxi. 43. 7 (so the MSS.). There are several examples in
Old Latin.
2 Fights for the Flag (Blenheim), by W. H. Fitchett, p. 16.
s Biniiingliam Daily Post, June 15, 1900.
USES OF THE rARTICIPLES 229
Obs. In writing Latin the abl. abs. construction slioukl be
avoided when the subject of the English subordinate clause
is repeated b}' a noun or pronoun in the main clause: e.g.
'When the hostages had been received, he put llicin under
close custody', 'As he was saying this, he expired ' ; in such
sentences an appositive participle (§ 487) should be used :
obsi'dcs acci'ptds ciisfocfivit ; hacc (liccns, intain cxsplrdvit. In
this last instance the abl. abs. would be as awkward in Latin
as the noni. abs. in English : ' he saying this, he expired.' '
197 Instead of the participle in the abl. abs. construction a pre-
dicative noun or adjective ma}^ be used :
Cicerone et Antonio consulibus, iviih Cicero and .Intony
as consuls = in the consulship of Cicero and Antony.
me invito, ivifh me mtii'illing = against my will.
^98 Some participles have acquired the character of ordinary
adjectives or nouns : e. g. absens ' absent ', praesens ' present ',
which are present participles of esse 'to be ' (see other
examples in §493); anians 'a lover'; adiilescens 'a young
man [or young woman) ' :
In improbi praesentis imperio maior est vis quam in
bonorum absentium patrocinio. In the command of
a ivicked man -who is on the spot there is more force than
in the protection of honest men H'ho are far away;
praesens tempus, the present time ; in praesenti, at
present (Cicero).
So too some perfect participles, e. g. certiis 'certain ', factum
'a deed ', impensa (sc. pecunia) ' expense ' :
Facto non consulto opus est. There is need of action, not
of deliberation.
Participles so used may be compared : anuins, anmntior,
amantissinins ; optdtus, optatior, optdtissinuis.
1 There arc some examples in Latin writers (Caesar, Cicero, and others)
of the abl. abs in sentences like ' When the hostages had been received, ho
put them into close custody '; see B. G. vi. 4. 4 : but it would be dillicult to
tind an abl. abs. in sentences like ' He saying this, he expired '.
230 SYNTAX
499 Many words that look at first sight Hke participles are not
really such : for participles are z'^r^-adjectives and formed
from the stems of verbs. But adjectives like the following
are formed (by means of the same suffix as is used in verb-
adjectives ') from the stems of nouns or adjectives : barbd-tus
' beard-ed ', aun-tiis ' ear-ed ' (e.g. Icporcs aitrltl 'long-eared
hares '), togd-tus ' dressed in a toga \ tiuiicd-tus ' dressed in
a tunic ', candidd-tus 'dressed in a Candida {toga)\ &c.
USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE
500 The gerund adjective is a passive verb- adjective (§ 133),
which has two uses :
(i) denoting what is to be done. Here the gerund adjective
is a passive participle with the sense of obligation or neces-
sity : -
(a) as an epithet :
vir laudandus, a man to-be-praised, a laudable man
homo contemnendus, a person to-be-despised, a contemptible
person
(b) as a predicative adjective :
Hie vir laudandus est. This man is to be praised.
Acies erat instruenda. The line of battle ivas to be formed
(had to be formed) : B. G. ii. 20.
Urbem inflammandam Cassio attribuit. He handed over
the city to Cassiiis to be set on fire : Cic. Cat. iv. 13.
1 See note on the sutfix / in § 148.
2 The name given to the gerund adjective by the Roman grammarians
was parlicipittm fultni passivi 'future participle passive'. This term is
applicable to the usages treated in §§ 500 and 501 above, though the idea of
obligation or necessity is more prominent in them than that of futurity ; but
to the usage treated in § 502 the name ' future participle passive ' is not
applicable. Here the gerund adjective (like the subjunctive in certain of its
usages) loses the sense of obligation and becomes equivalent to a present
participle passive
USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE 231
Ponteni in Ararl faciendum curat. He orders a bridge to
be made on the Arar: B. G. i. 13.
riic nominative neuter of the gerund adjective, with the
sense of obhgation, is often used with a tense of esse in the
impersonal passive construction (§ 377). The person by
whom the action is to be done is generally denoted by
a dative :
Pugnandum est nobis. IVe must fight (lit. fighting is to-
be-done by ns).
Rlilitibus de navibus desiliendum erat. The sohiicrs had
to Uap doivnfroin the ships : B. G. iv. 24.
luveni parandum, seni utendum est. A young man
ought to get, an o/d man to employ : Seneca, Epist.
xxxvi. 4.
Obhviscendum est nobis iniuriarum acceptarum. IVe
ought to Jorget injuries received.
Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis con-
sulendum. The property of many citizens is at stake,
ivhose interests you ought to consult : Cic. pro leg. Man.
6. Here a vobis is substituted for the dative vobts in
order to avoid ambiguity : quibus vobis consulenduni
est might have meant 'who ought to consult your
interests '.
The personal and the impersonal constructions may be
used side by side :
Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda teilus.
Now ive must drink, noiu the earth nntst be struck ivith
free step : Hor. Od. i. 37. i.
(2) without the sense of obligation or necessity.
In this use the gerund adjective is like a present participle
passive :
Facultatem itineris per provinciam laciendi dare nolebat.
He was unwilling to grant an opportunity of a Journey
being made through the Roman province : B. G. i. 7.
232 SYNTAX
This passive construction is equivalent in meaning to that
of an active verb-noun with an object : facultatem itineris
facicndl = ' the opportunity of making a journey '. Thus —
cupiditas belli gerendl, lit. //le desire of ivar being ivagcd
= the desire of waging war: B. G. i. 41.
Sul muniendl, non Galliae oppugnandae causa id facit.
lit. He does so for the sake of himself being protected
(= of protecting himself), not of Ganl being attacked
[= of attacking Gaul) : B. G. i. 44.
Legatos suT purgandl gratia mittunt. T/iey send envoys
for the sake of clearing themselves : B. G. vii. 43.
Obs. — Note that in the last instance stfi is plural, in the
one before it is singular : yet the gerund adjective is singular
in both cases. The reason is that the gerund adjective always
agrees with the form of this pronoun, whether its meaning be
singular or plural.
USES OF THE GERUND
503 Tiie gerund is an active verb-noun, corresponding to the
English verb-noun in -ing.^ Its genitive and ablative cases
are used very much like the genitive and ablativeof any other
noun ; but its accusative is used only after certain prepositions
(chiefly ad). Its dative is not much used, because the meaning
' for . . . ing ' is usually expressed by ad with the accusative.
The gerund has no nominative.
Gen. studium pugnandl, a desire of fighting: B. G. i. 46. —
difficultas navigandl, the difficulty of sailing: B. G.
iii. 12. — hiemandl causa, for the sake of ivinteritig :
B. G. iii. I. — homines bellandl cupidi, men desirous
of going to war: B. G. i. 2.
Abl. Vencrunt ut de indutils fallendo impetrarent. They
came in order that they might get their ivay about the
truce by deceiving : B. G. iv. 13.
' Ihe gerund (verb-noun) probably grew out of certain usages ©f the
gerund adjective, which is to be regarded as the older form.
USES OF THE GERUND 233
Reperiebat in quaereiido. lie found in the course of
inquiry: B, G. i. 18.— Malignitatis auctorcs quae-
rendo rem arbitrii sui ad senatum reiecerat. While
(lit. ///) seeking for supporters of his meanness he had
referred to the senate a nmttcr which lay in his OiVn dis-
cretion: Livy V.22. 1. Compare fdliafando, Aen.ii.6.'
Accus. Diem ad deliberandum sumam. / zvill fake a day for
deliberating : B. G. i. 7.
Nostros alacriores ad pugnandum fecerant. They had
made our men more keen for fighting : B. G. iii. 24.
504 The cases of the gerund supply a genitive and an ablative
to the infinitive (which is also equivalent to an English verb-
noun in -ifig): thus the infinitive might be declined as
follows :
NoM. discere, to learn : ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes
emollit mores, to have studied the liberal arts con-
scientiously refines the character (Ovid).
Ace. discere, to learn : discere cupio, / desire to learn.
Gen. discendl, of learning: discendl cupidus sum, / am
desirous of learning.
Dat. discendo, to learning: discendo operam do, / devote
myself to learning.
Abl. discendo, by learning : discendo emolliuntur mores, the
character is refined by learning.
505 As a verb-noun the gerund may take an object in the same
case as the verb from which it is formed. Thus causa par-
cendJ victis 'for the sake of sparing the conquered' ; parcendo
victls ' by sparing the conquered '. But the gerund with an
object in the accusative case is for the most part avoided in
the best prose.^
' From these uses (with and without in) comes tlie French gerund with
cit : e. g. en dcntaitdani, en chcrcliant.
2 The gerund with an accusative-object begins to be fairly common in
later prose (e.g. in Livy, sec ex. quoted in § 503, Abl., and in the poets of
the Augustan age. It is chiefly' the genitive and the dative of the gerund
that taivcs an accusative-object in these writers : c. g. spcs urban eapicndi
234 SYNTAX
Instead of this construction the passive construction of the
gerund adjective is generally employed (see above, § 502), and
must be employed after a preposition, such as ad or /// :
Non modo ad insignia accommodanda sed etiam ad
galeas induendas tempus defuit. Time failed them not
only for fitting on their badges but even for putting on
their helmets: B. G. ii. 21 (not ad insignia accommo-
dandum, ad galeas induendiun).
506 But in some cases the gerund with an accusative object is
almost necessary :
(i) when the object is a neuter pronoun ; for here any
other case than the accusative would be indistinguishable
from a masculine :
studium aliquid agendl, the desire of doing something (not
aliciiius agendl) ; talia fando, in speaking of such things
(not tdlibiis fandJs), see ex. in § 503.
(ii) in order to avoid the repetition of the clumsy endings
drum, arum:
neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi facultate
data, no opportunity having been given either of holding
counsel (passive construction with gerund adjective)
or of taking arz/zs (active constr. with gerund, instead of
armornm capiendorum) ; cf. B. G. iv. 14.
USES OF THE SUPINES ^
507 The supine in -Unix's, the accusative of a verb-noun of the
4th declension in -tus or -sns, used adverbially to answer the
question ' Whither ? ' (cf § 391), chiefly with verbs of motion ;
it thus denotes the end in view or purpose (§ 136):
LegatT gratulatum venerunt. The envoys came to offer
' the hope of capturing the city '(instead of iirbis capiciulae), mens alitur aiics
discendo 'the mind is nurtured by studying the arts' (instead vi aiiibus
discendis] .
^ The curious name ' supine ' cliosen by the Roman grammarians to describe
these forms means literally * lying on its back. ', i. c. out of action.
USES OF THE SL* PINES 235
their congralidatioiis'. B. G. i. 30. — Nunc venls ultro
inrlsum doniiiuini. Now you actually coiite in order to
laugh at your master : Plaut. Aniph. 587.
Ludos spectatuni eo. / ani goi)ig to see the games. The
supine with eo is sometimes (not always) equivalent to
a Future Participle with sum (§ 492) : spcctdtum co =
speetdturus sum. Compare the French /f vais with the
infinitive, denoting immediate futurity : je vais voir ' I
am just going to see ' (French Gram., § 298).
508 Out of the last-mentioned usage grew the most important
use of the supine in -um, viz. that in which it is joined with
7/7 to form the Future Infinitive Passive (§ 137). In this con-
struction Jri is impersonal :
Titurio ipsi nihil nocitum Irl respondit. He answered that
no harm -would be dune to Titurius himself; lit, that
there was-a-going (irl) to do no harni (nihil nocitum) to
Titurius himself: B. G. v. 36.
509 The supine in u is the ablative or dative or locative of
a verb-noun of the 4th decl. in -tus or -sus. But very few
verbs form a supine in -ii'. the most important are those
which denote 'saying', 'perceiving', or 'doing '.
The supine in u is used chiefly with certain adjectives
meaning 'easy', 'difficult', 'wonderful', 'best', and the like.
It may generally be translated by the English infinitive (some-
times active, sometimes passive) :
facile facto, an easy thing to do: B. G. i. 3.— optimum
factu, the best thing to do or to be done : B. G. iv. 30. —
mirabile dictu, strange to say: Aen. i. 439. — resnefaria
visu, a thing aiiful to behold: Cic. Plane. 99.
Difficile dictu est. It is difficult to say : Cic. Tusc. ii. 19. —
Hoc horridiores sunt aspectu. They are all the more
dreadful to look upon : B. G. v. 14. -Macedonia divlsul
facilis est. Macedonia is easy to partition or to be par-
titioned: Livy xlv. 30. 2.
236 SYNTAX
VI. PRONOUNS AND INDICATING
ADJECTIVES
The reflexive pronoun and adjective.
510 The reflexive pronoun se, sui, sibi, se and the reflexive
possessive adjective suus, a, um have two chief uses :
(i) referring to the subject of the clause in which they stand :
Cato se pugione suo occldit. Cato slew himself ivith his
dagger. — Deserebantur ab amicis suls. They ivcrc being
deserted by their friends.
Caesar temeritatem mlHtum reprehendit quod sibi ipsi
iOdicavissent quid agendum esset. Caesar blamed the
rashness of the soldiers, on the ground that they had
themselves judged for themselves what ivas to be done :
B. G. vii. 52. — Constat Dioclem se suspendisse. // is
ivell known that Diodes hanged himself (accusative with
infinitive = noun clause) : Cic. Verr. v. 129. — Suis in-
commodls graviter angi se ipsum amantis est. To be
seriously troubled by one's own misfortunes is the mark
of one who loves himse{f {ama.nt\s = eius qui amat) : Cic.
Amic. 10.
511 With certain impersonal verbs the accusative denotes the
logical subject : Paenitet eos consiliorum suoruni. // repents
them (= They repent) of their plans : B. G. iv. 5.
(ii) referring to the subject of a diff"erent clause of a com-
plex sentence, as in an English example like 'God has
brought man into being in order that he may know Himself.
Rule. The reflexive pronoun and the reflexive adjective,
standing in a clause of purpose, or in a dependent state-
ment, dependent question, or dependent clause of desire,
may refer to the subject of the main clause :'
Caesar castella constituit ne hostes suos circumvenire
1 For the exact meaning of the term 'dependent' in this rule see
Classification of Sentences and Clauses, §§ 523, 524. A dependent clause is
one particular kind of subordinate clause.
PRONOUNS AND ADJl-XTIX'KS 237
possent. Caesar built forts in order that the cniiny
might not be abh' to surround his (i.e. Caesar's) nwn :
K G. ii. 8.
Caesar statuit sibi RhCiuim esse transeundum. Caesar
deeided that the Rhine must be crossed by him : B. G.
iv. 16 (sibi = Caesaii). Contrast constat Dioclem se
suspendisse, § 510.
Quid sul consilil sit osteiidit. He indicates what his phvi
is : B. G. i. 21.
Germani petebant ut sibi trldui spatiuni daret. 7'he
Germans asked that he shouhi grant them a period of
three days : B. G. iv. 11 (sibi = Germanis).
512 But such sentences are sometimes ambiguous ; for a pro-
noun or adjective referring to the subject of the subordinate
clause is also expressed by sc or suus ; see § 510 :
Ariovistus dixit neminem secum sine sua pernicic conten-
disse. Ariovistus said that no one had fought zvit/i him
(Ariovistus) without disaster to himself {i. e. to the fighter) :
B. G. i. 36.
Such ambiguity is sometimes unavoidable ; sometimes,
though avoidable, it is not avoided ; sometimes it is avoided
by using ipse to indicate the subject of the main clause :
Cur de sua virtute aut de ipsTus dlligentia desperarent ?
[Caesar asked the centurions] n^hy they despaired of
their oivn valour or of his [Caesar's] zeal : B. G, i. 40.
513 The possessive adjective suus, a, um is sometimes used
with reference to a noun which is not the subject of any clause
of the sentence, especially when the possessive adjective has
emphasizing force (= 'his own ', ' their own ') :
Gallls prae magnitudine corporum suorum brevitas nostra
contemptui est. To the Gauls the short stature of the
Romans is contemptible in comparison ivith the great size
of their O'a'n bodies : B. G. ii. 30.
Hirtium suT mllites interfecerunt. // 'was his own men
who hilled Ilirtius .
238 SYNTAX
514 ' One another ' is expressed in Latin either b}' a phrase
formed with inter or by alter . . . n/tenini, when two persons
are spoken of, or alnis . . . aliit))!, when more than two persons
are spoken of:
AmTcos inter se prodesse oportet. 1 z- • 7 , , ,
. _ , 1 / f- ,• rrieiias oii^lit to
Amicos alterum alterl (or ahum ahi) 1 , ,^ .,
_ , ^ -' help one another.
prodesse oportet. 1
Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives.
515 The Latin demonstratives are never used like the Enghsh
demonstratives in expressions Hke ' My house is larger than
that of my neighbour ' = 'the house of my neighbour', nor
before a participle in expressions like ' those standing by ' =
' the bystanders ', ' those in Rome '= ' the people who are (or
were) in Rome'. In these usages the English demonstrative
is equivalent to the definite article ; but the Latin demonstra-
tives are never used with this weakened meaning :
Domus mea maior est quam viclnl. My house is larger
than my neighbour' s=i\\?ii of (the one of) my neighbour,
il qui adstant (adstabant)l ^j^^ bystanders
or adstantes (w///!o/// u ) )
il qui Romae sunt (erant), those in Rome
The following sentence is no exception to this rule, for
eorum fngientium does not mean ' of those fleeing ', but ' of
them as they fled ' :
Hi novissimos adorti magnam multitudinem eorum fn-
gientium conclderunt. These, attacking the rearguard,
cut to pieces a great number of them as they /led: B. G.
ii. II. 4; cf. v. 9, 8 (eos/ugientes), vi. 27. 4 [earuni stan-
tium = arborum stantium).
Interrogative pronouns and adjectives.
516 The interrogatives are sometimes strengthened by na))i :
(juisnam ' who in the world ? '
PRONOUNS AND ADjEC riVES 239
E(//in)^,rc(/iii(/\s an interrogative form of the indcfiiiite y///s,
quid ' any one ', ' anything ' (§ in):
Ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret? IFas f/inr any one w/io did
not ivecp? (quIn = qui nOn, § 360, Obs.)
Indefinite pronouns and adjectives.
517 For the distinctions in meaning between the indefinite
pronouns and adjectives see §§ 1 12-18.
A good example to iUustratc the meaning of qiuvls and
qullibet (§ 114) is —
CuiusvTs est errare, nulllus nisi insipientis in errore per-
severare. Every one makes mistakes, but no one excepting
a fool persists in a mistake (Cicero),
Ouisquam (§ 115) is sometimes used in sentences which are
neither negative nor interrogative :
CuivTs potest accidere quod cuiquam potest. IVIiat can
happen to any one at all can happen to every one : Pub-
liHus Syrus.
Indignor quicquam reprehendl quia nuper compositum
sit. / am indignant that anything should l)e blamed
merely because it has been recently written. Hor. Epist.
ii. I. 76. Similarly with si ' if and quam ' than *.
Ouisque 'each ' (§ 117) is sometimes used with superlatives
and ordinals :
Optimus quisque confitctur. Every good man (lit. each
best man) confesses = All good men confess.
Decimus quisque interfectus est. Every tenth man was
killed.
Quotas quisque iuris pcrltus est ! //oa' few are skilled in
the laiv !
Relative pronouns.
518 Latin has two generalizing relative pronouns and adjec-
tives, corresponding to the French quiconque 'whoever':
qulcumque m., quaecumque {., quodcumque n. | •
quisquis ni., f., quicquid n.
240 SYNTAX
Both of them ordinarily take the indicative mood :
Coercere quibuscumque rebus poterat Dumnorlgem cona-
tus est. He tried to keep Dnuinorix hi check by ivhaievcr
means he coidd.
Quicquid circuitus ad molHendum cllvum accesserat, id
spatium itineris augebat. Whatever amount of detour
(§ 422) ivas added with a vieiv to making the ascent easier,
increased the h'ngth of the journey : B, G. vii. 46.
519 Oulcitmque is also used in certain phrases as an indefinite
adjective, i.e. without a verb (like the French quehonque):
Qui quacumque de causa ad eos venerunt, ab iniuria pro-
hibent. Those zvJio have come to them for any reason,
they protect from injury: B. G. vi. 23.
VII. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND
CLAUSES
520 Sentences are of the following kinds —
(i) Statements:
Sic est. // is so. — Vera dico. / speak the truth.
(2) Questions:
[a] Questions which may be answered with ' Yes ' or
' No '. These questions are generally introduced in Latin by
the interrogative words 7ium^ or -ne :
Num sic est ? Is it so ? — Dicisne vera ? Are you speak-
ing tJie truth ?
But sometimes no interrogative word is used :
Vis pugnare ? Do you tvant to fight ? or You ivant to
fight?
In negative questions of this class the word -ne is attached
to the negative, which is put first in the sentence :
Nonne vera dicebam ? Was I not speaking the truth ?
Nonne argentum redderem ? Was I not to pay back the
money ? (§ 319).
I When nuui is used the answer ' No' is generally expected.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 241
riie answer ' Yes ' is expressed in Latin by ctiaiit or ita or
ita vcro, or by repeating the question in the form of a state-
ment :
Vera dicis. Yoii arc speaking ihc Incth {= yes).
' No * is generally expressed by luiininc or niiuinic vcro, or
by a repetition :
Non vera dicebas. You were not speaking (he Initli {= no).
— Non redderes. No (§ 319).
(/;) Questions which cannot be answered with ' Yes ' or
' No ' are introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns,
interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs:
Quis dixit? Who said it F—Qwa.c erant verba eius ?
What cvcre his ivonis ? — Quando dixit ? When did he
say it ? — Ouani saepe dixit ? How often did lie say it ?
— Ut vales ? Hoiv do you do ?
Quid faciam ? Wiiat am I to do ? (§ 319).
(3) Desires (iiickiding commands, requests, entreaties, and
wishes) :
Aut ' etiam ', aut ' non ' responde. Ansivcr either 'yes '
or ' no ' (Cicero) ; § 313.
Sis fellx. Be thou fortunate (§ 321).
The negative of all desires is nc :
Ne transierls Hiberum. Do not cross the Ebro.
(4) Exclamations :
Quam pulciier est ! Hoiu handsome he is! — Quae erit
■ laetitia ! What a joy it will be ! — Ut peril ! How I ivas
undone !
21 Two or more coordinate parts of a sentence may be con-
nected by one of the following coordinating conjunctions :
et, -que, atque, ac, and
sed, at, autem, verum, but
nam, namque, enim, fur
aut, vel, -ve, or; neque, neve, nor \
or by a coordinating relative.
901 Q
242 SYNTAX
The words auton and cuiin stand after the first word in the
sentence, though they are not attached to it like -que and -vc.
Two conjunctions cannot stand together, but eniin in tlie sense
of 'indeed ' (a sentence-adverb) may follow scd, ct, or at.
522 Double questions may be introduced by
utrum ) 7 ,;
' ivlietlicr ... an or :
-ne )
Utrum verum est an falsum ? or Verunine est an falsum ?
[ J'VlictJui-] is it true or false ?
Utrum verum est an non ? Is it true or not?
]'^loquar an sileam ? Am I to speak or am 1 to keep
silence? Aen. iii. 39.
523 Subordinate clauses are of the following kinds — ■
(i) Noun Clauses :
[a] Dependent Statements :
Opportunissima res accidit, quod GermanI ad Caesarem
sul purgandl causa venerunt. A most fortunate thing
happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for
the sake of clearing themselves (§ 266).
Diviciacus dixit se scire illud esse verum. Diviciacus
said that he kneiv that it ivas true (§ 469).
(/>) Dependent Questions :
Quid fieri velit ostendit. He points out ivliat he ivishes
to be done (§ 363 a).
Utrum vera an falsa diceres (Utrum vera diceres necne),
nesciebam. / did not know ivhelhcr you iverc speaking
truth or falsehood {ivhcthcr you ivere speaking the truth
or not). — Nccnc is used in dependent questions in place
of an non.
Ncscio an mirabilior adversis quam secundis rCbusfuerit.
I knoiv not ivhether [— 1 am inclined to think that) /;^
xvas more admirable in adversity than in prosperity :
CLASSIFICATION OF SFNTFNCFS, FTC. 243
Livy xxviii. 12. 2. Similarly liaud scio an = ' [nobably '
or ' perhaps *.
Quid taciam nesciO. IVIiat I am lo do 1 don't know
(§ 325- i)-
[c) Dependent Desires :
Hortatur ut popull Roniani lidem sequantur. lie exhorts
them to place themselves under the protection of the Roman
people (§ 326).
[d) Dependent Exclamations :
Vidcs ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You sec how
Soraclc stands glistening with deep snow (§ 363 b).
Mirum quantum ill! virO fides fuerit. // is strange how
nnich people trusted that man (§ 363 b).
124 Dependent questions must be earet'ully distinguished Irom ad-
jective clauses introduced by a relative pronoun without an ante-
cedent (§ 289), and tVom adverb clauses introduced by a subordinating
conjunction.
Observe --
(i) The verb (or other wordj in the main clause on which
a dependent question depends always denotes some activity of the
mind ; the main clause to which an adjective or adverb clause
belongs may contain any kind of verb : Die inihi quae enieris ' Tell
me what you have bought ' (dep. quest.), Ddmihi (juacanistl ^G'wc
me what you have bought' (adj. cl.) ; Oitid velini sciis 'You
shall know what I want ' (dep. quest.), Ouod quaeris \scire\ scies
' You shall know what you want [to know] ', adj. cl.
(ii) An adjective clause may be replaced by a noun denoting a
person or thing : quae cniisti = ea quae emistl, e. g. punm, vlnuni, Sec.
A dependent question cannot be so replaced ; the answer to it
must always be a sentence, containing a subject and a predicate:
Die nnhi quae cniens ' Tell me [the answer to the question] What
have you bought : ' The answer would be ' I have bought apples,
wine, (Sic'
(iii) The English 'whether' may be citiicr interrogative or
a subordinating conjunction meaning 'if on the one hand': Ouacro
intni nicciicuni aithibilurus sis necne, ' I ask whether you are going
to call in a doctor or not' (dep. quest.) ; Srve nudicuin ad/ubueris,
(I u
244 SYNTAX
sive noil adhibueris, nun convalesces ' Whether you call in a doctor
or not, you will not recover ' (adverb clause).
Dependent exclamations, which are introduced by an exclama-
tory word, difter in meaning from dependent questions, which are
introduced by an interrogative word. But the subjunctive mood
is used in both : see § 363.
525 (2) Adjective Clauses :
Duas vias occupavit quae ad portum fercbant. He seized
the tivo roads ivhich led to the liarbour.
Quid est quod rides ? What is it that yon are laughing
at ? (Contrast Quid est quod rldeds ?, § 335.)
Omnes qui turn eos agros ubi hodie haec urbs est incolO-
bant illl parebant. All zvho then occupied the laud
ivhere {= on which) this city iioiv stands submitted to hi/n
(Romulus) : Cicero de Rep. ii. 4.
Circuniscrlbit nos terminis quos non excedanius. He
confines us within limits which ive are not to pass over
(§ 334)-
For other ^^/F-clauses with the subjunctive see §§ 335, 337,
338, 341. 343. 344, 346, 355- 360, 361, 364.
526 (3) Adverb Clauses :
{a) Clauses of Time, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ubi, uf, 'when', pos/quam, poslcdquam, 'after',
sinnil atquc, ' as soon as ', anfrquam, priusquam, ' before ',
donee, dum, quoad, 'while ', 'until ', cum, ' when ' :
Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves remover! iussit.
When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships to be
withdrawn : B. G. iv. 25. For tense see § 311.
Postea vero quam cquitatus noster in conspectum venit,
hostes terga vertcrunt. But after our cavalry came in
sight, the enemy Jlcd : B. G. iv. 37.
tlostcs simul atque se ex fuga recepCrunt, statim Icgatos
miserunt. As soon as the enemy recovered from their
fight, they immediately sent envoys: B. G. iv. 27.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTKNCFS, ETC. 245
Neque priiis fiigere dCstitr-runt, qiiani ad flunKii Rhrnmn
pcrvC'iiGrunt. lYor did tiny stop tlirir Jliglit before they
reached the Rhiue : B. G. i. 53.
Dum haec gcnintur, qui crant in agiis rcliqiiT disces-
sC-riint. Uliile these events -were taking place (§ 312), the
others ivho xvere in the fiehh went azvay : B. G. iv. 34.
Ipse, quoad potuit, fortissimC- restitit. He resisted most
bravely, as long as he could : B. G. iv. 12.
De comitils, dunce rediit Marcellus, silentiiini fuit.
Nothing was said about the elections until Marcellus re-
tunu'd : Livy xxiii. 31.
Cum in spem venero aliquid nic eonficere, statim vos
certidrcs faciam. When I beconw (lit. shall have beco>ne,
§310) hope/id that I ant producing some effect, I -will let
you hno'w : Cacs. ap. Cic. ad Att. ix. 13.
Cum equitatus noster so in agros Ciccerat, essedarids e
silvls CniittCbat. JVhenever our cavalry had sallied out
into the fields, he sent the charioteers out of the woods :
B. G. V. 19.
Infclix Dido, nunc tC- facta impia tangunt ? Tuni dccuit,
cum sceptra dabas. Unhappy Dido, does thy disloyalty
noiv come home to thee ? It should have done so at the
time li'hen thou ivast offering thy sceptre : Aen. iv. 596.
For antequam, priusquam, donee, dum, quoad with the
subjunctive see §§ 339, 340. For cum with the subjunctive
see §358^7.
527 {b) Clauses of Place, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ubi ' where ', qua 'by what route ', quo, 'whither ',
taule, ' whence':
AHae naves eodem, unde erant profectae, referebantur.
Other ships ivere being carried bach to the place from
ivhich they had stai'ted: B. G. iv. 28.
528 [c] Clauses of Cause, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions quia, quod, quoniam, ' because.'
Reliquos secum ducere decreverat, quod mOtuni GaUiae
246 SYNTAX
verebatur. He had decided to take the rest zvitli liim,
because he feared a rising in Caul: B. G. v. 5.
For cuju ' since ' with the subjunctive see § 358 b.
529 {d} Clauses of Purpose, introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions ut 'in order that', 7ic 'in order that . . . not',
gud 'whereby ', with the subjunctiv^e (§ 338) :
Labienum in continent! rehquit, ut portus tueretur.
530 (e) Clauses of Result, introduced by the subordinating
conjunction ut 'that ' with the subjunctive:
Ita currOs coliocant ut expedltum ad suos receptum
habeant (§ 360).
531 (/) Clauses of Condition, introduced by the subordinat-
ing conjunctions 57 'if, uisi 'unless', with the indicative
or the subjunctive, or by dum, dunmiodo ' provided that '
with the subjunctive (§ 343).
A complex sentence containing a clause of condition is
called a 'conditional sentence'.
The indicative mood is used in the //-clause in instances
like the following :
Si peccat, poenam meret. //"//r is doing ivroug {= if it is
a fact that he is doing wrong), he deserves punishment.
St peccaverit, poenam mercbit. If he docs {\\i. shall have
done, § 310) ivrong, he will deso've punishment .
Si peccavit (or peccabat), poenam meruit {or merebat).
If he did ivrong, he deserved punishment.
Si peccavit, puniatur. // he has done wrong, let him be
punished.
These clauses of condition may be called 'open ' as distinct
from the clauses of condition which take the subjunctive
(§§ 349; 35°)- ^^ peccat means simply ' If it is a fact that he
is doing wrong ' ; the speaker does not imply that it is a fact
or that it is not.
Rule.— Open clauses of condition take the indicative mood,
and the main clause is free in regard to tense and mood.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 247
532 i^) Clauses of Concession, introduced by the sub-
ordinating conjunctions c/sJ ' e\en if, 'although', with the
indicative or the subjunctive, qiiaiiitjiiain ' ahhough ' witli tlie
indicative :
EtsT in his locTs niaturae sunt hieuiEs, tamen in Britan-
niam contendit. AlthougJi the iviiifcrs are early in these
parts, yet he hastily crossed to Britain : B. G. i\'. 20.
For qiiann'is, iit, 'although', with the subjunctive, see
§ 343 ; for cinn 'although ' with the subjunctive see § 358 Z>.
533 (//) Clauses of Comparison :
(i) denoting inaniwr, introduced by the subordinating con-
junctions ut, sJciit, qitcniadniodinii, qitani, 'as ' :
Valeant preces apud te meae, sicut pro te hodie valuerunt.
May my prayers be as effectual zvith you, as they have
been for you to-day.' Livy xxiii. 8.
For quasi, velut si, tanquain, tanquani si, 'as if,' 'as
though ', with the subjunctive, see § 337.
(ii) denoting degree, introduced by the subordinating con-
junction quain ' than ', or by words meaning 'as ' :
Est Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Ireland is
smaller than Britain by half.
For quam ut ' than that ' with the subjunctive see § 337.
Obs. After adjectives and adverbs that denote likeness or
difference (par,pariter; similis, similiter; aeqiie, perinde; alius,
aliter ; contrdrius, contra, secus) the clause of comparison is
introduced by atqiie or dc:
Simill ratione (or Alia ratione) ac ipse feci iniurias vestras
persequiminl. Avenge your wrongs in the same zvay
as (or otherwise than) I have done: B. G. vii. 38.
VIII. REPORTED SPEECH
534 Instead of quoting the words used by a speaker, an historian
may report what was said.
Reported speech takes the form of subordinate clauses
depending on a verb of 'saying' (called the leading verb),
expressed or understood.
Original Speech :
Desillte, mllites, nisi vultis
aquilam hostibus prodere :
ego certe meum rei publi-
cae atque imperatorl offi-
cium praestitero (= prae-
stabo). Leap down, soldiers,
U7iless you ivant to betray ilie
eagle to the enemy : I at any
rate sJiall do my duty to the
comnwimervi'ittnrds ' ; si Gallia omnis
cum Germanis consiiitJref, niiani
I'sse in celeritatc/o^/'/f//// salFdcin.
Cottae quidcm atque eorum, qui
tiisscittiirnt coiii,iliiiiit quem ha-
bere exitum ? in quo si non
praesens periculum, at certc
longinqua obsidione fames esi^et
timenda. (B. G. v. 29.)
' The accusative-subject ^c is
understood.
2 nostri is here used because the
reporter i^Caesar) is writing as a
Roman to Romans. He might have
used stii, which would have ex-
pressed the meaning from the point
of view of Titurius. So, too, nostras
below might have been reported by
suas. ^ Suppl3'///('>if.
spc Ambiorlgcm ad cius modi
consilium descendisse .' Men
scntentia in utramque partem est
tuta: si nihil erit durius, nullo
cum perlculo ad proximam legio-
nemperiienieiiiiis; si Gallia omnis
cum Germanis conseiitit, una est
in celeritate />oi'//rt' salfis. Cottae
quidem atque eorum qui disseii-
titint consilium quem fiabet exi-
tum ? in quo si non praesens
periculum, at certc longinqua
obsidione fames est tintenda \
256 SYNTAX
IX. ORDER OF WORDS
Rules of Normal Order.
551 Rules i and 2. The two most important rules of normal order
have already been given (§ 3). In the following sentence the
position of every word except populus and the conjunctions
is determined by these two rules, which apply to phrases
(§ 260) as well as to single words.^
Populus Romanus urbes sociorum suoruni,
The nation Roman tlic ciliis of alliis its
imperio suo infestas, aut vl aut obsidione in potestatem
to rule its Jiostik, either by force or by siege to sivay
suam redegit :
its reduced :
i. e. The Roman nation reduced to its sivay, eitJicr by force or
by siege, the cities of its allies hostile to its rule.
552 But there is one exception :
Demonstrative, interrogative, and numeral (cardinal and
ordinal ^) adjectives, together with adjectives denoting quantity
or size (i.e. words meaning 'all', 'some', 'many', 'few', and
words denoting 'big', 'little', and the like) generally stand
before their nouns :
hie homo, is homo, tanta res, alia res, quae res?, utra
1 Tims the adjective plirase imperio suo infcslds comes after tubes ; and in
that phrase the adverbial dative /w/tno a»o (§414) comes before iiifcstds.
The phrases aut vi aut obsiilioite and in potcsldkiu suain are both adverbial
to rccicgit, and therefore precede it.
'^ The ordinal numerals generally stand a/kr the words dies, horn, and
annus, e. g. ante diem (juarlum Kaleiuids Maids, ' the fourth day before the
Calends of May ' = April sStli ; annus millcnsimus nongcntensimus nanus
'the year 1909'; otherwise they precede their nouns, e.g. prtnm it
sec uncla aacs ' ihe first and the second \mc\ prliniim agnien ' the head of
the column'; dccima Icgio 'the tenth legion', quarla pars copidniiii 'the
fourth part of the forces '.
OKHKR OF WORDS 257
purs?, quanta nuiltitudo ?, quota hoia ? ; duac naves,
viginti nillia hominum.
omnes (non null!, niultl, paucT) hominr'S, niagnus lunnerus,
magno animo, parva res, parvum spatium.
553 Rule 3, Relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative
adverbs stand at the beginning of the clause which they
introduce :
Hae sunt arbores quarum in umbra iacebat. These are
the Irccs in the shade of ivhich (or /';/ ivhose shade) he zvas
lying. Not in umbra, qtidnini nor /;/ qiiariiiii umbra.
Thus a co-ordinating relative takes precedence of a sub-
ordinating conjunction :
Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remis incitarl
iussit. JVhoi Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships
of-a'ar to be set in motion by means 0/ oars : B. G. iv. 25.
The only words which can stand before a relative are pre-
positions ; and even a preposition may be placed after the
relative, especially cum :
ProximI sunt Germanis, quibuscum continenter bellum
gerunt. They are the nearest to the Germans, with whom
they continually wage ivar: B. G. i. 4.
qua de causa, for ii'hich reason ; quapropter, quocirca,
wherefore (compounds of a preposition with an ad-
verbial ablative of the relative pronoun).
554 Rule 4. Five exceedingly common co-ordinating con-
junctions
-que, and autem, vero, ho-a'ever.
-ve, or emm, for
always stand immediately after the word, or the first word of
the group, which they connect :
pedites equitesque; senatus populusqueRomanus; terram
attigit omnesque incolumes naves perduxit (B. G. v. 23,6;
here -que connects the two parts of the double sentence) ;
prospera adversave fortuna ; a nulio videbatur, ipse
»01 R
258 SYNTAX
auLein uiniiiii viclcbat ; eo tempore tini5bani, nunc vero
timere non debeo ; civis enim Romanus erat.
Obs. Several sentence-adverbs/ like quoque 'too', 'also',
igitur 'therefore',' and -;/^ (used in asking questions) stand
after the word, or the first word of the group, to which they
belong :
to quoque aderas ; quid igitur respondeam ? ; pacemne
hue fertis an arma ?
555 Rule 5. — Most adverbs stand immediately before the word
which they qualify (and therefore come after objects, cf.
Rule 2) :
Hoc saepe dixl.
Especially the adverb nbn :
Hoc non dixl. Hoc dicere non possum. Hoc non saepe
dixT. Non omnes hoc dicunt.
Order of clauses in complex sentences.
Rules I and 2 are applicable, to some extent, to adjective
and adverb clauses.
556 (i) Adjective clauses usually come after the word to which
they are adjectival ; see § 525.
557 (2) The following kinds of adverb clause usually come
before the clause whose verb they qualif}^ :
r?/;//-clauses (temporal or causal or concessive) and
clauses of time introduced by postqiiaui, postcaqnam,
nbi, ut, simiil atque ; see § 358 and § 526.
clauses of condition and concession ; see § 350 antl
§§ 531, 532.
So, too, the ablative absolute construction (equivalent to an
adverb clause) ; see § 494.
' Sentence-adverbs are adverbs whicli qiialily the sentence as a whole,
and not any particular word in it. But they sometimes linve the effect
of emphasizing a particular word in the sentence.
* Igitur, however, gcncrall}' stands at the beginning ol its clause in
Sallust and Tacitus.
ORDKK OF WORDS 259
But prospectiNc clauses and clauses of purpose and result
usually come after the clause whose verb the}' quality ; see
§§ 338, 340, 360, and §§ 529, 530.
558 As to noun clauses, the only generally applicable rule is
that noun clauses introduced by ut, ne, qiioniiiius or qiiin
usually stand after the clause on whose verb they depend
(whether as subject or object) : see §§ 326-33 and § 523.
559 Complication of clauses. — The Latin writers sometimes
go ver}' far in putting one clause inside another, like Chinese
boxes :
Qui cum ex cquitum fuga (ji/o in loco irs rssd cognovissent,
nihil ad celeritatem sibi reliqui fecerunt. Lit. J J 710,
ivlicn from the flight of the eavalry what was the position
of affairs they had learned, left tiothiiig ttndone in the
way of speed : B. G. ii. 26. 5.
Si quis, qui, quid again, forte requlret, erit, vivere me
dices. Lit. If there shall be any one, 'who, what I am
doing, perchanee shall inquire, say that I am alive : Ovid,
Trist. i. I. 18.
In these instances each clause comes exactly in the position
which would be expected from Rules i and 2 ; but such sen-
tences are complicated and rather obscure. In writing Latin
the beginner will do well, as a rule, to finish off one clause
before beginning another. It is not necessary that the rela-
tive pronoun should come immediately after its antecedent.
For instance, ' I know the man whom you say you saw
yesterday' may be translated Hominem nov'i quern te herJ
I'ldisse diets as well as Hominem quern te herl vldisse din's novl,
and the simpler order is often clearer.
Departures from normal order.
560 In no language is the order of words rigidly fixed ; and in
Latin the order is more elastic than in English, owing to its
wealth of inflected forms. Thus we find that the normal
order is frequently changed for various reasons.
R 2
26o SYNTAX
(i) To put a word in an unexpected position often makes it
prominent and emphatic :
Romanum imperium vestra fide, vestris viribus reten-
tum est. It is by yotir loyalty, by your might, that the
empire of Rojne herself lias been upheld: Livy xxiii. 5
(epithets placed before their nouns).
(2) A group of words is often divided by putting compara-
tively unimportant words in the middle of it. The effect of
this arrangement is to make the divided phrase, or one part
of it, emphatic :
Magnus ibi numerus pecoris repertus est. A great
number of sheep were found there : B. G. v. 21 {ibi
between magnus and numerus).
Omnis accusatoris oratio in duas divlsa est partes. The
zuhole speech of the prosectttor was divided into two paiis :
Cic. Cluent. i. i.
Aliud iter habebant nullum. Other road they had none :
B. G. i. 7.
(3) Words are sometimes thrown in, as it were by an after-
thought, at the end of a sentence. This may be called tag-
order. For instance, instead of ' I am always glad to see
you ' we may say in English ' I am glad to see you — always':
Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter.
When I was in Athens I used to attend the lectures of
Zeno — constantly : Cic. Nat. Deor. i. 59.
(4) The verb est, in the sense ' there is ', often stands at the
beginning of a sentence :
Erant in ea legione duo virl fortissiml. There were in that
legion two veiy brave men : B. G. v. 44.
It may also be put before a predicative adjective or noun :
Haec gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima : B. G. iv. i.
(5) Imperatives are often put at the beginning of the sen-
ORPKR OF WORDS 261
tence or clause, as in French and English, with adverbs anil
objects after them :
Egredere aliquando ex urbe , . . Fduc tecum etiam omnes
tuos . . . Purga urbem : Cic. Cat. i. 10.
(6) In a group of words consisthig of a noun + adjective +
adverb phrase, the adverb phrase stands between the adjective
and the noun, and the adjective often comes first :
magna inter Gallos auctoritas, greai injlncnce among the
Gaids (§ 395) ; suum rel publicae atque imperatorl otTi-
cium, his duty to the commonwealth and to the general
(§ 534)-
(7) The order of words in a sentence or clause is to a con-
siderable extent influenced by the sentence or clause which
precedes and by that which follows.
{a) The speaker or writer often begins with a word or
phrase which is closely connected in meaning with some-
thing which has been said in the preceding sentence or
clause : thus after a description of a battle, ending with
Hominum enim multithdine reccptus impcdiebalnr, Caesar goes
on as follows (B. C. iii. 64. 3) :
In e5 proelid cum gravl vulnerc esset adtectus aquilifer
et iam viribus deficeretur, conspicatus equites nostros
' Hanc ego' inquit ' et vivus multos per annos magna
dlligentia defendl et nunc moriens eadem fide Caesarl
rcstituo. Nollte, obsecro, committere, quod ante in
exercitu Caesaris non accidit, ut rel mllitaris dedecus
admittatur, incolumemque ad eum deferte. Hoc casu
aquila conservatur.
Here tn eb proelid and hoc casii have the effect of conjunc-
tions or co-ordinating relatives ; for they connect what follows
with what precedes.
(b) The speaker or writer often ends with a word which
prepares the way for something that is to be said in the fol-
lowing sentence or clause : thus in the first sentence of the
Gallic War Caesar writes Gallia fst oiiinis divJsa in partes
262 SYNTAX
ires (not /;/ ires partes dtiusa), because he is going to describe
these three parts in detail in the next sentence : ' The divisions
of Gaul are three — as follows.' And in § 5 of the same
chapter he writes inithun capit ajliiniinc Rhodanb, because he
is going to speak of other boundaries of this part of Gaul.
This principle will explain man}' instances in which an
adverb phrase or an object is placed after the verb. In many
examples the effect of the transposition is to bring a noun
into immediate contact with a relative pronoun, as in the first
instance above {in partes trcs immediately before qiiariiin),
and in the following :
Relinquo haec omnia; quae si velim persequi, etc.: Cic.
Verr. v. 21.
(8) The normal order is often changed in order to make
the sentence more rhythmical or in other ways more pleasing
to the ear. This is true of prose as well as verse, though in
verse (English as well as Latin) the normal order is often
changed more than would be permissible in prose. But it
must not be supposed that the words can stand in any order,
even in verse.
INDEX
The rrjcrfiices nrr (o tlif sections
abbreviations, App. XI.
abhitic 441, note
ablative 12: adverbial 429-448; ad
jectival 449; as object 450. 451 ;
with a preposition 452-454 ; ab-
lative absolute 494-497
ac ' than ' 533, obs.
accent 10
accusative 11; as object 379-388
(retained, in the passive construc-
tion 386) ; adverbial 389-393 ;
with a preposition 394, 395 ; with
infinitive 462-473 '^in reported
speech 536, 545, 547
adjectives 18-21. 31-33. 46-50 ;
numeral 80-95 ; comparison of
66-72 ; possessive 103 ; demon-
strative 104-109, 124. 515; inter-
rogative 110, 516; indefinite ui-
"8, 517, 519; relative 119 121.
124; reflexive 103, 51 1-514
adjective clauses 525 ; with subjunc-
tive 334, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343,
344. 346, 355. 360, 361 ; in re-
ported speech 364
adverbs, formation of 73-77 ; com-
parison of 78, 79 ; numeral 84 ;
demonstrative 124 ; relative 124,
525
adverb clauses 526-533 ; with sub-
junctive 335-346, 358 360, 364 ;
of time 339, 340, 358 a, 526 ; of
place 527 ; of cause 358 i, 528; of
purpose 338, 529 ; of result 360,
530; of condition 343, 349, 350,
531 ; of concession 343. 358 b,
532; of comparison 337, 533; in
reported speech 364, 540
agreement, of verb 270-273 ; of pre-
dicative adjective and predicative
noun 274-276; of verb adjectives
277 ; of epithets 279-281 ; of pro-
nouns 382-289
(lid 248
a/i'/iiis 1 12
alius 109
alUr 91
an 522
analysis of sentences 250-268, 520-
533
anicquain 340, 526
apposition 258, 281
audio, conjugated 149-151, 156-158
*06 App. XIII
calendar, App. XXXVIII
laitis App. IX
capio. conjugated 159-163
card App. XIII
cases, general meanings of 10-12;
nominative 368-377; vocative 378 ;
accusative 379-397 ; dative 398-
415 ; genitive 416-427 ; ablative
428-454
cf/er A pp. XVII
iJvitds App. XII
clause, subordinate 261, 523-533;
main 266. See adjective clauses,
adverb clauses, noun clauses
coepi 249
commands 313-316, 320-322 : de-
pendent 326-329, 523
comparative clauses 533 ; subordi-
nate to accus. with infin. 473
comparison of Latin with modern
languages 2
comparison of adjectives 66-72 ; ol
adverbs 78, 79
complex sentences 265-268
compound verbs, principal parts of,
App. XL I
conditional .sentences 531, 350 : in
subordination 355, 471
conditioned futurity, subjunctives of
347-356
264
INDEX
conjugations, the four 1)4-151, 156
158 ; mixed conjugation 159-163 ;
principal parts in all conjugations
170237
conjunctions, co-ordinating 521 ; sub-
ordinating 526-533
co-ordinating relatives 120. 521, 547
rorApp. XIII
corresponding words 122-124
ciiw-clauses 358, 359, 526
dative 11, 398; as object 399-405;
adverbial 407-415
dccef 375
demonstratives in Engl, and Lat.
515
dependent clauses 523 ; distinguished
from other subordinate clauses
511, note ; dep. questions distin-
guished from adjective and adverb
clauses 524
deponent verbs 164-169
desires 313 316, 320-323 ; subordi-
nate 325 lii 1-332, 338, 523 (c
deits 22, App. IV (A)
(/tves App. XVI
domus 54
donee 340, 526
double or multiple sentences 263 ;
members of a sentence 264, 521
dttbito {non d. qutn) 362 (6)
dinn 312, 340. 343, 526
duo 89. App. IV y_Cj
ccqnis 516
edo 247
English words not expressed by
separate words in Latin 4
eo 243, 244
epithets 256-258 ; agreement of 279-
281
-esimiis, -eitsimits App. XXI
etiam ' yes ' 520
cfsT 532
exclamations 388, 520 (4) ; depend-
ent 363, 523 {d)
fiiri ■Zi^^
faux App. XI
/axiin,fnxd Ajjp. XXXV
fero 241
fid 246
frdtcr App. VIII
gender of nouns 56-65; exceptions
to rules of gender, App. XXIII-
XXVII
genitive II ; adjectival 417-422; ad-
verbial 423 426; as object 427
gerund 135. 503 506
gerund-adjective 133, 500 502
gradior 166
Imbed, conjugation of 149-151, 156-
158
hand scto an 523 b
hie 104 ; and hic 124, 544
historic infinitive 480 ; sequence
of, 367. 4 ; historic present 293 ii ;
sequence of, 367. 3
idem 108
-iens App. XXI
ignis App. VII
illc 105
itnbcr App. XI
imperative mood 129. 313-316 : in
suppositions 317
impersonal verbs 370-376
impersonal passive construction
125. 2, 133, 137 note, 377. 406
indicative mood 126 128. 290; tenses
of 291 309
infinitive 131. ; as object 456-461 :
as subject and predicative noun
477-479; historic 480; in excla-
mations 481 ; original meaning of,
482-485 ; accusative with infini-
tive 462-473 ; tenses of infinitive
134,467-471 ; nominative with in-
finitive 474 476
inqitant 248
interest 373
ipse 102, 512
irregular verbs 238-249
ita restrictive 345 ; - ' yes ' 520
iter App. XIII
I uppitcr App. XIII
ifis iiiranduni App. XIII
invents App. IX
Itber'i 21, App. IV {b)
libct 374
licet 374
liquet 374
lis App. XI
locative case 13, 55
locus App. I
INDEX
265
mdlo 2^2
»»«/^rApi'. VI II
HUiuinl 249
tuinsis A pp. IX
mixed conjugation 159-163
money. App. XXXIX
ttioiior 166
m * not ' 520 \^l>), 315, 316, 320 322.
327 330, 332, 338 ; ucvf 321
-tie 520 art . 522, 523 ^b , 363
negative commands 315. 316, 520(A)
uf(jiia'i 2^5
nesciCi an 523 b
neuter 9 1
nix App. XI
)wlO 242
nominative 11, 368. 369; with in-
finitive 474-476
iiotnte 520 ^aa)
nouns 14 ; ist dec). 15 ; 2nd decl.
16, 17, ai, 22; 3rd decl. 23 30,
34-45 ; 4th decl. 51. 52 : 5th decl.
53' 54 ; gender of 56 65 ; App.
XXIII-XXVII
noun clauses 261, 523; with sub-
junctive 325 333
iiiillus 86.
)ium 520 2 rt\ 523 {b\ 355, 363
numeral adjectives 80-95
numeral adverbs 84, 85
iiiintntus App. IV («
tniiic 544
object 253 ; direct 380-388 (^cognate
382) ; indirect 399-402 ; other
dative objects 403-405 ; genitive
objects 427 ; ablative objects 450,
451
odt 349
'one . . . another' 109, 514
oportet 375, 353 ^
oplim Cites App. XI
(jrder of clauses 556-559
Order of words 3, 551-560
orior 167
OS App. XIII ; OS 37
parens App. X
participles 132, 486-499 ; of depo-
nents 164
passive voice 125 ; formation of 152 ;
uses of 386, 387, 402 ; impersonal
377, 406
/•ater App. VI II
patiiir 166
pauper App. X\'I
pcniilcs App. XI
Perfect Active, formation of 171;
compounds, App. XLI
Perfect Participle Passive, formation
of 17a
phrases 260
possum 240. 353. 456 {b^
postquain 526 ; with Perfect tense
311
postulative use of moods 31 7, 342-346
predicate 250-255
predicative adjective, noun, and pro-
noun 254, 255 ; agreement of 274
278, 457, 464
prepositions 4, 394, 395 ; with accus.
396 ; with accus. or abl. 397 ; with
abi. 452, 453
priuceps App. XVI
principal parts of verbs, classified
list 170-237 : alphabetical list,
App. XLI, XLII
priusquani 340, 526
pronouns : personal 96-101 ; demon-
strative 104-109, 124, 278, 515 ;
agreement of 282-285 ; interroga-
tive no, 278, 516; indefinite
111-118, 517; relative 119-121.
124, 378, 290, 518, 519; agree-
ment of 286-289 ; reflexive 100,
loi, 510-514 ; in reported speech
543
pronunciation of Latin 5-7
prospective subjunctive 339-34 i
prosuui 239
puppis App. V (rt)
qiuili's 46, 124
qttarii 533 (ii) ; quant ut 337 ; quasi
337 i 'yM«"'-clauses subordinate to
accus. with infin. 473
quantity of syllables 8, 9
quail tus 21, 124
qtieo 245
questions 520 ; double 521 ; with
subjunctive 319; dependentsas '^^i),
363- 523. 524
qui, quae, quod 119: co-ordinating
120, 521, 547
quicunique =,18. 519
quidant 1 13
quUibet 114
>66
INDEX
"^" 331, 336, 356
note, 362 (/>'
<] Ill's no
qttisiiain 516
qinspiant i r8
quisqnaiii 115. 517
qitisquc 1 17 517
qiiisqiiis 518
^/»;'j-A- T14, 517
quoad 340, 526
quoiuiuiis 330 (lbs
360 obs., 362
338
'-^yj>-/ 373
reflexive pronouns 98, 100, 510-513
;t^o, conjugation of 149- 15 t, 156 158
reported speech 534-550
seat r is A pp. V {a)
senex App. XIII
sentence adverbs 521. 554 obs.
sentences : simple 262. double 263.
multiple 263, complex 265-268;
classification of 520
sequence of tenses 365 367. 548
seste)iins App. IV (a)
sMs App. V (rt), VI
solus 86
statements 520 (i , ; dependent
523 (rt), 467-473 ; use of reflex-
ives in 511
subject 250, 251 ; of infinitive 462
subjunctive mood 130, 131 ; denoting
wliat is to be done 319-346 (of
purpose 338, prospeciive 339-341.
postulative 342 346 ; denoting
conditioned futurity 347-356 ; with
weakened meaning 357 304 with
cum 358, with ut, qui or quln
360 362, in dependent questions
and exclamations 363, expressing
the thought of another 364) ; in
reported speech 537 542. 548
subordinate clauses 261, 523 533 ;
tenses in, 310-312; conjunctions
introducing, 526 533
sittu, conjugation of I-|T, 142 ; com-
pounds of 239, 240
sunt qui 367
supines 136-138. 507 509
sus App. XIII
talent inn App. IV {d\
talis 46, 124
t ant us 21, 124
tenses of the indicative : Present
127, 292, 293 ; Past Imperfect
127, 294-296; Future 127, 297-
209; Perfect 128, 300-303; Past
Perfect 128. 304 ; Future Perfect
128, 305 309
Tiberis App. V (a)
iotus 86
iribus App. XIX
idlus 86, X16
-undiis, 167 App. XXII
units 86
lit 'that' 326, 336, 338, 360 362 ;
'how' 363 (/>;, 520 (2 b and 4~> :
' when '311, 526
liter gi
iitinaiH 321. 323
utriiin 522
\'erbs, conjugated 125-249 (deponent
164, semi-deponent 236, 237) ; as
part of the predicate 252 ; imper-
sonal 370 376
verbs taking a dative object 399-
406 ; genitive object 427 ; ablative
object 450. 451 ; infinitive as
object 456, 457 ; infin. as one of
two objects 459-461
verb-adjectives 132, 455 ; participles
in ns (stem «/-), declined App.
XV; syntax of participles 486-
499
verb-nouns 134-138, 455 ; infinitive
456-485; gerund 503506; su-
pines 507-509
vetus App. XVI
vidcor 476
vir 17, App, IV (6)
wsApp. V(rt\ VI, XI, XIII
vocative 11, 378
voco, conjugation of 139, 140, I-19-
151, 154-158
void 242
vulgus App. I!
wishes 313, 320, 323
OXFORD : HORACE HART, M.A.
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
tK! ?n^)!^^^^9^ de'partmInt
lyj^^^ Z{JZ Ma in Library
LUAN PERIOD 1 ■ ~
HOME USE
ALL BOOKS AAAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS
i-mon h oans may be renewed by collmg 642-3405
DUE AS STAMPED BELOW
^ORM NO. 006, .0., >2Ti^"^K^?™-,--E-
U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES
CDM7DM3flbT
272891
UNIVERSITY OF CAI^IFORNIA UlBRARY
I