I .] -m A NEW LATIN GRAMMAR BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAL TERMINOLOGY BY E. A. SONNENSCHEIN. D.Litt. PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON GRAMMATICAI, TERMINOLOGY. OXFORD AT THl-: CLARENDON PRESS 1912 / HENRY FROWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK TORONTO AND MELBOURNE h ] PREFACE This volume and the companion volume of my French grammar are based upon the work of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology whose final Report was issued last year ; ' and they are designed to make the Committee's scheme of grammar teaching available for use in schools. It is a matter of great satisfaction to observe the rapid progress of the movement to which the Committee devoted so much labour; since the publication of our Report the recommenda- tions contained in it have been adopted either in their entirety or with seme modifications by the writers of at least four English grammars, and it seems to be generally recognized that the terminology and classifications recommended by the Committee constitute a real advance in the direction ot simplicity and uniformity in the teaching of grammar. So far no Latin or French grammar has appeared on these lines ; but the Committee's work is expressly designed to include in its scope the grammar of other languages besides English, and so to secure that the grammatical doctrine taught to pupils shall be all of a piece. It is as a contribution to this movement that I have undertaken the task of writing the present books. It has involved no little labour ; for the ' On the Teimi)iologv of Giaiiniiar, being the Report of the Joint Com- mittee on Grammatical Terminology ; revised 191 1 (John Murray, Albemarle Street, W.). The Committee contained representatives of the Classical Association, the Modern Language Association, the English Association, the Incorporated Association of Head Masters, the Head Mistresses' Asso- ciation, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools, the Incorporated Association of Assistant Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools, the Association of Preparatory Schools, and two co- opted members. r) k»j ') U Q I 4 ........ . .PREFACE objects of the Committee cannot be attained by a mere mechanical substitution of one term for another. The whole scheme of grammar teaching had to be thought out from a new point of view. Grammatical ideas are far more than mere labels ; they are abstracts and brief chronicles of theories and doctrines; so that the choice of a term means the choice of one grammatical conception in preference to another. This being so, the importance of a uniform system of grammatical terminology in schools becomes obvious ; to teach pupils half a dozen different names for the same thing is to demand of them that they shall carry in their heads half a dozen different ways of regarding the point in question, or to tempt them to carry nothing in their heads, but rather to reject all gram- matical terms as mere sound and fury, signifying nothing. The principle that where the same grammatical feature presents itself in different languages of the same family it should be described by the same name will be generally conceded. But it is also true that where these languages differ in their usage, their differences should be stated in terms which will be in- telligible to the pupil ; and this cannot be secured except on the basis of a common system of terminology. To start the study of a new language with a new stock of grammatical ideas is a fundamental mistake. This Latin grammar, however, contains many things for which the Joint Committee is in no sense responsible. In the first place, the outline drawn by the Committee had to be filled in by the adoption of some terms not expressly countenanced therein ; and secondl}', I have introduced into my book several features which stand in no relation to the work of the Com- mittee, but which have presented themselves to me in the course of a long experience of teaching Latin as desirable innovations. (i) It is generally recognized that the rigid separation of syntax from accidence involves many disadvantages ; on the other hand it would not be desirable to present a complete syntax to pupils in the first stage of learning. I have steered ! PREFACK 5 a middle course by giving a simple account of some of the prominent uses of forms as introductory matter to the study of the forms themselves ; ' and I have called this part of the book 'Forms and their chief meanings'. I have intention- ally made the accidence brief and simple, on the principle approved by the Curricula Committee of the Classical Associa- tion." Odiiic sitpcn'acuiini plcuo dc pcctorc iiianat. The details of accidence are relegated to an Appendix as matter of far less importance and interest to the beginner than the fundamental features of sentence construction.^ (2) I have throughout called attention to the similarities of Latin to English, and to French ; for I assume that nearly all pupils learning Latin have already begun or are beginning the study of French. It seems to have been too much forgotten by writers of Latin grammars that French sometimes throws light on Latin/ and that the English derivatives formed from Latin words may be turned to account in the learning of Latin forms. This I have tried to do wherever possible." (3) In dealing with the principal parts of verbs I have intro- duced what I believe to be a substantial improvement. For the first time, so far as I know, the forms of the Perfect Active have been reduced to rule by means of a classification accord- ing to the final sound of the stem from which they are formed. 1 e.g. §§ 11-13 on the meanings of the cases, and §§ 125-38 on the meanings of the voices, moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and verb-nouns ; the chief uses of the pronouns are given in §§ 101-24. 2 Reconiiiiendatioiis of the Classical Association on the Teaching of Latin and Greek (London, John Murray, 1912;, pp. 29 f. 5^ It is hardly necessary to say that great care has been paid to correctness of statement in regard to the details of accidence included. Some of the authorities used in this part of the book are referred to in theAppendix. * That French may be turned to account in the study of Latin is shown throughout my Syntax. But I would also call attention to the fact that the scanning of Latin verse would be greatly facilitated by the learning of a simple rule of syllabic division in French ; see French Grammar, § 11, and compare Latin Grammar, § 9. '' e.g. in the examples for declension in §§ 34-9 and .\ppcndix § xiii, and in the formation of the Perfect Participle Passive, §§ 172-237. I 6 PREFACE It seemed worth while to try how far such a catalogue raisoniic, exhibiting the formations of the Perfect Active in all the four conjugations at a single view, might prove to be in practice the simplest method of dealing with these apparently anomalous forms, which have always been the crux of pupils learning Latin. When one realizes that the learning by heart of a list of principal parts as so many isolated forms involves the memorizing of, on a moderate estimate, 750-1000 facts, one is not surprised that the forms are not actually remembered without long practice. Incidentally the pupil will learn some historical philology ; but the purpose of m}' classification is not to explain how the facts came to be what they are, but simply to lead to a practical mastery of the forms ; and it is in this light that it must be judged. — The Supine is no integral part of the system of any Latin verb, except in so far as it is emplo3'ed in the periphrastic Future Infinitive Passive ; it has, therefore, no proper title to the position which it has so long usurped. By substituting for it the Perfect Participle Passive we not only get rid of a multitude of bogus Supines which have been manufactured by grammarians in order to supply a fourth 'principal part ', but we also teach the pupil a form which is of incomparably greater value both in itself and as an element in the formation of the compound tenses of the passive voice. (4) The Subjunctive mood is treated on the lines indicated by my previous work on the subject/ I have here attempted to present the results of that investigation in a form intelligible to the beginner, and I am encouraged to think that m}' expo- sition of the mood will be found useful in practice. Here, as in several other parts of my book, I have aimed at lucidity rather than brevity. But I have not included, here or else- where, any usages which go beyond what a pupil comes across in his everyday reading of authors like Caesar and Virgil. ' The Unity oj the Latin Suhjundivc : A Quest i^Jolin Murray, Albemarle Street, W., 1910). PRKFACK 7 (5) Most of my examples in syntax arc designedly taken from Caesar, and where possible from the books of the Gallic War most commonly read in schools. Caesar is an admirable exponent of Latin prose usage, and an interesting author if he is studied properly. But, apart from this, the advantage of teaching syntax by way of examples which may have been already met with in the course of reading is very great ; and I have rarely gone for my examples beyond the range of books commonly read in schools. (6) In the treatment of the ablative case I have adopted a principle which is new in Latin grammar, though it is impli- citly recognized by all grammarians, viz. that the meanings of the ablative depend to a great extent on the meaning of the noun used and on that of the verb or adjective or adverb with which it is used (§ 12, §428). An ablative like hom stands on an altogether different footing from ablatives like Roma and sagiita ; and I believe this fact ought to be recognized in the earliest stages of teaching, as an aid to undet"standing. I have carried out the principle in §§ 429-51 of the syntax. (7) In regard to the pronunciation of Latin, I have adopted the scheme of the Classical Association,^ which has been officially recognized by the Board of Education and is rapidly coming into general use. In the matter of the marking of the quantities of vowels I have carried out the principle recom- mended by the Classical Association,'^ and recently endorsed by a resolution of the Classical Association of Scotland. In matters of phonology and S3'llable division I have been guided by Niedermann's Outlines of Latin Phonetics.^ I am indebted to several friends for help and counsel. With my colleague, Mr. C. D. Chambers, I have discussed almost every point dealt with in this grammar, and he has ' The Pro)iunciation of Latin (John Murray, Albemarle Street, W., 1906}. 2 On the Teaching of Latin and Greek, p. 2 : ' That in texts of Latin autliors intended for the use of beginners the quantities of long vowels be marked, except in syllables where they would be also " long by position ■'.' ^ Translated by Strong and Stewart (George Routledgc and Sons, 1910. 8 PREFACE given me much assistance in preparing parts of the MS. for press. Dr. H. Blase, of Mainz, has been so good as to read my MS. of the syntax on the Subjunctive and the Cases. He and Prof W. R. Hardie, of Edinburgh, and Prof. R. M. Henry, of Behast, who have read the whole of my proof, have ren- dered me the inestimable service of sympathetic criticism, and at man}' points my book has profited by suggestions they have made. Mr. W. E. P. Pantin, Secretary of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology, has read part of my proof, and to him too I owe several useful hints. My former pupil, Dr. Henry Thomas, of the British Museum, has done me the kindness of reading the MS. of my Subjunctive and suggesting various modifications of detail. My best thanks are also due to the officials of the Clarendon Press for the help they have given me in the production of the book. E. A. S. BL. CONTENTS PART I ACCIDENCE FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS SECTIONS I-IO 11-13 14-54 55 56-65 66-72 73-77 78.79 80-95 96-101 102 103 104-109 no 111-118 119-121 122-124 125-138 '39-140 141,142 'I3-148 149-151 152, 153 154. 155 156-158 159-^63 164-169 170-237 238 249 Introduction General meanings of the cases Declension of nouns and adjectives The Locative Case .... Gender of nouns .... Comparison of adjectives Formation of adverbs from adjectives Comparison of adverbs Numeral adjectives .... Personal pronouns .... The emphasizing adjective r/>sc Possessive adjectives Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns Interrogative pronoun and adjective Indefinite pronouns and adjectives . Relative pronoun and adjective Table of corresponding words Meanings of voices, moods, tenses, verb-adject and verb-nouns .... Conjugation of voco, with meanings Conjugation of simi, with meanings Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives, and verb-nouns in the four conjugations The four conjugations, active voice Formation of the passive voice Conjugation of vocor, with meanings The four conjugations, passive voice Tlie mixed conjugation Deponent verbs .... Principal parts of verbs . Irrcsrular verbs PAGE 11 18 19 32 32 35 37 38 39 44 46 47 47 49 50 52 53 55 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 75 77 80 95 CONTENTS Appendix to Part I i-xxii Peculiarities of declension .... 104 xxiii-xxvii Exceptions to rules of gender . . . . 107 xxviii-xxxvii Notes on verbs 109 xxxviii-xl The Calendar, Roman money, Abbreviations iii xli, xlii Alphabetical list of Principal Parts . . 114 PART II-SYNTAX 250-268 I. The sentence and its parts 269-290 II Agreement of the parts of the sentence with one another 291-367 III. iVIoods and tenses ... 292-312 Tenses of the indicative mood 313-317 The imperative mood 318-364 The subjunctive mood . 365 367 Sequence of tenses 368-454 IV. Cases and prepositions .... 368-377 The nominative case and impersonal \( :rbs . 378 The vocative case .... 379-397 The accusative case 380 393 (a) without a preposition 394-397 (b) with a preposition 398-415 The dative case .... 416-427 The genitive case .... 428-454 The ablative case ..... 429^451 (a) without a preposition 452-454 (/;) with a preposition 455-509 V. Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives . 456 485 The infinitive 486-499 The participles .... 500-502 The gerund adjective .... 503-506 The gerund 507-509 The supines 510 519 VI. Pronouns and indicating adjectives 520-533 VII Classification of sentences and clauses 534-550 VIII Reported speech .... 55^-560 IX. Order of words .... INDEX 123 128 137 137 146 147 175 178 178 i8i 181 181 185 188 195 200 200 208 211 212 225 230 232 234 236 240 248 256 263 PART I. ACCIDENCE INTRODUCTION 1 Laiin is a member of the great Indo-European famih- of languages, to which English also belongs. Hence many Latin constructions and some Latin forms are similar to English constructions and forms. French is an altered form of Latin. Hence French, too, stands in a close relation to English. Moreover, after the Norman Conquest many French words were taken over into English, and the forms and constructions of Norman French had an influence in moulding the structure of the English language. In this way English was brought into a still closer relation to French and Latin. And since that date the vocabulary of English has been enriched by the introduction of a large number of Latin and French words. We shall see that Latin, French, and English have much in common— a fact which is due partly to their common ancestry, partly to the influence which French and Latin have had on English. 2 Comparison of Latin with modern languages. When we compare an ordinary Latin sentence with its English or French translation, we notice two important differences, apart from the differences in the words used. Populus Romanus nationes barbaras Britanniac Th" nation Roman the tribes barbarous of Britain expedltionibus Caesaris non debellaverat : by lite expeditions of Caesar not had subdued : i. e. The Ro\nan )iation had not subdued the barbarous tribes of Britain by {by means of) the expeditions of Caesar. Haec hodie facere non possum : These things today do not I can : i. e. / cannot do these things to-day. Note that (i) the order of the words is quite different ; (ii) some of the English words have no Latin words to correspond to them : ' the ', 'of, ' by ', ' had ', ' things ', '1'. 12 INTRODUCTION (ij Order of Words. The normal Latin order differs from the normal EngHsh order in two important respects/ Rule i. Most adjectives, when not specially emphatic, come immediately after the noun to which they belong in sense, as in French : e. g. Rbmdnus after popitlns, barbards after ndtioiies ; cf. French le pcuple roinain, Ics peuplcs bar- bares. Rule 2. Adverbs and objects usually come before (most adverbs iminediatdy before) the words to which they belong in sense : e. g. non (adverb) and ndtibnes barbards Britanniae (object) both before debclldverat ) haec (object) and hodie (adverb) both before /aa'r^ ; facerc (object) before possum; non (adverb) before possum. These rules apply also, for the most part, to words and groups of words which are equivalent to adjectives and ad- verbs ; for example, they apply to cases of nouns used adjectivally or adverbially ; thus we have Caesaris ' of Caesar ' (adjectival^ 'Caesarian ') after cxpedttionibus, and expedltionibus (adverbial) before debelldverat The second rule causes the chief difficulty to the English reader of Latin. For in any group of Latin words containing an adverb or an object, the most important word, that on which the sense depends, comes at the end of the group, and not at the beginning, as generally in English. But in English, too, the Latin order is sometimes found, especially in poetry : How happy is the blameless vestal's lot The zvorld forgetting, by the ivorld forgot. (Pope.) The reader of Latin must therefore learn to break up Latin sentences into groups of ivords that go together : Populus Romanus | nationes barbaras Britanniae | expedl- tionibus Caesaris | non dcbellaverat. The art of reading Latin depends on forming the habit of breaking up sentences ' By tli(j ' normal order ' is meant the usual urder in i)rusc ; the order in verse is much freer. INTRODUCTION 13 ill this way, and of expecting the words to come in the order demanded by the rules. 4 (ill English words not expressed by separate words in Latin. Note tlie following points: ia) Latin has no articles, definite or indefinite : thus ex- pafltio might mean either 'an expedition ' or 'the expedition '. [b) The subject of a Latin finite verb is often only indicated by the inflexion of the verb : e. g. possiiiii, ' I can ', possiaiius, 'we can.' But Latin also has pronouns, which may be used in the nominative case for the sake of emphasis or contrast : e. g. ego possum, fu non potes, ' / can, you cannot ' (French tnoi, je pciix; foi, in nc pcux pas). (r) The compound tenses of the active voice of English verbs are expressed by simple tenses of Latin : dlbeUdvcrat, 'had subdued', dcheUabat, 'was subduing', debclldbH, 'will subdue.' {d) The meaning of some prepositions maybe expressed in Latin by the inflexion of a noun or pronoun. Thus in § 2 ' of and ' by ' are expressed by the inflected forms called the gcni/ii'c case and the ablative case (' by the expeditions 0/ Caesar ', expeditionibus Caesaris). Other English prepositions whose meaning may be expressed in certain phrases by a Latin case without a preposition are ' to ', ' for ', ' from ', ' with ', ' at ', ' on ', ' in ' ; see §§ 1 1, 12. But Latin also has prepositions, which are sometimes necessary to express the sense, especially in prose ; for example, ' an expedition has been prepared by Caesar 'would be in Latin ' expedltio a Caesare parata est ' ; even 'of may in certain phrases be expressed by a preposition, e. g. ' one of many ', ' unus dc inultts ' (compare French de). And the meaning of the prepositions 'before', 'after', 'across', ' without ', and many others is always expressed by a pre- position in Latin {ante, post, trans, sine, &c.). 14 INTRODUCTION Pronunciation of Latin. 5 The Latin vowels had much the same sounds as they have in French, Italian, and German. The chief difference between Latin and French is that the Latin u was pronounced like 00 in English, not like the French ii in /une. In the following English words the vowels have nearly the same sounds as the Latin a, e, i, o, it : aha, d^m^sne, hitrlgiie, sorrow, c/vckoo. a like French a in pate or English a m father : e. g. mater. a (the same sound shortened) like French a in pa$ or the first a in English aha : e. g. pater. e like French e in e'te, but lengthened ; or English a in fate without the faint /-sound at the end : e. g. me. The Lat. e was what is called a 'close e\ e like English e in fret or French (' in nette : e. g. tenet. The Latin e was what is called an 'open e\ i like / in English machine, French rire or i/e : e. g. imus. i like / in English /;/, pit : e. g. regit. 5 like French o in tno/e or French eaii in beau ; or English in home without the faint /^sound at the end : e. g. Roma. 6 like in English hot or French Jiiol: e. g. hominem. u like English oo in too or French oii in goiife : e. g. tu. u (the same sound shortened) like English oo in took or French on in gonite: e. g. conjLul. y (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words) like French // in Inne : sometimes long, e. g. Lydia ; sometimes short, e. g. tyrannu?. 6 Diphthongs (double vowel sounds) are produced by running two different vowel sounds together so as to make a single long syllable. The Latin diphthongs were pronounced somewhat as follows : ae like English (?/ in aisle: e.g. taedae. au like English on in lotui ; e.g. laudo. J INTRODUCTION 15 ei like Knglish rv in gtrv : e.g. eia (Interjection). eu like English ezv in new : e. g. seu, heu. oe like English 0/ in boil: e.g. poena. ui like French o///{'yes'): e.g. huic. The word cni (dat. sing. q{ qnis and (/nJ) was sometimes pronounced as two short syllables, cui, like the two vowels of the English ntiii. 7 The consonants were pronounced by the Romans much as they are pronounced in English, except the following : c, always like English r in can (= k): e. g. cano, cecini ; condicio, scit. g, always like English _i,' in good: e.g. reg5, regis, regam, reges, regunt; regid. s, always like English 5 in sea/, gas : e. g. sus, rosa. z (a Greek letter, used only in foreign words), probably like English (h in a(ke : e. g. Zephyrus, gaza. t, always like English / in /<-;/ : tenet, natio, fortia. i consonant (sometimes written y), like English y in yoke: e.g. iugum, iacere, cuius, huius, eius. u consonant (generally written z>), like English ti' in zlui//, loiue: e.g. vallum, vinum. qu and ngu before a vowel were pronounced as in the English queen, anguish (not like the French qu in qui, que) : e. g. qui, anguis. Similarly, su was pronounced like English 5a' in sweet m the three words suavis, suadeo, suesco, and their derivatives. Doubled consonants (./, ///;;/, //;/, rr, ti, iSrc.) were both pro- nounced : e. g. col-lis, Cot-ta. Quantity of Syllables. 8 By the quantity of a syllable is meant the amount of tim^ which is taken to pronounce it. A long syllable is considered to be equal in duration to two short syllables. A syllable is long in two cases : (i) when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : e, g. me, matres, regJ, taeciae, laudo ; (ii) when it contains a short vowel followed by two or i6 INTRODUCTION more consonants other than a mute (c, g; t, d ; p, b) or/ and a liquid (r, /) : (k,i\i, troh?, ccnduni, aimant. The double consonants x [= cs) and z (= dz, § 7) count as two consonants ; thus dux and the first syllable o{ gaza are long. The letter h and the u in qti. do not count as consonants. Thus the first syllable of ad/ific, loquor, ncqiie, &c., is short. A syllable is short when its vowel-sound is short and is followed either by no consonant or by only one consonant : ego, -que, dat, dabai, rapere. Syllables in which a short vowel- sound is followed by a mute or/ and a liquid are properly short, except when the mute and the liquid belong to different parts of a compound word, as in abripcre, neglegerc. ) In order to understand the reason for these rules it is necessary to consider the division of Latin words into syllables, as pronounced. The rules for S3'llable division are (as in French) : ^ (i) A single consonant is pronounced with the following vowel : md-ter, ca-dit, bo-niis, iid-incn. (ii) Two or more consonants are divided between two syllables, except when the first consonant is a mute or/and the second one of the liquids r or /. In this case the two con- sonants are easily combined, and are therefore pronounced together at the beginning of a syllable (except in compounds) : la-crhna, a-gruni, pa-treiu, va-fra, lo-cu-ples, A-tlds, &c. From these rules of syllable division the quantit}' ot syllables is at once intelligible. A syllable is long when it ends (i) with a long vowel or diphthong, (ii) with two or more consonants [trabs, Jiieius, dant) or a double consonant {dux), (iii) with a single consonant followed by a syllable which begins with a consonant [ar-iua, ad-suui, con-dit, vac-ca, bel-lus, ab-ripere, con-traho). In this case the first consonant is separated from the second by a slight pause. All other syllables are short : viz. (i) those ending with a short vowel {e-go, be-ne, ma-le,pi-a, a-grl, padre, &c.); (ii) those ■* See French Gram. § ii.^The rule ot'the Roman grammarians wliicli led to divisions like iiHi-giiiis, nc-ftds, ili-ciiis has been shown to be mistaken. fj^ 1*VA /^^^ V- ..r>^ pa, t^a, INTRODUCTION i? containing a short vowel followed by a single consonant {liat) and not followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant. In connected discourse (prose or verse) the words arc run on together, so that the first syllable of the next word counts as the next syllable, within the limits of the sentence or clause or, in verse, generally of the line. In this grammar long vowels are marked (a, e, i, 5, u), except where they are followed by two or more con- sonants such as themselves make the syllable long, apart from the length of the vowel.' Short vowels have no mark over them, except for some special reason (as in § 5). Diphthongs, being necessarily long, are also not marked, o Accent. All Latin words of more than one syllable had an accent (stress), which did not necessarily fall on a long syllable. In words of three or more syllables, if the last syllable but one was long it was also accented ; if short, the accent fell on the last syllable but two : thus yocabo, hoiie'sftts ; but vocdverit, hone'stior, hdniinis, hojniinbus. In words of two syllables the first was accented, whether it was long or short : thus iiiafcr, pater, v6cd, Mfisas. The words -que, 'and ', -ve, ' or', -ne (used in asking questions) and -CHDi ' with ' counted as part of the word to which they were attached in speaking and writing; and the accents fell in accordajice with the above rules : thus Musasque, pate'rve, voconc ? ; but Miisaqiw, rdsdvc, ntilunc ?. In words that had lost a syllable the accent might fall on the last syllable remaining: e.g. taiiton (for iaiitoiie), istihic (for isliin-ce). But apart from such cases no Latin words of two or more syllables were accented on the last syllable. Contrast French. 1 When a word, whose vowel is marked long on the above principle, enters into composition with another word, the mark of length is retained ; e. g. iioiiite, mosque, undeciitt, vciido. \ FORMS AND THEIR CHIEF MEANINGS General meanings of the Cases. It Most Latin nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have inflected forms called ' cases ', which differ from one another in meaning, though not always in form. Note that (i) all neuter nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have the same form in the nominative, vocative, and accusative cases, both in the singular and in the plural number ; (ii) all nouns have the same form in the dative as in the ablative plural; (iii) the vocative does not differ from the nominative in form, except in the singular number of nouns and adjectives of the 2nd declension in us (§§ 16, 18, 22). The general meanings of the nominative, vocative, accusa- tive, genitive, and dative cases are the same as in English : Nominative. Patria mihi est Britannia. My country is (lit. To me the country is) Britain. Vocative. Te, patria, amo. I love thee, my country. Accusative. Patriam amo. / love my country. Genitive. Litora patriae relinquo. / am leavitig my country's sJiorcs (or the sho>es of my country). Vincet amor patriae, llie love of country ivill prevail. Dative. Patriae libertatem dedit. He gave his coun- try freedom, or He gave freedom to his country. Non tibi ipsl sed patriae natus es. / You arc born not for yourself but for your country. FORMS AND rillClR CllIKF iM KANINGS 19 12 riic Ablauve is a case peculiar to Latin. Its meaning depends partly on the meaning of the noun used and of the verb with which it is used. Thus with a verb denoting 'to expel ' the abl. may express the idea of ' from ' : patria ex- pulsus est, ' he has been expelled from his country '. The abl. of a noun denoting an instrument may express the idea of 'with', or 'by means of: aquilam sagitta necavit, 'he killed an eagle with (or by means of) an arrow '. The abl. of a noun denoting a period of time may express the idea of ' at ', ' on ', ' in ' : prima h5ra diel, ' at the first hour of the day ' ; hoc die, ' on this day ' ; h5c anno, ' in this year.' Note that the abl. of a noun denoting a material object could not express the idea of * on ' or ' in ' in prose : for instance f)rtiud nicnsd could not mean 'on the first table', nor could hoc horto mean ' in this garden '. In these and similar instances the abl. would take a preposition in prose : /;/ prirnd nicnsd, in hoc horto. Similarly, ex patria (or a patria) venit, ' he comes from his native land ' ; cum patre vtvit, ' he lives with his father ' ; a patre aiiidtur, ' he is loved by his father.' 13 Names of towns and a few other nouns (including names of small islands which had only one town of importance in them, after which they were called) have also a Locative case denoting 'at', 'in', or 'on'; see § 55. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 14 Latin nouns are arranged in five declensions, according to the endings of the genitive singular and the genitive plural : Ending of Gen. Sing. Ending of Gen. Pliir. 1st Declension ae arum 2nd ,, i orum 3rd „ is um 4th ,, us uum 5th ,, ei erum Latin adjectives have forms similar to (though not exactly the same as) those of nouns. 13 2 20 ACCIDENCE 15 Nouns of the First Declension. insula, f., island. Singular Plural N., V. insula insulae Ace. insulam insulas Gen. insulae insularum Dal. Abl insulae insula I insulls 16 ExAMPLlib FOR DECLENSION — Fern.: fuga., /Itghl ; hora, hour; iniuria, injury; via, road ; victoria, victory ; Iiilia, Julia. Masc. : agricola, husbandman; nauta, sailor; perfUiga, deserter; Catilina, Catiline. Nouns of the Second Declension. dominus, m., owner bellum, n., war Sing. Plur. 1 Sing. Plur. Nom. dominus domini 1 Voc. domine •bellum bella Ace. dominum dominos Gen. domini dominorum belli bellorum Dat. Abl. 1 domino dominis bello jbellls 17 Examples for declension are given in § 21. For nouns in ins, ium see § 22. magister, m., teacher puer, m., boy Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. N., V. magister magistrl puer puerl Ace. magistrum magistros puerum pueros Gen. Dal. Abl magistrl magistrorum puen puerorum magistro [ magistris puero ) f puens Examples for declension are given in § 21. DKCLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 21 Vir, 111., man (as distinct iVom -woniaii) is declined as follows : Si'/ig. viruni, virl, viro ; P/ur. virl, viros, virorum, viris. Adjectives like nouns of the and and the ist declension. 18 I. cams, cara, carum, (/rar (like (/oniinifs, insula, hrllton, p. 20) Singii/at - Plural 1 niasc. /rni. neiit. inasc. fcin. neut. V. carus care cara cara carum carum [carl carae cara Ac. carum caram carum caros caras cara G. carl carae carl carorum cararum carorum D. Ab. caro caro carae cara caro caro xarls carls carls 1 19 2. creber, crebra, crebrum, frequent (like magistcr in the / masc) A'. V. Ac. G. D. Ah. Sifigiilar inasc. fevt. neut. creber crebra crebrum crebrum crebram crebrum crebrl crebrae crcbri crebro crebrae crebro crebro crebra crebro Plural viasc. fern. neut, [ crebrl crebrae crebra crebros crebras crebra crebrorum crcbrfuum crebrorum \ crebrls crebrls crebrls 20 3. liber, libera, llberum, free (like piier in the masc. Here (/ the e of the nom. sing, is retained throughout) Singular Plural 1 masc. fern. 7teul. masc. fein. 7teut. N. V. \ liber llberum libera llberum [ liberl Ilberos liberae libera Ac. ITberam llberum Ilberfis libera G. liberl liberae liberl llberorum llberarum llberorum D. Ah. llbero ITbero ITberae ITbeio libera llbero [ ilbcrls llbcrls llberis Examples for declension (like i, 2, 3) are given in § 21. 22 ACCIDENCE Examples for Declension (Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 20,21). 21 Likedominus: Maso. amicus, /nW/^; annus, vmr; nume- rus, number.— F EM. Iagu5, Ijcech ; ulmus, elm (names of trees). Like bellum : Neut. perlculum, danger, peril; proelium, battle; signum, standard; consilium, /»/««, counsel. Like carus, a, um: bonus, a, um, good; antlquus, a, um, ancient; vacuus, a, um, empty; idoneus, a, um, fitted ; tertius, a, um, third; datus, a, um, given; tuus, a, um, your; tantus, a, um, 50 great; quantus, a, um, hoiv great? ; and all super- latives in -issimus, a, um. Like magister (magistr-) and creber, crebr-a, crebr-um are declined most nouns and adjectives of the 2nd decl. in er : e.g. arbiter, m., witness; faber, m., carpenter or smith; minister, m., servant; ager, m., field; liber, m., book; aeger, aegr-a, -vim,sick; integer, integr-a, -um, ivhole, entire ; pulcher, pulchr-a, -um, fine ; sacer, sacr-a, -um, sacred ; noster, nostr-a, -um, our. Like puer and liber, a, um are declined only a iew nouns and adjectives : chiefly (i) llberl (no sing.), m., children, lit. ' free-born ones ' ; (2) asper, a, um, rough ; lacer, a, um, torn ; miser, a, um, unhappy; tener, a, um, tender; (3) compounds of I -fer and -ger, like aquilifer, m., standard-bearer; armiger, m., / aniiour-bearer ; frugifer, a, i\m, fruit-bearing. Nouns in ius, ium. 22 I. Nouns (but not adjectives) in ius or ium properly form the gen. sing, in i in prose (in verse often in -ii) : e. g. filius, m., son, fill ; negotium, n., business, negoti ; except proper names, e. g. Clodius, gen. Clodil. 2. Proper names in ius and the noun filius form the voc. sing, in t: e.g. Vergilius, Vergill ; Gains (three syllables). Gal. 3. Deus, m., god, has its voc. sing. = nom. sing., and generally contracts two syllables into one in the nom., voc, dat., and abl. plural : dJ, dis ; gen. sometimes deuni. nrcLF.NSiox (^f xorNs and adjectives 23 Nouns of the Third Declen&ion. 23 Class A (Consonant stems with gen, plur. in -um). Those nouns of the 3rd decl. which have one more syllable in the genitive singular than in the nominative singular and only one consonant before the ending of the gen. sing, form the genitive plural in um. 24 (i) Nominative singular formed without any suffix. M.ASCULI.NES AND FeMININES victor, m., victor. natio, f., tribe. N., V. Ace. Gen. Dal. Abl. Sing. victor victor-em vlctor-is victor-i victor-e Pill ■ victor-es victor-um ' victor-ibus Sing. natio nation-em nation-is nation-T nation-e P/iir I nation-Ps nation-um [nation-ibus 25 Neuters nomen, n., name. tempus, n., time. Sing. Phir. N.,i^.,A. I nomen ' nomin-a Gen. nomin-is Dat. nomin-I Abl. nomin-e nomm-um nomin-ibus Sing. tempus tempor-is tempor-I tempore Plur. tempor-a tempor-um tempor-ibus 26 (ii) Nominative singular formed with the suffi.x -s (before whicl^ a dental disappears). Chiefly Feminine hiems, f, winter. cTvita=;, f., state. N., V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. Sing. hiems hiem-em hiem-is hiem-i hiem-e Plur. r hiem-es I hiem-um [hiemibus Sing. civita-s civitat-em civitat-is cTvitat-I civitat-e Plur. ■civitat es civitat-um ■ civitat-ibus Examples for declension (like i, ii) are given in §§ 34-9. 24 ACCIDENCE 27 Class B (Vowel stems with gen. plur, in -i-um). Those nouns of the 3rd decl. which have either the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing, or two con- sonants before the ending of the gen. sing, form the genitive plural in ium.' 28 (i) With the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing. navis, f., ship. caedes, f., inassaar. Sing. Plur. •' Sing. Plur. N., V. navi-s naves caede-s caedes Ace. navem naves caedem caedes Gen. navis navium caedis caedium Dat. Abl. navl nave navibus , caedi caede [ caedibus Obs. The abl. sing, of words like navis often ends in -T, and the ace. plur. of nouns like Jidi'is and caedes in -Is. 29 (ii) With two consonants before the ending of the gen. sing, (which has one more syllable than the nom. sing.). urbs, f , eify. gens, f , clan. N., V. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. Sing. urb-s urbeni urbis urbl u rbe Plur. urbes urbes urbium urbibus Sing. Plur. gen-s . gentes gen tern gentes gentis gentium gentI gente gentibus Obs. The ace. plur. of nouns like urbs and gens often ends in -ts. 30 (iii) Neuters in e with the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing., and those which have dropped the e of the nom. sing, and so end in al ov ar. Note the abl. sing, and nom. plur. ' Most of these nouns come from stems in / 'iidvi-, tirhi-, I'nsiiriii-, &c."). DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECriX'ES 25 insignfe, n., badge. animal, n., (Uiiiiml. Most of these neuters were originally adjectives. Thus animal (originally annndk) meant 'possessed of life', from aniiiia. Examples for declension (like i, ii, iii) are given in §§40-5. Adjectives like nouns of the 3rd declension. -i^ 31 Adjectives of this kind are declined hke the nouns of Class B on the opposite page, excepting that the ablative singular always ends in i (not e). (i) brevis, m., f., breve, n., short, brief (like navis § 28, and insigne § 30). Singular Plural jnasc. and fern. neut. niasc. and f em. neiit. N., V. brevi-s breve breves brevia Ace. brevem breve breves brevia Gen. brevis brevium Dat. Abl. [ brevT brevibus [2 (2) acer, m., acris, f., acre, n., keen, differs from brevis, breve only in the nom. sing. masc. Singular Plural 1 masc. fern. neut. masc. and fern. neut. N.,V. acer acri-s acre acres acria Ace. acrem acrem acre acres acria Gen. acris acrium Dat. Abl. acrl acribus 26 ACCIDENCE 33 (3) ingeris, ni., f., n., huge (like gens § 29 in the niasc. and fem. Note the nom. and ace. sinsr. neut.) Singular niasc. andfenu neut. ingen-s ingen-s ingentem uigen-s ingentis ingentl Plural uiasc. and fem. neut. ingentes ingentia ingentes ingentia ingentium ingentibus Obs. The ace. plur. (niasc. and fem.) of adjectives lii/«/-•, as follows : Neuter Singular Plural ■ \ niasc. and fern. neut. Norn., Ace. Gen. Dat., Abl. plus plur-is none plur-es plur-a plur-ium 1 plur-ibus 1 The compound coniplur-es (masc. and fem.), coniplui-a (neut.), 'several,' found only in the plural, is declined in the same wa y : complur-luni, complur-ibus. Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 51 exercitus, m., army. cornu, n., horn. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. N., V. Ace. exercitus exercitum exercitus ' cornii cornua Gen. exercitus exercituum cornus cornu um Dat. Abl. exercitui {or u) exercitu exercitibus cornu (or ui) cornu [cornibus rrr ^■^Hl DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJ ECl IVES 31 Examples of nouns of the 4T11 peclen. 1. Like exercitus. Masc. : adventus, arrival; impetus, aUack ; xw^tiwa, fear ; i'lsus, use ; currus, chariot. Fem. : idils (plur.), the Ides ; nianus, hand. 2. Like cornu. Neut. : genu, knee. \2 domus, f., house, home, belongs parti}' to the 2nd decl. Singular N., V. donuis Ace. doniuni Geti. domus Dat. domui Abl. domb (2/id decl.) Loc.^ domi {-zud decl.) Plural domus demos [2nd decl.) or domus (4//1) domdrum {2.nd) or domuum (4///) doniibus )3 Nouns of the Fifth Declension. res, f., thing, affair. 1 Singular Plural N., V. res res Ace. rem Gen. rel rerum Dat. Abl. rei re ■ rebus )4 The only nouns of importance belonging to the 5th decl. besides res ■ are dies, day (generally masc), and the following feminines, none of which have all cases of the plural in use : acies, line 0/ battle ; {a.c\es, shape, face ; i\des, fidelity; pernicies, destruction ; planities, plain ; species, appearance ; spes, hope. Those which have an / before the cs of the nom. sing, have a long e in the gen. and dat. sing., e. g. diet, aciel. A shorter form of the gen. and dat. sing, is sometimes found : die, acie. ' See § 13 and § 55. - The combination rci publica .sometimes written as one word respiiblica), liltially ' the public interest ', ' the common weal ', means republic, coiiiinon- wcaU/i, or constitution. The plural res publicac found in all the cases) means republics, contnionzvealt/is, or constitutions, and should never be translated 'public aflairs', whicii meaning is expressed by the singular number. 32 ACCIDENCE THE LOCATIVE CASE (see § 13) 55 The endings of the Locative, which is used to denote ' at ', ' in ', or ' on ' (i. e, to answer the question ' Where ? '), are as follows : — in Singulars of the ist decl. ae : Romae, at Rome; mllitiae, on military service : in Singulars of the 2nd decl. i : BeneventI, at Beneventum, Brundisii, at BriDidisitoii ; domi, at home (§ 52), belli, /// nmr, humi, on the ground. In all other nouns the locative has the same form as the ablative : thus — Singulars of the 3rd decl. : Carthagine, at Carthage ; Tibure, at Tibur; rure, in the country; Neapoli, at Naples [^ 28, Obs.). Names of towns of plural form : ist decl. : Athenis, at Athens (nom. Athenae) ; Cannis, at Cannae. 2nd decl. : Philippis, at Philippi ; Gabils, at Gabii. 3rd decl. : Gadibus, at Gadcs. GENDER OP NOUNS' 56 The rule for the gender of nouns denoting persons is the same as in French, and there are no exceptions to it of any importance : Nouns that denote a male person are masculine ; Nouns that denote a female person a.v& feminine. The gender of these words depends on their meaning, and has nothing to do with the'ir/orm or declension. ThusMASc: agricola, farmer; Sulla, Sulla; Horatius, Horace ; puer, boy ; vir, man, husband ; pater, father ; frater, brother ; rex, king ; senex, old man ; Cupidd, the god Cupid. Fem. : puclla, girl; Cornelia, Cornelia; regJna, queen; ' On this and the two following pages masculines are printed in heavy type, teininines in italics, and neuters in CAPITALS. GENDER OF NOUNS 33 inulier, woman ; iixor, wile ; soror, sister ; iiuiUr, motlicr ; rcnus, the goddess Venus ; anus, old woman. 57 Nouns wiiich may denote persons of either sex are mascuUne or feminine according to their application : e. g. parens meus, my father ; parens )nca, my mother ; sacerdos castus, a holy priest ; sacerdos longaiva, an aged priestess ; civis Romanus or clvis Ronidna, a Roman citizen. Similarly masc. or tern. : comes, companion ; dux, guide ; hospes, host or hostess ; hostis, enemy; miles, warrior. 58 Note, (i) This rule does not apply to nouns which denote a collection of persons ; these follow the rules for the separate declensions given below : e. g. ndlio (fern.), tribe ; plebs (fem.), the commons; cbpiae (fem.), forces (plur. oi copia, supply); AUXiLiA (neut.), auxiliary forces (plur. oi auxilium, aid). (ii) Words like the following do not properly denote persons, though they are sometimes applied to persons : J MANCiPiUM, chattel (neut., sometimes applied to slaves); deliciac, delight (= darling).' The gender of nouns not denoting perso:^s may be mostly found by the following rules.- gg I. Those of the ist declension are all feminine, e. g. hora, hour ; insula, island ; Jra, anger ; rlpa, bank ; vita, liie. 60 II. Those of the 2nd declension in us or er are nearly all masculine, e. g. annus, year ; hortus, garden ; numerus, number ; ager, field ; liber, book : those of the 2nd declension in L^^f are all neuter, e. g. donum, gift ; vInum, wine. ^61 III. I. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom. sing, by adding the suffix 6' to the stem are mostly feminine : e. g. liiem-s, winter ; civitd-s, state ; salH-s, welfare ; virtu-s, virtue (Class A (ii), § 26) ; ndvi-s, ship ; caede-s, massacre (Class B (i), § 28) ; urb-s, city ; gen-s, clan ; cohor-s, cohort (Class B (ii), § 29). ^ In a play of Plautus a lady is humorously called ' my delight, my life, apple of my eye, tip of my lip, my salvation, my honey, my heart, my little cream cheese '. * The chief e.\.ceplioii6 to ihc^e rules are given in the .\ppeiitJix. 801 C 34 ACCIDENCE 62 2. Those of the 3rd declension which form the nom. sing, without the addition of the suffix s are — feminine if the nom. sing, ends in tid, tudb, go : e. g. naiio, tribe ; drafio, oration ; niuliilfidd, multi- tude, ortgo, origin ; imago, image (Class A (i), § 24). Most other nouns in id and do are also feminine : e. g. legio, legion ; formido, terror. NEUTER if the nom. sing ends in men, us, ur, e, |^^ : e. g. NO MEN, name ; temp us, time ; robur, strength (Class A (i), § 25) ; insigne, badge ; mare, sea ; ANIMAL, anirnal; exemplar, pattern (Class B (iii), §30). Note that these neuters in us differ from the feminines in us of § 39 in two ways : firstly, the u of the neuters is generally short, that of the feminines is always long ; secondly, the neuters have an r before the ending of gen. sing. Contrast tempus, tempor-is, and GENUS, gener-ls with salu-s, salut-is. masculine in all other cases : e. g. labor, labour ; agger, mound ; sol, sun ; mos, custom ; pulvis, dust ; sermo, discourse (Class A (i), § 24). fl^jP'Test the above rule by referring to the nouns on pp. 26-9. 50 IV. Those of the 4th declension in tus and sus are all masculine : e. g. exercitus, army ; motus, motion ; usus, use. So too are most of the others of the 4th decl. in us ; e. g. currus, chariot ; gradus, step. The two or three of the 4th declension in are all neuter : e. g. GENU, knee. 64 V. Those of the 5th declension are all feminine, except dies (§ 54). 65 The above rules apply in general to nouns denoting kinds of animals, except that none of these arc neuter. Those which would GENDER OF NOUNS 35 be neuter according to the above rules are masculine : e. g. mils, mouse ; vultur, vulture. But some nouns denoting kinds of animals are masc. when they denote the male, and 1cm. when they denote the female : e. g. b5s, bull ; bos, cow. Some have difterent forms to denote the two sexes : e.g. equus, horse ; lyjita, mare. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 66 The Comparative is regularly formed by adding /or (masc. and fern.), ius (neut) to the part of the positive which remains when the ending of the genitive singular is removed. The Superlative is generally formed by adding to the same part of the positive the endings issimus (masc.), issiina (fem.), issiinidii (neut.) : Positive Gen. Sing. Comparative Superlative carus car-I car-ior, -ius car-issimus dear dearer, too dear dearest, most dear rather dear very dear brevis brev-is brev-ior, -ius brev-issimus utilis util-is util-ior, -ius util-issimus nobilis nobil-is nobil-ior, -ius nobil-issimus ingens ingent-is ingent-ior, -ius ingent-issimus But in some adjectives the superlative is formed by adding the endings intus (masc), itna (fem.), i}nuiii (neut.) — (i) to the same part of the positive, with the final letter (/) doubled, in the four adjectives ^a7/'s, gracdis, humilis, similis ('easy', 'slender', 'lowly', 'like') and their compounds {difficilis, ' difficult ', dissiindis, ' unlike ') : facilis facil-is facil-ior, -ius facil-1-imus (2) to the nom. sing, masc, with the final letter (r) doubled, in all adjectives whose nom. sing. masc. ends in cr : thus — liber llber-I liber-ior, -ius llber-r-imus pulcher pulchr-i pulchr-ior, -ius pulcher-r-imus acer acr-is acr-ior, -ius acer-r-imus celer celer-is celer-ior, -ius c 2 celer-r-imus 36 ACCIDENCE 68 69 70 Many verb-adjectives (present and perfect participles) have degrees of comparison formed regularly : e. g. amans, loving, amant-ior, amant-issimus ; paratus, prepared, ready, parat-ior, parat-issimus. Adjectives in lis preceded by a vowel making a separate syllable [c-us, i-iis, ii-tis) generally form the comparative and superlative by means of the adverbs magis, ' more ', and maxiine, ' most ' : ^'ms, faithful magis pius, a, um maxime pius, a, um '\dbnc\xs, suitable magis idoneus, a, um maxime idoneus, a, um A similar form of speech is always used to express the ideas of ' less ' and ' least ' : carus, dear minus carus, a, um minime carus, a, um For the declension of comparatives see § 49 ; superlatives are declined like other adjectives in us, a, um, § 18. Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives 71 bonus, good malus, bad magnus, great parvus, stiiall multus, nuich multi, many iuvenis, young senex, aged novus, nciv vetus (veter-), old propinquus, near mel-ior, -ius, better peior, peius/ worse maior, mains,' greater mill or, -us, snmller plus (n.), niore"^ pliir-es, -a, more iun-ior, younger sen-ior, elder [recent-ior, -ius,/;r6V;^r] [vetust-ior, -ius, oldcr^ prop-ior, -ius, nearer optimus, best pessimus, ivorst maximus, greatest minimus, smallest plurimus, most plurimi, very many [natu minimus, youngest~\ f natu maximus, eldest^ novissimus, a, um, last veterrimus, oldest proximus, nearest, next 72 In the case of the following comparatives and superlatives the corresponding positive adjective does not exist, or is rare ^ : 1 Two syllables (with i pronounced as j, § 7). 2 The singular plus is used like a noun : plus vnil, ritoic ivinc (lit. more of wine). For the declension of plus see § 50. 3 In this list only the masc. is given ; the fern, and neut. are formed regularly. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 37 deterior, worse dcterrimiis, worst exterior, onfcr cxtremus, on/crniost inferior, hwrr Tmus ) / - ^ / infimus) interior, inner intimus, inmost posterior, later postremus, fast prior, former primus, first superior, /lig/ier suprcmusl^^^.^^^^^^ summus ) -^ ulterior, fartlier ultimus, farthest FORMATION OF ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES 73 I. From adjectives declined like nouns of the 2nd declen- sion (§§ 18-20) adverbs are mostly formed by adding e to the part of the positive which remains when the ending of the gen. sing, is removed : — 74 Adjective Gen. Sing. Adverb doctus doct-I doct-e learned learnedly pulcher pulchr-I pulchr-e fine finely liber llber-I llber-e free, frank freely, frankly But in some cases is added instead of ^ : citus, sti'//?; cito (shortened) rarus, rrt;r ; raro crther, frequent ; crebro ' serus, late; sero falsus, false ; falso subitus, sudden ; subito meritus, deserved; merito tCitus, sr?/^'; tuto necessarius, necessary ; necessario j Distinguish the following formations : verus, true ; vere, truthfully ; \ero, in truth, indeed ; verum, but, yet (a conjunction). certus, certain ; certe, at any rate (ego certe scio, / at any rate know) ; certo, for certain (certo scio, / know for certain). pvlvcwxs, first; prlmo, at first (of time; opposed to postea, after-wards); primum, first, in the first place (French premiere- ment), cf. § 77. 38 ACCIDENCE 75 II. From adjectives declined like nouns of the 3rd decl. (§§ 3i~3) adverbs are mostly formed by adding iter to the part of the positive which remains when the ending of the gen, sing, is removed : — brevis, brief brev-is brev-iter, briefly felix, lucky felic-is fellc-iter, luckily Note audax, bold audac-is audac-ter, boldly tjQ But when the adjective has nt before is in the gen. sing., the adverb is formed by adding er instead of iter: prudens, prudent prudent-is prOdent-er, prudently 77 III. Many adverbs are supplied by the accusative singular neuter of adjectives, especially adjectives of quantity and number: multum, niucli', aliquantum, considerably; nimium, too much ; paulum, paululum, a little ; quantum, how much ; tantum, so much (or only just so much, hence only) ; solum, only ; primum, flrst, in the first place ; secundum, secondly ; tertium, thirdly, &:c. So also (from facilis) facile, easily, and all comparative adverbs (§ 78). COMPARISON OF ADVERBS n8 The Comparative of adverbs formed from adjectives is supplied by the accusative singular neuter of the comparative adjective : the Superlative is formed by adding e to the part of the superlative adjective which remains when the ending of the gen. sing, is removed : — Positive Comparative Superlative vere, truthfully ver-ius, more truth- verissim-e, most truth- fully fully^ pulchre, finely pulchr-ius, more finely pulcherrim-e, mostfinely crebro, fre- crebr-ius, mo?'e fre- creberrim-e, most fre- quently qucntly qucntly breviter, briefly brev-ius, more briefly brevissim-e, most briefly COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 39 79 The tbllowing arc irregular (cither in tlic positive or in tlie comparative and superlative) : bene/ ivcll male/ hadly niagnopere," greally multum, )}tnch non multum) ,.,,, - liltle parum melius, be tier pcius, worse magis, more plus, more minus, /ess optime, hesl pessime, ivorst maxime, most plurimum, )]iost mini me, least did, loiig (of time) nuper, lately [wanting] prope, m'ar saepe, often diutius, longer [wanting] potius, rather propius, nearer saepius, oftener diutissime, longest nuperrimc, most recently potissimum, especially proxime, next saepissime, oftenest 80 NUMERAL Cardinal some declinable ADJECTIVES 89) Ordinal all declinable primus, a, um secundus, a, um or alter, alter-a, -um tertius, a, um quartus, a, um quintus, a, um sextus, a, um Septimus, a, um octavus, a, um nonus, a, um decimus, a, um vicensimus, a, um tricensimus, a, um quadragensimus, a, um quinquagensimus, a, um sexagensinius, a, um septuagensimus, a, um octogensinius, a, um nonagensimus, a, um centensimus, a, um ' Note the short final e in these adverbs. * Magnopcre — wagtto opere (from opufi ' work', 3rd decl.). I unus, a, um (§ \. II duo, duae, duo III tres, tria (§ 89) IV quattuor \' quinque VI sex VII septem VIII octo IX novem X decem XX vlgintl XXX trlginta XL quadraginta L quinquaginta LX sexaginta LXX septuaginta XXX octoginta XC nonaginta C centum 40 ACCIDENCE CC ducenti, ae, a ' CCC trecenti, ae, a CCCC quadringenti, ae, a D quingenti, ae, a DC sescenti, ae, a DCC septingenti, ae, a DCCC octingenti, ae, a DCCCC nongenti, ae, a M mille (§ 83) ducentensimus, a, um trecentensimus, a, um quadringentensimus, a, tim quingentensimus, a, um sescentensimus, a, um septingentensimus, a, um octingentensimus, a, um nongentensimus, a, um millensimus, a, um Compound forms of Numeral Adjectives. (i) The numerals 11-19: Cai'diual. 81 XI undecim XII duodecim XIII tredecim XIV quattuordecim XV quindecim XVI sedecim XVII septendecim XVIII duodevlginti" XIX undevTgintr 82 (2) In compound numbers from 20-100 the smaller number is generally placed first with ct 'and ' (as in the English 'one- and-twenty '), but the other order without et (like ' twenty- one') is often found; in compound numbers above 100 the larger number is generally placed first (without et) : — Cardinal. Ordinal. XXI Onus (a, um) et vl- Onus (a, um) et vicensi- ginti or vigintT Onus (a, um) Ordinal. Ondecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus quintus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodevicensimus Ondevlcensimus XXVIII XXIX CXXXIII mus (a, um) or viccnsi- mus (a, um) primus (a, um) duodetrlcensimus (a, um) undetricensimus (a, um) centensimus (a, um) trl- censimus (a, um) ter- tius (a, um) ' The hundreds are declined regularly in the plural. 2 Numbers compounded witli 8 and 9 are generally expressed by means of f/r, denoting subtraction ('two from twenty-, 'one from twenty', &c.) : except 98 octo ei uCtidgiiitii, 99 novem et nondghiia. duodetriginta ^ Ondetrlginta ^ centum triginta tres (tria) NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 41 Where fmiis occurs in compound minibers, it docs not agree in number (though it does in gender and case) with the plural noun, e.g. coitiini uni is pedes, ' loi feet'. 83 (3) Numbers above 1,000. The numeral niillct 'thousand', is indeclinable in the sin- gular and is an adjective: e.g. Diillc hoiiiines, 'a thousand men', cum niillc /lotiiiiiibus, 'with a thousand men'; but the plural viJ/in, ' thousands ' (used in multiples of 1,000), is a neuter noun of the 3rd declension, declined like the plural of wsigue (p. 25) — ni7/ia, inJh'uut, nulibiis; and it takes the genitive after it: e.g. duo mllia homiuum, lit. ' two thousands of men', i.e. '2,000 men'; cum dudbiis mllibiis hominuiu, ' with 2,000 men '. But compound numbers containing hundreds as well as thousands (e.g. '3,333 men ') do not need the genitive : iria m'llia trecentl trlgintd trcs homines or iria mllia homimim et trecenfi trigintd ires. 84 Distributive Adjectives answering the question ' how many apiece ? ' {quotrnl?) singuli, ae, a, one apiece bini, ae, a, tiie) of us [ |3Wt^hv>C 'Dat. mihi me, to me nob!s us, to us Abl. me me nobis us PERSONAL PRONOUNS 45 97 Second Person (i. c. the person spoken to). Singular Plural N.,J\tu thou^ Ace. te thee Gen. till of thee Dat. tibi thee, to thee Abl. te thee vos - you, ye vos you, ye vestrl of you Ivestrum of you vobis you, to you vobis yoic ^ or you (denoting one person). 2 not used to denote one person. 98 The ace, gen., dat., and abl. of the 1st and the 2nd person may be used reflexively, i. e. may refer to the doer of the action denoted by the verb ; they are then translated by myself thyself [yourself), ourselves, yourselves : me occldam, / will kill myself ; te amas, you love yourself { = you are selfish). J9 Third Person (i.e. the person spoken of: he, she, it; they). Singular Plural masc. fcm. neut. masc. fern. neut. Nom. is ea id il(c'0 eae ea Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. eum earn id eius el eo ea eo eos eorum \ eas earum ils leT ea eorum The nom. sing, and plur. is used only for the sake of emphasis or contrast. The nom. and dat. and abl. plur. are sometimes spelled e~i, els. 00 In the third person there is, as in French, a separate 46 ACCIDENCE reflexive form for the ace, gen., dat., and abl. cases j Sing, and Plur. ; masc.,fem., and neut. Ace. se or sese himself, herself, itself; themselves Gen. sui of himself , of herself of itself ; of themselves Dat. ' sibi to {or for) himself ^ &c. Abl. se or sese himself &c. Examples : — Cato se occldit. Cato killed himself {committed s«/-cide). Homo non sibi soli natus est, sed patriae. A man is born not for himself alone, but for his country. loi Of the above forms of the genitive case (§§ 96-100) only eius and corum, edrum have possessive meaning : liber eius, the book of him = his book. The genitives in i are used chiefly as genitives of the object ; memento mel, remember me or be mindful of vie ; memor sum tui, / am mindful of you ; amor sul, the love of self; odium vestri, the hatred of you = the feeling of hatred against you. The genitives nostrum and vestrum are used chiefly as genitives of partition ; quis nostrum? who of us?, nemo vestrum, no one of you. The possessive meaning in the ist and 2nd persons, and in the 3rd person when reflexive, is expressed by possessive (y adjectives (§ 103). THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE 102 ipse m., ipsa f., ipsum n., -self differs from se (§ 100) in two respects : (i) it is an emphasizing adjective or pronoun ; se is a reflexive pronoun : e. g. Brutus fllios suos ipse occidit. Brutus himself put his own sons to death. Mulierem ipsam vidi. / saw the woman herself. (ii) it may agree with a pronoun (generally not expressed) of the ist or 2nd as well as of the 3rd person, whereas se refers only to the 3rd person : Ipse feci. / did it myself Ipse fecistl. You did it yourself. Ipse dixit. He said it himself Ipsi diximus. We said it ourselves, t&c. THE EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE IPSE 47 Singular Now. ipse ipsa ipsum Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum Gen, ipsius Dat. ipsi Abl. ipso ipsa ipso POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES 03 Declined like other adjectives in us, a, uiii and er, ra, ntnt (§§ 18, 19), except that the voc. sing, niasc. of mens is ;;//. ist PERSON : mens, a, um, my or (reflexive) my'oivn ; noster, nostra, nostrum, our or (reflex.) our own ; 2nd PERSON : tuus, a, um, your or (reflex.) your own ; vester, vestra, vestrum, j'o«ror (reflex.) yowrozt;//; 3rd PERSON : suus, a, um, his own, her own, its own, their own (reflex.). Examples : pater noster, patria nostra, consilium nostrum. Liberos meos occldit. He has killed my children. Me et liberos meos occidam. / ivill kill myself and my own children. Brutum et fllios eius (§ loi) occidam. / will kill Brutus and his sons. Brutus filios suos occidit. Brutus killed his own sons. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE AND PRONOUN 04 hie m., haec f., hoc n., this Singular Plural Nom. hie ^ haec hoc ^ hi hae haec Ace. hunc banc hoc hos has haec Gen. huius horum harum horum Dat, huic ■ his Abl. hoc hac hoc 1 The nom. sing. masc. and neut. ar i generally ong syllabi es : see note at th e foot of next page. 48 ACCIDENCE The c at the end of most of the above forms (§ 104) is a demonstrative suffix with the same force as the French ci in cea and celiu-ci ; thus Lat. hie is Hterally 'this here*. For the pronunciation oUiuius and hitic see § 7 and §6. All the following adjectives and pronouns (demonstra- tive, interrogative, indefinite, and relative, §§ 105-19) have the neuter nominative and accusative singular in d.' OTHER DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS 105 ille m., ilia f, illud n,, that, yon Singular Plural Nom. ille ilia illud ilh illae ilia Ace. ilium illam illud illos illas ilia Gen. illius illorum illarum illorum Dat. Abl. illi illo ilia illo illis 106 107 iste m., ista f., istud n., that, that of yours, is declined exactly like ille, ilia, illud. is m., ea f, id n,, that, the (unemphatic) Singular Plural Nom. is ea id il eae ea Ace. eum earn id eos eas ea Gen. ems eorum earum eorum Dat. Abl. el eo ea eo [ ils ^ The demonstrative hie, Iiaec, hoc (§ 104) had originally the (/-forma- tion in the neut. sing., and this explains how it is that hoc is a long syllable, though its vowel is short. The original form hod-ce became lioc-ce, hocc ; and though the last c was dropped in writing it was pronounced before vowels, making the syllable long (see § g, ii). The nom. sing, niasc. hie became a long syllabic by imitation of the neuter. DEMONSTRATIVES 49 i-dem in., ea-dem t\, i-dem n., ///<■ saiiif (literally, that very one) Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. Singular idem eadem idem eundem candem idem eiusdem eld em eodem eadem eodem Plural Idem eaedem eadem eosdem easdem eadem eorundem earundem eorunderr I Isdem alius m., alia f, aliud n., other, another Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. Singular alius alia aliud alium aliam aliud alius 'a^iJWa, alio alia alio alii alios aliorum Plural aliae alias aliarum alils 1 alia alia aliorum ^ The gen. sing, is rarely used, being commonly replaced either by the adjective alienus, a, ttiii or by the gen. of al/er, a, tun (§ 91) : aes alienum, debt, lit. money belonging to another; domus alteruis, one''s neigliboiir''s Iioiise. alius r.~. alius, one . . . another: alius alium interfecit. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE quis (mostly pron.)) . quid (always pron.)) , . qui (mostly adj.) j ^■' ^^^^ ' ' quod (always adj.] ) "'' ^^^'^ ' ' The ace, gen., dat,, and abl. are either pronouns or ad- jectives. Nom. Ace. Gen. Dat. Abl. quis qui Singular (quid quae j^ , ' I quod (quid qui Plural quae quae quem quam ]^ . quos quas quae cuius ' quorum quarum quorum cui 1 1 ., „,- - - f quibu.s quo qua t'" ' ' ^ 50 ACCIDENCE Exx.: Quis vocat ? Who is calling t^ Qui puer vocat ? What boy is calling ? Quae puclla vocat? What girl is calling? All the forms in the above table except quis and quid may be not interrogative but exclamatory : qui sermones ! ivhat talk {there loill he) ! For the pronunciation of cUiits and cui see § 7 and § 6. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 111 The Latin indefinite pronouns and adjectives are closely connected in form with the interrogatives (§ no), but in meaning with numerals. They denote indefinite number.^ (i) quis (qui) m., quae f,, quid (quod) n,, anyone, any ; declined like the interrogative (§ no), except that the nom. sing. fem. and the nom. and ace. plur. neut. are generally shortened to qua. Used after words like «, 'if, nisi, 'unless', ne, 'not' or ' lest ', nuni, ' whether ' : Si quis quid rumore acceperit, ad magistratum deferat. If anyone hears anything by report, he is to inform the magistrate. Ne qua multitudo trans Rhenum traducatur. Let no mass of men be led across the Rhine. 112 (2) Compounds of the above (§ in) with an indeclinable part. Forms in -quis and -quid are generally pronouns : forms in -qxii, -quae (or -qua), -quod generally adjectives. aliquis) , , aliquid ) ,. . m., aliqua f., ,. \w. someone, some. aliqui ) ' ^ ' aliquod) Exx. : Aliquem ad me mitte. Send someone to nu\ Cum aliquod bellum incidit, omnespugnant. JVheu some ivar arises, they all fight. 1 Other words of the same kind are nemo ,- no ono ' and »?7»7, 'nothing', , derived from lu'' ' not ' and ticniu (an Old Latin form of lioiiio, ' man '), Itlluni, \ ' a whit' : nemo = not a man ; tii'/iil = not a whit. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 51 13 quidam ni., quaedam (., quiddam (quoddam) n., a irr/aiii, sonic : declined with n instead of;;/ beft^rc (/. Exx. : Quentlani ad sc vocat. He calls a certain nian to him. Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur. He con- verses iv/tli some yo/mi^ men. 14 quivis m., quaevis f., quidvis (quodvis) n. ] qullibet m., quaelibet f., quidlibet (quodlibet) ^y^y y^^ "^^ = every (-vis from void). Exx. : Quilibet haec facere potest. Anyone (= ei'cry one) can do this. Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum. // is not every one's good luck to visit Corinth. 15 qui^quam m. and f., quicquam (for quidquam) n.; used like the English anyone at all, chiefly in negative and interro- gative sentences (no plural). Exx. : Ne quemquam oderis. Do not hate anyone at all. Cur quicquam sibi postulat ? JVhy does he demand anything at all /or himself F 16 The adjective which corresponds in meaning {= any at all) is nlhts, a, tim (declined like rmus, a, am, § 86). Exx.: Neque ullam vocemexprimere poterat. Norcotddhe utter a single ivord. Sine ullo maleficio abibimus. IVc shall depart ivithottt any wrong- doing at all. [17 quisque m., quaeque f , quidque (quodque) n., each one, each. Exx. : Quaerunt quid quisque eorum de quaque re audierit. They inquire what each one of them has heard about each matter. Materia cuiusque generis in Britannia est. There is timber of each (= every) kind in Britain. [18 quispiam m., quaepiam f , quidpiam (quodpiam) n., someone or other. Exx. : Cum quaepiam cohors ex orbc excesserat, hostCs re- fugiebant. Whetiever some cohort or other quitted the circle, the enemy fled. Dixerit quispiam . . . Somebody is likely to say . . . D 2 52 ACCIDENCE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECTIVE 119 The relative pronoun and adjective are connective ; i. e. they introduce a new clause with a verb of its own, like a conjunction. The word in the other clause to which the relative refers is called the antecedent. qui m., quae (., quod n., w/io, ivhicli Singular Plural Norn. qui quae quod qui quae quae Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae Gen. cuius quorum quarum quorum Dat. Abl. quo CUl qua quo . quibus The relative need not stand as near as possible to its ante- cedent, as it does in French and generally in English : Examples : Corns ventus navigationem impediebat, qui in his locis flare consuevit. The NW. ivind, which is ivont to bloiv in these parts, was stopping navigation. Pulvis in ea parte videbatur in quam [or quam in partem) legio iter fecerat. Dust ivas seen in that (or the) direction in which the legion had marched. Cum quibusdam adulescentibus conloquitur, quorum erat princeps Litaviccus atque fratres eius. He converses with certain young men, the chief of whom tvcre Litaviccus and his brothers. 120 In the above instances the clause introduced by the relative is subordinate ; in the following it is co-ordinate : Magnum numerum obsidum imperat : quibus adductis Mori- nos in fidem recepit. He demands a great number of hostages : which having been brought to him (= and when they had been brought to him), he admitted the Morini to his protection (B. G. iv. 22. 2). Instead of quibus adductis Caesar might have RELATIVE PRONOUN AND ADJECriVE 53 written ct Jus adducl'is or qui {— ct lii) cnin addiidl cssciit. Compare B. G. vii. 5. 4. 121 Notes. — i. An old ablative (sing, and pliir., all gendei^s) is mil, which is generally used as an adverb meaning 'how' or^ 'wh^', but sometimes as a rcl. proii., c.^. quicum, a'//// iK.'lioin.^ 2. Another form oi" the dat. and abl, plur. is quls (in poets). 3. Latin has two generalizing relatives, meaning ' whoever', 'whatever ' : (i) quicumque m., quaecumque L, quodcumque n. — compounds of qui, quae, quod, § 119; (ii) quisquis m., f., quidj^iid n. — doubled form of an old-fashioned relative qui's, quid. 122 Table of Corresponding Words In the following table — (i) the relatives correspond to the demonstratives: e.g. Tantam eorum multitudinem interfecerunt quantum fuit diei spatium. They killed as great a number of them as was the length of the day} Duae naves eosdem port us quos reliquae capere non potuerunt. Two ships could not make the same ports as the rest. Dixerunt se ibi futures esse ubi Caesar voluisset. They said they would be there where Caesar wished. (2) The adverbs correspond to the pronouns — demonstra- tive to demonstrative and relative to relative : for instance, ibi there (= in eo loco) corresponds to is that, and ubi lohere (= quo in loco) to qui which. 123 Note the English word ' as ' in the table : (i) with relative or conjunctive meaning (in the second and the fourth columns) ; (ii) with demonstrative meaning (in the first and the third columns). 1 i. e, ' as the day was long '. The sentence means that the number of the slain was proportionate to the length of the day. 54 ACCIDENCE 124 Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives hie, haec, hoc, this ille, ilia, illiid that, yon is, ea, id that, tJie idem, eadem, idem the same Relative Pronouns and Adjectives qui, quae, quod ivho, which iste, ista, istud that of yours tantus, a, um quantus, a, um so great, as great as talis, e qualis, e of such a kind as tot, so many, as many quot, as Demonstrative Relative Adverbs Adverbs and Subordin- ating Con- junctions hie, here hue, hither hine, hence illie, there illuc, thither illinc, thence ibi, there lubi, where eo, thither \ quo, ivliithcr hide, thence [unde,iiihence [ibidem, /// Jeodem, to [indidem, /ro///^ [istie, there J istue, thither [istine, thence tantopere quantopere so much as I tarn, so (before ad- quam, as I jeetivesand ad- verbs) ita, sic, adeo, so ut, as (before verbs) totiens, so many quotiens, as times, as many times THE VERB I. Meanings of Voices, Moods, and Tenses. 125 Voices. There are two voices in Latin : I. The Active Voice, which is used either transitively or intransitively : nuntium vocat, he calls the messenger (trans.), quis vocat? ivho is calling? (intrans.). I rilK VERB 55 2. The Passive Voice : nuiuius vocatur, llic messenger is ealled. vocatur ad anna, there is a call to arms (impersonal passive construction ; literally it is called to arms). 126 Moods and their Tenses. I. The Indicative Mood relates to matters of tact : vocat, he is calling. num vocat ? is he calling ^ 127 riiere are six tenses of the Indicative. The Present, the Past Imperfect and the Future are tenses of incomplete action : Present : vocat, he is calling ' or he calls (habi- tually). Past Imperfect : vocabat, he was calling or he called (habitually = he used to call). Future : vocabit, he ivill call or ivill be calling. 128 The Perfect, the Past Perfect and the Future Perfect are tenses of completed action : . Perfect : vocavit, used either (i) as a Present Perfect, marking the action as completed at the time of speaking : he has called; or (ii) as a Past Historic, marking the action as having taken place in the past (i. e. before the time of speaking) : he called.^ Past Perfect : vocaverat, he had called. Future Perfect : vocaverit, he will have called. 129 2. The Imperative Mood is used like the English im- perative, and has in addition a 3rd person (sing, and plur.). It has two forms of the 2nd person (singular and plural) : a short form : voca a long form : vocato ' The Present is most commonly translated by the English Present Continuous, except in verbs that denote a slate as distinct iVoin an act. - Used like tlie French Past Historic : // a/iptla, il s'icrid. I call. 56 ACCIDENCE 130 3. The Subjunctive Mood has the same kind of meaning as the English subjunctive, but is more widely used.^ It has four tenses, which are translated in different ways, according to the context in which they stand. Their uses will be given later (Syntax, §§ 318-67). Meanwhile note the following translations, which, though they are not applicable to all usages, express the fundamental meanings of the tenses of the subjunctive, and will serve as a clue to their more difficult uses : — Present Subj. : vocet, he call, he is to call, he shall call. Compare the Fut. Indie: vocabit,/?^ zvill call, which expresses no more than future time. The Pres. Subj. combines the idea of obligation with that of future time. Perfect Subj.: vocaverit, he have called, he shall have called. Compare the Fut. Perf. Indie, (which has the same form in this person) : vocaverit, he will have called. The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive have the corresponding meanings in past time : Past Subj. : vocaret, he was to call, lie should call, (a kind of Future in the past) Past Perf. Subj . : vocavisset, he should have called. (a kind of Future Perfect in the past) 1 Examples of the English Present Subjunctive (from Shakespeare) denoting what is to be done. — Call him my king? (= Am I to call him my king^). — Somebody call (= somebody is to call, let somebody call) my wife.— Now call we (= let us call) our high court of parliament.— Look you call (-^look: you are to call) me Ganymede. — Past Subjunctive (from a daily paper) :— No cabinet would be able to endure the odium attaching to a government which called upon us to make peace on such terms [called — should call . 11 lie VERB 57 131 But in some uses the s/ial/-meRn\ng of the tenses of the bubjunctive is modified : sometimes they denote what ivoitld be done or woii/d /ini'c been done under certain conditions : vocem, voces, vocet \ I should [yon zvonld, he vocarem, vocares, vocaret j ivouhi) call. vocavissem, vocavisses, vocavisset,/s/«o?//(/(_>'OM would, he ivould) have called. In some subordinate clauses they may be translated by English indicatives of the corresponding tense : e. g. Quis vocet (vocaverit) nescio. / do not knoiv who is calling (has called). 132 II. Meanings of Verb • Adjectives and Verb • Nouns (formed from the stem of the verb). I. The three Participles, called (i) Present (ii) Perfect (iii) Future, mark the action as (i) going on or not completed (ii) completed (iii) in prospect : Present Participle Active : vocans (-nt), calling. Perfect Participle Passive : vocatus, a, urn, called. Future Participle Active : vocaturus, a, um, about to call. Note the absence of a Perfect Participle Active, a Present Participle Passive and a Future Participle Passive. 133 2. The Gerund Adjective is a passive verb-adjective, marking the action as to be done : vocandus, a, umjjo-be-called : Nuntius revocandus est. The messenger is to be called back (= must be called back). Milites ab opere revocandi erant. The soldiers had to be (lit. were to be) called back from their work. The nom. sing. neut. of the gerund adjective is used with a tense of esse in an impersonal passive construction (cf. §125,2): ^ ^^^~ ^^^ Magna voce vocandum est. We must call (lit. // is to be called) with a loud voice. Magna voce vocandum erat. We had to call{\\\.. It was to be called) wil/i a loud voice. 58 ACCIDENCE In some cases the Gerund Adjective may be translated by an English adjective in -able or -iblc, where these adjectives have passive meaning : liber laudandus, a laudable book, a praiscivoHliy book. homo contemnendus, a contemptible person. 134 3- ^^^ Infinitives called (i) Present (ii) Perfect (iii) Future mark the action as (i) going on or not completed (ii) completed (iii) in prospect: ACTIVE I PASSIVE Present Infin. : vocare, to call, vocarl, to be called. to be calling. Future Infin. : vocaturus (a, vocatum iri (§ 137), to be about um) esse, to be about to call. to be called. Perfect "Tnfin. : vocavisse, to vocatus (a, um) esse, to have have called. \ been called. 135 4. The Gerund is an Active Verb-Noun of the neuter gender, corresponding to the English verb-noun in -ing, and denoting the act of — ing; it is used only in the singular number and chiefly in the genitive and the ablative cases : vocandl causa, for the sake of calli)ig. vocando, by calling. It has no nominative case.^ 136 5. The Supine in -um is the Accusative Case of a Verb- Noun of the 4th declension (Nom. vocatus, a calling, a call); the Accusative here denotes the end in view or purpose : vocatum, to call (lit. with a vieiv to calling). Venerunt rogatum ut sibi ignosceret. They came to ask that he shoidd pardon them. 137 The combination of the Supine in -um with the Present Infinitive Passive of eo 'I go' is equivalent to a Future Infinitive Passive:^ Non credo mllites revocatum irI. / don't think that the 1 The form in -um given in the following tables (§ 139, &c.) is the Accusative, which is used after certain prepositions (chiefly; ad). 2 This construction is impersonal : see Syntax, § 377. Till-: VVAU) 59 so/dtcrs null be called back (lit. / do not believe there to be a going zvith a view to calling bach the soldiers). Many verbs have no supine in -uni. 138 A few verbs have also a Supine in -u, which is an Ablative or Dative or Locative case of a Verb-Noun of the 4th declen- sion ; but supines in -u are very rare : facile facta, an easy thing to do. Difficile dictu est. // is difficult to say. The following tables show the principal translations of the moods, tenses, verb-nouns, and verb-adjectives in the active voice of two verbs : (i) the verb voco, * I call,' (2) the verb sioit, * I am/ which is used in two ways : (ij with full meaning, in sentences like Sti})i pins Aeneas ' I am the faithful Aeneas ' ; Est^profedbjdeus qui quae nos geriinus audit et videt "There is (= exists) assuredly a god who hears and sees what we are doing ' (Plautus, The Captives, 313)- (ii) as an auxiliary verb, which, when joined with the Perfect Participle Passive, forms the tenses of completed action of the Passive Voice (§ 158). 6o ACCIDENCE VOCO— Active Voice Tenses of incomplete action— Stem voca- INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present VOCO / am calling vocas you are calling voca, vocato call vocat he is calling vocato let him call vocamus ive are calling vocatis you are calling vocate, vocatote call vocant they are calling vocanto let them call or / call, &c., § 127 SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present vocabo / shall call vocem \ voces V' vocabis you will call vocabit he will call vocet -" vocabimus we shall call vocemus vocabitis you ivill call vocetis vocabunt they will call vocent or I shall be calling, &c.,§ 127 For the meanings see §§ 130, 131 ^^ ^ ^ Past Imperfect Past V vocabam / ivas calling vocarem -^v::) , vocabas you were calling vocares \^' \^ ./\ vocaret y rV ^ vocabat he was calling vocabamus zve ivere calling vocaremus v vocabatis you were calling vocaretis vocabant they were calling vocarent or/<:a//tY/{habitually), = used For the meanings see §§ 130, to call, &c., § 127 131 1 Pres. Part. FuT. Part. VERB- ADJS. vocans (-nt-) calling vocaturus, a, um about to call Pres. Infin. Put. Infin. vocare to call vocaturus (a, um) esse to VERB. be about to call NOUNS Gerund Supine vocandum [///f act vocatum [ivith a vieiv] to of^ calling call IHE VERB 6i VOCO — Active Voice (continued) Tenses of completed action— Stem vocav- INDICATIVE Perfect vocavi / have called vocavisti yoii have called vocavit he has called vocavimus ive have called vocavistis vo// have called vocaverunt (-ere) they have called or / called, &c., § 128 Future Perfect vocavero / shall have ^ vocaveris ^ yon zvill have | ^ vocaverit he ivill have \_^ vocaverimus ' ive shall have [ "^ vocaveritis ' yon ivill have \ vocaverint they ivill have / Past Perfect vocaveram / had vocaveras j'o/^ had | vocaverat he had '^ vocaveram us ive had ""^ vocaveratis you had 1 vocaverant they had ' IMPERA TIVE [None] SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect vocaverim \ vocaveris ^ , vocaverit vocaverimus ^ vocaveritis ^ vocaverint For the meanings see §§ 130* 131 Past Perfect vocavissem vocavisses vocavisset vocavissemus vocavissetis vocavissent For the meanings see §§ 130, 131 VERB. VERB- NOUN [None] Perf. Infin. vocavisse to have called 1 i often lengthened. - 7 often shortened. The same statements apply in all other verbs [sec Appendix], 62 ACCIDENCE SUM Tenses of incomplete action INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present sum / am esyou are es, esto he est he is esto let him he sumus voe are estis jvo« are este, estote he sunt they are sun to let them he SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present ero / shall he sim / he eris you will be s\s you he erit he imll he sit he he erimus we shall he simus ive be eritis you -will be sitis you he erunt they ivill he sint they he [Other translations in §§ 130, 131] Past Imperfect Past eram I ivas essem / zuere eras j'ow were esses you were erat he was esset he were eram us ive were essemus zve were eratisj^'ow ivere essetis you were erant they ivere essent they ivere [Other translations in §§ 130, 131] VERB- [No Pres. Pel rt.] Put. Part, futurus, a, um ADJ. about to he VERB- Pres. Infin. esse FuT.lNF,N.{[°[j;^g(^^^^j^g^^ NOUNS to he 1 to he about to be [No Gerund 1 * Fore is the only non-compounded fiit. infin. which exists in Latin. It also serves as a fut. infin. lo /id (§ 246). From the same stem comes a b3-- form of the Past Subjunctive : forcm, fores, foret ; forent — I sliould be, you would be, Sec. THE VERB 63 SUM (continued) Tenses of completed action— Stem fu- INDICATIVE Perfect \ fill I have been k\\s>i\ yon Jiave been fuit lie has been fuimus ive have been {\nsi\s, yon have been fuerunt (-ere) theyJiavebeen or / was, you ivere, he icas, !kc., § 128 Future Perfect fuero / sha/t have been hieris yon ivill have been fuerit he ivill have been fuerimus ive shall have been fueritis vo/< ivill have been fuerint they -a'ill have been Past Perfect fueram / had been fueras you had been fuerat he had been fueramus ive had been ' fueratis you had been fuerant they had been IMPERATIVE [NoneJ SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect fuerim ' ''^^' ^' V»/^ fuerls 1 fuerit fuerimus fuerltis ! fuerint For the meanings see §§ 1 30, 13 1 Past Perfect fuissem fuisses fuisset fuissemus fuissetis fuissent For the meanings see §§130, 131 VERB-ADJ. 1 NoneJ VERB NOUN Perf. Infin. fuisse to have been .. C^fiJi^ u 64 ACCIDENCE 143 III. Formation of moods, tenses, verb-adjectives and verb-nouns. The personal inflexions of the active voice in all tenses of the indicative and subjunctive, except the perfect indicative, are as follows : •mus •tis •nt 144 Sing. I. -o or -m Plur. i. 2. -s 2. 3- -t 3- See the tables of voco and sidh (§§ 139-42). Two of these inflexions are seen in English verbs — the m of the ist pers. sing, in the verb ' am ', and the t of the 3rd pers. sing, in forms like ' love/A '. Three of them survive in some French verbs : tn coiir-s, il coiir-t, tls coure-nt. The four conjugations. Latin verbs are divided into four conjugations,' which are distinguished by their characteristic vowels (seen in the present infinitive active) : Act. ISt CONJ. 2nd CONJ. 3rd CONJ. 4th CONJ. 'res. Infin. vocare, to call habere, to have, to hold regere, to rule, to guide audire, to hear 145 By removing the re of the pres. infin. act. may be found the stem from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed, and which is found unchanged in most forms : Examples : Stem Imperative Imperative Past Suhj. Past Subj. Active Passive Act. Pass. ISt CONJ. 2nd coNj. voca- habe- voca habe voca-re habe-re voca-rem habe-rem voca-rer habe-rer 3rd CONJ. 4th CONJ. rege- audi- rege audi rege-re audi-re rege-re m audl-rem rege-rer audl-rer ' These do not include a very important group of verbs vvhicii belong partly to tlie 4th, partly to the 3rd Conjugation (Mixed Conjugation, § 159). TIIR VER15 65 But in man}' of the forms belonging to the tenses of incom- plete action the stem suflers modifications ; in some forms its final vowel is shortened, as in voca-t, habc-t, audi-t ; in others it is changed, as in rcgi-t, rcgii-nt. Some of the forms of the 3rd and 4th conjugations are got from imitation of the 2nd conjugation; so rcgc-batn, audi-c-haui. It is, therefore, necessary to learn these tenses separately in the separate conjugations. They are given side by side in f§ 149, 150 for purposes of comparison. 46 The tenses of completed action have exactly tlic same endings in all the four conjugations, which differ only in the formation of the stem from which these tenses come. Here all the conjugations can be learned together: see § 151. 47 The stem of the perfect tenses active is formed — in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding the suffix V to the stems in a and J: voca-v-, audi-v-; in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding v to the stem in e (here shortened to c)', but the 7' amalgamates with the c so as to form h : habu- ; in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation from a stem which has no final vowel, e. g. rcg-. To this stem the suffix 5 is very commonly added : rex- (for rcg-s-)} 48 The stem of the perfect participle passive is formed— in most verbs of the ist and 4th conjugations by adding the suffix /- to the stems in a and 1: voca-t-, audi-t- ; in most verbs of the 2nd conjugation by adding t to the stem in c (here shortened to /) : habi-t- ; in most verbs of the 3rd conjugation by adding / to a stem which has no final vowel : rec-t- (for rrg-(-). ' Other ways of forming tin; perf. act. and the pcrf. part. pass, arc given in §§ 171, 172. 2 This / is the same as the t ov d which is used to form the past participle of most English verbs : dwcl/, los/, hearr/. The / which is found in the future participle active and the supine is of different origin, being the same as that which is used in nouns of the 4th declension. Hence these forms have no sense of completion : vocaturus = ahotit to call, not about to hate called. '•'01 !■ 66 ACCIDENCE The Four Conjugations— Active Voice 149 Tenses of incomplete action 1 ist CoN-j. 2nd CoNj. 3rd CoNj. 4th CoNJ. Stem voca-, ca// habe-, //air, Iio/d rege-, rii/c audi-, hear INDICATIVE voco habeo ' rego audio 2 vocas habes ' regis audls u vocat ' habet regit audit M vocamus habemus regimus audlmus 1 Cm vocatis habetis regitis audltis vocant \ vocabo 1 habent regunt audiunt habebo regam audiam vocabis habebis reges audies vocabit habebit reget audiet H vocabimus habebimus regemus audiemus — vocabitis habebitis regetis audietis vocabunt habebunt regent audient ^ K- (_ vocabam habebam \ regebam audiebam '^ a vocabas habebas regebas audiebas (/5 U. vocabat habebat regebat audiebat 'Zj V vocabamus habebamus regebamus audiebamus "^ s vocabatis habebatis regebatis audiebatis ? ^ vocabant habe bant regebant audiebant VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-l ^OUNS Pr. Pt. vocans habens regens (-nt-) (-nt-) (-nt-) audiens (-nt-) FuT. Pt. vocaturus, habiturus, recturus, auditurus, a, um ; a, urn ' a, urn a, um 1 Pr. Inf. vocare habere regere audlre ' Ger. vocandum habendum regendum audiendum 1 FuT. Inf. vocaturus habiturus recturus auditurus .n.'\ h Sui (a.umjesse (a, umjesse (a,um)esse (a, umjesse ». vocatum habitum | rectum audltum T11F-: VKRB 67 The Four Conjugations — Active V'oice (continued) Tenses of incomplete action (continued) I St CONJ. 2nd CoNj. 3rd Con J. 4th CoNj. Stem voca-, en// habe-, /lave rege-, ru/e audi-, hear IMPERATIVE S.2 < voca 1 vocato 1 habe ( habetu rege regito audi audlto 3 vocato habeto regito audlto P. 2 ( vocate 1 vocatote 1 habete (habetote regite regitote jajidite- faudltOte 3 vocanto habento SUBJUNCl regunto ^IVE audiunto vocem habeam regam audiam 1 H voces habeas regas audias 1 u vocet habeat regat audiat If) vocem us habeannis regamus audiamus vocetis habeatis regatis audiatis vocent habeant haberem regant - - rege rem audiant audlrem vocarem vocares haberes regeres audires vocaret habcret regeret audlret < 2h vocaremus haberemus regeremus audlremus vocaretis habEretis regeretis audiretis 1 voca rent haberent rege rent audlrent E 2 68 ACCIDENCE The Four Conjugations — Active voice (continued) 151 J-^ 1 Tenses of completed action Stems vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv- INDICATIVE IMPERA TIVE Perfect vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv- S. I. -I P. I. -imus 2. -isti 2. -istis 3. -it 3. -erunt [None] or -ere SUBJUNCTIVE Future Perfect Perfect vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv- S. I. -ero P. I. -erimus ' 2. -eris ' 2. -eritis ' 3. -erit 3. -erint vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv- S. I. -erim P. i. -erimus - 2. -erIs " 2. -critis '■^ , 3. -erit 3. -erint Past Perfect Past Perfect vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv- S. I. -eram P. i. -eramus 2, -eras 2. -eratis 3. -erat 3. -erant vocav-, habu-, rex-, audlv- S. I. -issem P. i. -issemus 2. -isses 2. -issetis 3. -isset 3. -issent VERB-NOUN -J Perfect Infinitive vocav-, habu-, rex-, audiv- -isse ■\.^ V THE PASSIVE VOICE 152 The passive forms of the tenses of incomplete action (indicative, imperative, and subjunctive) may be found from the active forms in all the four conjugations by adding the following endings and making some changes (i, ii, iii below) : ' /often lengtliened (§ 140). 2 Soften shortened (§ 140. THE PASSIVE VOICE 69 Endings. - Indie, Subj. ami short forms of the Im[)ciativc : S. 1. r P. I. r In P. 2 mini is 2. ris or re substituted for 3. ur 3. ur -/is and -fc Long forms of the Imperative, 2nd and 3rd persons, r. (i) where the active form ends in a consonant and the passive ending begins with r, the last consonant of the active is dropped ; (ii) the stem vowels, a, c, i of the ist, 2nd, and 4th conjugation recover their length in some of the forms in which they are shortened in the active; (iii) a fmal b in the active is shortened to b in the passive; (iv) a short / before 5 in the active becomes c in the passive. Examples : voco, voc6-r ; vocem, voce-r (;// dropped) ; vocamus, vocamu-r (5 dropped), vocas, voca-ris (s dropped) ; vocatis, voca-minl. vocat, vocat-ur {a long); vocant, vocant-ur. voca, voca-re ; vocate, voca-minl. vocabis, vocabe-ris ; regis, rege-ris. 153 The passive tenses of completed action are formed by com- bining the perfect participle passive with tenses of the verb sum (§ 141). The participle, being an adjective, agrees in gender number and case with the subject of the sentence or clause : populus Romanus ad arma vocatus est, the Roman nation has been (lit. is) called to arms ; mater Gracchorum vocata est Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi was caUed Cornelia) numina magna vocata sunt, the great deities -were invoked. The sense of completed action is given not by the verb sum but by the participle : vocatus sum, / am a called person (i. e. a person who has been called). Compare in English 'All these articles are sold ' = ' All these articles have been sold *. Vocatus sum is properly a present perfect (= Engl. / have been called), but it came to have the same double use as the perfect active (§ 128); as a past historic it is translated / was called. 70 ACCIDENCE VOCOR— Passive Voick 154 Tenses of incomplete action— Stem voca- INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present vocor / am being called vocaris ' you arc being called vocare, vocator be called vocatur he is being called vocator let him be called vocamur ivc are being called vocamini you are being called vocamini be called vocantur they are being called vocantor let them be called or / am called, kc, § 127 SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present vocabor / shall be called vocer vocaberis ' you will be called voceris ' vocabitur he ivill be called vocetur vocabimur ivc shall be called vocemur vocabimini you zvill be called vocemini vocabuntur they will be called vocentur Eor the meanings see §^ 130, 131 Past Past Imperfect vocabar / ivas being vocarer vocabaris ^ you ivere being vocarcris ' vocabatur he ivas being 1 ^ vocaretur vocabamur ive ivere being i"te vocareniLir vocabamini you ivere being\ vocaremini vocabantur they were being ' vocarentur or / tvas called (habitually) = used to be called, § 127 Eor the meanings sec §§ 130, 131 VERB ^ . ADJ. Gerund Adj. vocanc ius, a, um to-be- called VERB- Pkes. Infin. vocarl to be called NOUNS I Put. Infin. vocatu m iri to be about to be called ' Or with -tc lor -ris ^vocare, vocabcre, vocabarc, vocere, vocarere\ THE PASSIVE VOICE 71 VOCOR— Passive Voice (continued) Tenses of completed action- Compounded with Perf. Part. Pass. INDICATIVE I M PER A TIVE Perfect vocatus sum / have ^ vocatus es you have ^ vocatus est he has g [None] vocati sunuis zve have ~ vocati estis- yon have \ ^ vocati sunt )hey have or / ii'as called, iSrc, § 153 SUBJUNCTIVE Future Perfect Perfect vocatus ero / shall have > ^ vocatus sim vocatus eris you will have 1 vocatus sis vocatus erit he ivill have vocatus sit \ vocati erimus ive shall have vocati slnius vocati eritis you will have vocati sitis vocati erunt I hey will have vocati sint Past Perfect Past Perfect vocatus eram / had ^ vocatus essem vocatus eras you had \ ^ vocatus esses vocatus erat lie had ~g vocatus esset vocati eramus we had 5* vocati essemus vocati eratis you had ^ vocati erant they had vocati essetis vocati essent For the meanings see §§ 130. 131 In all the above forms the part iciple may be masc, fern., or neut. Sing, vocatus, a, um Plur. vocati, ae, a VERB- ■ ADJ. Perf. Part, vocatus, a, ui n called, having been called 1 VERB- ! NOUN Perf. Infin. vocatus (a, un 1) esse to have been called 72 ACCIDENCE The Four Conjugations — Passive Voice 156 Tenses of incomplete action I St CONJ. 2nd CoNJ. 3rd CoNJ. 4th CoNj. stem voca- habe- rege- audi- INDICATIVE vocor habeor regor audior H vocaris' haberis ' regeris ^ audlris ' u vocatur habetur regitur audltur w vocamur habemur regimur audlnuir vocamini habemini regimini audlmini vocantur habentur reguntur regar audiuntur vocabor habebor audiar W vocaberis ^ habeberis^ regeris ^ audieris' vocabitur habcbitur regetur audietur vocabimur habC'binuir regemur audiemur U. vocabimini babebimini regemini audiemini ci; vocabuntur habebuntur regentur audientur vocabar habe bar regebar audiebar w vocabaris * habcbaris ' regebaris ' audiebaris ^ ^t^ vocabatur habcbatur regebatur audiebatur Past ] FE vocabamur habebamur regebamur audiebamur vocabamini habebamini regebamini audiebamini vocabantur habebantur regebantur audiebantur I ^ERB-ADJh :CTIVE AN D VERB-h ^OUNS VERB. vocandus, habendus, regendus, audiendus, ADJ. a, urn a, um a, um a, um VERB- vocarl haberl regl- audlrl NOUNS vocatum Irl habitum Irl rectum iri auditum irl 1 Or with -re for -ris (vocarc, habere, regere, audire, &c.') ; see note p. 70. 2 Note the peculiar form of the Prcs. Infin. in 7 (regl), not, as might have been expected, in rr'i. THE PASSIVE VOICE 73 Tiii: Four Conjugations— Passive Voice (continued) Tenses of incomplete action (continued) ISt CONJ. 2nd CoNj. 3rd CoNj. 4th Con J. STI■:^ voca- habe- rege- audi- IMPERA TIVE S.2 1 vocare Ivocator \ habere f 1 egere faudire (habetor ( regitor (auditor 3 vocator habetor regitor auditor P. 2 vocamini habemini regimini audimini 3 vocantor habentor SUBJUNC. reguntor TIVE audiuntor vocer habear regar audiar '^ voccris ' habearis ' regaris ' audiaris^ •J) vocCtur habeatur regatur audiatur OS vocCmur habeamur reganiur audiamur vocemini habeamini regamini audiamini k 1 vocentur habeantur regantur audiantur vocarer haberer regerer audirer ' vocareris ' habere ris ' regereris ^ audlreris^ ^o vocaretur haberetur regeretur audiretur vocarmur haberemur regeremur audlreniur 05 < vocaremini haberemini regeremini audiremini Ou I vocarentur haberentur regerentur audlreniur 158 The tenses of completed action are formed by compound- incf the Perf. Part. Pass, with a tense of esse 'to be'. The participle may be masc, feni., or neut., and sing, or plur. See table on next page. ' Or with -re for -ris (voccrc, liabcarc, regaic, auclirc ; vocarcrc, haberere, regerere, audircre.). 74 The Four Conjugations — Passive Voice (continued) PERF. IN Die. S. vocatus, habitus, ) . j-4. r sum, es, est rectus, auditus ) ' ' P. vocati, habiti, ) recti, audltl ) ^""^"^' ^*^'^' ^""^ FUT. PERF. INDIC. S. vocatus, habitus, ) _ . ., , J-. - ero, ens, erit rectus, auditus ] ' * P. vocatI, habiti, ) • ,- ' ,-^- ' - erimus, eritis, erunt recti, audltl ) * ' PAST PERF. INDIC. S. vocatus, habitus, rectus P. vocati, habiti, i _ . _ • ,- ' ,-.- ' I eramus, eratis, erant recti, audltl ) ' ' IS, habitus, ) _ . ' ,-. \ eram, eras, erat , auditus j ' ' PERF. SUBJ. S. vocatus, habitus, • - .. ' ,-, ' r Sim, SIS, sit rectus, auditus ) ' P. vocati, habiti, ) - ,- ' ,-.- ' ,- simus, sitis, sint recti, audltl ' ' PAST PERF. SUBJ. S. vocatus, habitus, 1 - , ' ,-, ' V essem, esses, esset rectus, auditus j ' ' P. vocati, habiti, 1 _ _,. , .- ' ,-,- ' essemus, essetis, essent recti, audltl ' ' VERB-ADJECTIVE VERB-NOUN Perfect Participle Perfect Infinitive I St CoNJ. 2nd CoNj. 3rd CoNJ. 4th CoNj. vocatus, a, um habitus, a, um rectus, a, um auditus, a, um vocatus, a, unr habitus, a, um 1 ^^^ rectus, a, um j auditus, a, um 75 THE MIXED CONJUGATION 59 In the following important verbs in id the present infinitive, the past subjunctive, and most of the persons of the present indicative and imperative belong to the 3rd conjugation (with the stem-vowel / or c short), while the rest of the tenses of incomplete action belong to the 4th conj. capio, capere, cepi, captus, take. cupio, cupere, cuplvl, cupltus, desire. facio,' facere, feci, factus, make. fugio, fugere, fCigi, fugiturus, flee. iacio, iacere, ieci, iactus, tliroiv. pario, parere, peperl, partus, /);W//cr, bring forth. rapio, rapere, rapul, raptus, seize. sapio, sapere, saplvi be sensible. And compounds of quatib and -spieid : con-cutio, -cutere, -cussi, -cussus, shake violently. con-spicio, -spicere, -spexl, -spectus, catch sight of. Tenses of incomplete action— Active voice. 60 INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present S. capio P. capimus capis capitis capit capiunt S. cape, capitd P. capite capito capiunto SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present capiam, capies, capiet, C^c capiam, capias, capiat, ot^c. Past Imperfect Past capiebam, capiebas, capiebat. caperem, caperes, caperet. c^r. ^-c. VERB- 1 Pri:s. Part, capiens Fut. Part, capturus, ADJS. (.nt-) a, urn VERB- NOUNS Pres. Infin. capere Fut. Infin. capturus ' (a, urn) esse Gerund capiendum Supine captum ' Facio forms the imperative and sing. Juc without the final e). 76 i6i ACCIDENCE Tenses of incomplete action — Passive voice. INDICATIVE Present S. capior P. capimur IMPERATIVE caperis' capimini !S.capere,capitor P. capimini capitur capiuntiir capitor capiuntor SUBJUNCTIVE Present capiar, capiaris/ capiatur, c^c. Future capiar, capieris/capietur,i>"c. Past Imperfect capiebar, capiebarls/ capie- batur, c-^r. caperer, capereris,^ capere- tur, cr^c. VERB- ADJ. {Gerund Adj. capiendus, a, um VERB-NOUNS I Pres. Infin. capi FuT. In FIN. captum Irl 1 Or with -re for -ris ; compare notes on pp. 70, 72, 73. Tenses of completed action- Active voice. 162 Perfect Indic. cepi, cepisti, cepit, e^c. SuBj. ceperim, ceperls/ ceperit, i>T. FuT. Perf. Indic. cepero, ceperis/ ceperit, e^"c•. Past Perf. Indic. ceperam, ceperas, ceperat, e>^<:. SuBj. cepissem, cepisses, cepisset, 6-f. Verb-Noun — Perf. Infin. cepisse. Tenses of completed action — Passive voice. 163 Perfect Indic. captus sum, captus es, captus est, c^y\ SuBj. captus sim, captus sis, captus sit, &-'c. FuT. Perf. Indic. captus ero, captus eris, captus erit, 6~-t. Past Perf. Indic. captus eram, captus eras, captus erat, &-'c. SuBj. captus essem, captus esses, captus esset,C>-"c. Verb-Adj. — Perf. Part, captus, a, um. Verb-Noun — Perf. Infin. captus (a, um) esse. ' Sec notes on p. 61. / 77 DEPONENT VERBS 6d Deponent verbs are verbs whose indicative, subjunctive, and imperative are passive in form, but active in meaning, and whose only active forms are those of the present par- ticiple, future participle, future infinitive, supine, and gerund. The gerund adjective of deponents is passive in meaning, as in other verbs. Deponents are the onl}' Latin verbs which have three participles and three infinitives with active meaning. Participles Infinitives ^ Pres. I horta-ns (-nt-), ex/iorfi'ng: horta-rl, fo exJiort. Perf. I hortat-us, -a, -um, linvifig hortat-us (-a, -um) esse, io^ i exhorted. have exhorted. FuT. hortat-urus, -lira, -urum, hortat-Lirus(-rira, -urum)esse, about to exhort. to he about to exhort. 65 Some deponents had originally a reflexive meaning, i. e. denoted an action done to oneself, e. g. orlrl, to raise oneself, French se lever; hence to arise ; utT, to serve oneself, French se servir (argento meo usus est, // s'est servi de mon argent) ; vescT, to feed oneself. 66 The tenses of incomplete action of deponent verbs are exactly like those of the four regular conjugations {vocor, habeor, regor, andior, §§ 156, 157), except in three deponents which belong to the mixed conjugation (§ 161): ad-gredior, -gredi, -gressus, attack : so too other com- pounds of gradior : con-gredior, in-gredior, &^c. morior, morl, mortuus (fut. part, moriturus), die. patior, pati, passus, suffer. 67 Orior, orlrl, ortus (fut. part, oriturus), arise, is peculiar ; it belongs to the 4th conj., but is conjugated like capior in the pres. indie, and imperative, and in the past subj. forms orerer as well as orlrer. Its gerund adjective oriundns (never orien- dus) has the meaning of a present or perfect participle : dis oriundus, springing or sprung from the gods. The following tables show all the forms and meanings of a deponent of the ist conjugation. Examples in other conjugations : vereor, I fear {"znd conj.) ; fungor, / discharge (31(1 conj.) ; potior, / get possession of (4th conj.). 78 ACCIDENCE CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB Tenses of incomplete action INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present 1 hortor, / am exhorting hortaris,\yo« are exhorting liortare, hortator, exhort hortatur, he is exhorting hortator, let him exhort hortamur, we are exhorting hortamini, you are exhorting hortamini, exhort hortantur, they are exhorting hortantor, let them exhort or I exhort, &c., § 127 SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present hortabor, I shall > horter hortaberis/ you will •s* horteris ^ hortabitur, he ivill \ hortetur hortabimur, ive shall ■^ hortemur hortabiminl, yon will \ ^ hortemini hortabuntur, they wilr hortentur or / shall be exhorting For the meanings see^ 130, 131 Past Imperfect Past hortabar, / ivas hortarer hortabaris/ jvo?< ivere =^ hortareris * hortabatur, he zvas hortaretur hortabamur, zve tvere hortaremur hortabamini, j'o/^ wei^e hortaremini hortabantur, they were' hortarentur or I exhorted (habitually For the meanings see^ 130, 131 = tised to exhort) Pres. Part. hortans(-i It-), FuT. Part, hortaturus, a, Dqco exhorting um, about to exhort Gerund Adj. hortand us, a, um, to-be-exhorted Pres. Infin. hortarl, FuT. Infin. hortaturus (a, to exhort um) esse, to be about to exhort sg Gerund hortandum, Supine hortatum, [the act of \ exhorting [ivith a vieiv\ to exhort ^ Or with re for -ris (hortare, hortabere, hortabare, hortfire, hortarere) cf. notes on pp. 70, 72, 73. CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB 79 Conjugation of a Deponent Verb (continued) Tenses of completed action INDICATIVE Perfect { swm, I have cxJiortcd hortatus- es, you have exhorted I est, he has exhorted [sumus, ive have exhorted hortati \ estis, yon have exhorted ( sunt, they have exhorted or / exhorted, § 153 and § 128 Future Perfect [ero, / shall have > hortatus -! eris, yon -will have ) [erit, he -a'ill have j erimus, ive shall have hortati - eritis, you will have { erunt, they will have ' Past Perfect feram, / had . hortatus^ eras, yotc had I j erat, he had [eramus, ~a'e had hortati J eratis, you had j lerant, they had IMPERATIVE [None] SUBJUNCTIVE Perfect (sim sis sit I simus hortati - sitis (snt For the meanings see §§ 130* 131 Past Perfect [essem hortatus-' esses ( esset I essemus hortati j essetis [essent For the meanings see §§ 130. 131 In all the above forms the participle may be masc, fern., or neut. Sing, hortatus, a, um Plur. hortati, ae, a ^ AdT Pe^^' t*ART. hortatus, a, um, having exhorted VERB- NOUN Perf. Infin. hortatus (a, um) esse, to have exhorted 8o ACCIDENCE 170 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS' The Principal Parts given in the following list are — 1. The Present Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing. 2. The Present Infinitive Active. 3. The Perfect Indicative Active, ist Pers. Sing. 4. The Perfect Participle Passive. This form is given in the masculine gender whenever the Perf. Part. Pass, can be used in all three genders : e. g. vocaius from voco. But in verbs whose Perf. Part. Pass, can only be used in vthe impersonal passive construction, the form is given in \the neuter gender : e. g. niansuiu from nianeo, fantum from favco. The active voice of the verbs to which these participles in -uni belong is used intransitively or with a dative. In the few verbs which have no Perf. Part. Pass, (masc, fern., or neut.) the Future Participle Active is given as the 4th Principal Part.^ The 3rd Conjugation is taken first because the most im- portant Perfects to be mentioned under the ist, 2nd, and 4th Conjugations are formed in the same way as those of the 3rd Conjugation. Formation of the Perfect Active. 171 (i) Rule i." All Perfects Active which are formed from stems ending in one of the vowels a, e, i, or are formed with the S-uffix <' : e.g. ist conj. voca-, vocdv- ; 1 In the list which follows (§§ 173-237) only the most important verbs are included. Others are given in the alphabetical list in the Appendix. - The Supine in -mn is generally taken as the 4th Principal Part. But the Perf. Part. Pass, is a far more important form than the Supine ; and, moreover, many verbs have no Supine in actual use. The Supine may be formed by changing -lis of the Perf. Part. Pass, into -iiiii. ^ The rules given here in heavy type have no exccption.s. ) PRINCIPAL PARTS OF ALL CONJUGATIONS 8i 4th conj. aiufi; (JU(fiv-; 2nd conj. coinplc-, complcv- \ liobc; liabii- (for liabev-, § 147) ; 3rd conj. pa-sc-, pav- ; crc-sc-, crcv- ; sci-sc-, sctv- ; iio-sc-, )idv-.^ (ii) Rule 2. All Perfects Active which are formed from stems ending in the vowel 11 or the consonant i< or in lid are formed without any suffix; e.g. 3rd conj. statu-, statu- ; voh'-, volv- ; defend-, defend- ; 2nd conj. inov-, inov- ; pciid; pcpciid-} (iii) Perfects Active which are Ibrmed from stems ending in a consonant other than v or nd arc formed in three different ways [a, b, and c, below) : either [a] with the sufiix 5 : e.g. 3rd conj. sciib-, scrips-. If the stem ends in a guttural, the guttural generally amalgamates with the 6": e.g. 3rd conj. reg-, rex- {§ 147); 2nd conj. aug-, aux- ; 4th conj. vine-, viiix-. But (Rule 3) if a liquid precedes the guttural, the guttural is always dropped before the suffix s of the Perf. Act.: e.g. 3rd conj. sparg-, spars-; 2nd conj. indulg-, induls- ; \i\\ con], fide-, f tils-. Rule 4. If the stem ends in a dental, the dental is dropped before the suffix 6' or turned into another 5 : e. g. 3rd conj. claud-, claus- ; ccd-, cess- ; 2nd conj. rid-, rls-. or (b) with the sui^ix u (chiefly when the stem ends in / or lit) : e. g. 3rd conj. coi-, coin- ; trein-, treinu-. or (c) without any suffix : e. g. 3rd conj. vert-, vert- ; leg-, leg- ; ag; eg- ; curr-, cuciirr-. 172 The stem of the Perfect Participle Passive is formed — (i) by adding the suffix / to a stem ending in a vowel or in any consonant except a dental : ist conj. vocd-, vocdt-; 2nd conj. eoinplc-, complet- ; liabe-, habit- ; 4th conj. audi-, audit-; ven-, venl- ; 3rd conj. reg-, rect- (§ 148); scrib-, ' Note that here the stem from which the Perf. Act. stem is formed is not the same as that from which the tenses of incomplete action are formed (cf. §§ 178, 198, 199, 201% So too in many verbs of the ist, and, and 4th conjugations; sec §§ 208. 213. 223. 82 ACCIDENCE scrip-t- {p for b) ; consul-, consiil-t- ; inscr-, inscr-i- ; crc-sc-, crc-t- ; nose-, no-U. (ii) by adding the suffix s to a stem ending in a dental. In this case the dental is either dropped or turned into another s before the suffix s : eland-, elau-s- ; defend-, defen-s- ; vert-, vers- ; mitt-, miss- ; sed-, sess-. But there are some exceptions to the above rule ; these are printed in heavy type in the following list of Principal Parts. The best guide to the formation of the Perfect Participle Passive is the English derivative which is formed from it. THIRD CONJUGATION I. Verbs in go, guo (pronounced gik>d) or ho. 173 (a) Most of these form the Perf Act. stem with the suffix s: reg-o -ere rex-i rect-us [direction] rule So tego, eover; intellego, understand; neglego, disregard. dl-lig-o -ere -lex-I -lect-us [predilection] /ow; ad-fllg-o -ere -flix-I -flict-us [affliction] dash down fig-o -ere fix-I fix-us j suffix] fix iung-o -ere iunx-I iunct-us [junction] join cing-o -ere cinx-I cinct-us [succinct] surround So ex-stinguo, quench [whence English ' extinct ']. fing-o -ere finx-i fictus [fiction] fashion So pingo, paint; stringo, tighten. trah-6 -ere trax-I tract-us [traction] draw veh-o -ere vex-I vect-us [invective] carry 174 The guttural is dropped after a liquid [Rule 3, § 171]. merg-o -ere mers-I mers-us [immerse] dip sparg-o -ere spars-I spars-us [sparse] scatter 175 {b) The following in go form the Perf Act. stem without a suffix : ag-o -ere eg-i act-us leg-o -ere Icg-I lect-us action] drive, do collection] gather THIRD CONJUGATION 83 frang-o -ere freg-T ' fract-us fraction | hirn/c pang-o tang-o pung-o -ere -ere -ere pepig-I ' tetig-I ' pupug-I pact-US tact-US ' punct-us compact 1 contact] puncture ] fix tuiicli prick 2. Verbs in c6, qu5 (pronounced kivo). 176 (rt) Perf. Act. stem formed with tiie suffix vS : dlc-o'^ -ere dix-I dict-us [diction] 6Y?v duc-o ^ -ere dux-i duct-us | reduction] lead coqu-o -ere cox-I coct-us | decoction] cook 177 {b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix : vinc-o -ere vic-i ^ vict-us | victory | conquer re-linqu-o -ere -hqu-I ' -Hct-us | derehct] leave parc-o -ere peperc-I pars-urus" [parsimony j spare 178 [c] The following verbs in sco form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending in a vowel (viz. the vowel that precedes the sc), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] : pasc-6 -ere pav-I past-us [pasture] feed ad-suesc-o -ere -suev-I -suet-us be accustomed So cresco, grou) ; quiesco, go to rest. scisc-6 -ere sclv-l sclt-us [plebiscite] decree nosc-o -ere nov-I not-us [notion] get to know 179 But disco and posed are peculiar : disc-o -ere didic-I learn posc-o -ere poposc-I postulat-us* [postulate] demand 180 All other verbs in esco take a Perf. from the 2nd Conj. : e.g. languesc-o -ere langu-I groiv weak abolesc-o -ere abolev-i (§ 221) 181 3- Verbs in u6 or vo. Most of these form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending in u or v, without a suffix [Rule 2, §171]: statu-o -ere statu-I statut-us [statute] set up 1 Formed from a stem which has no n before the guttural {frag-, pag-, - Imperative 2nd sing, die, due ; ci.fac, § 159, /rr, § 241. ^ Tlic Perf. Pass, of pared is generally supplied by temperdtuyyi est from the verb tempera, ist Conj. ' From the vcvh postulo, ist Conj. F 2 84 ACCIDENCE So exu-o, take off; inibu-o, tinge ; minu-o, lessen ; tribu-o, assign ; nietu-o (no part, pass.), /mr. ru-o -ere ru-I -rut-us ' tumble ruit-urus solv-o -ere solv-i solut-us [solution] loosen So volv-o, roll. 182 But vlv-o, stru-o, and Jlu-o form the Perf. Act. from a stem ending in a guttural (not seen in the Pres. Indie), with the suffix 5 : I victuals] live [construction] pile up (influx] Jlow 4. Verbs in do. 183 {a) Most of these verbs, except those in ndo (§ 186), form the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix s [Rule 4, § 171] : e-vad-o -ere -vas-i -vas-um claud-o -ere claus-i claus-us divid-o -ere divis-i divls-us So laed-o, hurt; plaud-o, clap; lOd-o, play ; ivnd-o, thrust. ced-o -ere cess-I cess-um [concession] yield 184 (^) ^^^ following form the Perf. Act. stem without a suffix : viv-o -ere VlX-l victurus stru-o -ere strux-I struct-us llu-6 -ere flux-I flux-us - evasion] go out clause] shut division] divide ed-o esse ed-i -es-us eat con-sld-o -ere -sed-i -sess-um session] seat oneself cad-6 -ere cecid-I cas-urus occasion] fall caed-o -ere cecld-l caes-us fell, slay cred-o -ere credid-i credit-US [credit] trust 185 Like credo are all compounds of dare (§ 210), if formed with a preposition of one syllable, e.g. abdo, hide; addo, add; condb, found; edo, give out, utter; indo, put in; perdo, lose ; prodo, betray ; reddo, give back ; subdo, put under ; trado, hand dozvn ; similarly vendo, sell (from venum do, / offer for sale). 1 In transitive compounds : di-tu/ns, ' destroyed^ ; o!j-fii/iis, ' buried'. ' Fluxus means ' flowing ', ' slacliened ', ' lax '. FHIKD CONJUGATION 85 186 (r) All verbs in mid form the Perf. Act. stem without a suffix [Rule 2, § 171J : de-fend-o -ere -fend-I -fens-us [defensive] defend So a-scendo, climb ; ac-cendo, kindle ; prehendo, grasp. pand-0 -ere pand-i pass-us spread out pend-6 -ere pepend-i pens-us [pension] K>cigli, pay tend-o -ere tetend-I tent-us [attention] slreleli fund-o -ere fud-P lus-us [fusion] pour scind-o -ere scid-P sciss-us [scissors] tear 5. Verbs in t5. 187 [a) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix s: 188 189 (r) Peto forms its Perf. Act. from a stem ending in / (added to pet-), with the suffix v [Rule i, § 171] : pet-o -ere petTv-I petlt-us [petition] aim at 6. Verbs in b5, po. 190 [a] Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix 5: scrlb-o -ere scrips-i script-us [description] write So nubo, maj'ry ; carpo, pluck. 191 . (b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix : mitt-6 -ere mis-l miss-US mission] send flect-o -ere flex-i flex-us ; flexible] bend nect-6 -ere nexu-I ' n ex-US connexion] bind (b) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix : vert-o -ere vert-I vers-us [version] turn sist-o -ere -stit-I ^ stat-us* [station 1 5/o/)(tr.and infixed) intr.) bib-o -ere bib-I potat-us ' pot-US " rump-o -ere rup-I rupt-us potation ] drink potion] rupture] burst ' Formed from a stem which has no n before the d (/nci-, sad-). ' nexu J\s a double Perfect formed by adding ti to iicv-. ^ Chiefly in compounds like con-sfttt, re-stilt. * From the stem sta-. •' From the verb putO, ist Conj. *' Often active in meaning = ' having drunk ' like tlie English ' drunken '. 86 ACCIDENCE 192 [c] Perf. Act. stem formed with the siififix a : pro-cumb-o -ere -cubu-I -cubit-um fall forward strep-o -ere strepu-I makeanoise 7. Verbs in 15. 193 (a) All verbs in lid form the Perf. Act. stem without a suffix : vell-o -ere vell-I vuls-us [convulsion] pluck fall-o -ere fefell-I fals-us ' I false] deceive pell-o -ere pepul-i puls-us [compulsion] push per-cell-o -ere -cul-i -culs-us cast down toll-o -ere sus-tul-I sub-lat-us lift 194 {b) All other verbs in Id form the Perf. Act. stem with the suffix u : al-o -ere alu-T alt-us nourish col-o -ere colu-I cult-us [culture] cultivate consul-o -ere consulu-i consult-us [juris-consultj consult So occulo, hide; and compare volo, nolo, malo, § 242. 8. Verbs in mo, no. 195 (<^) Perf. Act. stem formed with the suffix ti : trem-o -ere tremu-I tremble So gem-o, groan ; fremo, make a noise. gign-o ^ -ere genu-i genit-us [genitive] beget 196 {l>) Perf. Act. stem formed without a suffix : em-o -ere em-i empt-us can-o -ere cecin-I cantat-us'' ^redemption] buy, take incantation] sing 197 (^") ^QvL Act stem formed with the suffix s : prem-o -ere press-I press-us | pressure] press con-temn-o -ere -temps-I -tempt-us [contemptible] despise prom-o -ere promps-i prompt-US [prompt] take forth sum-o -ere sumps-I sumpt-us | consumption] /rr/vV ///> ' The meaning 'deceived' is generally expressed by itcccj'lus. 2 For gi-gen-o. 3 From the verb canto, ist Conj. rillKl) eONj LIGATION 87 198 (^1^ The following verbs in no form their I*erf. Act. from a stem ending in a vowel (c. Past Siibj. : prod-essem, -esses, -esset, C^c. Imperative : prod-es, -esto, -este, -estote. Infinitive : prod«esse. ' Only the forms printed in heavy type in §§ 239-47 need to be learned- 96 ACCIDENCE 240 possum, / can, is compounded of siun and an indeclinable adjective potts or potc meaning 'able ' : possum, ' I am able.' This adjective, which assumes the form />os- before 5, resumes the form pof- before a vowel. In the pres. infin. and the past subj. the syllable cs- of esse and esseiii disappears. This verb is also peculiar in the formation of its perf. active stem : potii-. Possum forms no imperative, and the onl}' verb-noun which it has is the infin. (pres. and perf.). Pres. Indie. : pos-sum, pot-es, pot-est ; pos-sumus, pot.estis, pos-sunt. Fiif. Indie. : pot-ero, -eris, -erit, c-r. Past Impcrf. Indie. : pot-eram, -eras, -erat, ^c. Pres. Subj. : pos-sim, -sis, -sit, <^e. Past Subj. : pos-sem, -ses, -set ; pos-semus, -setis, -sent. Pres. Itifin. : pos-se. Principal Parts : possum, posse, potu-i, . drops I . 241 fero, / bear ; ferre, tul-i, lat-us i before 5 and /, -a short e between two rs- The Imperative 2nd sing. '\s fer; cf. die, due (§ 176), fae (§ 159)- [See table next page. IRREGULAR VERBS Tenses of incomplete action. 97 ACTIVE INDICATIVE Present S. fero P. ferimus fers fertis fert ferunt IMPERATIVE Future feram, feres, feret, ^c. Past Imperfect 5. fer, ferto P. ferte, fertote fertd feruntd SUBJUNCTIVE Present feram, feras, ferat, d^r. Past ferebam, ferebas, ferebat, d-^f. ferrem, ferres, ferret, e-r. VFRR Pr^-S- Part, ferens (-nt-) Fut. Part, laturus, a, um ADjs I Fut. Infin. laturus (a, um) esse VERB- ; Pres. Infix, ferre NOUNS Gerund ferendum Supine latum PASSIVE IN Die A TIVE , IMPERA TIVE Present S. feror P. ferimur ferris ferimini 5. ferre, fertor P. ferimini fertur feruntur fertor feruntor Future ferar, fereris, feretur, d^c. Past Imperfect SUBJUNCTIVE Present ferar, feraris, feratur, d-c. Past ferebar, ferebaris, ferebatur,d^r. ferrer,ferreris,ferretur,d^T. ^^jj ' Gerund Adj. ferendus, a um VERB- NOUNS Pres. Infin. ferri Fut. Infin. latum Irl 98 ACCIDENCE 242 V0I5, / -a'ill, velle, volu-i, and its compounds nolo, / ivill not [from ue-volo], nolle, nolui, and malo, I prefer [from magis and volb\ malle, malui. Tenses of incomplete action. INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present vols nolo malo vis non vis mavis noli, ndlito vult non vult mavult nolito volumus nolumus malumus ; vultis non vultis mavultis nolite, nolitote , volunt nolunt malunt 1 1 nolunto SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present 1 volam nolam malam velim nolim malim 1 voles noles males velis n51is malis volet nolet malet velit nolit malit volemus nolemus malemus velimus nolimus malimus voletis noletis maletis velitis nolitis malitis volent nolent malent velint nolint malint I Past Imperfect Past volebam nolebam malebam vellem nollem mallem volebas nolebas malebas velles nolles malles volebat nolebat malebat vellet nollet mallet o"^T. e^r. e^r. C"-'6'. C'~-"t'. C^T. VERB- Pres. Part. j ADJ. volens nolens — [No Put. Part.] ! , Pres. Infin. [No Supinel VERB- : NOUN velle nolle mal 1 le [Gerund only in late Latin] 243 e5, 1 go, ire, i-i, it-um belongs to the 4th conjugation ; but it forms an old-fashioned fut. and past imperf indie, b}' adding -bo and -bant to the stem i-, just like a verb of the ist or 2nd conjugation (vocabo, habebo ; vocabam, habebam). Note the short / in ttu})i. IRREGULAR VERBS 99 1 Tenses of inc omplete action IN Die A TIVE IMPERATIVE Present ' 5. eo P. imus Is itis 5. I, Ito P. Ite, Itote It eunt Ito euntd SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present 5. ibo P. ibimus S. earn P. eamus ibis ibitis eas eatis ibit ibunt eat eant Past Imperfect Past S. ibam P. ibamus S. Irem P. iremus ibas ibatis Ires iretis ibat ibant Iret Trent VERB- Pres. Part, iens FuT. Part, iturus, a, urn ADJS. (stem eunt-) VERB- NOUNS Pres. In kin. Ire Gerund eundum FuT. Infin. iturus (a, urn) esse Supine itum The passive is formed in the same way, but is only used impersonally, e. g. Itur, there is a going ; but those compounds which are used transitively in the active voice have a fully conjugated passive voice (ad-Irl, to be approached, in-Iri, to be entered, sub-Irl, to be undergone, &c.). 244 Peculiarities in the tenses of completed action : — The perfect active is iJ (not Jvi), and these two vowels are contracted into one long /' before s : Per/. Indie. : il, isti, iit ; iimus, Istis, iCrunt. Past Per/. Subj. : issem, Isses, isset, 6^c. Per/. Infin. : isse. G 2 loo ACCIDENCE 245 queo, / can, quire, quivi, quitum nequeo, / cannot, nequire, nequlvi, nequitum are conjugated like cb (§ 243), but are used only in a few forms. 246 fio (i) / become •■ „ . . , ,..; r , \ fieri, fact-us sum. (n) 1 am made j In its second meaning fid serves as a passive to facio, which does not itself form a passive of the tenses of in- complete action, except in those compounds which are used transitively in the active voice (afficT, io be affected, interfici, lo be killed, &;c.). Tenses of incomplete action. INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE Present S. fid P. [Only in Old Latin and Late fis LatinJ fit fiunt SUBJUNCTIVE Future Present fiam, fles, flet, &'c. flam, flas, fiat, C^'c. Past Imperfect Past fiebam, flebas, flebat, &-'c. fierem, fieres, fieret, c>t. VERB-ADJECTIVES AND VERB-NOUNS [Pres. Part, and Gerund only in Fut. Part, futurus, about Late Latin.] to become Pres. Infin. fieri, Fut. Infin. fore, or futurus (i) to become esse, to be about to be- (ii) to be made ,, ^'^^"^ , , [factum TrI, to be about to be made, belongs io facio] IRREGULAR VERBS loi 247 edd, / cat, esse, ed-i, -es-us (only hi compounds, I'.g. ex-csus, eaten out, amb-esus, gnawed around). ! Tenses of incomplete action ! IX Die ATI VE IMPERATIVE Present S. edo P. edimus 1 es estis S. es, esto P. este, estote est edunt esto edunto j SUBJUNCTIVE Future ] Present S. edam P. edemus S. edim P. edimus edes edetis 1 edis editis edet edent j edit edint Past Imperfect | Past edebam, edebas, edebat c-^c. \ essem, esses, esset, ^c. ADIS. , Prus. Part, edens(-nt-) Fut. Part, esurus, a, um i ' T-rr-nn Pres. Infin. esse Fut. Infin. VERB- _ _ . ^ I NOUNS esurus (a, um) esse I . Gerund edendum Supine esum < 248 The following verbs of 'saying' are used chiefly in the tenses of incomplete action, and in these they are defective : (i) inquam, say /(used parenthetically), forms: — Pres. Indie. : inquis, inquit ; inquiunt. Fut. Indie. : inquies, inquiet. Past Inipcrf. Indie. : inquicbat. {"l) aid, / say, forms : — Pres. Indie. : ais, ait (two syllables : a-is, a-it); aiunt. Past Imperf. Indie. : aiebam, aicbas, aiebat, Cs^e. Pres. Subj. : aiat. (3) fan, to speak, forms chiefly : — Pres. Indie. : fatur, he speaks. Fiit. Indie. : fabitur, lie , zvi/l speak. Lnperat. : fare, speak. Gerund: fandl, fando, of speaking, by speaking. Per/. Part. : fatus, a, um, having spoken. < I02 ACCIDENCE 249 The foliowing verbs have no tenses of incomplete action. (i) The Perfect coep-I, / have begun, I began, coep-isse, coept-us : Perf. Indie. : coepi, coepisti, coepit, o^c. Ftit. Perf. Indie. : coepero, / shall have begun, coeperis,^ coeperit, o^c. > I Past Perf. Indie. : coeperam, / had begun, coeperas, coep- erat, 6-t. Perf Subj. : coeperim, coeperls,' coeperit, e^c. Past. Perf. Subj. : coepissem, coepisses, coepisset, &-'c. Fut. Part. : coepturus, a, urn, about to begin. % J Perf. Part. : coeptus, a, urn, begun. < 1 Perf. Indie. : coeptus (a, um) sum, / have been begun. The tenses of incomplete action are supplied by incipib, incipiant, incipicbam. The chief use of both coepl and incipib is with an infinitive as object : j.~ _ (coern, I have bemn 1, , .,, aedificare \. . ._ ^ / • • \to build. (incipio, / am beginning) Sometimes, however, with other objects or without any object : orationem coepisse (incipere), to begin a speech. The Passive forms are mostly used with a Passive Infinitive, and are translated by active forms in English : urbs aedificarl coepta est, the city began to be built. Sometimes, however, in other constructions : amicitia coepta est, friendship ivas begun. (2) The Perfect memin-i, / remember, memin-isse (unlike coept) has the meaning of a Present tense : Perf. Indie. : memini, meministi, meminit, &-'c. Fut. Perf. Indie. : meminero, I shall remember, memineris,' meminerit, c^'c. Past Perf. Indic. : memineram, I remembered, memineras, meminerat, cr'C. Perf Subj. : meminerim, meminerls,^ meminerit, ^'c. Past PerfSubf: meminissem, meminisscs, meminisset, 6^t. Imperative : S. 2 memento 1 , ' r> .'i. i remember. P. 2 mementotej ' See notes on pp. 6i. 68. IRREGULAR VERBS 103 (3) The Perfect 5d-i, I hate, 5d-isse, 6s-us has (like tiicniinl) the meaning of a Present tense : Per/. Iiidic. : odl, odisti, odit, <^c. Flit. Per/. Indie.: odero, I shall hate, oderis/ oderit, &-c. Past Pcrf. Indie. : oderam, / hated, oderas, oderat, d-r. Perf. Suhj. : oderim, oderls,' oderit, &-e. Past Perf. Subj. : odisseni, odisses, odisset, cr-'c. Flit. Part. : osurus, a, um, about to hate. Perf. Part. : osus, a, um, hating. The meaning of the Perf. Part, is neither passive (in spite of its passive form, cf. in French r?//t'' ' gone ') nor perfect. * See notes on pp. 6i, 68. APPENDIX TO PART I PECULIARITIES OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Second Declension. i Locits, m. 'place' generally forms a'neuter nom. and ace. plural loca. The masc. forms loci, locos mostly mean ' passages in books '. ii A few nouns in us are neuter, with ace. sing, the same as nom. sing. ; so vulgiis ' the rabble ' (rarely masc.). iii Some adjectives in us, a, uiii, form gen. sing, in Tiis, and dat. sing, in I, see §§ 86, 88. iv Some nouns retain an old form of the gen. plur. in um (generally side by side with the later form in drum) : (a) nouns denoting coins and measures ; e. g. nuinmus, m.' coin ' ; sestertius, m. 'sesterce' (a small silver coin) ; talcntum, n. 'talent ' (a Greek word denoting a sum of money — about ^200). (b) some nouns denoting persons: e.g. deus 'god', gen. plur. often deum in poets (§ 22. 3) ; llberi ' children ' (§ 21) ; socius ' all}^ '. Vir ' man ' (§ 17, p. 21) often forms gen. plur. virum in poets. (c) some nouns denoting nationalities, especially in poets : Achlvl ' Achaeans ', Teucrt ' Teucrians '. Similarly some numeral adjectives : duo (§ 89), compounds of centum (§ 80), and distributive adjectives like binT{§ 84) ; thus pedum quadragenum intervallo ' at an interval of 40 feet in each case ' (Caesar, B. G. iv. 17. 5). Third Declension. (i) Forms with i instead of e. V {(i) The accusative singular of a few nouns in is (Class B, § 28) ends in im instead of em : thus Z'Js, f. 'violence ' forms tv/;/ ; sitis, f. ' thirst ', sitifii ; puppis, f. ' stern of a vessel ', puppim ; so too proper names of rivers and towns, e.g. Tiberis, m. 'the Tiber', Ncapolis, f ' Naples '. A few nouns have both the form in /;// and that in em, e.g. securis, f. 'axe', sccurim ov>secureui. Tiberim, vim, Ncapolini ; scciirim, sitim, puppim. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 105 {/>) The ablative singular of the nouns that form the ace. sing, in i»t ends in /" instead of c : thus i>J ' by violence ', sift ' by thirst '. So too the ablative singular of some nouns which are properly adjectives, such as natalis (originally dies udtalis), m. ' birthday '. (c) ignis, m. ' fire ' forms abl. ignl in certain phrases, e.g. ferrd igtilque ' with fire and sword '. (ii) Genitive plural in //;;/ instead of itoii. (a) The nouns pokr, m. 'father', uulter, f. 'mother', frdkr, m. ' brother' have lost an e in the ace, gen., dat. and abl. cases : pater, patr-e)ii, pntr-is, patr-1, patr-e; phir. pafr-es, pnir-uni pafr-ibus. Thus the genitive plural comes to be contrary to the rule given in § 27. (b) The words cam's, m. or f. 'dog', mensis, m. 'month', itive- iiis, m. or f. 'young man ' or 'young woman ', and seiiex (gen. sou's), m. 'old man' form the genitive plural irregularly in ;/;« : caniini, mensttin,'^ iuvenum and senum. (c) Parens (gen. parentis), m. or f. 'parent' forms both paren- tuni and parentiuni. (iii) Genitive plural in iuni instead of //;//. ia) The following nouns form the genitive plural in ///;;/, con- trary' to the rule given in §23: vis, f. 'violence' (plur. vires, 'strength'); lis (gen. litis), f. 'dispute'; faux (plur. fauces), f. 'throat', 'jaws'; imber fgen. imbris), m. 'rain'; )iix (gen. nivis), f. ' snow ' ; Penati's (plur. I, m. ' household gods ' ; optimdtes (plur,), m. 'aristocrats' ; and proper names of tribes ending in is (gen. Itis) or as (gen. dtis) : vlriuni, tltiunt, faiicinm, Peiidtinni ; i)nbriiit)i and niviiiin, Saninltiiini, optintdfinni. {b) Many feminine nouns in tds (gen, tdtis) have a by-form of the gen. plur. in tdtiinn, as well as the more usual form in tdtnni ; e. g. clvitds, f. ' state ', clvitdlum or clvitdtiunt. (iv) The following nouns are irregular in respect of their stems or their endings. English derivatives showing the stem are given in square brackets, ' Mensiim is tlie ordinary form in classical times; nicnsium and incitsuuin are later (as has been shown by Wagener, Beilrds;e ziir lateinischcn Gmtn- iitatik, 1905'. io6 APPENDIX bos, m. or f. ' ox ' [bov-ine] : hov-em, bov-is, bov-l, bov-e ; plur. bov-es, bo-iint, bubus or bobiis. card, f. ' flesh ' [carn-al] : cam-em, cam-is, cant-1, carn-c ; plur. = ' pieces of flesh ' rare. cor, n. 'heart' [cord-ial] : cor (ace), cord-is, cord-l, cord-e; plur. cord-a [cord-ium, cord-ibus, rare). iter, n. 'journey' [itiner-arj^] : Her (ace), itiner-is. -J, -e, plur. itiner-a, -um, -ibiis. luppHer, m. 'Jupiter ', lit. ' Father Jove ' [jov-ial] : Iov-em,Iov-is, lov-J, lov-e. iusiurandiim. n. ' oath ', should be written as two words, ius a noun of the 3rd decl. (§ 37), ifirandum an adj. of the 2nd decl. : thus ins iurandum, inn's inrandi, iiirt iurando, iure inrando ; no plur. in use. OS, n. 'bone' [oss-ify] : os (ace), oss-is, oss-i, oss-e ; plur oss-a, oss-ittm, oss-ibus. senex, m. ' old man ' [sen-ior] : sen-em, sen-is, sen-J, sen-e ; plur. sen-es, sen-um, sen-ibus. sUs, m. or f. 'pig', sn-em, su-is, sii-T, su-e; plur. sn-es, su-nm, su-bus or sn-ibus. vis, f. 'violence', ace. vim, no gen. or dat., abl. vl ; plur. = 'strength ', vJr-es, vJr-inni, vlr-ibns. [Compare above xi.] xiv fv) Some adjectives, with no separate form for the feminine or neuter in the nom. sing., are declined like nouns of the 3rd decl. (Class A, §§ 23-6), i.e. they have the abl. sing, in e and the gen. plur. in nm, or one of these two forms. Contrast iiigrns, § 33. XV {0) Verb-adjectives in ns, gen. niis (Present Participles) form the abl. sing, in e, when they are used either as nouns or predica- tively in the abl. absolute; thus ab ainan/e 'by a lover', flTimine cnrrente 'as the river is flowing'. But when they are used as attributes of a noun they have the form in 1 (like ingens, § 33) ; thus in flhmine cnrrentl^ in a flowing river'. In poets they some- times form the gen. plur. in nm ; thus amaninm (for amantinm). cvi ih) The following adjectives form the abl. sing, in -e and the gen. plur. in -nm : vetns ' old ' (stem vcter-, whence English ' veter-an '). dives ' rich ' (stem dJvit-). pauper ' poor ' (stem pauper-) . princeps 'chief (stem princip-, whence English ' i-)rincip-al '). NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 107 Abl. sing, veicre, dlvt'ie, patipere, pnndpe. Gen. Plur. vetenou, dlvilum, paupentm, principum. Such adjectives generallj' have no neuter plur. (noni. or ace); but veins forms Vetera, and dives forms dltia (contracted). (vi) ceJer m., ceteris f., celere n. ' swift' is declined like Acer, acris, acre (§ 32), excepting that it does not drop the e of the stem. The genitive plural in the form ceternm is used only as a noun = 'of the cavalry '. (vii) A few adjectives are indeclinable, as tot' so many', nequatii ' good for nothing' (lit. ' no-how '). frfigl 'good for something' (lit. * for use ', dat. of/riix). Fourth Declension. A few masc. and fem. nouns form the dat. and abl. plur. in tibus : e.g. tribiis, f. 'tribe '. Alternative spellings in adjectives and adverbs. (i) Instead oiimtts in superlatives and ordinal numerals an older form in iiniiis is sometimes used : e.g. pesstnims, deciiimis (whence porta dccitviana 'the decuman gate', decumae 'tithes'); also in some other adjectives, c.g.fmitituuts. (iil Instead of -eitsiiitiis and -ieiis in numeral adjectives and adverbs (§ 80 f.) the spellings -esimiis and -ics are found. (iii) Instead of -eiidits in gerund adjectives belonging to verbs of the 3rd and 4th conjugation an older form in -itndus is found : e.g. repetimdus (whence pecuniae repetiindae ' moneys to be recovered ' = money illegally extorted) ; orinndtis, which has come to be used with the meaning of a present participle active, 'arising.' CHIEF EXCEPTIONS TO RULES OF GENDER (§§56-65) Exceptions to Rule for 2Nn Decl. (§ 60).— Proper names of towns and countries in us, and nouns in us denoting kinds of trees, are fem.: e.g. Coriuthus 'Corinth' {captlva Corinihus), Aegyplus ' Egypt ' ; ulmus ' elm ' {uhnus oiitiqua ' an immemorial elm ') ; also the word humus ' earth ' (humus atra ' the black soil '). A few in US are neuter: note VULGUS 'the rabble' (PROFANUM VULGUS 'the profane rabble'), PELAGUS 'the sea' (a Greek word, used by poets : PELAGUS APERTUM ' the open sea '). io8 APPENDIX Exceptions to Rules for 3RD Decl. (§§ 61, 62). 1. The following, which form the nom. sing, by adding the suffix s to the stem, are masc. : (a) Nouns ending in es, gen. itis, and ex, gen. ids: thus caespes ' turf (in caespite viv5 ' on the live turf), gurges 'whirl- pool ' (in gurgite vasto ' in the wild whirlpool '), vertex ' summit ' (in summo vertice ' on the topmost summit '). lapis, sanguis, mons and fons I stone, blood, mountain, fount pes, grex (greg-is), dens and pons ! foot, flock, tooth, bridge (c) Nouns ending in nis, with the same number of syllables in the gen. sing, as in the nom. sing. : amnis ' river ', crinis ' hair ', finis 'end' (sometimes fem. in the singular), fiinis 'rope', ignis ' fire ', panis ' bread '. Also the following, with some others less important : axis, orbis, collis, ensis | axle, orb, hill, sword fascis, piscis, unguis, mensis j bundle, fish, nail, month 2. The following, which form the nom. sing, without the addition of the suffix 5, are exceptional : Masculina — ordo, card5 ; rank, hinge ; cf. 'ordin-al', 'cardin-al pugio^ and scipiS dagger, staff 'Heutra.^—COR£>-A,CAP/T-A : heart (a^i^), head (c.-i/'i/ 7-) LAC MEL, \'ER,iTiNER-A \ milk, honey, Spring, journc}' (/TA' A") lash, corpse mouth [ps), bone {ps\ sea bronze {^aes), vessel, marble bare tree violence, earth, raw flesh VERBER-A, CADAVER-A OR-A, OSS- A, AEQUOR-A AER-A, VAS-A, 1^! ARMOR- A Feminina— «r^or nnda vis et tellus, card crudo Feminines of the 4TH Decl. (cf. § 63) The following in us are fem. : domus, nianiis, Idus, tribits ; I house, hand, the Ides, tribe ; also porticits and querciis \ colonnade, oak Exception to rule for 5TH Decl.— The word dies ' day ' is generally masc, but sometimes fem. in the singular number, when it denotes 'lapse of time', e.g. longa dies, or an appointed date, e.g. dies dicta, ante cam diem, ad hanc diem. 1 The quantity of the n in pugio is shown by an epigram of Martial (xiv. 33). 2 The plural of the neuters is given, where it exists, to show the stem. I09 NOTES ON VERBS (i) The ending -ere for -rntiit in the 3rd person plural of the Perfect Indicative (§§ 140, 142, 151) is especially common in poets and historians. (ii) The ending -;r for -ris in the 2nd person singular of the passive forms of verbs (§§ 152, 154, 156, 157, 161, 168) is found in prose as well as verse of all periods. Cicero generally used -ris in the Pres. Indie, but in the Put. Indie, and Pres. Subj. and in the Past Imperf. Indie, and Past Subj. he more commonly used -re. Virgil and Horace used both -ris and -re. (iii) Some forms of the Perfect Active are occasional!}' con- tracted : e. g. amasii (for omdv-istl), audisse (for aiidiv-isse). Perfect stems in Iv sometimes drop the t' and shorten the i: e. g. aiidi-erat, peti-erat (for aiidlv-erat, petJv-erat). (iv) The verbs died 'I say \ dFico 'I lead', faciu 'I make 'j/frw ' I bear' drop the final e of the 2nd pers. sing, imperative active ; die, dHC,fac,fer. (v) In some verbs the Future Participle cannot be found from the Perfect Participle Passive: e.g. moritnnis (§ 166), orititrits (§ 167), ruilurus (§ 181). (vi) The quantity of the ;' in the endings of the 2nd pers. sing, and plur. and the ist plur. of the Fut. Perf. Indie, of all conjugations {-eris, -critis, -erivnis) is properly short (representing, as it does, what is called a short 'thematic vowel' in Greek) ; the quantity of the ;■ in the corresponding forms of the Perf. Subj. is properly long (representing an optative i in Greek), But, owing to the similarity of these two tenses both in form and in meaning, they were confused at an early date ; and poets treated the quantity of the i in both tenses as either long or short according to metrical convenience : cf. placdris {— pldcCweris, Fut. Perf., Hon Od. iii. 23. 3), feceriniHS (Fut. Perf., Catullus 5. 10), egeritnus (Perf. Subj., Virg. Aen. vi. 514). (viij The quantity of the e in edu (ist pers. sing. Pres. Indie, § 247) and in all forms of the Future and Past Imperfect Indie, and of the Pres. Subj. is short; so too in the forms editntu, edeus (st. edent-), edeuditm. The quantity of the e in es (2nd pers. sing. Pres. Indie), and before 5S (as in essem) or st (as in est, estu) is no APPENDIX uncertain ; till recently it was supposed to be long ; but some recent authorities maintain that it was short, as in the corresponding forms of the verb smjh. [VoUmer, Glotta i. i, pp. 1 13-16, 1907 ; Niedermann, Berl. Phil. Wochenschrift, 1908, p. 664 ; Classical Review, vol. xxvi (1912), pp. 78-80.] (viii) Old Latin forms in -so and -sim.— Old Latin had many forms in -so and -sim which do not belong to any of the ordinary tenses of the verb, and a few of these were still used in the classical period : faxo, e. g. Virg. Aen. ix. 154, xii. 316, Livy vi. 35. 9. faxis, faxit, faxitis, faxint, e.g. Hon Sat. ii. 3. 38, ii. 6. 5, Livy xxii. 10. 4, xxix. 27. 3, xxxvi. 2. 5, Cic. Sen. 73. iusso, e. g. Virg. Aen. xi. 467. recepso, e. g. Catullus 44. 19. attsim, ausis, attsif, ausint, e.g. Cic. Brutus v. r8, Virg. Eel. iii. 32, Georg. ii. 289, Hon Sat. i. 10. 48, Ovid, Met. vi. 466. The stem from which these forms come is a Perf. Act. stem formed with s: fax- {=/ac-s-; contrast the ordinary Perf Act. stem without 6-, fee- § 204) ; iuss- like the ordinary Perf. Act. stem ofittbeo, § 220 ; aits- (= aud-s-, cf the Perf. Part, ans-iis, § 236). The ending itn is the same as that in sim, velim, nulim, malim, edim. The above forms in im may, then, be described as old- fashioned Perfect Subjunctives (often with future meaning, like other Perf Subjunctives). The ending b is the same as that in the Put. Perf Indie, of other verbs : faxo and iusso may, then, be called old-fashioned Put. Perf. Indicatives (sometimes without the sense of completion, see § 309. i) The forms in is, it, itis, iiit may belong either to the forms in or to those in im. (ix) Some old-fashioned Present Infinitives Passive in -ier are found in poets of the classical period, and in some old laws quoted by Cicero : e.g. (ist conj.) domindrier, Virg. Aen. vii. 70; landdrier, Hor. Sat. i. 2. 35. (2nd con'].) fa lerier, Hor. Epist. ii. 2. 148 ; torquericr, Propertius iii. 6. 39. (3rd conj.) r?am^/>r Virg. Aen. iv. 493; spargicr, Hor. Od. iv. II. 8. NOTES ON VERBS iii (x) The gerund adjective (§ 133) is not to be regarded as an adjectival form of the gerund (verb-noun, § 135). On the contrary the gerund grew out of certain uses of the gerund adjective (see Syntax, § 503, note). That this is the true account of the relation of these forms was shown by Wcisweiler in his book on the Participimn Fiitiiri Passivi (Future Participle Passive, the name by which the gerund adjective was always described by the Roman grammarians I, published in 1890. The gerund is a declined form of the neuter of the gerund adjective, used as a noun. [From a construction like cundiim est nobis (§ 501) the form eutuiuni was detached in the sense ofiUr; cf. i/er est nobis 'our way is', Virg. Aen. xi. 17: and from this was formed a genitive eitndf 'of the going' and an ablative eiindb 'by the going'.] THE CALENDAR Names of the months : — laniidrius, Februarhts, Martins, Aprl/is, Maius, lunitis, Ouiuctllis (or Inlitis, after lulius Caesar), Sextllis (or Augustus, after Augustus), September, October, Nove})tber, December. These words were originally adjectives : Iduiidrius mensis ' the January month '. — The number of days in each month subsequent to the reform of the calendar by Caesar in b.c. 46 was the same as at the present day. The 1st day of each month was called Kalendae (ist Decl., fem.). ,, 5th „ most months „ Nonae „ „ 13th ,, „ „ ,, Idiis (4th Decl., fem.). But :— In March, July, October, May, The Ides were on the 15th day, (and the Nones on the 7th). The intervening dates were expressed as so many days be/ore the Nones, Ides, or Calends. In reckoning backwards the Romans were accustomed to count the 'terminus a quo' as well as the ' terminus ad quem.' Thus Nunae means the 9th ( = 8th) day before the Ides. (A good practical rule is to add one in subtracting from Nones or Ides, and two in subtracting from the number of days in the month, for dates before the Calends of the next month.) 112 APPENDIX Examples. ' On the ist of January,' Kalendls lamidrus (abl. ; § 444). „ and „ ante diem quartum Nonas Iamiarias{zA. IV. Non. Ian.). ,, 3rd „ anie diem teriium Nonas lann arias (a. d. III. Non. Ian.). ,, 4th ,, pridie Nonas Idnudrias{-^Y\d. 'Hon. Ian.). „ 5th „ NonJs Idnudrits (Non. Ian,). „ 14th ,, ante diemundevJcensiniumKal.Febriidrids (a.d. XIX. Kal. Febr.). The accusative after anie in these expressions is due to the position of the word in the sentence : ante diem qiiartimi Nbnds Idnitdrids for die quarto ante Nonas Idnudrids; compare the expression ante tertium annum for tertio anno ante. ROMAN MONEY Amounts of money were reckoned as so many sesterces. Sestertius was the name given to a small silver coin, of the value of two and a half «ss^s. The word is a compound of semis 'half an ds ' [from semi and as] and tertius * third ' : thus it means literally ' the third {ds) half an ds ', and was used in the sense of 'two and a half «s5^s' (two asses and half of the third). Note the following expressions : (i) duo sestertii, 2 sesterces ; centum sestertii, 100 sesterces. (ii) duo milia sestertiorum or sestertium, 2,000 sesterces, lit. two thousands of sesterces (§ 83). Sestertium is an old form of the gen. plur., which is found also in the gen. plur. of some other words of the 2nd decl. ; see above iv, p. 104. (iii) duo sestertia, 2000 sesterces. In this expression the geni- tive sestertium has been detached from its governing word in expressions like duo mllia sestertium (ii), and treated as a neuter singular; hence plur. sestertia. (iv) deciens centena mllia sestertium, lit. tert times a hundred thousands of sesterces = 1,000,000 sesterces ; viciens centena mllia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces, &c. ROMAN MONEY "3 These long expressions were generally shortened by omitting the words ccntcna mllia : deciens sestertium, 1,000,000 sesterces, and sometimes the gen. scstcrlium was detached from these ex- pressions and used as a neuter singular in the sense of 100,000 sesterces: e.g. emT fundiim sestertib undeciens, *I purchased an estate at the price 0/1,100,000 sesterces ' (abl. § 438). Cention sestertii maj' be roughly valued at £1 (reckoning the as as id.) ; thus septem niilia sestertiion or septein sestcrtia = £-jo. The abbreviation HS or (better) IIS stands for iis{emis). ABBREVIATIONS PraenSmina. A. C. Cn. D. K. L. M. M'. Mam. A.U.C. = Aed. = Cos. = Coss. = D. D.D. = D.D.D. = D.M. = Des. = F. HS. {or IIS) = Imp. N.L. O.M P.C. = Aulus = Gains = Gnaeus = Decimus = Kaeso = Lijcius = Marcus = Manius = Mamercus N. or Num. = Numerius P. = Publius Q. = Quintus S. or Sex. = Sextus Ser. = Servius Sp. = Spurius T. = Titus Ti. = Tiberius Other Abbreviations. anno urbis conditae aedllis consul or consule consulesorconsulibus dlvus dono dedit dat, dicat, dcdicat dis manibus designatus : fllius sestertius (or plur.) = imperator = non liquet — optimus maximus — patrcs conscripti Pr. Pro C. Pro Pr. ProQ. Q. S. S.C. S.P.D. S.P.Q.R. S.V.B.E.E.V, V.R. = praetor (or -es) = pro consule or proconsul = pro praetorc = pro quaestore = quaestor = salutem == senatias consul- tum = salutem pluri- mam dicit = senatus populus- que Romanus = si vales bene est, ego valeo — uti rogas 114 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS ORDER IN ALPHABETICAL xli In this list compound verbs are inserted under the uncom- pounded tbrm, e.g. abdo under do. When a verb has several com- pounds formed exactly in the same way, only one or two of them are given as examples. Rules for the formation of the Perfect Active of compounds. 1. The Perf. Act. of the compound has generally the same vowel as the Perf. Act. of the uncompounded verb, even when the vowel of the compound is weakened to a short / in the Present ; see ago, premo. But compounds oiJiaheb, teiico, rapid, salio, and statiio retain the short i of the Present in the Perf. Act. 2. Compounds which have a weakened vowel other than a short / in the Present retain that vowel in the Perf. Act. and Perf. Part. Pass. ; e. g. claudb, qiiacrb, qnatib. 3. Reduplication is generally dropped in the Perf. Act. of com- pounds, except in those of disco, do, posed, sisto, sto ; see cado, pellb. Traces of reduplication are preserved in some compounds with re- : see recido, rcpellb. xlii aboleo abolere abolevi abolitus get rid of ^221 acuo acuere acul sharpen ^i8i adolesco adolescere adolevi adultus grow up ^178 ago agere egl actus drive, do §175 per-ago -agere -eg! -actus accomplish ex-igo -igere -egl -actus demand cogo cogere coegi coactus compel algeo algere alsT be cold §215 alo alere alul altus nourish §194 apiscor apisci aptus sum get ad-ipiscor ad-ipisci ad-eptus sum acquire §231 arcesso arcessere arcesslvl arcessTtus summon § 201 ardeo ardere arsi arsQrus be on fire ^216 arguo arguere argui accuse §181 audeo audere ausus sum dare §236 augeo augere auxl auctus increase §214 bibo bibere bibi f potatus 1 potus casurus drink §191 cado cadere cecidi fall §184 oc-cido -cidere -cidi -casurus sink re-cid5 recidere reccidi recasurus fiill back caedo caedere cecldl caesus fell, slay §184 oc-cldo -cidere -cldi -cisus kill cano canere cecini cantatus sing §196 capesso capesscrc capesslvl catch at §201 PRINCIPAL FARTS OF VERBS 115 capio ac-cipio carpo de-cerpo caveo cedo capere -cipere carpere -cerpere cave re ccdere -cendo not in use ac-cendo -cendcre ccpl captus tnkr -ccpl -ccptus receive carpsi carptus pluck -cerpsT -ccr^ins pluck off cavl cautuiii beware cessT cessLim yield censeo cerno de-cerno cieo ex-cio cingo claudo in-cludo colo censcre cernere -cernere ciere -cTre cingere claudere -cliidere colere comminiscor comininisci congruo congruere consulo consulere coquo coquere credo see under do crepo crepare cresco crescere cubo cubare -cumbo not in use pro-cumbo -cuinbere cupio cupere curro currere -ceiidi censui ere VI -crevi civl -civl {or cinxT clausl -clusl colul commentus sum congrul consulul consultus coxl coctus -census census -crctus citus -ciT) -citus cinctus clausus -clusus cultus pro-curro deleo dico disco de-disco divido do circum-do ab-do cred-5 ven-do doceo domo dOco edo emo ad-imo promo sumo eo red-eo ven-eo -currere delere dicere discere -discere dividere dare -dare -dere -dere -dere docere domare ducere esse em ere -imere promere sumere Ire -Ire -Ire crepui crevi cubul -cubul cuplvl cucurri -curri ] -cucurri I dclcvl dixl didici -didici divlsl dcdl -dedl -didi -did! -didI docul domul duxl edi -emi -cml p romp si sumpsi il -il -il H 2 crepitum cretus cubitum kindle decide distinguish decree rouse call fortli surround shut shut in cultivate devise agree consult cook creak grow (intran. lie doivn $204 ^ 190 §219 §183 § 186 §222 §198 §221 §221 §173 §183 §194 §231 §181 §194 §176 § 212 )§I78 §212 §192 §207 §200 -cubitum fall forward cupltus desire cursum run -cursum run forward deletus destroy §221 dictus say ^ 176 learn § ^79 unlearn divlsus divide § 183 datus give §210 -datus surround § 210 -ditus hide 1 185 -ditus trust $ 184 -ditus sell § 185 doctus teach 5 222 domitus tame ^212, ductus lead $ 176 esus eat 1 184 emptus buy, take § 196 -emptus take aivay promptus take forth § 197 sumptus take up \ 197 itum go i^ 243 -itum return be sold ii6 APPENDIX cxpergiscor expergisci experrectii s sum aivalce (intr.) §231 cxuo exuere exul exutus take off §181 facesso facessere facessTvI do eagerly ^ 201 facio facere feci factus tnake §204 pate-facio -facere -feci -factus throw open ad-ficio -ficere -feci -fectus affect iallo fallere fefelll falsus deceive §193 re-fell6 -fellere -felll refute farcio farcire far si fartus cram re-fercio -fercire -fersl -fertus cram §225 fated r fateri fassus sum confess §234 confiteor -fiteri -fessus sum confess faveo favere favl fautum be favourable §219 -fendo not in use de-fendo -fendere -fendl -fensus ivard off §186 terio ferlre percussi ' Id percussus ictus strike §229 fero ferre tull latus bear §200 ad-fero adferre attull allatus bring to au-fero auferre abstull ablatus take aivay con-fero conferre contull collatus bring together d if- fero difterre distull dilatus defer ef-fero eflerre extull elatus carry forth in-fero in ferre intull illatus carry in of-fero oflferre obtull oblatus offer refers referre rettull relatus bring back suf-fero sufferre sustull endure fido fid ere fisus sum trust §237 figo figere fixl fixus /•v §173 findo findere fidi fissus split |i86 fingo fingere finxl fictus fashion ^173 flo fieri factus sum become §237 flecto flectere flexl flexus bend §187 fleo flere flevi fletus iveep §221 fligo not in use ad-flTgo -fllgere -flixl -flictus dash doivn §173 pro-fllgo -fllgare -fllgavi -fligatus overthrow fluo fluere fluxl fluxus flow §182 fodio fodere fodi fossus dig §204 foveo fovere fovl fotus ivarm §219 frango frangere fregl fractus break §175 per-fringc -fringe re -fregl -fractus sJiatter fremo fremere fremul make a noise §195 fruor frul usus sum enjoy $231 fugiS fugere fugl fugiturus ffee §204 fulcio fulclre fulsl fultus prop $225 fulgeo fulgere fulsl flash §215 §186 iundo fundere fudi fusus pour fungor fungi functus sum discharge §231 gaudeo gaudere gavlsus sum rejoice §236 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS T17 gemo gemere gemuT groan §195 gero gerere gessT gestus carry §200 gigno gignere genul genitus beget §195 gradior gradi gressus sum step con-gredior -gredl -gressus sum meet §232 haereo haerere hacsl haesurus cling §220 J 226 haurio haurire hausi haustus drain imbuo imbuere imbuT imbutus tinge §181 incesso incessere incessTvT assail §201 indulgeo indulgere indulsT indulge induo induere indul indijtus put on §i8t Irascor Irasci suscensul get angry § 231 iacio iacere iecl iactus //iroiv §204 de-icio deicere deieci delectus cast doci'n iubeo iubere iussi iussus bid §220 iungO iungere iunxl iunctus Join §173 iuvo iuvare iuvT iutus aid §209 §231 labor lab! lapsus surr I slip lacesso lacessere lacessTvi lacessltus provoke §201 Iacio not in use e-licio -licere -licul -licitus lure out §205 in-licio - licere -lexi -lectus lure on §205 laedo laedere laesl laesus hurt §183 e-lTdo -lldere -lis! -llsus shatter languesco languescere langul grow weak §180 lavo lava re lavl lautus zvash §209 lego legere legl lectus gather §175 col-ligo -ligere -leg! -lectus collect[so e-(d e-)ligoJ dl-ligo -ligere -lexT -lectus love §173 intel-lego -legere -lexT -lectus understand §173 neg-lego -legere -lexI -lectus disregard §173 lino linere levl litus smear §199 linquo linquere llqui leave re-linquo -linquere -iTquT -lictus leave §177 loquor loquT locutus sum talk 5^231 luceo lucere luxl shine §214 ludo lijdere lusT lusum play v^i83 lugeo lijgere luxT mourn §214 luo lucre lui {}) loose {u)wa. 7/ §181 ab-luo -lucre -luT -Iutus wash off malo malle maluT prefer §194 maneo manere man si mansum remain §220 mergo merge re mersi mersus dip §174 metior metlrl mensussuin measure §235 meto metere messem feci messus moii) metuo metuere metui fear §181 mi CO micare micuT glitter §212 ininuo minuere minuT minutus lessen |i8i misceo mi see re miscuT mixtus mix ^ 222 mittu mittere mlsi missus send §187 ii8 APPENDIX mordec) mordere momordi morsus bite §217 morior morl mortULis sum die §232 moveo movere movl motus move (trans.) §219 mulceo mulcere mulsl mulsus soothe §215 j nactus sum ( nanctus sum nanciscor nancisci get §231 nascor nasci natus sum be born §231 necto nectere nexuT nexus bind §187 neglego see under lego nitor nitl j nisus sum strive \ §231 ( nixus sum rest on j nolo nolle nolul be unwilling §194 nosco noscere novT notus p-et to know §178 ignosco ignoscere ignovT ignotum pardon agnosco agnoscere agnovT agnitus recognise cognosco cognoscere cognovi cognitus ascertain §178 nubo nubere nupsi nupta marry §190 -nuo not in use ab-nu6 -nuere -nul deny §181 oblTviscor obllvisci oblTtus sum forget §231 ^194 occulo occulere occuluT occultus hide ordior ordirl orsus sum begin S^235 orior orlrl ortus sum arise §235 paciscor pacisci pactus sum 7Jtakea bargain § 231 pando pandere pandl passus spread out §186 pango pangere pepigl pactus fix §175 com-pingo -pingere -peg! -pactus join together parc5 parcere peperci parsurus spare §177 pario parere peperl partus get §204 aperio aperire aperuT apertus open §227 operio operlie operuT opertus cover ^227 com-perio -perire -perl -pertus learn §226 re-perio reperire repperl repertus//;/^ § 226 ex-perior -perIrT -pertus sum make trial of "§235 pasco pascere pavT pastus feed (trans.) ^78 patior pati passus sum suffer §232 per-petior -petl -pessus sum endure pello pellere pepulT pulsus push §193 im-pello -pellere -pull -pulsus impel repello repellere reppull repulsus repel pendeo pendere pependT hang{miv^r\s )§2i8 pendo pendere pependl pensus lueigh §186 im-pendo -pendere -pendl -pensus iveigh, pay perce 16 percellere percull perculsus cast doivn §193 pergo see under rego peto petere petlvT petltus aim at §189 pingo pingere pinxl pictus paint §173 plaudo plaudere plausT plan sum clap §183 ex-plodo -plodere -plosT -plOsus hiss off plecto poetical and rare com-plector -plecti -plexus sum embrace §231 PRIN'CIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 119 -pleo )iot ill list' coni-pleo -plcre pono see under sino posco poscere poposcT de-posco -posoerc -poposcT possum sec tinder sum prehendd prehcndcre prchendi premo premcre press! op-primo -priniere -press! proficiscor proficisci promo ser under emo plev! -pletus fill up postulatus demand demand prchcnsus^^;-(75/> pressus press •pressus surprise profectus sum set out pun go quaero re-qu!ro quatio con-cutio queror queo quiesco rado rapio d!-ripio rego cor-rigo pergo surgo reor r!deo de-r!de6 rodo rumpo ruo ob-ruo saepio salio de-silio sancio sapio sarcio scando de-scendo scindo scisco scr!bo seco sedeo ob-sideo sentio con-sentiu ad-senlior pungcre quaercre -qu!rere quatere -cutere quer! qu!re quiescere radere rape re -ripere regere -rigere pergere surge re rer! r!dere -ridere rod ere rumpere ruere -ruere saep!re sal!re -sil!re sanc!re sapere sarare scandere pupug! quaes!v! -qu!sTv! -cuss! questus sum qu!v! quiev! ras! rapu! -ripu! rex! -rex! perrex! surrex! ratus sum r!s! -r!s! ros! rup! ru! -ru! saeps! salu! -silu! sanx! sap!v! sars! scand! punctus prick quaes!tus seek -quTs!tus require shake shatter quassus -cussus quitum quietus rasus raptus -reptus rectus -rectus complain he able go to rest scrape snatch plunder rule correct perrectum go on surrectum arise think laugh deride -scendere -scend! scindere scid! sciscere scr!bere secare scdere -sidere sent!re -sentirc -sentFri sc!v! scrips! secu! sed! -scd! sens! -sens! -sensus sum r!sum -r!sus rosus ruptus ruiturus -rutus saeptus sanctus sartus -scensus scissus sc!tus scriptus sectus sessum -sessus sensus -scnsum gnaiv hurst tumble overivlielm fence in leap leap doiK'ii ratify be sensible patch climb descend tear decree write cut sit besiege feel agree assent §221 §179 §186 §231 §175 S^i99 §205 §231 §245 ^Si78 SW83 ^> 206 §173 §234 §216 § 216 §183 $191 §i8r §i8r § 226 §227 §224 ^ 207 §225 §186 §186 §178 §190 $212 ^2T7 ^ 226 §235 I20 APPENDIX sepelio sepelTre sepellvT sepultus bury §228 sequor sequi secutus folloiv §231 sero serere sertus twine §200 de-sero -serere -seruT -sertus desert sero serere sevi satus sow §199 con-sero -serere -sevi -situs plant serpo serpere serpsT craivl §190 sido rare con-sldo -sidere -sedr -sessum seat oneself i§i84 sino sinere sivl situs permit §198 de-sino -sin ere -sil -situm cease pono ponere posul positus place §198 sisto sistere stiti status stop §188 con-sisto -sistere -stiti stop soleo solere solitus sum be accustomed § 236 solvo solvere solvT solutus loosen §181 sono sonare sonul sonatijrus sound §212 spargo spargere sparsi sparsus scatter §174 dis-pergo -spergere -spersi -spersus scatter abroad specie ttot m use con-spicio -spicere -spexi -spectus look at f205 sperno spernere sprevi spretus scorn S^i98 spondeo spondere spopondl sponsus pledge §218 re-spondeo -spondere -spondl -sponsum<7«szwr statuo statuere statu! statutus set up §181 con-stituo -stituere -stituT -stitijtus establish sterno sternere stravl stratus strew §198 stinguo poetical and rare ex-stinguo -stmguere -stinxl -stinctus quench §173 sto stare stetl statijrus stand ^211 circum-sto -stare -stetl surround §211 in-sto -stare -stiti -statiarus pui'sue v^ 211 strepo strepere strepuT make a noise §192 stringo stringere strinxT strictus tighten §173 struo St rue re struxT structus pile up § 182 suadeo suadere suasT suasum advise §216 suesco poetical ad-suesco -suescere -suevT -suetus be accttstomed §178 sum esse fuT be §141 prosum prodesse profuT be serviceable S^239 possum posse potuT be able §240 sumo see under emo surgo see under rego tango at-tingu tego tern no con-temnd tendo con-tendo os-tendo tangere -tingere tegere temnere -temnere tendere -tendere -tendere tetigT -tigl texT -tempsT tetendl -tendl -tendl tactus touch -tactus touch tectus cover despise -temptus despise tentus stretch -tentus strain show §175 § 173 §197 §186 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 121 teneo tenere tenul hold §222 re-tineii -tinere -tinuT -tentus retain tergeo tergere tersT tersus li'ipe §215 tero terere trivl tritus rill) ^199 texo texere texuT textus iveave §202 tingo tingcre tinxT tinctus dip |i73 ^193 tolls tollere sustull sublatus I'fi tondeo tondere totondi tonsus shear §218 at-tondeo -tondere -tondi -tonsus shear tono tonare tonuT thunder §212 torqueo torquere torsi tortus t-a'ist §2r5 torreS torrere torrul tostus parch §222 traho t rah ere traxi tractus draiu §173 tremo t re mere tremul tremble §195 tribuo tribuere tribul tributus assign $i8t trudo trudere trusi trusus thrust §183 tundo poetical and rare con-tundo -tundere -tudi -tusus bruise §184 ulciscor ulciscl ultus sum avenge, punish §231 ungo ungere unxl unctus anoint S^T73 urgeo urge re ursi urge §215 uro urere ussi ustus burn §200 comburo comburere combuss I -bustus burn up utor uti usus sum tise, enjoy §23t vado vadere SO e-vado -vadere -vasi -vasum go out §183 veho vehere vexl vectus carry §173 vello vellere vein vulsus pluck §193 vends see under do veniS venire veni ventum come §226 verts vertere vertI versus turn §188 con-verto -vertere -vertI -versus turn re-vertor -verti -vertI I -versus return s^237 vescor vescT edi feed (intrans. ) ^231 veto vetare vetui, vetitus forbid §2T2 video videre vidl visus see ^217 vincio vincTre vinxi_ vinctus bind §224 vinco vincere vicl victus conquer §177 viso visere visl visit ^202 VIVO vivere vixl victurus live |l82 vols velle volul - wish $194 volvS volvere volvl volutus roll ^i8r voveo vovere vSvI vGtus vow §219 PART II— SYNTAX I. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 250 In Latin, as in English and French, a sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the word or group of words which denotes the person or thing of which the predicate is said : the predicate is all that is said of the person or thing denoted by the subject : Subject Exercitus The army Labienus Lab ic mis Exercitus The armv Predicate rediit. returned. exercitum reduxit. brought back the ainnv. salvus et incolumis erat. zvas safe ami soiuid. 251 Subject + predicate may be contained in a single word : red!, rctitni. In Latin the subject is often expressed or implied by the inflexion of the verb : redi-s, you return ; redi-t, he returns; redi-mus, av ;Y///r;/ ; redl-tis, j'o?/ nV//r// ; redeu-nt, they return. The parts of the predicate. 252 (1) The verb. A verb may form the whole of the predicate : exercitus Ted.\\i, the army returned ; Troia fuit, Troy JmsJiad its day. On the other hand predicates may be expressed without a verb : pavidi duces, mllites ducibus infensi, the officers [were\ terri- fied, the )nen \were^^ enraged with the officers; nc quid nimis, [one shouhi do] nonglit to excess; unde mihi lapidem ? ivhere [can I get] me a stone ? 253 {2) The object, governed by the verb : Labiriuis exerci- tum reduxit, Labienus brought bach the army. 124 SYNTAX ^54 (3) The predicative adjective, predicative noun or pre- dicative pronoun : (a) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the sub- ject is declared to be, to become, to be made, to be named, or to seem : exercitus salvus et incolumis erat, the army was safe and sound; Ubil vectigales Sueborum flunt, the Ubii become (or are made) tributaries of the Suebt; Labienus certior fit, Labiemts is informed, lit. becomes (or is made) more certain ; silva munlta oppidum a Britannls vocatur, a fortified wood is called a toivn by the Britons ; ascensus minime arduus videbatur, the ascent seemed not at all steep; ego is sum, / am he (=1 am the person in question). {b) indicating what the person or thing denoted by the object is declared to be made, or to be named : haec res omnia tuta reddidit, this rendered everything safe ; Suebl Ubios vectigales faciunt, the Suebt make the Ubii tribu- taries; Labienum certiorem facit, he informs Labienus, lit. makes Labienus more certain ; BritannI silvam muni- tam oppidum vocant, the Britons call a fortified ivood a toivn. 255 Predicative adjectives and nouns may be used in sentences which do not contain verbs of ' being ', ' becoming ', ' seeming ', 'making', or 'naming': exercitus salvus et incolumis re- diit, the army returned safe and sound (this does not mean 'the safe and sound army returned ', but ' the army was safe and sound when it returned ') ; exercitum salvum et incolumem reduxit, he brought back the army safe and sound ( = the army was safe and sound when he brought it back) ; naves humiles factae sunt, the ships ivere built low ; naves actuarias fecit, he built the ships as row-barges; Ubios multo humiliores rede- gerunt, they rendered (lit. reduced) the Ubii nnich more humble, i.e. reduced them so that they becante more hutnble (B. G. iv. 3. 4) ; nobilissimos civitatis legates miserunt, they sent the men of highest position in the state as delegates ; me adiijtdre utere, use me as a helper. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 125 Other parts of the sentence. 256 Any noun in the sentence ma}' be qualified by an adjective or the equivalent of an adjective. An adjective or adjective equivalent which merely qualifies and is not predicative is called an epithet: exercitus Rdmanus rediit, ilic Roman aniiy rctiinied (epithet adjective). On the ordinary position of the epithet adjective see § 3. 257 An epithet noun may stand either before or after the noun to which it belongs. The two nouns often form a kind of compound noun, of which either the first or the second part may be regarded as the epithet : urbs Roma, fhc city of Rome (i. e. either the Roman city or Rome which ivas a city) ; rex Galba, King Galba ; flumen Rhenus, the river Rhine; Garumna flunien, the river Garomie ; bellator deus, a ivarrior god. 258 An epithet noun which stands after the noun to which it belongs and is added as by an afterthought is said to stand in apposition : Galba, rex Suessionum, Galba, the king of the Siiessiones. 259 The verb, or any adjective or adverb in the sentence, may be qualified by an adverb or the equivalent of an adverb : deinde (or proxima hieme) Rhenum transierunt, thereupon (or in the next ivinter) they crossed the Rhine ; longius anno | uno in loc5 | incolendi causa | non remanent, tiiey do not remain \ in one place \ longer than a year \ for the purpose of residing there. 260 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva- lent to a noun, an adjective or an adverb, and not having a subject and a predicate of its own, is called a phrase : mllites naves conscendere iubet, he bids the soldiers embark (noun phrase, cf. § 461). homines capill5 promisso, men ivitli long hair, long- haired nu'ii (adjective phrase). trans Alpes habitant, they divell across the Alps (adverb phrase). Other examples in § 259. 126 SYNTAX 261 A part of a sentence consisting of a group of words equiva- lent to a noun, an adjective, or an adverb and having a sub- ject and a predicate of its own is called a subordinate clause : causa transeundl fuit quod bello premebantur, the cause of their crossing zuas that they ivcre hard pressed by ivar, or the fad that they luere hard pressed by war was the cause of their crossing (noun clause). ea hieme quae secuta est GernianI Rhenum transierunt non longe a marl quo Rhenus influit, /;/ the ivinter which followed the Germans crossed the Rhine not far from the sea into which (lit. ivhither) the Rhine flows (adjective clauses). Caesar, cum id nuntiatum esset, in Galliam Ulteriorem contendit, ivhcn this was reported, Caesar hastened into Further Gaul (adverb clause). 262 A sentence containing only one predication is called a simple sentence : longius anno uno in loco incolendi causa remanere iis non licet, it is not permitted to them to remain longer than a year in one place for the purpose of residing there} 263 A sentence consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts is called a double sentence or a multiple sentence : privati agri apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno remanere uno in loco licet, there is no private land among them, nor are they alloived to remain longer than a year in one place (double sentence) ; hi in armis sunt, illi domi remanent, the latter bear arms, the former remain at home (here the two parts of the double sentence are not connected by any conjunction) ; multum sunt in venationibus : quae res vires alit, they are much engaged in hunting: ivJiich circumstance increases their strength ' The instances in this and the two following sections arc taken from Caesar, B. G. iv. i. THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 127 (quae res = el ea res, connecting the two co-ordinate parts of the sentence ; contrast the use of quae in § 261). Each of the parts of such a sentence may be called a co-ordinate clause. 264 Similarly any member of a sentence may be double or multiple : hi atque illi in vicem in armis sunt, Ihc latter and the former bear arms in turn (double subject) ; quae res et vires alit et immani corporum magnitudine homines efficit, which circitinstance both increases their strength and makes them tncn of vast bodily size (double predicate) ; se atque reHquos alunt, they support themselves and the rest (double object); gens est maxima et belUcosissima, the tribe is the largest and most ivarlike (double predicative adjective); quae res et cibi genefe et cottidiana exerci- tatione et libertate vitae vires alit, idiich circumstance increases their strength both by the nature of their food and by their daily exercise and by the freedom of their lives (multiple adverbial qualification) ; ager privatus ac separatus, private and separate land (double epithet). 265 A sentence containing one main predication and one or more subordinate predications is called a complex sentence. 266 All sentences containing a subordinate clause (§ 261) are complex. In most complex sentences the part which is not subordinate has a subject and a predicate of its own, and is called the main clause : opportiinissima res accidit, quod German! ad Caesarem sul purgandl causa venerunt, a most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves [quod . . . vcnerunt is a noun-clause in apposition to res) ; ii qui trans Mosam ierant non redierant, those ivho had gone across the Mense had not returned [qici . . . ierant is an adjective-clause, qualifying il) ; si gravius quid acciderit, abs te ratidnem reposcent, // anything serious happens they ivill call you to account [si . . . accident is an adverb-clause, = under certain conditions). 128 SYNTAX 267 But in some complex sentences containing a noun-clause the rest of the sentence is incomplete without the noun-clause : causa transeundi fuit quod hello premebantur, the cause of their crossing (subject) ivas (main verb) tliat they were driven by ivar (noun clause, used predicatively) ; or the fact that they cverc driven by ivar (subject) ivas (main verb) the cause of their crossing (predicative noun), 268 A complex sentence may form one of the co-ordinate parts of a double or multiple sentence (§ 263) : opportunissima res accidit, quod Germani ad Caesarem sui purgandi causa venerunt (complex sentence) ; quos Caesar retineri iussit, a most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves ; and Caesar ordered them to be detained. II. AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS OF THE SENTENCE WITH ONE ANOTHER 269 The parts of the sentence are said to ' agree ' when they are made like one another in certain respects. Agreement binds them together and shows that they form a unity. I. Agreement of the verb. 270 The verb agrees with the subject in number and person, as in English and French : Hostis fugit. The enemy is running aiuay (sing.). Hostes fugiunt. The enemies are running aivay (plur.). Ite, filil, celebrate exsequias Sclpionis Africanl. Go, my sons, attend the funeral of Scipio Africaniis. Quem quaeritis adsum Troius Aeneas. /, Aeneas of Troy, ivhom you are seeking, am here. 271 A double or multiple subject takes a plural verb : Cicero et Terentia valent. Cicero and Terentia are ivell (3rd person). Tune et uxor tua valetis? Are you and your ivife ivell? (2nd person, because the double subject = vbs). AGREEMENT OF THE IVVRTS 129 Ego ct uxor niea libcriquc nostri valcnius. My ivijc and I and our child) en arc ivcll. (1st person, because the nuiltiple subject = )ius.) Constructions according to sense. 272 (i) A singular noun denoting several persons or things niay take a plural verb : pars so rcccporunt, part (- some of thenij retired. 273 (2) When the parts of a double subject are so closely connected that they form one idea, the verb may be singular : senatus populusquc Romanus decrcvit, the senate and Roman people has resolved. 274 2. Agreement of the predicative adjective and predicative noun. The predicative adjective and the predicative noun agree as far as possible with the word of which they are predicated (as in French)' — the pred. adj. in gender, number, and case; the pred. noun in case : Exercitus salvus et incolumis est {or rediit, § 255). The army is (or returned) safe and sound. Roma erat caput Italiae. Rome ivas the head [capital) of Italy. Vita rustica magistra parsimoniae est. A country life is the teacher of thrift, {nmgister happens to have a cor- responding feminine magistra.) Ciceronem populus Romanus consulem creavit. The Roman people elected Cicero consul. Milites salvos et incolumes praestitit. He secured the safety of the soldiers (lit. he secured the soldiers safe and sound) : cf. Cicero, pro leg. Man. § 55. Praesto in this sense is derived from praes and sto, ' I stand surety.' ^ The predicative adj. or noun is only part of what is predicated (see § 250). The agreement of predicative words with the words of which they are predicated is not found in all languages. In German, for example, predicative words unlike epithets; are uninflected. I30 SYNTAX Licet iis incolumibus exire. // is alloivt'd to than to depart unharincd : here incolumibus is predicated oi ils, which is governed by licet. Administrls ad ea sacrificia Druidibus utuntur. As agents for those sacrifices they make use of the Druids : here administris is predicated of Druidibus, which is governed by utuntur. 275 So too with an infinitive : Balbus civis Romanus esse vult. Balbus desires to be a Roman citizen : here cJvis is predicated of Balbus. Cicero dixit Balbum civem Romanum esse. Cicero declared Balbus to be ( = declared that Balbus was) a Roman citiwn : here clvem is predicated of Balbum. 276 Double or multiple subject. (i) When a double or a multiple subject consists of words denoting persons of different sexes^ and the predicate contains a predicative adjective, the plural adjective is put in the mas- culine gender, as in French : Pater mens et mater mea salvl sunt. My father and mother are well. (The double subject = duo homines, ' two human beings ', and homo is always masc.) (2) When a double or multiple subject consists of words of different genders but not denoting persons, and the predi- cate contains a predicative adjective, the plural adjective either agrees with the part of the subject which stands nearest to it or is put in the neuter gender : Bracchia modo eorum atque umerl llberl ab aqua erant. Oiu'y their amis and shoulders cvcre free of the water. Mors et somnus similia sunt. Death and sleep are similar (similar things). 277 The rules given above for predicative adjectives apply also to verb-adjectives (perfect participles) in compound tenses of verbs : pater meus et mater mea mortui sunt (capti sunt), my AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 131 father ivid iiiy inollier arc dead [have been taken prisoners) ; Cicero a populo Romano consul creatus est, Cicero ivas elected con SI d by the Roman people. 278 Peculiarity. If the subject is a demonstrative, interrogative, or relative pronoun, and the predicate contains a predicative noun, the subject is generally made to agree with the predicative noun, as in French : Hie vitae Hannibalis exitus fuit. This ivas the end of Hannibal's life. Haec est nobilitas mea, hac imagines meae. This is my title to nobility, this my gallery of ancestral busts. Quae est causa ? IVhat is the reason / Roma, quod caput crat Italiac. Rome, whieh was the capital of Italy. Sunt item quae appellantur alecs. There are also ivhat (/. c. animals which) are called elks (B. G. vi. 27 : (jiiae is feni., agreeing with alces). 279 3. Agreement of epithets. The epithet adjective agrees in gender, number and case with the word which it qualifies : vir bonus, a good man ; hie vir, this man (demonstrative adj.); qui vir? which man ^'^ (interrogative adj.); quota hora est? what o'clock is it? (interrogative numeral adj.); adulescentes quidam, so}ne young men (indefinite adj.); patriam suam relinquit, he is leaving his native land (possessive adj.) ; duo erant itinera quibus itineribus exire posscnt, there were two roads by -which roads they would have been able to march out (relative adj.) ; castra munlta, a fortified camp (verb-adj.). 280 If an epithet adjective qualifies two or liiore nouns of different genders, it either {a) agrees with the noun that stands nearest to it, or {b) is repeated : [a] signum et manum suam cognovit, he recognized his seal and hand ; omnes terrae et maria ) // / j ,, j . ,, r (ill lands aiut seas. terrae et maria omnia J I 2 132 SYNTAX (b) maior alacritas studiumque pugnandi mains, greater keenness and love of fighting ; omnes terrae et omnia maria, all lands and seas. 281 The epithet noun agrees in case with the word to which it belongs : urbem Romam relinquit, he is leaving the city of Rome ; silva Arduenna a flumine Rheno ad initium Remorum pertinet, the forest of the Ardennes stretches from the river Rhine to the frontier of the Renii [flfimen neut., Rlienus masc). Nouns in apposition : agrum Helvetiorum, gentis GalHcae, vastat, he lays waste the territory of the Helvetii, a Gallic tribe ; Athenas, inventrices artium et scientiarum, viset, he will visit Athens, the mother of arts and sciences {in- ventor happens to have a corresponding feminine in- vent ri.v). 4. Agreement of pronouns.^ 282 Pronouns agree in gender and number with the noun or noun-equivalent which denotes the person or thing indicated : Silva Hercynia magna est : in ea (fem. sing.) sunt multa genera lerarum, quae (neut. plur.) reliquis in locis visa non sint : ex quibus quae maxime diflferant a ceteris haec sunt. Est bos cervl figura, cuius (masc. sing.) a fronte unum cornii exsistit : ab eius (neut. sing.) summo sicut palmae ramique diftunduntur. Eadem est leminae marisque natura. Sunt item alces : harum est consimiiis caprls figura. . . . His sunt arbores pro cubllibus : ad eas se applicant (B. G. vi. 25-7). The Hercynian forest is large : in it there are many kinds of wild beasts, -which [i. c. kinds) have nut been seen in other places : of -which {i.e. kinds) those -which differ most from the rest are the following. There is an ox with the shape of a stag, from whose forehead springs a single horn : from the top oj this 1 The term ' pronoun ', as used here and in the Accidence, docs not include indicating adjectives, such as hie in hie vir, * this man ' ^see § 279;. AGREEMENT OF THE PARTS 133 Zi'lial 7rsciiib/rs /laiids and hranc/irs s/nrads out. The appear- ance of the male and of the female is the same. There are also elks : their shape is like goats ( = tliat of goats). Trees senr them as beds : they lean against them (/'. r. the trees). 283 The person or thing indicated by a pronoun is not always expressed by a noun or noun-equivalent in the sentence or context ; sometimes the speaker has a person or thing in mind without mentioning it : Ei qui in statione erant interfecti sunt. Those {i.e. the men) who were on sent?y duty -were killed. Ea quae acciderant nuntiant. They report the things 'which had happened. Caesarl cum id nuntiatum esset, eos per provinciam iter facere conarl, maturat ab urbe proficiscT. IVhcn that {i. c. that fact) had been reported to Caesar, namely that they iverc attempting to march through the province, he hastens to set out from Rome. 284 The pronoun ego indicates the person speaking, who may be male or female ; nos indicates the person speaking and other persons associated with him—/ and you or / and he {she, they) : tfi and vos indicate the person or persons spoken to, who may be male or female. The gender of these pro- nouns varies accordingl}' : Ful ego {masc.) liber ; nunc servus sum. — Ego te [masc.) llberum praestabo. / have been free ; noiv I am a slave. — / will guarantee you free. Ful ego (/c/;/.) libera; nunc serva sum. — Ego te {fem.) llberam praestabo. 285 Predicative pronouns agree not only in gender and number but also in case with the word of which they are predicated : Tune is es, qui fecistl?— Ego is sum. Are you he -who did it ? — / am he. Tune ea es, quae fecistl? — Ego ea sum. Are you she who did it ? — / am she. 134 SYNTAX 286 The relative pronoun agrees, like an}' other pronoun, in gender and number with the noun or noun-equivalent which denotes the person or thing indicated. This noun or noun- equivalent is generally found in another clause of the sentence, and is called the antecedent of the relative; see some examples in § 282. The case of the relative depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands, just as the case of other pro- nouns depends on the part which they pla}' as subject, object, &:c., in the sentence : /quae ad portum ferebant. Zi'/iic/i led to the harbour. quas hostes sine custodils rellquerant. ivhicJi the riiniiv had hft unguarded. quarum una angusta erat. of which one ivas narrozv. J quibus nullae custodiae praesidio re- lictae erant. to which no sentries had been left as a protection. quibus hostes exierant. by ivhich the enemy had marched out. . in quibus nullae custodiae erant. \ /// ivhicli tlicre zvere no sentries. Duas vias occupavit He seized the two roads Haec a me beneficia habetis, quem proditionis insimulatis. These benefits you have from me, whom you accuse of treachery. 287 The relative is always to be regarded as of the same /'n\w;/ as its antecedent ; the person of the relative is shown by the verb of the relative clause, when the relative is the subject : Ego, qui tc confirmo, ipse me non possum. /, ivho am reassuring you, cannot reassure myself (Cicero). luppiter, ingentes qui das adimisque dolores. O Jupiter, who dost inflict and take away great sufferings. I lor. Sat. ii. 3. 288. AGREEMENT OF TFIE PARTS 135 Obs. If the antecedent is a predicative noun or predicative pro- noun, it is generally treated as of the same person as tlie subject of the main clause: Sum pius Aeneas, raptos qui ex hoste penates classe veho mecum. / am the faithftd Aeneas, ivlio cany ivith me in my fled my household gods rescued from the enemy : Aen. i. 378. Non is sum qui mortis perTculo terrear. / am not one who is to be terrified by the danger of death : in Enghsh the antecedent ' one ' is treated as of the 3rd person. See other examples in § 285. 288 If a relative pronoun refers to the whole statement of another clause, it stands in the neuter singular (often preceded by id, 'that '; so in French cc qui), or agrees with res inserted in the relative clause : Ex litterls Caesaris dierum quindecim supplicatio dC-creta est, quod (or id quod) ante id tempus accidcrat null!. As a result of the dispatch of Caesar a public thanksgiving of fifteen days ivas decreed— a thing ivhich had not ha p- pened to any one before that time. Flumen Axonam exercitum traduxit : quae res omnia tuta ab hostibus reddebat. He crossed the riverAisne: ivhich manoeuvre rendered everything safe from the enemy. These are double sentences (§ 263). 289 Relative clauses without any antecedent expressed are common in Latin ; qui = is qui, 'he who,' French celui qui; qiiod — id quod, 'that which' or 'what', French ce qui; quJ- cumque, 'whoever,' French quiconque. Compare in English ' Who steals my purse steals trash ' (Shakespeare).* In such cases the relative pronoun agrees in gender and number with the antecedent which the speaker has in mind : Qui ex ils novissimus convenit, in conspectu multitudinis ' A relative clause of this kind tnlaeii togetlicrivilli ils iiiie.xfHrsscd aiitecedcut is equivalent to a noun (' //« who steals my purse' = 'a pickpocket') ; but the relative clause alone should not be spoken of as a noun-clausc. 136 SYNTAX necatur. He ivho is the last to present himself, is put to death in the sight of the multitude. Feras, non culpes, quod mutarl non potest.^ One should put up ivith, not find fault iias he speaking Latin ?. Hbros scrlbebat, he zvrote (= used to write) books; Latinc loquebatur, lie spoke ( = used to speak) Latin ; loque- baturne Latlne?, did he speak (—-used he to speak) Latin ?. 1 The Latin Past Imperfect Indicative has in general the same meanings as the French Past Imperfect (French Grammar, §§ 294, 296) ; but it is not used like the French Past Imperfect in //"-clauses which refer to present or future time (French Grammar, §§ 295, 315). THE INDICATIVE MOOD 139 In verbs which denote a state the non-continuous form of the English Past is generally used : erat, he was; habebat, lie had; amabat, //r /orvr/; sciebat, //^' /v/rrc. Homines nomen horum amabant. People loved the fianie of these )neu: Cicero, pro Sestio, § 105; the time at which they loved is expressed in a previous sen- tence : illls temporibus, /// those days. 295 The Past Imperfect sometimes marks an act as attempted or begun : BritannI nostros intra munitiones ingredl prohibebant. The Britons tried to (or began to) prevent our men from entering ivithin the fortifications. Special use. 296 In connexion with adverbial expressions of time how long' the Past Imperfect denotes what had been going on up to some point of time in the past (of. § 293 (i)) : iam diu librum scrlbebat, he had been tcriting a booh for a long time: domiciliimi ibi multos iam annos habebat, //^ //a<^/ //rrr/ his home there for many years ; French, // demeiirait la depuis plusieiirs ans. The Future.' 297 The Future tense marks the action of the verb as about to take place after the time of speaking: librum scrlbam (scribes, scrlbet), / shall {yon will, he ivill) write a book ; sciam (scies, sciet), / shall [yon a'///, he will) kno'a'. 298 A substitute for the Future, sometimes used with special meanings, is formed by snni with a Future Participle : librum scriptQrus est, he is about to :iist being under the authority of the Romans: cf. B. G. i. 31. 331 When the main clause is negatived or interrogative the noun clause is usually introduced by (/uin (derived from qul-ne, originally = ' why not ? ' or ' how not ? ') : GermanI retinerl non poterant quin tela in nostros ■ For some Latin verbs of tliis class wliicli take an infinitive (without a negative; see note to § 329. 154 SYNTAX conicerent. Tlie Germans could not be restrained from hurling missiles against our men : B. G. i. 47. — Non recOsamus quin armis contendamus. We do not refuse to fight (originally 'Why should we not fight? we have no objection '). 332 (iii) Noun clauses depending on verbs of ' fearing'. Here too the noun clause expresses (from the Latin point of view) a desire that something shall not be done : hence it takes ne where the English uses ' that ' or ' lest ', Compare the use of ne in French : je crains que jc ne mcurc = ' 1 fear that I shall die '. The Latin ne nioriar metub meant originally ' may I not die ! I have my fears'. Veritus ne ab omnibus deseratur, legates ad Caesarem mittit. Fearing lest he be deserted by all, he sends envoys to Caesar: cf. B. G. v. 3. — Veritus ne hostium impetum sustinere non posset litteras Caesarl remlsit. Fearing lest he should not be able to resist the attack of the enemy he sent a dispatch to Caesar : B. G. v. 47. Instead of ;/^ non ' that not ' ut is often used : Ut res frumentaria supportaretur timebant. They feared lest supplies should not be brought up : cf. B. G. i. 39. The ut was originally interrogative (like utinain in wishes, § 321) : ' how were the supplies to be brought up ? they had their fears.' 333 (i\') Noun clauses depending on a noun or noun-equivalent (pronoun or adjective used as a noun) : lus est belli ut victores victis imperent. // is the law of ivar that the victors shall give commands to the vanquished: cf. B. G. i. 36. — De senatus consulto certior factus est ut omnes iuniores Italiae coniurarent. He zvas informed of the vote of the Senate [to the effect] that all the younger men of Italy should (were to) take the military oath : B. G. vii. I. Similarly in dependence on nouns like sententia,fdtum, mos, potcstds, occdsio. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 155 Suuni ilkui. nihil ut adfirmct, tenet ad extrenuini. He maintains to the last that habit of his 0/ affirming nothing (that he shall affirm nothing) : Cic.^Tusc. i. 99. — Quid melius est quani ut nihil adfirmem ? IVhat is better than that I should affirm nothing ? Verum est ut boni bonos dlligant. It is right that good men should love good meti : Cic. de Amic. 50. — An verlsiniile est ut civis Romanus haec fecerit ? Is it probable that a Roman eitizen should have done this ? Cic. Sest. 78. {b) In adjective and adverb clauses. 334 Here the ^//^//-subjunctive assumes various shades ol meaning. (i) It may denote what is obligatory or proper or necessary or destined : Circumscrlbit nos terminis quos non excedamus. He confines us icithin limits ivhich we are not to (= must not) pass over: Livy xxi. 44. 5. — Quam mult! dies reperlrl possunt qui tall nocti anteponantur ? Hoiv many days can be found ivhich are to be preferred to such a night (/. e. to the sleep of death) ? Cic. Tusc. i. 97. — Accipe quod numquam reddas mihi. Here is a sum of money ivhich you need never repay me (lit. ivhich you arc not bound ever to repay me) : Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 66. — Nasce- tur Troianus . . . famam qui terminet astrls. There shall be born a Trojan ivho shall extoid his glory to the stars : Aen. i. 286 f. 335 (ii) It may denote the necessary or natural eftect of an antecedent: English 'such {or so) as to' with the infinitive. Compare ' Build me straight a goodly vessel which shall laugh at all disaster' (Longfellow) : which shall laugh = such as to laugh. 'There was no reason why I should rejoice ' = no reason such as to make me rejoice. Such clauses are often preceded by a word meaning ' so ' or ' such ' or ' enough ', 156 SYNTAX 'worthy', 'fitting', &c., in the main clause; compar the French td que and de sorte que with the subjunctive, 0«7-clauses. — Neque ulla tanta vis reperietur quatcon- iunctionem vestram labefactare possit. Nor wi any force be found so strong as to be able (h't. ivhichhall be able) to weaken your alliance : Cic. Cat. iv. 22.-Xon is sum qui mortis perlculo terrear. / am not a nut of such a character as to be terrified [not one ivlio is >j be terrified) by the danger of death: B. G. v, 30.-->atis erat causae quare Caesar in Dumnorigem advenret. There ivas sufficient reason -why Caesar should pnish {was to punish) Dunmorix: B. G. i. 19. — Digni-unt quorum saluti consulatis. They deserve (lit. the\are worthy) that you should consider their welfare : cf.Cic. leg. Man. 13. — Idonea niihi Laelil persona vis est quae de amicitia dissereret. / thought Laelius uiuit- able character to discuss (lit. who should discuss) jrnd- ship : Cic. Amic, 4. Secutae sunt tempestates quae nostros in castrls cnti- nerent. There followed storms ivhich were to keepour men in camp {= storms so severe as to keep): B G. iv. 34. — Quid est quod rideas? I That is there tlw.ou should (or have to) laugh at? — Nihil habeo quod aom. / have nothing to do {= nothing which I am to o) : Hor. Sat. i. 9. 19. — Haec habul de senectute uae dicerem. / had this much to say about old age (=:his much which I was to say) : Cic. Sen. 86. ^7-clauses. — Haec omnia sic agentur, ut bellum inistl- num sedetur. All this shall be done in such a maner that the civil war shall be ended: Cic. Cat. ii. 28.-Ita currus collocant, ut expedltum ad suos recepum habeant. They place their chariots in such a positiu as to have a ready retreat to their friends : B. G. iv. 3 — Mihi cuiusquam salus tanti fuisset, ut meam neglegerci? ^k^ THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 157 SJiould anyone's welfare have been (§ 319) of so great importance to 7ne that I was to (as to make me) disregard my own ? Cic. Sulla 45. — Quid in me admisl, ut loqui non audeam ? What crime have I committed that I should not venture to speak ? Plaut. Men. 712. — Nee tantum maerorem senatui mors Clodil afferebat, ut nova quaestio constitueretur. Nor did the death of Clodius cause the senate so much grief that a new court of inquiry had to he constituted: Cic. Mil. 13. — Nemo erat adeo tardus, quin (= ut non or qui non) statim castrls exeundum et occurrendum putaret. No one -was so sluggish as not to think that he must immediately march out of the camp and oppose us : B. C. i. 69. — Non possunt una in civitate multi fortunas amittere, ut non plures secum in eandem trahant calamitatem. // is not possible for many men in one and the same state to lose their property -without dragging (lit. in such a -way as not to drag) a greater number -with them into the same misfortune : Cic. leg. Man. 19). 337 (ii An adjective or adverb clause with a 5//rt//-subjunctive ma} >e subordinated to quam 'than', preceded by a com- para.ve adjective or adverb in the main clause : laior sum quam cui {or quam ut mihi) possit Fortuna nocere. / am too great for Fortune to be able {than that Fortune should be able) to injure me: Ovid, Met. vi. 195. — Longiusaberant quam quo telum adici posset. Tiny -were too far off for a javelin to reach them. Similarly quasi ' as if = quam si (with a postulative subj., § 343 : loqueris quasi nescias. 338 (n Many adjective and adverb clauses with a s//a//-subjunc- tivelenote what is desired. The subordinate clause (called a cluse of purpose) is introduced either by a relative pronoun or b ut ' that ', ne ' that . . . not ', or quo ' whereby ' [quo being gen rally followed by a comparative). They ma}^ often be trar.lated by an English infinitive. 158 SYNTAX Exploratores mittit qui locum idoneum castris deligant. He sends scouts to choose a suitable place for a camp ; lit. K'/?o shall choose, or n^ho are to choose: B. G. ii. 17. Labienum in continenti rellquit ut portus tueretur. He left Lahiemis on the continent in order that he should (might) protect the harbours : B. G. v. 8. Ne aestatem in Treverls consumere cogeretur, Indutio- marum ad se venire iussit. Lest he should (or In order that he might not) b& compelled to zoaste the summer in the country of the Treveri, he commanded Imhitiomarus to come to him : B. G. v. 4. Mllites manipulos laxare iussit, quo facilius gladils uti possent. He ordered the soldiers to open up their ranks, whereby the more easily they should (might) be able to use their swords : B. G. ii. 25. 339 In some adjective and adverb clauses the 5//rt//-subjunctive denotes little more than the idea of future time. Such sub- junctives may be called 'prospective', because they mark the action as in prospect either at the time of speaking or at some point of time in the past which the speaker has in mind. 340 Prospective subjunctives are often found in clauses of time introduced by words meaning 'until ' or ' before ' : Exspectare dum hostium copiae augeantur summae dementiae est. To wait till the forces of the enemy shall be increased is the height of folly : B. G. iv. 13. — Non prius duces ex concilio demittunt quam ab iis sit con- cessum ut arma capiant. They do not let the leaders go out of the council till permission to take up arms has been (lit. sJiall have been) gra)itcd by them : B. G. iii. 18. — Dum reliquae naves eo convenlrent in ancoris ex- spectavit. He waited at anchor till the rest of the ships should assemble there : B. G. iv, 23. — Priusquam se hostes ex terrore reciperent, exercitum in Suessiones duxit. He led his army into the country of the Suessiones before the enemy should recover from their alarm : B. G. ii. 12. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 159 34T Prospective subjunctives are especially common in adjective and adverb clauses which are subordinated to a clause which itself refers to future time : ^ Fraus fidem in parvis sibi praestruit, ut, cum operae pretium sit, cum mercede magna fallat. Fraud con- trives for itself credibility in small things, in order that, •a'hen it shall he ivorth ivhile, it may deceive with great profit : Livy xxviii. 42. 7. — Exspectabat ut, si forte hostes elicere posset, citra vallem contenderet. He ivas waiting in order that, if perchance he should be able to lure out the enemy, he might fight on this side of the valley : B. G. V. 50. (Contrast 5; with the Past Subj. in § 350. 2.) — Imperavit ut sustinerent quoad ipse propius accessisset. He ordered them to hold out till he himself should have come nearer: cf. B. G. iv. 11. — Sabellls docta ligonibus versare glebas . . . sol ubi montium mutaret umbras, taught .to turn the sod with Samnite mattocks tvhen the sun should lengthen the shadows of the mountains : Hor. Od. iii. 6. 38-41 {Sabcllus means 'Samnite', not 'Sabine'). 342 In some adjective and adverb clauses the 5//rt//-subjunctive expresses a supposition ('supposing that'). In this use the subjunctive may be called ' postulative ', because it denotes what is assumed or demanded for the purpose of argument. The origin of this use is seen in simple sentences (§§ 317, 321) : Vendat aedes vir bonus ; norit ipse vitia earum, ccterl ignorent : vitia emptorl dlcere debet. Let an honest nnm sell a house ; let him know its defects himself, but let all other men be ignorant of them : he ought to point out the defects to a purchaser (cf. Cic. Oft', iii. 13). Here the sentences with the subjunctive are conmiands ; but they are equivalent to suppositions : should an honest man sell a house . . .he ought to point out its defects. Compare in English ' Lot two parallel lines be pro- i6o SYNTAX duced to infinity : they will never meet '; ' Be he alive or be he dead'; 'will he nill he'; and in French soil = 'supposing it to be so.' Modo luppiter adsit : tertia lux classem Cretaels sistet in oris. On/y let Jupiter stand by its : the third dawn shall set our fleet on the shores of Crete : Aen. iii. ii6 f. A postulative subjunctive of the past is seen in instances like the following : — Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, quinque diebus nil erat in loculls. Supposing that yon had given a niillion sesterces to this thrifty man, in five days there was nothing in his money box : Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15 f. 343 But postulative subjunctives are generally introduced by a subordinating conjunction — sJ 'if'/ nt 'supposing that', dum or ditmmodo 'so long as', qitanwls 'even if, 'although ' (literally 'as you will', from quam and the 2nd pers. sing, pres. indie, of void) — or by a relative pronoun : Si vendat aedes vir bonus, &c. If an honest man should sell a house, Szc. For the use of the tenses of the sub- junctive in such ^/'-clauses see§ 350.^ — Ut omnia contra opinionem acciderent, tamen se plurimum navibus posse. [They reflected that] supposing that everything 1 Si means literally ' so ' ; the same word is seen with the suffix c in sTc {si 'in case', sT-c 'in that case'). In Shakespeare's time 'so' was some- times used in the sense of ' if ' ; e. g. ' No matter whither, so you come not here' (As You Like It, ii. 3. 30) ; Latin Non rejert quo eds, si non hue vcnids. 2 But the tenses of the subjunctive may be used without the special implications which they have in the sentences quoted in § 350 : e. g. Muriis oppidt a pldiiitie atqiie initio ascensus rectd regione, st niilltis anfrachis inlcr- cederet, MCC passfis aberat, 'The wall of the town was 1,200 paces distant from the plain and the beginning of the slope in a straight line, supposing no bend in the road to intervene' (= disregarding bends in the road) : B. G. vii. 46 — St in Itolid cousistai, eiiiniis und ; sin ccdct, consilt res est, ' Supposing him to make a stand in Italy, we shall meet ; but if he yields (lit. shall yield), the matter demands thought' : Cic. ad Att. vii. 10 : cf. Hor. Od. ii. 14. 6, ii. 17. 14, iii. 3. 7. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD i6i shoitliiliappoi coiilrary lo llicir cxpcclalion, tiny zvcir iicirr- //ir/css very strong in ships: B. G. iii, 9. — Oderint dum metuant. Lei thou hate, so long as {— provided that) they fear. — Ea voluptas, qiiamvls pcltA'a sit, pars tanicii est vltae. That pleasure, be it ever so small (lit. be it small as you will) is nevertheless a part of life.— Qui rel publicae sit hostis, folix esse non potest. IVhoso shall be an enemy of the state, cannot be a happy nian. 344 Such clauses often have a limiting or restrictive sense. [a\ Relative clauses limiting a superlative or negative : Omnium oratOrum, quOs quidem ego cognoverim, acu- tissimus. The most keen-voitted of all orators, at any rate of those zvhom I have known (all, provided that I have known them): Cic. Brutus i8o. — Servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabill condicione sit servitutis, qui non audaciam horum civium perhorrescat. There is no slave, provided only that he be in a not unendurable state of servitude, ivho does )iot (§ 335) shudder at the crimi- nality of these citizens : Cic. Cat. iv. 16, — Often in the expression quod sciam ' so far as I know ' (lit. ' supposing me to know it '). 345 {b) ^'/-clauses preceded by ita =ed condicione : Equites vobis ita concedunt ut vobiscum de amore rei publicae cer- tent. The knights yield to you [senators) only on the understa/uling that they shall vie with you in patriotism : Cic. Cat. iv. 15. — Ita illl audire poterunt ut vos quoque audiatis. Thiy will not be able to hear without your hearing also : cf Cic. Sulla 31. 346 A postulative (//^-clause (especially with quippc or ut * as ') may assume causal meaning: cf. siquidem, originally = 'if indeed ', hence ' since ' : Insipiens sum, qui quidem contra eOs tarn diu disputem. / am foolish to argue so long against them (Cicero) ; lit. if I argue, considering that I argue. •-'01 L 162 SYNTAX {B) SUBJUNCTIVES DENOTING WHAT WOULD HAPPEN UNDER CERTAIN IMAGINED CON- DITIONS 347 These subjunctives are translated by 'should' in the ist person and ' would ' in the 2nd and 3rd persons. What would happen is what will happen (or is likely to happen) under certain imagined conditions : e.g. ' What would you do ? ' means ' What are you likely to do in that case {or under those circumstances) ? ' The idea is that of a future action, the occurrence of which depends on a condition which the speaker has in mind. These subjunctives, then, may be called subjunctives of conditioned futurity.^ The}' express the meanings which are generally expressed in French by the Futures in the past. I. In Simple Sentences. 348 The Present and the Perfect Subjunctive denote what is likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of the present or future : Hoc Ithacus velit et magno mercentur Atridae. 77//^ t/ic Ilhacan ivoiild desire and the sons of Atreits would pur- chase at a great price ; ' would desire ' = ' is likely under these circumstances to desire': Aen. ii, 104; cf. ii. 8 quis tdliafando teniperet a lacrinns ? Dicere non ausim (= audeam). / should not venture to say. Similarly velini ' I should like', ndlim 'I should not like ', nialim ' I should prefer '. Hoc non facile dixerim. I should not readily assert this, I am not likely to . . . : Cic. Verr. iv. 94. ^ Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may have originally denoted what ought (logically) to be the case, marking a statement as a necessary inference from some supposition : si hoc verum sit, illud sit falsum^ supposing litis to be true, that tnust be {ought to be) false. If so, these subjunctives are in origin subjunctives denoting what isto be (see §§318, 319). Note that in the fourth example above qiiis aibilnlretitr might be translated ' zvlio zcas to lliink .^'' THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 163 The Past and the Past Perfect Subjunctive denote what tvas likely to happen under certain imagined conditions of the past : ' ^ Quis arbitraretur hoc belluni uno anno confici posse? lllio zvoiild havf thought [under those circumstances] that this ZiUjr conhi be brought to an end in one year? Cic. leg. Man. 31. Crederes victos. You ivouhi have supposed them eon- quercd : Liv. ii. 43. In such sentences 'you' may mean either the person addressed or an}' one ('one'). Nulla alia gens tanta clade non obruta esset. ylny other nation would have been ovenvhehned by so great a disaster: Liv.xxii. 54. Similarly veUeiii ' I should have liked ', nolleni, malleni. 2. In the Main Clause of a Complex Sentence. 349 Ihe combination ot a clause containing a subjunctive of conditioned futurity with a clause containing a postulative subjunctive (§342) forms a conditional sentence of a particular kind, in which there is an implication that the speaker does not vouch for the condition being (or having been) fuUilled. The use of the subjunctive in the //-clause marks the con- dition as a mere assumption [if it be supposed that), and in some cases implies that it is contrary to fact. 350 In conditional sentences of this kind ■ the tenses of the sub- junctive are used in special senses by writers of the classical period.^ I. When the //-clause refers to future lime, it takes the > The same idea is sometimes expressed by the FuUire Participle wilii a past tense of bUVH : see § 352. - There is another kind of conditional sentence, in which the //-clause is open, i. e. in which there is no implication as to the lulfihnent of the con- dition. Such //-clauses take the indicative mood : see § 531. ^ In tiie Old Latin writers the tenses of the subjunctive are somewhat dillcrenlly used. L 2 i64 SYNTAX Present Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Present Sub- junctive in the main clause, denoting what would happen : ' Si vir bonus habeat banc vim, ut digitorum percussione nomen suum in locupletium testamenta inserere possit, hac vl non utatur. 1/ a good man were to have the poiver of being able by snapping his fingers to introduce his name into the ivills of wealthy persons, he would not use the power: cf. Cic. Off. iii. 75. — Si habeat 'if he were to have' or 'if he should have' or 'should he have' implies ' I do not say that he ivill have'. The speaker (or writer) guards himself against being sup- posed to mean that the condition will be fulfilled. Si per te liceat, perendino die communem cum reliquis belli casum sustineant. If you iverc to permit them, they ivoitld the day after to-morrow face the chances of zvar in common ivitli the others : B. G. v. 30. 3. 2. When the //-clause refers to present time, it takes the Past Subjunctive, and is accompanied by a Past Subjunctive in the main clause, denoting what loould happen : Si vir bonus banc vim haberet, ea non uteretur. If a good man had this poivcr, he zvould not use it. — Si haberet ' if he had ' implies that he has not the power. The condition is contrary to present fact. Cuius rei si exemplum non habcremus, tamen institui pulcherrimum iudicarem. Even if noe had no precedent, I should nevertheless regard it as a fine thing that one should be established \ B. G. vii. 77. 13. 3. When the //-clause refers to past time, it takes the Past Perfect Subjunctive (or sometimes the Past Subjunctive-), 1 The Perfect Subjunctive is occasional!}' used in this case, but it is very rare. 2 The use of the Past Subjunctive with reference to past time is tlie older usage, often found in Plautus, e.g. deos voluisse credG ; nam ni vellent, nOn fieret, / believe that the gods willed it ; for if they had not willed it, it -wotdd not have happened {AuXulana 742). But, as in English and French, a form which originally denoted past time, came to be used with reference to present time: nisi Alexander esscm, Diogenes esse vellem, if I ivere not Alexander, THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 165 and is accompanied b}' a Past Perfect (or sometimes by a Past) Subjunctive in the main clause, denoting what 'aKUilii have liappoied : Si M. Crassus banc vim habuisset, eil usus esset. IJ Marcus Crassus (an unscrupulous man) /lad had this poivcr, he would have used it. — S'i habuisset ' if he had had ' implies that he had not the power. The con- dition is contrary to past fact. Dares banc vim M. Crasso, in foro saltaret. Had you given [supposing you to have given) this power to Marcus Crassus, he -u'oidd have danced for joy i)i the forum (Cicero, in the continuation of the passage quoted above. Crassus was dead when Cicero wrote). Nisi mllites defessi essent, omnes hostium copiae delerl potuissent. If the soldiers had not been tired out, all the forces of the enemy might have been destroyed : B. G. vii. 88. Nisi or nJ means ' if . , , not ' or ' unless '. 351 An //"-clause referring to past time may be accompanied by a main clause referring to the time of speaking : Si mens non laeva fuisset . . . Troia nunc stares. If our hearts had not been blinded, thou, Troy, would'st now be standing: Aen. ii. 54 f. 352 Instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive in the main clause the Future Participle with eram or fuT is sometimes used : Emendaturus, si licuisset, eram. / should have corrected the faults, if I had been ailoived to do so : Ovid, Tristia i. 7. 40 ; lit. / li'as likely to (or going to) correct the faults. 353 Instead of the subjunctive of a verb denoting ' can ', ' must ', or 'ought' in the main clause, the indicative may be used : Quodsl Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad / should wish to be Diogenes. The English were Siibj. of ivas) originally related to past time, as in ' If it were so, it was a grievous fault ' (Shake- speare) ; but it generally expresses a contrary-to-fact supposition of the present. So too the French Past Imperfect Indicative ('see French Grammar, § 315). t66 syntax tantum belliim is erat deligendus. But even if Ponipey were a private citizen at the present time, nevertheless it is he ivho ought to he chosen for the conduct of so great a war: Cic. leg. Man. 50. Similarly deligl eum oporte- hat ' he ought to be chosen ' ; deligt poterat 'he might be chosen '. St privatus turn fuisset, deligendus fuit. If lie had been a private citizen at that time, he ought to have been chosen. Similarly deligl cum oportuit 'he ought to have been chosen ' ; deligl potuit ' he might have been chosen '. Contrast the Past Perfect Subj. potuissent in the last example of § 350. 354 In conditional sentences with a subjunctive in the //"-clause, the subjunctive of conditioned futurity in the main clause generally assumes a negative shade of meaning, i.e. denotes some degree oi unlikelihood. But not necessarily; for when a word meaning 'even ' is added in the //"-clause, or when si alone means 'even if (as in some of the examples above), the speaker means that the action of the main clause is or was likely to happen in any case. For example, the passage quoted above (§ 350. i) from Cicero goes on as follows : Si vir bonus banc vim habeat, non utatur, ne si explora- tum quidem habeat id omnino neminem umquam sus- picaturum. If a good man ivcre to have this poiver, he would not use it, not even if he zvere to be sure that not a single person would ever suspect him : ' he would not vise it' = his refusal to use it is likel3\ 3. In Subordinate Clauses. 355 Subjunctives of conditioned futurity may bo subordinated to a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction : Nemo est qui ilium non ad Manlium quam ad Massi- lienses Tre mTdit. Their is no one 7oho 7i'ould not prefer that he should go to Manlins rather than to the people oj Marseilles : Cic. Cat. ii. 16. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 167 Maestl redierunt, ut victos eos credcres. Tluy returned sad at heart, so that one woahMiave supposed them coth qucred: cf. § 348. Honestum tale est, ut vel sT igndrarent id homines vel si obmutuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset laudabilc. Rightcousuess is of such a nature that even if men ivere unacquainted ivith it or had said nothing about it, it ivouhi neverthe/ess be connnendable by reason of its own beauty: Cic. Fin. ii. 49. Nescio num si banc vim haberem ut digitorum per- cussione heres locupletium scrlbl possem, hac vl uterer. / do not know whether, if I had the poivcr of being ab/e l)y snapping my Jingers to be written doivji as the heir of wealthy persons, I should use it (cf. § 350. 2). Non dubito quin si homines banc vim habuissent, saepe usurpata esset. / do not doubt that if people had had this power, it ivould often have been used} 356 Rut instead of the Past Perfect Subjunctive denoting con- ditioned futurity in subordination to a conjunction which itself requires the subjunctive,- or in a dependent question, the Future Participle with fucrim, fuerls, fuerii is generally employed, if the meaning is active and the verb has a Future Participle : Non dubito (or Non dubitabam) quin siM. Crassus banc vim habuisset, ea usurus fuerit. / do not (or did not) doubt that if Crassus had had this po-wer, he ivould have used it : lit. 'was likely to use //.'—Die quidnam facturus fucrls, si eo tempore censor fuisses. Say 'what you ivould have done (lit. were tdcely to do), if you had been censor at that tinw : Livy ix. 33. 7.'— Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi cum fugae specie abeun- > Note that in all these subordinate expressions of conditioned futurity no regard is paid to the rule of sequence of tenses f§ 365). - E. g. 11/ or /-clauses of time, cause, and concession did not become common till the time of Cicero. 170 SYNTAX quod, meaning 'because he (she, it)', 'although he (she, it)', take the subjunctive in both present and past time. Here, too, the r//;//-clause and the (7//r-clause are best trans- lated by a participle : — Quae cum (= Et cum ea^ ita sint ! ^g'-edere ex urbe (Cic. Cat. i. lo) ( tamen pacem faciam (B. G. i. 14^. this being so = (i) because this is so, (2) although this is so. Cum non amplius octingentos equites haberent, impetum fecerunt. Having {= Though they had) not more than 800 horsemen, they charged : B. G. iv. 12. Titurius, qui nihil ante provldisset, trepidare. Titiirins, ■Jiaving foreseen nothing, became alarmed: B. G. v. 33. 359 In translating from English into Latin, cum with the sub- junctive is a very useful equivalent for the English participle. One reason for this is that Latin has no perfect participle with active meaning, except in deponent verbs, and no present participle passive of any verb : nor has it any present par- ticiple of the verb 5/////. The r//;//-clause came to be used as a substitute for these wanting forms. 360 2. Certain clauses of result introduced by uf, or by qui, quae, quod, take a subjunctive with weakened meaning ' : Tanta tempestas coorta est ut naves cursum tenere nun possent. So great a storm arose that the ships luere not able to Jiold their course : cf. B. G. iv. 28. Cicero ne nocturnum quidcm sibi tempus ad quietem relinquebat, ut ultrd militum vdcibus sibi parcere cogeretur. Cicero did not allow himself even the night 1 The origin of this construction, which is such a curious feature of the Latin language, is shown in §§ 335 6. The Romans regarded a result as the iifcessnry effect of a cause— as something louud to liappeii, something wliich is or 2vas to come about. The subjunctive mood was very well fitted to express this idea, which is closely akin to that of the root meaning of the subjunctive. And the Romans employed this mood in all clauses of result — not only those in which English often uses the infinitive with 'as to' and French the subjunctive .nfter cle sorte que and similar expressions, but also those which are expressed in English and French and other languages as statements oifact (by the use of the indicative mood). THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 171 for slerp, so tJiat he was actiialh' co)iiprlled by the prolesls of the soldiers to spare Jiiiuself: B. G. v. 40. Tam paratus fuit ad dimicandum animus hostium iit ad galeas induendas tenipus defuerit. So eager 'were the eiie/iiy for fighting that time faih'd our men for putting on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21. Habctis eum consulem qui parere vestrls dccretls nOn dubitet. Yon have a consul of such a character that he does not hesitate to obey your decrees : Cic. Cat. iv. 24. Obs. Ouln may be used for ut non or qicJ {quae, quod) non, when the main clause is negative or interrogative : Numquam tam male est SiculTs quin aliquid facete dicant. The Sicilians are never in such trouble that they do not say {as not to say) something ivitty (lit, wittily) : Cic. Verr. iv. 95. 361 Out of this construction grew another in which the sub- ordinate clause loses all its sense of result and becomes purely descriptive. When a relative clause (with or without the antecedent is) is an essential part of the sentence, which cannot be removed without destroying the sense, it gencrall}' takes the subjunctive : Nulla navis quae mllites portaret deslderabatur. No ship that carried soldiers tvas missed: B. G. ■/. 23. Neque quicquam edrum quae apud hostes agercntur cum fallebat. Nor did any of the things which were going on among the enemy escape his notice : Livy xxii. 28. t. Sunt qui dicant . . . There are people ivho say . . .' Erant qui censerent . . . There were people who r.xpirssed the opinion . . . Livy xxi. 6.^ ' The origin of subjunctives of this type may pcrlmps I)c found in sentences like repoiutiliir ijtil dicant, ' people arc found to say ' : e. g. qiit sJ iillid morn offcrant faciliits repeniiutitr quam qui doldrettt palieuler fcraitt, people are more readily found to expose themselves i who shall expose themselves) unasked to death than to bear pain with fortitude: B. G. vii. 77. 5.- It should be noticed that the indicative is sometimes used after su)it qiCi, e. g. Caesar, B. G. iv. 10 aunl qui ptscibus et ovTs avium vlvere existuuaiilio ; Horace, Od. i. i. 4. 172 SYNTAX 362 3. Certain noun clauses introduced by ut or qitlii take a subjunctive with weakened meaning.' [a) 67-claiises depending on verbs of ' happening ' : Factum est ut impetum nostrorum non ferrent. The result was (lit. // resulted) that they did not stand the attack of our men : B. G. iii. 19. Accidit ut luna plena esset. It happened that there was a full moon : B. G'. iv. 29. (Z>) 0?/7«-clauses depending on negatived or interrogative expressions of ' doubting ' : An dubitamus quin RonianI ad nos interficiendos veniant [ventOrl sint, venerint] ? Do we doubt that the Romans are coming [wdl come, have cojne] to nntrder us ? cf . B. G. vii. 38. Non erat dubium quIn RomanI ad eos interficiendos venlrent [venturi essent, venissent]. There was no doubt that the Romans were coming [were about to come, had come] to murder them. 363 4. Dependent questions as to a matter of fact and de- pendent exclamations take a subjunctive with weakened meaning." 1 The subjunctive in these M/-clauses is of the same origin as that in clauses of result (§ 360) : compare id ne fie) t posset, obsidioneftebat, ' that this should not be possible, was brought about by the siege' (Caesar, B. C. i. 19), where fiebat takes ne and a s/;rt//- subjunctive, — Q//i;«-clauses with the subjunctive were originally interrogative. A question like qutn rogeni? ' why should I not ask?' ( Plautus, Mil. 426), or qiiln qiiod iiivat id semper faciaiit ? 'why should they not always do what pleases them?' (Sallust, Jug. 85. 41) may be subordinated, like any other question with the subjunctive (§§ 319, 325) ; compare § 331. In the following instance qinn preserves its original meaning of ' why not ? ' and the subjunctive its 5/;a//- meaning : Dubitandum non existimavit quIn proficisceretur. He thought there ought to be no hesitation as to setting out : B. G. ii. 2 ; originally ' why should he not set out? He thought there ought to be no hesitation'. It would be impossible here to translate proficisceretur by an English indicative ('was setting out '). 2 The use of the subjunctive in dependent questions as to a matter of fact (which take the indicative in English, French, and Greek) did not become 3 rule of Latin syntax till the time of Cicero, though it is often found in Old THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 173 (a) Dependent questions as to a fliatter of fact : Quid quisque audierit quaerunt, et cogunt eos pronun- tiare quibus ex regionibus veniant quasque ibi res cog- noverint. T/icy inquire zvhat each has heard, and compel them to declare from what country they come and ivhat they have learned there : B. G. iv. 5. — Quid fieri velit ostendit. He indicates what he ivishes to be done : B. G. V. 2. — Intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur. He perceived ivhy those things were said: B. G. v. 4. — I line intellegl poterat utrum apud eos pudor an timor plus valeret. Hence could be seen ivhether honour or fear had more injluence with them: B. G. i. 40. — Matres faniiliae sortibus declarabant utrum proelium coni- mittl ex usu asset necne. The matrons used to show by drawing lots whether it was expedient that a battle should be fought or not : B. G. i. 50; contrast § 325, third ex. [b] Dependent Exclamations : Vides ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You see how Soracte stands out glistening with deep snow : Hor. Od. i. 9. I (dependent form of the exclamation Ut alta stat nive candidicm f). — Mirum quantum illi viro fides fuerit. Strange it is, to what an extent that man ivas believed: Liv^y i. 16 (dependent form of Quantum illi viro fides fu it.'). Obs. I. In reported speech dependent questions and dependent exclamations are sometimes expressed by the accusative with infinitive construction : see § 545. Obs. 2. In dependent exclamations the indicative is some- times found in poets : Aspice ut insigiiis spolils Marcellus opImTs ingreditur. Look hoii) Marcellus steps along conspicuous in a general's spoils : Aen. vi. 855, cf. viii. 192, Georg. i. 57. Latin. It may be connected vvitli the use of the subjunctive to denote the words or thoughts of another person (§ 364; : sec note below. 174 SYNTAX 364 5. Adjective and adverb clauses take the subjunctive when they express the thought of another person or of the speaker himself on some other occasion.^ The adjective or adverb clause may be — Either [a] subordinate to a noun clause which is itself dependent on a verb of ' saying ' or * thinking ': Helveti! dixerunt sibi in aninio esse iter j^er provinciam facere, quod aliud iter haberent nullum. The Hclvetii said that they intended to niareh throiigli the Roman pro- vinee beeanse ///r\'had no other road : B. G. i. 7. The ad- verb clause ijiiod aliud iter haberent niillunt is part of the thought not of Caesar but of the Helvetii, whose speech Caesar is here reporting. In their original speech they would have used the indicative : Nobis in aninio est iter per provineiani facere, quod aliud iter habemus nullum. Caesar dixit haec esse quae ab eo postularet. Caesar said that these iverc the things ichieh he demanded of him : B. G. i. 35. The adjective clause quae ab eo postularet is part of the thought of Caesar at the time when his speech was made : Haec sunt quae abs te postulo. Or [l)) suburdinate to a main clause (without any noun clause intervening) : Cuttac ct Titurii calamitateni, qui in eodem castello occi- derint, sibi ante oculOs ponunt. They picture to them- selves the misfortune of Cotta and Titurius ivho (as the}' said to themselves) fell in the same fort : B. G. vi. 37. ^ A use of the English 'should' to denote what was said or tiiought by another person suggests a possible origin for the Latin subjunctive in this sense, hi Elizabethan English instances are found like ' I heard a strange thing reported ... of a raven that slioidd build in a ship of the King's ' (Bcw Jonson, Volpone, ii. i), which might be translated iiiha res nitniidla est dc cui vo tjiil ill tulvc ixgid ntdijicdict. And the same usage still exists in some dialects of English : e. g. ' He goes about saying that I slioidd be a thief.' — Compare also the use of the French Future in the Past in the same sense (see French Grammar, § 310. iv^. Thus in the third example above qui iKcidiiiiil might be translated in Vixnchqui uuiaicitl piii. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 175 Rcnu dc suls privatis rebus pctcrc cocpcruiit iiuoniani civitati consulere non possent. The Rcmi began lo entreat about their private affairs because (as they said) they were iiot able to take thought for the state : B. G. V- 3- Obs. I. This construction is sometimes iound in clauses ot cause preceded by iiou : Perseverabo, non quod confidam sed quia adhuc spero. / sha/I persevere, not (as might be supposed) because I have confidence, but because I still have hopes ; French je continuerai, non pas quefaie confiaiice, nuiis fespire encore (French Grammar, § 359). Obs. 2. There is a similar use of the subjunctive in noun clauses introduced by quod and depending on verbs of 'rejoicing', 'grieving', and 'wondering^: Milites indignabantur quod conspectum suum hostes ferre possent. The so/diers ivere iiuiignant that the enemy shouUi be able to face them : B. G. vii. 19. In such clauses English very often uses 'should' and French the subjunctive (see French Grammar, § 362): compare the following instances from Shakespeare : ' This I wonder at that he shoidd be in debt ' (Com. of Err. IV. ii. 481 ; 'Alas that love shouhi be so tyrannous !' (Rom. and Jul. i. i. 176). SEQUENCE OF TENSES 365 The tenses of the subjunctive used in subordinate clauses generally correspond to or follon: front the tense of the verb of the main clause. The following rule is illustrated by all the examples of 5//rt//-subjunctives in subordinate clauses given in §§ 324 46, and by all but one ' of the examples of sub junctives with weakened meaning in §§ 358-64. ' U. G. ii. 21 in § 360. lliis exception ib cxjilaincd bcluw (^Remark 2 . 176 SYNTAX Rule : i. When the main clause has a tense of present or future time, the subjunctive of the subordinate clause is either Present or Perfect : Present to denote action not completed : e.g. Quid faciat nescit, He does ttot know what lie is doing (§ 363) or what he is to do (§ 325) : Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid fecerit nescit, He does not know what he has done (or (ii<^)', §363- 2, When the main clause has a tense of past time, the sub- junctive of the subordinate clause is either Past or Past Perfect : Past to denote action not completed : e. g. Quid faceret nesciebat. He did not know what he ivas doing (§ 363) or ivJiat he was to do (§ 325) : Past Perfect to denote completed action: e.g. Quid fecisset nesciebat, He did not know what he had done ; § 363. 366 Subordinate clauses with the Present or the Perfect Sub- junctive are said to have 'primary sequence'; those with the Past or the Past Perfect Subjunctive are said to have ' secondary sequence '. Remarks. 367 (i) The Perfect Indicative when used as a Present Perfect is a tense of present time and properly takes primary sequence; when used as a Past Historic it is a tense of past time and properly takes secondary sequence : Ne qua civitas Romanes suls finibus recipiat a me pro- vlsum est. I have taken precautions that no state shall receive the Romans within tJieir borders : B. G. vii. 20. Dixit mihi quid faceret (fecisset). He told uic what he was doing {had done). But there are exceptions ; for even when the Perfect is SEQUENCE OF TENSES 177 used as a Present Pcrt'eet it sonietinies takes secondary sequence : Ne vobis nocere possent ego pruvidi; ne milii noccant vestrum est providere. / Jtave taken precautious that they shoitld uot be abh' to injure you ; it is your business to take precautious that they shall not injure nte : Cic. Cat. iii. 27. In noun clauses introduced b}^ ut or qulii (§ 362) the Perfect always takes secondar}' sequence ; and the onl}- tense of the subjunctive used is the Past : see the examples in § 362. Perfects which have become Presents in meaning always take primary sequence: e.g. Novimus | Meminimus] quid proxima nocte egerls. IVe know [remember] what you did last night: cf. Cic. Cat. i. r. (2) In clauses of result {§360) the tense of the subjunctive is often independent of the point of view of the main clause : Tarn parfitus fuit ad dlmicandum animus hostium ut ad galeas induendas tempus defuerit. So eager zvere the enemy for fighting that time failed our men for putting on their helmets : B. G. ii. 21. Here the action o{ defuerit is marked as having taken place before the time of speaking, not in relation to/////, which would naturally have been followed by deesset. Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui in antiquum statum nullo modd possit. He ruined Sicily to such an extent that it ca>i nowise be restored to its ancient condition : Cic. Verr. Act. I. 12. Here the action of possit is marked as going on at the time of speaking, and not in relation to perdidit. (3) The Historic Present (§ 293. ii) is treated sometimes as a tense of past time, sometimes as a tense of present time (this latter usage is the commoner in Caesar) : Speculatores mittit ut quid agerCtur sclret. „ ,, ut quid agatur sciat. 901 M 178 SYNTAX (4) The Historic Infinitive (§ 480) is always treated as a tense of past time : Obsecrare ut Caesar certior fierct. Tliey entreated that Caesar iniglit be informed: B. C. i. 64. (5) In the course of a long passage of reported speech depending on a tense of past time, some of the adjective and adverb clauses may have primary sequence: e.g. in B. G. i. 14. 6 the Present Subjunctives depend on respondit (not on consuesse, which is a present in meaning). This varied construction is common in Livy. (6) It follows from the Rule (§ 365) that a sentence like ' I know what he was doing last night ' cannot be translated literally into Latin ; we must say ' I know what he did last night', Scio quid proximo, nocte fecerit. And a sentence like ' He did not know how much twice two is ' must be trans- lated Nescicbat quot bis bina essent (literally ' He did not know how much twice two was '). IV. CASES AND PREPOSITIONS THE NOMINATIVE CASE 368 The nominative is the case of the subject : Haedul, gens valida, Romanis amlci erant. The Haedui, a powerful tribe (§ 281), ivei-c friends to the Romans. — Exercitus salvus et incolumis rediit. The army returned safe and sound (§ 274). — Orgetorix dux deligitur. Orge- torix is chosen leader (§274). 369 When the subject is indicated only by the inflexion of the verb (§ 251), it is often vague in meaning: Dicunt. They say, people say. — Pluit. It is raining ('it' = something, i.e. the sky or the rain ^). — Alios effugere saepe, te numquam potes. You (= One) can often escape from others, but never 1 Compare in English 'The rajn it raineth every day' (Siiakespeare). THE NOMINATIVE CASE 179 y)'o;// vo/z/'^r//" (=: oneself). — EciTis,. noil cnlprs, cinocl nnltarl non potest. One s/ioit/(f put ///> a'////, not Jhid fault hu't/i, ivluit cannot be altered (§ 289). 370 Verbs which are used only in the 3rd person (generally without a nominative') and in the infuiitive are called imper- sonal verbs: e.g. pluit (ere), // is raining lucescit (-ere), it is daivjung ton at (-arc), // is thundering fulgurat (-are), // /s lightening 371 The following impersonal verbs are either used without any subject expressed, or take as their subject either the nominative of a neuter pronoun or more commonly an in- finitive or (in a complex sentence) a noun clause : — 372 (i) pigct, pudet, paenitct, taedet, and miscret, which express the feelings of vexation, shame, regret, weariness, and distress. These verbs may take an accusative of the person who has the feeling and a genitive of that which causes the feeling (unless this is expressed as the subject) ; compare ' It re- pented the Lord that he had made man, and it grieved him ' (Genesis vi. 6); ' He is slow to anger and repenteth him of the evil ' (Joel ii. 13) : Faterl pigebat. It zvas annoying to con/ess {To conjess was annoying). — Factorum meorum {or Haec fecisse) me numquam paenitebit. / shall never repent of my deeds (or of having done these things). — Nequitiae tuae me pudet. / atn ashamed of your iviclcedness.—Me tul miseret. / atn sorry for you, I pity you. 373 (ii) interest 'it makes a difference' and refert 'it matters'.' These verbs may take a genitive of the person to whom it makes a difference or matters ; but instead of the genitive of a pronoun of the ist or 2nd person, or of the 3rd person ^ A nominative case is sometimes added : luppiter pluit, Jtipikr is lainiiii^ (i.e. is sending rain); saxa pluiint, stones are raining dozun {i.e. coming down like rain } ; hoc lucescit, this is the dawn coming ; caelum tonat, t/ie sky is thundering. M 2 i8o SYNTAX when reflexive, the ablative singular feminine of the possessive adjective is used : ' Ad nostram laudem non multum interest. // does not make viueli difference to our reputatioji.— Quid MilOnis intererat interfici Clodium? IV/iat (§ 392) did it con- cern Milo that Clod ins sJionld be killed ?—M.e^\ nihil interest scire, sed illius multum. // matters nothing (§ 392) to nw to knoiv, hut it matters very much (§ 393, § 77) '^ ^^'"'- — Quod tua nihil refert ne curaverls. Do not take thought for ivhat does not concern you (=Mind your own business). — Illorum magis quam sua retu- lisse credunt. They think that it concerfted those persons rather than themselves (Sallust). — Neque cuiusquam refert. Nor does it co)icern anyone (Tacitus). 374 (iii) libet 'it pleases', licet ' it is allowed', and liquet 'it is clear'. These verbs may take a dative of the person to whom something is pleasing, allowed, or clear : Licet ils incolumibus discedere. They may depart un- harmed (§ 274). — Hoc feci dum licuit. This I have done, so long as it was permitted. — Quod cuique libet loquatur. Let each man say what he likes. — Hoc non liquet, neque satis cogitatum est. This is not clear, nor has it been sufficiently pondered. 375 (iv) oportet 'it is fitting ', decet ' it is seemly ', and dedecet 'it is unseemly' : Me ipsum ames oportet, non mea. // is fitting \that\you should love [^ 325. ii) me myself, not my possessions (Cic. Fin. ii. 85). — Amicitiam popull Romani mihi praesidio, non detriments esse oportet. // is fitting that thefriend- ' The origin of this ablative is uncertain, as is also the case of re- in refert. Med refert comes either from meCi res [nom. ) fert ' my interest involves ', or from iiicarit rem fert ' it tends to my interest ' {incaiit rem = ad meant rem). In either case the re- was misunderstood as an ablative, and the possessive adj. made to agree with it. THE NOMINATIVE CASE i8i sliip of the Roman nation slTould be (§ 466) a protection, not a disadvantage to inc (cf. B. G. i. 44. 5).— Perge, decet. Go on, it befits you (Aen. xii. 153). — OmnCs homines ab odio vacuos esse decet. It is seemly that all men should be free froni hatred. 176 I he Past Imperfect and the Perfect Indicative of these \erbs denote what ouglit to have been done, i. e. what would have been fitting (see § 353) : Amicitiam popull RomanI mihi praesidio esse opoitCbat {or oportuit). The friendship of the Roman nation ought to hair been a protection to me (implying that it had not been a protection). Note that where English has a perfect infinitive with ' ought ' Latin has a present infinitive with a past tense of oportet. The reason is that the EngHsh ' ought ' (originally a past tense of 'owe') has come to be used like a present tense, and so there is no means of indicating past time except the perfect infinitive. J77 Verbs which are used intransitively in the active have an impersonal passive use, expressing that an action takes place : Itur, there is a going, a journey is nuide ; pugnatum est, there was fighting, a battle was fought. THE VOCATIVE CASE 178 The vocative is the case of the person (or personified thing) addressed : DCsilile, mllitC-s, nisi vultis af[uilani hostibus prodere. Leap down, fellow soldiers, unless you -want to betray the standard to the enemy. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE J79 (^i) The Accusativl: wrriiouT a PRiiPosmoN The accusative without a preposition has two main uses : (i) as the direct object of a verb used transitively, (ii) in certain adverbial expressions. i82 SYNTAX 380 (i) Accusatives of the direct object: Commium, regem Atrebatem, reniittit. He sends hack Coiiuiiius, the Atrcbaiian ki/ig (§ 281). — Exercitum sal- vum et incolumem reduxit. He brought back the army safe and sound (§ 274). — Commium regem constituerat Caesar. Caesar had appointed Comniius king {as king, § 274). 381 Many verbs which are used intransitively in their uncom- pounded form acquire a transitive use when compounded with a preposition; e.g. piigno 'I fight', oppiigno 'I fight against ', ' I attack '. Especially verbs of motion, when com- pounded with certain prepositions [circum, per, praeter, trans, and some others), may be used transitively : hostem circumvenire, to snrroiind an enemy ; agros per- currere, to overrun a country; aliquem praeterire, to overlook {pass by) some one ; flumen transire, to cross a river; civitates adire, to approach tJie states (literally or figuratively) ; consilium inire, to enter on a plan ; mortem obire, to meet death ; perlculum subire, to face danger. 382 Many verbs whose ordinary use is intransitive may be used transitively with an object which is akin in meaning to the verb. Such 'cognate objects ' are generally either {a) nouns qualified by an epithet, or \b) neuter adjectives or pronouns : {a) vitam longam vivere, to live a long life; vltam exsulis vivere, to live the life of an exile ; bidui iter progredl, to advance a tivo days' march, {b) pingue et peregrinum sonare, to have a coarse and foreign sound {to ring coarse and foreign); illud laetor, / a)n glad of that {I have that jo}>). 383 Verbs of 'teaching' and 'asking' sometimes take two direct objects, especially when one of them is a neuter pro- noun or adjective : Captlvl RomanI Nervios haec (= usum turrium) docue- THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 183 rant. The Roiiudi prii^imcrs had (aught the Ncrvii these things {—the use of turrets). — Caesar Haeduos fiunientuin flagitavit. — Caesar th'iiiauded corn of the llaedni (B. G. i. 16; but this construction is rare). — Illud te oro. / beg that of you. — Multa deos orans. E)itreati)ig many things of the gods. — Hoc tc interrogo (or rogo). / as/c you this question. 3S4 But these verbs more commonly take a phrase formed with a preposition instead of one of the accusatives : Boios de adventu suo docet. He informs the Boii of {= about) his arrival. — De te ipso te rogo. / ask you about yourself— PiUxWixxm a populo Romano non im- plorabimus. IVc shall not ask aid of {from) the Romans. — Haec Caesar ex Lisco quaerit. Caesar asks these questions of Liscus. 385 Some verbs compounded with a preposition (especially trans) take two direct objects : Exercitum Ligerim traducit. He leads his army across the Loire (B. G. vii. 11. 9). 386 A passive construction is occasionally found, in which the accusative denoting the person becomes the subject of the sentence and the accusative denoting the thing is retained : Nervil haec a captlvis Romanis docebantur. The Nervii were being taught these things by the Roman prisoners (B. G. V. 42). Belgae Rhenum traducti sunt. The Belgae were led across the Rhine (cf. B. G. ii. 4). 387 The accusative after some passive verbs (chiefly in poets) is to be regarded as due to a reflexive use of the passive, in which it denotes an action done to oneself. But the Romans drew no clear line of distinction between this construction and that of a passive verb with a retained accusative (§ 386) : Induor vestem. / put on a garment {=■ Induo mihi vestem, or Induo me veste). — Exuitur cornua. She i84 SYNTAX s/ic(/s her horns. — Inutile ferrum cingitur. He girds on the useless sword (= Accingit sibi ferrum). — Antiquum saturata dolorem. Having sated her ancient grudge. 388 By the omission of the verb of the sentence the accusative of the object sometimes becomes an exclamation : nugas ! nonsense! (from nugds agis, 'you are talking nonsense ') ; dl, vestram fidem ! ye gods, your protec- tion! (supply iniplorb 'I entreat'). Cupldinem Praxi- telis H. S. MDC ! A Cupid by Praxiteles for 1,600 sesterces ! (Cic. Verr. iv. 12). Compare 'A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! ' (Shakespeare). (ii) Adverbial accusatives : 389 {a) The accusative of a noun denoting a period of time may be used to express duration, answering the question 'How long?": Multos annos regnaverat. He had reigned many years (or for many years). French // avatt regne beaucoup d'ans. 390 (b) The accusative of a noun denoting a measure of space may be used to express extent, answering the question ' How far?": Decem milia passuum progress! sunt. They advanced ten miles. French lis se sont avance's di.x kilometres. So with abesse ' to be distant'. — Aggerem pedes cccxxx atum, pedes lxxx altum exstruxerunt. They constructed a rampart jjo feet broad and So feet high. 391 [c) The accusative of names of towns and of the words domus and rus may be used to express 'to' or 'towards', answering the question ' Whither ? "- : Lutetiam Parisiorum proficiscitur. He inarches to Paris. — Domum ' contenderunt. They hastened home (or ' In this usage Latin is exactly like English and French. 2 A similar use of the accusative of an abstract noun of the 4th declension is the origin of the supine in xitn (§ 136) : spectatum eo, / am going to the spectacle = I am going to see. IIIK ACCUSATIVK CASE i85 /loiiii-a'onfa). — Rus mc r<*cipiain. / n'l'/l bcUikc inysclj' to the conntry. 392 [d] The accusative of neuter pronouns and ;//'//// may be used adverbially : Quid venls? Why (h you conic? — Caesar ea re nihil commovebatur. Caesar ivas not at all moved [nothini^ moved) by this. 393 The accusative singular neuter of many adjectives of quan- tity has become an adverb : see § 77. (B) The Accusative with a Preposition General rules. 394 (0 Most prepositions take the accusative. Nine take the ablative (see § 452) and four take either the accusative or the ablative (see § 397). 395 (2) Phrases formed with prepositions are nearly always adverbial, qualifying a verb or an adjective, not adjectival, as they often are in English, c.^. 'the camp across the river', 'the soldiers outside the walls'. In most instances where this adjectival use is found in Latin, the noun qualified by the phrase is akin in meaning to a verb, as in ascciisus ad mu)ntiducs, rcditiis in patriam. In other instances the phrase belongs to a noun qualified by an adjective, in which case it stands between them, as in magna inter Gallos auctoritas, ' great authority among the Gauls.' Apart from the above uses and a few special uses mentioned below,' English phrases which are adjectival should be translated into Latin by turning them into adveib phrases: e.g. castra trans flumen sita ; militCs fjiii extra mOros erant. 396 The following prepositions always take the accusative. ad : (ij to : ad oppidum proficisci, to march to a toivn (cf § 391) ; ad locum venire or pervenire {= to arrive at); ad militum salutem pcrtinCre {to relate to) ; ad decern > E.g. under erga, § 396; /// ^ii), § 397 ; ex ^\j, § 453 ; i>inc, § 453. i86 SYNTAX milia hominum (/o the niuiiber of 10,000); ad iinum omnes {fo the last man) ; ad mediam noctem (//// midnight). (ii) to the neighbourhood of: ad Genavam pervenire (con- trast Genavam pervenire, § 391). (iii) at or by, near : ad portas esse ; pons qui ad Genavam erat ; ad solis occasum ; ad tempus {at the right tmte) ; ad extremum [at last). (iv) according to : ad suum arbitrium imperare ; quern ad modum (= as), (v) for: diem ad deliberandum sumere ; satis ad laudem et ad utilitatem proficere. (vi) among {= apud) : nomen ad omnes nationes sanctum. adversus, towards : adversus montem progredl ; iustitia etiam adversus infimos servanda est ; adversus hostem copias ducere [against the enemy'). ante, before : ante portas ; antepugnam; ante horam sextam. apud: (i) among, in the presence of: apud mllites contionari. (ii) in the opinion of: apud barbaros multum valere. (iii) at the house of (French ches) : apud Ciceronem vivere. circum, circa, and circiter, around, about: circum urbem hiemare ; circum municipia mittere ; circum se habere ; circa secundam horam venire ; circiter meridiem. citra and cis, this side of: citra flumen ; cis Alpes. contra : (i) against : contra hostem pugnare. (ii) opposite to : regiones contra GalHam sitae ; contra opinionem [contrary to expectation). erga, toivards : perpetua erga populum Romanum fides (adjectival, § 395). extra, outside of: extra munltiones procedere ; extra ordinem (= irregularly). infra, below : infra locum ubi pons erat. inter : (i) between : inter montem et flumen situs. (ii) among : inter omnes constat ; inter se bellare ; inter se ius iurandum dare [nuitually). THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 187 (iii) /'// the upinion 0/ (ci'. apud) ; plurinumi inter suos valere. (iv) ihtn')ig; inter bcllum. intra, within : intra portas esse ; intra niunitiones ingredl (tela coniccre) ; intra paucos dies, iuxta, )icar: iuxta murum castra ponere. ob, on accoiDit of: ob earn rem ; quam ob rem. penes, in the power of: penes eos victoria est. per, through : per fines Sequanorum copias ducere ; per Alpes iter est ; per agros nuntios mittere [over the country) ; per tres annos (cf. time how long, § 389) ; per exploratores cognoscere [by means of scouts) ; per aetatem in armis esse non poterant {owing to their age); per vim oppidum occupare {by force, forcibly). post: (i) after: post pugnam ; post diem tertium. (ii) behind: post montem se occultare ; post tergum. praeter : (i) beyond, past : praeter castra copias ducere ; prae- ter spem ; alium praeter se habere nullum (/;/ addition to hiniself). (ii) except : nihil praeter pelles. prope, near, near to : prope castra esse; castra prope oppidum ponere. Similarly the adverbs propiiis and proxinie (§ 79) : propius tumulum accedere. propter, on account of because of: propter fertilitatem loci ibi consldere ; propter gravitatem armorum pugnare non posse. secundum: (i) along: secundum flunicn legiones ducere. (ii) after : secundum proelium ; secundum ea {= next to that); secundum naturam flumi- nis {according to). supra, above : supra pontem {= in the upper part of the river). trans, across : trans RhCnum colonias mittere; trans Alpes habitarc. xiltra., beyond : ultra Iliberum locum deligere ; ultra modum progredi. versus, towards: oppidum versus proficiscl. i88 SYNTAX 397 The four following prepositions are used either with the accusative or with the ablative. in with the accusative corresponds to the English ' into ' or ' onto ' or 'to ', answering the question ' Whither ? ': (i) in urbem venn-e ; in Sicilian! iter facere ; in fines Treverorum pervenire (/o coDic-ihruugh iiitu = to arrive at) ; in unum locum convenire {to come- together into = to assemble in) ; in collem confugere {on to a hill). (ii) in a figurative sense : in conspectum agminis venire ; in fidem recipere ; hostes in fugam conicere ; in hostes impetum facere {upon the enemy) ; odium Gal- lorum in Romanes {against the Romans : adjectival) ; bono animo in populum Romanum esse {ive/I dis- posed toivards the Romans). sub, under, with the accusative answers the question 'Whither?': (i) sub iugum mittere ; sub terram Ire ; milites sub muros urbis mittere {up to the ivalls). (ii) in a figurative sense : Galliam sub imperium Romano- rum redigere. Sub with the accusative is also used of time, denoting towards, i. e. shortly be/ore : sub occasum solis ; sub ves- perum. subter, under, and super, over, with the accusative answer the questions 'Whither?' and 'Where?': subter murum advehl; alios super ahos praecipitare ; Nomentanus erat super ipsum, Porcius infra {N. sat above the host, P. be/ow him : Horace); super subterque terram pugnare (Livy). THE DATIVE CASE 398 The dative is mainly a persona/ case, /. e. words denoting persons (nouns and pronouns) stand in the dative far more conmionly than words denoting things. THE DATIVE CASE 189 The dative is never used with a preposition ; but it is very frequently used with verbs compounded with a preposition. This is, indeed, the commonest of all its uses. The uses of the dative may be divided into two main classes : ' (i) those in which it is an object; (ii) those in which it is adverbial. (i) Datives used as objects. 399 id) as the indirect object of a verb which also takes a direct object in the accusative : Ilaedui Boils agros dedcrunt. T/ic Hna/i/i gave the Boii lands or gave loiuh to the Boii. — Caesarl rem renuntiant. They report the ii/attir to Caesar. — Alter! negotium cx- hibes. Yon are eaiisiiig your neighhoiir trojiMe [troiiMe to your 7ieig/ihoitr).~l\5 auxilium suum pollicitus est. He promised them his help. — Trinobantibus xi. obsides frumentumque imperat. He gave orders to the Triiio- ha)ilesfor 40 hostages and corn. — Mihi honorem invi- drnt. They envy me my distinction. — Id iis suasit (per- suasitl Orgetorix. Orgetori.x recommended this to them [persuaded them of this). — Se suaque omnia aliCnis- simls crediderunt (commlserunt). They trusted them- selves and all their possessions to perfect strangers. — Hoc mihi ignosce. Pardon me this {— this offence). 400 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative and an accusative, the dative being closely connected in sense with the preposition : legionl aliquem praeficere, to put some one in charge of {at the head of) a legion) hostibus bellum inferre, to wage war upon the enemy {= in hostes) ; hostibus metum ^ Many uses of the dative may be regarded as falling under either of these heads. Where the dative is governed by (or 'taken by') a verb it is an object ; where it might be removed from the sentence witliout destroying the construction it is adverbial. I90 SYNTAX inicere, to inspire fear in the enemy, alicui vestem in- duere, to put clotliing on sonic one ; morti aliquem eri- pere, to rescue some one from death (= ex morte) ; mortl aliquem ofiferre, to expose some one to death ; magnis parva conferre, to compare small things ivith great (= cum magnis); voluptati salutem anteponere (post- habere), to put ivelfare before {after) pleasinr ; = ante voluptatem, post voluptatem ; urbl murum circumdare, to put a ivall round a city {=^ circum urbem). 401 Note the verb adimere ' to take away', which takes a dative denoting 'from' (like eripere, §400), though this meaning is not expressed by the preposition ad: Omnia nobis ademit. He has taken everything aivay from us (lit. he has robbed us everything) ; conipare French il nous a enleve [arrache) tout. 402 In the passive construction of these verbs (§§ 399-401) the direct object becomes the subject of the sentence and the dative remains : AgrI dati sunt Haeduls- a Boils. Lands were given to the Haeduibyth Boii. — Omnia nobis adempta sunt. Every- thing has been taken away from us. 403 {b) as the sole object of certain verbs : * Some of the verbs which have the dative as a sole object are verbs which may also take a direct object (§ 399), and verbs of similar meaning to these : imperare, to command ; ignoscere, to pardon ; parcere, to spare ; indulgere, to be indulgent; faxevQ, to favour ; credere, /o believe; confidere, to trust : Populus Romanus victis imperare consuevit. The Roman people is wont to give orders to the vanquished.-. — parcere * A Dative put — remember pray — With imperare and obey, Stitdcre, mlbcre, noccre, Favere, parcere, placere ; To these add eiivy, trust, forgive, Resist, indulge, persuade, believe. THE DATIVE CASE 191 subicctTs ct dC'bellare siipcrbos, fo be merciful to the conquered and to war don'/i t/ie defiant (Acn. vi. 853). — Orabant ut sibi ignosceret. T/iey begged liini to pardon them : French pardonner with dat. — Dccimae Icgidnl indulserat Caesar et maxime confidebat. Caesar had been indulgent to the tenth legion and he trusted it more than the others. — Fortuna fortibus favet. Fortune favoms the brave. — Flnitinil nobis invident. Our neighbours envy us (cf. B. G. ii. 31). 404 Others are verbs which cannot take two objects : verbs of 'obe3'ing ' and ' resisting' : parere and oboedire (a compound of audio, § 405), to obey, French obeir; servire and inservire (§ 405), to be a slave to, fo serve. resistere, repugnare, adversari, fo 7'esisf, fo oppose, French rc'sister. verbs of 'pleasing ' and 'displeasing': placere, to please, French plaire. displicere, to displease. verbs of 'benefiting' and 'injuring': prodesse (§ 405), to benefit ; mederi, to remedy. nocere and obesse (§ 405), fo infitre, French nuire ; the verbs studere, fo pursue zealously ; nubere, fo marry (said only of the bride : viro nubere, fo marry a husband; contrast uxoreni ducere, fo marry a wife). Decima legio Caesarl parebat. The tenth legion obeyed Caesar. — Cicero coniurationi Catilinae restitit (adver- satus est). Cicero resisted [opposed) the conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero bonis civibus placere cupiebat. Cicero desired fo please good citizens. — Maiorl parti placuit castra defen- dere. // seemed good fo the majority to defend the camp. — Id consilium multls displicebat. That plan displeased many. 192 SYNTAX Haec res alils proderat, aliis oberat (nocebat). Tin's zvas advantageous to sojiie and disadvantageous to others. — Inopiae rei frumentariae mederl conabatur. He was tryfjig to remedy the lack of provisions. Dumnorix novis rebus studebat. Duiniiorix zvas bent on a change of government (lit. nezv things). lulia, filia lulil Caesaris, Pompeio nupsit. Jidia, the daughter oj Julhis Caesar, married Pompey. Contrast Pompcius iTdiani in mdtrinidnitim diixif. 405 Many verbs compounded with prepositions take a dative as their sole object, the dative being closely connected in sense with the preposition : legionl praeesse, to be at the head of a legion ; alicui sub- venire (succurrere), to come to the assistance of some one ; alicui succedere, to come after some one, or to turn out well for some one {e.g. nulla res iis successerat, they had not succeeded in anything) ; alicui occurrere, to run up against some one ; alicui praestare (antecellere), to sur- pass some one. 406 The only passive construction which is possible with verbs that take a dative as their sole object is the impersonal passive construction (§ 377) : Decimae legionl a Caesare indulgebatur. Indulgence luas shoivn (lit. // zuas indulged) to the tenth legion by Caesar ; equivalent in meaning to ' The tenth legion was indulged by Caesar'. — Nobis a finitimis nostrls invidetur. PVe are envied by our neighbours. — Bello- vacls persuaderl non poterat ut diQtius morarentur. The Bellovaci coidd not be persuaded (lit. it could not be made acceptable to the B.) to zvait any longer (§ 329). (ii) Adverbial datives. 407 {^) With verbs. The dative may denote, as in French, the person in whose THE DATIVE CASE 193 I interest (or against whose interest) the action is clone. Here I the dative may be translated by ' for ' : Quid sibi vult ? IVIial docs he ivajit for himself ? — Non tibi ipsi sed toti rel publicae vivis. Yoic live not for yourself but for the idiole state (Cicero). — His numerum obsidum duplicat. He doubles the niDnber of the hostages for them [i.e. demands twice the number of hostages from them, B. G. iv. 36). — Sibi quemque consulere (cavere, providere) iussit. He bade each man to take thought for himself. — Ea res legionl fellciter evenit. This turned out fortunately for the legion. — Pugna adversa el evenit. The battle fell out adverse for him [z= he was defeated). \o% In some instances the dative of a personal pronoun marks a person as interested in a statement, command, or question about an action, rather than in the action itself:' At tibi repente venit ad me Caninius. But you will be interested to hear that all of a sudden Caninius canw to me (Cicero). — Quid miiii Celsus agit? IVhat is Celsus doing, I should like to know ? Compare ' Knock me at that door. Sirrah ! ' (Shakespeare). 09 Esse with the dative may denote possession : His erat inter se de principatu contentio. They had (lit. There was for them) a quarrel among themselves about ■ the leadership. Est mihi nomen Antonius {or Antonio, attracted into the case of mihi). My name is Antony. \\o With esse or a verb meaning ' to come ', ' to send ', ' to give', ' to regard ', or the like, the dative singular of certain nouns (mostly abstract) denotes what some one or something is to be or IS to sef~>e as. The meaning of the dative in this construc- ' In such cases the dative is sometimes called ' ethical ' (i.e. emotional). 901 .\' 194 SYNTAX tion comes out clearly in a passage of Lucretius (v. 875, with the verb iaceo) : Alils praedae lucroque iacebant. They lay there to be a prey and a profit to others. In this use the dative is generally translatable by a predica- tive noun or adjective : Alter alterl inimicus auxilio salutlque erat. The one rival ivas a supporter and rescuer to the other: B. G. v, 44. 14 ; lit. existed to be a support and salvation. dono aliquid dare, to give something as a present {= to be a present), to give something for a gift. res quae usui sunt, things which are useful (lit. for use). 411 This dative is generally accompanied by a dative of the person interested : Amicitia popull RomanI nobis ornamento et praesidio, non detrlmento, esse oportet. The friendship of the Roman people ought to be a distinction and protection, not a loss to us : B. G. i. 44. 5. curae (auxilio, subsidio, solacio, honorl, probro, con- temptul, onerl) esse alicui, to be a charge [help, support, consolation, honour, disgrace, laughing stock, burden) to any one auxilio venire (mittere) alicui, to come [to send) as an aid to some one legionem praesidio relinquere castrls, to leave a legion as a protection for the camp laudl esse (habere, ducere, &c.) alicui, to be [to regard) as an honour to some one 412 In writing Latin two cautions should be borne in mind : (i) The only nouns which can be used in this construc- tion are nouns like the above (mostly abstract). Other English predicative nouns preceded by 'as' agree in case with the noun of which they are predicated (§ 274). (2) The dative in this construction is never qualified by THE DATIVE CASE 195 any adjective except one of quantit}' : inagno solacio, a great coiisolatioji. Expressions like the English 'an everlasting disgrace ' are not Latin. ^I3 With the gerund adjective, and sometimes with the perfect participle, the dative may denote the agent : Sequanis onines cruciatus erant perferendl. The Sequani had to endure all kinds of torture = all kinds of torture had to be endured by the Sequani ; cf. § 453 ab (iii). — Quam multa poetae dicunt quae philosophls aut dicenda sunt aut dicta ! How many things the poets say which either ought to be said or have been said by philosophers ! (Seneca). ^14 [b] With adjectives which in EngHsh take 'to' or 'for', /. e. those meaning' necessary', 'useful ', 'pleasant ', 'friendly', 'suitable', 'similar', 'equal', and their opposites : locus castrls idoneus, a place suitable for a camp Helve tils inimlcus, hostile to the Helve til nostru exercitui par, equal to our army ceteris similis, like the rest (but with sinu'lis the genitive is commoner, § 424). ^15 The adjectives propior ' nearer ' and proximus ' nearest' generally take the dative ; but the corresponding adverbs propius and pro.xime take the accus. or ab with the abl., like prope ' near ' when it is a preposition (§ 396) : Belgae propiores (proximi) sunt Germanls. The Belgae . are nearer {the nearest) to the Germans. propius (proxime) tumulum accedere, to drazo nearer {very near) to the mouna propius abesse ab aliquo, to stana neai'cr to some one THE GENITIVE CASE .16 The genitive is chiefly an adjectival case, used to qualify nouns. But it is also used adverbially (§§ 423-6), and as the object of certain verbs (§ 427). It is never used with a pre- position (except with letms sometimes, in poets). N 2 196 SYNTAX I. Adjectival Genitives. (a) Answering the question ' What sort of a ? ' 4117 (i) Denoting 'belonging to' : (a) in the sense of ' possessed by ' : domus Caesaris, Caesar's house, the house of Caesar. This genitive of the possessor may be used predicatively : Haec domus est Caesaris. This house is Caesar's. — GalHa popidl RomanI non AriovistI est. Gaul is the property of the Romans not of Ariovistus. (b) in the sense of 'connected with'. What special kind of connexion is indicated by the genitive depends on the context : expedltio Caesaris, Caesar's expedition ; imagines Caesaris Caesar's images, likenesses of Caesar; statua Phldiae, a statue of (i. e. made by) Phidias ; civitates GalHae, the states of {belonging to) Gaul, the Gallic states ; radii solis, the sun's rays ; facultas itineris faciendl, the opporhinity of making a journey ; signum proelT committendi, the signal for engaging; speculandl causa {or gratia), /or the sake of scouting ; copiae equitatus peditatusque, forces of (i. e. consisting of) cavalry and infantry ; in- iuria retentorum equitum, the wrong of (i.e. ivhich con- sisted iri) detaining the cavalry. Used predicatively : liber sum et llberae civitatis, / am a free man and I belong to a free state (B. G. v. 7. 8) ; imperatoris est non minus consilio quam gladio supe- rare, it belongs to {= is the part or duty of) a genera to prevail by strategy as nnich as by the sivord. 418 (ii) Used objectively (i. e. as the object of a noun which is akin in meaning to a verb) : interfectores Caesaris, Caesar's murderers, the murderers of Caesar {= il qui Caesarem interfecerunt) ; metus mortis, the fear of death ; amor patriae, the love oj THE GENITIVE CASE 197 coiDi/rv ; amor suT, self-love (of. § 101); cupiditas belli gerendl, Ike desire of imaging icar ; imperium totlus Galliae, llie eo)}uiiaiid of the ivholc of Caul ; spes impetrandi, llie hope of oblaiin'ng one's reqtiesl. Contrast the genitives in amor iiiatris (in the sense of a))ior »tateriuis) ' a mother's love ', ' the love felt by a mother ' ; niinac Clodil * the threats of Clodius ' 419 (iii) Used to describe a person or thing. In this use the genitive is always qualified by an adjective : homines parvae staturae, men of small stature (= parvi homines, little men); belua multorum capitum, a many- headed beast ; puer decern annorum, a boy ten years old. Used predicatively : res incerti exitus est, the affair is of uncertain issue. (b) Denoting partition. 420 In this use the genitive denotes the whole of which a part is mentioned ; it therefore corresponds to the denominator of a fraction. This meaning is closely connected with the- idea of 'from' or 'out of; hence it may generally be ex- pressed in Latin by ex or dc with the abl. : unus ex multJs or unus de multls ' one of many ' ; perpaucae ex )idvibus (or ex numero navium) 'very few of the ships (or out of the number of the ships) '. 421 The English genitive in 6' cannot be used to translate the Latin genitive when it denotes partition ; here it is necessary to employ a genitive-phrase formed with of: multl Gallorum, t)iany of the Gauls; omnium hominum doctissimus, the most learned of all men ; duo nostrum {or vestrum), two of us (or of you). 422 rhe genitive of partition is very frequently used after the neuter singular of a pronoun or adjective of quantity used as a noun, like aliquid, id, quid, qtiiequam, nihil, hoc, quod, 198 SYNTAX tantuin, qnantuui, aliqnanlnui, multuni, plus, iiiiiiiis, and after sn/is, nimis, paruni (adverbs used as nouns) : quid novl?, lit. ivJiat of neiv F (gen. of the neuter adj. novum ' a new thing '), = ivhat neivs ? ; hoc solaci, //;/6- uiuch consolation ; tantum spati, so much distance ; mul- tuni aestatis, much of the summer-, plus doloris, more pain ; satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, plenty of eloquence, but too little wisdom. The only adjectives which can stand in the genitive in this construction are those whose genitives end in -J (adjectives like nouns of the 2nd decl., § 18). II. Adverbial Genitives. 423 The genitive of some neuter adjectives of quantity and some words of similar meaning may denote the price at which a thing is valued or bought, sold, hired, &c. : ' Auctoritas Commii in his regionibus magnl habebatur. The authority of Comniius was highly regarded (lit. was held at a high price) in these quarters. Quanti equuni emit ? At what price did he buy the horse ? — TantI quanti voluit. At the price 'which he wished. Note the comparative and superlative of /«a^«Fand parvi: magnl, pluris, plurimi, at a high [higher, very high) price. parvl, minoris, minimi, at a low {lower, very loiv) price. 424 The genitive may be used with adjectives which in English take 'of, and a few others of similar meaning: e.g. plenus fiduciae, ///// of confidence (cf. abl. § 437). cupidus (avidus, studiosus) bellandl, desirous of making war. memor (immemor) praeceptorum, mindful [unmindftd) of the precepts. gnarus (ignarus, inscius) omnium rerum, aivare of [igno- rant of) everything. perltus (imperltus) belli, experienced in [ignorant of) war. ^ Compare the similar use of tlie ablative (§ 438). THE GENITIVE CASE 199 siinilis (dissiniilis) nicT, like {loilikr) i/ic. Merc English uses tlic dative ; and the Latin si)in7is may also take the dat. (§ 414), but less commonly. 425 The genitive may be used with the impersonal verbs piij^cf, pudct, pacnitct, and tacdct to denote the cause of the vexation (§ 372). Piget tacdetque me morum clvitatis. / am annoyed at and sieic of the manners of the state (Sallust). — Pudet me stultitiae meae. / am ashamed of my folly. — Gallos consiliorum suorum saepe paenitet. The Gauls often repent of their resolutions. Compare French se re- pe)itir de. 426 The genitive of nouns denoting a charge or accusation may be used with verbs of ' accusing ', ' acquitting ', ' condemning ' : aliquem proditionis accusare (insimulare, arguere, reum facere, (S:c.), to accuse some one of treachery; aliquem inertiae ncquitiaeque condemnare, to condemn some otic on the charge of idleness and profligacy. These genitives, like tiie corresponding genitive-phrases formed with ' of ' in English, are to be explained as qualifying a noun in the ablative understood, i.e. as originally adjectival: crhnine furtl accusatus est ' he was accused on the charge of theft'. The genitive capitis, which is sometimes used with these verbs, is to be explained in the same way : capitis dam- tidtusest 'he was condemned on a charge involving his caput' (a capital charge). III. Genitives used as objects. 427 Most verbs meaning ' to pity ', ' to remember ', or ' to forget ' take a genitive as their object : Miserere mel. Pity me. Horum hominum me miseret. / pity these people (§ 372). Memini neque umquam obllviscar illius noctis. / remem- ber and shall never forget that night. 200 SYNTAX So too with the impersonal expression veiiit uiihi in iiiciitcni, lit. 'it comes into the mind to me ' = ' I call to mind '. But (i) uiiserdn ' to pity ' (ist conj.) takes the accusative : Communem Galliae fortunam miserantur. (ii) with verbs of 'remembering' and 'forgetting' the object may stand in the accusative if it denotes a thing : Hoc memini neque obllvisci possum. Iniurias meminisse nolo. THE ABLATIVE CASE 428 The ablative is mainly an adverbial case, used to qualify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The particular kind of ad- verbial meaning which it expresses depends partly on the meaning of the noun which stands in the ablative, partly on the meaning of the verb, adjective, or adverb with which it is used.^ The ablative is used either (A) without a preposition, or {B) with a preposition. (A) THE ABLATIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITION I. Adverbial ablatives.'^ 429 (i) The ablative may denote 'from': {a) answering the question ' V^hence ? ', when the noun is the name of a town, or doiuits, rus : Roma (domo, rure) proficisci, to start from Rome [from home, from the country). ' The meanings of the Latin ablative are derived from three different cases of the parent language : (i) an ablative proper, denoting/row ; (2) an in- strumental or sociative case, denoting by, witli ; (3) a locative case, denoting at, in, on. This fact explains how it is that the Latin ablative has such different meanings. But it is not alwaj's certain from which of these original cases a particular Latin usage is derived ; and it is probable that some Latin usages have been formed by contributions from more than one of these sources. - The first five of these adverbial ablatives (^§ 429-41) correspond to adverb-phrases formed with rfc in French. See French Grammar, §§ 417-28. THE ABLATIVE CASE 201 430 [h) when used with a verb which itself denotes separation :' patria cedere, /o ivitlidraw from ones native land ; conatu desistere, to licsist from an attempt; ahquein equo dei- cerc, to nnhorse some one ; oppidum obsidione llberare, to free a town from siege ; aHcui aqua atque ignl inter- dicere, to cut some one off' from water and fire ; aliqueni urbe expellere, to drive some one from the city; elves calamitate prohibere, to keep the citizens out of harm's way: Cic, pro leg. Man. 18. [For the construction of adimcre 'to take away' see § 401.] 431 {(') when used with a verb of 'depriving' or an adjective meaning 'deprived ' the abl. is translated by 'of : armls aliquem spoliare, to strip some one of /lis armour) oppidum vacuum defensoribus, a town deprived of de- fenders. 432 (ii) The ablative may denote 'owing to', 'because of ('from' in a figurative sense). The noun whose ablative is so used is generally abstract : inopia pabull perire, to perish from {o'wing to) -want of food; sive casu, sive consilio deorum, ivhcther owing to accident, or to the design of the gods (B. G. i. 12. 6) ; non voluntate sua sed coactu civitatis, not owing to his free will but through the compulsion of the state (B. G. v. 27. 3) ; temeritate hostium, owing to the rashness of the enemy; studio pugnandl aut spe praedae, through zeal for fighting or hope of booty.—'l'his use of the abl. is often found with verbs denoting emotion or the expression of emotion : delicto dolere, correctione gaudere, to feel pain at having done ivrong and to re- joice in punish nunt (Cic. Amic. 90J ; victoria gloriarl, to boast of a victory. 433 (iii) The ablative may denote ' by ', when the verb is passive and the noun denotes something not living : vento tenerl, to be detained by the -wind; flumine tegl, to ' There arc not many verbs of this kind. The verb scparo itself takes ab. ti. 202 SYNTAX be covered by the river; onere armoruni opprimi, to be burdened by a weight of armour; religionibus impediri, to be hampered by scruples. [Contrast ab, a with the abl. of nouns denoting hving agents, § 453-] 434 (iv) The ablative may denote manner or means, answer- ing the question ' How? ' : the English 'with ' often serves as a translation.* [a) when the noun (generally qualified by an epithet) denotes attendant circumstances — often something connected with the body or mind : magna voce exclamare, to cry with a loud voice, French crier d'une voix forte ; passTs manibus pacem petere, to sue for peace ivith outstretched hands ; omnibus cru- ciatibus aliquem adficere, to visit some one with every kind of torture ; impetum magno animo sustinere, to resist an attack with great resolution {very resolutely) ; summo studio et alacritate nitl, to strive with the greatest seal and eagerness {very zealously and eagerly) ; magna dlligentia, luith great diligence {very diligently). 435 (^) when the noun denotes an instrument or something which can be used as an instrument : armis contendere, to fight with arms ; castra vallo fos- saque munire, to fortify a canip luith a rampart and a ditch ; navibus transire, to cross by ship {by means of ships) ; sagittarils et fundatoribus hostem terrere, to frighten the enemy by means of archers and slingcrs ; - magnis prdemiis aliquem adlicere, to attract some one by means of great rewards ; se aliorum copils alere, to 1 But when ' with ' means ' together with ' it is expressed by cum with tlie abl., § 453. So too when the noun denotes attendant circumstances and is not quahfied by an epithet; see ex. in § 453 cum. ^ ' By means of followed by a noun denoting a person is ordinarily expressed by per with the accusative : litlcnis per niiniiitm tiiitlerc, ' to send a letter by a messenger.' THE ABLATIVE CASE 203 suppori oneself on the supplies of others (B. G. iv. 4) ; piscibus vesci or vivcre, to live on fish, to support life by means of fish (B. G. iv. lol. 436 (t) when the noun denotes a road or route : eodeni itinere revert!, to return by the same road ; esse- darios omnibus viis emittere, to send out charioteers by all routes. 437 ('^ when used with a verb of 'filling' or 'equipping' or an adjective meaning 'filled ' or 'equipped ' : navigia mllitibus complere, to man the ships n.'ith soldiers (of. French remplir de) ; donare aliquem civitate, to present some one ivith the citizenship ; omnibus rebus in- structus (ornatus), equipped ivith everything; singular! audacia praeditus, gifted ivith unique effrontery. The adj. plcniis sometimes takes an abl. : navis frumento plena, a ship filled with corn ; but cf. § 424. 438 (f) when the noun denotes price or cost and the verb denotes ' buying ', ' selling ', ' hiring ', or ' costing ' : * parvo pretio rediniere, to purchase {redeem) at a small cost; patriam auro vendere, to sell one's country for gold; magno detr!mento constare, to be secured at a great loss; victoria multo sanguine constabit (orstabit), victory will cost much blood. Compare the use of the genitive of neuter adjectives of quantity, § 423. 439 (/) when used with the adjectives dignus and indignus (cf. French digne de) : "^ memoria dignum, a thing w'orthy of mention ; vox popul! ^ With verbs of 'buying' the price paid is the means of acquisition. The other verbs of this group took the same construction by imitation of verbs of ' buying'. ^ The abl. with digitus is perhaps connected with the abl. of price ; cf. 'worthy' and 'worth' in English : sextanie sal Romae erat 'salt cost (was worth) a sixth of an as at Rome ' (,Livy xxix. 37. 3). Others connect dignus with decet : corona dignus ' adorned with a garland ', hence ' worthy of a garland '. 204 SYNTAX RomanI niaiestate indigna, a speech unworthy of the dignity of the Roman people. 440 [g] in expressions like the following, in which the abl. answers the question 'In what respect?' (a modification of 'How?'): par virtute, equal in valour; naves numero lx, ships 60 in number; magnitudine paulo infra elephantos, iyi size a little below elephants ; meo arbitratu vir iustus, in my judgement {opinion) a just man ; nomine Bibrax, Bibrax by 7iame. 441 (v) With comparatives the ablative may denote two dis- tinct things : [a] the degree of difference (English ' by ' ') ; the words which stand in the abl. are neuter adjectives of quantity or pronouns or nouns denoting measurement : carinae aliquant© planiores, keels considerably (lit. by a con- siderable amount) flatter ; multo gravior, much heavier (lit. heavier by much) ; multo gravius, nnich more seriously ; paulo humaniores, a little more civilized; eo minus, so much the less; hoc {or tanto) angustior, so much the narrower; quo facilius, whetrby the more easily ; nihilo magis, none the more; Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia, Ireland is smaller by a half than Britain ; decern pedibus altior, higher by ten feet; multls parti- bus maior, many times as great. Similarl}' with ante and post, used as adverbs or as prepositions : viginti annis ante, twenty years before (adv.) ; paucis ante diebus, a few days before (adv.) ; paulo post mediam noctem, a little after midnight." 1 This meaning is connected with the meaning • by means of (§ 435 ff.). " The meaning 'ago' may be expressed by abhinc, but with the accu- sative : (ibliinc annos quattiiordcciiti inoitiiiis est ' he died fourteen years ago'. THE ABLAT1\'E CASE 205 442 (/,) 'than':' Ubii ceteris Germaiils paulO liumaniores sunt, the LJhii air a little viorc civilized thau the rest of the Germans (= quam ceterl GermanI) ; Caesar nillitum vTtam laude sua habcbat cariorem, Caesar held the lives of his soldiers dearer than his oivn glory (= quam laudem suain) ; am- plius horls sex pugnabatur, the fight zuent on for more than six hours {= quam horas sex, accusative of time how long), 443 The ablative may always be used instead of quam with a nominative or accusative (except where it would cause ambiguity), and tnust be used instead of quam with the nom. or ace. of a relative pronoun : Misenum Aeoliden, quo non praestantior alter. Misenus the Aeolid, than 'whom none other tvas more excellent (Aen. vi. 164). The English accusative n'hom, which is always used instead of ci.'ho after than, is an imitation of this Latin abl. But the abl. cannot be used instead of quam with other cases : e. g. in tibi plus quam mihi dedit. Ambiguity would arise if the abl. were used in Brutum plus amd quam Cassium ; for Cassio might mean quatn Cassius amat. But there is no ambiguity in nl te plus oculis mels amarem 'if I did not love thee more than m}' eyes ' (Catullus). 444 (vi) The ablative may denote 'at', 'on', 'in', or 'within'. These meanings are closely connected with the meaning of the locative case (§ 55). [a] When the noun denotes a period of time, its ablative may answer the question ' When ? ' : vere, in the spring; aestate, in the summer; autumno, /;/ the autumn ; hieme, /';/ the ivinter. ' The meaning ' than ' was probably derived from the meaning • from ', ' starting from' (§ 429) : litlmdniores ceteris Cermdnts ' more civilized starting from the rest of the Germans as a standard \ 2o6 SYNTAX The ablative of the words liora, dies, iiox, inensis, annus, tempus is generally accompanied by an epithet : h5ra sexta, at the sixth hour; die quarto, on the fourth day; Idibus Martils, on the Ides of March ; proximo anno, iii the next year; eo tempore, at that time. 445 The ablative of words which do not properly denote a period of time, such as pucritia 'boyhood', beUnni 'war', . proelium ' battle ', adventus ' arrival ', are sometimes used to answer the question 'When?', but only when accompanied by an epithet or preceded by the preposition in : ' extrema pueritia, at the end of his boyhood (Cic. pro leg. Man. 28) ; in pueritia, i)i boyhood (Cic.) ; hoc proelio, in this battle; equestribus proelils, in cavalry battles (B. G. iv. 2) ; in bello, in time of war; Luculli adventu, on the arrival of Lucullus, 446 (b) The ablative of nouns denoting a period of time and some other nouns of similar meaning may answer the ques- tion ' Within how long a time ? ' : XXV diebus aggerem exstruere, to construct a rampart ■within 2^ days (= intra xxv dies); his decem diebus, within the last ten days ; eo biduo, ivithin ttvo days from then ; patrum nostrorum memoria, within the memory of our fathers. 447 (^) The ablative of the nouns terra, marc, locus and a few others of less importance may answer the question 'Where ? ': terra marlque pollere, to be poiverful on land and at sea ; idoneo (aequo, inlquo) loco pugnare, to fight in a con- venient {favourable, unfavourable) position ; hoc (eo, eodem, quo) loco esse, to be in this [that, the same, which) place; suo loco esse, to be in one's proper place : scrlbae loco aliquem habere, to have some one as secre- tary (lit. in place of a secretary). So too nouns denoting place with the epithet totus : tota urbe, throughout the city; tota Italia, throughout Italy. ^ Exceptions are rare. THE ABLATIVE CASE 207 148 [(/) With verbs of ' rel3'ing ' and the adjective fretus the ablative of any noun may answer the question ' On what ?' : virtute sua niti, to rely on one's own valour; natfira loci confldere, to rely on the nature of the ground ; superiOri- bus victorils fretus, relying 0)i prei'ions victories. For the ablative absolute construction see Participles, §§ 494-7- II. The adjectival ablative. 449 The adjectival ablative describes a person or thing. The noun which stands in the ablative generally denotes a feature of body or mind, and (as in the corresponding use of the genitive, § 419) is always qualified by an adjective : homines magna statiira, men of great stature {=^tall men) ; homines capillo promisso, men luith long hair {= long- haired men) ; summa virtute adulescens, a young man of great courage; simulacra immani magnitudine, /;;/(7_§-t'5 of vast sice. Used predicatively : BritannI capillo promisso erant, the Britons zvere long-haired ; bono animo esse videbantur, they seemed to be oj good disposition {= ivell disposed). III. Ablatives used as objects. 450 The ablative is used as an object — \a) With the deponent verbs Utor, fruor, fungor, potior — verbs which express the kindred ideas, 'enjoying,' 'getting possession of ' :^ navibus (iumentls, o^f.) utl, to employ ships [beasts oJ burden, (S:c.) ; suo iure utl, to exercise one's right ; ve- stltu utl, to wear clothing ; commodls vitae frul, to enjoy the comforts of life ; eodem munere fungi, to perform the same task ; ter aevo functus, having enjoyed a triple life (Horace). > With these verbs the abl. originally denoted means (§ 434) : utl navibus, to serve oneself with slxips^ French se servir de. 2o8 SYNTAX 451 [b) With the verbs cared, eged —verbs of ' lacking ' or ' need- ing' (the opposite ideas to those of §450) — and the impersonal expressions opus rs/ and fisus est ' there is need ' : ^ cibo carere, /o lack food, to be zvi/houl food ; omnibus rebus necessariis egere, to be destitute of all necessities ; auxilio nobis opus est, we need aid (lit. tJiere is need to us of aid) ; navibus consull non usus erat, the consul had no need of ships (lit. there was not use of ships to the consul). [B) THE ABLATIVE WITH A PREPOSITION 452 I. ab, cum, sine, ex (or e), coram, tenus, prae, pro, de. Phrases formed with these, as with other prepositions (§ 395)> ^^^ nearly always adverbial. Exceptional instances of adjectival phrases formed with cum, sine, and ex are given below. 453 ab, or (only before a consonant) a, or (only before te) abs : (\) fro}}i: ab Haeduls venire ; octo milia passuum a ca- strls abesse ; ab oriente ad occidentem ; non longe a marl ; aliquid ab aliquo accipere ; abs te rationem reposcent (B. G. v. 30) ; a prima luce ad vesperum. (ii) on the side of (i. e. regarded from . . .) : a Septen- trionibus {on the north) ; ab hac parte (French de ce cote) ; a fronte ; a tergo. (iii) by, with passive verbs, the ablative denoting a living agent (person or animal) : ab equitibus {or equi- tatu) repelh ; ab duce et a Fortuna deserl {Fortnna is here personified) ; a lupa nutrlrl {to be fed by a she-wolf; contrast the abl. without a prep. § 433). 1 For the origin of the abl. with these verbs see verbs of ' depriving ' (§ 431). DsHs est followed the construction of fitor (§ 450), from the stem of which the noun usus is derived. THE ABLATIVE CASE 209 coram, /// Ihc presence of-, coram populo.' cum, a'//// : (i) denoting accompaniment : cum omnibus copiis exirc ; legio quam secum habcbat ; legates cum mandatis mittere ; cum hostibus bellum gerere (or pugnare) ; pacem facere cum HelvetiTs; cum dignitate otium, peace ivitJi honour (adjectival), (ii) denoting manner : cum cruciatu necari {with torture)] citin is used here because there is no epithet ; cf- § 434- de : (i) about, coucerm'ug: de aliquii re dicere (or loqul, or docere) ; de aliqua re audire {or cognoscere or cer- tiorem fieri) ; legates de pace mittere ; desperare de salute {0/ deliverance) ; cf. French dc with verbs of 'speaking ' and 'thinking'.^ (ii) doivn from or from : de muro iacere ; de navibus desillre. (iii) (f, denoting partition : pauci de nostris {few of our men; cf. genitive, §421). (iv) owing to, according to : qua de causa {for luhich reason) ; de more ; cf. ex (iv), below. ex or (only before consonants) e : (i) out of, from : ex navl (or e navT) desillre ; ex omni- bus partibus venire ; ex equls conloqui {from horse- back) ; ex captlvis quaererc {or comperire or inve- nire) ; quidam ex Hispania {a person front Spain, adjectival) ; ferventes ex argilla glandes {red-hot baits made out of day, adjectival ; B. G. v. 43). 1 Coram is often an adverb ( = ' face to face ',. Conversely the adverbs of kindred meaning, palani ' openly ' and clam ' secretly ', are sometimes used as prepositions : palam popiilo (Livy), clam me ' without my know- ledge '. 2 A phrase formed with de is sometimes nearly equivalent to an object : iniquum est de stipendio recusare, // is unreasonable io irjuse about the tribute (B. G. i. 44. 4) is almost -- it is unreasonable to refuse tlic tribute. Compare significdre de Juga, nearly = signiftcdre fugaui (vii. 26. );; addiint dc Sab'uii utorte ^v, 41. 4) . 801 O 210 SYNTAX (iij ajicf : ex terrore ac fuga se recipere (/o recover after their alarm and flight, B. G. ii. 12). (iii) ofy denoting partition : quattuor et septuaginta ex equitibus (B. G. iv. 12); unus ex captlvis ; ex omni- bus human issimi : paucae ex numero navium ; cf. dl (iii), above, and the genitive, § 421, (iv) according to : ex communi consensu {by common con- sent) ; ex consuetudine sua. prae : (i) in comparison zvith : Gallis prae magnitOdine cor- porum suorum brevitas nostra contemptui est. (ii) for = owing to (in negative sentences) : colHs prae multitijdine hostium vix cerni poterat. pro : (i) in front of: pro portis castrorum in statione esse ; pro oppido conlocare. (ii) for = instead of: innocentes pro nocentibus. = on behalf of: pro patria morl. = in return for: pro beneficiis gratiam referre. = as : pro amico habere {to regard as a friend). (iii) according to : pro tempore et pro re. sine : without : sine ullo labore et periculo ; non sine aUqua spe ; gladius sine mucrone {pointless, adjectival). tenus (placed after its noun) ^5 far as : pectore tenus ; Aethiopia tenus. 2. in, sub, super, subter. [For the accusative with these prepositions see § 397.] 454 in with the ablative corresponds to the English /// or on, answering the question ' Where ? ' (cf. the locative, §55): (i) in urbe esse ; in Sicilia habitare ; in Treverls esse {in the country of the Trcveri) ; in colle consistere {o)i a hill); in ponte turrim constituere praesidiumque ponere ; sua in silvls deponere. (ii) in a figurative sense : in celeritate posita est salus {deliverance depends on swiftness) ; in repentino hos- THE ABLATIVE CASE 211 tium adventu multuni fortuna potest (/// tin- case of the sudden arrival of the enemy). sub, under, with the ablative answers the question ' Where ? ' : (i) sub aqua esse ; sub terra habitare ; sub muro stare ; sub monte consldere {at the foot of a mountain). (ii) in a figurative sense ; sub oculis omnium pugnare ; sub imperio Romanorum esse ; sub umbra amicitiae Romanae latere. super with the ablative generally means about, concerning : super aliqua re dicere (scrlbere, rogare). In poets it sometimes means over, above; cui ensis super cervlce pendet {over whose neck hangs a sivord ; Horace). subter, under, with the ablative (rare) answers the question ' Where ? ' : subter densa testudine {beneath a close shed of shields ; Aen. ix. 514). V. VERB-NOUNS AND VERB-ADJECTIVES 55 Verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are nouns and adjectives formed from the stems of verbs. They therefore denote acts or states, like some other nouns and adjectives connected with verbs. Compare jnorJ 'to die ' and mortuus -dead ' with mors ' death '. But verb-nouns and verb-adjectives are like verbs in three respects : (i)They have tenses and voices. (2) They take the same case as the verb from which they are formed : legibus parere, to obey the laws legibus parendo, by obeying the laws legibus parens, obeying the laws {3) They are qualified by adverbs (not adjectives) : legibus semper parere (parendo, parens), always to obey {by always obeying, always obeying) the laws. o 2 212 SYNTAX USES OF THE INFINTHVE I. The Infinitive as an Object 456 The chief use of the infinitive is as an object : (i) as the sole object of certain verbs (chiefly verbs denoting some activity of the mind). The same kind of verbs take an object-infinitive in Latin as in English : [a) verbs of ' desiring ', ' resolving ', ' striving ', and the like: volo, / lut'll ; nolo, / ivi7/ not; malo, I prefer; cupio, / desire ; studeo, / am eager ; audeo, / dare statuo, constituo, decerno, animum induce, / resolve Conor, contends, intendo, / strive cogito, in animo habeo, / intend festino, mature, propero, I hasten cunctor, moror, I delay dubito, vereor, / hesitate non euro, I do not care ; non recuso, / do not refuse [b) verbs of ' being able ' and ' being bound ' : possum, / can ; nequeo, / cannot scio, I know how {= I have the ability); nescio, I knoiv not Jioiv disco, / learn ; dedisco, / unlearn debeo, / ought [c) verbs of 'beginning', 'ceasing', 'continuing', 'being accustomed ', and the like : coepi, incipio, instituo, / begin desino, desisto, mitto (intermitto, praetermitto), / cease ; neglego, / neglect pergo, persevere, 1 go on, I persevere soleo, consuevi, / am accustomed, assuesco, consuesco, / accustom myself USES OF THE INFINITIVE 213 57 Examples. [n) Sciibere volo. / ri'/// wrifr or / wis/i to •writt'. Scrlbere nOlI, JVill-jiof to n'rite {= Please do not write, § 316). Sapere aude. Resolve [Dare) to be a 7uise man. (b) E5s longius prosequi non potuCrunt. T/irv could not pursue them further \ B. G. iv. 26. \'incere scTs, Hannibal, victoria utl nescls. You under- stand how to win a victory, Hannibal, but you do not understand how to use it : Livy xxii. 51. 4. {c) Nostros lacessere coeperunt. They began to attack our men. Fugere destiterunt. They ceased to run a-a'ay. For the agreement of predicative adjectives and nouns attached to an object-infinitive (e. g. with esse) see e ; video, / see ; audio, / Iienr ; cognosco, disco, I /earn arbitror, iudico, existimo, / judge, I t/iink; cogito, / reflect ; opinor, puto, I fancy credo, I believe ; confldo, I am confident ; spero, I hope ; suspicor, I suspect novl, scio, / knoiv ; nescio, / do not knoiv ; nieminl, / remember and the like, verbs of 'saying ' : dico, / say ; nego, / deny ; respondeo, I answer \ doceo, / show, fateor, I confess ; nuntio, trado, / report ; glorior, / boast ; queror, / complain ; simulo, / pretend promitto, polliceor, I promise ; minor, I threaten and the like (including equivalent expressions such as scrlbo, ' I write to say', certiorem facio ' I inform ') ; verbs of ' feeling ' ^ : gaudeo, laetor, / rejoice ; doleo, / grieve ; indignor, / am indignant ; miror, / am surprised and the like (including aegre fero, I am annoyed). 469 Examples. I nos copias deducere us to be u'ithdra wing {that we are withdrawing) our forces. Credunt . nos copias deduxisse 71s to have zvithdrawn (that They believe we have withdrawn) our forces. I nos copias deducturos esse us to be about to ivith- draiv (that we shall withdraw) our forces. 1 These verbs may also take a y;/o(i'-clause, corresponding to a ///^/-clause in English or a (/?/(?-clause in French : Gaudent qiiod copias dedficimus (deduximus, dCductrirl suinus, &c.^. Tliey rejoice iliat zve ore wif/idrawiiig (Jiave ivitlidrauni, are about to withdraiv, &c.) our forces. I USES OF THE INFINITIVE 219 nos copias deducere us lo be mthdraKHu^ (that we were withdrawing) our forces. Credebant nos copias deduxissc us to have -ivilluh'OKni (that They helicvra] we had withdrawn) our forces. nos copias deducturos esse us to l>e about to uersonal passive construction ^§ 406J. 222 SYNTAX to have uninhabited country around them to as great a distance as possible : B. G. vi. 23, — Magnl interest oppido potlrl. To get possession of the town is very important: B. G. i. 21. — Accipere quam facere iniuriam praestat. // is better to suffer than to injlict an injury : Cic. Tusc. V. 56. — Non longius anno uno in loco re- manere licet. To stay longer than a year in one place is not permitted: B. G, iv. i. Infinitive as predicative noun : Loquor de homine docto, cui vivere est cogitare. / speak of an educated mail, to ivhom to live is to think (= life is thought): Cic. Tusc. v. 11 1. 478 When a predicative adjective or noun is attached to the subject- infinitive (e.g. to esse ov fieri or viderl), it stands in the accusative case. The explanation is that it agrees with an accusative (subject of the infinitive, § 462) understood ; epithets, too, of this unexpressed subject may stand in the accusative : Est aliquid, fatoque suo ferroque cadentem | in solida nioriens ponere corpus humo, | et mandare suls ahqua, et sperare sepulcrum, | et non aequorels piscibus esse cibum. It is something, ivhen falling l)y decree of fate and by the sword to lay one's dying body on solid earth, and to i^ive some last com- missions to one's" friends, and to hope for a tomb, and not to be food (predicative noun) for the fshes of the sea : Ovid, Trist. i. 2. 53-6. Supply aliquem ' some one '. 479 But after licet with a dative the predicative adj. or noun attached to the infinitive generally stands in the dative (cf § 274): Licet vobis incolumibus discedere. You may depart unharmed'. B. G. V. 41. 6. III. The Historic Infinitive 480 The Present Infinitive may be used in lively narrative as equivalent to a finite verb in a simple sentence (Historic Infinitive) : Cottidie Caesar frumentum flagitare ; diem ex die ducere Haedul. Caesar kept demanding the corn daily : the Haedui kept putting him off day by day : B. G. i. 16. In origin the historic infinitive may have been adverbial, with the verb understood (cf. § 252) : flagitiire [erant], ' they were for demanding ' : USES OF THE INFINITIVE 223 hence 'they proceeded to demand' or 'they kept demand- ing' ; compare ctrc a with the infinitive in French, and the EngUsh idiom ' What are you at ? ' Or the usage may have originated in a verb-less sentence of which the infinitive was the subject. IV. The Infinitive in Exclamations ^.Si The infinitive is sometimes used in exclamations and indignant questions (depending on a verb of emotion understood) :^ Te nunc, mea Terentia, sic vexarl ! idque fieri mea culpa I To think that you, my Tcnnfio, are thus troubled / and that this is due to my fault.' (Cicero.) Understand doled 'I grieve' or indignor ' I am indignant '. Mene incepto desistere victam ? / desist from my purpose baffled? (Aen. i. 37.) Equivalent to egone desistam? 'Am I to desist ? ' (§ 319.) Here the infinitive is probably adverbial, as in § 480 : desistere 'for desisting'. English has the same use ; for sentences like ' I desist ? ' ' I honour thee ? ' contain infinitives, not indicatives. The original meaning of the infinitive. 482 In origin the infinitive is a dative or locative case : for example regere ' to rule ' is formed from the stem reges-, meaning ' the act of ruling ' ; dative or locative reges-i or -e ' for {or in) the act of ruling '. Compare gener-1, dative of genus, from the stem genes-, which became geiter- (§ 37).^^ The passive infinitives show the original dative or locative ending more clearly : dart ' to be given ', from das-J, lit. 'for the giving'. The passive meaning was acquired later. In the passive infinitive of the 3rd conjugation the inflexion 7 was added directly to the root {reg-i). 483 Many uses of the infinitive show traces of its original meaning. In most constructions it stands nearer in meaning to a dative, in some to a locative. The following instances come mainly from poets ; for infinitives with their original datival or locatival meaning are for the most part avoided in classical prose, where some other construction is generally substituted (especially ut or qui with the subjunctive, the genitive of the gerund, ad with the accusative ot the gerund, or in a few cases the supine in u). ' Compare the accusative of exclamation, § 388. * By the change of s into r between two vowels. 224 SYNTAX 484 The original meaning of the infinitive is adverbial : (i) with verbs : Libycos populare penates non venimus. We have not come to lay waste the Libyan homes : Aen. i. 527 f. (of. Hor. Od. i. 2. 7 ; iii. 8. ii). Populare here denotes purpose, which would be expressed in classical prose by ut popnlemus or ut popiilcinur (deponent). Argent! magnum dat ferre talentum. He gives them a great talent of silver to carry away : Aen. v. 248. Ferre * for carrying away ' ; classical prose quod fer ant. Interea soror alma monet succedere Lauso Turnum. Mean- while his kindly sister ivarns Turnits to take the place (classical prose ut siiccedat) of Lausus : Aen. x. 439. Flectere iter socils imperat. He commands his comrades to change (classical prose idflectant) their course : Aen. vii. 35. Hortamur farl. We exhort him to speak (classical prose lit loquatur) : Aen. ii. 74. Quid habes dicere? What have you to say? (classical prose quod dicas): Cic. Balb. 33. — From this usage of the infinitive with habed comes the French Future : diras from dire as, Lat. diccrc habrs, ' you have to say', hence ' you will say'. 485 (ii) with adjectives : avidus committere pugnani, eager to join (for joining) the fray : Ovid, Met. v. 75. Classical prose avidus pugnac committcndac. bonus dicere versus, good at composing verses (locatival meaning of infin.) : Virg. Eel. v. 2. Classical prose peritus with gen. dignus amarl, ivorthy to be loved: ibid. 89. Classical prose qui amctur. paratus decertare, ready to fght (for fighting), is found in Caesar, B. G. i. 44 ; but would more commonly be expressed by paratus ad decertandum. vultus liibricus aspici, a countenance hazardous to behold (in the beholding, locatival meaning) : Hor. Od. i. 19. 8. Classical prose irdn'icus visu (supine).- Constructions like facilisfacrre ( = facilis facta) arc common in Propertius, 225 USES OF THE PARTICIPLES ^86 The participles are used (i) as epithets {§ 256): gladiator moriens, a (fyiiig ij^Iaih'ator ; gladiator mortuus, a dead gladiator. ^87 The epithet participle may be appositive (cf. § 258) : Orgetorix, regnl cupiditate inductus, coniurationem fecit. Orgcton'x, proDipted hv the desire of being king, formed a conspn-aey : B. G. i. 2. A phrase containing an appositive participle may often be translated by a clause of time, cause, condition, or concession, according to the context : thus indnctns in the above example might be translated 'when he had been prompted ' or ' because he had been prompted ' ; and in other contexts by * if he had been prompted ', ' though he had been prompted '. Hanc adept! victoriam, in perpetuum se fore victores con- fldebant. If they gained this victory, they felt sure that they zvould he victorious for ever: B. G. v. 39. 4 [adeptl for adeptos ; cf. vii. 56. 2). In conloquium venire invltatus gravaris. You refuse to co))ie to a conference, though invited : cf. B. G. i. 35. 2. [.88 But more commonly the participle denotes attendant cir- cumstances :^ Flens me obsecravit. Weeping he entreated me = He entreated me with tears in his eyes. — Aquilifer fortis- simo pugnans occlditur. The eagle-bearer falls, fighting bravely: B. G. v. 37. — Centuriones armati Mettium circumsistunt. The centurions in arms surround Mettius : Livy i. 28. 1 This meaning is often expressed by cunt with the subjunctive : see §§ 358, 359- 901 P 226 SYNTAX 489 (2) as predicative adjectives (§ 254) : InvenI eum morientem. / found Jiiui dying. InvenI eum mortuum. I found him dead. 490 Often with verbs of ' perceiving ' : Sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidit. He saw the consul sitting on a rock covered with blood : Livy xxii. 49. 6. — Tiblcinem cantantem audio. / hrar the piper playing. Here the participle is nearly equivalent to the infinitive in the use mentioned in § 459 (<:), 491 The nominative of the Perfect Participle Passive, used pre- dicatively with a tense of esse, forms the tenses of completed action of the passive voice : vocatus sunt, ' I have been called ' or ' I was called ' (§ 153) ; vocatus erani, ' I had been called ' ; vocatus ero, ' I shall have been called '. 492 The nominative of the Future Participle Active, used pre- dicatively with a tense of esse, forms an equivalent for three active tenses : Moriturus sum. / am likely to {about to) die = / shall die (Future Indie), Moriturus eram {or ful). / was likely to {about to) die : equivalent to a Future in the Past of French or English when used to denote futurity from a past point of view : *je mourrais,' ' I should die.' Moriturus ero. / shall be likely to {about to) die. 493 The nominative of the Present Participle Active is never used predicatively with a tense of esse, except when the par- ticiple has acquired the character of an ordinary adjective or noun {§ 498): dJligens est 'he is diligent', sapiens erat 'he was wise {or a philosopher) ', e.xcellens erit ' he will be eminent ' ; dicto audiens sum ' I am obedient to command '. So too in French : // est savant ' he is learned ', but not // est lisant ' he is reading ' (French Gram. § 481). USES OF Tlir: participles 227 194 A very important use of the partieiple as a preilicative adjective is that which is foiind in the construction called the ablative absolute,' which corresponds to the Enghsh nomina- tive absolute construction : Ponuntque ferocia PoenI corda, volente deo. And tlie Cartliagi)iia)is lay aside tlwir haughty temper, a god Zi'i//i>ig it (= because a god willed it): Aen. i. 303. Compare the English nom. abs. in 'God willing (= if God wills it), I shall do it '. Paucis defendentibus, oppidum expugniire non potuit. He could not take the town by storm, few defending it (= though few defended it) : B. G. ii. 12. Omnibus rebus comparatis diem dicunt. Everything havi)ig been got ready {=^ wX'xo.w everything had been got ready), they appoint a day : B. G. i. 6. Signis in unum locum collatis mllites sibi ipsos impedi- ments esse vidit, quartae cohortis omnibus centurioni- bus occIsTs, signifero interfecto, signo amisso. He saw that the soldiers were an impediment to themselves, the standards having been crowded together in one place (= because the standards had been crowded together), all the centurions of the fourth cohort having been killed a)id the standard -bearer having been slain and his standard lost : B. G. ii. 25. 495 In this construction the ablative is an adverbial ablative and the participle is predicated of it, so that the ablative and its participle together form an equivalent of an adverb-clause (as is indicated by the translations given in brackets above). On the predicative character of the participle depends the difference between the ablative absolute construction and other ablatives with adjectives attached to them. Contrast signis collatis 'the standards having been crowded together' (§494) with infestis signis 'with hostile standards ' (= in battle ' Ablalivtis absolutus ' .iblative set free ', 'dissociated ablative' — so called because the ablative and its participle form a group by themselves. P2 228 SYNTAX array ; see example in § 460 r). In the latter case the adjective is an epithet ; in the former it is predicative. Similarly volcntc deb in § 494 means not ' owing to a willing god ' but 'owing to a god willing it '. 496 The ablative in this construction denotes attendant circum- stances (cf. § 434) ; it may generall}^ be translated by the English 'with'.' 'Y\-\\\?, panels dcfcndciitihus 'with few de- fending it', ojiiuibiis rebus coniparatls 'with everything got ready'. Compare the following sentences in English, where the omission of ' with ' would leave an absolute construction : ' But Marlborough zvHli the rapture of the fight still daueiug in his blood pulled up his horse on a little rustic bridge and scribbled a dozen lines to his wife to tell her of the great event.'' ' The latter plan would relieve the British communi- cations from danger, and ivith this accqiuplished Lord Roberts could deal with the Transvaalers east of Pretoria at his leisure.''' But this construction may assume various shades of meaning according to the context in which it stands. Thus the abl. abs. may be equivalent to a clause of — (i) time (cf. the abl. of time when, § 444) : signo dato, the signal having been given = when the signal was given ; crescunt loca decrescentibus undls, the laud comes into vieiv as the water subsides : Ovid, Met. i. 345. (ii) cause (cf. the abl. of cause, § 432) : see examples § 494. (iii) condition or concession : Prohibentibus nostris hostes sine periculo vitae flumen adire non possent. If our men made opposition the enemy zvould not be able to approach the river without risking their lives : B. G. viii. 40. 4. 1 The preposition cum is sometimes added in Latin : cum dts bene iiivantibus anna capite ' arm yourselves, with the gods graciously assisting you ' : Livy xxi. 43. 7 (so the MSS.). There are several examples in Old Latin. 2 Fights for the Flag (Blenheim), by W. H. Fitchett, p. 16. s Biniiingliam Daily Post, June 15, 1900. USES OF THE rARTICIPLES 229 Obs. In writing Latin the abl. abs. construction slioukl be avoided when the subject of the English subordinate clause is repeated b}' a noun or pronoun in the main clause: e.g. 'When the hostages had been received, he put llicin under close custody', 'As he was saying this, he expired ' ; in such sentences an appositive participle (§ 487) should be used : obsi'dcs acci'ptds ciisfocfivit ; hacc (liccns, intain cxsplrdvit. In this last instance the abl. abs. would be as awkward in Latin as the noni. abs. in English : ' he saying this, he expired.' ' 197 Instead of the participle in the abl. abs. construction a pre- dicative noun or adjective ma}^ be used : Cicerone et Antonio consulibus, iviih Cicero and .Intony as consuls = in the consulship of Cicero and Antony. me invito, ivifh me mtii'illing = against my will. ^98 Some participles have acquired the character of ordinary adjectives or nouns : e. g. absens ' absent ', praesens ' present ', which are present participles of esse 'to be ' (see other examples in §493); anians 'a lover'; adiilescens 'a young man [or young woman) ' : In improbi praesentis imperio maior est vis quam in bonorum absentium patrocinio. In the command of a ivicked man -who is on the spot there is more force than in the protection of honest men H'ho are far away; praesens tempus, the present time ; in praesenti, at present (Cicero). So too some perfect participles, e. g. certiis 'certain ', factum 'a deed ', impensa (sc. pecunia) ' expense ' : Facto non consulto opus est. There is need of action, not of deliberation. Participles so used may be compared : anuins, anmntior, amantissinins ; optdtus, optatior, optdtissinuis. 1 There arc some examples in Latin writers (Caesar, Cicero, and others) of the abl. abs in sentences like ' When the hostages had been received, ho put them into close custody '; see B. G. vi. 4. 4 : but it would be dillicult to tind an abl. abs. in sentences like ' He saying this, he expired '. 230 SYNTAX 499 Many words that look at first sight Hke participles are not really such : for participles are z'^r^-adjectives and formed from the stems of verbs. But adjectives like the following are formed (by means of the same suffix as is used in verb- adjectives ') from the stems of nouns or adjectives : barbd-tus ' beard-ed ', aun-tiis ' ear-ed ' (e.g. Icporcs aitrltl 'long-eared hares '), togd-tus ' dressed in a toga \ tiuiicd-tus ' dressed in a tunic ', candidd-tus 'dressed in a Candida {toga)\ &c. USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE 500 The gerund adjective is a passive verb- adjective (§ 133), which has two uses : (i) denoting what is to be done. Here the gerund adjective is a passive participle with the sense of obligation or neces- sity : - (a) as an epithet : vir laudandus, a man to-be-praised, a laudable man homo contemnendus, a person to-be-despised, a contemptible person (b) as a predicative adjective : Hie vir laudandus est. This man is to be praised. Acies erat instruenda. The line of battle ivas to be formed (had to be formed) : B. G. ii. 20. Urbem inflammandam Cassio attribuit. He handed over the city to Cassiiis to be set on fire : Cic. Cat. iv. 13. 1 See note on the sutfix / in § 148. 2 The name given to the gerund adjective by the Roman grammarians was parlicipittm fultni passivi 'future participle passive'. This term is applicable to the usages treated in §§ 500 and 501 above, though the idea of obligation or necessity is more prominent in them than that of futurity ; but to the usage treated in § 502 the name ' future participle passive ' is not applicable. Here the gerund adjective (like the subjunctive in certain of its usages) loses the sense of obligation and becomes equivalent to a present participle passive USES OF THE GERUND ADJECTIVE 231 Ponteni in Ararl faciendum curat. He orders a bridge to be made on the Arar: B. G. i. 13. riic nominative neuter of the gerund adjective, with the sense of obhgation, is often used with a tense of esse in the impersonal passive construction (§ 377). The person by whom the action is to be done is generally denoted by a dative : Pugnandum est nobis. IVe must fight (lit. fighting is to- be-done by ns). Rlilitibus de navibus desiliendum erat. The sohiicrs had to Uap doivnfroin the ships : B. G. iv. 24. luveni parandum, seni utendum est. A young man ought to get, an o/d man to employ : Seneca, Epist. xxxvi. 4. Obhviscendum est nobis iniuriarum acceptarum. IVe ought to Jorget injuries received. Aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis con- sulendum. The property of many citizens is at stake, ivhose interests you ought to consult : Cic. pro leg. Man. 6. Here a vobis is substituted for the dative vobts in order to avoid ambiguity : quibus vobis consulenduni est might have meant 'who ought to consult your interests '. The personal and the impersonal constructions may be used side by side : Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda teilus. Now ive must drink, noiu the earth nntst be struck ivith free step : Hor. Od. i. 37. i. (2) without the sense of obligation or necessity. In this use the gerund adjective is like a present participle passive : Facultatem itineris per provinciam laciendi dare nolebat. He was unwilling to grant an opportunity of a Journey being made through the Roman province : B. G. i. 7. 232 SYNTAX This passive construction is equivalent in meaning to that of an active verb-noun with an object : facultatem itineris facicndl = ' the opportunity of making a journey '. Thus — cupiditas belli gerendl, lit. //le desire of ivar being ivagcd = the desire of waging war: B. G. i. 41. Sul muniendl, non Galliae oppugnandae causa id facit. lit. He does so for the sake of himself being protected (= of protecting himself), not of Ganl being attacked [= of attacking Gaul) : B. G. i. 44. Legatos suT purgandl gratia mittunt. T/iey send envoys for the sake of clearing themselves : B. G. vii. 43. Obs. — Note that in the last instance stfi is plural, in the one before it is singular : yet the gerund adjective is singular in both cases. The reason is that the gerund adjective always agrees with the form of this pronoun, whether its meaning be singular or plural. USES OF THE GERUND 503 Tiie gerund is an active verb-noun, corresponding to the English verb-noun in -ing.^ Its genitive and ablative cases are used very much like the genitive and ablativeof any other noun ; but its accusative is used only after certain prepositions (chiefly ad). Its dative is not much used, because the meaning ' for . . . ing ' is usually expressed by ad with the accusative. The gerund has no nominative. Gen. studium pugnandl, a desire of fighting: B. G. i. 46. — difficultas navigandl, the difficulty of sailing: B. G. iii. 12. — hiemandl causa, for the sake of ivinteritig : B. G. iii. I. — homines bellandl cupidi, men desirous of going to war: B. G. i. 2. Abl. Vencrunt ut de indutils fallendo impetrarent. They came in order that they might get their ivay about the truce by deceiving : B. G. iv. 13. ' Ihe gerund (verb-noun) probably grew out of certain usages ©f the gerund adjective, which is to be regarded as the older form. USES OF THE GERUND 233 Reperiebat in quaereiido. lie found in the course of inquiry: B, G. i. 18.— Malignitatis auctorcs quae- rendo rem arbitrii sui ad senatum reiecerat. While (lit. ///) seeking for supporters of his meanness he had referred to the senate a nmttcr which lay in his OiVn dis- cretion: Livy V.22. 1. Compare fdliafando, Aen.ii.6.' Accus. Diem ad deliberandum sumam. / zvill fake a day for deliberating : B. G. i. 7. Nostros alacriores ad pugnandum fecerant. They had made our men more keen for fighting : B. G. iii. 24. 504 The cases of the gerund supply a genitive and an ablative to the infinitive (which is also equivalent to an English verb- noun in -ifig): thus the infinitive might be declined as follows : NoM. discere, to learn : ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores, to have studied the liberal arts con- scientiously refines the character (Ovid). Ace. discere, to learn : discere cupio, / desire to learn. Gen. discendl, of learning: discendl cupidus sum, / am desirous of learning. Dat. discendo, to learning: discendo operam do, / devote myself to learning. Abl. discendo, by learning : discendo emolliuntur mores, the character is refined by learning. 505 As a verb-noun the gerund may take an object in the same case as the verb from which it is formed. Thus causa par- cendJ victis 'for the sake of sparing the conquered' ; parcendo victls ' by sparing the conquered '. But the gerund with an object in the accusative case is for the most part avoided in the best prose.^ ' From these uses (with and without in) comes tlie French gerund with cit : e. g. en dcntaitdani, en chcrcliant. 2 The gerund with an accusative-object begins to be fairly common in later prose (e.g. in Livy, sec ex. quoted in § 503, Abl., and in the poets of the Augustan age. It is chiefly' the genitive and the dative of the gerund that taivcs an accusative-object in these writers : c. g. spcs urban eapicndi 234 SYNTAX Instead of this construction the passive construction of the gerund adjective is generally employed (see above, § 502), and must be employed after a preposition, such as ad or /// : Non modo ad insignia accommodanda sed etiam ad galeas induendas tempus defuit. Time failed them not only for fitting on their badges but even for putting on their helmets: B. G. ii. 21 (not ad insignia accommo- dandum, ad galeas induendiun). 506 But in some cases the gerund with an accusative object is almost necessary : (i) when the object is a neuter pronoun ; for here any other case than the accusative would be indistinguishable from a masculine : studium aliquid agendl, the desire of doing something (not aliciiius agendl) ; talia fando, in speaking of such things (not tdlibiis fandJs), see ex. in § 503. (ii) in order to avoid the repetition of the clumsy endings drum, arum: neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi facultate data, no opportunity having been given either of holding counsel (passive construction with gerund adjective) or of taking arz/zs (active constr. with gerund, instead of armornm capiendorum) ; cf. B. G. iv. 14. USES OF THE SUPINES ^ 507 The supine in -Unix's, the accusative of a verb-noun of the 4th declension in -tus or -sns, used adverbially to answer the question ' Whither ? ' (cf § 391), chiefly with verbs of motion ; it thus denotes the end in view or purpose (§ 136): LegatT gratulatum venerunt. The envoys came to offer ' the hope of capturing the city '(instead of iirbis capiciulae), mens alitur aiics discendo 'the mind is nurtured by studying the arts' (instead vi aiiibus discendis] . ^ The curious name ' supine ' cliosen by the Roman grammarians to describe these forms means literally * lying on its back. ', i. c. out of action. USES OF THE SL* PINES 235 their congralidatioiis'. B. G. i. 30. — Nunc venls ultro inrlsum doniiiuini. Now you actually coiite in order to laugh at your master : Plaut. Aniph. 587. Ludos spectatuni eo. / ani goi)ig to see the games. The supine with eo is sometimes (not always) equivalent to a Future Participle with sum (§ 492) : spcctdtum co = speetdturus sum. Compare the French /f vais with the infinitive, denoting immediate futurity : je vais voir ' I am just going to see ' (French Gram., § 298). 508 Out of the last-mentioned usage grew the most important use of the supine in -um, viz. that in which it is joined with 7/7 to form the Future Infinitive Passive (§ 137). In this con- struction Jri is impersonal : Titurio ipsi nihil nocitum Irl respondit. He answered that no harm -would be dune to Titurius himself; lit, that there was-a-going (irl) to do no harni (nihil nocitum) to Titurius himself: B. G. v. 36. 509 The supine in u is the ablative or dative or locative of a verb-noun of the 4th decl. in -tus or -sus. But very few verbs form a supine in -ii'. the most important are those which denote 'saying', 'perceiving', or 'doing '. The supine in u is used chiefly with certain adjectives meaning 'easy', 'difficult', 'wonderful', 'best', and the like. It may generally be translated by the English infinitive (some- times active, sometimes passive) : facile facto, an easy thing to do: B. G. i. 3.— optimum factu, the best thing to do or to be done : B. G. iv. 30. — mirabile dictu, strange to say: Aen. i. 439. — resnefaria visu, a thing aiiful to behold: Cic. Plane. 99. Difficile dictu est. It is difficult to say : Cic. Tusc. ii. 19. — Hoc horridiores sunt aspectu. They are all the more dreadful to look upon : B. G. v. 14. -Macedonia divlsul facilis est. Macedonia is easy to partition or to be par- titioned: Livy xlv. 30. 2. 236 SYNTAX VI. PRONOUNS AND INDICATING ADJECTIVES The reflexive pronoun and adjective. 510 The reflexive pronoun se, sui, sibi, se and the reflexive possessive adjective suus, a, um have two chief uses : (i) referring to the subject of the clause in which they stand : Cato se pugione suo occldit. Cato slew himself ivith his dagger. — Deserebantur ab amicis suls. They ivcrc being deserted by their friends. Caesar temeritatem mlHtum reprehendit quod sibi ipsi iOdicavissent quid agendum esset. Caesar blamed the rashness of the soldiers, on the ground that they had themselves judged for themselves what ivas to be done : B. G. vii. 52. — Constat Dioclem se suspendisse. // is ivell known that Diodes hanged himself (accusative with infinitive = noun clause) : Cic. Verr. v. 129. — Suis in- commodls graviter angi se ipsum amantis est. To be seriously troubled by one's own misfortunes is the mark of one who loves himse{f {ama.nt\s = eius qui amat) : Cic. Amic. 10. 511 With certain impersonal verbs the accusative denotes the logical subject : Paenitet eos consiliorum suoruni. // repents them (= They repent) of their plans : B. G. iv. 5. (ii) referring to the subject of a diff"erent clause of a com- plex sentence, as in an English example like 'God has brought man into being in order that he may know Himself. Rule. The reflexive pronoun and the reflexive adjective, standing in a clause of purpose, or in a dependent state- ment, dependent question, or dependent clause of desire, may refer to the subject of the main clause :' Caesar castella constituit ne hostes suos circumvenire 1 For the exact meaning of the term 'dependent' in this rule see Classification of Sentences and Clauses, §§ 523, 524. A dependent clause is one particular kind of subordinate clause. PRONOUNS AND ADJl-XTIX'KS 237 possent. Caesar built forts in order that the cniiny might not be abh' to surround his (i.e. Caesar's) nwn : K G. ii. 8. Caesar statuit sibi RhCiuim esse transeundum. Caesar deeided that the Rhine must be crossed by him : B. G. iv. 16 (sibi = Caesaii). Contrast constat Dioclem se suspendisse, § 510. Quid sul consilil sit osteiidit. He indicates what his phvi is : B. G. i. 21. Germani petebant ut sibi trldui spatiuni daret. 7'he Germans asked that he shouhi grant them a period of three days : B. G. iv. 11 (sibi = Germanis). 512 But such sentences are sometimes ambiguous ; for a pro- noun or adjective referring to the subject of the subordinate clause is also expressed by sc or suus ; see § 510 : Ariovistus dixit neminem secum sine sua pernicic conten- disse. Ariovistus said that no one had fought zvit/i him (Ariovistus) without disaster to himself {i. e. to the fighter) : B. G. i. 36. Such ambiguity is sometimes unavoidable ; sometimes, though avoidable, it is not avoided ; sometimes it is avoided by using ipse to indicate the subject of the main clause : Cur de sua virtute aut de ipsTus dlligentia desperarent ? [Caesar asked the centurions] n^hy they despaired of their oivn valour or of his [Caesar's] zeal : B. G, i. 40. 513 The possessive adjective suus, a, um is sometimes used with reference to a noun which is not the subject of any clause of the sentence, especially when the possessive adjective has emphasizing force (= 'his own ', ' their own ') : Gallls prae magnitudine corporum suorum brevitas nostra contemptui est. To the Gauls the short stature of the Romans is contemptible in comparison ivith the great size of their O'a'n bodies : B. G. ii. 30. Hirtium suT mllites interfecerunt. // 'was his own men who hilled Ilirtius . 238 SYNTAX 514 ' One another ' is expressed in Latin either b}' a phrase formed with inter or by alter . . . n/tenini, when two persons are spoken of, or alnis . . . aliit))!, when more than two persons are spoken of: AmTcos inter se prodesse oportet. 1 z- • 7 , , , . _ , 1 / f- ,• rrieiias oii^lit to Amicos alterum alterl (or ahum ahi) 1 , ,^ ., _ , ^ -' help one another. prodesse oportet. 1 Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. 515 The Latin demonstratives are never used like the Enghsh demonstratives in expressions Hke ' My house is larger than that of my neighbour ' = 'the house of my neighbour', nor before a participle in expressions like ' those standing by ' = ' the bystanders ', ' those in Rome '= ' the people who are (or were) in Rome'. In these usages the English demonstrative is equivalent to the definite article ; but the Latin demonstra- tives are never used with this weakened meaning : Domus mea maior est quam viclnl. My house is larger than my neighbour' s=i\\?ii of (the one of) my neighbour, il qui adstant (adstabant)l ^j^^ bystanders or adstantes (w///!o/// u ) ) il qui Romae sunt (erant), those in Rome The following sentence is no exception to this rule, for eorum fngientium does not mean ' of those fleeing ', but ' of them as they fled ' : Hi novissimos adorti magnam multitudinem eorum fn- gientium conclderunt. These, attacking the rearguard, cut to pieces a great number of them as they /led: B. G. ii. II. 4; cf. v. 9, 8 (eos/ugientes), vi. 27. 4 [earuni stan- tium = arborum stantium). Interrogative pronouns and adjectives. 516 The interrogatives are sometimes strengthened by na))i : (juisnam ' who in the world ? ' PRONOUNS AND ADjEC riVES 239 E(//in)^,rc(/iii(/\s an interrogative form of the indcfiiiite y///s, quid ' any one ', ' anything ' (§ in): Ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret? IFas f/inr any one w/io did not ivecp? (quIn = qui nOn, § 360, Obs.) Indefinite pronouns and adjectives. 517 For the distinctions in meaning between the indefinite pronouns and adjectives see §§ 1 12-18. A good example to iUustratc the meaning of qiuvls and qullibet (§ 114) is — CuiusvTs est errare, nulllus nisi insipientis in errore per- severare. Every one makes mistakes, but no one excepting a fool persists in a mistake (Cicero), Ouisquam (§ 115) is sometimes used in sentences which are neither negative nor interrogative : CuivTs potest accidere quod cuiquam potest. IVIiat can happen to any one at all can happen to every one : Pub- liHus Syrus. Indignor quicquam reprehendl quia nuper compositum sit. / am indignant that anything should l)e blamed merely because it has been recently written. Hor. Epist. ii. I. 76. Similarly with si ' if and quam ' than *. Ouisque 'each ' (§ 117) is sometimes used with superlatives and ordinals : Optimus quisque confitctur. Every good man (lit. each best man) confesses = All good men confess. Decimus quisque interfectus est. Every tenth man was killed. Quotas quisque iuris pcrltus est ! //oa' few are skilled in the laiv ! Relative pronouns. 518 Latin has two generalizing relative pronouns and adjec- tives, corresponding to the French quiconque 'whoever': qulcumque m., quaecumque {., quodcumque n. | • quisquis ni., f., quicquid n. 240 SYNTAX Both of them ordinarily take the indicative mood : Coercere quibuscumque rebus poterat Dumnorlgem cona- tus est. He tried to keep Dnuinorix hi check by ivhaievcr means he coidd. Quicquid circuitus ad molHendum cllvum accesserat, id spatium itineris augebat. Whatever amount of detour (§ 422) ivas added with a vieiv to making the ascent easier, increased the h'ngth of the journey : B, G. vii. 46. 519 Oulcitmque is also used in certain phrases as an indefinite adjective, i.e. without a verb (like the French quehonque): Qui quacumque de causa ad eos venerunt, ab iniuria pro- hibent. Those zvJio have come to them for any reason, they protect from injury: B. G. vi. 23. VII. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND CLAUSES 520 Sentences are of the following kinds — (i) Statements: Sic est. // is so. — Vera dico. / speak the truth. (2) Questions: [a] Questions which may be answered with ' Yes ' or ' No '. These questions are generally introduced in Latin by the interrogative words 7ium^ or -ne : Num sic est ? Is it so ? — Dicisne vera ? Are you speak- ing tJie truth ? But sometimes no interrogative word is used : Vis pugnare ? Do you tvant to fight ? or You ivant to fight? In negative questions of this class the word -ne is attached to the negative, which is put first in the sentence : Nonne vera dicebam ? Was I not speaking the truth ? Nonne argentum redderem ? Was I not to pay back the money ? (§ 319). I When nuui is used the answer ' No' is generally expected. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 241 riie answer ' Yes ' is expressed in Latin by ctiaiit or ita or ita vcro, or by repeating the question in the form of a state- ment : Vera dicis. Yoii arc speaking ihc Incth {= yes). ' No * is generally expressed by luiininc or niiuinic vcro, or by a repetition : Non vera dicebas. You were not speaking (he Initli {= no). — Non redderes. No (§ 319). (/;) Questions which cannot be answered with ' Yes ' or ' No ' are introduced, as in English, by interrogative pronouns, interrogative adjectives, or interrogative adverbs: Quis dixit? Who said it F—Qwa.c erant verba eius ? What cvcre his ivonis ? — Quando dixit ? When did he say it ? — Ouani saepe dixit ? How often did lie say it ? — Ut vales ? Hoiv do you do ? Quid faciam ? Wiiat am I to do ? (§ 319). (3) Desires (iiickiding commands, requests, entreaties, and wishes) : Aut ' etiam ', aut ' non ' responde. Ansivcr either 'yes ' or ' no ' (Cicero) ; § 313. Sis fellx. Be thou fortunate (§ 321). The negative of all desires is nc : Ne transierls Hiberum. Do not cross the Ebro. (4) Exclamations : Quam pulciier est ! Hoiu handsome he is! — Quae erit ■ laetitia ! What a joy it will be ! — Ut peril ! How I ivas undone ! 21 Two or more coordinate parts of a sentence may be con- nected by one of the following coordinating conjunctions : et, -que, atque, ac, and sed, at, autem, verum, but nam, namque, enim, fur aut, vel, -ve, or; neque, neve, nor \ or by a coordinating relative. 901 Q 242 SYNTAX The words auton and cuiin stand after the first word in the sentence, though they are not attached to it like -que and -vc. Two conjunctions cannot stand together, but eniin in tlie sense of 'indeed ' (a sentence-adverb) may follow scd, ct, or at. 522 Double questions may be introduced by utrum ) 7 ,; ' ivlietlicr ... an or : -ne ) Utrum verum est an falsum ? or Verunine est an falsum ? [ J'VlictJui-] is it true or false ? Utrum verum est an non ? Is it true or not? ]'^loquar an sileam ? Am I to speak or am 1 to keep silence? Aen. iii. 39. 523 Subordinate clauses are of the following kinds — ■ (i) Noun Clauses : [a] Dependent Statements : Opportunissima res accidit, quod GermanI ad Caesarem sul purgandl causa venerunt. A most fortunate thing happened, namely that the Germans came to Caesar for the sake of clearing themselves (§ 266). Diviciacus dixit se scire illud esse verum. Diviciacus said that he kneiv that it ivas true (§ 469). (/>) Dependent Questions : Quid fieri velit ostendit. He points out ivliat he ivishes to be done (§ 363 a). Utrum vera an falsa diceres (Utrum vera diceres necne), nesciebam. / did not know ivhelhcr you iverc speaking truth or falsehood {ivhcthcr you ivere speaking the truth or not). — Nccnc is used in dependent questions in place of an non. Ncscio an mirabilior adversis quam secundis rCbusfuerit. I knoiv not ivhether [— 1 am inclined to think that) /;^ xvas more admirable in adversity than in prosperity : CLASSIFICATION OF SFNTFNCFS, FTC. 243 Livy xxviii. 12. 2. Similarly liaud scio an = ' [nobably ' or ' perhaps *. Quid taciam nesciO. IVIiat I am lo do 1 don't know (§ 325- i)- [c) Dependent Desires : Hortatur ut popull Roniani lidem sequantur. lie exhorts them to place themselves under the protection of the Roman people (§ 326). [d) Dependent Exclamations : Vidcs ut alta stet nive candidum Soracte. You sec how Soraclc stands glistening with deep snow (§ 363 b). Mirum quantum ill! virO fides fuerit. // is strange how nnich people trusted that man (§ 363 b). 124 Dependent questions must be earet'ully distinguished Irom ad- jective clauses introduced by a relative pronoun without an ante- cedent (§ 289), and tVom adverb clauses introduced by a subordinating conjunction. Observe -- (i) The verb (or other wordj in the main clause on which a dependent question depends always denotes some activity of the mind ; the main clause to which an adjective or adverb clause belongs may contain any kind of verb : Die inihi quae enieris ' Tell me what you have bought ' (dep. quest.), Ddmihi (juacanistl ^G'wc me what you have bought' (adj. cl.) ; Oitid velini sciis 'You shall know what I want ' (dep. quest.), Ouod quaeris \scire\ scies ' You shall know what you want [to know] ', adj. cl. (ii) An adjective clause may be replaced by a noun denoting a person or thing : quae cniisti = ea quae emistl, e. g. punm, vlnuni, Sec. A dependent question cannot be so replaced ; the answer to it must always be a sentence, containing a subject and a predicate: Die nnhi quae cniens ' Tell me [the answer to the question] What have you bought : ' The answer would be ' I have bought apples, wine, (Sic' (iii) The English 'whether' may be citiicr interrogative or a subordinating conjunction meaning 'if on the one hand': Ouacro intni nicciicuni aithibilurus sis necne, ' I ask whether you are going to call in a doctor or not' (dep. quest.) ; Srve nudicuin ad/ubueris, (I u 244 SYNTAX sive noil adhibueris, nun convalesces ' Whether you call in a doctor or not, you will not recover ' (adverb clause). Dependent exclamations, which are introduced by an exclama- tory word, difter in meaning from dependent questions, which are introduced by an interrogative word. But the subjunctive mood is used in both : see § 363. 525 (2) Adjective Clauses : Duas vias occupavit quae ad portum fercbant. He seized the tivo roads ivhich led to the liarbour. Quid est quod rides ? What is it that yon are laughing at ? (Contrast Quid est quod rldeds ?, § 335.) Omnes qui turn eos agros ubi hodie haec urbs est incolO- bant illl parebant. All zvho then occupied the laud ivhere {= on which) this city iioiv stands submitted to hi/n (Romulus) : Cicero de Rep. ii. 4. Circuniscrlbit nos terminis quos non excedanius. He confines us within limits which ive are not to pass over (§ 334)- For other ^^/F-clauses with the subjunctive see §§ 335, 337, 338, 341. 343. 344, 346, 355- 360, 361, 364. 526 (3) Adverb Clauses : {a) Clauses of Time, introduced by the subordinating conjunctions ubi, uf, 'when', pos/quam, poslcdquam, 'after', sinnil atquc, ' as soon as ', anfrquam, priusquam, ' before ', donee, dum, quoad, 'while ', 'until ', cum, ' when ' : Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves remover! iussit. When Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships to be withdrawn : B. G. iv. 25. For tense see § 311. Postea vero quam cquitatus noster in conspectum venit, hostes terga vertcrunt. But after our cavalry came in sight, the enemy Jlcd : B. G. iv. 37. tlostcs simul atque se ex fuga recepCrunt, statim Icgatos miserunt. As soon as the enemy recovered from their fight, they immediately sent envoys: B. G. iv. 27. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTKNCFS, ETC. 245 Neque priiis fiigere dCstitr-runt, qiiani ad flunKii Rhrnmn pcrvC'iiGrunt. lYor did tiny stop tlirir Jliglit before they reached the Rhiue : B. G. i. 53. Dum haec gcnintur, qui crant in agiis rcliqiiT disces- sC-riint. Uliile these events -were taking place (§ 312), the others ivho xvere in the fiehh went azvay : B. G. iv. 34. Ipse, quoad potuit, fortissimC- restitit. He resisted most bravely, as long as he could : B. G. iv. 12. De comitils, dunce rediit Marcellus, silentiiini fuit. Nothing was said about the elections until Marcellus re- tunu'd : Livy xxiii. 31. Cum in spem venero aliquid nic eonficere, statim vos certidrcs faciam. When I beconw (lit. shall have beco>ne, §310) hope/id that I ant producing some effect, I -will let you hno'w : Cacs. ap. Cic. ad Att. ix. 13. Cum equitatus noster so in agros Ciccerat, essedarids e silvls CniittCbat. JVhenever our cavalry had sallied out into the fields, he sent the charioteers out of the woods : B. G. V. 19. Infclix Dido, nunc tC- facta impia tangunt ? Tuni dccuit, cum sceptra dabas. Unhappy Dido, does thy disloyalty noiv come home to thee ? It should have done so at the time li'hen thou ivast offering thy sceptre : Aen. iv. 596. For antequam, priusquam, donee, dum, quoad with the subjunctive see §§ 339, 340. For cum with the subjunctive see §358^7. 527 {b) Clauses of Place, introduced by the subordinating conjunctions ubi ' where ', qua 'by what route ', quo, 'whither ', taule, ' whence': AHae naves eodem, unde erant profectae, referebantur. Other ships ivere being carried bach to the place from ivhich they had stai'ted: B. G. iv. 28. 528 [c] Clauses of Cause, introduced by the subordinating conjunctions quia, quod, quoniam, ' because.' Reliquos secum ducere decreverat, quod mOtuni GaUiae 246 SYNTAX verebatur. He had decided to take the rest zvitli liim, because he feared a rising in Caul: B. G. v. 5. For cuju ' since ' with the subjunctive see § 358 b. 529 {d} Clauses of Purpose, introduced by the subordinating conjunctions ut 'in order that', 7ic 'in order that . . . not', gud 'whereby ', with the subjunctiv^e (§ 338) : Labienum in continent! rehquit, ut portus tueretur. 530 (e) Clauses of Result, introduced by the subordinating conjunction ut 'that ' with the subjunctive: Ita currOs coliocant ut expedltum ad suos receptum habeant (§ 360). 531 (/) Clauses of Condition, introduced by the subordinat- ing conjunctions 57 'if, uisi 'unless', with the indicative or the subjunctive, or by dum, dunmiodo ' provided that ' with the subjunctive (§ 343). A complex sentence containing a clause of condition is called a 'conditional sentence'. The indicative mood is used in the //-clause in instances like the following : Si peccat, poenam meret. //"//r is doing ivroug {= if it is a fact that he is doing wrong), he deserves punishment. St peccaverit, poenam mercbit. If he docs {\\i. shall have done, § 310) ivrong, he will deso've punishment . Si peccavit (or peccabat), poenam meruit {or merebat). If he did ivrong, he deserved punishment. Si peccavit, puniatur. // he has done wrong, let him be punished. These clauses of condition may be called 'open ' as distinct from the clauses of condition which take the subjunctive (§§ 349; 35°)- ^^ peccat means simply ' If it is a fact that he is doing wrong ' ; the speaker does not imply that it is a fact or that it is not. Rule.— Open clauses of condition take the indicative mood, and the main clause is free in regard to tense and mood. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, ETC. 247 532 i^) Clauses of Concession, introduced by the sub- ordinating conjunctions c/sJ ' e\en if, 'although', with the indicative or the subjunctive, qiiaiiitjiiain ' ahhough ' witli tlie indicative : EtsT in his locTs niaturae sunt hieuiEs, tamen in Britan- niam contendit. AlthougJi the iviiifcrs are early in these parts, yet he hastily crossed to Britain : B. G. i\'. 20. For qiiann'is, iit, 'although', with the subjunctive, see § 343 ; for cinn 'although ' with the subjunctive see § 358 Z>. 533 (//) Clauses of Comparison : (i) denoting inaniwr, introduced by the subordinating con- junctions ut, sJciit, qitcniadniodinii, qitani, 'as ' : Valeant preces apud te meae, sicut pro te hodie valuerunt. May my prayers be as effectual zvith you, as they have been for you to-day.' Livy xxiii. 8. For quasi, velut si, tanquain, tanquani si, 'as if,' 'as though ', with the subjunctive, see § 337. (ii) denoting degree, introduced by the subordinating con- junction quain ' than ', or by words meaning 'as ' : Est Hibernia dimidio minor quam Britannia. Ireland is smaller than Britain by half. For quam ut ' than that ' with the subjunctive see § 337. Obs. After adjectives and adverbs that denote likeness or difference (par,pariter; similis, similiter; aeqiie, perinde; alius, aliter ; contrdrius, contra, secus) the clause of comparison is introduced by atqiie or dc: Simill ratione (or Alia ratione) ac ipse feci iniurias vestras persequiminl. Avenge your wrongs in the same zvay as (or otherwise than) I have done: B. G. vii. 38. VIII. REPORTED SPEECH 534 Instead of quoting the words used by a speaker, an historian may report what was said. Reported speech takes the form of subordinate clauses depending on a verb of 'saying' (called the leading verb), expressed or understood. Original Speech : Desillte, mllites, nisi vultis aquilam hostibus prodere : ego certe meum rei publi- cae atque imperatorl offi- cium praestitero (= prae- stabo). Leap down, soldiers, U7iless you ivant to betray ilie eagle to the enemy : I at any rate sJiall do my duty to the comnwimervi'ittnrds ' ; si Gallia omnis cum Germanis consiiitJref, niiani I'sse in celeritatc/o^/'/f//// salFdcin. Cottae quidcm atque eorum, qui tiisscittiirnt coiii,iliiiiit quem ha- bere exitum ? in quo si non praesens periculum, at certc longinqua obsidione fames esi^et timenda. (B. G. v. 29.) ' The accusative-subject ^c is understood. 2 nostri is here used because the reporter i^Caesar) is writing as a Roman to Romans. He might have used stii, which would have ex- pressed the meaning from the point of view of Titurius. So, too, nostras below might have been reported by suas. ^ Suppl3'///('>if. spc Ambiorlgcm ad cius modi consilium descendisse .' Men scntentia in utramque partem est tuta: si nihil erit durius, nullo cum perlculo ad proximam legio- nemperiienieiiiiis; si Gallia omnis cum Germanis conseiitit, una est in celeritate />oi'//rt' salfis. Cottae quidem atque eorum qui disseii- titint consilium quem fiabet exi- tum ? in quo si non praesens periculum, at certc longinqua obsidione fames est tintenda \ 256 SYNTAX IX. ORDER OF WORDS Rules of Normal Order. 551 Rules i and 2. The two most important rules of normal order have already been given (§ 3). In the following sentence the position of every word except populus and the conjunctions is determined by these two rules, which apply to phrases (§ 260) as well as to single words.^ Populus Romanus urbes sociorum suoruni, The nation Roman tlic ciliis of alliis its imperio suo infestas, aut vl aut obsidione in potestatem to rule its Jiostik, either by force or by siege to sivay suam redegit : its reduced : i. e. The Roman nation reduced to its sivay, eitJicr by force or by siege, the cities of its allies hostile to its rule. 552 But there is one exception : Demonstrative, interrogative, and numeral (cardinal and ordinal ^) adjectives, together with adjectives denoting quantity or size (i.e. words meaning 'all', 'some', 'many', 'few', and words denoting 'big', 'little', and the like) generally stand before their nouns : hie homo, is homo, tanta res, alia res, quae res?, utra 1 Tims the adjective plirase imperio suo infcslds comes after tubes ; and in that phrase the adverbial dative /w/tno a»o (§414) comes before iiifcstds. The phrases aut vi aut obsiilioite and in potcsldkiu suain are both adverbial to rccicgit, and therefore precede it. '^ The ordinal numerals generally stand a/kr the words dies, horn, and annus, e. g. ante diem (juarlum Kaleiuids Maids, ' the fourth day before the Calends of May ' = April sStli ; annus millcnsimus nongcntensimus nanus 'the year 1909'; otherwise they precede their nouns, e.g. prtnm it sec uncla aacs ' ihe first and the second \mc\ prliniim agnien ' the head of the column'; dccima Icgio 'the tenth legion', quarla pars copidniiii 'the fourth part of the forces '. OKHKR OF WORDS 257 purs?, quanta nuiltitudo ?, quota hoia ? ; duac naves, viginti nillia hominum. omnes (non null!, niultl, paucT) hominr'S, niagnus lunnerus, magno animo, parva res, parvum spatium. 553 Rule 3, Relative pronouns, relative adjectives, and relative adverbs stand at the beginning of the clause which they introduce : Hae sunt arbores quarum in umbra iacebat. These are the Irccs in the shade of ivhich (or /';/ ivhose shade) he zvas lying. Not in umbra, qtidnini nor /;/ qiiariiiii umbra. Thus a co-ordinating relative takes precedence of a sub- ordinating conjunction : Quod ubi Caesar animadvertit, naves longas remis incitarl iussit. JVhoi Caesar observed this, he ordered the ships of-a'ar to be set in motion by means 0/ oars : B. G. iv. 25. The only words which can stand before a relative are pre- positions ; and even a preposition may be placed after the relative, especially cum : ProximI sunt Germanis, quibuscum continenter bellum gerunt. They are the nearest to the Germans, with whom they continually wage ivar: B. G. i. 4. qua de causa, for ii'hich reason ; quapropter, quocirca, wherefore (compounds of a preposition with an ad- verbial ablative of the relative pronoun). 554 Rule 4. Five exceedingly common co-ordinating con- junctions -que, and autem, vero, ho-a'ever. -ve, or emm, for always stand immediately after the word, or the first word of the group, which they connect : pedites equitesque; senatus populusqueRomanus; terram attigit omnesque incolumes naves perduxit (B. G. v. 23,6; here -que connects the two parts of the double sentence) ; prospera adversave fortuna ; a nulio videbatur, ipse »01 R 258 SYNTAX auLein uiniiiii viclcbat ; eo tempore tini5bani, nunc vero timere non debeo ; civis enim Romanus erat. Obs. Several sentence-adverbs/ like quoque 'too', 'also', igitur 'therefore',' and -;/^ (used in asking questions) stand after the word, or the first word of the group, to which they belong : to quoque aderas ; quid igitur respondeam ? ; pacemne hue fertis an arma ? 555 Rule 5. — Most adverbs stand immediately before the word which they qualify (and therefore come after objects, cf. Rule 2) : Hoc saepe dixl. Especially the adverb nbn : Hoc non dixl. Hoc dicere non possum. Hoc non saepe dixT. Non omnes hoc dicunt. Order of clauses in complex sentences. Rules I and 2 are applicable, to some extent, to adjective and adverb clauses. 556 (i) Adjective clauses usually come after the word to which they are adjectival ; see § 525. 557 (2) The following kinds of adverb clause usually come before the clause whose verb they qualif}^ : r?/;//-clauses (temporal or causal or concessive) and clauses of time introduced by postqiiaui, postcaqnam, nbi, ut, simiil atque ; see § 358 and § 526. clauses of condition and concession ; see § 350 antl §§ 531, 532. So, too, the ablative absolute construction (equivalent to an adverb clause) ; see § 494. ' Sentence-adverbs are adverbs whicli qiialily the sentence as a whole, and not any particular word in it. But they sometimes linve the effect of emphasizing a particular word in the sentence. * Igitur, however, gcncrall}' stands at the beginning ol its clause in Sallust and Tacitus. ORDKK OF WORDS 259 But prospectiNc clauses and clauses of purpose and result usually come after the clause whose verb the}' quality ; see §§ 338, 340, 360, and §§ 529, 530. 558 As to noun clauses, the only generally applicable rule is that noun clauses introduced by ut, ne, qiioniiiius or qiiin usually stand after the clause on whose verb they depend (whether as subject or object) : see §§ 326-33 and § 523. 559 Complication of clauses. — The Latin writers sometimes go ver}' far in putting one clause inside another, like Chinese boxes : Qui cum ex cquitum fuga (ji/o in loco irs rssd cognovissent, nihil ad celeritatem sibi reliqui fecerunt. Lit. J J 710, ivlicn from the flight of the eavalry what was the position of affairs they had learned, left tiothiiig ttndone in the way of speed : B. G. ii. 26. 5. Si quis, qui, quid again, forte requlret, erit, vivere me dices. Lit. If there shall be any one, 'who, what I am doing, perchanee shall inquire, say that I am alive : Ovid, Trist. i. I. 18. In these instances each clause comes exactly in the position which would be expected from Rules i and 2 ; but such sen- tences are complicated and rather obscure. In writing Latin the beginner will do well, as a rule, to finish off one clause before beginning another. It is not necessary that the rela- tive pronoun should come immediately after its antecedent. For instance, ' I know the man whom you say you saw yesterday' may be translated Hominem nov'i quern te herJ I'ldisse diets as well as Hominem quern te herl vldisse din's novl, and the simpler order is often clearer. Departures from normal order. 560 In no language is the order of words rigidly fixed ; and in Latin the order is more elastic than in English, owing to its wealth of inflected forms. Thus we find that the normal order is frequently changed for various reasons. R 2 26o SYNTAX (i) To put a word in an unexpected position often makes it prominent and emphatic : Romanum imperium vestra fide, vestris viribus reten- tum est. It is by yotir loyalty, by your might, that the empire of Rojne herself lias been upheld: Livy xxiii. 5 (epithets placed before their nouns). (2) A group of words is often divided by putting compara- tively unimportant words in the middle of it. The effect of this arrangement is to make the divided phrase, or one part of it, emphatic : Magnus ibi numerus pecoris repertus est. A great number of sheep were found there : B. G. v. 21 {ibi between magnus and numerus). Omnis accusatoris oratio in duas divlsa est partes. The zuhole speech of the prosectttor was divided into two paiis : Cic. Cluent. i. i. Aliud iter habebant nullum. Other road they had none : B. G. i. 7. (3) Words are sometimes thrown in, as it were by an after- thought, at the end of a sentence. This may be called tag- order. For instance, instead of ' I am always glad to see you ' we may say in English ' I am glad to see you — always': Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter. When I was in Athens I used to attend the lectures of Zeno — constantly : Cic. Nat. Deor. i. 59. (4) The verb est, in the sense ' there is ', often stands at the beginning of a sentence : Erant in ea legione duo virl fortissiml. There were in that legion two veiy brave men : B. G. v. 44. It may also be put before a predicative adjective or noun : Haec gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima : B. G. iv. i. (5) Imperatives are often put at the beginning of the sen- ORPKR OF WORDS 261 tence or clause, as in French and English, with adverbs anil objects after them : Egredere aliquando ex urbe , . . Fduc tecum etiam omnes tuos . . . Purga urbem : Cic. Cat. i. 10. (6) In a group of words consisthig of a noun + adjective + adverb phrase, the adverb phrase stands between the adjective and the noun, and the adjective often comes first : magna inter Gallos auctoritas, greai injlncnce among the Gaids (§ 395) ; suum rel publicae atque imperatorl otTi- cium, his duty to the commonwealth and to the general (§ 534)- (7) The order of words in a sentence or clause is to a con- siderable extent influenced by the sentence or clause which precedes and by that which follows. {a) The speaker or writer often begins with a word or phrase which is closely connected in meaning with some- thing which has been said in the preceding sentence or clause : thus after a description of a battle, ending with Hominum enim multithdine reccptus impcdiebalnr, Caesar goes on as follows (B. C. iii. 64. 3) : In e5 proelid cum gravl vulnerc esset adtectus aquilifer et iam viribus deficeretur, conspicatus equites nostros ' Hanc ego' inquit ' et vivus multos per annos magna dlligentia defendl et nunc moriens eadem fide Caesarl rcstituo. Nollte, obsecro, committere, quod ante in exercitu Caesaris non accidit, ut rel mllitaris dedecus admittatur, incolumemque ad eum deferte. Hoc casu aquila conservatur. Here tn eb proelid and hoc casii have the effect of conjunc- tions or co-ordinating relatives ; for they connect what follows with what precedes. (b) The speaker or writer often ends with a word which prepares the way for something that is to be said in the fol- lowing sentence or clause : thus in the first sentence of the Gallic War Caesar writes Gallia fst oiiinis divJsa in partes 262 SYNTAX ires (not /;/ ires partes dtiusa), because he is going to describe these three parts in detail in the next sentence : ' The divisions of Gaul are three — as follows.' And in § 5 of the same chapter he writes inithun capit ajliiniinc Rhodanb, because he is going to speak of other boundaries of this part of Gaul. This principle will explain man}' instances in which an adverb phrase or an object is placed after the verb. In many examples the effect of the transposition is to bring a noun into immediate contact with a relative pronoun, as in the first instance above {in partes trcs immediately before qiiariiin), and in the following : Relinquo haec omnia; quae si velim persequi, etc.: Cic. Verr. v. 21. (8) The normal order is often changed in order to make the sentence more rhythmical or in other ways more pleasing to the ear. This is true of prose as well as verse, though in verse (English as well as Latin) the normal order is often changed more than would be permissible in prose. But it must not be supposed that the words can stand in any order, even in verse. INDEX The rrjcrfiices nrr (o tlif sections abbreviations, App. XI. abhitic 441, note ablative 12: adverbial 429-448; ad jectival 449; as object 450. 451 ; with a preposition 452-454 ; ab- lative absolute 494-497 ac ' than ' 533, obs. accent 10 accusative 11; as object 379-388 (retained, in the passive construc- tion 386) ; adverbial 389-393 ; with a preposition 394, 395 ; with infinitive 462-473 '^in reported speech 536, 545, 547 adjectives 18-21. 31-33. 46-50 ; numeral 80-95 ; comparison of 66-72 ; possessive 103 ; demon- strative 104-109, 124. 515; inter- rogative 110, 516; indefinite ui- "8, 517, 519; relative 119 121. 124; reflexive 103, 51 1-514 adjective clauses 525 ; with subjunc- tive 334, 335, 337, 338, 341, 343, 344. 346, 355. 360, 361 ; in re- ported speech 364 adverbs, formation of 73-77 ; com- parison of 78, 79 ; numeral 84 ; demonstrative 124 ; relative 124, 525 adverb clauses 526-533 ; with sub- junctive 335-346, 358 360, 364 ; of time 339, 340, 358 a, 526 ; of place 527 ; of cause 358 i, 528; of purpose 338, 529 ; of result 360, 530; of condition 343, 349, 350, 531 ; of concession 343. 358 b, 532; of comparison 337, 533; in reported speech 364, 540 agreement, of verb 270-273 ; of pre- dicative adjective and predicative noun 274-276; of verb adjectives 277 ; of epithets 279-281 ; of pro- nouns 382-289 (lid 248 a/i'/iiis 1 12 alius 109 alUr 91 an 522 analysis of sentences 250-268, 520- 533 anicquain 340, 526 apposition 258, 281 audio, conjugated 149-151, 156-158 *06 App. XIII calendar, App. XXXVIII laitis App. IX capio. conjugated 159-163 card App. XIII cases, general meanings of 10-12; nominative 368-377; vocative 378 ; accusative 379-397 ; dative 398- 415 ; genitive 416-427 ; ablative 428-454 cf/er A pp. XVII iJvitds App. XII clause, subordinate 261, 523-533; main 266. See adjective clauses, adverb clauses, noun clauses coepi 249 commands 313-316, 320-322 : de- pendent 326-329, 523 comparative clauses 533 ; subordi- nate to accus. with infin. 473 comparison of Latin with modern languages 2 comparison of adjectives 66-72 ; ol adverbs 78, 79 complex sentences 265-268 compound verbs, principal parts of, App. XL I conditional .sentences 531, 350 : in subordination 355, 471 conditioned futurity, subjunctives of 347-356 264 INDEX conjugations, the four 1)4-151, 156 158 ; mixed conjugation 159-163 ; principal parts in all conjugations 170237 conjunctions, co-ordinating 521 ; sub- ordinating 526-533 co-ordinating relatives 120. 521, 547 rorApp. XIII corresponding words 122-124 ciiw-clauses 358, 359, 526 dative 11, 398; as object 399-405; adverbial 407-415 dccef 375 demonstratives in Engl, and Lat. 515 dependent clauses 523 ; distinguished from other subordinate clauses 511, note ; dep. questions distin- guished from adjective and adverb clauses 524 deponent verbs 164-169 desires 313 316, 320-323 ; subordi- nate 325 lii 1-332, 338, 523 (c deits 22, App. IV (A) (/tves App. XVI domus 54 donee 340, 526 double or multiple sentences 263 ; members of a sentence 264, 521 dttbito {non d. qutn) 362 (6) dinn 312, 340. 343, 526 duo 89. App. IV y_Cj ccqnis 516 edo 247 English words not expressed by separate words in Latin 4 eo 243, 244 epithets 256-258 ; agreement of 279- 281 -esimiis, -eitsimits App. XXI etiam ' yes ' 520 cfsT 532 exclamations 388, 520 (4) ; depend- ent 363, 523 {d) fiiri ■Zi^^ faux App. XI /axiin,fnxd Ajjp. XXXV fero 241 fid 246 frdtcr App. VIII gender of nouns 56-65; exceptions to rules of gender, App. XXIII- XXVII genitive II ; adjectival 417-422; ad- verbial 423 426; as object 427 gerund 135. 503 506 gerund-adjective 133, 500 502 gradior 166 Imbed, conjugation of 149-151, 156- 158 hand scto an 523 b hie 104 ; and hic 124, 544 historic infinitive 480 ; sequence of, 367. 4 ; historic present 293 ii ; sequence of, 367. 3 idem 108 -iens App. XXI ignis App. VII illc 105 itnbcr App. XI imperative mood 129. 313-316 : in suppositions 317 impersonal verbs 370-376 impersonal passive construction 125. 2, 133, 137 note, 377. 406 indicative mood 126 128. 290; tenses of 291 309 infinitive 131. ; as object 456-461 : as subject and predicative noun 477-479; historic 480; in excla- mations 481 ; original meaning of, 482-485 ; accusative with infini- tive 462-473 ; tenses of infinitive 134,467-471 ; nominative with in- finitive 474 476 inqitant 248 interest 373 ipse 102, 512 irregular verbs 238-249 ita restrictive 345 ; - ' yes ' 520 iter App. XIII I uppitcr App. XIII ifis iiiranduni App. XIII invents App. IX Itber'i 21, App. IV {b) libct 374 licet 374 liquet 374 lis App. XI locative case 13, 55 locus App. I INDEX 265 mdlo 2^2 »»«/^rApi'. VI II HUiuinl 249 tuinsis A pp. IX mixed conjugation 159-163 money. App. XXXIX ttioiior 166 m * not ' 520 \^l>), 315, 316, 320 322. 327 330, 332, 338 ; ucvf 321 -tie 520 art . 522, 523 ^b , 363 negative commands 315. 316, 520(A) uf(jiia'i 2^5 nesciCi an 523 b neuter 9 1 nix App. XI )wlO 242 nominative 11, 368. 369; with in- finitive 474-476 iiotnte 520 ^aa) nouns 14 ; ist dec). 15 ; 2nd decl. 16, 17, ai, 22; 3rd decl. 23 30, 34-45 ; 4th decl. 51. 52 : 5th decl. 53' 54 ; gender of 56 65 ; App. XXIII-XXVII noun clauses 261, 523; with sub- junctive 325 333 iiiillus 86. )ium 520 2 rt\ 523 {b\ 355, 363 numeral adjectives 80-95 numeral adverbs 84, 85 iiiintntus App. IV (« tniiic 544 object 253 ; direct 380-388 (^cognate 382) ; indirect 399-402 ; other dative objects 403-405 ; genitive objects 427 ; ablative objects 450, 451 odt 349 'one . . . another' 109, 514 oportet 375, 353 ^ oplim Cites App. XI (jrder of clauses 556-559 Order of words 3, 551-560 orior 167 OS App. XIII ; OS 37 parens App. X participles 132, 486-499 ; of depo- nents 164 passive voice 125 ; formation of 152 ; uses of 386, 387, 402 ; impersonal 377, 406 /•ater App. VI II patiiir 166 pauper App. X\'I pcniilcs App. XI Perfect Active, formation of 171; compounds, App. XLI Perfect Participle Passive, formation of 17a phrases 260 possum 240. 353. 456 {b^ postquain 526 ; with Perfect tense 311 postulative use of moods 31 7, 342-346 predicate 250-255 predicative adjective, noun, and pro- noun 254, 255 ; agreement of 274 278, 457, 464 prepositions 4, 394, 395 ; with accus. 396 ; with accus. or abl. 397 ; with abi. 452, 453 priuceps App. XVI principal parts of verbs, classified list 170-237 : alphabetical list, App. XLI, XLII priusquani 340, 526 pronouns : personal 96-101 ; demon- strative 104-109, 124, 278, 515 ; agreement of 282-285 ; interroga- tive no, 278, 516; indefinite 111-118, 517; relative 119-121. 124, 378, 290, 518, 519; agree- ment of 286-289 ; reflexive 100, loi, 510-514 ; in reported speech 543 pronunciation of Latin 5-7 prospective subjunctive 339-34 i prosuui 239 puppis App. V (rt) qiuili's 46, 124 qttarii 533 (ii) ; quant ut 337 ; quasi 337 i 'yM«"'-clauses subordinate to accus. with infin. 473 quantity of syllables 8, 9 quail tus 21, 124 qtieo 245 questions 520 ; double 521 ; with subjunctive 319; dependentsas '^^i), 363- 523. 524 qui, quae, quod 119: co-ordinating 120, 521, 547 quicunique =,18. 519 quidant 1 13 quUibet 114 >66 INDEX ' <] Ill's no qttisiiain 516 qinspiant i r8 quisqnaiii 115. 517 qitisquc 1 17 517 qiiisqiiis 518 ^/»;'j-A- T14, 517 quoad 340, 526 quoiuiuiis 330 (lbs 360 obs., 362 338 '-^yj>-/ 373 reflexive pronouns 98, 100, 510-513 ;t^o, conjugation of 149- 15 t, 156 158 reported speech 534-550 seat r is A pp. V {a) senex App. XIII sentence adverbs 521. 554 obs. sentences : simple 262. double 263. multiple 263, complex 265-268; classification of 520 sequence of tenses 365 367. 548 seste)iins App. IV (a) sMs App. V (rt), VI solus 86 statements 520 (i , ; dependent 523 (rt), 467-473 ; use of reflex- ives in 511 subject 250, 251 ; of infinitive 462 subjunctive mood 130, 131 ; denoting wliat is to be done 319-346 (of purpose 338, prospeciive 339-341. postulative 342 346 ; denoting conditioned futurity 347-356 ; with weakened meaning 357 304 with cum 358, with ut, qui or quln 360 362, in dependent questions and exclamations 363, expressing the thought of another 364) ; in reported speech 537 542. 548 subordinate clauses 261, 523 533 ; tenses in, 310-312; conjunctions introducing, 526 533 sittu, conjugation of I-|T, 142 ; com- pounds of 239, 240 sunt qui 367 supines 136-138. 507 509 sus App. XIII talent inn App. IV {d\ talis 46, 124 t ant us 21, 124 tenses of the indicative : Present 127, 292, 293 ; Past Imperfect 127, 294-296; Future 127, 297- 209; Perfect 128, 300-303; Past Perfect 128. 304 ; Future Perfect 128, 305 309 Tiberis App. V (a) iotus 86 iribus App. XIX idlus 86, X16 -undiis, 167 App. XXII units 86 lit 'that' 326, 336, 338, 360 362 ; 'how' 363 (/>;, 520 (2 b and 4~> : ' when '311, 526 liter gi iitinaiH 321. 323 utriiin 522 \'erbs, conjugated 125-249 (deponent 164, semi-deponent 236, 237) ; as part of the predicate 252 ; imper- sonal 370 376 verbs taking a dative object 399- 406 ; genitive object 427 ; ablative object 450. 451 ; infinitive as object 456, 457 ; infin. as one of two objects 459-461 verb-adjectives 132, 455 ; participles in ns (stem «/-), declined App. XV; syntax of participles 486- 499 verb-nouns 134-138, 455 ; infinitive 456-485; gerund 503506; su- pines 507-509 vetus App. XVI vidcor 476 vir 17, App, IV (6) wsApp. V(rt\ VI, XI, XIII vocative 11, 378 voco, conjugation of 139, 140, I-19- 151, 154-158 void 242 vulgus App. I! 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