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GIFT OF 
 Dr. Horace Ivie 
 
 rl-<^/^ 
 
GREENE'S ANALYSIS. 
 
 A TREATISE ^ 
 
 ON TKB 
 
 STRIJCTUEE 
 
 OP THE 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 
 
 OR THE 
 
 ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION 
 
 OP 
 
 SENTENCES AND THEIR COMPONENT PARTS 
 
 i ■ . 
 
 
 '<-.>. f : f 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS AND iEXERCIS^.Si' 
 
 ADAPTED^ 
 
 
 TO THE USE Cr SCHOOLSf 
 
 By SAMUEL S. GREENE, A. M. 
 
 SUPEia.NTJCNDCXT OF PUBLIC SCnOOLS, PROVIDENCE, AND PROFESSOR 
 OF THE NORMAL DEPAKTMENT OF BROWN UNIVERSITY. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 H. OOWPERTHWAIT & CO. 
 
 1862. 
 
^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 XL 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 fiatered according to Act of Congress, in tl« year 1846 
 By Samuel -S. Greene, 
 
 In the Clerk's OfSce of the District Court of vhe iiistrict of 
 
 Massacr.iise'tts. 
 
 EDUCATION OEPT 
 
 r 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The following treatise contains, as its title indicates, a system 
 for analyzing sentences. In the preparation of the work, it has 
 been the aim of the author, first, to determine the number and 
 the nature of the elements which can enter into the structure of 
 a sentence, and, secondly, to ascertain their various forms and 
 conditions. Notwithstanding the almost infinite variety of sen- 
 tences with which the language abounds, it is worth}' of remark 
 that the number of different elements in any sentence can never 
 exceed five. It is equally remarkable that the offices wJiich these 
 elements perform are few and uniform, although they may as- 
 sume an endless variety of forms. 
 
 As to ihe forms of the elenients, it would seem, at first, a hope- 
 less task to attempt a classification of them ; yet they are found 
 to differ essentially from each other only in three respects. An 
 element may be a word joined to another without a connective, 
 or it may be a word Joined by means of a preposition, — both to- 
 gether forming a /jAr^se ; or it may be a ffabordinate proposition, 
 joined by a connective, and constituting a clause. Any element 
 may also be subject to three different states or conditions. It 
 may be simple., that is, unmodified or uncompounded ; it may 
 be complex, that is, modified by another simple element ; or it 
 may be compound, that is, it may consist of two or more simple 
 elements, which in no way modify each other. The same dis- 
 tinction prevails in entire sentences. A sentence containing but 
 one, proposition is siinplc ; a sentence containing two propositions, 
 one of which modifies the other,. is complex; a sentence contain- 
 ino- two propositions which in no way modify each other, is com- 
 pound. 
 
 Some of the numerous advantages arising from studying gram- 
 mar, or rather language, through the structure of sentences, 
 are the following: — (1.) As a sentence is the expression of a 
 thonirht, and as the elements of a sentence are expressions for 
 the elements of thought, the pupil who is taught to separate a 
 sentence into its elements, is learning to analyze thought, and 
 consequently to think. (2.) The relations between different 
 forms of thought and appropriate forms of expression, are seen 
 most clearly by means of analysis and construction. ( 3.) A large 
 proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but 
 coinhinatioits or groups of words. These groups perform the office 
 of the substantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of 
 
 924185 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. 
 The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, 
 must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he 
 geparates them into the single words which compose them. This 
 advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing. 
 (4.) But the grand advantage to be gained from this method may 
 be seen in the facility which it affords the learner for constructing 
 the language. If English Grammar teaches " the art of speaking 
 and writing the English language correctly," — the only successful 
 method of obtaining a knowledge of that art is, by means of con- 
 struction and analysis. This system cannot be pursued with even 
 tolerable success, without requiring the pupil to construct re- 
 peatedly the various forms of sentences and elements of sen- 
 tences.' Such exercises afford the teacher an opportunity of cor- 
 recting all errors in orthography, punctuation, construction, and 
 the use of words. 
 
 It may be further added, that this system is only applying to 
 the English what, in our higher seminaries, is applied to tlie classic 
 languages. And as these seminaries are to be supplied mainly 
 from our common schools, a demand is created for a more philo- 
 sophical plan of teaching the English language. 
 
 The parts of this work are so classified and arranged that the 
 learner commences with the simplest forms, and advances by a 
 natural and easy gradation to the nigst difficult. A brief system 
 of etymology is introduced in connection with the analysis ; but, 
 that it may not interrupt the progress of the work, it is arranged 
 in an Appendix, and is referred to as the learner advances. The 
 parts in large type are to be studied, while those in small type 
 are intended for the teacher and the more advanced pupil. It 
 may be well, on going through the work for the first time, to omit 
 some portions of the larger type. It is the author s intention, as 
 soon as practicable, to prepare an abridgment of the work, in 
 which the most important principles only will be discussed, and 
 accompanied with such exercises as will adapt the work to a 
 younger class of pupils. 
 
 In the preparation of this treatise, the author acknowledges his 
 indebtedness to the excellent Latin Grammar of Andrews and 
 Stoddard, and especially to that of Dr. Kiihner, translated from the 
 German by Professor J. T. Chaniplin, of Waterville College ; alsa 
 to the invaluable Greek Grammars of Professor A. Crosby and of 
 Dr. Kiihner: those of Dr. Kiihner were translated, the larger by 
 Professor l^. B. Edwards and S. H. Taylor, of Andover, the 
 smaller by S. li. Taylor, principal of Phillips Academy. Much 
 aid has been derived from the work of George Crane, and from 
 that of De Sacy, on General Grammar. 
 
 Cherishing the hope that this work may contribute, m some 
 small degree, to improve the methods of teaching the English 
 language, the author submits it to the judgment of a candid 
 public. 
 
 S. S. GREENE. 
 
 Boston, 1847. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST CLASS 
 
 PASS. 
 
 Saot. 1. rreliminary Kemarks and Definitions, 10 
 
 IL The Proposition. — Principal Elements, *6 
 
 IIL Modifications of the Subject, 20 
 
 1. Number of the Subject, 21 
 
 2. (iender of the Subject, 22 
 
 3- I'erson of the Subject, 24 
 
 4 Uase of the Subject, 26 
 
 IV. Moditications of the Predicate, 28 
 
 1. Modifications of the Predicate-Nominative, ...... 28 
 
 2. Modifications of the Predicate-Adjective, 30 
 
 3. Modifications of the Verb, 83 
 
 N umber and Person of the Verb, 34 
 
 Modeof the Verb, 36 
 
 Tense of the Verb, 39 
 
 V. Adjective Element,.... 47 
 
 1. Adjective Words, 49 
 
 2. Nouns or Pronouns 53 
 
 VL The Objective Element, 66 
 
 1. Single Object, 58 
 
 2. Double Object, 59 
 
 VIL The Adverbial Element, 62 
 
 1. Adverbs denoting Place, 63 
 
 2. Adverbs denoting Time, 63 
 
 3. Adverbs of Cause or Source, 63 
 
 4. Adverbs denoting Manner, 64 
 
 Comparison of Adverbs, 65 
 
 VIII. Interjections and the Case Independent 68 
 
 IX. Complex Elements, 69 
 
 X. Compound Elements, ^ 78 
 
 XI. Several Elements of the same Name. — Recapitulation, . 80 
 
 1* 
 
6 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS. — PHRASES. 
 
 FA us. 
 
 Sect I. Nature of Elements of Second Class, 84 
 
 L Component Parts of the Phrase, 85 
 
 2. The Phrase considered as a Whole, 87 
 
 II. The Phrase used as a Principal Element, 88 
 
 1. The Subject, 88 
 
 2. The Predicate, 92 
 
 III. The Phrase used as the Adjective Element, 95 
 
 IV. The Phrase used as the Objective Element, 98 
 
 1. Single Obiect 9S 
 
 2. liouble Object,.... .- 09 
 
 v' The Phrase used as the Adverbial Element, tfl 
 
 1. Phrases denoting Place, lOi. 
 
 2. Phrases denoting Time, 105 
 
 3. Phrases denoting Cause or Source, 10/ 
 
 -. Phrases denoting Manner, 107 
 
 VI. Complex Elements, Ill 
 
 VII, Compound Elements, 117 
 
 VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, 119 
 
 IX. Interrogative Sentences, 121 
 
 1. Direct Interrogative Sentences, 122 
 
 2. Indirect Interrogative Sentences, 123 
 
 CHAPTER 1X1. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE THIHD CLASS. — SUBORDINATE 
 
 CLAUSES. 
 
 Sect. I. Nature of Elements of the Third Class, 127 
 
 1. Component Parts of the Subordinate Clause, .... 128 
 
 2. The Clause considered as a Whole, 128 
 
 3. Uses of the Substantive Clause, 129 
 
 II. Subordinate Clauses used as Principal Elements, 130 
 
 I.. The Substantive Clause used as Subject, 131 
 
 V The Predicate, 134 
 
 III. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adjective Element, ... 13-5 
 
 1. Adjective Clauses, 135 
 
 2. Substantive Clauses, 138 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FASZ. 
 
 Sect, IV. Subordinate Clauses used as the ObjectiTe Element,.. 141 
 
 1. Single Object, 141 
 
 Direct and Indirect Quotation, 142 
 
 2, Double Object, 143 
 
 V. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adverbial Element, . 147 
 
 1. Clauses denoting Place, 148 
 
 2. Clauses denoting Time, • 14r 
 
 3. Clauses denoting Causal Relations, 151 
 
 Clauses wMch denote a Cause or Reason, . 152 
 
 Conditional Clauses, 154 
 
 Final Clauses, 156 
 
 Adversative Clauses, 158 
 
 4. Adverbial Clauses denoting Manner, 160 
 
 VI. Conqjlex Elements containing Clauses, 162 
 
 Vn. Compound Elements of the Third Class, 164 
 
 VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, = 166 
 
 IX. Abridged Propositions, 67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 COORDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 Sect. I. Copulative Coordinate Clauses, 17V 
 
 II. Adversative Coordinate Clauses 18C 
 
 III. Alternative Coordinate Clauses, 181 
 
 IV. Recapitulation, 183 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Sect. I. Sentences considered as a Whole, 186 
 
 II. Arrangement of the Elements, 18^ 
 
 1. Arrangement of the Principal Elements, 11? 
 
 2. Arrangement of the Adjective Elenxent, 19 
 
 3. Arrangement of the Objective and Adverbial 
 
 Elements, Tjl 
 
 1X1. Peculiarities of Structure, 195 
 
 1. Peculiarities in the Structure of Sentences, 195 
 
 2. Peculiarities in the use of the Parts of a Sen- 
 
 tence, 197 
 
 I V. Eauivalents ... 200 
 
8 CONTENTS, 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 FAOB 
 
 Lsssoiy L Letters, 203 
 
 II. Syllables and Words, 205 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Lesson I, Parts of Speech, , 206 
 
 II. Classes of the Noun and Pronoun, 207 
 
 III. Number of the Noun and Pronoun, 209 
 
 IV. Gender of the Noun and Pronoun, 2*.C 
 
 V. Person of the Noun and Pronoun, 211 
 
 VI. Case of the Noun and Pronoun, 21:4 
 
 VII. Adjective Words, 214 
 
 VIII. Classes of Verbs 21T 
 
 IX. Number, Person, and Voice of the Verb, , 223 
 
 X. Mode of the Verb, 224 
 
 XI. Tense of the Verb, 227 
 
 XII. Adverbs 240 
 
 XIII. Prepositions, 241 
 
 XIV. Interrogatives, 24'i 
 
 XV. Connectives,. <, ;. 242 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rules ^'or The i^jiject, 244 
 
 " ' The Predicate, .'. 244 
 
 " " The Adjective Element, 244 
 
 " " The Objective Element, 244 
 
 " ♦• The Adverbial Element 245 
 
 " " Interjections and the Case Independent, 246 
 
 " " Connectives 246 
 
 PROSODY,... 248 
 
 PUNCTUATION, m 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Language is the mediuni through which we 
 communicate our thoughts. 
 
 2.^ Discourse is a continued series of thoughts, 
 each expressed by an assemblage of words called a 
 sentence. 
 
 3. 'A series of sentences relating to the same 
 subject, or the same branch of the subject, is called 
 a partigrajph. 
 
 4. ' A sentence may be considered as a luholc, or 
 m refere]ice to its component parts. ' 
 
 5. The component parts of a sentence are the 
 words, jjhrases, and clauses which enter into its 
 structure. '' 
 
 6. ' A sentence, considered as a whole, either 
 declares something, asks a question, expresses a com- 
 mand, or contains an exclamation. ^ 
 
 The following are examples of each kind of sentence : 
 \ Declarative. "There are certain social principles in 
 human nature, from which we may draw tho most solid 
 conclusions with respect to the conduct of individuals and 
 communities." — Interrogative. "When was it that Home 
 attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind, and 
 
10 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 impressed. t^.e deepest sentimcrst of fear on the hearts of 
 her enemies r'^.^ — lmp(?rht'i.ie. " " Shut now the volume of" 
 histor^jjin^.toll rce^.o^n, any principle of human probability, 
 what's*ha>r'l?e' Che..fa,fe«of .'thr^ ha>:idful of adventurers/' — 
 Exclamatory. '■'■ How different would have been our lot 
 this day, both as men and women, had the Revolution 
 failed of success ! " 
 
 7. The component parts of a sentence are called 
 its elements. 
 
 8. ; A sentence may contain jive distinct elements. 
 Of these, two are indispensable to its formation, 
 and are hence called principal elements The 
 other three are dependent on these, and are hence 
 called SUBORDINATE elements. 
 
 9. Each of these five elements may take three 
 distinct forms, called the first., seco7id^ and tJiird^ 
 classes of the elements. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 (simple sentences.) 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST CLASS.— WORDS 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND DEFINITIONS. 
 
 10; An element of the first class is a single word^ 
 used as a constituent part of a sentence. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SE2^TENCES. 11 
 
 ll.\ A word is the sign of an idea. 
 
 (a.y An idea is a mental picture or conception of a.n object, either 
 material or immaterial, and may be represented' singly ; as, trcs^ 
 river, horse ; K)r as associated with some otiier idea \ as, tall tree, 
 deep river, wild horse. In the first examples, tree, river, horse, 
 represent single ideas of the objects which they name ; but in 
 the second, the ideas represented by tall^ deep., and wild, are as- 
 sociated with them. 
 
 (6.) Some words are used merely as signs of the relation ol 
 ideas, (see 14, b ) ; as, " Kingdom of Great Britain." 
 
 12.' Connected ideas require a corresponding 
 
 connection of the words which represent them ,* as 
 
 faithful man, house of representatives. *■ 
 
 The vrords faithful and man are connected so as to show a 
 lelat.ion between the two ideas which tliey represent. So also 
 are house and representatives. 
 
 13. \ In connecting words, we must attend both 
 ^o the mode and the nature of their union. \ ^ 
 
 14 The Mode of Union. Words may be unit- 
 ed in two ways :>- 
 
 (a.)\By joining them immediately^ that is, withou. 
 a connective ;r- first, without change of form ; as, 
 good food, summer residence, very quickly ; — second, 
 with the form of one or both the united words 
 changed ; as, '' Arabia-7i horses ; " " Abraliam-'s 
 tent ; " '• Thou sit-re^-^ ; " — 
 
 (b) ^ By using a connective to denote the relation 
 between them ; as, " Horses from Arabia ; " " The 
 tent of Abraham ; " '' Thou art sitting." 
 
 This mode of union is sometimes called mediate. 
 
 15. The Nature of the Union. We natural- 
 ly distingnish objects by means of some of then 
 properties ; as, their color, — black, white, red, hluf. ; 
 
12 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 their form, — long^ shorty wide, deep ; their actions. 
 — running, flying, sivimming, craivling ; their genus 
 or species, — animal, bird, Jish, serpent. These 
 properties are called attributes. 
 
 16. An attribute may be united to its object,, — 
 («.)By assuming a union, or by joining it without 
 
 an assertion ; as, blue sky, rough sea, poiso)ious rep- 
 tiles ; — 
 
 (b.) By affirming a union, or by joniing it with 
 n assertion ;yas, '' The sky is blue ;^" ^' The sea 
 
 rough;" "Reptiles are poisonous." 
 
 in either case, the attribute is united to the object. In the 
 former, the fact that the property belongs to the object is only 
 implied^ conceded, or taken for graiiicd ; whereas, in the latter, 
 the same is iiffinned, declared, or predicated. In the first case, 
 the attribute is joined immediately to its object; in the second, it 
 is joined to it, and asserted of it, by a peculiar connective called 
 the copula. 
 
 17. The copula is some modification {is, are^ 
 was, &c.) of the verb to be. Its office is, to assert 
 an attribute of the thing to which it belongs. 
 
 18. The distinction between assuming and pred- 
 icating an attribute, is of great importance in the 
 construction of language ; and, that the learner may 
 become familiar with it at the outset, let him attend 
 to the following exercise : — 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Tell which of the following expressions contain an 
 assumed, ctnd which a predicated property : — 
 
 Sweet apples. Rumiing 'ater. Ice is melting. Shin- 
 ' ■ g gold George is well. ^-''ading flowers Slurs ai^e 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1°-^ 
 
 shining. Snow is falling. Sour gra})es. The wind is-, 
 blowing. Fire is burning. John is a carpenter. Singing 
 birds. Open doors. Barren fields. Hissing scr|)ents. A 
 long journey. Hope is deferred. 
 
 Chonge each of the above expressions, by prcd' 
 icating the assumed, and assuming the predicated 
 'properties. 
 
 Model.* " Apples are sweet ; " " Water is running ; " 
 " Molthig ice." 
 
 Mention thr&e or more properties of each of the 
 following objects : — 
 
 (jold, horsesj books, iron, ocean, whale^, edifice, peaches, 
 dogs, man, king, moon, water, ink, oil, lamp, table, money, 
 pens. 
 
 Unite them first as assumed and then as predicaiea 
 "properties. 
 
 Model. Heavy gold ; precious gold ; yelloio gold ; po- 
 rous gold. 
 
 Model. Gold is heavy ; gold is precious ; gold is yel' 
 low ; gold is porous, 
 
 19. When an attribute is predicated of an ob- 
 ject, the united ideas constitute a thought, and the 
 form of expression is called a sentence, (from the 
 Latin word sententia, a thought.) Hence, 
 
 20. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 
 
 21. When an attribute is assumed of an object, 
 (K^ thought is expressed, but simply two ideas are 
 associated. (11, a.) 
 
 * These exercises may be written or recited orally. It is reo- 
 oifunended that the practice of writing lessons should be adoptefl 
 as a general rule. 
 
 2 
 
14 ANALYSIS or SENTENCES. 
 
 22. In the formation of a sentence, there mustj 
 tlicrefore, be two parts, — that to which the attri- 
 bute belongs, and the attribute itself; and thet-.at 
 ter must be affirmed of the former. 
 
 23. That to which the attribute belongs is called 
 the subject ; and the attribute itself, with the word 
 which connects (17) it to the subject, is called the 
 predicate. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Birds are singing. 
 
 Bees are industrious. 
 
 Georg'i is coming. 
 
 Victoria is queen. 
 
 24. It very often happens that the attribute and 
 copula are united in one word.> 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Subject. Predicate. 
 
 Birds sing, (are singing.) 
 
 George comes. 
 
 Winds blow. 
 
 Stars shine. 
 
 Note. When the predicate contains the copula and the attri- 
 bute in one word, it may always be resolved into these two parts, 
 as, " Winds blow," "Winds are blowing." 
 
 25. - The uniting of words, to form a sentence, 
 is called construction or synthesis,^ 
 
 26. 'The resolving of a sentence into its ele- 
 ments, or of any complex element into the parts 
 which compose it, is called analysis. \ 
 
 27. ' A simjple sentence contains but one propo- 
 sition. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 15 
 
 .28.1 A complex sentence contains two or more 
 dissimilar propositions./ 
 
 29.1 A compound sentence contains two or mon 
 similar propositions- » 
 
 SECTION II.* 
 
 THE PROPOSITION. — PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 NoTi;. The pupil should learn Lesson I., in the Appen- 
 dix, p. 206, before studying this section. 
 
 30\ A proposition is the combination of a 
 subject I (23) and predicate, and is either a simple 
 sentence, or part of a complex or compound sentence. 
 
 31. The subject is that of which something is 
 affirmed. 
 
 32. The predicate is that which is affirmed. 
 
 33. The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun. 
 
 (a.) Other parts of speech may be used as nouns, and there- 
 fore may become the subject ; as, " Once is sutficient ; " " Be- 
 hind is not before." 
 
 (b.) Any word, used merely as a word, may be the subject j 
 as, " Is is a verb j " " Of is a preposition." 
 
 (c.) A syllable or letter maj' be the subject ; as, " Un is a pre- 
 fix:" ".4 is a vowel." 
 
 34. \ The predicate consists of two parts, — the 
 verb, or copula ;x (17,) and that which is asserted 
 
 * Note to Teachers. The pupil should now commence the 
 Appendix. The lessons of the Appendix are made to corre- 
 Bpoiid, as nearly as possible, to the sections of Cmap. I. Since 
 it ib the chief object of this arrangement to bring the principles' 
 of etymology into immediate use, as the pupil advances, the 
 lessons of die Appendix should be learn ea only as they pve 
 referred to, in the body of the worK. 
 
16 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES- 
 
 by it, called the attribute; (15 J a^, ''Snow is 
 white. 
 
 It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the 
 learner, at this stage of his progress, that the copula is thai 
 which gives vitality to language. No sentence can be formed 
 without it. Any number of attributes joined to a subject with- 
 out it would not form a proposition. The omission of this im- 
 portant connective is that which distinguishes the first attempts 
 of children to utter their thoughts-, as, "Cake good," for 
 " Cake is good." 
 
 35. When the two parts of the predicate are 
 united in one word, (24,) that word is always a 
 verb ; as, '^ John writes. ^^ 
 
 (a.) Verbs which contain the copula and attribute are gome- 
 times called attributive verbs, because the attribute is included 
 in them. 
 
 (b.) The verb to be Is sometimes an attributive verb ; it then 
 denotes existence, and is commonly preceded by there^ and fol- 
 lowed by its subject ; as, " There are dolphins," " Dolphins 
 exist." 
 
 (c.) Besides the verb fo be, there are several others which 
 do not complete the predicate, but take after them some word de- 
 ncii.mg a property of the subject ; as, " Beggars are becoming nu- 
 merous ; " " He is called handsovic.'' These verbs are sometimes 
 called copulative verbs. They are such as become, seem, appear ; i 
 and the passive forms of deem, style, name, call, consider, and ^- 
 others. 
 
 36. Of a subject we may predicate, — 
 {a. ) What it does ; as, '' Birds fly ; " — 
 
 (5.) What qualities it possesses; as, "Sugar is 
 swp.et ; — 
 
 (c. ) What it is ; as, "Wheat is a vegetable.^^ 
 
 Of these predicates, («.) is always a verb ; (b.) an adjective ; and 
 :'£,) a noun or pronoun. 
 
 37. These three parts of speech — the nomi, 
 including the pronoun,) the verh^ and the adjec 
 
ANALYSIS Oi'- :JEiSTi:NCES. 17 
 
 live— -are most commonlv used to form the two 
 principal elements of the sentence. 
 
 .NoTK. Either of these three parts of speech may also be used 
 to form the subordinate elements of a sentence. 
 
 38. A sentence containing only the two princi- 
 pal elements, is said to be unlimited, and is analyzed 
 (26) by pointing out the subject and predicate. 
 
 39. Unlimited propositions should be analyzed 
 according to the folloAving 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 '* Birds fly'''' . is a proposition, because it contains a sub- 
 ject and predicate. • 
 
 " Birds "... is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 action (36, a.) "fly" is affirmed. 
 
 " Fly " .... is the predicate, because it is the action 
 affirmed of " birds." 
 
 " Snoic is white^^ is a proposition, because it contaius a 
 
 subject and predicate. 
 " Snow " ... is the subject, because it is that of whi'^h 
 
 the quality (36, h.) "white" is affirmed. 
 " J5 white ''\ . is the predicate, because it is the quality 
 
 affirmed of " snow." " Is " is the verb or 
 
 copula, and " white " is the attribute. 
 
 " Gold is a metal " is a proposition, because it contains 
 
 a subject and predicate. 
 ** Gold " .... is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 
 class ^ (36, c.) metal is affirmed. 
 
 * When the predicate is a noun, it commonly denotes to what 
 genus^ s]>ecles^ or class, the subject be.ongs. Sometiro*>s it de- 
 notes ideniltij ; as, " It is James ; " ' I am Ae." 
 
 2* 
 
18 ANALYSIS OF SENTENC1-. 
 
 ^Is a vietaV . is the predicate, because it denotes the class 
 which is affirmed of " gold." " Is " is the 
 verb, and " metal," the attribute. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, according to the 
 models : — 
 
 Brutus determined. George was conscious. Stars 
 siiine. Writers diiTerj Trees are plants. Virtue ennobles. 
 Wisdom directs. Caesar conquered. Kings reign. Rich- 
 ard was bold. Nero was cruel. Socrates was a philoso- 
 pher. Ni2;ht comes. Exercise strengthens. Serptinls 
 crawl. W^inds blow. Ea^ies soar. Historians write. 
 Boys play. Geography, is interesting. 
 
 Exercise 3.* 
 
 Predicate action (36, a.) of the following sub- 
 jects : — . 
 
 Horses, water, eagles, whales, quadrupeds^ Columbus, 
 Washington, father, mother, insects, wind, stars, children, 
 fire, rain, leaves, grays, time, robbers, armies, moon, 
 George, kings wasps, acorns. 
 
 Model. Horses run. Waiter foivs. 
 
 Predicate quality (36, 6.) of the following 
 nouns : — 
 
 .Life, peaches, ice, play, arithmetic, cloth, chairs, money, 
 health, intemperance, history, darkness, morning, wisdom, 
 
 * The pupil should write these and similar examples upon a 
 slate or paper, drawing a line under the illustrative word, and 
 placing a period ( . ) at the end of each proposition. The first 
 word in each sentence should commence with a capital. The 
 o.verc'ses, atler boino- corrected, .should \n> copied into a writing 
 boob 
 
AxNALi'SIS OF .SENTENC ES 1^ 
 
 fruit, clothing, ink, grass, sky, cherries, silver, fruit, sol- 
 diers, labor, wool, Mary. 
 
 Model. Life is short. Peaches are ripe. 
 
 Predicate the class or species (36, c.) of the fol- 
 lowing subjects : ■ — 
 
 Henry, lemons, ducks, lilies, city, dogs, trouts, lions, lead, 
 sheep, marbles, knives, air, Peter, Stephen, David. 
 
 Model. Henry is a scholar. Lemons are fruit. 
 
 Let the pupil select the subjects and predicates 
 of each sentence from a paragraph in his reading 
 lesson, and tell whether action, quality, or species, is 
 predicated. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 Note. Before performing this exercise, learn Lesson IL in 
 the Appendix. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and tell which 
 subjects are proper, which are common, and which 
 are collective, nouns : — 
 
 Alexander conquered. \^ Zeno was a philosopher. Gray 
 was a poet. Ordei*s were issued. Snow falls. Temper- 
 ance is a virtue. Waves dash. Darkness prevails. The 
 army marched. The school was dismissed. The council 
 was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying is wicked 
 Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Proper Nouns. Is able : was prevented ; believes ', 
 sings ; dances ; plays ; is a merchant ; is a teacher ; is do- 
 "lighted ; must come : is honorable ; is faithful. 
 Model. Samuel is able. 
 
20 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Common Nouns. Run ; is content ; is laudable ; i& 
 pleasant ; is consumed ; can live ; write ; are trees ; are 
 birds ; are fishes ; is desirable ; is contemptible. 
 
 Model. Horses run. 
 
 Collective Nouns. Was divided ; was convened ; were 
 pleased ; was defeated ; was dismissed. 
 
 Model. The school was divided. 
 
 Note. The pupil should review these exercises before com- 
 mencing Section III. He should be required to point out the 
 nouns ^ verbs, and adjectives^ giving the class of each noun 
 (See App. Les. II.) 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 40. Any change in the application of the sub- 
 ject, whether produced by altering the word which 
 represents it, or by adding other words to it, is 
 called a modification of the subject. 
 
 Although it is the principal office of the subject * to repre- 
 sent some person, thing, or some abstract idea, as the basis of an 
 affirmation, yet the mechanism of language affords certain means 
 by which its application may be so varied as to accommodate it 
 to the existing state of the fact to be predicated. 
 The application of the subject may be varied, — 
 1 St. By some change in the word which represents it ; as, " The 
 soldier perished;" "The soldiers perished;" the assertion in 
 the first sentence applying to one person, that m the second to 
 more than one ; — 
 
 * Subject is derived from the Latin word subjcctus, placed 
 under, i e., as the foundation of the sentence 
 
ANALYSIS OF Si:NTEI\CES. 2i 
 
 2d. By additional words; as, " Ten soldiers peiished , " *• Brave 
 soldiers perished." Here the subject, " soldiers," is restricted in 
 its application to a certain number, (ten,) or to a certain class, 
 {brave.) 
 
 Note. As this latter species of modification introduces a new 
 element of the sentence, any further consideration of it must 1 
 deferred for the present. 
 
 41. When the application of the subject is va- 
 ried by some change or inflection in the word 
 which represents it, the modification is called an 
 accident, or an accidental pi-operty ; as, '' brother, 
 brothers ; " '' priest, priestess ; " •' man, men." 
 
 42. The accidental properties of the .subject, or 
 of the noun, in any relation, are numher, gender^ 
 person, case. 
 
 (a.) These properties belong to the noun or pronoun, either 
 as subject, (31,) attribute, (15,) or object, (117,) 
 
 (b.) The accidents of the subject are shown, — 1st. By a 
 change of form; as, " bird, bird^ ; " " hero, hero-ine ;" — 2d. By 
 a change of the loord itself; as, " He sings," (v/hen I speak of the 
 singer;) " You sing," (when i speak io the singer;) "/ sing," 
 (when I am the singer;) — 3d. By a prefix ; as, '•' a /te-goat," 
 " a coc/t-sparrow." 
 
 (c.) Some nouns admit of no indection to denote a change in 
 their application ; as, deer, sheep, zorviin. 
 
 1. — Number of the Subject. 
 
 43. The subject may represent one person oi 
 thing, or more than one, as acting; as, '' The branch 
 withered ; " " The branches withered." 
 
 44. There are two inirnheTs. -f- the sinsridar diua 
 iiie plural ^ The singular denotes but one object, 
 tlie i)lural more than one. 
 
2'i ANALYSIS OF SI NTENCES. 
 
 •^a.) fiuinber is usually indicated by a change of form. 
 
 Note. For the formation of the plural, see App. Lesson 111., 
 which should be studied before attending to the following 
 exercise. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, giving the numr 
 hf r and class of each noun : — 
 
 Columbus sailed. Stars shine. James decreed. Corn- 
 wallis surrendered. Candia is an island. Socrates was 
 poisoned. Lions roar. Grapes fall. Trees decay, 
 Churches stand. Foxes are cunning. Weeds overrun 
 Benjamin was seen. Silver shines. Pencils are used 
 Washington was president. Kings are rulers. Eggs are 
 broken. Vinegar is sour. 
 
 Write predicates to the plurals of the following 
 nouns : — 
 
 Star, son, pipe, monarch, church, hero, fife, ox, cargo, 
 ship, man, child, lily, wolf, wife, folio, muff, negro, sheep, 
 mystery, vermin, lady, turkey, chief, hoof, mouse, goose, 
 fly, box, day, duty. 
 
 Model. Stars sJiiiie. Sons obey. 
 
 II. — Gender of the Subject 
 
 45. All animals of the same species are either 
 male or female. From this distinction arises the 
 grammatical accident gender. 
 
 46. Most nomis denoting the different relations 
 among men, and those of the most common and 
 useful animals, also indicate their sex : as, father, 
 mother ; ujiclc, aunt ; son, daughter ; ram, ewe ; cock 
 hen. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 23 
 
 47. Biit^ to those animals which are less usefiilj 
 or are less obserred by man, but one name is given 
 for the male and female ; as, sparrow^ mouse, pigeon. 
 
 (a.) In such cases, the sex is usually determined by a prefix ; 
 a^, eock-sparrow, he-mouse. 
 
 (b.) Some nouns denoting the mutual relations among men 
 do not indicate sex ; as, parent^ teacher j child. 
 
 48. Inanimate objects are incapable of any such 
 distinction as sex ; yet the term gender, as a gram- 
 matical distinction, is applied to nouns denotmg 
 such objects. 
 
 49. There are, therefore, three distinctions called 
 genders, — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 
 
 (a.) Gender is indicated either by the word it.';elf, by a change 
 in the word, or by a. prefix or suffix. 
 
 Note. The pupil should now study Lesson IV. in the Ap- 
 pendix. ~ 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Masculine Gender. Conquered ; is wise ; was detested , 
 IS a blacksmith ; is discreet ; are confiding ; are discharged ; 
 is lame ; are emigrating ; is benevolent ; is grateful ; will 
 devour ; gnaw ; will fight ; complain ; eat. 
 
 Feminine Gender. Is brooding ; lowed ; is playing ; 
 sings ; is cheerf'il ; rodt \ is a teacher ; is practising ; can 
 dance ; was injured ; are anxious ; are faithful ; are 
 chirping ; are attentive. 
 
 Neuter Gender. Roll ; grow ; is solid ; is deceptive ; 
 ^lows ; shines ; is falling ; is a vegetable. 
 
 Models,. Alexander conquerf 5. 7^ ^ ^^e^i is brooding 
 Stones roll. 
 
24 ANAJ^ysi? or : 'TJ::NCi-:s, 
 
 Analyze what you have ivriitcit, telling the nuvibei 
 and gender of each noun. 
 
 Ill — Person oi' tlie Subject. 
 
 50. The person of the subject is that property 
 which shows its relati(Mi to tiie speaker. 
 
 51. The speaker may sustain one cf three 
 relations to the subject ; he may be himself the 
 subject, he may speak to the subject, or he may 
 speak of the subject. These relations are denom- 
 inated the first, second, and third persons respec- 
 tively ; as, •' /write ; " '' You write ; " " He writes." 
 
 (a.) These relations are indicated by the word employed ; an, 
 /, thou, he. Hence any change in the relation is indicated by a 
 change in the word ; as, "i write," " You write." 
 
 52. To denote these three relations, a peculiar 
 class of words is used, called personal j)?'onouns. 
 
 (a.) Tliese pronouns are not used simply to avoid repetition. 
 The subject in the first and second persons must always be a pro- 
 noun. A noun cannot be employed. One would not be ander- 
 .stood to speak of himself, if 'u- should say, " Henry wrote : ' u«? 
 must say, " I wrote." We should say, for the second person, 
 '*You read," and not "Alexander reads." But in the third 
 person, the name of the subject may be used, as, " Henry wrote," 
 a.nd. to avoid repetition, " He wrote." 
 
 (p.) These pronouns are called personal., because they are 
 used to indicate the grammatical accident /jerson. They show 
 the relation of the subject to the spealcer. 
 
 (c.) These pronouns are sometimes called substantive, because 
 they may take the place of the noun in any of its relations ; 
 " \ liereas the relative pronoun can never become the subject of a 
 erUence, though it may be the subject of a dependent propo.'^ition 
 flence the relative pronoun cannot be considered in ihis con 
 aootion 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 26 
 
 53. The personal pronouns which may repre- 
 sent the subject are, — 
 
 First Person^ . I, . . singular. 
 
 We, plural. 
 Second Person, Thou, (You,) singular. 
 
 Ye, You, . . . plural. 
 Third Person, . masculine, He, \ 
 
 feminine, . She, > singular, Tuey, plural 
 
 neuter, . . It, ^ 
 
 Note. Study Lesson V. in Appendix, and then perform tiit? 
 following exercises : — 
 
 Exercise 8. 
 
 Analyze the following projjositions, and give the 
 person of each subject : — 
 
 I am well. You sit. We have come. He is delirious. 
 Thou art the man. Wisdom is profilcible. Paul preached. 
 She is writing. U is true. They labor. Ye resist 
 Boys play. Larks sing. Insects buzz. 
 
 Write subjects in the first, second, and third 
 persons respectively, to each of the following predi^ 
 cates, making such changes i?i them as may he 
 necessary : — 
 
 Is late ; am exhausted ; is plundering ; is a pupil ; might 
 he educated ; is afTable ; art content ; play ; sing ; lead ; 
 is a mathematician ; will be satisfied ; can find ; did do 
 fend ; does reply. 
 
 jModel. We are late. Thou art late. Re is late. 
 
 IV. — Case of the Subject. 
 
 54. Case denotes the relation of a noun or pro- 
 •loun to other words. 
 
 3 
 
26 ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 55. There are three cases, — the nominative, p09- 
 sessive, and objective. 
 
 56. The case of the subject denotes its relation to 
 the predicate, and is always nominative ; hence the 
 following rule : — 
 
 KuLE I. A noun or pronoun used as the 
 suhject of a proposition must be in the nomi- 
 native case. 
 
 Note. The rules for construction will be given whenever the 
 principles on which they are founded are developed. They 
 should be strictly observed in writing sentences, and applied in 
 parsing. 
 
 57. Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, 
 giving its modifications, relation, agreement or de- 
 pendence, and the rule for its construction. Analy- 
 sis consists in pointing out the words or groups of 
 words which constitute the elements (8) of a sen- 
 tence. Analysis should precede parsing. 
 
 Note. Study Lesson VI. in the Appendix. 
 
 Models for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 ^ George writes. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 George . . is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 
 action " writes " is affirmed. 
 Wi'ites . . is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed 
 
 of " George." 
 George . . is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
 number^ masculine gender, nominative case, and 
 is the subject of the proposition, "George 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 27 
 
 writes ; " according to Rule I., '• A noun or pro- 
 noun used as tlie subject of a proposition must 
 be in the nominative case." 
 
 3 a^ is active. 
 
 It » a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
 gular number, masculine gender, nominative 
 case, and is the subject of the proposition, " He 
 is active ; " according to Rule I. 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions ^ and parse the 
 subjects: — 
 
 I am prepared. Jesus wept. Milo lifted. Money 
 r mpted. Rain descended. Abraham was faithful. Job 
 A^os patient. Comets appear. Planeis revolve. Solomon 
 pra3'ed. They will quarrel, lie is ruined. David was 
 King, We must study. England was invaded. William 
 conquered. Harold was defeated. Exercise strengthens. 
 
 Stealing is base. Thou art seated. She is coming. 
 It rains. It snows. It lightens. You can sing. He is 
 detestable. Fishes swim. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates : — 
 
 Is a monster ; are coming ; is burning ; neigh ; art wise ; 
 were handled ; is numbered ; is a giant ; are reptiles ; are 
 vegetables ; is a beverage ; is impossible ; will be defeat- 
 ed ; paints ; draws ; is a conductor ; dances. 
 
 Write ten entire sentences of your oivji^ having only 
 a suited and predicate ; select also the subjects and 
 predicates from ten sentences in your Reading Lesson. 
 
dS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCEJi. 
 
 ! SECTION IV. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE 
 
 58. Any change wliich varies the application 
 or meaning of the predicate, whether produced by 
 altering either of the words (copula or attribute) 
 which represent it, or by adding other words to it, 
 is called a modification of the predicate. 
 
 (a.) As it is the chief office of the subject to represent some 
 person or thing as the basis of an affirmation, so it is the princi- 
 pal office of the predicate * to denote what is affirmed. But, like 
 the subject, it can be made, by certain changes, to represent 
 other properties not essential to it as predicate. 
 
 (ft.) These clianges are produced either by varying the form 
 of the attribute (34) or copula, or by adding other words to ona 
 or both of them. 
 
 59. When the modification takes place by unit- 
 mg two verbal forms, or by altering the form either 
 of the copula or attribute, (41,) it is called an acci- 
 dent or an accidental projjerty of the predicate ; and 
 the variation is called an inflection. 
 
 (a.) The verbs which unite with others to form the various 
 modifications of the predicate, are called auxiliaries. 
 
 (ft.) When the predicate is modified by the addition of any 
 other word than an auxiliary verb, a new element of the sentence 
 is introduced ; as, " Birds fly swiftly ; " " Edmund sold oranges^' 
 (40, note.) 
 
 l. — M0DIFICAT10N$^ OF THE PREDICATE-NOMI- 
 NATIVE. 
 
 60. When the attribute of the predicate (34) is a 
 aoun or pronoun, it may be varied, like the subject 
 
 • Predicatey from the Latin word pre<licar(\ to affirm, declare. 
 
ANALYSIS OK SCNTENCES. 29 
 
 CO denote number , gender, ycrson, and cai], ^See 
 Section III.) The following is the rule for the 
 construction of the predicate-nominati\re : - - 
 
 Rule 11. A noun or pronoun used v//th the 
 copula to form the pxdicate, must be *n the 
 nominative case. 
 
 (a.) When a noun or pronoun is tlius used, it is calL"* the 
 prfdicatc-nominativey to distinguish it from the subje(.t-uoni\na. 
 live. The predicate-nominative always denotes the saiKe person 
 or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in cane. vVhen 
 the predicate-nominative denotes a person, it usually a^.ees with 
 the subject in gender, number, and cnse. 
 
 (6.) By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter 
 pronoun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as 
 predicate of any number, person, or gender ; as, " It is I ; " " It is 
 they ; " " It is James ; " " U is she." 
 
 (c.) This rule applies when such verbs are used as are men 
 tioned in 35, (c.) 
 
 Models for parsing the Predicate-Nominative 
 
 Gold is a metal. 
 
 (See Model for Analysis, p. 17.) 
 
 Metal is a common noun, of tlie third person, singular 
 number, neuter gender, nominative case, and with 
 " is'' fonns the predicate of the proposition, " Gold 
 is a metal;" according to Rule IL, "A noun or 
 pronoun used with the copula to form the predi- 
 cate, must be in the nominative case.'' 
 
 He is called a hero. 
 
 ilei'o is a common noun, of the third pereon, singular num- 
 ber, masc. gender, nomiiuuive case, and, -with " is 
 called." forms the predicate of the proposition, " He 
 3* 
 
HO ANALTHIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 is called a hero ; " according to Rule II.," A noun or pro- 
 noun used with the copula to form the predicate, must be 
 in the nominative case " 
 
 Note. Ooserve tnat this proposition has two attributes, called 
 and heroy both of which, with is, constitute the predicate. (See 
 35, c) 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions^ parsing the 
 subjects and attributes : — 
 
 Demosthenes was an orator. 1 am he. It is I. It is 
 Abraham. Horses are animals. He was considered a 
 genius. She is a poetess. Madison v/as elected presi- 
 dent. We are puj)ils. He is deemed a workman. They 
 have become teachers. IJorneo is an island. Algebra is 
 a science. Air is a fluid. Water is a liquid. Oxygen is 
 a gas. He appeared as * agent. He is regarded as a 
 historian. 
 
 Write a subject and copula to each of the following 
 nouns and jnonouns tal^en as attributes : — 
 
 You, soldier, treatise, I, she, king, trees, vegetables, 
 Andrew, Benjamin, animals, virtue, book, they, we, ser- 
 pent, fish, insect, reptile, (lower, {)!ant, mineral, bay, har- 
 bor, planet, comet. 
 
 Model. //, is you. He was a soldier. 
 
 IL-^ TdODIFlCATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-ADJEC 
 
 TI VE. 
 
 61. When the attribute of the predicate is an 
 adjective, it may be varied to indicate, — 
 
 * Sometimes as, denoting ofice, capacity, or situation, is used 
 to connect a property (either predicated or assumed) with the 
 word to which it belongs ; as, " The -noon as satelhte attends;" 
 " He was regarded as innocent.* 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Ol 
 
 [a.) That the subject possesses the quahty de- 
 noted by the adjective in a higher or lower degree 
 than some other person or thing with which it is 
 compared; as, "Charity is greater than hope," 
 •* Charles is smaller than James;" — 
 
 (5.) That the subject possesses the quality de- 
 noted by the adjective in the highest or lowest 
 degree, when considered in reference to all other 
 objects with which it is compared ; as, " The 
 greatest of these [three] is charity;" 
 
 Note. Instead of being compared with another person or 
 thing, the subject may be compared with itself, since it may, at 
 different times, or under different circumstances, possess a quahty 
 in different degrees ; as, '■'■ His health is better to-day than it wa? 
 yesterday." 
 
 62. The variation of the adjective to show dif- 
 ferent degrees of quality, is called comparison. 
 
 (a.) Comparison is indicated, — 1st. By changing the /orrn of 
 the adjective; a.s, tcise, wiseT,, icisest] — 2d. By changing the 
 word; as, bad^ worsts worst; — 3d. By addmg other words; as, 
 industrious, more industrious, most industrious. 
 
 (b.) As comparison always requires an additional element of 
 the sentence to complete the sense, the subject cannot be fully 
 discussed in this connection. 
 
 Note. For the formatior of the comparative degree, see Ap- 
 pendix, Lesson VII. 
 
 63. The degrees of comparison are, the positive, 
 the cuynparative, and the superlative. 
 
 (a.) Comparison applies to the adjective, either as a predicated 
 or an assumed property, (16.) 
 
 (6.) When the adjective is used to for;n the predicate, it is 
 called the predicate-adjective^ to distinguish it from The adjective 
 when used as a modifier. 
 
32 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 64. The predicate-adjective should be parsed by 
 the following rule : — 
 
 Rule III. An adjective used with the cop- 
 tsla to form the predicate ^ belongs to the subject. 
 
 ( a.) In other languages, the relation of the adjective to the 
 siib]ect is indicated by an agreement in number^ gender and case.. 
 
 Models fok parsing the Predicate-Adjective. 
 
 He is heiievolent. 
 
 (Analyze according to the models, Sect. II.) 
 
 Benevolent is an adjective, of the positive degree, (com- 
 pared, benevolent.^ more benevolent, most be- 
 nevolent,) and forms with " is " the predicate of 
 the proposition, " He is benevolent." It be- 
 longs to " /ie," according to Rule III., " An 
 adjective used with the copula to form the pred- 
 icate, belongs to the subject." 
 
 Richard is older [than John.] * 
 
 Older ... is an adjective, of the comparative degree, 
 (compared, old, older, oldest,) and forms with 
 " is " the predicate of the proposition, " Rich- 
 ard is older." It belongs to the subject, 
 according to Rule III. 
 
 Achilles was the bravest [of the Greel{:s.] 
 
 Bravest . . is an adjective, of the superlative degree, 
 (compared, brave, braver, bravest^) and forms 
 with " was " the predicate of the proposition, 
 "Achilles was," &c. It belongs to "Achil- 
 les," according to Rule III. 
 
 * The words in the brackets should be omitted in analyzing, aa 
 the pupil is not prepared to explain them, (62, b.) 
 
analysis of sentencea. 33 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 Analyze (he following examples j and yarse ih( 
 idjectives : — 
 
 Washington was wise. The country is free. The fur* 
 niture is old. The child is weak. The wind js coliJ. 
 The ice is thin. The water is deep. The soil is ricli. 
 The boards are rouiz;h. The general is brave. Edward 
 is sick. Life is short. The streets are wide. The 
 dog is faithful. George is industrious. The constable 
 is active. Gold is precious. Diamonds are combustible, 
 The sun is brilliant. The davs are long. 
 
 Write predicate-adjectives to complete the follow^ 
 ing : — 
 
 Jonas is. The moon is. The ocean is. Truth is. He 
 IS. Washington was. Arnold was. Flowers are. I am. 
 Ice is. Hoses are. 
 
 ^loDEL. Jonas is sick. 
 
 W ite a subject and copula to each of the following 
 adje- lives used as predicates ': — 
 
 Kcindsome, powerful, awful, warm, mild, gentle, able, 
 sad, mournful, judicious, wise, discreet, unsuccessful, kind. 
 
 Model. The horses are handsome. 
 Write ten sentences of your own, using a predicate^ 
 adjective. 
 
 UL — MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 
 
 65. The verb (except ^' to be ") includes both the 
 co})ula and attribute, whether separate, as, " Flowers 
 are blooming,^^ or combined, as, "Flowers bloom.'' 
 
 (a.) The verbal attribute, when separated from the copula, is a 
 kind of adjective. It partakes of the properties both of the 
 
34 * ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 adjective and verb, and is hence called xx participle. Like the ao 
 ^ jeccive, it denotes some property of a noun. It may represent 
 either a,n assumed ox predicated property ; as, " Horses running ; " 
 *' Horses are running.'' It relates to the noun in the same man« 
 ner as the adjective, (64.) But, on the other hand, unlike the 
 adjective, it expresses action ; it may be blended with the copula, 
 and form the predicate, (24 ;) it may, like the verb, represent the 
 different conditions of the action, and may receive the same limL 
 tations by additional words as the verb does. 
 
 ( b.) The copula and participle, when distinct, constitute a pe- 
 culiar form of the verb, called tlie progressive fonn. 
 
 66. Yerbs are divided into regular and irregular, 
 Hransitive and intransitive. The first distinction has 
 
 reference to their form ; the second, to their, use. 
 
 Note. For further particulars respecting the classes of verbs, 
 see Appendix, Lesson VIII. 
 
 67. The accidents of the verb are number, jjer- 
 son, mode, and tense. They show a relation both 
 to the subject and the speaker. 
 
 Number and Person of the Verb. 
 
 68. The number and person of the verb are 
 properties which show its agreement with the sub- 
 ject. Like the subject, the verb has two numbers 
 and three persons. 
 
 («.) Number and person are not so distinctly marked in Eng- 
 lish as in most other languages. 
 
 (6.) Both number and person, so far as shown at all by the 
 Terb itself, are indicated by a change of forrn. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 First Person, lam; First Person, We are; 
 
 Second Person, Thou ar't ; Second Person, You arc j 
 Third Person, He is. Tliird Person, Tiiey are. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 35 
 
 69. The following is the.cule for the construc- 
 tion of the verb : — 
 
 Rule IV. The verb must agree with its 
 subject in number and person. 
 
 (fl.) This rule applies to the copula when distinct from the 
 attribute, or to the verb when both are united ; as, " Thou art 
 sleeping; " " Thou sleepc^f." 
 
 Note. Observe tliat the form art indicates the number and 
 person, precisel}' in tlie same way as does the termination est. 
 
 (b.) To this rule there properly is no exception. There is, 
 however, an apparent exception in the case of collective nouns, 
 which, in the singular number, may take a verb in the plural. 
 If, in using such a noun, reference is had to the individuals form- 
 ing the collection, the verb should always be plural ; otherwise it 
 should be singular. 
 
 Note. Study Lesson IX., in the Appendix. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 Analyze the foUowing sentences^ giving (he number 
 and person of each verb : — 
 
 I write. Hg speaks. We say. They are riding. Slie 
 is painting. You intimate. Thou thinkest. Gibbon nar« 
 rated. Francis drives. Plants thrive. Trees grow. 
 Friends advise. Teachei*s direct. It rains. They run. 
 Stars shine. 
 
 Write each of these sentences^ separating the copula 
 from the attribute : — 
 
 Model. I ain writing. 
 
 Write subjects to the foUowing verbs, talcing care 
 to use the right number and person : — 
 
 Sleeps, consent, chatters, walkest, are studying, com- 
 mand, preach, wliistle, delays, abides, live, beseech, bo 
 
36 AiVALYSIS OF SKNTEr^CKS. 
 
 tray, consigoast, disligure, is contriving, v/as fmisliing, art. 
 spinning, mayst stop, does deliberate, wilt stay. 
 Model. Susan sleeps. ^ We consent. 
 
 Correct the folloicing sentences : — 
 
 James think. I readest. We speaks. You writes. 
 Henry recitest. She complain. They viewedst. Thou 
 is learning. We art ready. Some says. He lead. 
 !jeorge art weepmg. 
 Model. James thinks. James think is incorrect, be- 
 cause think does not asiree with James in number, 
 according to Rule IV. 
 
 Mode of tlie Verb. 
 
 70. Mode shows the manner in which the attri- 
 bute is asserted of the subject. 
 
 (a.) Mode relates to the manner of the assertion^ not to thai 
 of the thing asserted, and therefore affects tlie copula rather than 
 tlie attribute. Hence, when a verb contains the copula and attri- 
 bute united, mode should be regarded as affecting the assertion^ 
 and not the action. The manner of the action is deter 
 rained by additional words, as will be shown in a subsequen'. 
 section. 
 
 (h.) Assert^ in tliis connection, is used in opposition to assume^ 
 (see 16, a.) It applies to all cases in which an attribute is con- 
 nected with a subject by the copula, whatever may be the particu- 
 lar mode of connection. 
 
 71. An attribute may be connected with the 
 subject so as to show that it actually exists as a 
 property of the subject ; as, ''James is rich." 
 
 (a.) When a property does not actually exist in the subject, its 
 absence is declared in a similar manner ; as, " James is not rich." 
 
 (6.) A property may exist in the subject, and the speaker may 
 be ignorant of it. He can then inquire after its existence as 
 something actual ; as. " Is James rich ? " 
 
 \ 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 37 
 
 Note. Actuality is the idea which is common to these three 
 ea^es. 
 
 72. An attribute may be connected with the 
 subject, so as to show not that it really exists in it, 
 but that such an existence is possible, probable, 
 necessary, or obligator}/ ; as, " James may be richj - 
 can be rich, — must be rich.'''' 
 
 (a.) Here, again, the possibility or necessity may be denied or 
 inquired for ; as, " James cannot, must not, may not be rich ; " 
 " Can, may, or must James be rich .-' " 
 
 Note. The idea of possibility, liberty, power, necessity, or oh- 
 ligation, is the pecuHarity of these forms of the verb. 
 
 73. An attribute may be connected with the 
 subject so as to show, not actuality or possibility, 
 simply, but a mere conception of something doubtful 
 or conditional; as, ''should virtue become vice;" 
 " if it rains ; " " were he wrong." 
 
 Note. Conditionality is the peculiarity of this form. 
 
 74. An attribute may be connected with the 
 subject so as to show that its existence as a prop- 
 erty of the subject is commanded, exhorted, or e?J- 
 treated ; as, " Be rich ; " " Be [thou] kind ; " 
 ''Go;" "Sit." 
 
 Note. This form of the verb represents our desires. 
 
 75. An attribute may be stated abstractly, hav- 
 ing no connection with a subject ; as, ^' to be 
 rich ; " " to write ; " "being rich ; " " writing." 
 
 76. These various forms of the verb are classi- 
 fied by grammarians under five divisions, called 
 m,odes ; — 
 
 The indicative, which represents what is ac- 
 tual ; — 
 
 4 
 
 / 
 
88 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 l^he potential, which represents what mayj can 
 
 or must be ; — 
 The subjunctive, which represents ^vhat is condU 
 
 tional ; — 
 The imperativey which commands, exhorts, en 
 
 treats ; — 
 The infinitive, which represents an attrihute ah- 
 
 stractly. 
 77. The infinitive and participle are fo'nis o! 
 the verb, but not strictly 7tiodes. (See 70.) 
 
 ■■;l^ (a.) The infinitive may be regarded as a verbal noun^ and 
 
 the participles as verbal adjectives. (For the classes and forms 
 
 of the participle, see Appendix.) 
 
 (i.) Mode is indicated chiefly by auxiliary verbs, (59, a.) 
 (c.) The subjunctive and infinitive modes are used only as 
 
 subordinate parts of a sentence, and cannot, therefore, be dis 
 
 cussed here.. 
 
 Note. Studj' Lesson X., in the Appendix. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, giving the 
 mode of each verb. Give also the number and person^ 
 according to Rule IV. 
 
 The scales were turned., Charles was abandoned. The 
 coimt was seized. We can dance. You may study. He 
 IS silent. Arthur was murdered. Stop. Stand still. Be 
 careful. Be attentive. James was anxious. Truth is 
 mighty. Wisdom exalts. Clouds overhang. Thunde> 
 T'oars. The lightning is vivid. Be wise. Awake. He 
 may go. Study. You mus'i write. Be gone. /VrnoW 
 vas a traitor, Esau was hated. It ma3/ ram. The clock 
 strikes. The wind may rise. The storm may abate. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 39 
 
 Write predicates to the following suhjtcis : — 
 
 Indicative Mode. Besiegers, Swedes, Frentih, Bona- 
 parte, procession, ladies, enemy, skill, emperor, he, it, gov- 
 ernment, conventions, war. 
 
 Model. The besiegers were repulsed. 
 
 Potential Mode. Fleet, column, congress, boys, sugar, 
 .ovs, books, slaves, ink, virtue, temperance, education, 
 duty, mischief. 
 
 Model. The fleet may he overtaken. A column must 
 he erected. 
 
 Corwert the following infinitives into the imperative 
 mode : — 
 
 To write ; to study ; to play ; to sing ; to reud ; to be- 
 gin ; to delay ; to be active ; to be true ; to labor ; to 
 travel ; to be acquitted ; to indicate ; to be happy ; to 
 leave ; to wash ; to strike ; to love. 
 
 Model. Write, or Write thou. 
 
 Note. The subject comes after the verb in the imperative 
 mode, and is usually omitted. 
 
 Change the modes in your written examples, — the 
 indicative to the potential, the potential to the indica- 
 tive, and so on. 
 
 Model. The besiegers were repulsed. The besiegers 
 might he repulsed. Be ye repulsed. To he repulsed. 
 
 Tense of the Verb. 
 
 7S. Tense denotes the time of an action or 
 event. It may be either past, present, or future, 
 
 (a.) Since time, considered absolutely, is an unbroken suco© 
 sion ot instants, we can speak of an event as past^ ■present^ 
 
40 
 
 ANALYSIS JF SENTENCES. 
 
 future^ cnly m relation to some point to which all others s.» v ) 
 refer. The point assumed for this purpose is the time when the 
 action or eveLt is mentioned, that is, spoken or written^ and is 
 called the time of the speaker ; as, " Columbus sailed ; (1846 
 being the time of the speaker^ and 1492 being the time of the 
 event.) 
 
 ( b.) There are, therefore, two points of time to be considered 
 in the simplest form of the verb, — the time of the speaker, and 
 the time of the event. The time of the event may be simultane' 
 ous with that of the speaker; as, " Edward writes." It is then 
 called the present. The time of the event may be antecedent to 
 that of the speaker ; as, " Edward wrote." It is then called the 
 ast. The time of the event may be subsequent to the time of the 
 speaker ; as, " Edward will write." It is then called the future. 
 
 79. When a tense is simiAy jpast, present,* or fu- 
 ture, without any other hmitation, it is called an ab- 
 solute tense; as, ''I sing," *'I sang," "I shall sing." 
 
 (a.) Besides relating to the time of the speaker, an event may 
 oe referred to another time specified in the sentence ; as, " Ed- 
 ward was writing at noon." Here the act of writing is antecedent 
 10 the time of the speaker, but simultaneous with a specified time, 
 "af noon." 
 
 (^.) As in the first relation, so in this, the time of an event 
 may be simutaneous with, antecedent to, or subsequent to, the speci- 
 fied time. 
 
 (c.) This double relation of the tenses will be best exhibited to 
 the eye by the following table : — 
 
 Point assumed. 
 
 Event. 
 
 Edward was writing, . . (ante.) 
 
 1st ReL Pomt specified. 2d ReL 
 before noon, (a?ite.) 
 at noon, . . (^simul.) 
 after noon, (stibse \ 
 rime of r before noon, (ante.'j 
 
 the <^ Edward is writing, . . (simul ) < at noon, . . (simul.) 
 Speaker. v afler noon, (subse.) 
 
 r before noon, [ante.) 
 Edward will be writing, (^suls.) < at noon,.. . (simul.) 
 
 C after noon, (subse.) 
 
 Note. The event is referred to the points mentioned on the 
 light and lel\ of it; thus, "was writing" is antecedent to thf» 
 
ANALYSIS OF SExNTENCES. 41 
 
 point assumed, (the time of the speaker,) but may be either ante- 
 cedent to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to, the point speci- 
 fied, (before, at, after noon.) 
 
 80. When a tense refers to a time specified in 
 the sentence, it is called a relative tense; as, "Ed- 
 ward had written before night ; " " Edward will 
 have written before noon.^ 
 
 (a ) R.elative tenses require an additional element of the sen- 
 tence, and therefore cannot be fully discussed in this connection 
 
 (A.) Some tenses are always relative; as, "The ship had 
 sailed before the stage arrived.'' Others may be either absolute 
 or relative ', as, " He wrote; " " He Vva-ote in the morning." 
 
 81. Each general division of time has two 
 tenses, — one absolute, and one relative; as, ''I 
 love," " I have loved ; " " I loved," " I had loved ; " 
 " I shall love," " I shall have loved." 
 
 (a.) Each absolute tense may be regarded as the present of ita 
 division; as, "I stud}'," (pres. of the pres. ;) "1 studied," (pres. 
 of the past ;) " 1 shall study " (pres. of the future.) In the same 
 manner, each relative tense may be regarded as the perfect of its 
 present; as, "I have studied," (perf. of " I study;") "1 had 
 studied," (perf. of "I studied;") "I shall have studied," (perf. 
 of " I shall study.") 
 
 (6.) Each perfect tense denotes the completion of an act in 
 the time to which it refers, that is, its present. 
 
 82. There are, therefore, six tenses, — three 
 absolute, (ihe 2:)resent, the past, and the future,) and 
 three relative, (the j)resent perfect, the past pe? feet, 
 and the future perfect.) They may be thus ex- 
 hibited : — 
 
 {The Present Tense^ which denotes present time. 
 The Present Perfect Tense, which denotes a 
 past time completed in the present- 
 4* 
 
42 ANA TSiS OK -Sir.v. J'.Ni:ES. 
 
 /■ The Fast Tense^ v/hicli dRnotes past tmic. 
 II. Pas. < The Pas/. Perfect Tcnse^ which denotes past 
 ' time completed in the past. 
 ( The Future Tense^ which denotes future tinne. 
 Ill Put. I 'Y\\Q Future P<irfect Tense, which denotes a fu- 
 ^ ture time c )mpleted in the Uture. 
 
 (fl) The future perfect '^elates, 1st, to ar .Iher future time, 
 and 2d, through that, t tlie time of the speaker. So the 
 past perfect relates 1st, 'o another past timi;, and 2d, through 
 thit, to the time o: the speaker. But the /^rsseraf perfect relates 
 to tie present tine, and, simultaneous with it, to the time of 
 the speaker. Hence, the present perfect has but one point of 
 reference, since the present time and the time of the speaker are 
 the same. On this account, the present p(;rfect loses one im- 
 portant feature of a relative tense, namely, two different points 
 of reference. Its relation to the present is, however, precisely 
 like that of the past perfect to the past, or the future perfect to the 
 future. 
 
 83. The absolute tenses (except the future) may 
 have three forms ; — the common, which represents a 
 customary act with indefinite time ; the j/rogressive, 
 which represents an nn finished act with definite 
 time ; the emphatic, ' which represents an act re- 
 peated, or stated with emphasis ; it is also tised in 
 interrogative sentences. The relative tenses biive 
 two forms, — the comnion and the progressive, 
 
 84. The indicative mode lias six tenses. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE ABSOLUTE TENSES. 
 
 fl write, [common fcrm.) 
 I am writing, [progressive form.) 
 1 do write, [emphatic form.) 
 
 {I wrote, [common.) 
 I was writing, {progressive.) 
 I did wrile. [emphatic.) 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES. 
 
 *3 
 
 J. ,r, (I shall write, [common.) 
 
 \ I shall be wrhing, (j)rogressive.) 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE RELATIVE TENSES. 
 
 I p , p J ^ have written, (common.) 
 
 *i, J- 7 Co • jl • 
 
 ' \ I hr 
 
 €lSt. 
 
 have been writing, (progressive.) 
 p ( I had written, (common.^ 
 ^' \ I ha 
 
 t. 
 
 had been writing, (progressive.) 
 p j I shall have written, (common.) 
 
 \ I shall have been writing, (progressive. 
 
 (a.) The emphatic form is confined to the indicative and im 
 ^ rative modes ; and the progressive and empliatic, to the active 
 foice. 
 
 Note. Study Lesson XL, in the Appendix. 
 
 85. The potential mode has four tenses, each 
 havino; two forms. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 Tenses. 
 
 'Pre''. Tense. 
 
 I. Pres. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^Pres. Perf. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 n. Past. I 
 
 ^ Past Per/. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Forms. 
 I may, can, or must write, (com- 
 mon form.) 
 I may, can, or must be writing, 
 
 (progressive form. ) 
 I may, can, or must have written, 
 
 (common form.) 
 I may, can, or must have been 
 
 writing, (progressive form.) 
 I might, could, would, or should 
 
 write, (common form.) 
 I might, could, v/ould, or should 
 
 be writing, (progressive form.) 
 I migVit, could, would, or should 
 
 hu ■> e written. ( coynmon form. ) 
 I might, could, would, or should 
 
 have been writing, (prog.forrti.) 
 
4 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 S6. Since the subjunctive is nothing more than 
 the indicative or potential, under the miiuence of 
 some particle denoting condition, (^y, though, unless^ 
 &c.,) it has the same tenses as the mode from which 
 it is derived 
 
 87. The imperative has but one tense, with 
 three forms. 
 
 LXAMPLES. • 
 
 {Write , ( common form. ) 
 Be thou writing, [progressive form.) 
 Do thou write, [emphatic form.) 
 
 88. The infinitive has two tenses, each having 
 two forms. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 Division. Tenses. Forms. 
 
 Pres. Tense, [ ^^ ^^^^^®' (^<>'"^''^^onform.) 
 r p, \ \ To hQwnimg., (progressive form.) 
 
 {To have written, [common form.) 
 To have been writing, [progres- 
 siveform.) 
 
 89. The participle has three forms. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Present. . . . Writing. 
 Past Written. 
 
 Perfect. . . . Having written. 
 
 (a.) Analogy would seem to require the following arrange- 
 aent of the participles : — 
 
 J p C Pres. Tense. . , . Writing 
 ^^^' i Fr 
 
 I. Past.^ 
 
 es. Perf. .... Having written 
 
 Past Tense Written 
 
 Past Perf. 
 
ANALYS[S OF SENTENCES. 4^ 
 
 Note. The pupil sliould now study the several lessons on tlie 
 verb found in the Appendix. He should then care ally per 
 Conn the following exercises : — 
 
 Models for parsing the Verb. 
 
 Analyze the sentences according to the models, Sec. II. 
 
 The hoy is diligen.. 
 
 Is , t is an irregular intransitive verb,' (princi- 
 pal parts, be, was, been,) in tlie indica- 
 tive mode, present tense, third person, 
 singular number, and agrees with its 
 subject, " boy ; " according to Rule IV., 
 " The verb must agree," &c. 
 
 James should have come. 
 
 Sliould have come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the 
 
 potential mode, past perfect tense, thirrl 
 person, singular number, and agrees 
 with its subject, " James ; " accordhig to 
 Rule IV. 
 
 Dejjart. 
 
 Depart is a re"fular intransitive verb, in the im- 
 
 perative mode, present tense, second 
 person, singular number, and agrees 
 with thou understood ; * according to 
 Rule IV 
 
 Children should obey their parents. 
 
 Sliould obey .... is a regular transitive verb, (prlrc^pal 
 
 parts, obey, obeyed, obeyed,) active voj 'e, 
 
 * Whoii ihe subji.'ct, or any other part of a f>roposition, is oniit- 
 Icd, it is said to be iinilerslooa. 
 
46 ANALYSIS C&' SENTENCES. 
 
 \ 
 
 potential mode, past tense,* third persGn, 
 plural number, and agrees with its sub- 
 ject, " children ; " according to Rule IV. 
 
 Note,. The relation of the transitive verb to its object will be 
 lliily explained in a subsequent section. 
 
 He is deceived. 
 
 Is deceived is a regular passive verb, (transitive 
 
 verb, passive voice,) (principal parts, 
 deceive, deceived, deceived,) in the in- 
 dicative mode, present tense, third per- 
 son, singular number, and agrees with ita 
 subject, " he ; " according to Rule IV. 
 
 Note. The uses of the subjunctive, ivjinitivc, and the partici- 
 ples, will be explained hereafter. 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 Write subjects to the following verbs ; — - 
 
 Teach, instruct, learn, speak, say, utter, weep, lament 
 rejoice, bloom, laugh, move, bring, obey, try, bite, dance 
 fight, praise, censure, adorn, wound, punish, devour, croak, 
 whisde, amuse, disturb, be committed. 
 
 Let the first twelve be in the indicative mode, two 
 in each tense. 
 
 Model. 
 
 Pres. i ^''^''' ^■''''^'''' Past Tense, i ^^ ^^^^"^'^- 
 
 ( James instructs. { We spoke. 
 
 Let the next twelve hz in the potential mode, three 
 in each tense. (See model above.) — Write the re- 
 inainder in the imperative mode. — Give the infinitive 
 and participles to ten of the above verbs. 
 
 * More properl} , " should obey " denotes a universal obnga- 
 »on, without reference to time. 
 
f 
 
 analysis of sf.ntence3. 4t 
 
 Ekercise 15. — Miscellaneous. 
 
 Analyze and parse the following sentences, apply- 
 ijig the four rules which are used in the construction 
 of the subject and predicate. (See the preceding 
 models for analyzing and parsing.) 
 
 John was a disciple. Jesus was betrayed. David is 
 called the psalmist. You can learn. He will be writing. 
 He had been defeated. Stop. Be active. Become a sol- 
 dier. They should be industrious. He might have been 
 captured. fai. George may have returned. Do be still 
 Henry will have been planting. I spoke. Do sta}-. 
 
 Note. If the preceding exercises should not be sufficient to 
 make the pupil perfectly familiar with the properties and con- 
 struction of the subject and predicate, they should be multiplied, 
 at the discretion of the teacher. It is all important that these 
 two elements of the sentence be perfectly understood before 
 proceeding farther. 
 
 -y- 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE ELEI\IENT. — FIRST SUBORDINATE 
 
 ELEMENy. 
 
 90. It has been seen, (Sec. III.) that the subject 
 13 susceptible of certain inflections, (41,) which 
 indicate its number, person^ and gender. These 
 changes are properly called modifications of the sub- 
 ject, since they restrict its application to some per- 
 son or thing affected by one or more of these 
 ^>ro per ties. 
 
ANALYSIS OF iENTENCPIS. 
 
 91. It is often necessary to restrict the applica 
 tion of the subject, by referring to other propertia 
 which cannot be indicated by inflection. Tiie 
 method pursued in all languages is the same, 
 namely, to add to the subject such word or words 
 as shall designate the property required ; as, " Birds 
 fiy;""^/GcA: birds fly;" ^^ Canary birds fly;" 
 ^' Large birds fly." 
 
 (a.) Some nouns are sufficiently definite without additional 
 words; such as proper nouns, — IVilUam^ Philadelphia; manv 
 of the abstract nouns, — goodness^ virtue, vice; many nouns 
 denoting substance, — as, grass, wood. 
 
 (6.) Pronouns being used to denote the relation of the subject 
 to the speaker, or referring to nouns which have before been 
 introduced and sufficiently limited, seldom receive additional 
 words. 
 
 92. All such additional words are called modiji- 
 ers, because they modify, limit, or restrict, the appli- 
 cation of tae subject. 
 
 93. The modifiers of the subject, or of the noun 
 in any of its relations, ^orm a new element of the 
 sentence, called the adjedive element. 
 
 94. The subject considered apart from^ the ad 
 jectiv^e element, is called the grammatical subject, 
 or simply the subject. 
 
 95. The subject taken with the words which 
 limit it, is called the complex or logical subject. 
 
 •4 
 
 (a.) The adjective element generally answers the questions, 
 iVhat ? What land ? Hoio mamj ? Whose ? 
 
 96. All modifiers of the subject, or of the noun 
 in any of its relations, are used to restrict its applv- 
 vation. This may be done, — 
 
ANALiVSiS UF SLNTENCES. 49 
 
 ^a.) Without affecting any of li^ ^^ro^crties ; as, 
 ** iWo men ; ''' " these men ; " — 
 
 (b.) By designating some property ; as, "^oofe 
 
 
 laf.n ; " 
 
 (c.) By identifying it; as, " Paul fAe apostle'/^ 
 '■ Peter ^Ae hermit ; " — 
 
 (c?.) By representing it as an object possessed; 
 as, '* David^s harp." 
 
 97. The first two limitations are effected by 
 x^djective words; the second two, by nouns or pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 1. — ADJEC Tl VE WORDS. 
 
 98. All adjective words (articles, adjectives, and 
 participles) are divided into two classes, — limiting 
 and qualifying. 
 
 99. Limiting adjectives are used to restrict the 
 application of the noun, without expressing any of 
 its properties; as, "fen commandments;" ^^ each 
 lesson." 
 
 100. Qualifying adjectives are used to restrict the 
 application of the noun to a class of objects which 
 possess a cert3.'m property in common; as, ^^ good- 
 men ; " " idle boys ; " " tall trees." 
 
 (a.) An unlimited noun ia taken in the widest extent of ila 
 application; as, "Horses run." Here "horses" appHes to the 
 whole race, and embraces every possible property of the horse. 
 A noun is said to be limited in the extent of its application when 
 the number of individuals included in it is diminished. Tliua 
 " horses" embraces a greater number of individuals than "sixty 
 ho:ses" or "white horses." "Sixty" excludes all above that 
 uumber, but may include those of any description whatever; 
 whereas " white " excludes all of any other color, and embraces 
 those only whic:i possess that property in common. 
 
 5 
 
50 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 101. Among limiting adjectives are reckoned 
 the article, pronominal adjectiva^ numerals^ and those 
 which express some circumstance of place, time, 
 
 cause, or manner. 
 
 Note. See Appendix, Lesson Vli. 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Apply limiting adjectives to the subjects of the 
 following sentences : — 
 
 Hoi-se neighs. Arts are improved. Citizens comphim. 
 
 lousiness is completed. Soldier stood. Dog ran. Cloud 
 
 is black. Flen is dead. Duck swam. Storm did abate. 
 
 Wind blew. Rain fell. Men were captured. Walk was 
 
 taken. Book is useful. Houses are built. Ride is pleas- 
 ant. 
 
 Model. That horse neighs. 
 
 Write twelve entire sentences, applying limiting ad- 
 jectives to the subjects. 
 
 102. Among qualifying adjectives are reckoned, 
 1st, all those adjectives which express any property 
 of the nomi ; and 2d, the several participles. 
 
 (a.) A qualifying adjective or participle is an attribute, (16.) 
 It is said to be used as a modifier when it is assumed of a noun, 
 as a -predicate when it is affirmed of it, 
 
 (6.) A limiting adjective does not properly express any attri- 
 bute of the noun, and consequently is seldom compared or used as 
 a predicate. 
 
 Note. Study Lesson VII., in the Appendix, and tnen per- 
 form the following exercise : — 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 Apply qualifying adjectives to the subjects of iht 
 following propositions : — 
 
ANALYSIS OF SF.iNTKN^^ES. 51 
 
 Maxim is given. Scriptures teach. Men desire. Re- 
 proof hardens. Habits should be avoided. Counsels 
 were given. Character shines. Cottage stood. 
 
 Write predicates to the following subjects, limiting 
 each subject by some Qualifying adjective or parti' 
 ciple : — 
 
 l^ady, paper, lord, cousin, light, darkness, ambassador, 
 army, commissioner, tiger, traitor, tutor, pupil, window, 
 cellar, chamber, chancellor, monk, friar, countess. 
 Model. The good lady assisted. 
 
 Write subjects to the following predicates, and let 
 each be limited by a limiting and a qualifying adjeo 
 tive. 
 
 Was prepared ; was made ; was served u}) ; had scat- 
 tered ; is desirable ; were tamed ; is deliglitful ; had ar- 
 rived ; can jump ; might have slept; did eat; could fight; 
 was avoided ; could have been stopped ; may be upset j 
 was emptied ; sailed ; was prostrated. 
 
 Model. That sumptuous feast was prepared. 
 
 103. Adjectives used as modiiiers should be 
 parsed by the following rule. (See Rule III.) 
 
 Rule V. An adjective or participle used 
 as a modifier, belongs to the noun or pronoun 
 which it limits. 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Tall oaks bend. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but ono 
 
 proposition, (27.) 
 
 Oal's is me subject, because it is that of whicK 
 
 the action " bend " is affirmed. 
 
 H 
 
52 AN x-i LYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
 
 Be7id is the predicaie, because it isthe actiori 
 
 afHrmed of 'oaks." 
 
 Oaki (the subject) is limited by " tall," an adjective ele- 
 ment of .he first class, denoting the 
 kind {fall) of oak, 
 
 T'tll oaks !s the <:oii)|)!ex subject. 
 
 Fall is u quiiiifyiag adjective, of the positive 
 
 degree, ((.;onipared,7a//, taller, tallest^) 
 and is as.'d liS a modifier of the sub- 
 ject ; according to Rule V,, " An ad- 
 jective or participle used as a modifier, 
 belongs to the noun or pronoun v/hich 
 it limits."" 
 
 This truth is clear, 
 
 i^oTE. Analyze a.s in the previous example. 
 
 This is a limitmg adjective, (not compared,) 
 
 and is a modifier of the subject ; ac- 
 cording to Rule V, 
 
 Note. Clear is also an adjec'iive, but it is used as the predicate 
 of the proposition, (not a uiodifjer,) and is parsed by Rule III 
 
 Bengal tigers are ferocious. 
 
 bengal is a limiting adjective, denoting place, 
 
 (not compared,) and is used as a 
 modifier of the subject; according ru 
 Rule V. 
 
 \ Exercise 18. 
 
 Analyze the following aen'tiicts, and jja'^se the ad- 
 rectiies : • — 
 
 Subsequent voyages were made: The thir'^ cx2)editioii 
 was unfortunate. Severe laws were passed Tb^.se ni- 
 scriptious were copied. Modern history shcr'i t>'3 *''idied 
 
AiNALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 53 
 
 An erroneous opinion prevailed. A republican govern- 
 ment was established. Thirty men were captured. 
 
 IL — NO UNS OR FR ONO UNS. 
 
 104. The subject may be limited by a noun or 
 pronoun used to explain it by designating its ojice, 
 rank, character^ or otherwise identifying it; as, 
 *' Peter the hermit preached the first crusade." 
 
 (a.) The limiting noun or pronoun must represent the same 
 person or thing as the limited noun. 
 
 (b.) The limiting noun denotes some property {office^ rank^ 
 &c.) of the subject, and is here used as an assumed property, 
 corresponding to the predicate-nominative, just as the adjective 
 or participle, denoting an assumed property, corresponds to the 
 predicate-adjective or participle. 
 
 105. A noun or pronoun thus used is said to be ^ 
 in apposition with the noun which it limits, and is 
 
 to be parsed by the following ritle : — 
 
 Rule Vi. A noun or pronoun used to 
 identify another noun or pronoun, is put bj 
 apposition in the same case ; as, " His brother 
 George was absent." 
 
 (a.) When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally 
 agrees with the limited, in number^ gender^ and case. (60, a.) 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 King Charles was beheaded. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 King is the subject.* , 
 
 * The definitions may be omitted when the pupil becomes 
 familiar with them. - 
 
 5* 
 
54 ANALYSIS OF SENTENOKS. 
 
 Was beheaded is the predicate. 
 
 King IS limited by " Charles," an adjective ele- 
 ment of the first class, used to identify the 
 " king." " King Charles " is the complex 
 subject. 
 
 (Iharles is a proper noun, of the third person, sin- 
 gular number, nominative case, and is used 
 to identify " king ; " according to Rule VI., 
 "A noun or pronoun," &c. (See 105, a.) 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, parsijig the nouns 
 m apposition : — 
 
 The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. Paul 
 the apostle was a manyr. The emperor Nero was a 
 cruel tyrant. Milton the poet was blind. The disciple 
 John was beloved. The mart}'r Stephen was stoned. 
 The p-eat navigator Columbus was maltreated. Henry 
 the scholar was crowned kina;. 
 
 Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a 
 
 noun in apposition. 
 
 Note. Let the pupil review the declension of nouns and 
 personal pronouns, (Lesson III., in tiie Appendix.) 
 
 106. The subject may be limited by a noun or 
 pronoun which represents it as an object of posses- 
 sion ; as, ^'-Hcnry^s book fell." 
 
 (a.) This relation does not alv/ays denote possession. It may 
 denote the relation of persons j aa, " William's cousin;" — or the 
 relation of the doer to the thing done; as, " Solomon's Temple ; " 
 — or the relation of a whole to its parts ; as, "a horse's head ;' 
 '» the dog's foot " »^ 
 
 ( i.) The pa? sessivc pronouns mine, tluiic^ his, hers, ours, yours^ 
 and theirs, xstq used as nouns, and hence ma}' be employed aa 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 00 
 
 pred-cates, when we wish to affirm, (not assume) possession ; as, 
 •' Tiie boolt IS mine ; " " The ,pen is yours." 
 
 107. A noun or pronoun thus used to limit the 
 subject is parsed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule Y 1 1. A noun or pronoun used to limit 
 another noun by denoting possession, must be 
 in the possessive case ; as, " Stephen^ courage 
 failed." 
 
 Model for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 His hand trembles. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 projjosition. 
 Hand. . . is the subject. (Why?) 
 Tremhles is the predicate. (Why.?) 
 His hand is the complex subject. (Why ?) 
 Hand . . is limited by "his," an adjective element of tho 
 
 first class, denoting tchose hand. 
 Bis .... is a personal pronoun, third person, singular 
 
 number, possessive case, and is the modifier of 
 
 " hand ; " according to Rule VII. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 A.nalyze the following sentences, ^parsing the modi- 
 fier of the subject : — 
 
 The rook's nest was destroyed, j The bird's beak was 
 broken. \ Our lesson is easvi My task is completed.^ 
 VViUiam's farm is productive. ^^ Kufus's garden is watered / 
 
 Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a 
 noun or pronoun in the jjossessive case. 
 
 108. The adjective element, by an ellipsis of the 
 kiourj to which it belongs, often becomes the sub- 
 
5f} ANALYSn OF SENTENCES. 
 
 ject of tliG proposition ; as, " The good may err; " 
 " This is tlie book ; " " Many will be disappointed." 
 
 («.) In such cases, the adjective is said to be used as a noun, 
 (33, a.) Thus, in the first example above, "good " is an adjec- 
 live used as a noun, third person, plural number, &c., and is the 
 subject of " may err. ' Let the pupil imrite examples of this kind 
 
 Exp:rcise 21. 
 
 /n 
 
 biaJyze and parse the following miscellaneous 
 examples : — 
 
 Tliree birds flew. The man awoke. Good food was 
 provided". ^ Every soldier escaped. All men are mortal. 
 Tweiity days have passed. Your lesson is easy. Wis- 
 dom's ways are pleasant. The king's council might have 
 been able. John the Baptist was beheaded. The planet 
 Venus has risen, Sirius, the dog-star, is visible. Boston 
 the capital, is populous. The goddess Discord was 
 offended. Beautiful plants were sold. Old iron is wanted. 
 Becket, the archbishop, was considered a martyr. The 
 east wind is disagreeable. A winter scene was repre- 
 sented. A sun-burnt urchin came in. The merry dance 
 commenced. 
 
 Wj'ite twenty sentences illustrating the four kinds 
 of modifiers. (96, a, h, c, d,) 
 
 '^ 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. — SECOND SUBORDINATE 
 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 109. By certain inflections (Section lY.) the 
 predicate can be mad 3 to indicate properties not 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 57 
 
 essential to it as predicate. These are called modi- 
 jications oj chc predicate^ because they restrict its 
 application to a certain time or in a certain manntr, 
 
 110. VYhen it is necessary to restrict the appli- 
 cation of the predicate by referring to properties 
 which cannot be indicated by inflections, other 
 T/ords (as with the subject) must be added. 
 
 111. All such words are called modifiers of tli6 
 )redicate, (92.) 
 
 112. The predicate, considered apart from the 
 words that limit it, is called the grammatical j)ridi- 
 cate, or simply the predicate. 
 
 113. When taken in connection with the words 
 which limit it, it is called the complex or logical 
 predicate. 
 
 114. When the predicate is a noun, (36, 60,) it 
 may be limited, like the subject, by an adjective 
 element^ (see Section V. ; ) as, '' Francis is a a in- 
 dustrious boy." 
 
 Note. Let the pupil write examples modifying the predicate 
 nominative by either of the four species of modifiers mentioned in 
 the last section. This construction will need no further illus- 
 tration. 
 
 115. When the predicate is an adjective, it may 
 be limited by an adverbial element; as, "He v/as 
 awake early. ^^ 
 
 Note. This element will be treated of in the next section. 
 
 1 16. When the predicate is a verb, it may bd 
 limited either by an adverbial or an objective ele- 
 ment, or both ; as, " T le boy studied his lesson 
 carefully. ^^ 
 
58 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 I. — SINGLE OBJ EC T. 
 
 117. The objective element is that which is 
 iised to complete the meaning of a transitive verb, 
 (see Appendix;) as, ^' He opened (what?) a book, 
 — a knife, — the do'^r, — his hand, — his eyes,'''' &c. 
 
 118. The objective element becomes the subject 
 when the transitive verb assumes the passive form ; 
 as, "Henry struck IVilliam;^'' '^ William was struck 
 by Henry." 
 
 (a.) The objective element answers the question IVUom? or 
 What? as, "He loves (whom?) George;" "They broke 
 (what?) the ice.'' 
 
 (b.) The noun or pronoun used as t-he object has the same 
 modifications (Sec. III.) of number, gender, and person, as the 
 subject. 
 
 119. The following rule should be applied in 
 parsing the object : - — 
 
 Rule VI H. A noun or pronoun used as 
 the object of a transitive verb or its partici- 
 ples, must be in the objective case ; as, " vVe 
 paid him."^^ 
 
 Note. Review the declension of nouns and personal pro- 
 nouns, Appendix, Lesson III. 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Pausing. 
 
 Cctsar defeated. Pomjicy. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. ^ 
 (jfvsar ....... is the subject. 
 
 Defeated is the predicate. 
 
 DefcorQd . . . . is limited by " Pom})*>y," an objective ele* 
 
AI^ALISIS OF SENTEiVCES. 59 
 
 men! of the first class, denoting lohom 
 Ctesar defeated. 
 
 Defeated Pompey istlie complex predicate. 
 
 Pompey is a proper noun, of the thn*d person, 
 
 singular number, masculine gender, ob- 
 jective case, and is the object of " de- 
 feated ; " according to Rule VIII. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 Analyze the foUoiving sentences, and parse the 
 object : — 
 
 Brutus killed Caesar., Heat overcomes me. ] The dog 
 pursued a fox. Tiie fion ate a sheep. He views the 
 stars / We built a house. The ink soils the carpet./' Jo- 
 sephas wrote a history. William conquered England. 
 Alfi'ed defeated the Danes. Bring a book. Repeat the 
 lesson. He might have been leading the army. 
 
 Write subjects and objects to the following verbs: — 
 
 Lead, praise, restrain, know, fear, see, love, admonish, 
 bring, correct, frighten, pursue, break, torment, perplex, 
 annoy, betray, shig, open, disj)lace, equip, defend, punish, 
 leave, desire. 
 
 Change the verbs of yow' written sentences from 
 the active to the passive form, 
 
 IMoDEL. Abraham led Isaac. Isaac was led by Ahra- 
 ham. 
 
 ■' Ih — DOUBLE OBJECT. 
 
 Oliject and Attribute. 
 
 120. Some verbs are followed by two objecis 
 -- one denoting some person or thing, and the oUier 
 
60 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 8ome aztnhute (15) of it ; as, '•' They a^ pointed him 
 president.''' 
 
 (a.) "President" is an attribute of "him," denoting office. 
 (See note at the bottom of page 17.) 
 
 121. Instead of a substantive, an adjective or 
 verbal attribute may follow the object of such 
 verbs. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 {an officer,. . [substantive attrihute.) 
 jealous, . . . [adjective attribute.) 
 labor,* .... (verbal attribute.) 
 
 122. When such verbs assume the passive form, 
 the object generally becomes the subject, and the 
 attribute remains as a predicate. 
 
 EXAMPLES. ' 
 
 /- an officer, . . {substantive attribute. ) 
 The man was made < jealous,. . . . (adjective attribute.) 
 
 ' to labor, . . . (verbal attribute.) 
 
 (a.) It not uafrequently happens, however, that the attribute, 
 or second object, becomes the subject ; as, " ji?i officer was made 
 of the viany 
 
 (b.) A few verbs only can take, besides an object, a substanthe 
 attribute in the objective. Tiiese are, make^ appohit^ elect, create^ 
 constitute^ render, name, style, call, esteem, thinii, consider, regard, 
 reckon, and some others. 
 
 (c.) The number which may take an adjective or verbal attri- 
 bxite is much jjreater. 
 
 {d.) It should be observed, respecting either form of the above 
 attributes, — 
 
 * The verbal attribute may take the form of the infinitive; as, 
 "1 heard him speak '" — or that of the participle; as, "1 heard 
 him'^jjeaking ' 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 61 
 
 (1 ) That they dite predicated, (not assumed.) Compare '.'.-iiij 
 the example (121) the following, in which the same attributes are 
 assumed : — " They made the man, an officer," i. e. " who was an 
 orilcer;" " They made a. jealous man; " "They made a laboring 
 nian." 
 
 (2.) When the verb is in the active voice, they are prrdicated 
 ?f tiie object, not the subject, of the verb. 
 
 ( 3.) That the verb (in the active voice) performs the office of 
 a transitive verb, governing the first object, and, at the same time, 
 becomes a kind of copula, making that object a subject, and tliP 
 second object its predicate. This latter function of the verb 
 is retained when it takes the passive form. — See examples, 
 (122.) 
 
 (e.) The infinitive to be, or the participle being, with as^ 
 's often placed between the object and its attribute ; as, *' We 
 onsidered him to be too young," or " a6* being too young." 
 
 Direct and Indirect Ol)jecis. 
 
 123. There is another class of verbs followed 
 '^ two objects, — one denoting some ^;er5o?i or 
 hing^ and the other, that to or from Vv^hich the 
 
 action tends. The former is called the direct^ and 
 
 the latter the indirect object ; as, " He taught me 
 
 [indirect] grammar'''' [direct]; ''He asked 7nc a 
 
 question.'"' 
 
 (a.) The indirect objcc4; is generally said to be governed by 
 some preposition understood. It will be more fully discussed 
 under the corresponding head in the next chapter. 
 
 124. When the verb assumes the passive form, 
 the direct object should become the subject, the 
 Indirect object remaining in the objective case ; as, 
 '' Grammar was taught 7ne by him." 
 
 (tt.) Sometimes, however, the indirect object becomes the 
 
62 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 gubjoct, leaving the direct object in the objective case after tab 
 passive verb ; as, " / was taught grammar by him." 
 
 (h.) Some intransitive verbs take after them an object of a 
 kindred signification; as, " He sang a song;^^ "He played a 
 game.'' Such verbs may take, also, an indirect object; as. "I 
 played him a tune ; " " We struck him a blow." 
 
 (c.) The following are some of tlie verbs which take a direct 
 and indirect object: — buy^ sell., play ^ sing., find., get., lend., draw, 
 send., make., pass., icrite., jjour., give^ teach., leave., bring., tell., do., 
 present., throw., carry, ask, show, order, promise, refuse, deny, 
 provide. 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 Vrite thirty sentences, taking any of the verbs for- 
 
 predicates mentioned in 122, {b.) or 124, (c.) 
 Model. They appointed George secretary. 
 Change the verbs into the passive form. 
 
 SECTION VH. 
 
 THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. — THIRD SUBORDINATE 
 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 H 125. It has been seen (Sec. VI.) that certaiu 
 verbs (transitive) require the addition of one or 
 more words to complete the sense. Any verb or 
 adjective may take one or more additional words 
 lO denote some circumstance of place, time^ cause j 
 or manner. These additions constitute the adverb- 
 ial element. 
 
 (a.) Such additions are not, like the object, indispensable to 
 complete the sense. 
 
 126. The adverbial element, in its simplest 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 63 
 
 stato, is expressed by a class of words called Ad- 
 verbs. 
 
 Note Let the pupil study Lesson XIL, in the Appendix. 
 I. -^'ADVERBS DENOTING PLACE. 
 
 127. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
 of place ; as, "Gome hither ; " " I see him yonder.''^ 
 
 •128. Adverbs of place are used to denote three 
 relations, — at a place, (Where?) — frojti a place^ 
 (Whence?) — to a place, (Whither?) 
 
 Note. Whither and ichencc are now seldom used 
 II. — ADVERBS DENOTING TIME. 
 
 129. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
 denoting time ; as, "He went yesterday.^'' 
 
 130. The time denoted by the adverb is always 
 simultaneous witli that of the event. Hence, m re- 
 lation to the time of the speaker, (78, a.) an adverb 
 may denote a time jiresent, past, ox future ; as, " We 
 are now walking ; " " We walked yesterday ; " " We 
 shall walk hereafter.''^ 
 
 (a.) Some adverbs have no reference to either of the three di- 
 visions of time. Hence they denote time absolute ; as, abcays, 
 tchenever. 
 
 131. Adverbs of time denote either a ponit, du- 
 ration, or frequency of time, answering the ques- 
 tions, JVhen 1 How long 1 How often 1 
 
 m. — ADVERBS OF CAUSE OR SOURCE. 
 
 132. The predicate may be limited by ad verba 
 of cause ; as. " Why did he leave ? " . 
 
64 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) There are properly no adverbs which denote a cause; 
 they rather inquire for one. 
 
 lY. — ADVERBS DENOTING MANNER. 
 
 133. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
 denoting manner ; as, " The water flows gently.^'' 
 
 [a.) It has been seen that mode is that property of the verb, 
 (70,) which shows the manner of an assertion. The manner of 
 the attribute asserted is shown by means of adverbs. 
 
 ~^ (b.) Adverbs of manner embrace a large class, ending inly, 
 formed from adjectives denoting quality. They generally an- 
 swer the questions, Hmc ? Hoto much f 
 
 (c.) Adverbs answering the question, 77o?o .^ denote qualitij ; 
 tliose answering the question. How much? denote quantity or 
 de(rrce. 
 
 134. Besides those enumerated, there is another 
 class of adverbs which show the manner of the 
 assertion, not the attribute. Hence they are caUed 
 moclcd adverbs, since they affect the manner of the 
 asseiiioji, {70, a.) and not that of the attribute: 
 as, " Astrology is not a science ; '^ " The sun had 
 scarcely set." 
 
 (a.) Adverbs of mode affect the degree of certainty with 
 which an attribute is affirmed. Beginning with denial^ there are 
 modal adverbs applicable to the several degrees of douht^ tincer- 
 fainty, possibility^ probability, and certainty ; as, " My brother 
 will rtof come ;" '■'■Perhaps he will come;" '■'■Possibly he may 
 come ; " " He will probably come ; " " He will assuredly come." 
 
 ( b.) The predicate adjective or participle, following copulative 
 verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at the 
 same time, it denotes some property (35, t.) of the subject ; as, 
 
 Ths boy was made sick,'* 
 
 Note. For a list of tlie different classes of adverbs see Ap- 
 "I'^ndix, Lesson XTf. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 65 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 135. When it is necessary to show that one 
 predicate represents a quahty or an action in a 
 higher or lower degree than another with which 
 it is compared, the comjmrison is effected by means 
 of an intervening adverb; as, "George learned his 
 lesson sooner than James learned his." 
 
 («.) A comparison of one predicate with another may also 
 be indicated by means of connectives denoting comparison. 
 
 136. Adverbs should be parsed by the follow- 
 ing rule : — 
 
 Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbsj r 
 participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Light moves rapidly. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains bui one 
 
 proposlLion. 
 
 Light is the subject, because it is that of which 
 
 the action " moves " is affirmed. 
 
 Moves is the predicate, because it is the action 
 
 affirmed of " light." 
 Moves rapidly is the complex predicate, because it is the f^- 
 grammatical predicate, with all it^ limita- 
 tions. 
 Moves ...... is limited by " rapidly," an adverbial ele- 
 ment of the first class, denoting hoiv light 
 moves. 
 PMjndly ... is an adverb of manner, of the positive do- 
 
 6* 
 
66 ANALYSIS OF i^ENTENCES. 
 
 gree, (compared, rapidly^ more rapidly ^ most rapidly^') 
 and ILmiis ' moves ; " according to Rule IX., " Adverbs 
 ianit, (Sic." 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 Analyze tie following sentences^ and parse the 
 
 adverbs : — 
 
 Human prudence should be riglitly understood. The 
 stage started early.' -54m-y writes beautifully. The wind 
 dIows fiercely. We easily forget our own misdeeds. We 
 caimot view tlie sun steadily. One can easily imagine 
 himself a prfnce. The sun shines brightly. The water 
 flows there. Perhaps he will do it. He cannot do it 
 Write carefully. Stud}' attentively. Conie here. 
 
 Write fifteen sentences, and limit each predicatt 
 
 by an adverb. 
 
 Model for all the Elements united. 
 
 Contsant boaating always betrays incapacity. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 Boasting is the subject. (Why.?) 
 
 Betrays is the predicate. (Why.?) 
 
 The subject is limited by "constant," an adjective 
 
 element of the lirst class, denoting a 
 continued habit. 
 Constant boasting is the complex subject. (Why.?) (95,)^ 
 
 Betrays is limited, lirsl, by "incapacity," an 
 
 objective element of the first class, de- 
 noting ivhat is betrayed. 
 Betrays is also modiliod by " always," an ad- 
 verbial element of the first class, denot- 
 ing time ahsolnte. (See 130, a.) 
 ^ Always betrays incapacity . . is the complex predicate. (113.) 
 
 s I 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 67 
 
 Order of Parsing the Elements. 
 
 1st. The subject. — 2d. The predicate. — 3d. 
 The adjective element. — 4th. The objective ele 
 ment. — 5th. The adverbial element. 
 
 137. The five elements of the sentence (8) may 
 be thus represented : — 
 
 Constant First Subordinate. 
 
 BOASTING 
 
 . Principal. 
 
 BETRAYS * * 
 
 • • 
 
 incajmcity Second Subordinate. 
 
 always Third Subordinate. 
 
 {a.) To exhibit the class and connection of tlie elements m a 
 general way, they may be best represented by a formula in which 
 S shall staiid for the subject, P for the predicate, and Adj.^ Ohj., 
 and Jdv. for the adjective, objective, and adverbial elements. 
 The connection of the subordinate elements with the principal 
 is indicated by the sign of addition, and the class of each by the 
 figure underneath. Thus. — 
 
 Adj. + S ; P -f- Obj. + Adv. 
 Class. 11111 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 Analyze (he following examples, and parse each 
 ivord. Show which have five elements, and ivhich 
 
 have not. 
 
 The pupil performed the task correctb/. The ambitious 
 often deceive themselves. Tlie slothful seldom respect 
 themselves. No man should return an injury. Idleness 
 begets poverty. ■ Animals run. Some animals run swiftly. 
 The birds devour the cherries greedily. V^irtue is often 
 neglected. Socrates the philosopher was condemned. 
 
 Write five sentences containing Jive clemems ; — 
 
GS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 jive^ CGutaimng four ; —Jive, containing three : -^and 
 Jive others, containing only two. 
 
 i- 
 
 SECTION Vlll. 
 
 IKTEIUEGTIONS, AND THE CASE INDEPENDENT. 
 
 138. There are certain words used simply to 
 express the emotions of the speaker, which do not 
 form any part of a sentence ; as, oh I alas ! ah ! 
 such words are called Interjections, because they are 
 thrown in between the parts of a sentence. 
 
 (a.) Interjections have no dependence upon other words, and 
 therefore need no further ilhistration. 
 
 139. it is often necessary to designate the per- 
 son to whom lan.guage is addressed. When this is 
 done, his name or title is introduced, generally, at 
 the beginning of tlie sentence, but has no gram- 
 matical relation to the parts of it ; as, " Father, 1 
 have returned ; " "Sir, defeat is impossible." 
 
 140. A noun or pronoun thus used is said to be 
 in the nominative case indejyendent. 
 
 141. The interjection and the nominative case 
 independent may be parsed by the following 
 rule : — 
 
 Rule X. The nominative case independ- 
 cnt, and the inteijection, have no grammatical 
 relation to tlie other parts of the sentence 
 
analysis of sentences. 69 
 
 Model for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Oh! father, I IV ant that lily. 
 
 f. ... is the subject, (Why ?) 
 
 Want, is the predicate. (Why?) 
 
 Want . is limited by " that lily," denoting 2vha.t is wanted. 
 
 Oh ! . is an interjection, having no dependence upon the 
 
 other parts of the sentence ; according to Rule X. 
 Father is a common noun, of the second person, singular 
 
 number, masculine gender, and nominative case 
 
 independent ; according to Rule X. 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a nominative 
 case indejiendcnt, an interjection, or both. Analyze 
 and parse according to the model. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 
 
 142. It has already been shown, that the subject 
 and predicate may become com.plex by adding 
 other words to them, giving 'ise to the distinction 
 of grammatical and logical subject or predicate. 
 
 (a.) It should be distinctly imderstood, Uiat all the other ele- 
 ments of a sentence, however long it may be, must depend upor 
 the subjc'cf and predicate. 
 
 143 The subordinate elements, also, may he- 
 
"^0 ANALYbiy OF SENTENCES. 
 
 come complex, giving rise to a similar distinction 
 of grammatical and logical, 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Simple Elements. 
 
 Adj Sub. Pred. Obj Adt>. 
 
 C Li>?'.cri9 .... boys! .... will finish .... lessons . . . quickly! 
 
 Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 
 
 Complex Elements. 
 Comp. Adj. Sub. Pkkd, Camp. Obj. Comp. Adv. 
 
 [Very careless . . boysj . . I will finish . . their lesson.. . too quickly j 
 
 Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 
 
 144. In a complex element, the simple element^ 
 on which the others depend, is the hasis of it. 
 Thus ''careless" is the basis of " very careless;" 
 "lessons" is the basis of "their lessons;" and 
 " quickly " is the basis of " very quickly." 
 
 145. The simple element which is joined to the 
 basis is dependent upon it, and hence is said to be 
 subordinate to it ; as, " He purchased a good farm." 
 
 (a.) "Good," in this example, is subordinate to "farm" 
 This element, in turn, may become the basis to another elemen* 
 subordinate to itself; as, " He purchased a ver]) good farm," 
 
 (/>.) This connection of elements may be continued indefinite- 
 ly, forming differ C7it degrees of subordination..' 
 
 146. Complex elements are formed by uniting 
 two or more dissimilar simpl^elements ; the one 
 being principal, and the other subordinate to it. 
 
 Besides being dissimilar in rank, (i. e. one princijial and the 
 other subordinate,) 
 
 (a.) Two elements, dissimilar in name, may be united, — 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 71 
 
 An adverbial to an adjective element ; as, " An exceedingly 
 beautiful river ornaments the town;" "One treated hosjritably 
 Bbould return the favor; " — 
 
 An adjective to an objective element ; as, " My uncle drove a 
 spirited horse.'' 
 
 (b.) Tv/o elements, similar in name, but dissimilar in office., 
 may be united, — 
 
 An adverb of quantity or degree to an adverb of time^ place, or 
 manner; as, "We dined unusually late;'' "He has gone too 
 far ; " " The boat moves very rapidly ; " — 
 
 An adjective element denoting quality, number, order, &c., to 
 another adjective element denoting office (104) or possession, 
 (106;) as, "John, the beloved disciple, was banished;" '■'■ Tlia 
 good mans hope will not disappoint him." 
 
 (c.) Two elements, similar in name and oflice, but dissimilar 
 in their -particular application, may be united, — 
 
 A noun in the possessive case to a noun in the possessive ; as, 
 " Jacob's brother's son ; " — ■ 
 
 A noun in apposition to a noun in apposition ; as, " His brother 
 David the painter." 
 
 In the first example, "brother's " limits " son," and " Jacob's " 
 .imits " brother's." In tiie second, " David " limits "brother,' 
 and " painter "' limits " David." 
 
 147. The basis of a complex element deter- 
 mines its 7ia7ne and class ; as, " Birds fly very 
 swiftly y 
 
 (a.) "Swiftly," the basis of "very swiftly," shows the com 
 plex element to be an adverbial element of the first class. 
 
 148. An adjective is often made subordinate, not 
 to another adjective or noun, alone, but to both 
 united ; as, " An active young soldier." 
 
 (a.) When a limiting and a qualifying adjective both belong 
 lo the same noun, the former should be placed first;, as, '■'•all 
 good men ; " " this little book ; " " the besieged city." 
 
 (b.) The articles a and the should stand first with all adjec 
 lives, except many and such; as, ' many a flower;" "such a 
 book.' 
 
72 A.>'AL,Vb$3 'J^ SENTENCES. 
 
 Model for analyzing complex Elements, 
 
 The king issued his decree. 
 
 It is a simple sentence. 
 
 King is the subjeot. 
 
 Issued is the predicate. 
 
 The subject is limited by " the." " The king " is the 
 complex subject. 
 
 The predicate is limited by "his decree," — a complex 
 objective element, of the first class, denot- 
 ing what was issued. " Issued his decree " 
 is the complex predicate. 
 
 Decree^ .... the basis of the complex objective element, 
 
 is Ihnited by "his," — a simple adjective 
 
 element of the first class, denoting lohose 
 
 decree. Parse "decree" by Rule VIII,, 
 
 and " his " by Rule VII. 
 
 Note. Each subordinate element may be complex, and should 
 >e analyzed in the same manner. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences according to the 
 model. 
 
 His oldest brother's son was sick. Alfred the Great 
 subdued the Danish king. Peter the hermit preached the 
 first crusade. William the Conqueror defeated Harold the 
 Saxon king. Excess produces premature old age. Touch 
 it very lightly. Avarice often produces contrary effects. 
 Interest speaks all languages. It acts all parts. Guard 
 well your own heart. The shade protected the weary pil- 
 grim. Labor disgraces no man. Joseph, .Tacob's favorite 
 son, was sold. Moses received the ten commandments. 
 
 Write ten sentences of your own^ making either eie- 
 meni complex. 
 
ANALYSIS OF JJPNTKNCES. 73 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 
 
 149. In the preceding section, it has been 
 shown that dissimilar elements may be united by 
 making one subordinate (146) to another, if is 
 often necessary to unite similar elements by mak- 
 ing them coordinate with each other. 
 
 150. Two or more elements are said to be co- 
 ordinate with each other, wlien they sustain the 
 ixxime rank in the sentence, and are placed in the 
 same relation to s* me other element ; as, " John 
 and James attended school." 
 
 (a.) " John " and " Ja-nes " are both subjects of " attend ; " 
 they hold the same rank (t'f)th subjects) in the sentence, and are 
 similar in construction ; th»^v are hence called coordinate^ which 
 means, of the, same rank In the sentence ^^ Johns brother 
 James attended school," "John's" and "James" are subordi- 
 nate to "brother." 
 
 151. When two elements are coordinate with 
 each other, they form one compound element ; as, 
 "George reads and writes.^'' 
 
 152. An element may be both complex and 
 compound; as, " George rcat/^ the papers and write$ 
 letters J^ 
 
 153. A subordinate element of the first class is 
 joined to its basis immediately, (14, a., 144.) 
 
 154. Coordinate elements of any class arc 
 joined to each other by a peculiar class cf words 
 called Conjunctions. 
 
 (a.) It will be readily perceived that two elements thus con- 
 
 7 
 
7 4 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 nected must either be both principal or both subordinate ; aisd, ■ 
 either case, they must be of the same name, that is, both subjocl* 
 both predicates, botli adjective elements, &c. So, again, tlu. 
 adjective or adverbial elements thus connected must be of the 
 same species; both must express quality or possession, &c. 
 
 155. Connectives are divided into two general 
 classes — coordinate and subordinate; so named 
 from the elements which they unite. 
 
 156. Coordinate conjunctions are used to con- 
 nect similar elements, (149 ;) subordinate connec- 
 tives are used to connect dissimilar elements. 
 
 Note. Subordinate connectives will be treated of in their 
 proper place. 
 
 157. Coordinate conjunctions are divided into 
 three classes : — 
 
 {a. ) Copulative^ or those wh ch add the parts to 
 each other ; as, and^ also, as wt II as ; — 
 
 (6.) Adversative, or those which show that the 
 parts are opposed or contrasted in meaning ; as, but, 
 still, yet, nevertheless. 
 
 (c.) Alternative, or those which offer or deny a 
 choice between two things ; as, or, nor, else. 
 
 158. Coordinate conjunctions may be used to 
 connect, — 
 
 (a.) Two or more simildLT principal elements ; — 
 subjects ; as, " Mercury and Venus first appear ; " — 
 predicates ; as, " This ancient city was captured and 
 burned. ^^ 
 
 (b.) Two or more similar subordinate elements ; 
 — adjective elements ; as, " A ivise and virtuous j)rince 
 iscended the throne;" — objective elements; as 
 'Hercules killed a lion and a boar:^^ — adverbial 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 76 
 
 •lements; as, ''He \3.\ored faithfully and success- 
 fully:' 
 
 159. The parts of a compound element have a 
 common relation to the rest of the sentence. 
 
 Note. Coordinate conjunctions, used to connect subordinate 
 elements, must always unite tliose of the same degree of sub. 
 ordination (145, b.) ; as, " He sent Samuel, his first and only ^on." 
 " Son " is subordinate to " Samuel," and ^'- first " and '■'■only" are 
 alike subordinate to " son ; that is, they are of the same degree 
 of subordination. 
 
 160. The following is the rule for parsing coor- 
 dinate conjunctions : — 
 
 Rule XI. Coordinate conj unctions are used 
 to connect similar elements. 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers. 
 
 It is a sentence having a compound subject.* 
 
 Socrates and Plato form the compound subject, because 
 
 they are united by " and," and have a 
 common (159) predicate, "were phi- 
 losophers." 
 
 The subject is not limited. 
 
 The predicate ... is limited by " distinguished," an ad- 
 jective element of the first class, used 
 to describe " philosophers." 
 
 And is a coordinate conjunction, (copula- 
 tive,) and connects the two simple sub- 
 jects ; according to Rule XI. 
 
 * A sentence having but one of its elements compound, is not 
 properly a simple sentence, (27,) nor is it strictly a compound (29) 
 sentence. It may, not improperly, be called s. partial compound, 
 aince one of its parts is compound. All such sentences may be 
 converted into complftp compounds, as will be shown hereafter 
 
76 ANALYSIS OF ENTEN'CES. 
 
 Note. Two subjects uuited by a coordinate conjunction, do 
 not form a compound vsubject, unles'i the predicate may belong to 
 each when taken separately; as, " i'ocrates was a distinguished 
 philosopher," and " Plato was a distinguished philosopher." But 
 not so with the following proposit'ons -. — "Two and two are 
 four;" "Vice and misery are ins parable." We cannot say, 
 "Two are four and uvo <ire four ; ' "Vice is inseparable and 
 tiuser_y is inseparable." 
 
 The same distinction sliould h^■ obsj^rved in any element 
 ♦* The boat sails bphccen Hroohlun ■ ^id A'ew York;'' not "be- 
 tween Brooklyn and betv/eeu New ^ wk." 
 
 The soldier was weak, Im/ courageous. 
 
 It is a sentence having a simpj/? «iubject and com- 
 pound pred'?at',. 
 
 Soldier is the subject. 
 
 Was weak and ivas courageous fo.Tn tlie compound predi- 
 cate, because they beioni^ ii common to the 
 same subject — "«o'(^icr.'' 
 The subject . . is limited by " th*," an a'vyclive element 
 of the first ciass, uiJcvi to a^tio '-soldier." 
 
 But is a coordinate ccnjurotion, (acversative,' 
 
 and connects the two predic9tes by coi^ 
 trasting the latter with the fori'cr, a<.'^,c"t 
 •, ing to Rule XI. 
 
 You may buy hooks or slats'^. 
 
 It IS a sentence having a compound objective v°iement, 
 
 Vou is the subject. 
 
 May buy ... is the predicate. 
 
 Vou is not limited. 
 
 >\Iay buy ... is limited by " books or sVateii," a compourit 
 
 objective element, of the firr-t cluss« showm£- 
 
 what may be bouglit. 
 
ANALYSIS (JV SENTENCES. 77 
 
 Or is a coordinate conjunclioR, (alternative,) show- 
 
 iniT that a choice is offered between " books " 
 and " slates," which are connected by it ; ac- 
 cording to Rule XL 
 
 161. Since a compound element may have a 
 verb or pronoun agreeing with it, the following rule 
 should be observed : — 
 
 Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates 
 to two or more nouns connected by a coordi- 
 nate conjunction, — 
 
 1st. If it agrees with them taken conjointly^ 
 it must be in the plural number; — 
 
 2d. But, if it agrees with them taken sepa- 
 rately^ it must be of the same number as that 
 which stands next to it. 
 
 3d. If it agrees with one, and not the other, 
 it must be of the same number as that with 
 which it agrees. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Charles and his sister were absent. 
 
 Charles or his sister was absent. 
 J Neither Charles nor his sister was absent. 
 ^ Charles or his sisters tvere absent. 
 \ Either his sisters or Charles himself was absent 
 
 Not Charles, but his sister, loas absent. 
 Charles, and not his sister, loas absent. 
 ^' \ Charles, as well as his sister, was absent. 
 Not Charles, but his sisters, were absent. 
 ^ Charles, and not his sisters, t/xis absent. 
 
tS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) When the connected parts are preceded by each^ every ^ 
 and no, the verb or pronoun should be in the singular number. 
 
 162. When the parts connected by a coordinate 
 conjunction are of different persons a verb should 
 agree with the first person, rather than the second 
 or third, and with the second rather than the 
 third; as, ''John and I are coming:" "Thou or 
 Ji»hn art guilty." 
 
 163. A compound predicate generally contains 
 similar attributes^ each being a verh^ a participle, an 
 adjective, or a noun. 
 
 (a.) The parts generally, though not always, agree in mode 
 and tense. 
 
 164. When two or more nouns in the possessive 
 case are connected, — 1st, if the object possessed 
 belongs to the two conjointly, the sign of jiossession 
 should be applied to the last only ; as, Little and 
 Bro2vn\ store ; — but, 2d, if different objects, hav- 
 ing tlie same name, are possessed, the sign of pos- 
 session ('s) should belong to them separately; as. 
 " Greeiileafs and Emerson^ s Arithmetic^ 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving sentences, i)arsing the con- 
 junctions and the verbs : — 
 
 The Sim and moon stood still. Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob, were Jewish patriarchs. Exercise ferments the 
 humors, throws off redundancies, and assists nature. The 
 plain and simple style recommen^is and heightens the sub- 
 lime. Education expands and elevates the mind. Reli- 
 gion refines and purifies the affections Many very worthy 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. T9 
 
 Bnd sensible people have certain odd tricks. Some people 
 do little good, but much evil. 
 
 Write predicates to the following compound sub^ 
 jects : — 
 
 Washington and Lafayette ; sun and moon ; my brother 
 ami I ; Samuel or Peter ; silver or gold ; neither one nor 
 the other t not Adam, but Eve ; snow, as well as rain ; 
 William or his sons ; Cain, and not Abel ; Jacob or his 
 children; the members or the president; not the children, 
 but the father ; George, and Joseph also ; every man and 
 woman ; each boy and girl. 
 
 Model. Washington and Lafayette ivere distingimhed 
 generals. 
 
 Write compound predicates to the following sub- 
 iccts : — 
 
 Promises, murderer, emperor, picture, Bible, boys, chil- 
 dren, grammar, Arnold, Cicero, Mahomet, coal, religion, 
 virtue, diligence, behavior, kindness. 
 
 Model. Promises are often made and broken. 
 
 Write fifteen sentences of your oivn, limiting the 
 subjects of the first five by a compound adjective element^ 
 — the predicates of the next five by a compound ob* 
 jective element, — and the predicates of the last five 
 by a compound tdverbial element. 
 
 Models. A large and beautiful horse was killed. 
 The flood swept away trees, fences, houses, and barns. 
 Some men sm frequently, deliberately, and presump- 
 tuously. 
 
 Write ten sentences, making any two elements in 
 tach compound. 
 
 Model. George and David study gramviar and arith- 
 metic. 
 
80 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 
 SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAME.— 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 165. We have seen (Sec. VIII.) that several 
 dissimilar elements may unite, and form one com- 
 plex element, and (Sec. IX.) that several similar 
 elements may unite, and form one compound ele- 
 ment. Besides these, there may be several ele- 
 ments which d) not unite with each other, but 
 form two or more separate elements of the same 
 name ; as, " An indolent man seldom rises early. ''^ 
 
 («.) Such elements are always subordinate to the subject or 
 predic-ate, but are neither subordinate to^ nor coordinate withy 
 each other. They may be either simple^ complex^ or compound. 
 
 166. There may be several different adjective 
 elements ; as, " The good parson, Mr. Wiseman^ 
 has paid us a visit." 
 
 167. There may be two objective elements, ( 120 ; ) 
 as, " I gave him a book; " " They made himpresident.^^ 
 
 168. There may be several adverbial elements ; 
 as, •' The sun is always eclipsed twice annually. ^^ 
 
 Note. This condition of the elements will be illustrated more 
 fully hereafter. 
 
 RECAPITULATION, AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 169. The following recapitulation and classifica- 
 tion of the materials which enter into the structure 
 of a sentence, will serve to prepare the learnei for 
 tlie two succeeding chapters. 
 
ANALYSIS ij£ SENTENCES. SI 
 
 170. The first and most ^nportaut element is 
 the substantive. 
 
 (a.) The term substantive is here used to denote the noun^ or 
 any word which takes the pLace of the noun. 
 
 171. The substantive performs three distinct 
 offices in the structure of sentences. — Isi. It may 
 be used as the subject. (33.) — 2d. It may be used as 
 an attribute, either predicated or assumed. (16, ; 60 ; 
 104, b] 106.) — 3d. It may be used as the object. 
 (117, 119.) 
 
 172. The verb, considered apart from the attri- 
 bute, (24. note,) performs the important function 
 of connectiiTg the attribute to the subject. (16, 17.) 
 
 173. The adjective (including the participle, 
 which is only a species of adjective) is used to 
 denote a property of the substantive, either predi- 
 cated (36, b.) or assumed. (16, «.) • 
 
 174. The adverb is used to denote some circum- 
 stance or property of an action or quality. 
 
 (a.) An adverb is used to denote some property of an attribute, 
 and is to an attribute what an attribute is to a substantive ; as, 
 •' He ran swiftly " = " His running is swift ; " " She writes beautt' 
 fully " = " Her writing is beautiful." 
 
 (&.) Modal adverbs are to be excepted, since they modify the 
 assertion, that is, the copula, and not the attribute. 
 
 175. The conjunction performs the important 
 office of connecting the various elements. 
 
 Note. Interjections are not elements. 
 
 176. Strictly speaking, all sentences may be 
 said to be composed ^f three kinds of materials, 
 namely, substantives, adjectives, and adverbs ; the cop- 
 ula, and all other merely connective Avords, forming 
 
82 ANALYSIS OF iSfcNTENCEi. 
 
 no part of the substance of the sentence, but serv- 
 ing only to unite these materials into one structure 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I. The substantive, used a.3^ < 9, Attrihntp'< ' ^ 
 
 ' ) ^- -^"^1^"^® ' { 2. Modifier.* 
 ^3. Object. 
 
 II The adjective., used as .... AiiribuXe I \ ' '' ' 
 
 ^ ' M 2, Modifier.* 
 
 III. The adverb^ . . used as ... . . . . Modifier. 
 
 177. These materials, arranged in a general 
 formula for a sentence, stand thus : — 
 
 Adj. Ele. + Sub. : : Pred. + Obj. Ele. + Adv. Eie 
 
 Substantive. } substantive. \ Substantive. ) Substantive. Adverb. 
 Adjective.f ) i Adjective.f S 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 Analyze and parse the foUotving miscellaneous 
 examples. Tell the ojjice of each substantive, [noun 
 or pronoun^ \^7l]) — of each adjective, [adjective 
 and participle, 173.) 
 
 \- We have learned our lessons. Joseph was sold. You 
 might have crossed the stream. He will sell some figs. 
 She should have been studying her lesson. The earl ia 
 our guest. Be sober. Live contentedly. Break not yoa» 
 promise. Be thou a scholar. Be firm. Do be quiet 
 The soldiers must have been drilled. The ship ploughs 
 the sea. The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book. 
 Edward the Confessor abused his mother. Queen Chris- 
 tina resigned her crown. Edward the Black Prince worf 
 
 * An assumed attribute is a modifier, t See H 173. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SKNTENCEB. 
 
 F3 
 
 black armor. 1 am, dear sir, your affectionate friend. 
 My son, give me thy heart. The earth and the moon are 
 planets. The creation demonstrates God's power and 
 wisdom. Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
 follow a civil war. Avoid arrogance and servility 
 
 The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegaied 
 landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament, 
 are beautiful and magnificent objects. True religion gives 
 our behavior a native and unaffected ease. Plain, honest 
 truth wants no artificial coloring. Wise and good men are 
 frequently unsuccessful. True worth is modest and retir- 
 ing. Ulysses was a wise, eloquent, cautious, and intrepid 
 hero. Good nature mends and beautifies all objects. The 
 liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper. A philoso- 
 pher should examine every thing coolly, impartially, accu- 
 rately, and rationally. I shall go myself, or send some 
 one. He is not sick, but discouraged. She sings, as well 
 as plays. He has caught a pike or a perch. O, how cold 
 it is ! His fate, alas ! was deplorable. Coming events cast 
 their shadows before. 
 
 Complete the following sentences by writing answers 
 to the questions in parentheses : — 
 
 (How many ?) (What kind.?) birds fly (How?) 
 
 (Whose?) dog caught (What.?) (When.?) (How 
 
 many?) fishes were caught (When?) (Which?) 
 
 horse kicked (Whom?) (How?) (When?) 
 
 (What ?) tree stands (Where : ) (How many ?; men 
 
 drove ( Who m ? ) ( How ? ) 
 
 Model. Ten black birds fly siciftly. 
 
84 
 
 AJNALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 (simple sentences.) 
 fclLEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS. -PHRASES 
 
 SECTION I. 
 NATURE OF ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS 
 
 178. An element of the second class is an in fin- 
 'i'ive or a preposjtioi] and its object. These, taken as 
 a phrase, form, like an element of the first class, 
 a constituent part of the sentence ; as, '^ to haste : " 
 '•' of Boston ; " " in reading." 
 
 NurK The term pkr as p is properh' used to denote any com 
 bination of words which docs not form a proposition. Hence, 
 complex or compound elen>ent of the first class is a phrase 
 But, in this work, the term will be used more particularly to de- 
 note an element of the second class. 
 
 (//.) In an element of the second class, both the idea and its 
 rclatio7i (\l, b.) diVe. represented by separate words; w^hereas, in 
 an element of the first class, the idea only is represented ; the 
 relation must be supplied by the mind ; as, " horses of Mex- 
 ico" ==* ^'- Mexican horses." Hence an element of the -second 
 class may be considered as the expansion of a corresponding ele- 
 ment of the first. 
 
 (6.) An element of the first class may be changed to one of 
 
 * In the subsequent parts of this work, it will often be neces- 
 sary to represent equivalent expressions. For this purpose the 
 eign of equality (=) will be used. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 85 
 
 tlie second, or an element of the second to one of the first, by 
 introducing or suppressing the exponent of the relation, making, 
 of course, the requisite change of form ; as, " a virtuous man "=- 
 'a man of virtue'" "the temple of Solomon'' = '■'■ Solomon s 
 temple." 
 
 \. — COMPONENT PARTS OF THE PHRASE. 
 
 179. The 'preposition is a connective used to 
 join a noun or pronoun to the word or phrase on 
 which it depends. The noun or pronoun is called 
 the object of the preposition. 
 
 180. Prepositions are used to denote the various 
 relations of time^ place, cause, manner, possession, ^c. 
 
 Note. For a list of prepositions, see Appendix, Lesson XIll. 
 
 181. The use of the preposition may be ex- 
 pressed by the following rule : — 
 
 Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show 
 the relation of its object to the preceding word 
 on which the object depends; as, "George 
 ivent into the garden y 
 
 182. The following is the rule for the object : — 
 
 Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to 
 complete the relation of a preposition, must be 
 in the objective case ; as, " Thej gathered 
 around /?m." 
 
 183. There is another species of phrase, of a 
 v^erbal nature, which belongs to th-^ second class of 
 elements; as, "/or complaining:'' ''He was guilty 
 of stealing.'''' 
 
 8 
 
^)^v> 
 
 86 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 184. Of this species there are two varieties ; — 
 (a.) The preposition and present participle ; as, 
 
 " for reading ; " — 
 
 (b.) The preposition and perfect participle; as, 
 *'for having read." 
 
 185. The participle, thus used, is called a parti- 
 cipial noun, and is disposed of by Rule XIV. 
 
 ( a.) Verbal or participial nouns are formed from predicates by 
 removing the copula. They belong to the second class of ele- 
 ments only when they follow prepositions. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Boys write writing in writing. 
 
 Boys are active .... being active . . , . in beijig active. 
 Boys are scholars . . . being scholars . . , in being scholars. 
 
 Note. When the attribute of the predicate is an adjective or 
 noun, the participle of the copula must be joined to it, to form the 
 ferbal noun. 
 
 (b.) The forms " writing," "being active," "being scholars," 
 may be used as nouns in any relation, and therefore, in many 
 respects, resemble the infinitive. They may perform the office 
 which their position in the sentence (as subject, attribute, or oh' 
 ject) requires, and, at the same time, may receive the same madi- 
 fications which they would have received had they been complete 
 predicates. 
 
 (c.) Hence a verbal noun may be modified first as a noun, and 
 secondly as a verb; as, " I did not know oF his understanding 
 the Greek." 
 
 (d.) In the sentence, " I was not aware of his being the judge 
 of the Supreme Court," the form "being judge" is limited by 
 "his," and is the object of "of;" yet "judge" retains ics 
 character as predicate-nominative, and is limited just as it would 
 have been had the sentence stood, "He is judge of the Supremo 
 Court." 
 
 186. The infinitive is a peculiar form, partici- 
 pating the properties of a noun and verb, anH 
 
A.NALYSI3 OF SENTENCES. 87 
 
 when used to modify other words, should be parsed 
 by the follcwiug rule : — 
 
 Rule XV The mfinitive depends upon 
 the word whicti it limits ; as, " We loent to 
 see you." 
 
 ( a.) Since the infinitive partakes of the properties of a noun 
 and a verb, it has the construction of both, and may be used as 
 subject, attribute, or object. 
 
 (b.) The infinitive differs from the substantive in the follow- 
 ing respects : — All words used to limit the infinitive are such aa 
 liaiit the verb. Like the verb, it may, by a change of form, de- 
 note the continuance, completion, or the time, of an action ; as, 
 " to write ; " " to be writing ; " " to have written ; " " to have been 
 writing." 
 
 ( c.) It resembles the preposition and its object in the following 
 respects: — It consists of two parts, — some form of the verb, 
 and the particle "to," which, in some respects, is like a preposi- 
 tion. The "to" seems, like the preposition, to perform the 
 office of a connective, as may be seen by omitting it in the fol- 
 lowing examples; as, "I love ... write ; " "We began... 
 consider." 
 
 (d.) The infinitive differs from the preposition and its ob 
 ect m the following particulars: — The "to" is the only 
 preposition used with the verb. Tiie infinitive may be used as 
 the subject ; whereas the single phrase is seldom, if ever, so 
 Used. The two parts of the infinitive are never separated by 
 intervening words. The two parts of the infinitive are taken 
 togethtf, and, thus combined, may become a noun in any re- 
 lation. 
 
 n.— THE PHRASE CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE, 
 
 187. Thus far, the phrase has been considered 
 in reference to its component parts. It must now 
 be regarded as a combination, forming, like a single 
 word, a distinct element of the sentence. 
 
88 
 
 ANALYSi'i OF SENTEISICES 
 
 (« ) Tin phrase, it will be seen, has a clou)^'e co. .siructioti ; • 
 1st. Eacli word, excepting those of the io*'.nitive, has a con- 
 struction of its own. 
 
 xid. As a lokolc^ it forms one of the constituent elements of a 
 
 gcntence. 
 
 1 88. The phrase may be used to form either of 
 the Vyo principal^ or of the three nubordinatc ele- 
 ments, (8;) and, since the materials of whicli any 
 sentence is composed (setting aside connectives) 
 are the substantive, the adjective, and the adverb, 
 (176,) the phrase, in some of its varieties, must 
 take the place of each of these parts of speech. 
 Hence, 
 
 189. Phrases are divided into substantive, adjec^ 
 tive, and adverbial, according to the office which 
 they perform in the sentence. 
 
 (a.) No one sentence, perhaps, in the language is v/holly com 
 posed of phrases. Yet phrases, mingled with other forms, uiaj 
 be used to constitute either of the five elements of a sentence. 
 
 X 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 THE PHRASE USED AS A PRINCIPAL ELEMENT. 
 
 190. When a phrase is used to form either the 
 subject or the jiredicate of a proposition, it becomes 
 a principal element of the second class. 
 
 I.— THE SUBJECT. 
 
 191. The form most commonly used for the 
 subject, is the infinitive ; as, " To see the sun i? 
 pleasant ; " " To deceive is criminal." 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 89 
 
 1 fl Since the infinitive is a kind of abstract 
 noun, it is used to name an action when separated 
 from its subject. 
 
 (a.) The infinitive bears a striking resemblance to the class of 
 nouns called abstract ; as, ^■^ generosity " from ^^ generous " [man ;] 
 BO "fo write," from [men] ^^ write." 
 
 193. Although the infinitive expresses an action 
 abstractly, it is often necessary to connect it with 
 a subject or agent of the action ; as, " For you to 
 deceive is highly criminal." 
 
 (a.) In this example, " you " is the subject of " to deceive ; " 
 and the whole phrase, '- for you to deceive," is the subject of the 
 proposition. 
 
 ( h.) An abstract noun may, in like manner, be connected with 
 tne person or thing from which the quality is abstracted ; as, " a 
 generous man' ="a man of generosity " In either case, the 
 quality *' generous " or " of generosity " is attached to " man." 
 
 194. When the infinitive is used in its most 
 general sense, as the subject of a proposition, the 
 simple form only is used ; as, " To steal is base ; " 
 but when it has a subject of its own, that subject 
 must be in the objective case, following the prepo- 
 sition /or; as, ''For him to steal is base." 
 
 (a.) To change the infinitive to an element of the first class, 
 substitute for it the participial noun, when the infinitive has no 
 subject; but when it has a subject of its own, prefix to the parti- 
 cipial noun the possessive case of the subject ; as, " To lie ia 
 wicked " = " Lying is wicked ; " " For him to lie is wicked " =r- 
 " His lying is wicked." 
 
 195. A complex phrase, formed by uniting two 
 prepositions and their objects, is sometimes used 
 to denote a given time or space, and may become 
 vhe subject of a proposition : as, " From momiv^ 
 to night is called day.' 
 
 8* 
 
90 ANALVSiS OJb' SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) Tlie simple phrase, ciMisisting of the preposition and 
 object^ seldom, if ever, becomes the subject of a proposition. 
 
 196. By a peculiar idiom of the language, the 
 infinitive or other phrase, when used as a subject. 
 is first represented by " it " standing at the head of 
 the sentence, and is itself placed after the predicate ; 
 as, " It is pleasant to see the sun ; " " It is criminal 
 to deceive.^'' 
 
 (a.) " It," thus used, or "there," as in Ti 35, (b.) is said to be an 
 expletive, because it fills a vacancy, and yet is not absolutely 
 necessary to the sense. It often gives force and beauty to an 
 expression, by enabling us to place emphasis on a word which 
 otherwise must occupy an unfavorable position in the sentence ; 
 as, " He did not do it ; " " It was not he that did it." 
 
 197. A phrase used as a substantive is always 
 of the third 'person, singular number , neuter gender, 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing 
 
 To steal is base. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 To steal is the subject, because it is that of which the 
 
 quality (36, b.) " base" is affirmed. It is a pr:n- 
 
 cipal element of the second class. 
 Is hose . is the predicate, because it is the quality affirmed 
 
 of " to steal." " Is " is the verb, and '* base " is 
 
 the attribute. 
 To steal is a verb, (principal parts, steal, stole, stolen,) in 
 
 liie infinitive mode, present tense, and is used as a 
 
 noun, (third pers., sing, num., neut. gen., and 
 
 nom. case,) in the i elation of subject ; according 
 
 to Rule I. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 91 
 
 It is easy to he deceived. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 To le deceived is the subject, and is represented by the 
 expletive •" it." 
 
 Is easy is the predicate. 
 
 To he deceived is a regular passive verb, (principal parts, 
 deceive^ deceived^ deceived,) in the infinitive 
 mode, present tense, and is used as a noun, 
 in the relation of subject; according to 
 Rule I. 
 
 It is a personal pronoun, representing " to be 
 
 deceived ; " of the third person, singular 
 number, neuter gender, and nominative 
 case, and is an expletive used simply to in* 
 troduce the sentence in a particular wav 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
 infinitives : — 
 
 To be good is to be happy. To err is human. To for- 
 give is divine. To obey is to enjoy. ' To write the same 
 things is not grievous. \To swear is wicked. For you to 
 cheat is surprising. To see the sun is pleasant. ■ To ac- 
 quire knowledge is necessary. For American citizens to 
 be educated is essential. To conceal the truth is often 
 highly criminal. To repent is our duty. 
 \ it is easy to deceive children.) It is wrong to excite 
 false hopes. It is base for one to betray his country. V 
 is necessary to write. It is pleasant to receive our fr ends. 
 It 5s wror.e^ to hate our enemies. 
 
92 
 
 anajL.Y31s of sentences. 
 
 Write p. dicates to the following infinitives used as 
 subjects : — 
 
 To be idle; to Ubor ; to write; to cheat; to love our 
 (enemies ; to disobey our parents ; to study ; to sing ; to 
 play ; to laugh ; to 0})en ; to swim. 
 
 Model. To be idle is criminal. 
 
 Write infinitives as subjects to the following pred- 
 icates, the sentence being introduced by " it." / 
 
 It is easy. It is contemptible. It is enough. It is difli- 
 cult. It is wrong. It pleased him. It encourages a child. 
 It is nnportant. It is favorable. It dignifies humanity. 
 It is necessary. It disgusts one. It is pleasant. It is but 
 just. 
 
 Model. It is easy to ivrite a lesson. 
 
 Change any tivelve of the above examples, introduced 
 by " it," to equivalent seritences, in which the infinitive 
 shall stand at the head. 
 
 Model. To deceive children is easy. 
 
 Change twelve of the above examples, beginning with 
 the infinitive, to equivalent forms introduced by " it." 
 Model. It is human to err. 
 
 Change the infinitives in any twelve of the fore- 
 going examples to participial nouns (194, a.) used as 
 mbjccts. 
 
 Model. Acquiring knowledge is necessary. 
 
 n.— THE PREDICATE. 
 
 198. There are two forms of the phrase used 
 as predicate, — the substantive, and the adjective, 
 (36, b. c, 189.) 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 93 
 
 199. The infinitive, when used as predicate, de 
 noteS; — 
 
 (rt.) An equivalent term or expression; as, " To 
 obey is to enjoy ; " — 
 
 {b.) Wliat is possible, or obligatory; as, "The 
 passage is to be found ;^' "Our rights are to be 
 nspected ; " — 
 
 (c.) What is settled^ or determined upon ; as, " The 
 ship is to sail next week." 
 
 2(J0. When the phrase used as predicate con- 
 sists of a preposition and its object, it is equivalent 
 to an adjective, and, Uke the predicate-adjective, de- 
 notes some property or circumstance of the stibject ; 
 a3, " George is icithout a penny " z=: " George is pen- 
 niless ; " " He is at dinner ^= dining ; " " He is 
 in health zzzwelV^ 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Our honor is to be maintained. 
 
 \\ is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 Honor is the subject, because, &c. 
 
 Is to he maintained is the predicate, because. &c. 
 
 I'he subject, honor^ is limited by " our,'" ar adjective ele 
 
 ment of the first class , denoting whose 
 honor. 
 
 The predicate ... is not limited ; it denotes what ouglU 
 
 to be. *'Is" is.the copul. , and " to be 
 maintained " is the attrib jle. 
 
 Tb he maintained . is a regular passive >erb, infinitive 
 
 mode, present tense, and is used as a 
 noun in the relation of predicate ; ac- 
 cording to Rule II 
 
94 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 He is without fear. 
 
 Note, Analyze as above. 
 
 Is without fear, the predicate, denotes a state of the sub. 
 ject. " Is " is the copula, and ' withoul 
 fear" is the attribute; it is equivalent 
 to fearless, and relates to the subject ; ac- 
 cording to Rule III. 
 
 WithoiU .... IS a preposition, and shows the relation of 
 " fear" to " he ; " according to Rule XIII. 
 
 Fear is a common noun, &c., and objective case, 
 
 and is used to complete the relation denoted 
 by " without; " according to Rule XIV. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 Analyze tft» following propositions, and par^e the 
 •predicates : — 
 
 His nephew is to be educated. The captive is to be 
 released. The work is to be competed. George was in 
 fault. The slanderer is beneath contempt. The child 
 was in ecstasy. The general is in fine health. The pas- 
 sage IS to be found. The watchmen are on their guard. 
 He is at supper. The patient is in distress. Our word is 
 not to be broken. The trees are in blossom. The pris- 
 oner is without friends. The gentleman's character is 
 aboN e suspicion. My brother is in excellent spirits. 
 
 Write ten sentences y having a phrase for the pred- 
 icate. 
 
 Change the predicates in the foregoing examples 
 to elements of the frst class. 
 
 Model. His nephew must be educated. George was 
 culpable. > 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 95 
 
 SECTIC N III. 
 
 THE PHRASE USED AS THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 
 
 201. When the phrase is used to effect either 
 of the purpose-s mentioned in H 96, (a. h. c. d.) it is 
 called an adjective element of the second class. 
 
 202. (Quality is denoted by an abstract noun 
 formed from an adjective of quality, and is con- 
 nected with the subject by the preposition of; as, 
 " a generous man " ^=: " a man of generosity.'''' 
 
 203. CArcumstance is indicated by some noun 
 denoting place, time, cause, source, or manner, con- 
 nected by of or any other preposition which 
 may show its true relation to the subject ; as, " an 
 Arabian horse " =r " a horse of [or /row] Arabia ; " 
 "a morning walk " = " a walk in the morning ;^^ 
 " a brazen kettle " =: *' a kettle of brass ; " " a hasty 
 preparation " ::= " a preparation in haste.^^ 
 
 204. To identify a common noun, we often 
 connect with it by of its proper name ; as, " the 
 city of i?05^o?i " — " the city Boston.^'' The infin- 
 itive is often used for a similar purpose ; as, " A 
 desire to assist you prompted the proposal." 
 
 205. Possession is denoted by of which shows 
 tlie relation of the possessor to the object possessed; 
 as, *' the estate of my father " — " my father's estate." 
 
 (a.) It will readily be seen, that the preposition of is proper- 
 ly the connective of the adjective phrase. For the purpose of con- 
 venient reference, its principal uses are here brought togeUier- — 
 
 ' 1.) It sho'f s the relation of a quality to the object to which it 
 
96 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES- 
 
 belongs; as, "a man of virtue" = ^^ a, virtuous man." (2.) It 
 shows the relation of an effect to the cmise or agent , as, "the 
 temple o/5L»/o?n,ou " = " Solomon's temple." (3.) It shows the 
 relation of a material to tiie thing made of it; as, "a vessel oj 
 brass" = ^^ Q. brazen vessel." (4.) It shows the relation of a 
 whole to some of its parts ; as, " the top of a £ree" = " the IreC' 
 top." (5.) It denotes the relation o? persons ; as, "the brother 
 of Samuel "=''' Samuel's brother." (6.) It denotes the relation 
 of a possessor to the object possessed ; as, " the estate of my 
 father" = '•'■ my father's esi^ie" (7.) It denotes the relation of 
 a proper Jiame to a common name denoting the same thing ; as, 
 "the city of Boston" = ^nhe city Boston." (8.) It shows the 
 relation of some circumstance of time or place ; as, " the moun- 
 tains o/ 3fexico "=" the Mexican mountains;" "the report of 
 last year " = " last year's report." 
 
 (6.) In many of these cases, some word is understood ; as, "a 
 vfdiXk talien in the morning;" "a honse situated on the moun- 
 tain ; " " imprisonment suffered for debt ; " " a heavy loss caused 
 by fire." 
 
 (c.) ^hc participial noun is often used to limit a noun, aa» 
 "The hope of receiving a reward stimulated him." 
 
 Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 Brother is the subject. 
 
 Usurped is the predicate. 
 
 The subject, hrother, is limited by the phrase " of Rich- 
 ard," an adjective element of the 
 second class, denoting the family re^ 
 lation of " brother " and " Richard ; '** 
 it is equivalent to " Richard's." " Of" 
 is the connective, and '■'■ Richard " is 
 the object. 
 
 Of . , ^ is a preposition, and shows the rela- 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 97 
 
 tion of " Richard " to " brother ; " ac- 
 cording to Rule XIII. 
 Richard ....,.,. is a proper noun, of the third person, 
 
 singular number, masculine gende/ 
 objective case, and completes the re- 
 lation of the preposition " of , " ac- 
 cording to Rule XIV. 
 
 His attempt to rescue his friend was fatal to 
 
 himself. 
 WoTE. Analyze as in the last example. 
 
 Attempt^ the subject, is limited by " to rescue," an adjec- 
 tive element of the second class, used 
 to designate the attempt. 
 
 !Zb rescue is a verb, (from rescue, rescued, res- 
 cued,) in the infinitive mode, present 
 tense, and depends upcn " attempts ; " 
 according to Rule XV. 
 
 '& 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 Analyze the following examples, and parse the 
 phrases : — 
 
 A man of straw was prostrated. 1 The dew of the morn- 
 ing has passed away, The liglit of the moon assisted us. 
 The king of Morven struck his breast. The temple of 
 Solomon was destroyed. Time to come is called futuro, 
 A desire to see ye** has brought me here. The spirit of 
 Loda shrieked. The joy of his youth was great. The 
 city of Mexico is beautifully situated. The hope of (he 
 hypocrite will fail. The man at the m.ast-head doscried 
 an iceberg. His intention to resign has been publicly an- 
 nounced. The true spirit of heroism is generous. The 
 brother of Henry left the city, A man of honor will 
 
 9 
 
98 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 never forsake his frieitds.r' The hope of heai'ing from you 
 
 has greatly delighted ^e. "rj 
 
 Write sentences limiting the subjects by th& fallow- 
 ing phrases : — 
 
 Of morning ; in the moon ; of brass ; of generosity ; 
 of America ; of virtue ; of seeing ; of doing ; of wood , 
 of Europe ; on board ; of the house ; of friends ; of home* 
 
 Model. The dawn of morning found Waverley on the 
 esplanade. 
 
 Change any twelve of the adjective elements in the 
 -preceding examples into equivalent forms of the first 
 class. 
 
 Model. The morning dew has passed away. 
 
 IVrite sentences of your own, limiting the subjects 
 by the folloiuing adjective elements ; then change them 
 to the second class. 
 
 Evening, virtuous, David's, Solomon's, generous, honor- 
 able, penniless, comfortless, coming, breathless, prosperous 
 experienced, deformed, wise, country, morning. 
 
 Model. An evening walk is agreeable rr: A walk ai 
 evening is agi'eeable. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 THE PHRASE USED AS THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT 
 
 l. — SINGLE OBJECT. 
 
 206. When the phrase is used to complete the 
 neaning of a verb, either as direct or wdirect object. 
 
ANALYSIS JF SENTENCES 99 
 
 It is called an objective element of the second class , 
 as, '' I desire to speak ; " "I spoke of him.''^ 
 
 207. The only form used as the direct object 
 of a transitive verb is the infinitive ; as, " We in- 
 tend (What?) to leave to-day;" "They tried 
 (What?) to conceal their fears." 
 
 208. The infinitive is used to complete the 
 moaning of verbs which do not take a substantive 
 8,s an object ; as, " He seemed to revive.^' 
 
 (tt.) The infinitive is often used to complete the meaning <rf 
 adjectives; as, "The pupils are anxious to learn.^^ 
 
 (b.) The verbs and adjectives which are followed by the infin- 
 itive, are commonly such as refer to some operation of the mind ; 
 as, desire^ desirous ; emulate^ emulous. 
 
 209. The infinitive has two distinct uses as a 
 modifier of the prec icate. It may be used as a 
 complement of a verb or adjective ; or it may de- 
 note a purpose; as, " We went (Why?) to visit our 
 friends." 
 
 (a.) The latter is an adverbial relation, and will be consid- 
 ered in» another place. 
 
 Ih — DOUBLE OBJECT. 
 
 Persoiial Object with an Infinitive. 
 
 210c A class of verbs, in addition to those men- 
 tioned in IT 122, (b.) take an object denoting some 
 person, (sometimes a thing,) and an infinitive used 
 as an attribute of it, (120.) as, ''He urged me to 
 
 go." 
 
 ( a ) The first object should be regarded as the subject of tlm 
 
iOO ANA LV SIS v5K S F, NT ENC ES, 
 
 infinitive. {\22^ <l.) 1'liia construction resembles the accusative 
 -twith the infinitive in the Latin and Greek. 
 
 (b.) The subject of the infinitive must be a different person 
 from the subject of the principal verb ; otherwise the first objeci 
 is omitted j as, " / wish you to go ; " "1 wish to go." 
 
 211. When siicli verbs assume the passive form, 
 the first or personal object becomes the subject, 
 and the infinitive reniams in the predicate, (122;; 
 as, ^' They made the man labor ; " " The man was 
 made to labor.''' 
 
 212- The infinitive takes the place of the di- 
 r-' '^ object after certain verbs, (123,) and has, at 
 the same time, the indnect object for its subject ; 
 as, " He taught me to write ; " " / was taught to 
 write,^^ * Compare with the preceding, '* He 
 taught me ivriting,'' (185, a ) or "Writing was 
 taught me ; " "I was taughi writing.''' 
 
 213. The to of the infinitive is omitted after 
 the active voice ol hid^ dare^ let, make., hear, need, 
 feel, see ; as, ''I hoard him say it." 
 
 (a.) After the passive form of these verbs, the to is gener- 
 ally expressed; as, "He was heard io say it." 
 
 Direct and Indirect Object. 
 
 214. The indirect object cannot always be ex- 
 pressed by a single word. ( 123. ) It often requires 
 a preposition to show its relation to the predicate, 
 especially if the direct object is placed next the 
 verb ; as, " George gave a book to 7?2e." 
 
 \ 
 
 * V/riting and to icrite (124, a.) may be considered as the 
 object after the passive icas taught. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTKNCES. 101 
 
 (a.) The indirect object, ollen shows the source from whicn an 
 action tends, the material out of which any thing is made, or the . 
 theme of conversation ; as, " We made a box out oftcood; " '• He 
 made a fire of coals;" "They begged s. favor o/7/ie;""He 
 spoke of a reward," 
 
 215. Some verbs take an indirect object only j 
 as, " Charles spoke of his father^ 
 
 (a.) Such verbs ofleu assume the passive form j in which 
 case, the preposition must follow the passive verb ; as, " Hia 
 father was spoken of; " " The anchor is trusted to." 
 
 {I.) It is not always easy to distinguish an indirect object from 
 an adverbial circumstance. The general rule is this : — An indi- 
 rect object denotes the tendency of an action to or from some ob- 
 ject; whereas an adverbial circumstance denotes the place, tivie^ 
 cause, or manner, of an action. 
 
 216. The indirect object is often used to com- 
 plete the meaning of adjectives which denote some 
 state of the mind, or are derived from verbs ; as, 
 " The general was desirous of glory " == (" desired 
 glory.") 
 
 ExEP.risE 33. 
 
 Analyze the folloioing examples, and parse the In- 
 finitives : — 
 
 They began to sing. The boy learnod to write. 1 did' 
 not expect to find it. The children love to play. We 
 hope to see him. The ambassador desired to have aa 
 interview. 
 
 He seemed to sleep. We ought to know. The sun 
 appears to rise. The boy v>'as anxious to learn. The 
 student was ambitious to rise. 
 
 I exhorted him to return. Cadmus taught the Greeks 
 to use letters. Let us sit. (213.) I heard him speak. We 
 made them stop. He bade me go. I saw him fall. The 
 
 9* 
 
i02 ANALYSES OF SExNTENCKS. 
 
 ofEcer commanded i!ie soldit^rs t'> iiro. We told theni lo 
 wait. 1 o'-dered him to leave. The doves besought the 
 hawk to defend them. Fingal bade his sails to rise. 
 
 Change the verbs in the last paragraph to the pas-' 
 nve voice. (211.) 
 
 Model. He was exhorted to return. 
 
 M^rite sentences containing the following predicates, 
 and limit each predicate by a direct and an indirect 
 object, placing the di:ect object first : — 
 
 Lend, teach, make, bring, throw, give, present, write, 
 buy, ask, play, show, deny, refuse, promise. 
 
 Model. I lent a book to father. 
 
 Re-write these examples^ and place the indirect 
 object firsts omitting the preposition. 
 
 Model. I lent father a book. 
 
 Change any twelve of the above infinitives to par" 
 ticipial nouns. 
 
 Model. They began singhig. 
 
 SECTION V. ^ 
 
 THE PHRASE USED AS AN ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 
 
 217. Whenever the phrase is used to limit a 
 verb or adjective by denoting some relation o{ place, 
 time, cause, or manner, it is called an adverbial ele- 
 ment of the second class ; as, " T'he messenger came 
 fro7n Washington ; " " We left on Tuesday ; " *^ lie 
 vsiXi for fear ; " " You wrote in haste.'' 
 
ANALYSIS OF SEJNTKNCES. 103 
 
 i^ a.) bince the phrase denotes an adverbial relation, it can 
 often be changed to an adverb. So also the adverb may oftcD 
 be changed to a phrase. (178, b.) 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 X We left on Tuesday. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 We ... is the subject, and 
 
 Tjeft , . is the predicate, both principal elements of the 
 first class. 
 
 We ... is not limited. 
 
 Left . is limited by the phrase " on Tuesday," an ad- 
 verbial element of the second class, denoting the 
 time of leaving. 
 
 O71 ... is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Tues- 
 day " to " leave ; " according to Rule XIII. 
 
 Tuesday is a noun, 6ic., and completes the relation of 
 " on ; " according to Rule XIV. ^ 
 
 l.—PHRASES DENOTING PLACE. 
 
 218. Pnrases, like adverbs of place, (128,) de- 
 note three relations, — ivhither^ whence^ where. The 
 first two refer to direction; the third, to locality, 
 
 219. Tendency to a place {IVhitherl) is indi- 
 cated by tOy towards^ into, up^ down, and sometimes 
 for. 
 
 ( «..) Tendency in a vertical direction is indicated by the oppo- 
 «ites up and down; in a horizontal direction, by along, if it has 
 no reference to a limit; by tozcards, if it only approaches a limit j 
 oy to^ if it reaches it j and by into, if it enters it. 
 
 220 Tendency from a -pls-ce (Mliencel) is de- 
 noted hy from, out of. 
 
i04 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 221- Locality { Where 1) relates to the diiierem 
 dimension of space, and is represented by the oppo- 
 siteSj in, out of; vjithin, iciikout ; before, behind or 
 after; over, under; abovCj beneath or below; on ov 
 upon, underneath. To these are added, at., near, 
 round, around, about, across, along, beside, through* 
 
 {^a.) BeticcGii and bctioixt denote a place between tico positions, 
 Among anH amidst refer to several positions. 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving propositions, and parse the 
 phrases : — 
 
 The kangaroo lives in New Holland. Burgoyne sur- 
 rendered at Saratoga. A treaty of peace was concluded 
 at Marseilles. Napoleon was banished to St. Helena. 
 The battle was fought at Vittoria. The church stands 
 beside the river. Mesopotamia was situated between two 
 rivers. The nuncio came from Rome. . The Israelites 
 came out of Egypt. They v/ent to Canaan. We sat on 
 the sofa. The birds flew over the barn. The rabbits 
 burrowed under the tree. We sailed around the island. 
 
 Write sentences of your own, limiting the predicates 
 by the following phrases : — 
 
 Over the hill ; on the ground ; up the tree ; to New 
 York ; from Philadelphia ; through the air ; on the steps ; 
 toward the east ; beside the wall ; around the garden ; by 
 Long Island ; along the road ; athwart the sky. 
 
 Model. The horse ran over the hill. 
 
 Change the following adverbs to equivalent 2)hra3ei',_ 
 and apply them in sentences of your own :, — 
 
AJVALkSIS OF SENTENCES. 10*^ 
 
 Here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, eastward, 
 Jvestward, homev/ard, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, 
 yonder. 
 
 Model. The consul resides in this vlcice. 
 
 Write fifteen sentences limiting the predicates by 
 phrases denoting place Let five refer to direction, 
 and ten to locality. 
 
 IL — PHRASES DENOTING TIME. 
 
 222. It has been seen (78, a. h.) that an event 
 may relate to two points jf time, — that of the 
 speaker, and a specified time. The specified time 
 may be denoted by the phrase. 
 
 223. Phrases, like adverbs, may refer to the 
 'past^ present, and future; but, unlike them, may 
 denote three relations in reference to each of these 
 three grand divisions. (78, h. c.) 
 
 224. Phrases are used to mark the time of an 
 event more definitely. They may denote a pointy 
 2i period, ox frequency of time, and, like the adverb, 
 answer the questions, Whenl How longl How 
 often 1 
 
 (a.) Frequency is generally expressed by the noun times, lim- 
 ited by some numeral denoting the number of repetitions ; as, 
 " It was done [for] four times." Below four times, the adverb is 
 generally used ; as, 07ice, ticice, thrice. 
 
 (i.) The preposition is often omitted in phrases denoting either 
 of th= aboA'9 relations; and in those denoting frc(7Mc?zcy, it i"? 
 rarely expressed ; as, " We labored all day ; " *' The steamer left 
 last MundaT/;" "Randolph crossed the Atlantic sixteen times iv 
 nine j'ears.' 
 
 (c.) The following table -contains the principal prepositions 
 emploved to denote the differe'it relations of time : — 
 
106 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 1. Point .... = «<;, on., 171^ within^ by,_ 
 
 ^ „,. . , ,2. Period. . . . =for. during, through. 
 
 1. iti/ie simultaneous. < , , 
 
 throug/iout. 
 
 3. Frequency.* 
 
 1. Point . . . = before, ere, towards. 
 
 II. Trtjie antecedent. . . { 2. Period . . . = till, until. 
 
 3. F^'equency =for. 
 
 1. Point ....== after. 
 III. Time subsequent. • - { 2. Period . . . =froni, since. 
 
 3. Frequency =for. 
 
 (d.) ,A point of time, is often denoted by the preposition and 
 participle; as, " I went, on hearing the news." 
 
 (e.) Between and letioixt denote both antecedent and subse- 
 quent time, since they refer to two points ; as, " I shall leave be 
 tween Monday and Thursday." 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions^ and tell whether 
 the phrases denote a time simultaneous with^ antecedent 
 tOy or subsequent to, the time of the event : — 
 
 The steamer left on Friday. The cars will arrive at 
 Ivvelve. Some birds remain throughout the year. My 
 cousin staid a week. (224, h.) The v/ork must be com- 
 pleted before Saturday. The stage will arrive towards 
 morning. The president staid till Monday. The boat left 
 after twelve. I have been here since sunrise. The boat 
 was repaired six times. 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing some phrase de- 
 noting time. 
 
 Select fifteen sentences from your reading lesson, 
 each having a phrase denoting time. 
 
 * As the f-esent is but an instant, a repetition of an act can- 
 not occur in present time. We cannot saj', " I do it ten times," 
 jnless we use " do " in the sense of " shall do." 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107 
 
 ill. — PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE OR SOURCE. 
 
 225. Phrases which denote cause or source gen- 
 erally answer the questions, Why ? On what account ? 
 For ivhat purpose? From what source 1 as, " Christ 
 was betrayed ybr moneys 
 
 (a.) The prepositions used to denote these relations are, most 
 commonly, for, with, of, from, hy, through. To these add the 
 phrases on account of and because of. 
 
 226. The infinitive often expresses a moral 
 cause or motive ; as, '' He went to see." 
 
 (a.) The infinitive commonly called absolute, denotes a pur- 
 pose ; as, " To confess the truth, I was present." 
 
 227. The participial noun often expresses a cause 
 or motive ; as, '' He was arrested /o?- stealing.^'' 
 
 Exercise 36. 
 
 The poor man died of hunger. The woman fainted 
 from fright. The farmer was imprisoned for debt. The 
 soldier fights for glory. The party were travelling for 
 pleasure. The victim seemed, by his dress, to be a sailor. 
 The children went to see the animals. They remained to 
 visit dieir friends. Washington sent an ofhcer to recon- 
 noitre the enemy's camp. Vi e stopped to see the consul. 
 
 Write twenty sentences^ limiting each predicate by 
 a phrase denoting cause, 
 
 IV. — PHRASES DENOTING MANNER. 
 
 228. Phrases denoting manner, like their corre- 
 6])onding adverbs, may denote either quality or 
 fliiantity. Those which denote qu?'ity answer" the 
 
7 08 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 question, Howl as, ^' The messenger came (IIowlj 
 in haste " Those which denote quantity answer 
 the questions, ifoty much? &c . , as, ''The wall 
 was ten rods long." 
 
 (a.) Phrases denoting quality are commonly connected w\\h 
 verbs; those denoting quantity, with adjectives. 
 
 229. Phrases answering the question, Hoiv 7 
 are, — 
 
 (a.) Those which show how any thing is done; 
 as, " The height of the mountain was measured 
 with accuracy ; " — 
 
 (6.) Those which show a resemblance ; as, " The 
 water rushed lihe a torrent'/^ — 
 
 (c.) Those which show the means or instrument; 
 as, " Turenne was killed with a cannon hall; " — 
 
 (d.) Those which denote accompaniment; as, 
 " Abraham went ivith Lot ; " — 
 
 (e.) St^^® which denote agency; as, "The 
 world ^JJp made by him.^'' 
 
 Note. Su<ih phrases as " with certainty, ' " in truth," " with- 
 out doubt," show the manner of the assertion, and are therefore 
 expanded forms of the modal adverbs (134) "certainly," "truly," 
 " doubtless." 
 
 230. (Quantity may be spoken of absolutely, or 
 by way of comparison ; as, " The horse is twenty 
 years old ; " " The horse is too old for service,'^ 
 
 231. (Quantity used absolutely may mark, — 
 
 {a.) Degree of magnitude ,* as, '' She was modest 
 io excess ; " — 
 
 (6.) Measure of magnitude: as, "The wall is 
 ien feet high ; " — 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 109 
 
 (c.) The measure of excess ; as, "He is foiir 
 hiehes* taller than his brother." 
 
 232. An attribute may be predicated of a subject, 
 so as to snow that it exists in quantity or degree 
 equal to, or unequal to, the use which is to be made 
 of it. The former is called comparison of equality ; 
 the latter, of inequality ; as, '' Medicine is good [not 
 m itself, but] for a sick man;^^ " The medicine is 
 too powerful [not for all complaints, but] for a 
 chronic affection.^'' 
 
 233. In comparison of equality, when the second 
 term is a verbal idea, the infinitive, with or without 
 its subject, (193,) or the participial noun, may be 
 used; as, " Prunes are good for eating, or to eat ;^' 
 " The cake is too rich /or the child to eat.''^ 
 
 (a.) Comparison of equality is indicated, first, by the simple 
 adjective with /or; secondly, by enough or sufficiently . . . .for, or 
 the simple infinitive without " fiar ; " thirdly, by 50 ... . as, with 
 the infinitive ; as, " Milk is good/or children ; " " The apples are 
 ripe enough /or iwe, or to use; " " Smith was so artful as to extri- 
 cate himself." 
 
 234. Inequality is used to denote excess or de- 
 fect ; as, " The undertaking was too great for so 
 
 slight a preparation.^^ 
 
 The preparation is not equal in magnitude to the undertaking 
 (a.) The superlative degree takes after it the noun denoting 
 
 the object with which the subject is compared ; as, " Achillea 
 
 was the bra rest of the Greeks." 
 
 235. The second term may be, as above, an in- 
 finitive or participial noun ; as, '•' It is too stormy 
 for the boat to leave to-nightJ* 
 
 * The measure of magnitude, or of excess, is commonly ex- 
 pressed without a preposition. (?94, b.) 
 
 10 
 
Ill) ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (fl.) Sometimes the <o of the infinitive is omitted; as, " We 
 could do no less than receive it.' 
 
 (i.) Comparison of inequality is denoted, first, by too /or, 
 
 or the simple infinitive without " for ; " secondly, by more or less 
 than, with the infinitive ; as, " He was too young for the sit- 
 uation, or to take the situation ; " " You can do no less than in- 
 vite him." 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
 phrases : — 
 
 The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. The ele- 
 phant takes hi-s food with. his trunk. The dove flew with 
 rapidity. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. The 
 coachmat5 rode by in haste. They have rushed through 
 like a hurricane. They devoured the earth Hke an army 
 of locusts. ThS Georgium Sidus was discovered by Her- 
 schel. Lightning and electricity were identified by 
 Franklin. The man was culpable to a great degree. 
 James walked with his sister. Columbus crossed the At- 
 lantic with ninety men. The walls of Babylon were fif- 
 teen miles long. The jacket is too large for the boy„ 
 The water is too cold for bathing. The coat is too gay 
 for an old man. 
 
 Write sentences limiting the predicates by the fol- 
 lowing phrases denoting agency. Then change the 
 verb to the active voice : — , 
 
 By Columbus; by Moges; by whales; by doves; by 
 Washington ; by Cromwell ; by Socrates ; by Judas ; by 
 Arnold; by Paul; by rabbits; by insects; by serpents; 
 by bees ; by labor. 
 
 Model. America was discovered by Columbus 3= Co- 
 
 lumbus discovered America. 
 Write sentences limiting the predicates by the fol- 
 lowing miscellaneous phrases : — 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Ill 
 
 In haste ; for a boy : with rapidity ; like thunder ; ten 
 miles; six i'eei; seven rods; for me to do; with William; 
 with a swcrd. 
 
 Change tke following adverbs into phrases, and em- 
 liloi/ them in sentences of your own : — - 
 
 Carefully, wisely, courageously, unblushingly, tenderly, 
 diligently harmlessly, furiously, despondingly, thought- 
 fully, incautiously, rapidly, boldly, timidly, foolishly, bright- 
 ly, modesdy, painfully, elegantly. 
 
 Model. He managed with care. 
 
 Write or find twenty sentences containing a phrase 
 denoting manner. * 
 
 236. The elements of a sentence, so far as de- 
 veloped, may be thus represented: — (137, a.) 
 
 Adj. -f- Sub. : Fred, -f- Obj. -}- Adv. 
 Class 111 11 
 
 Class 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 SECTION ^I. 
 
 COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 
 
 237. Each element of a sentence may become 
 complex, either by uniting two dissimilar simple 
 elements of the second class, or by joining one of 
 the first and one of the second. 
 
 * At this stage of the pupil's progress, his attention should be 
 
 called to the different constructions as they occur in his readin,?^ 
 
 ' lessons. He may at length acquire a habit of classificatio'-^ , 
 
 which will enable him, at sight, to recognize any construction 
 
 in the language. This power is vastly more valuable than 
 
112 ANALYSIS OF SEWTENCEb. 
 
 238. The essential point of dissimilaiity t^. Ih^^ 
 parts ot any complex element is, that one simple 
 element stands as principal or hasu^ and that ali 
 others are subordinate to it ; as, " The lawyer fully 
 established the claims of his client.^^ 
 
 Here the objective element — "the claims of his client" — ia 
 complex. " Claims " is the basis, and " the " and " of his client " 
 are subordinate to it. 
 
 Note. Foi other points of dissimilarity, see IF 146, (a. b. c) 
 
 239. In the formation of a complex element 
 containing simple elements of different classes, — 
 
 (a.) An element of the first class may be the 
 basis ; in which case the whole is said to be of the 
 first class, (147;) as, "Nobility of birth does not 
 insure nobility of mind; ^^ — 
 
 (6.) An element of the second class may be the 
 basis, and to it may be joined one of the first ; as, 
 " The three great apostles of practical atheism are 
 health, wealth, and power ; " — 
 
 (c.) An element of the second class may be the 
 basis, and to it may be joined another element of 
 the same class ; as, " Two of her sources of 
 strength are physical." 
 
 Note. The last two combinations are complex elements of 
 the second class, because the oasis of each is of the second class. 
 A subordinate element of the second class is joined to its basis hj 
 a connective. (See 153.) 
 
 the mere ability to parse vv^ords. As the naturalist, in passing 
 through the fields, is able to classify each individual p^ant that 
 meets his eye, so the pupil who becomes acquainted with tho 
 structure of the language, will readily arrange under its proper 
 iivision every, combination of v/ords which he reads. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 113 
 
 240. Complex elements may be formed by 
 either of the following combinations of simple 
 elements : — 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 Class I. By joining P and 1 == very quickly, 
 
 C 1 and 2 =s hope of reward. 
 
 Class 11. By joining P ^"'^ ^ = '^ ^reat haste; 
 
 (. 2 and 2 = with assurance of success 
 
 Note. Classes I. and II., placed at the left, show the class of 
 the complex element. (147.) The figures 1 and 2 show the 
 classes of the simple elements which form the combination. The 
 basis of each is in small capitals. 
 
 Models for analyzing complex Elements. 
 
 The whole course of his life has been distinguished 
 
 by generous actions. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 
 Course is the subject, and 
 
 Has been distinguished is the predicate. 
 
 The subject, course., is limited by " the " and " whole," both 
 adjective elements of the first class. It is 
 also limited by the phrase " of his life," a 
 complex adjective element of the second 
 class, used to explain the " course." 
 "Of life" is the basis. "Life" is lim- 
 ited by " his," a simple adjective element 
 of the first class, denoting whose life. 
 
 The predicate, has been distinguished., is limited by the 
 phrase " by generous actions " — a com- 
 plex adverbial element of the second 
 class, showing hoiu the course of his life 
 had been distinguished. The basis of the 
 10* 
 
114 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 phrase is "by actions." "Actions" is 
 limited by " generous," a siraple adjective 
 element of the first class, showing what 
 kind of actions. 
 
 r^OTjE, in these examples, the basis of each complex element 
 is itself an element of the second class, and the phrase is formed 
 by joining classes 2 -\~ 1. (147.) 
 
 The excessive labor undergone in preparing for his 
 examination, occasioned a dangerous illness. 
 
 It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
 
 proposition. 
 Lahor is the subject, and 
 
 Occasioned ..... is the predicate. 
 
 The subject, labor, is limited by " the " and " excessive," 
 
 both simple adjective elements of the 
 first class. It is also limited by " un- 
 dergone in preparing for his exam- 
 ination," a complex adjective element 
 of the first class, (147, 153,) used to de- 
 note the occasion or circumstance of the 
 labor. "Undergone" is the basis. It 
 is an adjective element of the first class, 
 and belongs to "labor." (Kule V.) It 
 is limited by " in preparing for his ex- 
 amination," a complex adverbial ele- 
 ment of the second class, denoting how 
 the labor was undergone. "In prepar- 
 ing " is the basis. " Preparing " is 
 limited by " for his examination," a 
 complex adverbial element of the 
 second class, showing /or what, or why, 
 he was preparing. The basis is, "for 
 examination." " Examination " is lim- 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 115 
 
 ited by " his," a simple adjective ele- 
 ment of the first class, sliowing whose 
 examination. The simple elements of 
 this combination may be thus repre'^' 
 sented : — 1 -f 2 + 2 + 1. 
 The pred., occasioned^ is limited by " a dangerous illness " 
 
 a complex objective element of the first 
 class, denoting what the labor occa- 
 sioned. *' Illness," the basis, is the 
 object of " occasioned," (Rule VIII.) 
 and is limited by " a " and " danger- 
 ous," both simple adjective elements of 
 the first class. (103.) 
 
 Exercise 38 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and separate each 
 complex element into its component parts, according to 
 the model : — 
 
 The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. 
 Many a despicable wretch lies under a marble monument, 
 decorated with a flattering epitaph, Italy is a large penin- 
 sula, bounded on the north by the Alps. The king re- 
 turned in the gleam of his arms. The chiefs gathered 
 round the falling Carthon. His words reached the heart 
 of Clessammor. After the denial of the charge, he with- 
 drew in dignified displeasure. The prayers of David, the 
 son of Jesse, are ended. Suddenly the sound of the sig- 
 nal-gun broke the stillness of the night. The same is 
 true of literary men. 
 
 Write sentences, limiting the subject of each by a 
 complex adjective element, which shall have for its 
 basis one of the following participles or adjectives 
 placed at the head of the sentence : — 
 
iI6 ANALVSiS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Gliding, tager, feeding, anxious, desirous, floating, con. 
 scious, encircled, enriched, regardless, flying, searchmgj 
 waiting, opening, commencing, wading, poring, finding, 
 mvare, awake, ambitious, indignant, robed, detained, 
 amazed, confused. 
 
 Model. Gliding along the edge of the horizon* a dis 
 tant sail sometimes attracted our attention. Eager to 
 attain to the highest rank, he labored incessantly. 
 
 fVrite comj^dex elements based on the following 
 nouns or infinitives used as objects, and introduce 
 them into sentences of your own : — 
 
 Laws, congress, constitution, county, work, discourse, 
 fable, dialogue, catalogue, inventory, league, truce, 
 country, labor ; to study ; to invite ; to leave ; to stay ; to 
 sing ; to have run. 
 
 Model. The Romans examined the laws of Solon. 
 
 Add simple or complex elements, either of the first 
 or second class, or both, to the following phrases 
 used as adverbial elements : — 
 
 In honor ; on returning ; by searching ; in the capital ; 
 through the air; on opening; to view, (inf. of purpose, 
 226;) to solich; to invite; over hills; under the wall; in 
 search ; into the town ; for stealing ; of his breaking ; of 
 her being sick ; of his being a scholar. 
 
 Model. One hundred guns were fired in honor of the 
 victory gained by the Americans over the British. 
 
 Write six sentences, introducing either a comylex 
 adjective, objective or adverbial element, containing 
 the following combinations of simple elements : — 
 
 * Place a coi/iina at the end of tlie phrase, especially if it i« 
 long. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES I 17 
 
 2+1 + 2. 2 + 2+1. 2 + 2+1+2. 1 + 2 
 + 1. 1+2 + 2. 2 + 2 + 1 + 2+1. (See model, 
 p. 114.) 
 
 Model. He was saved hy ropes , . . thrown . . from the 
 
 ship. 
 
 f 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 
 
 241. Compound elements of the second class, 
 like those of the first, are formed by uniting two 
 or more similar simple or complex elements of the 
 second class ; as, " To read and to write are profita- 
 ble." 
 
 Note. For connectives, see H 157, (a. b. c.) 
 
 («.) It should be borne in mind, that a simple element of the 
 second class has a connective (179) of its own, which unites it 
 subordinately to some preceding word. Besides this, the parts of 
 a compound element of the second class are united to each other 
 by one of the coordinate conjunctions. 
 
 (0.) The essential point of similarity is ilae rank which the 
 elements sustain to each other. They must be equal in rank 
 (See 150, a.) 
 
 242. The component parts of a compound ele- 
 ment should be of the same class, that is, both of 
 the first or both of the second. 
 
 NoTK. To this rule there may be a few exceptions ; as, " The 
 pupil performed his to-ak promptly and with care;'' — better, 
 ^promptly and ca'-efulbj" or '■'■with promptness and with care.' 
 
 243. Compound elements may be formed by 
 unithig. — 
 
118 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) Two or more principal ehments ; as, ^^ Fo"^ 
 me to labor, and for you to be idle, would be un- 
 just ; " " The lad was ivithout money and with- 
 out friends " = " Penniless and friendless; " - — 
 
 {b.) Two or more subordinate elements ; as, " The 
 islands of Cuba and [of] Hayti belong to the West 
 Irdies;" "The boy learned to read and write ;^^ 
 " You may pass through the house and garden,''^ * 
 
 ft 
 
 Note. See models for analyzing compound elements, Chap- 
 ter I. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 A stream of flame and smoke issued from the chimney % 
 The hearts of the brothers were not divided during the 
 peace and the troubles of this life. ' The obligation of 
 respect and love for parents never ceases. . Hampden 
 placed himself at the head of his countrymen, and across 
 ihe path of tyranny. To be or not to be, is the question. 
 Sarah loves to sing and dance. They were stationed there 
 to defend the fort, and to awe the citizens. 
 
 Write ten sentences, introducing into them a coin- 
 pound element of the second class. Let the first five 
 be connected by " and ; " the next three be connected 
 'by ^' but ; " a7id the remainder, by ^^ ox ^' or *' nor." 
 
 Write sentences uniting the ivords between the semi' 
 colons into a compound adjective or adverbial element 
 of the second class. 
 
 Robber, murderer ; truth, humanity ; zeal, energy; Eng- 
 land, America ; Europe, Asia ; hope, fear ; day, night. 
 Model. The name of the 7'obher and murderer hasi 
 been ascertained. 
 
 * The jjreposition is generally omitted by ellipsis in the second 
 phrase. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCjES. 119 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAME. 
 
 244. There may be in the second, as in the 
 first clasSj several elements of the same name, not 
 connected with each other. (S^ 165.) 
 
 (a.) Such elements are always subordinate, and are generally 
 either adjective or adverbial. 
 
 245. By means of the several conditions of the 
 elements already explained, a simple sentence may 
 be extended at pleasure. 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 A.n orator may often, by this kind of style, gain great 
 admiration, without being nearer to his proper end. The 
 unfortunate man passed from one subject to another, 
 without being aware of the abruptness of his transitions. 
 The coach will leave the city in the morning before sun- 
 rise. Recounting the dark catalogue ,of abuses already 
 suffered, and appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
 for the rectitude of their intentions, they shook off forever 
 their allegiance to the British crown, and pronounced the 
 United Colonies an independent nation. The boat v/ili 
 sail from Norwich to New York on Thursday. 
 
 246. It will be readily perceived that the ma- 
 terials employed in this chapter resemble, in their 
 use, those of Chapter I. There are, — 
 
 1. The substantive phrase^- (the \ • '^^ J » . ^^ Fj-edicate- 
 
 2. Attribut 
 
 C 1. Fredic 
 ( 2. Modi! 
 
 mf.) used as ? o" r^v.- . ' ' 2- Modifier; 
 
 ^ 3 Object. ' 
 
 II. 7'he adjective phrase, used as . . Attribute,^ " 
 
 (. 2. Modifier ; 
 
 HI. The adverbial vhrase, used as . . . .... Modifier. 
 
120 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 247. These materials, arranged in a formula, 
 stand thus : — 
 
 Adj. Element, -f- SUB. : PRED. -\- Oej. Ele. -j- Adt Ele. 
 Infinitive, ) j^^^^ C Infinitive, > j^g^ ^^^^ pj^^^^ 
 Adj. Phrase. ) C Adj. Phrase, ) 
 
 Exercise 41.- — Miscellaneous. 
 
 VKing James wrote a treatise on the heinous sin of using 
 tobacco. The ancienjts, for want of telescoj)^s, formed 
 many absurd notions of the heavenly bodies. The sun, 
 according to ' some ancient philosophers, quenches his 
 flames in the ocean. Alfred the Great was not only the 
 king, but the father, of his people. I speak not of tempo- 
 ral, but of eternal interests. No one ought, unnecessarily, 
 to wound the feelings, or insult the religious preposses- 
 sions, of his neighbors. We have taken up arms, not to 
 betray, but to defend, our country. Study serves for de 
 light, for ornament, and for ability. To attempt to work 
 upon the vulgar with fine sense, is like attempting to hew 
 blocks of marble with a razor. One of the noblest of the 
 Christian virtues is, to love our enemies. Sincerity and 
 truth form the basis of every virtue. The man of genuine 
 virtue must be endowed with a sagacious judgment and ap 
 ardent zeal. 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing comylex or 
 compound elements. 
 
 Complete the following sentences : — 
 
 He was formed (For what.?). The writings (Of 
 
 whom?) were studied (By whom.?) (When.?) (Where .?, 
 
 (Why.?). (What kind.?) poet (Of what place.?) de- 
 
 Bcribes (What?) (How?). 
 
 Write sentences containing the foUomng words 
 Let all the words between the semicolons be introduced 
 into a single sentence. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 121 
 
 Honey, bee, Qower ; farmer, grain, ploughs ; ship, sailor, 
 fcag, mast ; lapidary, ring, diamond, gold ; skeleton, mus- 
 cles, nerves ; inertia, force, momentum ; equation, terms, 
 quantity ; history, chronology, era, dates ; conscience, 
 judgment, intellect. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 248. An interrogative sentence is used to ask a 
 question ; as. " Whom did yon see ? " A sentence 
 used to state a fact, or the possibility of a fact, is 
 called a declarative sentence ; as, '' I saw George; '^ 
 ''You can see George." 
 
 249. An interrogative sentence relates either to 
 the whole or a part of a corresponding declarative 
 sentence, called the answer or responsive ; as, 
 "Whom did you see? Ans. John ; ^^ that is, "I 
 saw John.^^ — " Did you see John ? Ans. Yes == I 
 did see John." 
 
 (a.) The first question refers to only a part of the declarative 
 sentence, namely, the object of the verb; but the second refers 
 to thf whole, and may be answered by "yes" or "no," v>'hich 
 are equivalent to the entire sentence, — the former without the 
 negative "not," the latter with it 
 
 250. A question which refers to the Avhole of 
 the corresponding declarative sentence, is called 
 direct ; one which refers to only a single part of 
 
 t, is called indirect 
 
 11 
 
122 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 i ^DIRECT Ip^TERROGATlVE SENTENCES. 
 
 251. A direct interrogative sentence requires an 
 affirmation or denial, and is introduced by the Merh 
 or its auxiliary; as, ^^ Have you seen George? 
 Yes = I have seen George." 
 
 (a.) Direct questions require, at the close, the upward inflec- 
 tion of the voice in uttering them ; as, " Will you go' ? " 
 
 Model for Analysis. 
 
 Have you written 1 
 
 It is an interrogative sentence, because it asks a ques- 
 tion ; simple^ because it contains but one proposition ; 
 direct^ because it requires an affirmation or denial. 
 
 Vou is the subject. 
 
 Have written . . is the predicate. 
 
 Note. The elements of an interrogative sentence are in all 
 respects like those of a declarative. 
 
 Exercise 42. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences : — 
 
 Are you here ? Is your brother well ? Have you 
 returned ? Did Cain kill Abel ? Is your master at home ? 
 Will you ride to town to-day ? Should not merchants be. 
 punctual in paying their debts? Do you thinlc Ivim so 
 base ? Have you learned the lesson .? May the children 
 visit the country to-morrow ? Had the patient recoyered 
 on your arrival ? May we not sit under this tree ? Must 
 I leave town to-morrow ? Does the bright sun gi-ow dim 
 m the heavens ? Am I my brother's keeper ? Are you 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 
 
 going to see the elephant ? , Shall I send the letter to the 
 office ? Did you kill the Nemasan lion ? 
 
 Writz fifteen direct interrogative sentences, and bt 
 careful to place after each an interrogation point, (?)^ 
 
 Convert the questions in the first part of this exer 
 cise into declarative sentences. Place a period {.) ai 
 the end of each. 
 
 Model. You are here. Your brother is well. 
 
 l..^ INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 
 
 252. An indirect interrogative sentence requires, 
 as its answer, that part of the declarative sentence 
 lo which the question relates, and is always intro- 
 duced by some interrogative word ; as, " JVho 
 came? Charles =^ Charles came." 
 
 Note. Study the lesson in tlie Appendix on interrogatives. 
 
 253. An indirect question may refer to either 
 of the five elements of a declarative sentence. 
 
 (a.) Connectives are not referred to by interrogatives, 
 
 254. Since the essential materials (176) of a 
 sentence are of the nature of the substantivcj adjec- 
 five J or adverb, we have, to inquire for them, three 
 kinds of interrogative words, — 
 
 (a.) Interrogative pronouns, which inquire for a 
 substantive ; as, Who ? H^ich 1 What ? 
 
 {h.) Interrogative adjectives, which inquire for an 
 adjective; as, What or Which (person or thing?) 
 How many 1 What Jcind 1 
 
 {c.) Interrogative adverbs, which 'nquive for some 
 
/ 
 
 124 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 circumstance of ylace^ time, cause^ or manner; as 
 Where! When! Whyl Hoiv? 
 
 255. As the substantive may enter into a sen- 
 tence in three different relations, (subject, attributej 
 and object,) the uiterrogative pronoun is made, by 
 inflection, to indicate these relations. 
 
 [a.) When the pronoun is the subject or predicate of the inter- 
 rogative sentence, it inquires for the subject or predicate of the 
 answer; as, " fF7io comes? Charles = Charles comes." '■'■ ]Vho 
 is it? Charles = It is Charles." In like manner, when the pro- 
 noun is the adjective, objective, or advereial element of the ques 
 tion, it inquires for the same in the answer ; as, " Whose book 
 was torn? Peter S'= Peter's book wa? torn." " ^F7i07/i did you 
 see? David = I saw David." ^^JVith tohom did you study' 
 With Francis = 1 studied xcith Francis.'" 
 
 256. The adjective used as predicate is inquired 
 for by Howl as, " Hoiv is Charles ? Well — Charles 
 is welV^ The verbal attribute is inquired for by 
 What . ... do] or What .... doing 1 as, '' What 
 did James o?o? James wrote.''' '■^ Wliat is James 
 doing'} James is ivritingV^ The adjective used 
 as a modifier is inquu'ed for by What kind! if it 
 denotes quality ; How many 1 if it denotes number ; 
 M^iich or What joined to the noun which the adjec- 
 tive limits in the answer, if it limits merely; as. 
 " Which pen shall I use ? This, that, &,c., pen, 
 
 257. The adverbial element is used only as a 
 modifier, and is inquired for by Where! Whither! 
 Whence! for the three relations of place ; When! 
 How long ! How often ! for the three relations of 
 time; Why! for cause; and How! or Hoio mur.hl 
 ^or manner. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 
 
 258. The indirect object and the adverbial ele- 
 ment are often inquired for by What 1 or Whom 1 
 preceded by a preposition ; as, " To ivhom (whom) 
 did you write ? " " In what (wherein) does be 
 excel 
 
 .1 > )j 
 
 (a.) The following are the principal interrogatives biought 
 together : — 
 
 1 Those which inquire for a substantive : — Who ? Which f 
 What? 
 
 2. Those which inquire for an adjective : — How many? What 
 kind ? What .... do* or doing ? * lUw ^ 
 
 3. Those which inquire for an adverb : — Where? Whither? 
 Whence? When? Hoio long? How often? Whij? l^Tiere- 
 fore ? How ? How much ? also, In tchat ? Through lohat ? &c. 
 
 {h.) These interrogatives become connectives when the inter- 
 rogative sentence is made a subordinate part of another sentence 
 as, " I know not how he came." 
 
 Model for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Where does he live 1 Ans. In Boston. 
 
 h is an ijiterrogative sentence, because it asks a question , 
 simple, because it contains but one proposition ; indirecly 
 because it refers to a part of a corresponding declarative 
 sentence — " in Boston." 
 
 He is the subject. 
 
 Does live ... is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate is limited by " where," an adverbial ele- 
 ment of the first class, inquiring for place. 
 
 Where is an interrogative adverb, and belongs to 
 
 " does live ; " according to Rule IX, 
 
 * Relating to the attributive part of a verb, i. e , the participle, 
 w^hich is a species of adjective. (65, a ) 
 
 11* 
 
126 ANiLYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 
 Analyze the following interrogative sentences , a^d 
 parse the interrogative words : — 
 
 Who came in yesterday? Who reported the doings of 
 congress ? Whose hat is this ? Whose knife have 1 
 found ? W^hom did you visit ? Whom did the president 
 nominate ? Which book did you take"? What name 
 have his parents given him ? VVhat news have you 
 heard ? How .many soldiers were killed in the battle ? 
 What kind of people first inhabited England ? What is 
 Charles doing ? How is he? When shrill you visit the 
 Springs? When did he cancel the debt ? flow long did 
 he stay ? ■ How often does George visit his mother ?. 
 Where is the promised fruit of all his toil ? Wlience 
 comes this tumult ? Whither are you going ? Why do 
 you weave around you this thread of occupation ? How 
 did you come ? In what way do you intend to ^o ? To 
 whom shall I deliver the message? At 'what time shall 
 we send the letter ? '* ^ 
 
 Write answers to the above sentences, and draw 
 a line under that part to which the question refers. 
 Be careful to change the {}) to a (,) 
 
 Model. David came in yesterday. 
 
 Write sentences introduced by the following inter- 
 rogatives : — 
 
 Why? On what account ? Where? When? Whose? 
 Of whom ^ On what ? Whither ? Whence ? In what 
 place '* How many ? Whom ? Which ? In consideration 
 of what? On what condition? How? Wherein? By 
 what? Over whom ? On what? Under what? Through 
 what ? On whose account ? 
 Write an answer tj each. 
 
ANAl.ySlS OF SKNTENCES. 127 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 (COMPLKX SENTENCES.) "" 
 
 l-aJiMElSTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. -SUBOR- 
 . DINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 NATURE OF ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 
 
 259. Instead of a word or phrase, an entire pro^y 
 06-ition is often used as one of the five elements of 
 a sentence ; as, '' M%en spring comes, the flowers 
 will bloom; '^^ 
 
 260. A proposition thus used is called suhordi" 
 lutte, because it depends upon another, which, in 
 reference to it, is called j/rincipal. 
 
 261. An element of the third class is, therefore, 
 a subordinate proposition used as the constituent 
 part of a sentence. (10, 178.) 
 
 (a.) It will be seen, first, that loords duxd phrases may be 
 anited so as to form a simple sentence ; and, secondly, that this 
 sejitence may lose its distinctness, and become an organic part 
 of another sentence. 
 
 262. The propositions which unite to form a 
 sentence are called clauses. 
 
 263. A complex sentence is formed by uniting a 
 nrincipal and a subordinate clause. 
 
128 ANALSfSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) A complex sentence is formed by uniting two dissimilar 
 eimple sentences, just as a complex element is Ibrmed by uniting 
 two dissimilar (146) simple elements. 
 
 I. — COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SUBORDINATE 
 
 CLAUSE. 
 
 264. The parts which are essential to a subord)- 
 i\Die clause are, a connective, a subject^ and a predicate. 
 
 265. The connective is called subordinate, be- 
 cause it renders the proposition which follows it 
 subordinate to some part of the principal proposi- 
 tion with which it is connected. 
 
 {a.) The connective is as much a part of the subordinate prop- 
 osition as the preposition is a part of a phrase. In fact, the same 
 word is often used in one construction to connect a phrase, and 
 in another to connect a clause ; as, " The ship sailed before sun- 
 rise " = "The ship sailed before the sun'rosc.^^ 
 
 266. These connectives are parsed by the fol- 
 lowing rule : — 
 
 Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are 
 used to join dissimilar elements. 
 
 267. The subject or predicate of a subordi> 
 
 nate proposition may be limited by an element of 
 
 i\iQ first, second, or third class. 
 
 (ft.) W^hen the subject or predicate of a subord.nate clause is 
 limited by another clause, the latter is subordinate in the second 
 degree. (See 145, b:) 
 
 11.^ THE CLAUSE CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 
 
 268. The subordinate clause, like a single word 
 or phrase, may form either of the five elements of 
 
 sentence. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 12\i 
 
 269. Subordinate clauses are divided, according 
 to their nature and use, into substantive, adjective 
 and adverbial. (176, 188.) 
 
 270. A substantiv3 clause is a substantive or an 
 infinitive expanded into a proposition ; as, '■'■ Steal- 
 ing is base " zn '' Tg steal is base " = " That one 
 should steal is base." 
 
 271. An adjective clciuse is an adjective, jjartici- 
 ■ple, or adjective phrase, expanded into a proposition ; 
 as, " A generous man :r= a man of generosity =^ a 
 man who is generous, will be honored." 
 
 272. An adverbial clause is an adverb, or advert 
 bial phrase, expanded into a proposition ; as, " The 
 ship sailed early ■=■ before sunrise z= before the sun 
 
 rose.^^ 
 
 m.— USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. 
 
 273. The substantive clause, like the substan- 
 tive, (176,) may become the subject, attribute, or 
 object, of a sentence. 
 
 274. Substantive clauses are of two kinds, — • 
 those which contain a statement, and those which 
 contain an inquiry. 
 
 275. Those which contain a statement, are in- 
 troduced by that, that not, and sometimes but, 9r 
 6ut that; as, '' That you have wronged me, doth 
 appear in this." 
 
 276. Clauses which contain an inquiry are in- 
 Iroduced by the several interrogatives. (258, a.) 
 
 277. In the use of interrogative clauses m n 
 complex sentence, there are two cases : — 
 
 [a.) The interrogative may be the principa 
 
130 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 clause. The sentence is then a complex interroga- 
 tive sentence ; as, " Do yeu Jd'ow that your sister 
 !ias returned ? " 
 
 ^^. ) The interrogative may be the subordinate 
 clause. The sentence is then a complex declara- 
 tive sentence ; as, " Your father inquired, when 1 
 had heard from Madras.^'' 
 
 — 278. When the principal clause is interrogative, 
 the interrogation point should always be placed 
 at the end of the sentence ; but when the subor- 
 dinate clause is interrogative, the period should be 
 placed at the end of the sentence, except when the 
 subordinate clause is a direct quotation. (See 299.) 
 
 (a.) When an interrogative sentence is made subordinate, and 
 becomes an organic part of another sentence, it loses, in a meas 
 lire, its interrogative character; unless quoted (299) directly. 
 There is oflen a change of person, and generally a change of ar- 
 rangement; as, "How did you obtain the situation?" "He 
 asked me how /obtained the situation." 
 
 ( b.) The interrogative becomes the connective to the subordi- 
 nate clause. He'nce, when interrogative pronouns are used as 
 connectives, they should be carefully distinguished from relative 
 pronouns, which are used as the connectives of adjective clauses. 
 Compare " 1 know not who did it," with "I know not the mau 
 who did it." ',> 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS PRINCIPAL 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 279. When a subordinate clause is used as the 
 subject or predicate of a complex sentence, it be 
 comes 2i inincipal cletnent oj the third class. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 131 
 
 280. The substantive clause only can be used 
 as a principal element. 
 
 I.— THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT. 
 
 281. The substantive clause, like the substan- 
 tive or substantive phrase, may become the subject 
 of a sentence ; as, " That the earth revolves on its 
 axis, has been clearly proved." 
 
 282. By the idiom mentioned in H 196, the sub- 
 stantive clause, as subject, is first represented by it 
 standing at the head of the sentence, and is itself 
 placed after the predicate ; as, " It has been clearly 
 proved that the earth involves on its axis.^^ 
 
 Models for Analysis and Parsing. 
 
 Who was the author of Junius^s Letters, has never 
 been satisfactorily determined. 
 
 It is a complex sentence, because it contains a principal 
 
 and a subordinate clause. 
 
 Who rMS the author of Junius'' s Letters^ is the subject of 
 
 the principal clause. 
 
 Has ieen determined is the predicate. 
 
 The Dr<wlMmte is limited by " satisfactorily." an ad- 
 verbial element of the first class, de- 
 noting manner, 
 
 WJio vjas the author, &c., is a principal element of th^ third 
 
 class. It is used as a noun third 
 person, singular number, neuter gen- 
 der, nommative case, and is the sub- 
 ject of the sentence; acccrding to 
 Rule I. 
 
132 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
 
 IVho . is the subject of the subordinate 
 
 clause, and 
 
 Was author is the predicate. 
 
 Author is limited first by " the," and second- 
 ly by " of Juniu^'s Letters." 
 
 Who is an interrogative pronoun, used in a 
 
 subordinate clause. It has no ante- 
 cedent. It is of the third person, 
 singular number, masculine gender, 
 nominative case, and is the subject of 
 " was ; " according to rule IV. It 
 connects the two dissimilar clauses, 
 according to Rule XVI. 
 
 Note. " Wlto was author" may be considered as the gram- 
 matical subject of the complex sentence, and " Who was the au 
 thor of Junius' s Letters^' the logical subject. The connection of 
 who will be best seen by using the idiom in IT 282. 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences according 
 to the model : — 
 
 . That the earth is a sphere, is easily proved. That honor 
 and fame are the offspring of labor, is the eternal law of 
 nature. That sorrow robed the happy home in mourning, 
 was enough. That no man is justified by the law in the 
 sight of God, is evident. Whether the truth will be made 
 to appear, is uncertain. 1 That a peculiar insensibility exists 
 to the obligations of the parental and filial relation, is too 
 evident to need any extended illustration. , That children 
 may grow up as they please, seems to be the prevalent 
 opinion. Where the robber concealed his stolen treasures, 
 has never been ascertained. When letters were first used, 
 is not certain. Why he resigned his office, will soon be 
 made known. How he made b's escape, is a mystery. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 133 
 
 From what place he came, cannot be ascertained. In what 
 manner he did it, is wholly unknown. Who gave the in- 
 formation, has been ascertained. Will he do it? is the 
 question. 
 
 Write the above sentences, and introduce each by 
 '' it." 
 
 Model. It is the eternal law of nature, that honor anJ 
 fame are the offspring of labor. 
 
 Write substantive clauses to complete the following ; 
 and then change them so as to place the subject before 
 the predicate, dispensing ivith '' it : " — 
 
 It is evident. It is uncertain. It appears. It has been 
 ascertained. It is mysterious. It is well known. It will 
 be shown. It is true. It is probable. It was denied by 
 none. 
 
 Model. It. is evident that the bill will be defeated ■=. 
 That the bill will be defeated, is evident. 
 
 Lxpand the following substantives and infini- 
 tives, with the ivords joined to them in Italics, into 
 substantive clauses used as subjects: — 
 
 To swear is impious. To err is human. Tlie utility 
 of the telegraph is acknowledged. The name of the swim- 
 mer is not known. Your abuse of ?ny brother is repre- 
 hensible. The place of his concealment has not been de- 
 termined. TJie time of the boat'^s op^rival was well known. 
 For him to eat unripe fruit was presumption. The cause 
 of his delay is unknown. The immortality of the soul i? 
 UQDversally believed. The paleness of the ink is apparent 
 The authenticity of the Scriptures has been clearly proved. 
 
 Model. 17iat one should sioear, is impious. That thf: 
 telegraph is usefid, is acknowledged. 
 12 
 
134 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Reduct any twelve of the preceding substantive 
 clauses to nouns or hifinitives. 
 
 Model. The sphericity of the earth is easily proved. 
 
 II.— THE PREDICATE, 
 
 283. The substantive clause may become the 
 predicate-nominative after to he ; as, '"• His pretext 
 was, that he misunderstood the design of the leader. ^^ 
 
 Note. This construction will not need a separate model 
 since it is like the model on the 29th page, with the exception 
 that the predicate-nominative is expanded into a clause. See 
 also the preceding model. 
 
 Exercise 45. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse 
 the predicates : — 
 
 My desire is, that you may succeed. <The question is, 
 How shall the treasury be replenished \ His pretence was, 
 4hat the storm of the preceding evening prevented his 
 attendance. Our hope is, that no such results will follow. 
 Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed the mountain. 
 His remark was, that such service is exceedingly humil- 
 iating. The promise made him was, that he should visit 
 his friends the coining autumn. My determination is, that 
 you shall attend school in the country. 
 
 Write complex sentences to the following subjects, 
 and let the predicates be substantive clauses. 
 
 Question, answer, recommendation, proposal, design, 
 words, orders, resolution. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 135 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 284. Whenever a clause is used to limit a no an 
 or pronoun in either of the ways mentioned in 
 ^ 96, (a. b. c. d.) it is an adjective element of the third 
 class; as, "A man who is industrious, will gain 
 respect.-" 
 
 (rt.) The adjective element of the tliird class asserts (in a sub; 
 ordinate way) what, in either of the other classes, is assumed. 
 Compare " a man who is industrious^'' with " a man of indus- 
 try," or "an industrious man." 
 
 285. A noun may be limited either by an adjec- 
 live clause or a substantive clause used as an ad- 
 jective. 
 
 L — ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 286. Adjective clauses are introduced by relative 
 pronouns, which serve to connect them with a 
 limited noun or pronoun which is called the antece- 
 dent ; as, *' The evil that men do lives after them." 
 
 (a.) The relative pronoun, refers to some limiting adjective in 
 the principal clause, either expressed or understood, called its cor- 
 relative; as, " That book which you hav;^ was printed in 1760." 
 
 287. The relative pronouns are, — 
 Who, relating to a person ; — 
 Which, relating to a thing ; — 
 
 That, relating to either a person or tiling ; — and 
 
k.S6 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 PVhat. whatever, whatsoever, whoever, whosoever, 
 whichever, and whichsoever, called compound 
 pronouns, because they represent both the an- 
 tecedent and relative. 
 
 ( a.) Who is sometimes used as a compound pronoun ; as- 
 ' Who steals my purse, steals trasl " 
 
 (b.) The relatives, with their correlatives, may be thus repre- 
 pented : — 
 
 CORREL. ReL. 
 
 The, \ r mw. 
 
 This, that, \ Person (s) or thing (s) / Wiich. 
 These, those, \ ' I That. 
 
 288. The agreement of the relative is deter- 
 mined bv the folio wino: rule : — 
 
 Rule XVII. The relative must agree with 
 its antecedent in person, number, and gender, 
 but not in case. # 
 
 ( a.) When the antecedent is compound, the relative agrees with 
 it by Rule XII. (161 ;) when it is a collective noun, the rule which 
 applies to the verb (60, h.) is equally applicable to the pronoun. 
 
 289. The case of the relative depends upon the 
 construction of the adiective clause. 
 
 (a.) The relative may be the subject (56) of the adjective 
 clause ; as, " The tempest ic/«'c/i was raging with unwonted fury, 
 drove them to the nearest shelter." In this relation of the pro- 
 noun, the adjective clause may be equivalent, 1st, to an adjective 
 or participle denoting some property of the antecedent, (96, b.) : 
 as, " A man icho perseveres will be honored " = " A persevering 
 man will be honored ; " — 2d, to a noun or .pronoun in apposition, 
 (■96, c.) ; as, "■ Paul, 2vho teas an apostle, visited Rome " = " Paul, 
 an apostle, visited Rome ; " 3d, to a noun in the possessive case, 
 (96, d.) ; as, " Solovions temple was destroyed " = " The tempio 
 which was built hy Solomon was destroyed." 
 
 (b.) The relative may become the adjective element of its 
 clause ; as, " The gentleman whose aid teas solicited has If ft 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. l3'' 
 
 town. ' In T i relation of the pronoun, the antecedent or lim- 
 ited word is epresented as a possessor; the relative is parsed 
 by Rule VID ., page 55. 
 
 (c.) The relative may become the objective element (117) of it. 
 clause ; as, " The book which I purchased is damaged." In this re 
 lation of the relative, the adjective clause is equivalent to the pas 
 sive participle ; as, " The book purchased by me was damaged." 
 
 (d.) The relative with a preposition may become the adverbial 
 dement (217) of the adjective clause ; as, " The house in which 
 he lived has passed into other hands." In this relation of the 
 relative pronoun, the adjective clause is equivalent to an adjective 
 denoting place, time, cause, or manner. The preposition is not 
 unfrequently placed at the end of the clause ; as, " The house 
 which he lived m has passed," &c. 
 
 Note. It not unfrequently happens, that the adjective clause, 
 in this last case, assumes the form of an adverbial clause, an 
 equivalent relative adverb taking the place of the relative pro- 
 noun and preposition ; as, " The time in which Priam lived is 
 uncertain " =i " The time tchen Priam lived," &c. When the 
 antecedent is suppressed, such clauses are strictly adverbial. 
 
 290. Compound relatives represent both the 
 antecedent and relative; as, "What cannot be 
 cured must be endured " = '' That which cannot be 
 cured must be endured." 
 
 (o.) In such examples as the last, the antecedent and adjective 
 clause which limits it, are equivalent to a substantive ; as, " Jin 
 incurable evil must be endured." The compound relative, as 
 antecedent, is the subject of " must be endured ; " as relative, ia 
 the subject of "can be cured." Sometimes it is the subject oi 
 one verb, and the object of the other. 
 
 291. By an ellipsis of the relative pronoun, as 
 takes its place after such, many, and same ; as, 
 " Such as I have give I unto you " == " Such as 
 that is which I have give," &c. 
 
 292. Relative pronouns often relate, not to a 
 word, but to a preceding phrase or clause; as 
 
 12* 
 
138 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 " The boy closed the blinds, which darkened the 
 room.^^ 
 
 293. Clauses introduced by relative pronouns 
 are sometimes nearly equivalent to iiidependent 
 clauses connected by " and." The relative, in such 
 cases, is equivalent to -'and he," "and she," or 
 'and it; " as, "He gave me a book, which he re- 
 quested me to read " :=r '« He gave me a book^ and 
 requested me to read z^." 
 
 11.— SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 294. A substantive clause is often used to ex- 
 plain the meaning of a noun ; a^, " The question 
 hoiv we shall obtain funds, has never been raised ; " 
 " The liope that he should soon be released, sustained 
 him." ^ 
 
 (a.) The substantive clause, thus used, resembles the noun in 
 apposition, and may be considered as bearing the same relation to 
 the construction in U 283 as the noun in apposition does to the 
 predicate-nominative, If 60, (a.) 
 
 Models for Analysis. 
 
 A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks 
 for it in vain elsewhere. 
 
 It is a pothplex sentence, because it contains two 
 dissimilar clauses. 
 
 Man is the subject of the principal 
 
 clause. 
 
 Seeks IS the predicate. 
 
 The subject is limited by " a," also by the clause 
 
ffl 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 139 
 
 " wlio finds not satisfaction in him* 
 seif," an adjective element of the 
 third class, describing " man," ( 103.) 
 
 The complex subject . . is " A man who finds not satisfac- 
 tion in himself." 
 
 The predicate is limited by " for it," '' in vain," 
 
 and "■ elsewhere." (Give the name 
 and class of each.) 
 
 The complex predicate is " seeks for it in vain elsewhere." 
 
 Who is the subject of the adjective clause. 
 
 Finds is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate is limited, first, by " not ; " sec- 
 ondly, by " satisfaction ; " and 
 thirdly, by " in himself" (Give 
 the name and class of each.) 
 
 Who is a relative pronoun, of the third 
 
 person, singular number, masculine 
 gender, according to Rule XVII. ; is 
 the subject of the proposition " who 
 finds," &c., according to Rule I., 
 and connects this proposition with 
 " man," the subject of the principal 
 clause, according to Rule XVI. 
 
 Exercise 46. 
 
 Analyze the following examples^ and parse the rel- 
 ative pronouns : — 
 
 The rewards which are promised, shall be given. Can- 
 not the man who is faithfully attached to religion be relied 
 on with confidence } He whom I loved is dead. Will 
 not those vvho raise envy incur censure ^ The globe on 
 vir'hieh wo live, i? but a planet. Xerxes, upon whom For* 
 
140 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 tune had lavished all her favors, proposed a reward to the 
 mventor of a new pleasure. Whatever violates nature 
 cannot be innocent. Whoever forgets a benefit, is an 
 enerpy to society. Will not he whose desires are bound 
 less, always be restless ? The assumption that our cause 
 is declining, is utterly gi'atuitous. The opinion that chil- 
 dren may grow up as they please, seems to prevail. The 
 reason why he left his mother in such peril, has never 
 been satisfactorily given. 
 
 fVrite tiventy sentences , limiting the subject of each 
 hj an adjective clause. In Jive, let the relative be the 
 subject of its clause ; in five^ let it be the adjective 
 element ; in fve, the objective element ; and in five, 
 let it be an adverbial element. Let ten of the sen- 
 tences be interrogative. 
 
 Reduce the adjective clauses hi the first part of this 
 exercise to simple or complex elemeiits of the first or 
 lecond. class. 
 
 Model. The promised rewards shall be given. 
 
 Convert the folloiving simple sentences into complex 
 sentences, by expanding the Italicized adjective ele- 
 ments into clauses : — - 
 
 The pride of loealth is contemptible. The iDell-hred man 
 desires only to please. Reproof given in piihlic hardens 
 the heart. Milton the poet wixs blind. \ The sun, vicege- 
 rent of his power, shall rend the veil of parting night. A 
 cottage shaded with trees is a pleasant object. The but- 
 terfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. Csesar, the 
 enslaver of his country, was stabbed in the senate-house. 
 The house of my father stands near the road. My brother^ s 
 dog was killed. 
 
 Model. The pride which wealth begets is contemptible. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. ' 141 
 
 Change them to interrogative sentences. 
 
 Model. Is not the pride which wealth begets con- 
 temptible ? 
 
 Write complex sentences to' the following compound 
 iuhjects, limiting each by an adjective clause ' — 
 
 The boy or the girl. The sun and moon. James or 
 John. The fox and the geese. Not the servant, but the 
 master. Susan, and not the sister. Neither the man nor 
 the woman. Those books or slates. This boy or his 
 parents. Some insect or reptile. Those trees or shrubs. . 
 
 Model. The boy or the girl who painted this picture 
 , deserves much praise. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE OBJECTIVE 
 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 295. When a clause is used to complete the 
 meaning of a^transitive verb, it is an objective element 
 of the third class ; as, " I perceive that you have or 
 dered a supply.''^ 
 
 L^ SINGLE OBJECT 
 
 296. Substantive clauses in the objective, gen- 
 erally follow verbs denoting, — 1st. Some act or state 
 of the mind (as perception, emotion, or will;) — 
 2d. A declaration, order, or statement ; as, '' I vnsh 
 that you would assist me ; " " The farmer declared 
 
142 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 thai his watch had gained half an h®ur in thei 
 night." 
 
 (a.) The following are some of the verbs of the first class : — 
 see^ hear, feel,, knoio, f/im/ij^^erceizje^ wish, anticipate, pray, entreaty 
 desire, imagine, suppose, expect, hope, fear, suspect, understand^ 
 &c. The following are of the second: — saij, declare, tell, an- 
 nounce, relate, assert, ajfirvi, proclaim, report, state, notify, shoio^ 
 reT*ly, cnsiver, respond, foretell, deny, order, command, direct. 
 
 297. Substantive clauses may follow adjectives , 
 and even nouns, derived from these verbs ; as, ''1 
 am desirous that you should visit the country ; " 
 " A tvish that you might participate in our joy, has 
 led me to make you this offer." 
 
 Note. For the classes of substantive clauses, and their con 
 nectives, see IT 274, 276. 
 
 298, To objective clauses properly belong the 
 forms of language called 
 
 Direct and Indirect (|iiotation. 
 
 299. When we quote the language of another, 
 .ve may either represent him as uttering his own 
 words, or we may narrate them for him ; as, '' He 
 said, ' I will do it ' " = " He said that he would do it^ 
 The former is called direct, and the latter indirect^ 
 quotation. 
 
 (a.) In direct quotation, the quotation marks ( " ") should bo 
 ased. In indirect quotation, the connective that should intro- 
 duce the quotation, (unless it be a question.) The person of the 
 subject, the mode and tense of the verb, and the arrangement of 
 the parts, should be changed, if necessary. (See example above.) 
 
 (&.) Instead of a single clause, sometimes whole pages are 
 quoted as the object of a transitive verb. 
 
 ( c.) Direct quotation approaches much nearer to a coordinate 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 143 
 
 rank with the principal clause, than indirect. The subordinate 
 connective that is never used ) and when the quoted language 
 is a question, the interrogation point should always be employed. 
 ( <Z ) Both direct and indirect quotation, instead of being the 
 object of a verb, may often be put in apposition with some noun ; 
 as, " The question hoio we shall do it, has never been asiied ' = 
 " The question, ' How shall we do it ? ' " has never been asked. 
 
 300. The principal clause is often thrown in be- 
 tween the parts of a direct quotation ; as, " * For all 
 that,' said the pendulum, 'it is very dark here.' " 
 
 301. The quotation often becomes the principal 
 clause, and the principal is made a subordinate- 
 adverbial clause, introduced by as to denote the 
 authority on which the quoted assertion is made ; 
 as, " He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the 
 steamer." 
 
 Note. Such subordinate clauses' are nearly allied to modal ad 
 verbs. In such constructions, the quotation marks are not to be 
 used. 
 
 302. Direct quotation can be changed to indirect, 
 by removing the quotation marks, inserting a con- 
 nective, and making the requisite changes of jjerson, 
 mode, tense, SLiid arrangement, {'^ 299. a.) 
 
 IL — DOUBLE OBJECT. 
 
 303. Besides an objective clause, certain verbs 
 take an indirect object, either with or without a 
 preposition ; as, " We told him that he was in dan- 
 e;er ; " " He intimated to me that my services ivould 
 soon be needed. ^^ 
 
 (a) It will be seen that a single objective clause is equiva. 
 tent to two objects like those mentioned in 1II20 and 210. Iht* 
 
144 ANALYSTS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Tormer Ibecomes its subject, and the latter its predicate ; a3» *» I 
 believed him an honest man " = " 1 believed that he loas an honest, 
 man." " I wish you to go " = " I wish that you would go." 
 
 (b.) Sometimes the substantive clause itself is an indirect 
 object ; — 1st. Without a preposition ; as, " I was informed thai 
 he had arrived = of his arrival ; " — 2d, With a preposition ; as, 
 *' I was speaking of how ice should cancel the dernand; " " Much 
 will depend 071 loho the commissioners are." 
 
 304. When the principal verb assumes the pas- 
 sive form, the objective clause becomes the subject, 
 but commonly remains after the predicate, being 
 represented by it placed at the beginning of the 
 sentence, (282 ;) as, "He said that the measure 
 could never be adopted" = '^ It was said (by him) 
 that the measure could never be adopted." 
 
 Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 
 
 Do you Icnoiv that you have wronged mm 1 
 
 It is a complex sentence, because it is composed of dis- 
 similar clauses; interrogative^ because it aslcs a ques- 
 tion ; direct.^ because it requires an affirmation or denial. 
 
 You is the subject of the pnncipal clause. 
 
 Do know .... is the predicate. 
 
 The predicate . is limited by " that you have wronged 
 him," an objective element of the third 
 class, denoting lohat is known. It is used 
 as a noun, third person, singular number 
 neuter gender, and is the object of " dc 
 know," according to Rule VIIL " Do 
 know that yoa have wronged him," istho 
 complex predicate. 
 
 You ....... is the subject of the subordinate clatise. 
 
 }{ave wronged is the predicate. 
 
ANA^SIS OF SENTENCES. 145 
 
 rhe predicate is jimited by " him," a simple objective 
 element, &c. 
 
 Tltat is a subordinate conjunction, and connects 
 
 the substantive clause, "you have wror:ged 
 him," to the predicate of the princ'jia.1 
 clause, " know," according to Rule XVI. 
 
 Exercise 47. 
 
 Analyze the following propositions according to 
 tht model : — 
 
 I believed that all these objects existed within me. 1 
 know not whether he will gq. / Will you tell me whom you 
 saw on the Mall ?" We knew whose place v/as vacated. 
 i knew not where i was. Will you tell me why you are 
 - sad ? / The teacher showed me wherein I had erred. JMy 
 uncle explained how the seasons are produced. Will you 
 snow me why we invert the divisor ? " I admire," said 
 Aristodemus, "' Homer for his epic poetry." " I always 
 thought," said he, " that philosophy ^ seiwed to make men 
 happier." They said, " Thou hast saved our- lives." 
 '^ King of MoiTen," Carthon said, " I fall in the midst of 
 my course." They say that they have bought it. The 
 truly great consider, first, how they may gain the approba- 
 tion of God. He inquired, " Who comes there ? " • 
 
 Write ten sentences, and let each contain an ob- 
 jective clause illustrating direct quotation. Change 
 each to the form of indirect quotation, and change 
 Jive of them into interrogative sentences. 
 
 Model. '4 have endeavored," said Socrates, " thrcigh- 
 out life, to do nothing unjust " =i Socrates said thut 
 he had endeavored, throughout life, to do nothing 
 unjust. Did no Socrates say that he had endeav- 
 ored, &c. .' ^ "; 
 
 13 
 
146 ANALYSIS OF SENTEm^ES. 
 
 Convert the foUowing objects, with their attrihutei 
 Into objective clauses : —- 
 
 1 thought him honest. 1 wish you to inform me of ike 
 fojct. We desired her to stay. The general commanded 
 the army to march. The ancients believed the earth to be 
 a vast plain. Some suppose the planets to be inhabited. 
 The lunatic often imagines himself a king. 
 
 Model. I thought that he was honest. 
 
 Expajid the following nouns, with the words belong- 
 ing to them in Italics, into objective clauses : — 
 
 i forgot the time of the lecture. Socrates taught the im- 
 •nwrtality oj the soul. Do you believe the truth of these 
 reports ? Explain the cause of the tides. Show me tht 
 mode of its operation. We anticipate a pleasant day- 
 The officer found the place of his concealment. Did you 
 hear of his illness ? Who told you of our success ? 1 
 wish to go. He expects to be appointed. Will you tell us 
 the object of this rneeting 7 The heathen believe iri a plu- 
 rality oj' gods. 
 
 Write complex sentences, employing the following 
 words, and let the two words between the semicolons 
 he the subjects, the first of the principal clause, 
 and the second of the subordinate clause : — 
 
 Fox, grapes ; boy, ink ; Solomon, wisdom ; poet, man , 
 teacher, pupils ; Washington, riation ; Columbus, conti- 
 nent; brother, hand; father, son; George, geography; 
 general, army. 
 
 Model. The fox said that the grapes were sour. 
 
 Select ten sentences from your Hi'^^cm, o^ any othe^ 
 book, containing objective ;?nv9^» 
 
ANALYsis OF SENTENCES. 147 
 
 Change the verbs of any Jive of the above exarripki 
 to (he passive form. (304.) 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADVERBIA 
 
 ELEMENT. 
 
 805. A clause added to the predicate to denote 
 some circumstance connected with it is an adverbial 
 clement of the third class ; as, "I was agreeably de- 
 ceived, as I approached the place.^' 
 
 306. An adverbial clause is introduced by some 
 conjunction, or conjunctive adverb, which relates to 
 some adverb, expressed or understood, in the prin- 
 cipal clause, called its correlative ; as, '* We must go 
 (thither) whither the master leads." 
 
 (rt.) The connective and its correlative are equivalent to two 
 phrases ; as, " I will go cohere he lives " = " I will go to the place^ 
 (there) in which (where) he lives." 
 
 307. Adverbial clauses, like tlieir corresponding 
 adverbs, or phrases, may denote place, tiine, causcj or 
 manner. 
 
 Model for Analysis. 
 
 When the wicked are multipliedy transgression in 
 
 creaseth. 
 It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) 
 
 Transgression is the subject of the principal clause 
 
 Increaseih is the predicate 
 
148 ANALYSIS JF SENTENCES. 
 
 The predicate . is limited by " when tlie wicked are multi 
 plied," an adverbial element of the third 
 class, denoting ^im6. (See Rule IX.) The 
 complex predicate is, " increaseth when 
 the wicked are multiplied." 
 
 Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. 
 
 Are multiplied is the predicate. 
 
 Wlien is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive 
 
 adverb of time,) and joins the adverbial 
 clause which it introduces to the predicate 
 of the principal clause, according to Hule 
 XVI. It limits " are multiplied " and 
 " increaseth," according to Rule IX. 
 
 L-^ CLAUSES DENOTING PLACE. 
 
 308. The three relations of place (128, 218 j 
 are indicated by whither, whejice, and where: as, 
 " Where your treasure is, there will your heart be 
 also.^' 
 
 309. Some adverbs of place admit of campari- 
 son ; as, " The prisoner reached as/ar as his chain 
 would allow," or, " no farther than his chain," &c. 
 
 (a.) The principal conjunctive adverbs of place are, wherc^ 
 whither^ whence^ wherever^ jchitkersoever ; and the phrases, as far 
 aSf as long as, farther than. 
 
 Exercise 48. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving sentences : — 
 
 f The soldiers stopped where night overtook them. Where 
 your treasure is, there will your heart be also. ' Whereso- 
 ever th^ carcass is, thpre will the eagles be gathered lO' 
 gether. ; I will go whither you direct. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 149 
 
 Where'er we tread, 'tis haunted, holy ground. Where 
 true religion has prevented one crime, false religions have 
 afforded a pretext lor a thousand. Where all is merce- 
 nary, nothing can be magnanimous. Thou knewest that 1 
 reap where I sowed not! Whither 1 go, ye cannot come 
 ! travelled where disappointment smiles at hope's career 
 Where there is no law, there is no transgression. 
 
 VVTiere the olive leaves were twinkling in every wind that blew, 
 There sat beneath the pleasant shade a damsel of Peru. 
 
 Let me alone, that I may take comfort a little before T go 
 whence I shall not return. 
 
 fVrite ten sentences, introducing an adverbial 
 clause denoting place, 
 
 Il.— CLAUSEIS DENOTING TIME. 
 
 310. Adverbial clauses denoting time are con- 
 nected with their princijmi clauses by conjunctiv 
 jidveros of time. 
 
 311. These adverbial clauses, like adverbs, or 
 adverbial phrases of time, answer the questions, 
 When 1 How long 1 Hoiu often 1 
 
 (a.) The last of these relations (How otlen P) is generally ex- 
 pressed by comparison. " 1 will go as often as yon send for me." 
 
 312. Adverbial clauses denoting time, like 
 phrases, mark a specified time, (79, a.) antecedent 
 to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to, the event 
 expressed by the principal verb. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 ^ hefore the mail arrived. 
 Edward was writing^ whe7i the mail arrived. 
 
 ^ after the mail arrived, 
 13* 
 
 r 
 
150 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Note. See table, Ti 79, (c.) and form a similar one, m wh:ch an 
 adverbial clause shall mark the specified time. 
 
 313. Clauses, like phrases, may denote a pohit, 
 
 a period, or frequency^ of time. 
 
 (a.) The principal conjunctive adverbs denoting time are, 
 lofien^ tohile, wJiilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, iolien- 
 tver ; and the phrases, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the in- 
 stant, no sooner . . . than. 
 
 (6.) The following table will show the different relations of 
 these connectives : — 
 
 Point ... = when, as, whenever, as 
 soon as. 
 1. Time simultaneous. <( Period . . . = ichile, whilst, as long as 
 
 Frequency = as often as,^ as frequent- 
 ly ai. 
 Point , . . . = before, ere. 
 
 II. Time antecedent. . . } ^^^'""^ " == ^^"' "^^^^• 
 
 Frequency = as often as, as frequently 
 
 as. 
 Point . . . . = after. 
 
 III. Time subsequent. . . J Period . . . = since. 
 
 Frequency = as often as, as frequently 
 
 as. 
 
 (c.) IVJiile, whilst, and as long as, denote the duration, till and 
 until, the commenceincnt, and since, the termination, of a period. 
 
 ( d) In clauses denoting time, there is often an ellipsis of the 
 subject and verb; as, " When reflecting loith grief and astonish 
 ment upon this great change, 1 felt a degree of pain." 
 
 Exercise 49. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse he 
 connectives : — 
 
 A dervise was journeying alone in the desert, when two 
 
 * Frequency can apply to the present only when it denotes q 
 customary act ; as, " I visit the city as ofleff as twice a year ' 
 (See note, p. 10(j., 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 151 
 
 mcrchaiils suddenly met him. When the million applaud 
 you, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. 
 / When you have nothing to say, say nothing. Crom- 
 well followed little events, before he ventured to gov- 
 ern great ones/. The age of miracles is past, while that 
 of prejudice remains. When articles rise, the consumer 
 rs the first that suffers. At length, the dial instituted 
 a formal inquiry as to the cause of the stagnation, when 
 hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their in- 
 nocence. 
 
 And all the muse's tales seem truly told, 
 
 Till the sense aches with gazing. 
 
 The moment the boat touched th^ shore, he was on " terra 
 firma." As we were walking together, we met a stranger. 
 I have not visited the city since we dissolved our partner- 
 ship. As soon as we came in sight, the birds were fright- 
 ened from the treo. I will remain until you return. 
 
 Write twelve complex sentences, introducing the 
 subordinate clauses, by the connectives mentioned in 
 11313, (a.) 
 
 Write appropriate clauses, denoting time, to each of 
 the folloiving sentences : — 
 
 1 saw the smouldering ruins. We heard a distant cry. 
 Will you answer my letter } The child may attend 
 school. Migratory birds return to the north. You may 
 play. How old were you ? We should aid our friends. 
 
 Write Jive complex interrogative sentences, and 
 let the dependent clause denote time. ^ 
 
 III.— CLAUSES DENOTING CAUSAL RELATIONS. 
 
 314. These subordinate clauses may be consid- 
 ered under four divisions : — 
 
N 
 
 ^ 
 
 152 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 («.) Causal, — or those which deno'^e a cause oi 
 reason ; — 
 
 (b.) Conditional, — or those which denote a 
 condition ; — 
 
 (c.) Final, — or those which denote di purpose ; — 
 
 .{d.) Adversative, — or those which denote a 
 sause or reason conceded, as opposed to a result. 
 
 Clauses wliich denote a Cause or Reason. 
 
 315. There are two modes of representing the 
 relation of causal clauses : — 
 
 (a.) When the conclusion or inference is stated, 
 and sustained by some cause or reason, the latter 
 clause is called causal, and is connected with the 
 principal clause by because, for, as, ivhereas, since, 
 and inasmuch as; as, "It must have rained last 
 night, for the ground is wet.^^ 
 
 (6.) When the cause or reason is stated in an 
 independent proposition, and a conclusion or in- 
 ference is deduced from it, the latter clause is called 
 deductive or illative, and is commonly connected 
 with the preceding by a coordinate conjunction, to 
 show its grammatical relation, and by therefore^ 
 wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, or then, tc 
 show its logical or causal relation ; as, '^ The coun- 
 try is infested with wolves, and therefore thi 
 sheepfolds should be secured. ^^ ^ 
 
 Note. The coordinate conjunction is often omitted ; as 
 " T|he future is uncertain ; therefore employ the present wisely. 
 These clauses will be more fully considered in the chapter op 
 coordinate clauses. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 153 
 
 316. Deductive clauses may be changed lo 
 causal, or causal to deductive, by reversing the or- 
 der of statement ; as, " The sheepfolds should be 
 secured, for the country is infested with wolves " ^^ 
 '' The country is mfested with wolves ; therefore 
 the sheepfolds should be secured." 
 
 ( a.) Therefore is properly the correlative of the subordinate 
 connectives because, for, &c. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences , and point out 
 the causal clauses : — 
 
 A peace which consults the good of both parties, is the 
 firmest, because both parties are interested in its preserva- 
 tion. We hate some persons, because we do not know 
 them. As retreat was now impossible, Colter turned the 
 head of the canoe. People are happy because they are 
 good. Ye recoive me not, because ye know him not. 
 Since you have been intrusted with such treasures, you 
 ought to practise the utmost vigilance. Because the wick- 
 ed do not receive their just deserts immediately, they gTOW 
 bold in transgression. 
 
 Write causal clauses to each one of the conncC' 
 tives, because, for, as, since, whereas, inasmuch as. 
 
 Change all the above examples to deductive clauses, 
 (See 316.) 
 
 Ta'ke the corresponding exercise (p. 107) in Chap- 
 ter 11. , and change all the phrases which admit of it 
 into causal clauses. 
 
 Write clauses ivhich shall give a reason for the 
 folio wing statements : — 
 
 The tides rise. The moon is eclipsed. We left tlie 
 
154 ANALYSIS OF Sii^NTENCES. 
 
 city. We should acquire knowledge. We should foma 
 good habits in youth. You should honor your parents. 
 Let us shun the company of the vicious. Improve your 
 time. Cultivate agreeable manners. Never reveal se« 
 crets. Love your enemies. We should never harm the 
 feelings of others. We should sympathize with the suf- 
 fering. 
 
 Model. The tides rise because the moon attracts the 
 water. 
 
 Conditional Clauses. 
 
 317. A conditional clause is an antecedent to 
 some effect or event, but not necessarily its cause. 
 
 318. Conditional clauses are used to limit the 
 principal clause by means of some real or supposed 
 condition ; as, '^ If it rains, I shall not go." 
 
 319. When the conditional clause denotes some- 
 thing actual, or assumed as actual, the tense form 
 of the verb indicates its true time ; as, " If it rains, 
 rained, or has rained, I shall not go." 
 
 320. When the conditional clause denotes some- 
 thing supposed or hypothetical, the tense form of the 
 verb does not indicate its true time. 
 
 ( a.) The past tense represents present time ; the past perfect, 
 past time ; and the past of the potential, future time ; as, " I am 
 not going ; but if I iccrc going (now), I should ride ; " "I was not 
 going ; but if I had been going (yesterday), 1 should have told 
 you; " " I shall not go; but if I should go (hereafter), I should 
 walk." 
 
 (&.) Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the auxiliary ; as, '' If he 
 (should) come, we Avill ride into the country." 
 
 321. The principal connective of conditional 
 clauses is if. The following, which may be con 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 155 
 
 sideied as nearly equivalent to if, are also used '. — 
 unless {if not), though, lest, except, provided that. 
 
 322. The verb of the conditional clause is in 
 the subjunctive mode, and may be either of the 
 indicative or potential form, (86 ;) that of the prin- 
 cipal clause is generally either in the indicative 
 future, or in some tense of the potential. 
 
 323. Conditional clauses may become principal 
 clauses, by changing the subjunctive to the impera- 
 tive mode, and using and instead of if; as, '' If you 
 ivill give me an axe, 1 will cut this tree " = " Give 
 me an axe, and I will cut this tree." 
 
 (fl.) Sometimes the condition is expressed by a question; as, 
 "Is any among you afflicted? let him pray " = " If any (one) 
 among you is afflicted, let him pray." 
 
 (6.) By placing the subject after the verb, or between the aux- 
 iliary and the verb, "if" may be omitted ; as, " Were he a more 
 careful man, he would meet with better success." 
 
 Exercise 51. 
 
 Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse 
 the connectives : — 
 
 , If a tree loses its leaves before the fruit is ripe, the latter 
 becomes withered. If the bark of a tree is injured, the tree 
 becomes sick, and finally dies. Except ye repent, ye shall 
 all likewise perish. If you will read my story, you can judge 
 for yourself. If you would enjoy health, bathe often. I 
 shall leave to-morrow, unless my friend arrives. You may 
 return, if you please. Should it rain to-morrow, (323, h.) 
 the lecture will be postponed. Were the cause good, he 
 would not fear the attack of its enemies. Were patrons 
 more disinterested, ingratitude would be more rare If we 
 
156 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
 
 wish to cat glass, "we must have recourse to the diamond, 
 Had I acted from personal emiiity, I should justly be de- 
 spised. If there be any thing improper in this address, 
 the singularity of your present situation will excuse it. 
 
 Write five of the preceding examples, and change 
 the mode of the conditional clause to the imperative. 
 
 Model. Remove the leaves frotn a tree before the fruit 
 is ripe, and the latter becomes withered. 
 
 Write conditional clauses to limit the following sen- 
 tences used as principal clauses : — 
 
 We shall go. You may attend school. The moon will 
 be eclipsed. The patient will recover. George will im- 
 prove. The ice will melt. The plants will not thrive. 
 The stream cannot be crossed. The labor must be per- 
 formed. Remorse will ensue. He can perform the task. 
 Water will become ice. Fruit will not ripen. 
 
 Model. We shall go, if it is pleasant. 
 
 Apply a consequence to the folloiving conditions . 
 
 If you leave ; should he Stay ; had I stopped ; were the 
 measure to be adopted ; could we ascend the ladder ; un- 
 less relief come immediately ; if the day should be un- 
 pleasant ; should the wind blow ; except he yield to the 
 proposal ; provided that a sufficient number of men can 
 be obtained ; if the term closes on Saturday. 
 
 Model. If you leave, no one can supply your place. 
 
 Final Clauses. 
 
 324. Clauses which denote a purpose, or motive;, 
 are called final clauses. They are connected by 
 that, that not, and lest. 
 
 I 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. IS"* 
 
 (a.) Lest denotes a negative purpose^ or the avoidance of an 
 evil, and is nearly equivalent to that not ; as, " Take heed lest ye 
 fy\\:=thai ye do 7iotfaU." 
 
 325. The potential mode, or subjunctive, poten- 
 tial form, is always employed in final clauses, and 
 the imperative or potential is commonly used in 
 the principal clause. 
 
 326. An adjective clause, introduced by a prepo- 
 sition, and having its verb in the potential mode, 
 generally denotes a purpose ; as, " We have no 
 other means hij which we may aid him.^^ 
 
 (a.) Final clauses are often equivalent to an infinitive; as, 
 " Eat that you may live " := " Eat to live." 
 
 (b.) Final clauses generally relate to some correlative phrase 
 in the principal clause, such as, " in order," " with the design." 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and parse the con- 
 nectives : — 
 
 I I have brought a passage, that you may explain it. He 
 visited the springs, that he might ii^aprove his health. / I 
 have been the more careful, that I might not be the instru- 
 ment of his ruin. He sent me a history of Rome, that I 
 might examine it. I opened the door, that I might see 
 who was there. He went to the city, that he might consult 
 an attorney. 
 
 Write clauses denoting a purpose or motive to 
 the following : — 
 
 We should take exercise. Avoid trees in a thunder- 
 storm. Study. Improve your time. Shun bad company. 
 Take heed. Reprove not a scorner. Answer not a fool 
 
 14 
 
158 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 according to his folly. Oblige your friends. He opened 
 the window. He fled his country. 
 
 Change the above clauses denoting "purpose to 
 infinitives.' (326, a.) 
 
 Write sentences in which the following infinitives 
 shall denote jpurjpost, and then change them to 
 clauses : — 
 
 To see his brother to hear the news ; to enjoy the sea- 
 breeze ; to write a letter ; to educate his children ; to take 
 lessons in music ; to catch a robber ; to sell his furniture ; 
 to obtain a situation in the bank. 
 
 Write five complex sentences, each containing an 
 adjective clause denoting purpose. (326.) 
 
 Adversative Chouses. 
 
 327. Adversative clauses are used when we 
 concede something which stands as a cause or rea- 
 son opposed to the statement in the principal 
 clause. They are introduced by though, although, 
 notwithstanding, however; as, ''Though he slay 
 me, yet will 1 trifst in him." 
 
 (a.) The correlatives of adversative clauses a.re, yet, still, oi 
 nevertheless, placed in the principal clause. 
 
 (6.) JFJiateverj whoever, tchichcvcr, and while, often have an 
 adversative signification ; as, " Whatever you may say, he per- 
 sists in doing it." 
 
 328, An adversative clause may be expressed 
 by a comparison of equality ; as, " Poor as he was, 
 he contributed more than any other man " ~ 
 
 ' Though he was poor, he contributed more than 
 any other man." 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 159 
 
 \^s I Adversative clauses are often equivalent to phrases con- 
 liecU i by 2inth, icithout, notwithstanding^ despite of; as, " With 
 all hi < faults^ he is a useful man " = " Though he has many faults, 
 he is a useful man." 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 Analyze the fgllowing senterices : — 
 
 Though he was rich, ydt for our sakes he became poor. 
 Although the place was. unfavorable, nevertheless Csesar 
 determined to 'attack the enemy. However careless he 
 might seem, his fortune depended upon the decision. Fee- 
 ble as he was, he devoted the whole day to study. Vigilant 
 as were the watchmen, the robbers made frequent depreda- 
 tions. Whoever may oppose, we shall insist upon the 
 adoption of the plan. He would pull a mote out of his 
 neighbor's eye, while he has a beam in his own. 
 
 Write sentences in which the following adjectives^ 
 with as, shall introduce an adversative clause. Intro- 
 duce each by though. 
 
 Bold, deficient, strong, poor, thoughtless, silent, bright, 
 warm, faithful, honest, abrupt, wild, sad, joyous, contented. 
 
 Model. Cold as it was, we were compelled to be out 
 through the nioht =: Though it was cold, &c. 
 
 Expand the following Italicized phrases into adver- 
 sative clauses. (See 32S, a.) 
 
 With all his faults., I love him. He applied for a sit- 
 uation, without a recommendation, Notivithstanding the 
 storm, we commenced our journey. Despite of oppo- 
 siiion, he made his way to distinction. 
 
 Model. Though he has many jaults, I love him. 
 
 Write a sentence having an adversative clause Jo? 
 each of the connectives, though, although, notwith- 
 standing, however, while, whatever, whoever. 
 
)60 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 A\ — ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTIISG MANNER. 
 
 329. By adverbial clauses denoting manner, the, 
 predicate of the principal clause may be compared 
 with that of the subordinate, so as to show, 1st, a 
 correspondence ; 2dj a consequence ; or, 3d, equality 
 or inequality in magnitude. 
 
 330. Correspondence is indicated by as, just as, 
 §0 . . . as, when it relates to a verb or adjective, and 
 by such . . . as, and same . . . as, when it relates to 
 a noun ; as, " Speak as you think; " " These are 
 such books as I have." 
 
 (ft.) By an ellipsis of an entire proposition, two subordinate 
 connectives come together, the former of which denotes corre- 
 spondence ; as, " Always act in private as if you were seen by 
 others " =" Always act in private as you would do if you were 
 seen by others." 
 
 331. Clauses denoting consequence, or effect, are 
 introduced by so . . . that, when the consequence 
 relates to a verb or adjective, and by such . . . that^ 
 when it relates to a noun ; as, '' The traveller was 
 so weary that he fell asleep." 
 
 (a.) When the consequence relates to a verb, so that should 
 follow it J when it relates to an adjective, so precedes, and thai 
 follows it; when it relates to a noun, suck or such a precedes, and 
 that follows it. 
 
 332. Comparison of equality (232) is indicated 
 by «s ... 05 ; as, " George is as tall as his brother "• 
 {is tall.) So is used instead of the first as aftei 
 not, in clauses denying equality ; as, " George is 
 not 50 tall as his brother." 
 
 { a.) Proportionate equality, or equality between two predicaJt* 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1 61 
 
 which vary in intensity, is indicated by the . . . fhcj the . so much 
 the, with comparatives ; as, " The colder it is, Uie better I feel." 
 
 333. Comparison of inequality is denoted by 
 than, more . . . than, less . . . than ; as, " George is 
 taller than his brother ^^ (is tail,) 
 
 (a.) Clauses denoting comparison are generally elliptical. 
 
 Exercise 54. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences, and tell which c?e- 
 note correspondence, which consequence, arid 
 which equality or inequality". 
 
 As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 
 wanclereth from his place. As the door turneth upon its 
 hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed. Will you 
 read so that you can be heard } The robber struck him 
 such a blow that he fell. Happiness is much more equally 
 distributed than some suppose. Is gravity always as wise 
 as it appears .? The science of mathematics performs more 
 than it promises. Experience is a surer guide than ima- 
 gination. Is it not better to be laughed at than ruined } 
 iMoses built the tabernacle, as he was commanded. Do as 
 your parents bid you. Can you paint the picture as she 
 does > Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 
 The more eminent men are, (332, a.) so much the more 
 condescending they should be to the humble. The more 
 prudent one is, the more cautious he is. Many men live 
 as though (330, a.) they were born to pleasures. 
 
 Write clauses denoting conges jmidence, to complete 
 the following : — 
 
 As a man thinketh Will ypu be so good .... 
 
 The pupil wrote the copy just as The boy sings aa 
 
 The task is the same as Speak as 
 
 Make the mark just as 
 
 14* 
 
162 ANAi^YSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 fVnte clauses denoting consequence or effect to 
 comjjlcte the foUoiving : — 
 
 The day was so stormy The sun is so bright 
 
 The patient had gained so much strength 
 
 The hours seemed so long They gave him so Uttle 
 
 money We should acquire knowledge, so that 
 
 It is so cold We have had so much rain 
 
 fVrite clauses denoting comparison of equality ap- 
 plied to the following adjectives: — 
 
 Wise, great, stupid, long, broad, fierce, cool, strong, 
 weak, thin, bright, dark, faithful. 
 
 Model. Was Lycurgus as wise as Solon ? 
 
 Write clauses denoting comparison of inequality 
 applied to the same. 
 
 Model. Solon v/as wiser than Lycurgus =: Lycurgus 
 was not so wise as Solon. 
 
 334. It has now been shown that either of the 
 five elements of a sentence may be a single word, 
 a phrase, or a clause. They may be thus repre 
 sented : — 
 
 .^rfj.-f-SuB. :: Prkv.-}- Obj.-\-Mv. 
 
 Class 1 1 1 1 M cj- 1 
 
 _, _ ^ ^ r. -. 2 bimple sentences. 
 
 Class 2 2 2 2 2)* 
 
 Class 3 3 3 3 3 Complex sentences 
 
 ^SECTION VI. 
 
 COMPLEX ELEMENTS CONTAINING CLAUSES. 
 
 335. With simple elements of the first class, the 
 only complex element that can be formed consists 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 63 
 
 of tVv^o or more single words united, (143;) as, 
 "very quickly." But with the addition of the 
 phrase, three or "our varieties can be formed. (240.) 
 By uniting the three different classes of elements, 
 [nngle words, jjhrases^ clauses,) at least nine varieties 
 may be formed, as will be seen by the following 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 Complex elements may be formed, — 
 
 / By joining 1 & 1 ; as, ver7j quickly. 
 
 1 By joining 1 «& 2 ; " desirous of fame. 
 
 ^ By joining 1 & 3; " a pleasure which I cannoi 
 ' express, 
 
 t By joining 2 & 1 ; " with great satisfaction 
 
 Class II. \ By joining 2 «& 2; " is fear of detection. 
 
 \ By joining 2 & 3; " from him to whom it is due. 
 
 f By joining 3 4fc 1 ; " if he comes quickly.* 
 Class III. / By joining 3 & 2 ; " when we yvE^T to Albany 
 \ By joining 3 & 3; " as I came ichcre he sat. 
 
 Note. For an explanation of the table, see 11 240, Note. 
 
 EXEKCISE 55. 
 
 Review the models for analysis of complex elements^ 
 in Chop. 11. , and analyze the following examples: — 
 
 The light, the celestial vault, the verdure of the earth, 
 the transparency of the waters, gave animation to my 
 
 * It is generally most convenient, except when minute analysis 
 is required, to consider the subordinate clause, even though limit- 
 ed, as a simple element ; as, " Since you haye, by your oicn choice^ 
 refused the proposal." The same may be said of the phrase, wher 
 only a limiting word comes between the preposition and it? ob 
 ject ; as, " in this plic.-s ; " " through three volumes. 
 
164 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE.?. 
 
 spirits, and conveyed pleasures which exceed the powers of 
 expression. Totally occupied with this new species of ex- 
 istence, I had already forgot the light, though the first par 
 of my being which I had recognized. If the blessings of 
 our political and social condition have not now been too 
 highly estimated, we cannot well overrate the responsibilities 
 which they impose upon us. We hold these institutions of 
 government, religion, and learning, to be transmitted (210) 
 as well as enjoyed. I deem it my duty, on this occasion, 
 to suggest, that the land is not yet wholly free from the 
 contamination of a traffic at which every feeling of hu- 
 manity must revolt. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 
 
 336. Although the clauses we have been con- 
 sidering are subordinate to some part of the princi- 
 pal clause, yet two or more of them may become 
 coordinate with each other, and thus form a com- 
 pound element of the third class ; as, ''I thought 
 that the substance of the fruit had become part of my 
 own, AND that I was endowed with the power oftrans^ 
 forming bodies. ^^ 
 
 337. Either of the principal or of the stibordi 
 nate elements, when of the third class, may, like 
 the single word or phrase, become compound 
 (151.) 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 165 
 
 Exercise 56. 
 
 Review the model on page 15, and then analyze 
 the following sentences : — 
 
 I soon perceived that I had the power of losing and of 
 
 fecovering them, and that I could, at pleasure, destroy and 
 
 renew this beautiful part of my existence. That iheir 
 
 poetry is almost unitbrmly mournful, and that their views 
 
 of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who 
 
 admit the authenticity of Ossian. 
 
 When riseth Lacedemon's hardihood, 
 When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, 
 When Alliens' children are with arts endued, 
 When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men, — 
 Then thou mayst be restored. 
 
 I neither knew what I was, where I was, nor from whence 
 I came. Why we are thus detained, or why we receive 
 no intelligence from home, is mysterious. 
 
 AmoniTst that number was an old man, who had fallen 
 an early victim to adversity, and whose days of imprison- 
 ment, reckoned by the notches which he had cut on the 
 door of his gloomy cell, expressed the annual circuit of 
 more than fifty suns. Bruyere declares, that we are come 
 inio the world too late to produce any thing new ; that 
 nature and life are preoccupied ; and that description and 
 sentiment have been long since exhausted. We may 
 rather suppose, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 
 that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowl- 
 edge will always be progressive ; that there are innumer- 
 able regions of imagination yet unexplored ; and that all 
 future generations will continue to make discoveries, of 
 which we liave not the least idea. 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a comj^omid 
 dement of the third das 
 
160 ANALYSIS OF SEiNTENCES. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAMK 
 
 33S. A complex sentence may be greatly ex- 
 tended by introducing two or more modifying 
 wofdsj phrases, or clauses of the same name not 
 connected with each other. (165.) 
 
 (a.) Adverbial clauses, from their variety, afford the greatest 
 opportunity for using different elements of the same name. We 
 may limit the predicate with an adverbial element denoting pZace, 
 with another denoting time^ &c. And each of these may be 
 complex or compound. 
 
 Exercise 57. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving complex sentences^ and poitit 
 out the luords, phrases^ or clauses, of the same name 
 ivhich are not connected with each other, yet belong to 
 the subject or predicate : — 
 
 As I darkened the .light, he cast his eye toward the win- 
 dow, that he might catch the feeble rays of the moon 
 When we oassed the corners of the streets, we were al- 
 ways saluteQ oy some beggars who were congregated there. 
 If there be, within the extent of our knowledge or influ. 
 ence, any participation in the traffic, let us pledge ourselves 
 here, upon the Rock of Plymouth, to extirpate and de- 
 stroy it. 
 
 Take any twelve of the unlimited propositions in 
 the first five exercises, Chap. I. Sec. 11. , and expand 
 them as much as possible, by additions to the subject 
 and predicate. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 167 
 
 339. The three classes of clauseSj substantive, 
 adjective^ and adverbial, have now been explahied. 
 They may be thus represented, as they enter into 
 the structure of a sentence : — 
 
 Adj. Ele. -f Sub. i Puei>. + Obj. Ele. + Adv. Ele 
 
 c 1 ' , i Subs, clause. Subs, clause. Subs, clause. Adv. clause, 
 
 bubs, clause. ) 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 340. A complex sentence differs from a simple 
 sentence only in the expanded state of some one 
 or more of its elements. (270, 271, 272.) Hence, 
 
 341. A complex sentence may be reduced to a 
 simple one by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, 
 " A man ivho is deceitful, can never be trusted " =^ 
 "A deceitful man can never be trusted." 
 
 (a.) The abridged form partakes of the nature of the clause 
 from which it is derived, that is, it is either substantive^ adjective, 
 or adverbial. 
 
 (6.) In abridging a proposition, the change is produced chiefly 
 upon its essential parts, (264,) its subordinate elements being 
 joined to the abridged form without alteration. 
 
 342. The general rule for abridging a subordi- 
 nate clause, is, to remove the connective, and change 
 the predicate to a participle or an infinitive ; as, 
 " If Tien shame is lost, all virtue is lost '' = " Shame 
 
IG8 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 being lost, all virtue is lost ; " " We told him that 
 he must leave^^ = " We told him to leave.'''' 
 
 («.) The connective is retained in certain substantive clauses, 
 when the predicate is in the potential mode, and the subject is 
 the same as that of the principal verb. In such cases, the predi- 
 cate is changed to the infinitive and the subject, dropped by 
 TI 343, (a.); as, "I knew not icliat ' should do = what to do.' 
 In like manner, we have, ^'•whom to send;" '■'■ lohere to go ; 
 " wlien to stop,; " " hoio to do it^" &c. 
 
 (b.) A similar change may take place in such adjective clauses 
 as are mentioned in II 326; as, " Give me a knife icith lohich 1 
 may cut this string = with which to cut this string = to cut this 
 string with.'' 
 
 Note. By changing the predicate to a participle or an infin* 
 itive, the assertion is destroyed ; the attribute, either with or 
 without the participle of the copula, (185, Note,) becomes an 
 assumed property (16, a.) or is used substantively. 
 
 343. The following are the rules for the subject 
 m an abridged pro^^osition : — 
 
 (a.) When the subject of the subordinate clause 
 is the same as the subject or object of the principal 
 clause, it is omitted; as, ''I wish that I might go 
 := to go.'' 
 
 (b.) When it is different from the subject or 
 object of the principal clause, it must be retained, 
 and may appear either in the nominative, posses- 
 sive, or objective case. 
 
 (c.) When it is in the nominative case, it is put 
 absolute with the participle. ^^ fVheii shame is lost 
 = shame being lost^ all virtue is lost." 
 
 (d.) When it is in the possessive case, it be- 
 comes wholly subordinate to the abridged predicate 
 used as a noun ; as, *' I was not aware that he zvas 
 ^oing = of his going." (185. c.) 
 
ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES 169 
 
 (e.) When it is in the objective case, it is fol- 
 )o\ved by the infinitive of the abriaged predicate ; 
 as, " I told him that he must go == him to go.^^ 
 (See 194 and 210.) 
 
 344. The following are the rules for the pred- 
 icate : — 
 
 (a.) The abridged predicate may have two con- 
 structions, — that of an adjective, or that of a sub 
 stantive ; as, " The man ivho perseveres " := " The 
 yersevering man ; " " I am not sure that he will 
 he present = of his being present^ 
 
 [h.) When the attribute of the predicate is an 
 adjective or a noun, the participle or infinitive of 
 the copula must be joined to it to give it a 
 verbal form ; as, '' to be industrious ; " '' being 
 merchants." 
 
 (c.) When the attribute of the predicate is a 
 noun, it must be in the objective case after the 
 participle or infinitive of the copula, when the 
 subject is changed to the objective (343, e.) ; as, ^' I 
 believed that it was he ^=^it to be Aim." 
 
 (fi.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, 
 after the participle of the copula, when the subject 
 is in the nominative, (343, c.) ; as, " As a youth was 
 their leader, what could they do?"=:"A youth 
 being their leader,''^ &c. 
 
 (e.) It remains unchanged in tlie nominative, 
 when, with the participle of the copula, it becomes 
 a verbal noun, limited by the possessive case of the 
 «3ubjeGt; as, '-That he was a foreigner prevented 
 
 15 
 
170 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 
 
 his election " — '' His being b. foreigner * prevented 
 his Bxection." 
 
 345. AH abridged constructions may be reduced 
 to four classes, — the participial construction, the nom- 
 inative absolute, the infinitive, and the participial noun 
 In the first two, the attribute is used as an adjec 
 five; in the last two, as a substantive. (344, a.) 
 
 346. In the participial construction, the subject 
 IS omitted, (343, a.) and the attribute of the predi- 
 cate is joined as an adjective to some noun or pro- 
 noun in the principal clause. Hence, 
 
 " That " foreigner," or any other word similarly used, is in the 
 S)ominative case, will appear from the ibllo wing considerations: — 
 
 (1.) !t was in the nominative case before the clause was 
 abridged (60.) 
 
 (2.) It cannot be in the possessive case, after the change, 
 though it relates to the same person as " his; " for it neither has 
 the sign of possession, nor does it denote possession. Besides, by 
 a universal law of language, a dependent or limiting word, like 
 " his," has no control over the construction of the words on which 
 it depends (185, c.) 
 
 (3.) It cannot be in the objective case ; for it does not depend 
 upon any word (such as a preposition or verb) which requiies it 
 to be in that case ; nor has any thing taken place in the process of 
 abridgment, as in IT 344, (c), to cause any change in its case. 
 Hence, as it was in the nominative case before the change, it must 
 etill remain in that case, un. ess its position in the sentence should 
 require a change. 
 
 (4.) But no position which it may take in being incorporated 
 as a part of the principal clause, can cause a change of case. A 
 subordinate clause may take any position in the sentence, (268 ;) 
 hence its abridged form may take the same, ( 341, a.) Subordinate 
 clauses have a twofold construction ; one as a whole, and one as 
 w>mposed of parts ; (261, a.)', so have their abridged forms. 
 Thus, in the following examples, the abridged forms, as a whole. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 171 
 
 347. The participial construction is most com- 
 monly employed in reducing adjective clauses ; as, 
 " The culprit who was convicted of stealing, = con' 
 victed of stealing, was sent to the penitentiary." 
 
 348. Adjective clauses are often reduced by 
 changing the predicate into a noun joined to the 
 Innited noun by "of;" as, '- A man who is gener^ 
 ous will gain friends " = '* A man of generosity will 
 g-iin friends." 
 
 349. The abridged predicate, whether in the 
 form of the participle or infinitive, may receive the 
 same additions as it would receive in the un- 
 
 perforra precis^^Iy the same offices as the complete forms. " That 
 he was a foreigner^ (2S1)= his being a foreigner^ prevented hia 
 election." " ^ knew that he w/is a foreigner " Qi'Jb) = " I knew 
 his being, or of his being- a foreigner.'' <' The fact thai he was a 
 foreigner^ (294) =of his being a. foreigner^ was undeniable." 
 *■' JVJien he was first called a foreigner^ (305)= ore his being 
 first called a foreigner^ his angei was excited." In all these 
 abridged forms, neither " foreigner" nor any other one word, but 
 the whole combination, takes the place of its corresponding clause. 
 In the first example, the combination, especially " being a for- 
 eigner," is in the nominative case ; but that fact does not require 
 the single word " foreigner " to be in that case. In the other ex- 
 amples, the same form is in the objective case ; but the word '* for- 
 eigner " is not hence in the objective any more in the abridged 
 than in the complete form. Therefore, though the whole combina- 
 tion may be either in the nominative or objective case, each word, 
 taken separately, may have its own construction, (see 187, a.) ; 
 and since " foreigner" was in the nominative (pred. nom.) origin 
 illy, and nothing has taken place to change its case, it must still 
 reinain as the predicate-nominative of an abridged propopition 
 Hence, in abridging the following proposition, " 1 was not aware 
 Shat it teas tie, ' we should say, " of its being he," not " his nor 
 '■hhn:' 
 
172 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 changed form ; as, " When he came into the city 
 :=! coming into the city ;''^ to come into the city. 
 
 (a.) The participle may be used wholly as an adjective, and 
 be placed before the noun ; as, " The man who labors'' = " The 
 laboring man ; " or it may retain some of the characteristics of the 
 clause from which it is derived, and be placed after the noun ; as, 
 * Those wlw live upon the sea-shore " = " Those living upon th\: 
 sea'shorr.^' 
 
 350. The participial construction may be em- 
 ployed to abridge adverbial clauses, whea it can be 
 used to limit a noun, and at the same time denote 
 some circumstance of the principal verb ; as, " Be- 
 cause he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left 
 in disgust " =r " Being unable^ or Unable to per- 
 suade,^^ &c. ; "He fell, clinging t the branches^ 
 
 351. The nominative absolute is employed when 
 the subject is not omitted, (344, b,) and the attri- 
 bute is used as an adjective agreeing with it ; as, 
 " Jesus conveyed himself away, a multitude being wi 
 t ha f place.' ^ 
 
 352. This construction is employed chiefly in 
 abridging adverbial clauses denoting time or cause. 
 
 Exercise 58. 
 
 Abridge the subordinate clauses in the following 
 sentences, by employing the participial construction, or 
 the nominative absolute, and explain the changes : — 
 
 When Elizabeth was queen, Bacon was lord chancellor. 
 A Qccessitous man, who gives costly dinners, pays large 
 ■iLims to be laughed at. Dr. Franklin, ivho loas the projec- 
 tor of many useful institutions, was bred a printer. Honors 
 'chick are bestowed upon the illustrious dead., have in them 
 
ANALYSIS OF sp::ntences. 173 
 
 no r.diriixture v.f envy. As we were passing through the 
 straits, we were detained by a dense fog. Because some 
 truths arc difficult of compi^ehension, the weak reject them. 
 
 Expand the following abridged forms into clauses^ 
 and explain the changes : — 
 
 Privileged individuals, surrounded hy parasites, syco- 
 phants, and deceivers, too often become the willing victims 
 of self-delusion. Undelighted amidst all delight, and joy- 
 less amidst all enjoyment, they eventually receive the full 
 measure of the punishment of their folly, their profligacy, 
 or their vice. Analogy being a powerful weapon, we 
 should be extremely cautious in using it. 
 
 353. The infinitive is employed chiefly to 
 abridge substantive clauses introduced by ''that;-' 
 as, '' That one should steals is base " nr: " For one to 
 steal, (194,) is base." 
 
 354. The infinitive is employed to abridge ad- 
 verbial clauses denoting a purpose, (226 j) as, "He 
 went that he might see = to see." 
 
 (ffi.) When the subject of the final clause (324) is retained, 
 (344, b.) it is put in the objective case afler "for;" as, "I havf? 
 brought a book for you to read." " For " governs not "you " 
 alone, but "you to read," in the same manner as some transitive 
 verbs govern a double object. (120, 210.) 
 
 (b.) Formerly, " for " was employed to govern the infinitive oi' 
 purpose, virhen used vsrithout its subject; as, " What went ye ou 
 for to see?" 
 
 'S55. Substantive clauses of an interrogative na- 
 ture, (274,) are generally abridged by employing 
 some noun which shall express the general idea of 
 the clause ; as, " I know not where he is concealed '' 
 = " I know not the place of his concealment." 
 
 356. The participial noun is employed te 
 15* 
 
174 ANAI YSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 abridge both substantive and adverbial clauses. In 
 the latter case, it generally follows a preposition ; 
 as, '^ When we arrived at the pier, all was commo- 
 tion " =r <« On our arriving at the pier, all was com- 
 motion." 
 
 Exercise 59. 
 
 Analyze and explain the folloiving sentences ac- 
 cirding to the previous principles : — 
 
 The atrocious crime of being a young man, 1 shall nei- 
 ther attempt to palliate ?r deny. He had been there but a 
 short time, before the old man alighted from his gig, with 
 the apparent intention of becoming his guesi. Such persons 
 commence by being their own masters, and finish by being 
 their own slaves. I have brought a book for you to read. 
 Trusting in God, implies a belief in him. 
 
 Expand the above abridged clauses to complete 
 clauses. 
 
 * Reduce the following miscellaneous complex sen- 
 tences by abridging the subordinate clauses : — 
 
 The belief that there is a plurality of gods, is inconsistent 
 with reason. Nothing more completely baflles one who is 
 full of trick and duplicity himself, than straightforward, 
 simple integrity in another. Johnson declared that wit 
 consists in finding out resemblances. 
 
 Combine the following simple sentences^ so as to 
 ma]{e one complex sentence out of the first and second, 
 another out of the third and fourth, and so on ; then 
 abridge the subordinate clause : — 
 
 We left. The sun set. A sudden noise a'armed us. 
 We were sitting under a tree. He will retire from busi- 
 ness. He has accumulated a fortune. He means well. 
 

 ANALi^SlS OF SENTENCES. 175 
 
 He makes many oiunders. The peaches fall to the ground. 
 
 harles shakes die tree. He will spend four years in the 
 
 country. He will attend to agricultural pursuits. 
 
 ■ Model. We left when the sun set zn at sunset. 
 
 Note. Before closing this section, a word or two is necessary 
 respecting the influence of tense upon the abridged form. Tense, 
 in subordinate clauses, is not reckoned from the time of the 
 speaker, (as in principal clauses,) but from tht time of the action 
 or event mentioned in the principal clause. (78, b.) Hence, when 
 the verb of the principal clause is in the past tense, that of the 
 subordinate clause must also be in the past tense, if it denotes a 
 time present with that of the event; but it must be in the past 
 perfect tense, if it denotes a time past in reference to a past event. 
 Thus, in the sentence ''I believed that he was honest," "was," 
 though in the past tense, denotes a time present with "be- 
 lieved." Hence, in abridging this clause, the present of the infin- 
 itive should be employed ; as, " I believed him to he honest." But 
 in the sentence "I believed that he had been honest," "had 
 been" denotes not only time past, but time completed, (81, h.j 
 in reference to "believed." Hence, in abridging this clause, the 
 past perfect of the infinitive should be used ; as, " I believed him 
 to have been honest." The same principles apply to the partici- 
 ples ; as, " When we saio the shower approaching, we sought the 
 nearest shelter " = " Seeing the shower approaching, we sought." 
 &c. " When the shower had passed., we resumed our journey " = 
 "The shower having passed, we resumed our journey." In adver- 
 bial clauses denotintr time, the connective indicates the relative 
 time of the subordinate clause, (312, 313 ;) the preposition performs 
 a similar office in phrases denoting time. (2'21, c. and 79, c.) 
 
 Note to Teachers. It will often be found convenient, in 
 analyzing sentences, to vary the models. When it is desirable 
 to impress upon the mind of the pupil the for /as of the elements, 
 he should follow the models strictly. At other times, it will be 
 sufficient to say of an element, that it is the subject, predicate, or 
 that it limits one of these, without giving its particular class 
 Sometimes it is well to parse a phrase or clause as if it was a 
 single word. Thus, "when you call," in " I will go when you 
 call, ' is an adverb, or is of the nature of an adverb, and limits 
 '*will go," by Rule IX. 
 
176 ANALYSIS OF SFBJTENCES. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 (COJIPCUND SENTENCES.) 
 
 COORDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 r 357. A compound sentence is formed by uniting 
 ' two or more principal clauses, (see 263): as, "A 
 wise son maketh a glad father ; but a foolish son is 
 the heaviness of his mother." 
 
 358. The clauses which are thus united, are co- 
 ordinate with each other. (149.) 
 
 '--3 X (a.) A compound sentence is formed by uniting two similar 
 simple sentences, just as a compound element (149) is formed by 
 uniting two similar simple elements. 
 
 (6.) A compound sentence differs from a complex, precisely as 
 a compound element diflers from a complex. In a complex sen- 
 tence, one clause enters in as a constituent element of the 
 other, either as its subject, attribute, object, modifier, &c. ; but in 
 a compound sentence, one clause is in noway a part of the other. 
 It is composed of two distinct and independent parts. A com- 
 pound sentence may be distinguished from a complex, by the 
 connectives used. No connective can join coordinate clauses 
 which may not also join coordinate parts of a clause. 
 
 (c.) All coordinate conjunctions are used primarily to connect 
 clauses ; but when the clauses have some part in common, that 
 part is generally inserted but once, and the conjunction is used to 
 connect only the other parts ; as, " Some men sin frequently, and 
 some men sin presumptuously " = " Some men sin frequently and 
 presumptuously." (Turn to Exercise 28, page 78, and extend 
 each sentence by repeating the part in common.) 
 
 359. Coordinate clauses may be divided into 
 three classes, according to the connective used, 
 (157,) copulative, adversative, and alternative. 
 
 360. The coordinate parts o( a compound sen 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 177 
 
 jence may be either simple or complex sentences ; 
 IS, '' Give me a book, and I will give you a slate." 
 ' The miser has lived poor, that he may die rich ] 
 and if the prodigal quits life in debt to others, ihe 
 tiiser quits it still deeper in debt to himself." 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 COPULATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 361. When one clause is so united to another as 
 to express an additional thought, and thereby give 
 a greater extent to its meaning, it is called copula- 
 tive ; as, " Fingal bade his sails to rise, and the 
 winds came rustling from their hills." 
 
 362. When the copulative clause denotes addi- 
 tion without emphasis or modification, the simple 
 conjunction and is used. 
 
 363. If we wish to awaken an expectation of 
 some additional thought, and thereby introduce it 
 with emphasis, the conjunction has a correlative 
 placed in the first clause ; as, " Not only did the 
 wind blow most fiercely, but the rain fell in tor- 
 rents." 
 
 (ff.) The coordinate conjunctions, with their correlatives, are, 
 both . . . and ; as tcell . . .as ; not only . . . hut^ hut also, but likeicise. 
 These correlatives are most commonly used to connect coordinate 
 parts of the same clause ; as, " He was both virtuous and wise=; 
 Mot only virtuous, but wise.-' 
 
 364. It is often necessary to associate with 
 *^ and '- some other word, which shall give a shade 
 
 \ 
 
178 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 of meaning to the added clause, not expressed by 
 ^^-^hc principal conjunction ; as, " Susan is learning 
 music, and, besides, she attends to drawing." 
 
 («.) These associate or auxiliary connectives are 50, also^ like- 
 wise^ too, wliich denote resemblance^ and give additional force to 
 the meaning of the second clause ; besides, vioreover, and now^ 
 which are often used in argument, to enforce an additional objec- 
 tion ; hence, therefore, consequently, icherefore, then, which repre- 
 sent the coordinate clause as an inference from the preceding ; 
 even, which gives peculiar force by expressing something unusual 
 or beyond expectation. 
 
 365. When the principal conjunction is under- 
 stood, the auxiliary remains as the only connective, 
 giving its peculiar force to the coordinate clause ; 
 as, " The storm has abated ; therefore let us resume 
 our journey; " " Demosthenes was a distinguished 
 orcitor, [and] Cicero was also an eminent, orator." 
 
 (a.) These connectives partake of the nature of adverbs, and, 
 unlike the principal conjunction, may be placed within the 
 second clause. It is to this class of connectives that all deductive 
 particles are to be referred. (315, Note.) 
 
 Model for analyzing Compound Sentences. 
 
 CcEsar has refused kis consent, and there remains no 
 , hope of my speedy restoration. 
 
 It is a coinpouiid sentence, because it contains two 
 similar clauses, (both principal.) 
 CiBsar has refused his consent, is the first clause. 
 There remain? no hope, &lq,., is the second clause. 
 
 It is a copuhitive clause, coordi- 
 nate with the first, and is connected 
 with it by " and," which joins the 
 two clauses as el^f^ment* of a com 
 pound sentence 
 
ANAIYSIS OF SENTENCES. 179 
 
 Analyze each of the coordinate parts according to the previous 
 aaodels. 
 
 Note. All compound sentences should be analyzed in a simi 
 lar mannei These sentences are far less ditficult than complex. 
 The force of coordinate conjunctions is much sooner appreciated 
 by children than that of subordinate. Hence children, and nations 
 in the simplest states of society, employ these connectives first. 
 The parts of a compound sentence often succeed each other 
 without a connective, being separated by a colon or semicolon. < 
 
 Exercise 60. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving sentences, and tell ivhether 
 the second clause expresses addition simply, addition 
 with emphasis, (363,) or addition modijied by some 
 associated particle, (364. ) 
 
 1 was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 
 This part of knowledge has been growing, and it will con- 
 tinue to grow till the subject be exhausted. I conceived a 
 great regard for him, and I could not but mourn for the 
 loss he had sustained. The more sleek the prey, the 
 greater the temptation ; and no wolf wil' leave a sheep, to 
 dine upon a porcupine. Not only am I instructed by this 
 exercise, but I am also invigorated. Religion, as well as its 
 votaries, must have a body as well as a soul. (363, a,) A 
 hero on the day of battle has sacrificed a meal, and shall 
 we therefore pity him ? (364.) Wisdom was their object, 
 and they attained even more than that object. The poor 
 lady is suffei*ing from a fever ; her children are likewise 
 ill. The situation is not suited to his tastes ; the compen- 
 sation, moreover, is meagre. Green is the most refreshmg 
 color to the eye ; hence Providence has made it the com 
 men dress of nature. 
 
180 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ADVERSATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 366. Aq adversative coordinate clause is one 
 which stands opposed to, or contrasted with, the 
 preceding clause ; yet both are so united as to form 
 
 ^one compound sentence. 
 
 ^ 367. The simple adversative conjunction is but ; 
 as, " We esteem most things according to their in- 
 trinsic merit ; hut it is strange that man should be 
 an exception." 
 
 368. When we wish to represent the first clause 
 as a concession J we place near the beginning of it 
 the correlative indeed, which points forward to but 
 as the connective of something opposed to the ad- 
 mission ; as, "I did, indeed, grant his request ; but 
 I took him to be a gentleman." 
 
 (a.) The following correlatives are sometimes used to connect 
 adversative clauses : — on the one hand . ... on the other ; at one 
 time . ... at another ; noio .... then. 
 
 369. With hut are often associated other words 
 in the same clause, which become the sole connec- 
 tive when the principal connective is understood. 
 
 (a.) These are yct^ still, hoioever, nevertheless, noio, and many 
 ot those mentioned in IT 364, (a.) 
 
 Exercise 61. 
 
 Analyze the foUomng sentences, jpomting out the 
 same distinctions as in the preceding exercise : — 
 What he says is indeed true, but it is not applicable to the 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 181 
 
 p--ont. I strBnuously opposed those measures, but it was 
 not ip my power to prevent them. We submit to the so- 
 ciety of those that can inform us, but we seek the socivHy 
 of those whom we can inform. Vice stings us even in our 
 pleasures, but virtue consoles us even in our pains. Tiger 
 hunting is very fine amusement so long as we hunt the 
 tiger ; but it is rather awkward, when the tiger takes it 
 into his head to hunt us. They have, indeed, honored 
 them with their praise, but they have disgraced them with 
 their pity. Some men know but little of their profession, 
 but yet they often succeed in life better than those whose 
 attainments they can never reach. Straws swim upon the 
 surface ; but pearls lie upon the bottom. A clownish air is 
 but a small defect ; still (369) it is enough to make a man 
 disagreeable. The locusts have no king, yet go they forth 
 all of them by bands. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 ALTERNATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 
 
 370. Alternative clauses are such as offei or 
 deny a choice between two propositions ; as, '' We 
 must conquer, or our liberties are lost." 
 
 371. The simple conjunctions used to connect 
 such clauses, are, or^ nor, (=not of,) neither, (—not 
 either. ) 
 
 372. The alternative is made emphatic by placing 
 the correlatives either or neither in the first clause ; 
 as, "I shall neither go myself nor shall I send any 
 one." 
 
 16 
 
182 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 (a.) JVeitJier . . . nor, either . . . or, more commonly show an 
 alternative between two elements of the same clause ; as, " He 
 was neither w'se nor careful;" '■'- Either George or his brother 
 wiL come." 
 
 373. The connectives otherwise and else are 
 often associated with or^ and may represent it 
 when understood ; as, '' Learn your lesson ; other- 
 wise you must lose your rank." 
 
 Exercise 62. 
 
 Analyze the following sentences as in the two pre- 
 ceding exercises : — 
 
 A jest is not an argument ; nor is a loud laugh a dem- 
 onstration. I neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowh 
 edge of the holy. He either left the key in the door" 
 [or] else the robber had a false key. Christianity must 
 be the true religion, (373;) otherwise all the religions in 
 the world are but fables. 
 
 For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 
 Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 
 
 No children run to lisp their sire's return, 
 Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. 
 
 Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
 Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? 
 
 I have none ; else would I give it. He is either sick or 
 fatigued, (372, a.) I neither knew what I was, where I 
 was, nor from whence I came. -^ sa ^ -^ 
 
 Add either copulative, adversative, or alternative 
 clauses to each of the following simple sentences. 
 
 We must conquer. The debt must be paid. The 
 child will be relieved soon. He has returned. The lec- 
 ture has either been very long. He has not the strength 
 to accomplish the work. We must retreat. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. I S8 
 
 SECTION IV 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 374. We have now exhibited all the forms of 
 words, phrases, and clauses, which enter into the 
 structnre of the English language. The following 
 recapitulation^vill give a condensed view of their 
 principal uses : — 
 
 375. In reviewing the preceding chapters, the 
 learner will observe that any sentence is composed 
 of essential parts and connectives.' 
 
 376. The essential parts are of the nature of a 
 substantive, adjective,* or adverb. (176, 189, 269.) 
 These parts may enter into the structure of a sen- 
 tence, either in the form of a single word, a phrase, 
 or a clause. 
 
 377. The substantive (word, phrase, or clause) 
 may enter into the structure of a sentence in three 
 relations, — as subject, as attribute, (either assumed 
 ox predicated,) or as object. 
 
 378. The adjective (word, phrase, or clause) may 
 enter into the structure of a sentence, first, as a. 
 modifier, and,, secondly, (with the exception of the 
 clause,) as the attribute of a proposition. 
 
 379. The adverb (word, phrase, or clause) is 
 used as a modifier. 
 
 * It should be borne in mind, that adjective^ as here used, in- 
 CiUdes the attributive part of the verb. (24, 35, a.) 
 
184 A-NALYSiS OF SENTENCEb. 
 
 380. The adjective element, in either class, is used 
 tu limit meieiy ; — to limit by denoting quality^ 
 %o limit by denoting identity ^ or to limit by de- 
 noting possession. 
 
 381. The objective element, in either class, is used 
 to complete the meaning of a transitive verb. 
 
 382. The adverbial element, in either class, de- 
 notes the jjlace, time, cause, or manner of an 
 action. 
 
 383. Each element is subject to three condi- 
 tions ; it may be simple, complex, or comqjomid. 
 
 (a.) When the subordinate elements are simple, the adjective 
 belongs to the subject, (except when the predicate-nominative is 
 ttsed ;) the ohjcctive belongs to the predicate, (used only with tran- 
 sitive verbs ;) the adverbial belongs to the predicate. When any 
 ..N_\ one of these elements is complex, it may be formed by a union 
 of either or all the others, so that an adverbial or objective ele- 
 ment may be found in the subject, or an adjective in the predicate. 
 
 384. The following table exhibits the different 
 forms of the elements in the sz?/2p/e, the omplex, or 
 the compowid sentence : — 
 
 Simple. 
 
 Adj. -f Sub. i i Pred. + Obj. -\- Adv. 
 
 Class 11111 
 Class 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 Class 3 3 3 3 3 Complex. 
 
 Adj. + S. : P. + Obj. + Adv. Adj. + S : P. + Obj. 4- 4du. 
 
 1 11 1 1 ^ ^1 11 1 1 ) 
 
 2 22 2 2S+V2 22 2 2V Comp 
 
 3 3 3 3 3) I3 3 3 3 3^ 
 
 * The different coordinate conjunctions bear some resemblance 
 10 the three algebraic signs, -[-, — , rh; the first representing tho 
 topulative, the second, the adversative • the thiid, the alternative. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 185 
 
 385. Th(ise elements are united by connectives. 
 
 386. The subject and predicate are united by 
 the copula, either distinct or involved in the verb, 
 
 387. The other elements are united either suh' 
 ordinately or co'ordinately. 
 
 388. Subordinate elements are united immedi- 
 ately ^ if of the first class, — by means of preposi- 
 tions, if of the second, — by means of relative pro- 
 nouns, conjunctions, or conjunctive adverbs, if of the 
 third 
 
 389. Coordmate elements of either class are 
 connected by conjunctions. 
 
 390. Conjunctions, or conjunctive words, are 
 divided into two classes, — coordinate and subordin- 
 ate. The former are used in compound or partial 
 compound sentences, and the latter in complex. 
 
 391. The coordinate conjunctions are often <^ 
 placed at the beginning of an entire sentence, or 
 even a paragraph. They then connect the thought 
 contained in the sentence or paragraph which fol- 
 lows, to that which precedes. 
 
 (a.) Sometimes subordinate connectives, especially for 
 and because, are placed at the beginning of an entire sen- 
 tence. In such cases, some principal clause is understood ; as, 
 [It is so,] " For I delight in the law of God after the innei 
 
 man." 
 
 (b.) It is worthy of notice, that coordinate conjunctions are 
 employed to connect elements of the same class as well as the 
 same rank ; whereas subordinate connectives join elements differ- 
 ing both in rank and class ; as, " I know that the exje of the public 
 is upon me, and that I shall be held responsible for every act ;' 
 **I will sustain the statement ichich T have made. 
 
 16* 
 
186 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 SENTENCES CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 
 
 ^■^2. In the preceding chapters, we have ex- 
 -. dned the different species of words, phrases, and 
 cUuses, which enter into the formation of a sen- 
 tence. We are now to regard the sentence as a 
 complete structure, entering in as a component 
 part of a paragraph. 
 
 393. Sentences thus considered are divided into 
 four clisses, — declarative, interrogative, iiuperative, 
 and exdamatory. 
 
 394. A declarative sentence is a declaration or 
 statement, either affirmative or negative, and is the 
 appropriate form for narrative and didactic compo- 
 sition. 
 
 395. An interrogative sentence is a question, 
 either direct or indirect, and is the appropriate form 
 to to employed in seeking for information or gain- 
 ing the assent of others. 
 
 (tt.) In questions for gaining assent, not should be inserted if 
 we expect an affirmative answer, and omitted if we expect a neg- 
 Rtive ; as, " Is there not an appomted time to man on the earth '' 
 [Yes.] " Doth God pervert judgment? " [No.] Hencej 
 
 {b.) li' not is found in the question, it should be emitted 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 181 
 
 in llie answer, and should be inserted in the answer when It it 
 not found in the question ; as, " There is an appointed time to 
 man on the earth ; " " God doth not pervert judgment." 
 
 396. An imperative sentence is used to express 
 a command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or a 
 prayer ; as, " Let us go : '' " May the truth prevail.'* 
 
 (a.) Of this kind of sentence there are two forms, — one in 
 which the verb is in the imperative mode, and one in wliich it is 
 in the potential. (See the above examples.) 
 
 (h.) An imperative sentence, when uttered by one who lias 
 authority, is a command ; when uttered by one v/ithout authority, 
 is nothing more than an exliortation or entreaty ; when uttei-ed 
 by an inferior, is a prayer. 
 
 397. An exclamatory sentence is either a declar- 
 ative, interrogative, or imperative sentence, so ut- 
 tered as to express passion or emotion ; as, " The foe 
 is gone ! " " Was it not strange ! " '' Make haste ' '' 
 
 [a.) Exclamatory sentences are often so elliptical as to be- 
 come mere fragments of a sentence ; as, Strange ! Impossible ! 
 
 ( b.) Exclamatory expressions are often of the nature of the 
 interjection; as ^ Mercy .' Goodness! How strange! 
 
 398. Each kind of sentence may be simple, com- 
 plex, or compound. The compound may be either 
 partial or complete. (See note at the bottom of 
 page 75.) 
 
 399. The parts of a compound sentence may be 
 all of the same species, that is, all declarative, all 
 interrogative, &c. ; or they may be of different spe- 
 cies ; as, " Give me the means, and I will cause 
 rlie work to be completed ; " '' He came, but where 
 is he now ? " 
 
 ( a.) Such sentences are called mixed; they may be formed by 
 an J ting any two of the four species of sentences 
 
 K 
 
188 analysis of sentences. 
 
 Models for analyzing a Paragraph. 
 
 Note. After the general character of a sentence has been 
 given, it may be analyzed according to the preceding models. 
 
 But for ivhat else can you find no leisure ? Do you find 
 none for amusement ? Or is amusement itself your occu^ 
 patio7i7 Perhaps pleasure is the pressing business of 
 your life; perhaps pleasure stands loaiting to catch your 
 precious moments as they pass. Do you find none for the 
 pursuit of secular knoicledge 1 If you find none^ then^ 
 for religion^ it is perhaps because you wish to find none; 
 it would be, you think, a tasteless occupation, an insipid 
 entertainment. 
 
 The first sentence is a simple, indirect interrogative 
 sentence. The second is a simple, direct mterrogative 
 sentence. The third the same. The fourth is a com- 
 pound declarative sentence ; the first part is simple, the 
 second complex, (360.) The fifth is a simple, direct inter- 
 rogative sentence. The sixth is a compound declarative 
 sentence having two parts, both complex. 
 
 Exercise 63. 
 
 Analyze the folloiving paragraphs : — 
 
 Again, it is said, Am I not as good as others } Why is 
 an attention to religion, an unpopular piety, a rigid virtue, 
 required of me, which cannot be found in the circle of my 
 acquaintance, or in the world at large } Why am I urged 
 to set up as a reformer, or expose myself to the scorn of 
 mankind ? But the majority of men are poor. Does this, 
 however, check the ardor of your pursuit of wealth } or do 
 you avoid a new acquisition, because you fear it will "ex- 
 pose you to the envy of your inferiors } The majority of 
 
A.XALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 189 
 
 mankind are ignorant. But is ignorance therefore honor- 
 able, or IS learning contemptible or invidious ? 
 
 The first emotions Avhich touched my breast were those 
 of mingled pity and veneration. But how soon were all 
 my feelings changed ! The lips of Plato were never more 
 worthy of a prognostic swarm of bees, than were the lips 
 of this holy man. It was a day of the administration of 
 the sacrament ; and his subject, of course, was the passion 
 of our Savior. T had heard the subject handled a thousand 
 times : I had thought it exhausted long ago. Little did I 
 suppose, that, in the wild woods of America, I was to meet 
 with a man whose eloquence would give to this topic a new 
 and more sublime pathos than I had ever before witnessed. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF THE ELEMENTS. 
 
 400. The arrangement of an element is the po- 
 sition which it takes in the sentence. 
 
 401. There are two kinds of arrangement ; — 
 that which is usual, called the natural or grammati- 
 cal order ; and that in which the elements are 
 transposed, called the inverted or rhetorical order. 
 
 I. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL ELE 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 ' 402. In declarative sentences, the subjecr is 
 placed before the predicate, the copula before the 
 
190 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 attribute, and the auxiliary before the principal 
 verb: as, "Caesar conquered j " "Life is short." 
 "James will write." 
 
 403. Inversion takes place when the predicate 
 is made emphatic ; as, " Great is Diana of the 
 Ephesians ; " "Known unto God are all his 
 w^rks." 
 
 (a.) In such cases, the subject is generally placed between the 
 attribute and copula, or the auxiliary and principal verb. 
 
 ( 6.) Inversion takes place in sentences introduced by there^ 
 (35, b. 196, a.) or in sentences following nor or neither. 
 
 404. In direct interrogative sentences, the copula 
 or auxiliary is placed first, the subject next, and the 
 attribute or principal verb last ; as, " Is he well ? '* 
 " Can you go ? " 
 
 (fl.) When the predicate is a simple form of the verb, it is 
 placed before the subject; as, " Say you this without a blush?" 
 
 405. In indirect interrogative sentences, the in- 
 terrogative is placed first, and the other parts are 
 generally arranged as in direct interrogative sen* 
 tences ; as, "When did he come?" 
 
 (a.) When the interrogative pronoun is in the nominative 
 caee, it stands before the predicate ; as, " Who comes tliere ? " 
 
 (i.) When the attribute is the subject of inquiry, it should be 
 placed before the copula, and the subject should be placed last ', 
 as, " How high is the tree? " " How old was the messenger ? " 
 
 406. In imperative sentences, the subject fol- 
 lows the predicate, or is placed between the copula 
 and attribute ; as, "Go thou; " "'Be ye content." 
 
 407. Exclamatory sentences follov/ the arrange- 
 ment of the sentences from which they are de- 
 rived (397.) 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 191 
 
 408. In subordinate clauses, the connective is 
 placed first, and thon the subject and predicate. 
 
 \l. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT 
 
 409. The adjective element, if simple and of 
 the first clasSj is placed before the noun ; if of the 
 second or third class, it is placed after the noun ; 
 as, " Wise men = men of wisdom = men who were 
 ivise were chosen." 
 
 («.) The noun in apposition is placed after the noun which it 
 fimits; as, " George the king."* 
 
 (6.) A complex adjective element is placed after the noun 
 when it contains an element of the second or third class ; as, 
 " Men skilled in architecture.'' 
 
 (c.) When an adjective element is of the first class, and com- 
 pound, it may be placed before or after the noun ; as, " Pure and 
 ardent devotion," or " Devotion pure and ardent." 
 
 (rf.) When an adjective limits the complex idea expressed by 
 another adjective and noun, it must be placed before them both j 
 as, " Jill good men ; " " That distinguished officer." 
 
 m. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVE AND 
 ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 410. The objective element of either class is 
 placed after a transitive ve^b, and generally precedes 
 the adverbial element ; as, " Susan painted the 
 picture elegantly ; " '' I know that my Redeemer 
 liveth:' 
 
 411. The indirect object precedes the diiect, 
 tvhen the preposition is omitted ; of.lierwise it fol- 
 
y 
 
 192 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCF.S. 
 
 ows it ; as, " Vv^e gave Am money ; " " ^'e ^ave 
 money to himy 
 
 412. Inversion of the objective element takes 
 place frequently in poetry, but seldom in prose ; as. 
 '^Copernicus these wonders told." 
 
 (a ) As the relation of words in English is determined chiefly 
 Dy their position, inversion of the object often renders the mean- 
 ing of a sentence ambiguous ; as " Caesar Brutus loved." Either 
 "Ccesar" or " Brutus " may be the object of "loved," When 
 the pronoun is used, inversion may take place without obscur- 
 ing the sense; as, " /f/??t followed his next mate." 
 
 X 413. The adverbial element of either class is 
 placed after the word which it limits ; as, " The 
 'etter was written correctly;^'' "He remained in 
 Philadelphia;^^ "We shall leave as soon as the 
 storm abates.''^ 
 
 («.) As a general rule, an adverbial element of the first class is 
 placed before one of the second, and one of the second before one 
 of the third; as, " He went early m the morning ; " " Some per- 
 sons beg their daily happiness from door to door, as beggars 
 do their daily bread.'' 
 
 414. Inversions take place more frequently in 
 the adverbial element than in any other. 
 
 415. The simple adverb is often placed between 
 the copula and attribute, or between the auxiliary 
 and verb ; as, " I shall immediately send for him ; " 
 " He is now convalescent." 
 
 (a.) Modal adverbs, and such as modify the whole sentence, 
 are often placed at the beginning ; as, " Perhaps he will do it." 
 
 416. Adverbial elements of either class may be 
 placed in either of three positions, — 1st, in their 
 natural position after the predicate ; 2d, between the 
 subject and predicate ; or, 3d, at the head of the 
 sentence. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SPINTENOK^ri 193 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 {He examined the document carefully. 
 He carefully examined the document. 
 Carefully did he examine the document. 
 
 /■ He invaded the country with a large arnih, 
 M Class. < He, with a large army^ invaded the country. 
 V With a large army, he invaded the country. 
 
 {Flowers vv'ill bloom, whe7i spring comes. 
 Flowers, when spring comes, will bloom. 
 When sjnnng comes, flowers will bloom. 
 
 417. In compound sentences, the clauses are sue- 
 cessiv^e. One can never be interposed between the 
 parts ot^ another. 
 
 Note. The perspicuity, harmony, strength, and beauty of a 
 sentence often depend upon a skilful arrangement of its elements. 
 No definite rules for arrangement can be given to guide the 
 learner in all cases ; he must rely mainly upon his own judg. 
 ment, aided by the suggestions of his teacher. He will find it an 
 excellent exercise, to take some well-written paragraph, and re- 
 arrange all its sentences, then compare the new arrangement with 
 the old, and decide upon their merits. 
 
 Exercise 64. 
 
 Show which elements in the following senterices are 
 arranged grammatically, and ivhich are inverted : — 
 
 Powerful was the king of Alba ; numerous were his 
 armies ; mighty his people. Two hemispheres acknowl- 
 edged his sway. The sun rose in glory on his eastern 
 cities, and set in splendor o'er his western people. As '.he 
 trunk of a luxuriant tree borne down by its branches, so 
 was the kingdom of Alba in the midst of its dependencies. 
 X The precursors of a storm were seen in the west ^ a majcs- 
 
 17 
 
194 ANALVSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 tic figure emerged from the gloom ; the wreath of freedoi*! 
 decorated her brov/ ; her breastplate was the shield of 
 faith. Superstition trembled at her coming. Tyranny 
 fled before her footsteps. At her voice the wilderness 
 blossomed, and the desert became as the peopled city. 
 
 Point out the inversions in the following sentences, 
 and show what element is transposed : — 
 
 Great is the theme, though weak the lay. Because the 
 night was dark, they did not proceed. With regard to mo- 
 rality, i was not indifferent. On the following day, they 
 walked together in the garden. 
 
 Seven circling planets 1 behold, 
 Their different orbits all describe. 
 
 Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I 
 unto you. Anxiously did we watch eveiy movement. 
 
 Take some inverted passage of poetry and arrange 
 it grammatically. 
 
 Arrange the following displaced elements so thai 
 they will make sense ; — 
 
 He himself as well as he could concealed, and hasten 
 on Thomas bade. We our cause, by calling in that which 
 is weak mjure often, to support that is strong which. The 
 world we in others approving follow, but in ourselves ap' 
 proving before it go. Of our population, the march west 
 ward, with consequences, in some degree has been attended, 
 novel, in the human mind history of. Greatness his un- 
 searchable is, and past finduig out ways his. Of the new 
 year what the charm is ? 
 
 Improve the arrangement of the following sentences : — 
 
 V Impart to them, in addition to their hereditary valor, thai 
 confidence of success which springs from thy presence, s. 
 The long voyage he has to make, to an American visiting 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 195 
 
 iii^x . ft, is an excellent preparative. He will make order, 
 at last, to arise from the seeming confusion of the world, 
 wlio made light to spring from primeval darkness. If he 
 was not the greatest king, he was the greatest actor of 
 majesty at least, that ever filled the throne. He ha.s noi 
 only disturbed our domestic, but our social relations. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 PECULIARITIES OF STRUCTURE. 
 
 418. Peculiarities of structure may refer to en- 
 tire sentences or to their component parts. 
 
 l.-^ PECULIARITIES IN THE STRUCTURE OF SEN- 
 
 TENCES. 
 
 419. A sentence may be either loose or co7npact 
 
 (a.) These are qualities belonging to complex or compound 
 ■jentences. 
 
 (b.) Compact structure is often called periodic^ and a com- 
 pact sentence, a period. 
 
 420. A loose sentence is one in which the parts 
 are related in thought, but are wholly independent 
 of each other in construction ; as, '' Three days 
 they mourned over Garthon : on the fourth, his 
 father died." 
 
 (rt.) The loose sentence is to be found chiefly among com 
 pound sentences. 
 
 (h.) The parts of a loose sentence are called its members. They 
 may be either simple^ complex^ or compound, 
 
 (c.) Each member contains a distinct thought, and is uttered 
 
196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 as if it were a complete sentence ; the voice falls at the end ol 
 each member. 
 
 421. A compact sentence is one in which the 
 parts are closely united both in thought and con- 
 struciion ; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I 
 trust in him." 
 
 (a.) This property belongs both to compound and complex 
 sentences. The latter are seldom loose. 
 
 ( 6.) In uttering compact sentences, the voice is kept up till the 
 <lose. 
 
 (c.) Compact sentences are most closely united by means of 
 correlatives. 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 Tell which of the following sentences are compact, 
 and ivhich are loose. 
 
 These minor comforts are all important in the estimation 
 of narrow minds ; and they either do not perceive, or wilj 
 not acknowledge, thai they are more than counterbalanced 
 among; us by great and generally diffused blessings. Let 
 those who would affect singularity with success, first deter- 
 mine to be very virtuous, and they will be sure to be very 
 singular. A revengeful knave will do more than he wil! 
 say ; a grateful one, will say more than he will do. We 
 are sure to be losers when we quarrel witli ourselves ; it u 
 a civil war, and in all such contentions, triumphs are de- 
 feats. When a man has displayed talent in some particu- 
 lar patii, and left all competitors behind him in it, the 
 world are too apt to give him credit for a universality ol 
 genius, and to anticipate for him success in all that he \!n 
 fJeriakes. 
 
 M'^riie ten sentences, — five compact and five loo <e. 
 
 / 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 197 
 
 U.^FECUL1ARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ^ARTS 
 
 OF A SENTENCE. 
 
 422. Any departure from the ordinary rules of 
 construction is called ?i figure. The following are 
 the principEil figures which affect the construction 
 of words. 
 
 423. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, 
 or clause, which is necessary to complete the con- 
 struction. 
 
 (a.) Ellipsis should be distinguished ?r o\\i ahrldgmcnt. (ZA\.) 
 [n ellipsis some word is left out, but in abridgment an expression 
 i-s shortened by a change of construction. 
 
 (6.) Ellipsis differs from contraction. By contraction a com- 
 pound sentence, having some one element or more in common, is 
 reduced to a partial compound by using the common part but 
 once ; as, " Cicero icas a distinguished orator^ and Demosthene? 
 was a distinguished orator " = " Cicero and Demosthenes were 
 distinguished orators.'^ Althoucrh this last sentence is sometimes 
 said to be elliptical, nothing is necessary to complete the con 
 struction. 
 
 ( c.) Ellipsis should be distinguished from a careless omission 
 of words necessary alike to the construction and meaning. 
 
 424. Ellipsis generally takes place in exclama- 
 tory sentences, (397,) in responsives, in clauses de- 
 noting comparison, (333, a.) in inscriptions and 
 titles, and after connectives ; as, " Strange ! " = •' It 
 is strange." •' Whom did you see ? George = i 
 saw George." " The New Testament " = ^' This is 
 the New Testament." " He is older than I = than 
 I am old." 
 
 425. Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis. It la 
 
 17* 
 
198 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 -the use of superiluous words; as, "1 know thtt 
 who thou art ; " " Verily, verily^ I say unto you." 
 
 (a.) Pleonasm should be distinguished from expansion. The 
 former consists in adding an element to express what has been 
 dlieadj expressed, whereas the latter consists in changing the form 
 of an expression for a more extended form, as an adverb, an adjec- 
 tive, or a noun, for an equivalent phrase or clause. 
 
 (6.) Pleonasm is allowable only in animated discourse, when 
 an idea is to be I'endered emphatic. 
 
 426. Enallage, wh ich means exchange^ is the use 
 of one word or form for another. 
 
 427. Enallage may refer either to the form o/ 
 meaning of words. 
 
 428. By enallage, as it respects the form of 
 words, — 
 
 {a.) One part of speech may be used for an- 
 other ; as, '' They fall successive\\.Y^ and successive\\.y] 
 rise." 
 
 ( 6. ) One number may be used for another ; as, 
 we for /, you for tUou. 
 
 (c.) One tense may be used for another,* as, 
 "He risetk from supper, and laid aside his gar- 
 ments," &c. 
 
 Note. When a past or future tense is exchanged for the pres- 
 ent, the figure is called vision, that is, seeing past or future events 
 as if present. 
 
 429. Enallage, as it respects the meaning of 
 words, gives rise to several figures, called tropes. 
 
 430 The principal tropes are, metaphor, personi 
 Jicaticn, nMonymy, synecdoche, and irony. 
 
 431 Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate 
 name d' iiui^'h'n' o];ject, on account of some resem- 
 oiaacc betweeji them; as, " ?^lan ! thou pendulum 
 betwi^:t ;i smile and tear.'' 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCiilS. 199 
 
 (a.) Wiieu the resemblance is slated formall}'', tlie figure is 
 called a simile ; as, " They rushed through like a hurricane.' 
 (b.) A continued metaphor is called an allegory. 
 
 432. Persomjication attributes to inanimate ob- 
 lects some of the qualities of living beings ; as^ 
 
 * The sky saddens with the gathered storm." 
 
 (a.) These two figures generally produce some change in the 
 ase of pronouns ; as when we apply the feminine pronoun she 
 (not it) to the moon ; or when we say of a statesman, " He is the 
 pillar ichich (not who) supports the state." 
 
 433. Metonymy ^ IS a change of name. It gives 
 to one object the name of another which is related 
 to it; as, crown for king, chair {or president. 
 
 434. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the 
 whole, or the whole for a part ; as, roof for house. 
 
 435. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite. 
 
 436. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words. 
 
 (rt.) This figure has already been explained in Sec. II. of this 
 chapter 
 
 Exercise 66. 
 
 Tell what figures are used in the following sen- 
 tences : — 
 
 A Oreek Dictionary. Lnpossible ! C4o. He speaks as 
 if he had been sick. I saw it with my eyes. He walked 
 on foot. Dark burned the candle. For Renard close 
 attended al his heels. And he taketh with him Peter, and 
 James and John, and began to be sore amazed. Devotion 
 is a delicate and XxiuAix plant. The cherished fields p?i/ 
 j)n their ivinter robe of purest white. The boy has read 
 Virgil. They have 3Ioses and the prophets. His arm is 
 conquest., and his frown is fate. This roof protects you 
 He was as virtuous as Nero, and as patriotic as Arnold. 
 
200 ANAI. rSi3 OF SENTENCES. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 437. Two different eocpressions, meaning the 
 same thing or nearly the same, are called equiva- 
 lents ; aSj ''Xerxes ordered that Mar donius should 
 remain in Greece = Mardonius to remain in 
 Greece^ 
 
 ( a.) Equivalent expressions often have shades of difference in 
 meaning. In the above example, the first Itahcized form implies 
 that the command v/as given in a general way ; tlie second, that 
 it was given personally to Mardonius. 
 
 ( b.) Equivalents in signification are by no means equivalents 
 in grammatical construction j nor is the grammatical construction 
 of one form accounted for by explaining that of its equivalent. 
 
 438. Two different words, meaning the same 
 
 thingj or nearly the same, are called synonymes ; as, 
 
 relinquish = abandon. 
 
 (a.) There are, iimnost cases, shades of difference between 
 words considered as synonymous. 
 
 439. By means of equivalents, synonymes, or 
 both, any sentence may be materially changed in 
 form, with little or no change in meaning. 
 
 440. In simple sentences we may obtain equiv- 
 \ alent forms, — 
 
 ^^ (a.) By denying the opposite of that which is 
 affirmed ; as, " He was jiot unskilful " = " He was 
 skilful ;''■— 
 
 (6.) By using the passive for the active voice, or 
 the active for the passive ; as, " Columbus dis- 
 f^overed America " = " America was discovered by 
 Columbus;" — 
 
L 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 201 
 
 (c.) By expanding or abridging an element 
 ( 178, b.) ; aSj '^ A morning ride is refreshing " = " A 
 ride in the morning is refreshing ; " — 
 
 (d.) By using the expletive it (196, a.); as, 
 '' To see the sun is pleasant " =^ " It is pleasant to 
 see the sun." 
 
 Note. Synonymes may be employed with any of these 
 changes 
 
 441. A simple sentence may be changed to a 
 complex by expanding any one of its elements into 
 a proposition ; as, " Having completed his discov- 
 ery, Hudson descended the river "=: ^^ After he had 
 completed his discovery, ^^ &c. 
 
 442. A complex sentence may be changed to an 
 equivalent simple sentence by abridging its sub- 
 ordinate clause. (342.) 
 
 443. A complex sentence may be changed to an 
 equivalent complex sentence, — ^ 
 
 (a.) By making any of the^Hianges mentioned 
 m IT 440, «, b, c, d, in either of its clauses ; — 
 
 (6.) By using various equivalent connectives, 
 as, when for as or as soon as. 
 
 (c.) By using the expletive it. (See 2S2.) 
 
 444. A complex sentence may be changed to a 
 compound, by raising its subordinate clause to an 
 equal rank with the principal ; as, "When spring 
 comes, the flowers will bloom " = " Spring comes, 
 and the flowers bloom." 
 
 445. A compound sentence may be changed to 
 a complex, by making one of its clauses subordi- 
 nate ; as, " Man has a moral sense, and, therefore, 
 
202 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 he is an accountable being " = *' Since man has a 
 moral sense, he is an accountable being." 
 
 446. A compound sentence may be changed to 
 an equivalent compound, by altering either of its 
 clauses. (440, a, 6, c, d.) 
 
 447. A question for gaining assent may be 
 changed into a declarative sentence, or a declara- 
 tive sentence into a question for gaining assent. 
 (See 395.) 
 
 Note. After the learner has acquired a correct knowledge of 
 the various forms and conditions of the elements of a sentence, 
 perhaps no exercise, in connection with composition, will prove 
 more beneficial than that of re- writing sentences, for the purpose 
 of altering and improving, if possible, their form or arrangement, 
 ft is the only substitute which the mere English scholar can have 
 for translation, an exercise which consists in obtaining equivalent 
 forms in one language for given forms in another. It is to exer- 
 cises of this kind that Dr. Franklin attributes his skill in writing. 
 It is a sure way to giv^e the pupil variety of expression, copious- 
 ness of diction, and a knowledge of the flexibility and power of 
 the language. As it sflaects a choice of words and expressions, 
 no rules of grammar cSF materially aid the learner. He should 
 study standard authors, such as Addison, Middleton, and Irving. 
 A perusal of these will assist him in obtaining correct forms of 
 expression, and enable him to avoid all low and unauthorizec^ 
 words. 
 
 Exercise 67. 
 Alt'^r the foUoiving sentences by using synonymes : — 
 
 Thankfulness is an agreeable feeling. They are sowing 
 the seeds of strife. The hypocrite writhes in agony. The 
 maid-servant is lighting the fire. They shrink from the 
 lontest. Fie is slaj Ing his enemies. 
 
 Model. Gi^alitude is a delightful emotion 
 
 Take a page J^om your reading lesson^ ana mnJce 
 any of the changes mentioned in this section. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 English Grammar teaches the principles of ihe Eng- 
 lish language. 
 
 These principles refer to the formation of words or the 
 fo^matio7i of sentences. 
 
 The first department embraces orthography and etymoh 
 ogy^ — the second, syntax and prosody. 
 
 Note. Prosody relates to the formation of sentences into 
 verse. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters and their various combina- 
 tions. 
 
 Etymology treats of the different ^^ses of words and 
 their various modifications. ^T^ 
 
 Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
 
 Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 Orthography treats of letters and their various com- 
 binations. 
 
 A letter is a character used to represent an elementary 
 sound of the language, 
 
204 APPENDIX. 
 
 The elemenlary sounds of the language are,— - 
 
 ^^1.) Vocals^^ or pure voice only ; as, a, e, i, o, u; 
 
 (2.) Suhvocals^ or voice and breath united ; as, b, d^ m, 
 n, Z, r; 
 
 (3.) Asjnrates^ or pure breath only ; as, /?, /, k^f. 
 
 Those letters which represent the first class, are called 
 vowels ; those which represent the second and third, are 
 called consonants. 
 
 There are only twenty-six letters of the alphabet to represent 
 about forty elementary sounds; hence several letters are used 
 to represent each more than one sound. 
 
 Of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, five (a, c, t, o, and u) 
 are vowels ; two {w and y) are either vowels or consonants ; the 
 remaining nineteen are consonants. W and y are consonants 
 when they precede a vowel in the same syllable ; as in wine_ 
 twine, yes, yet. In any other situation they are vowels. 
 
 Ten of the consonants (ft, d, g,j, I, m, n, r, v, z) are subvocals- 
 eight (/, A, k, c, q, p, t, s) are aspirates ; a; is a subvocal when it 
 is equivalent to gs, an aspirate when it is equivalent to ks. 
 
 A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; 
 as ou in sound. jflb 
 
 A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
 sounded ; as oi in noise. 
 
 An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the 
 vowels is sounded ; as ea in heat. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sylla- 
 ble ; as eau in beauty. 
 
 Ajoy oper triphthong m one in which the three vowels are 
 sounded ; as uoy in buoy. 
 
 An improper triphthong is one m which only one or two 
 of the vowels are sounded ; as ieio in view. 
 
 * It is impossible to represent these distinctions in anv waj 
 except by the living voice. The pupil should, theretore, De 
 taught to give the elementary sounds (not the name sounds' ol 
 the letters till the distinction becomes familiar 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 205 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 
 
 A syllable is a letter, or combination of letters, uttered 
 by one impulse of the voice ; as, ab^ id. A word is either 
 a syllable or a union of syllables; as, mat^ mat-ter^ mU' 
 te-ri'ol. 
 
 A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
 of two sjdlables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
 trisyllable ; a word of four or more syllables, a poly 
 syllable. 
 
 Words are either U7iderived, derived^ or compounded. 
 
 The first are called radical or primitive words ; the 
 second, derivative ; the third, compound. 
 
 Derivative words are formed from primitives by means 
 of some additional syllable ; as, good^ goodness ; real^ 
 realize ; grateful, ungrateful. ^L 
 
 When the added syllable is placea before the radical 
 word, it is called a prefix ; as, reprove, improve, dXsprove, 
 disprove. 
 
 When the added syllable is placed after the radical 
 word, it is called a suffix; ^s,fearh\\, fearless, fearing, 
 feared. 
 
 Compound words are formed by uniting two primitive or 
 derivative words ; as, book-case, book-binder. 
 
 A radical word represents a single idea, — a derivative, soiiie 
 modification of an idea, — a compound, two distinct ideas Uiiited. 
 It is worthy of notice, that these three classes of words Lear a 
 Btrikina resemblance to the three classes of sentences. Tlie sim- 
 Die sentence represents a single thought; in the complex sen 
 lence, that thought is modified by the subordinate clau-se ; in the 
 compound sentence, two distinct thoughts are united. 
 
 18 
 
206 APPENDIX. 
 
 Derivative words may be formed either by inflection or 
 by dey^ivation. 
 
 By inflection the application of a word is changed, but 
 not its classification. 
 
 It is the same part of speech after the change as before. 
 
 By derivation both the application and classification aje 
 
 changed, and the meaning is modified. 
 
 Thus, from the noun fear, we have, by inflection, the noun 
 fears, which denotes more than one : from the same word, we 
 have, by derivation, the ndiectives fearful, fearless^ or the adverbs 
 fearfully, fearlessly. 
 
 X ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Etymology treats of the diiferent classes of words and 
 Iheir various modifications. 
 
 LESSON L 
 
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 There are in English eight classes of words, called parts 
 of speech, namely, the nmm, the pronoun, the adjective, the 
 verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the 
 interjection. 
 
 Of these parts of speech, five (the noun, pronoun, adjective, 
 verb, and adverb) are used as the constituent parts (176) of a 
 sentence ; two (the preposition and conjunction) are used as con' 
 nectives of those parts; one (the interjection) has no grammatical 
 construction 
 
 Conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns, and all attributive 
 verbs (35, a.) are both constituent elements and connectives. 
 
CLASSES OP THE NOUN AND PRONOUN. 
 
 207 
 
 A noun Is the name of an object ; as, fruity Henry 
 Boston, 
 
 A pronoim is a word which takes the place of a noun , 
 as, Ae, she, it. 
 
 An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the mean* 
 ing of a noun ; as, good, faithful, this, some. 
 
 A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; 
 as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 
 
 An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a verb, ad- 
 jective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, first, far. 
 
 A preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
 tween a noun or pronoun and some preceding word ; as, 
 upon, on, with. 
 
 A conjunction is a word used to connect either words 
 phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or. 
 
 An interjection is a word used to express some emorion 
 of the mind ; as, oh ! alas ! 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 CLASSES OF THE NOUN AND PRONOUN 
 
 Note. This lesson is referred to on page 19. It should be 
 Btudied in connection with the subject of a sentence. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 A noun is the name of an 
 
 object. 
 
 The word object, as here used, 
 embraces every species of ex- 
 istence, whether material or 
 immaterial. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 A pronoun is a word 
 
 which takes the place of a 
 
 noun. 
 
 The pronoun is used to repre. 
 sent an object as having been 
 previously mentioned, or as 
 
208 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Nouns are divided into 
 two classes, — proper and 
 common 
 
 A jiroper noun is the 
 name of an individual ob- 
 ject ; as, James,, Erie. 
 
 A common noun is a 
 name which applies to each 
 individual of a class of ob- 
 jects ; as, man,, boy,, house. 
 
 Under the head of com- 
 mon nouns are commonly 
 reckoned collective,, abstract^ 
 and verbal nouns. 
 
 A collective noun is one 
 which, in the singular, de- 
 notes more than one object ; 
 as, army,, family ,,Jiock. 
 
 An abstract noun is the 
 name of a property con- 
 sidered apart from the ob- 
 ject to which it belongs ; as, 
 goodness,, virtue,, wisdom. 
 
 A verbal noun is a parti- 
 ciple used as a noun • as, 
 "He was convicted of 
 stealing.'^'' 
 
 Tho infinitive is a kind of 
 verbal noun ; as, " To see the 
 sun is pleasant." 
 
 A phrase or entire prop- 
 o:sition may bo used as a 
 Qoun ; as^ jprom Boston to 
 
 Pronoun 
 
 having some relation to the 
 speaker. 
 
 Pronouns are divided in 
 to three classes, — personal, 
 relative, and interrogative. 
 
 A personal pronoun is 
 used both to represent a 
 noun, and to show whether 
 it is of the Jirst,, second, or 
 thii^d person. 
 
 Note. Relative and inter- 
 rogative pronouns will be treat- 
 ed of hereafter. 
 
 I (plural, we) is of the 
 Jirst person ; thou (plural ye 
 or you) is of the second per- 
 son ; he, she, and it, (plural, 
 they,) are of the third per- 
 son, masculine, feminine, 
 and neuter, respectively. 
 
 When self (plural, selves) 
 is added to the personal 
 pronouns, they are called 
 compound personal pro- 
 nouns ; as, myself, thyself 
 himself 
 
 These seldom, if ever, are 
 used as the subject ; they may 
 be in apposition with the 
 subject. 
 
 It is often used in a 
 
 vague sense, as the subject 
 
 , "^f verbs descriptive of the 
 
NUMBER OF THE SOU Hi OR PRONOUN. 
 
 209 
 
 IVOUNS. 
 
 Providence is a pleasant 
 route ; " " That you have 
 v>ronged me, doth appear in 
 this." 
 
 Note. The noun is often 
 called a substantive. All phra- 
 ses or clauses used as nouns are 
 called substantive phrases or 
 clauses. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 rams; 
 
 weather ; as, " It 
 "It thunders." It is used 
 as an expletive., (196, a.) or 
 when we wish to identify a 
 person, (60, h.) or when we 
 wish to introduce a noun 
 with emphasis. (196, a.) 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 NUMBER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN 
 
 Note. This lesson is referred to on page 22, and should be 
 studied in connection with the " JSumher of the Subject." 
 
 Number is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
 distinguishes one object from more than one. 
 
 The noun or pronoun has two numbers, — the singular 
 and plural. 
 
 The singular number denotes but one object ; as, horse^ 
 river J nation. 
 
 The plural denotes more than one object ; as, horses^ 
 rivers., nations. 
 
 The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 
 
 (1.) By adding 5 when the singular ends with a sound 
 that can unite v/ith s ; as, hook., books ; tree., trees ; — 
 
 (2.) By adding es when the singular ends with a sound 
 that cannot unite with s ; as, hox^ hoxes ; church., churches. 
 
 Many nouns form their plurals more or less irregularly. 
 
 Many nouns ending with y preceded by a consonant, or with 
 / or /c, follow the general rule for the addition, but undergo a 
 
 18* 
 
2i0 
 
 iFPENDlX. 
 
 ehanire in theii termination; as, duty^ duties ; fly, flies , knife, 
 knives. 
 
 When ij IS preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly ; 
 as, dayydays ; play, plays. 
 
 The following nouns form the plural irregularly : — child, chil- 
 dren ; vian, men; tooman, women; brother, brothers or brethren; 
 louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice, {(lies, when it means a stamp ;) 
 tooth, teeth ; foot,feU ; goose, geese ; penny, jjcnce or pennies. 
 
 Proper nouns, most abstract nouns, and nouns denoting sub- 
 stance, have no plural , as, Boston, Philadelphia, iron, gold, ice^ 
 patience, idleness. 
 
 Proper nouns, however, may take the plural form when two 
 or more persons are classed together; as, "the Csesars," " the 
 Scipios." 
 
 When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form one 
 complex noun, the name is generally varied to form the plural ; 
 as, "the Miss Browns." 
 
 Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, riches, scissors^ 
 shears, lungs. 
 
 Some are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 
 
 Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu 
 rals; as, datum, data; stratum, strata; axis, axes, seraph, sera- 
 phim ; beau, beaux. 
 
 The plural of the pronouns is formed irregularly ; as, /, loe; 
 Lhou, ye. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 GENDER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Note. This lesson is referred to on page 23. 
 
 Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns in regard 
 tc sex. 
 
 There are three genders — the masculine, feminine., and 
 neuter. 
 
PERSON OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 211 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the mas* 
 culine gender ; as, mari, heroes, they. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote females are of the 
 fejni?iine gender ; as, girl, she ; loomen, they. 
 
 Nouns or pronouns which denote objects without life, 
 
 are of the neuter gender ; as, tree, it ; flowers, they. 
 
 ^ouns which are equally applicable to a male or female, art 
 sometimes said to be of the common gender ; a.s, parent, teacher 
 But such nouns must be either masculine or feminine, and the 
 true gender may generally be determined by the connection. 
 
 By a figure of speech, (personification,) inanimate objects 
 are spoken of as male or female. Thus, in speaking of a 
 ship, we say, " She sails." 
 
 There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes ; — 
 
 (1.) By using different words; as, man, looman ; ram^ 
 ewe ; king, queen ; — 
 
 (2.) By a difference of termination ; as, ahhot, abbess ; 
 actor, actress ; poet, poetess ; — 
 
 (3.) By prefixes and suffixes; as, ??ia?i-servant, maid 
 servant ; Ae-goat, sAe-goat ; Xand-lord, ]a.nd-lady. 
 
 Personal pronouns of the first and second person have 
 no form to indicate gender. 
 
 Those of the third person have a distinct form for 
 each slender ; as, he, masculine ; she, feminine ; it, neuter. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 PERSON OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Note. This lesson is to be studied in connection with the 
 person of the subject. 
 
 Person is that property of a noun or pronoun wtuch 
 shows its relation to the speaker. 
 
212 APl'ENDIX. 
 
 A noun or pronoun must represent either the speaker^ the per- 
 «on svohen to^ or the person or thing spukcn oj. 
 
 There are three persons, — ihe Jirst, seco?id^ and third. 
 ^ The jirst person denotes the speaker ; as, " /, /o/m, 
 Bavv." 
 
 The second person denotes the person spoken .o ; as, 
 * Childre7i^ obey your parents." 
 
 The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
 of; as, " Thomas did not come;" "The harvest is abun- 
 dant." 
 
 JVouns in the first and second persons are never used as the 
 subject or object of a verb, but may be in apposition with either. 
 
 It is the appropriate office of the personal pronouns to denote 
 person. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 THE CASE OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 
 
 Note. This lesson should be studied in connection with the 
 case of the subject. See " Ca.se of the Subject," page 25. 
 
 Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other 
 words. 
 
 There are three cases, — the nominative, possessive, a,nd 
 ohjective. 
 
 The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun or 
 pronoun, and is commonly used as the subject of a propo- 
 sition ; as, '' George speaks ; " " The door was shut." 
 
 Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case 
 may be used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition, (60;) 2d, it 
 may be used to identify the subject, (104;) 3d, it may be inde- 
 pendent of any other word, (13D;) 4th, it may be used witi} 
 a participle in an abridged proposition, (351.) 
 
DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 213 
 
 The possessive case denotes the relation of puoperty oi 
 possession ; as, " DavicTs harp." 
 
 The possessive case of nouns is formed by adding an 
 apostrophe (') and the letter s to the nominative ; as, 
 mail's^ men's. 
 
 When the plural ends in 5, the apostrophe only is added ; 
 a*^ hoys\ 
 
 The possessive case of the personal pronouns is formed 
 irregularly ; as, I, my or mine ; tiiocj, thy or thine ; he, his ; 
 SHE, her or hers. 
 
 The possessives mine^ thinc^ hers^ ours^ yours^ and theirs., are 
 used when the object possessed is understood. Hence they have 
 the construction of the noun ; as, '■'■ Mine is a pleasant task"=s 
 ** My task is pleasant ; " "I gave him yours " 
 
 When a noun or pronoun follows a transitive verb or a 
 preposition, it is in the objective case ; as, " Thomas 
 opened his kiiife ; " " The bird sat on the tree.'' 
 
 9» 
 
 The objective case of" the noun is the same in form as the noni' 
 inative ; but the objective case of a personal pronoun, except iU 
 is unlike the nominative ; as, /, me ; thou., thee ; he., him ; she, her 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 
 
 The declension of a notm or pronoun is its variation to 
 denote number and Aa«e. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 L^lfimsioji j ^ iouns. 
 
 J. Boy. 
 
 Sin^. Pliir. 
 
 ^«*m. Boy, Boys, 
 
 Poss. Boy's, Boys', 
 
 Obj. Boys. Boys. 
 
 Declension of Pronouns. 
 First Person. 
 
 Siyig. Plur. 
 
 ICom. I, We, 
 
 Poss. My, mine. Our, oura 
 
 Obj. Me. Us 
 
 / 
 
214 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 2. Fly. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 ■i'om. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Pass 
 
 Flys, 
 
 Ohj 
 
 Fly. 
 
 'V m 
 
 Puss. 
 Ohj. 
 
 JVom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 JVom. 
 Poss. 
 Obj. 
 
 3. Fox. 
 
 Sing 
 Fox, 
 Fox's, 
 Fox. 
 
 4. John. 
 
 John, 
 
 John's, 
 
 John. 
 
 Plm. 
 
 Flies, 
 
 Flies', 
 
 Flies. 
 
 Plur. 
 Foxes 
 Foxes', 
 Foxes. 
 
 Phtr. 
 Wanting. 
 
 5. Goodness. 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 Goodness, Wanting. 
 
 Goodness', 
 
 Goodness. 
 
 Second Persoh 
 
 Sing. Plur. 
 
 JVom. riiou. Ye, you, 
 
 Poss. Thy, thine. Your, yoursi 
 Obj. Thee. You. 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 Sing. 
 JVoju. He, 
 Poss. His, 
 Obi. Him. 
 
 Third Person. 
 
 Sing 
 JVom. She, 
 Poss. Her, hers, 
 Obj. Her. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Plur. 
 They, 
 
 Their, theirs, 
 Them. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Plur. 
 They, 
 
 Their, theirs, 
 Them. 
 
 Third Person. Neuter 
 
 Sing. 
 JVom. It, 
 Poss. Its, 
 Ohj. It. 
 
 Plur. 
 They, 
 
 Their, theirs. 
 Them. 
 
 <%• 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 ADJECTIVE WORDS 
 
 Note. This lesson is referred to on pages 31 and 50. 
 
 That jjart which relates to page 31 will be found under the 
 head of " Qualifying Adjectives.'^ All words which have the 
 construction of the adjective, are heie considered under the head 
 of '■'■ Adjective Words^" whatever may be their particular classifi. 
 cation. 
 
 An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the 
 meaning of a noun. 
 
ADJECTIVE WORDS. 215 
 
 All adJ6crFvc words are aivided into two classes — limit' 
 *hg and qualifying. 
 
 I. — LIMITING ADJECTIVES 
 
 A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict the 
 meaning of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities , 
 as, " the house ; " '■'-Jive books ; " " Arabian horses." 
 
 Articles, 
 
 The particular limiting adjectives tlie^ and a or an, are 
 called articles. 
 
 The is called the definite article, because it points out 
 some particular thing ; as, " the desk," " the sun." 
 
 A or an is called an indefinite article, because it does not 
 point out any particular thing ; as, " a pen ; " " an or- 
 chard." 
 
 An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a consonan* 
 aound ; as, " an apple j " " rt pin." 
 
 Pronominal Adjectives. 
 
 Those limiting adjectives which may, without the use oi 
 the article, represent a noun when understood, are called 
 'pronominal adjectives ; as, " That [book] is his ; this ia 
 yours." 
 
 Qualifying adjectives may represeriL 9 noiin when understood, 
 but the article must be prefixed; as, " The good are happy." 
 
 The principal pronominal adjectives are, — this^ t/iaty these^ 
 those^ former, lattery whichy what, each, every, cither, neither 
 some, one, none, any, all^ sxich, many, much. 
 
 When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are 
 generally called pronouns. They may more properly be called 
 pronominal adjectives used as rouns; as, " This is my book.'' 
 The articles never reuresent a noun understood. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Numeral Adjectives 
 
 iSumerai adjectives are used to express number; as, 
 
 ime, two^ three, &c. 
 
 Numerals are divided into two classes, — 
 Cardinal; as, one, tv>o, three, four, &c.; — 
 Ordinal; a.s, first, second, third, fourth, &c. 
 
 Circumstantial Adjectives. 
 
 Circumstaritial adjectives are such as denote some cir- 
 cumstance, generally of time or jjJace ; as, "a morning 
 walk ; " " an eastern custom ; " "a Turkish vessel." 
 
 II.— QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 
 
 A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meanmg 
 of a noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, " a 
 virtuous man ; " "a running horse." 
 N(^ To this class of adjectives belong the participles, which 
 have the signification of the verb and the construction of 
 the adjective. (77, a.) 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 When different objects are compared with each other, 
 the adjective expressing the property by means of which 
 they are compared, undergoes a change called comparison. 
 
 There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive.^ 
 comparative, and superlative. 
 
 The positive simply denotes a quality; as, righteous, 
 fleojsant. 
 
 The comparative shows that one of two objects poa 
 
«;l.asse= of verbs. 217 
 
 88?s*ys a qualiiy in a higher degree than the other ; ;t'>, '' This? 
 tree is taller than that. ' 
 
 The superlative shows that one oi" several objects pos- 
 sesses a quahty in the highest degree, when compared with 
 all the rest ; as, '•'• That pine is the tallest tree in the grove." 
 
 The comparative of monosyUables is regularly ibr.ned 
 by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding 5^ o\ esty 
 to the positive; as, wise^ wiser ^ wisest; hold, bo'der, 
 boldest. 
 
 The comparative of most adjectives of more than cne 
 
 syllable, is formed by prefixing more or less, and the suj er- 
 
 lative, by prefixing most or least, to the positive ; as, m 
 
 dustrious, more industrious, most industrious. 
 
 The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — go^id, 
 better, first ; bad, worse, worst ; ill, xcorse, loorst ; tittle, less or 
 lesser, least; muck, more, most; manij, more, most ; far, farther, 
 farthest ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last 
 old, older or elder, oldest or eldest. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 CLASSES OF VERBS. 
 
 See page 34. 
 
 A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or 
 state ; as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 
 
 The being, action, or state, may be affirmed, assumed, or 
 used abstractly ; as," George runs;'''' " George running ;'^^ 
 '-'■ to run.''^ 
 
 Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitite . 
 and intransitive. i^ 
 
 A tj-ansitive verb requires .triQ_ addition of an object to 
 complete its meaning ; as, ' James struck John.^'' 
 
 19 
 
218 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 An intransitive verb does not require the addition of aD 
 object to complete its meaning ; as, " The horse runs.''^ 
 
 Verbs are divided, according to their ^orTTi, into regulr* 
 and irregular. 
 
 A regular verb is one in which the past tense and past 
 participle are formed by adding d or ed to the present ; as, 
 love^ loved., loved ; gain, gained^ gained. 
 
 An irKMular verb is one in which the past tense and 
 past participle are formed in some other way ; as, see, 
 saio, seen ; lorite, wrote, written. 
 
 The present, past, and past participle of a verb are 
 called its 'principal parts. 
 
 The following list contains the principal parts of the 
 irregular verbs:'— 
 
 Prcsctvt. 
 
 Pasu 
 
 Past Participle 
 
 Abide, 
 
 Abode, 
 
 Abode. 
 
 Am, 
 
 Was, 
 
 Been. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 Awoke, F * 
 
 Awaked 
 
 Bear, {to 
 
 bring forth,) Bore, 
 
 Born. 
 
 Bear, {to 
 
 carry,) Bore, 
 
 Borne. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beat, 
 
 Beaten, beat 
 
 Begin, 
 
 Began, 
 
 Begun. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 Bent, B 
 
 Bent. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 Bereft, r. 
 
 Bereft, r. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 Besought, 
 
 Besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 Bid, bade. 
 
 Bidden, bid. 
 
 Bind, 
 
 Bound, 
 
 Bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 Bit, 
 
 Bitten, bit. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 Bled, 
 
 Bled. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 Blew, 
 
 Blown. 
 
 Break, 
 
 Broke, 
 
 Broken. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 Bred, 
 
 Bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 Brought, 
 
 Brought. 
 
 Build, 
 
 Built, R. 
 
 Built. 
 
 Burn, 
 
 Burnt, R. 
 
 Burnt, R. 
 
 * Those verba whose past tense or past participle is followed 
 by R., have also a regular furm ; as, awoke or awakea 
 
IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 21) 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Pardeiple, 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst, 
 
 Burst. 
 
 Buv, 
 
 Bought, 
 
 Bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast, 
 
 Cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 Caught, R. 
 
 Caught B. 
 
 Chide," 
 
 Chid, 
 
 Chidden, chii 
 
 Choose, 
 
 Chose, 
 
 Chosen. 
 
 Cleave, (to adhere,) 
 
 Cleaved, 
 
 Cleaved. 
 
 Cleave, (to split,) 
 
 Clove, clefl. 
 
 Cloven. ^ 
 
 Cling, ' 
 
 Qung, 
 
 Clung. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 Clad, R. 
 
 Clad, R. 
 
 Come, 
 
 Came, 
 
 Come, 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cost, 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 Crept, 
 
 Crept. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Crew, R. 
 
 Crowed. 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut, 
 
 Cut. 
 
 Dare, 
 
 Durst, 
 
 Dared. 
 
 Deal, 
 
 Dealt, R. 
 
 Dealt, r. 
 
 Dig, 
 
 Dug, R. 
 
 Dug, R. 
 
 Do, 
 
 Did, 
 
 Done. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 Drew, 
 
 Drawn. 
 
 Dream, 
 
 Dreamt, r. 
 
 Dreamt, b. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 Drank, 
 
 Drunk, dranfi 
 
 Drive, 
 
 Drove, 
 
 » Driven. 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 Dwelt, r. 
 
 Dwelt, R. 
 
 Eat, 
 
 Ate, eat. 
 
 Eaten. 
 
 Fall, 
 
 Fell, 
 
 Fallen. , 
 
 Feed, 
 
 Fed, 
 
 Fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 Felt, 
 
 Felt. 
 
 Fight, 
 
 Fought, 
 
 Fought. 
 
 Find, 
 
 Found, 
 
 Found. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 Fled, 
 
 Fled. 
 
 Fling, 
 
 Flung, 
 
 Flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 Flew, 
 
 Flown. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 Forsook, 
 
 Forsaken. 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 Froze, 
 
 Frozen. 
 
 Freight, 
 
 Freighted, 
 
 Fraught, r. 
 
 Get, 
 
 Got, 
 
 Got, gotten 
 
 GUd, 
 
 Gilt, R. 
 
 Gilt, R. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 Girt, r. 
 
 Girt, R. 
 
 * Give, 
 
 Gave, 
 
 Giv?n. 
 
au 
 
 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 PasL 
 
 Past Fartkipk 
 
 Go, 
 
 Went, 
 
 Gone. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 Graved, 
 
 Graven, n. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 Ground, 
 
 Ground. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 Grew, 
 
 Grown. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 Hung, 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Have, 
 
 Had, 
 
 Had. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Heard, 
 
 Heard. 
 
 Heave, 
 
 Hove, K. 
 
 Hoven, r. 
 
 Hew, 
 
 Hewed, 
 
 Hewn, R. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 Hid, 
 
 Hidden, hid 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hit, 
 
 Hit. 
 
 Hold, 
 
 Held, 
 
 Held. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 Hurt. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 Kept, 
 
 Kept. 
 
 Kneel, 
 
 Knelt, B 
 
 Knelt, R. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 Knit, R. 
 
 Knit, R. 
 
 Know, 
 
 Knew, 
 
 Known 
 
 Lade, 
 
 Laded, 
 
 Laden 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Laid, 
 
 Laid 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Led, 
 
 Led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 Leii, 
 
 Left. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 Lent, 
 
 Lent 
 
 Let, • 
 
 Let, 
 
 Let. 
 
 Lie, (to recline j) 
 
 Lay, 
 
 Lain. 
 
 Light, 
 
 Lit, R. 
 
 Lit, R. 
 
 Load, 
 
 Loaded, 
 
 Laden, r, 
 
 Lose, 
 
 Lost, 
 
 Lost. 
 
 iMake, 
 
 Made, 
 
 Made. 
 
 Mean, 
 
 Meant, 
 
 Meant. 
 
 Meet, 
 
 Met, 
 
 Met. 
 
 Mow, 
 
 Mowed, 
 
 Mown, R. 
 
 Pay, 
 
 Paid, 
 
 Paid. 
 
 Pen, (to enclose,) 
 
 Pent, R. 
 
 Pent, R. 
 
 Put, 
 
 Pui, 
 
 Put. 
 
 Quit, 
 
 Quit, R. 
 
 Quit, R. 
 
 Read, 
 
 Read, 
 
 Read. 
 
 Ren<1, 
 
 Rent, 
 
 Rent. 
 
 Rid. 
 
 Rid, 
 
 Rid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 Rode, 
 
 Ridden. 
 
 Ring, 
 
 Rang, rung, 
 
 Rung * 
 
mBEGULAR VEilBS, 
 
 221 
 
 JVecent 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Partieip*s. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 Rose, 
 
 Risen. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 Rived, 
 
 Riven. 
 
 Rue, 
 
 Ran, 
 
 Run. 
 
 Savv 
 
 Sawed, 
 
 Sawn, R. 
 
 Say, 
 
 Said, 
 
 Said. 
 
 See, 
 
 Saw, 
 
 Seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 Sought, 
 
 Sought. 
 
 Seethe. 
 
 Sod, R. 
 
 Sodden. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 Sold," 
 
 Sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 Sent, 
 
 Sent. 
 
 Set, 
 
 Bet, 
 
 Set. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 Sat, 
 
 Sat. 
 
 Shal^e 
 
 Shook, 
 
 Shaken. 
 
 Shape 
 
 Shaped, 
 
 Shapen, r. 
 
 Shave 
 
 Shaved, 
 
 Shaven, r 
 
 Shear, 
 
 Sheared, 
 
 Shorn, r. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed, 
 
 Shed. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 Shone, 
 
 Shone. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 Shod, 
 
 Shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 Shot, 
 
 Shot. 
 
 Show, 
 
 Showed, 
 
 Shown 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shred, 
 
 Shred. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 Shrunk, shrank 
 
 Shrunk. 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut, 
 
 Shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Sang, sung. 
 
 Sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 Sunk, sank. 
 
 Sunk. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 Slew, 
 
 Slain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Slept, 
 
 Slept. 
 
 Slid«, 
 
 SUd, 
 
 Slidden, slid 
 
 Sling, 
 
 Slung, 
 
 Slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 Slunk, 
 
 Slunk. 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Slit, 
 
 Slit, K. 
 
 Smite, 
 
 Smote, 
 
 Smitten,8mit 
 
 Sow, {to scatter^) 
 
 Sowed, 
 
 Sown, R. 
 
 Speak, 
 
 Spoke, 
 
 Spoken. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 Sped, 
 
 Sped. 
 
 Spell, 
 
 Spelt, R 
 
 Spelt, R. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 Spent, 
 
 Spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 Spilt, R 
 
 Spilt, B. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 Spun, 
 
 Spun 
 
 19* 
 
 
 
cz 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 
 Presmi. 
 
 Fast. 
 
 Past BurticifU 
 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Spit, 
 
 Spit. 
 
 
 Split, 
 
 Split, 
 
 Split. 
 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spread, 
 
 Spread. 
 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Sprang, sprung. 
 
 Sprung. 
 
 
 Stand, 
 
 Stood, 
 
 Stood. 
 
 
 Steal, 
 
 Stole, 
 
 Stolen. 
 
 
 Stick, 
 
 Stuck, 
 
 Stuck. 
 
 
 Sting, 
 
 Stung, 
 
 Stung. 
 
 
 Stride, 
 
 Strode, strid. 
 
 Stridden. 
 
 
 Strike, 
 
 Struck, 
 
 Struck, stricken. 
 
 
 String, 
 
 Strung, 
 
 Strung. 
 
 
 Strive, 
 
 Strove, 
 
 Striven. 
 
 
 Strow or strew, 
 
 Strowed or strewed, 
 
 Strown, strew !i, s 
 
 " 
 
 Swear, 
 
 Swore, 
 
 Sworn. 
 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 Sweat, K. 
 
 Sweat, R 
 
 
 Sweep, 
 
 Swept, 
 
 SwepL. 
 
 
 Swell, 
 
 Swelled, 
 
 Swollen, R. 
 
 
 Swim, 
 
 Swam, swum. 
 
 Swum. 
 
 
 Swing, 
 
 Swung, 
 
 Swung. 
 
 
 Take, 
 
 Took, 
 
 Taken. 
 
 
 Teach, 
 
 Taught, 
 
 Taught. 
 
 
 Tear, 
 
 Tore, 
 
 Torn. 
 
 
 Tell, 
 
 Told, 
 
 Told. 
 
 . \ 
 
 Think, 
 
 Thought, 
 
 Thought. 
 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 Throve, 
 
 Thriven. 
 
 
 Throve, 
 
 Threw, 
 
 Thrown. 
 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 
 Tread, 
 
 Trod, 
 
 Trodden, trod 
 
 
 Was, 
 
 Waxed, 
 
 Waxen, R. 
 
 
 Wear, 
 
 Wore, 
 
 Worn. 
 
 
 Weave, 
 
 Wove, 
 
 Woven. 
 
 
 Weep, 
 
 Wept, 
 
 Wept. 
 
 
 Wet, 
 
 Wet, R. 
 
 Wet, R. 
 
 
 Whet, 
 
 Whet, R 
 
 Whet, R. 
 
 w 
 
 Win, 
 
 Won, 
 
 Won. 
 
 
 Wind, 
 
 Wound, 
 
 Wound. 
 
 
 Work, 
 
 Wrought, R 
 
 Wrought, R 
 
 
 Wring, 
 
 Wrung, 
 
 Wrung. 
 
 
 Write, 
 
 Wrote, 
 
 Written 
 
 
NUMBER, PERSON, AND VOICE OF THE VEKb. 22'3 
 
 An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in conjugat- 
 ing other verbs. The auxiliaries arc, do, be, have, shall, 
 will, may, can, must. 
 
 Defective verbs are those in which some of the parts are 
 wanting. They are, heware, quoth, ought, and all the aux- 
 iliaries except do, he, and have. These, when used as prin- 
 cipal verbs, have all their parts. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 NUMBER, PERSON, AND VOICE OF THE VERB 
 
 The number and person of the verb are properties 
 which show its agreement with the subject. Like the sub- 
 ject, the verb has two numbers and three persons. 
 
 In the solemn style, the second person singular of the verb, in 
 the present tense, is formed by adding st or est to the first ; but 
 in the common style, it ends like the second person plural ; tne 
 third person singular is formed by adding s or es. 
 
 Voice is applied to the two forms of the transitive veib, 
 and is either active or passive. 
 
 The active voice i-epresents the subject as acting ; as, 
 " John struck William." 
 
 The passive voice represents the subjec* as being acted 
 upon ; as, " William was struck by John.' 
 
 The passive verb is formed by adding the passive partici 
 pie of a transitive verb to the copula. 
 
 Any sentence containing a transitive verb may take two equiv 
 alenl forms, — one in which the verb is in the active voice, and 
 the other in which it is in the passive. When the verb is in the 
 passive voice, the agent is in the objective case following by , as, 
 '» William was struck by John." Sometimes the agent -s omit 
 ted ; as, " A ])lnt was discovered ' 
 
224 APPENDIX. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 MODE OF THE VERB. 
 
 Note, This lesson is referred to on page 38. 
 
 Mode shows the manner in wliich an attribute is asserted 
 of the subject. 
 
 There are commonly reckoned five modes, — the in- 
 dicative^ potential^ subjunctive^ imperative^ and infinitive. 
 
 The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually exist- 
 ing ; as, '' James is rich ; " " George writes." 
 
 The potential mode asserts a thing as possible, proballe^ 
 or necessary ; as, " James ?nay be rich ; " " George must 
 write.'''' 
 
 The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional or 
 doubtful ; as, " If James be rich ; " " Should George write." 
 
 The imperative mode asserts a command, an exhortation, 
 an entreaty, or a permission ; as, " Write ; " " Go thou ; " 
 " Be satisfied." 
 
 The infinitive * represents an attribute as an abstract 
 noun ; as, " to be rich ; " " to write." 
 
 The indicative, potential and imperative modes are 
 used in principal propositions. The subjunctive is always 
 nsed in subordinate propositions, and the infinitive and 
 participles, in abridged propositions. 
 
 * The infinitive is here placed among the modes, because it 
 has been thus ranked by common consent ; yet it is as really a 
 participle as the forms which bear that name. It does not assert 
 action at all, and therefore cannot properly be said to have mode. 
 It is the simple name of the verb, taken abstractly, and partakes 
 of the properties of the noun and verb, just as the participle par- 
 takes of the propptties of the adjective and verb. Both are used 
 in abridged propositions, (347, 353,) one in reducing substantive 
 ftnd the other in leducing adjective clauses. 
 
fARTIClPLES. 225 
 
 Note. The indicative and potential modes are of\en used in 
 Bubordinate propositions. The imperative mode is sometimes 
 made subordinate in direct quotation ; as, " God said, Let there 
 be light." 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 A participle is a form of the verb by which the being 
 action, or state, is used as an adjective. 
 
 The participle is so called, because it participates of the proper- 
 ties of the verb and adjective. (See 65, a.) 
 
 There are two participles, — ihe present a.nd j^erfect ; as, 
 reading, having read. , 
 
 These two participles correspond to the present and perfect 
 tenses in each of the three grand divisions of time. (81, a.) 
 
 Transitive verbs have an active and passive participle. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 Present. Loving, Loved or being loved. 
 
 Perfect. Having loved, Having been loved. 
 
 Though there are biit two distinct participles, there are 
 tliree different forms called participles, (see 89,) — the 
 •present, the pa^t, and the perfect. 
 
 The past participle is never used except in combination with / 
 some modification of have, to form the perfect tenses ; as, have 
 loved, had loved, to have loved, having loved. It belonarg to all 
 verbs, transitive and intransitive. It has an active sio-nifica- 
 tion, denotes past time, but is never used, like the other forms, tt, 
 limit a noun by expressing an assumed attribute. Its entire use 
 is, to aid in the formation of the tenses. The past particip.e la, 
 however, identical in form v/ith the present passive participle, 
 when used without being. Mark the difference in the follow- 
 ing examples : — " The boy has respected the wishes of his pa 
 rents; " "The boy lives (being) respected by all." In tha Ips! 
 exainple, " respected " has a passive signification, denotes presenf 
 
 n 
 
226 APF£NDO. 
 
 time, and limits " boy " by assuming (not affirming) that he is iu 
 a certain state. This last is called the passive participle of 
 "respect; " respecting being the corresponding active participle 
 Intransitive verbs liave no passive participle. 
 
 The present active participle denotes an action or state 
 present but unfinished at the time denoted by the principal 
 verb ; as, " Wq found him sitting in a chair." 
 
 The present passive participle denotes the reception of 
 an act, which is present at the time denoted by the prin- 
 cipal verb ; as, " He lives loved by all." 
 
 The perfect active participle denotes an action or state 
 past and completed at the time denoted by the pnncipal 
 verb ; as, " Having finished his speech, he sat down." 
 
 The perfect passive participle denotes the reception of 
 an act past and completed at the time denoted by the prin- 
 cipal verb ; as, " Having heen driven from home, he en- 
 listed in the army." 
 
 .X Participles, like the subordinate clauses for which they stand 
 (^see note, page 175,) denote a time present or past in relation to 
 the principal verb, and not in relation to the speaker. Hence 
 the present participle may denote, with reference to the speaker, 
 present, past, OT future time. So the perfect participle may de- 
 note an act completed in past, present, or future time. It is 
 worthy of notice, that each grand division of time has two 
 tenses, — ^present and a perfect (81, a.) ; and that this distinctioi^ 
 exists in all the verbal forms, the infinitive and participles as 
 well as the modes properly so called. 
 
 A participle, like an adjective, may be either assumed or 
 predicated of a noun ; as, " A boat sailing on the water 
 IS a pleasant object • " " The boat is sailing on the water." 
 
 An assumed pariicipiC, with the words depending upor 
 it, is equivalent to a subordinate clause. 
 
 The active participle, when predicated, constitutos, with 
 the copula, the progressive form of the verb ; a? " The 
 farmer was retqntif/.'' 
 
TENSE OF THE VERB. 227 
 
 7Tie passive participle, when predicated, forms, with tne 
 •''opula, the passive verb ; as, " His expectations wfire 
 reahzed.''' 
 
 Note. Foi participial nouns, see page 86. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 TENSE OF THE VERB. 
 
 Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 
 
 There are three divisions of time, — the past, the pres- 
 ent, and the future. 
 
 Each division has two tenses, — an absolute and a rela- 
 tive. There are, therefore, six tenses, — three absolute 
 and three relative. 
 
 The absolute tenses take the name of the division to 
 which they belong, namely, the present tense, the past 
 tense, and the future tense. 
 
 The relative tenses add to the name of the division the 
 word " perfect ; " — present perfect, past perfect, future 
 perfect. 
 
 The present tense denotes present time ; as, "I write,''^ 
 
 The present perfect tense denotes past time completed 
 in the present ; as, " I have written.'*'^ 
 
 The past tense denotes past time ; as, " I wrotey 
 
 The past perfect tense denotes past time completed in 
 the past ; as, " I had written.'^'* 
 
 The future tense denotes future time ; as, " I shali 
 write. ""^ 
 
 The future perfect tense denotes a future time com- 
 pteted in the future; as, "I shall have written, * 
 
• 228 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 FORMS OF THE VERB. 
 
 There are three different forms of the verb, in the ac 
 tive voice, namely, the common^ the emphatic^ the progns- 
 sive ; to these may be added the passive. 
 
 COMMON FORM. 
 
 The tenses of the common form are thus formed : — 
 
 Shsolute 
 Tenses. 
 
 Relative 
 Tenses. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 The present is the first or simple form of the verb , 
 as, love. 
 . The past is the second form of tlie verb ; as, loved 
 The future is formed by joining to the simple verb 
 V^the auxiliary s/iftZZ or will; as, shall lovc^will love. 
 
 The present perfect is formed by joining the present 
 tense of have to the past participle of the verb ; as, 
 have loved. 
 
 The jiast perfect is formed by joining the past tense 
 of have to the past participle ; as, had loved. 
 
 The future perfect is formed by joining the future 
 tense of have to the past participle ; as, shall have lovcA. 
 
 \ 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 ( The present potential is formed by joining the pres- 
 ent tense of 7nay., can^ or must., to the simple or first 
 
 Jibsolute fori^ of the verb ; as, way, caw, or must love.. 
 
 Tenses. ^ ^^^^ P"'^^ potential is formed l»y joining the past 
 tenses of may^ can, will, or shall, lo the simple form 
 of the verb ; as, might, could, would, or .should love. 
 
 The present perfect is formed by joining ihe present 
 potential of have to the past participle ; as, vxay, can. 
 Relative or must have loved. 
 
 Tenses. \ The past perfect is formed by joining the past po- 
 tential of have to the past participle ; as, might, could^ 
 I would or should have loved. 
 
 i 
 
FOKMS OF THE VERB. 229 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE- 
 
 The subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indica- 
 tive or potential, with if, unless^ though &c., prefixed; as, 
 if I love f if I can love. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 The imperative has but one tense, — ihe present, — which 
 is the simple form of the verb, generally used without the 
 subject expressed ; as, love. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 The infinitive mode has two tenses, — a present and a 
 perfect. The present is the first form of the verb joined 
 to to ; as, to love. 
 
 The perfect is formed by joining the present infinitive of 
 have to the past participle of the verb ; as, to have loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The present participle is formed by adding ing to the 
 first form of the verb ; * as, loving. 
 
 The past participle is formed, for regular verbs, by add* 
 ing ed to the simple verb ; * as, loved. 
 
 The perfect participle is formed by joining the present 
 participle of have to the past participle ; as, having loved. 
 
 EMPHATIC FORM. 
 
 The emphatic form belongs to the active voice of the , 
 mdicative and imperative modes. It is formed by joining 
 the auxiliary do to the first form of the verb, for the pres- 
 
 * When the simple verb ends in c, the e should be dropped 
 before the addition is made ; as, love, \o7-ing or ed. 
 
 20 
 
230 
 
 APPENCIX. 
 
 ent tense, and did to the same, for the past tense ; as, do 
 love^ do thou love, did love. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE FORM. 
 
 The progressive form is the common form of the 
 copula to he added to the present participle ; as, am 
 loving, have been loving, &:;c. 
 
 PASSIVE FORM. 
 
 The passive form is the common form of the copula 
 to he joined to the passive participle, (same in form as 
 the past participle ;) as, is loved, has heen loved, &c. 
 
 CONJUGATION 
 
 The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement 
 of its several modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and persons. 
 The following is the conjugation of the verb TO BE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Absolute Tenses. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 1 am. 
 
 
 We are. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou art.* 
 
 
 You are.t 
 
 3. 
 
 He is. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 They are. 
 
 
 Sivgular. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 J was. 
 
 
 We were. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou wast 
 
 
 You were. 
 
 3. 
 
 He was. 
 
 
 They were. 
 
 * Tkou is used in the solemn or poetical style, but you is used 
 in the singuhir in the common style ; as, / am, you are, he is 
 t Fe is also used in the plural ; thus, Ye or you are 
 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 231 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. I shall or will be. We -hall or will bo 
 
 2. Thou shalt or wilt be. You shall or will be. 
 3 He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 
 
 Kelative Tenses. 
 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 I have been. 
 
 We have been 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou hast been. 
 
 You have been. 
 
 3. 
 
 He has been. 
 
 They have Deen. 
 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 I had been. 
 
 We had been. 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou hadst been 
 
 You had been. 
 
 3. 
 
 He had been. 
 
 They had been. 
 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 I shall liave been. 
 
 We shall have been 
 
 2. 
 
 Thou wilt have been. 
 
 You will have been. 
 
 3. He will have been. They will have been. 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE. 
 
 Absolute Tenses. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. I may be. 
 
 We may be. 
 
 2. Thou mayst be. 
 
 You may be. 
 
 3. He may be. 
 
 They may be 
 
 Past 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1 1 mio;ht be. We mijjht be. 
 
 2. Thou mightst be. You might be. 
 
 3. He might be. They might be 
 
232 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Eeiative Tenses. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 Singtilar. Plural. 
 
 1. 1 may have been We may have been. 
 
 2. Thou ma^st have been. You may have been. 
 
 3. He may have been. They may have been. 
 
 Past Perfect 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1. 1 micrhl have been. 
 
 2. Thou miglitsl have been. 
 3 lie mio-ht have been. 
 
 Plural. 
 We might have been. 
 You mitjht have been. 
 They might have been 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 Absolute Tenses. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we are. 
 If you are 
 If they are 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Plural. 
 If we were. 
 If you were 
 If they were 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall or will be. If we shall or will be. 
 
 2. If thou shal; or wilt be. if you shall or will be, 
 
 3. If he shall or will be. If they shall or will be. 
 
 Relative Tenses. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1 If I am. 
 
 2 If thou art 
 
 3 If he is. 
 
 Stngtdar. 
 1 If I was. 
 
 2. If thou wast 
 
 3. II' he was. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1. 
 
 If I have been. 
 
 If we have been. 
 
 2 
 
 If thou hast been. 
 
 If you have been. 
 
 3. 
 
 If he has been 
 
 If they have been 
 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 
 
 23S 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Phiral. 
 
 1. If I had been. If we had been. 
 
 2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 
 
 3. If he had been. If they had been. 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1. If I shall have been. If we shall have been. 
 
 2 If thou shalt have been. If you shall have been. 
 
 3. If he shall have been. If they shall have beea. 
 
 besides the forms already given, the subjunctivr ^*na 
 dii<*ther for the present and past. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singtdar. ' Plural. 
 
 If I be. If we be. 
 
 2. 
 
 If thou be. 
 
 If you be. 
 
 3. 
 
 If he be. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 If they be. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 If I were. 
 
 If we were. 
 
 2. 
 
 If thou wert. 
 
 If you were. 
 
 3. 
 
 If he were. 
 
 If they were 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 Be, or Be thou. 
 
 Plural. 
 Be ye or you. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present 
 
 Tense, 
 
 To be. 
 
 Present Perfect, 
 
 To have teen 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, 
 
 
 Being. 
 
 Past, 
 
 
 Been. 
 
 Perfect, 
 
 
 Having been. 
 
234 APPENDIX. 
 
 Synopsis IS a short view of a verb, showing its forma 
 through the modes and tenses in a single number and 
 person 
 
 The following is a synopsis, 1st pers. sing, of HAVE : — 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. 
 
 Absolute Tenses. 
 
 1 have I had. I shall nave. 
 
 Relative Tenses. 
 
 I have had, 1 had had, 1 shall have had. 
 
 Let the learner write out the second and third pei'sons 
 in the same mu.nner, and complete the synopsis m all the 
 modes. 
 
 The regular verb LOVE is thus conjugate- . 
 
 INDICATIVE MODE. "~ 
 
 Note. The four forms * — the common^ emphatic^ progressive^ 
 jind passive — are arranged together. The pronouns are placed at 
 the head of the column, and should be taken in connection with 
 the forms below them. When read downwards, the several forms 
 in each person will be given; when read across the page, the 
 several persons in each form will be given. 
 
 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ...Singular. 
 
 ^....Singular. 
 
 3.... Singular 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 Com. 
 
 love, 
 
 lovest. 
 
 loves. 
 
 Em p. 
 
 do love, 
 
 dost love, 
 
 does love. 
 
 Prog. 
 
 am loving, 
 
 art loving, 
 
 Is loving. 
 
 Pas. 
 
 am loved. 
 
 art loved. 
 
 is loved. 
 
 * The three forms of the active voice only are given in the 
 Lody of the work, page 42. It is thought best here to bring alj 
 the forms together, that tlie learner may see them at one view. 
 
COFJUGATION OF THE VERB. 
 
 235 
 
 1.. .Plural. 
 
 2.... Plural. 
 
 3.... Plural 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or Yoo 
 
 They 
 
 Com. love, 
 
 love. 
 
 love, 
 
 Emp. do love, 
 
 do love, 
 
 do love, 
 
 Prog, are loving, 
 
 are loving, 
 
 are loving. 
 
 Pas are loved, 
 
 are loved, 
 Past Tense. 
 
 are loved. 
 
 l....Sininilar. 
 
 2.... Singular, 
 
 3.. ..Singular 
 
 ID 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 Com. loved, 
 
 lovedst. 
 
 loved, 
 
 Emp. did love. 
 
 didst love. 
 
 did love. 
 
 Prog. »vas loving, 
 
 v/ast Icving, 
 
 was loving 
 
 Pas. was loved, 
 
 wast loved. 
 
 was loved. 
 
 I.... Plural. 
 
 2... .Plural. 
 
 3.... Plural. 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 Com. loved. 
 
 loved, 
 
 loved, 
 
 Emp. did love. 
 
 did love. 
 
 did love. 
 
 Prog, were loving. 
 
 were loving. 
 
 were loving, 
 
 Poj. wcie loved. 
 
 were loved, 
 
 were loved 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 
 1... Singular. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 
 3.... Singular. 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 Com shall * love. 
 
 shalt love. 
 
 shall love. 
 
 Prog, shall be loving. 
 
 shalt be loving. 
 
 shall be loving, 
 
 Pa«. shall be loved, 
 
 shalt be loved. 
 
 shall be loved 
 
 \... .Plural. 
 
 2... .Plural. 
 
 3.... Plural. 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 Com., shall love. 
 
 shall love, 
 
 shall love. 
 
 Proo^. shall be loving. 
 
 shall be loving. 
 
 shall be loving, 
 
 Pas. shall be loved, 
 
 shall be loved. 
 
 shall be loved. 
 
 Present Perfect. 
 l....Sincrular. 2....Sin(rular. 3....Sinff7ila.r 
 
 I Tnor He, She, It 
 
 Com. have loved, hast loved, has loved. 
 
 Prog, have been loving, hast been loving, has been loving. 
 Pas. have been loved, hast been loved, has been loved. 
 
 * The pupil should be accustomed to use either auxiliary, shall 
 or will. Shall denotes a determination ; wiU predicts. 
 
23G 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 1 ...Plural. 2. ...Plural. 3, Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You They 
 
 Com. have loved, have loved, have loved, 
 
 Prog have been loving, have been loving, have been loving 
 
 Pas. have been loved, have been loved, have been loved. 
 
 1. 
 
 ..Singular. 
 
 Past Perfect. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 I Thou 
 
 Com. had loved, hadst loved, 
 
 Prog, had been loving, hadst been loving, 
 Pas had been loved, hadst been loved, 
 
 Com,. 
 
 Prog. 
 
 Pas. 
 
 1... .Plural. 2.... Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You 
 
 had loved, had loved, 
 
 had been loving, had been loving, 
 
 had been loved, had been loved. 
 
 3.... Singular. 
 He, She, It 
 had loved, 
 had been loving, 
 had been loved. 
 
 3. ...Plural. 
 They 
 had loved, 
 had been loving 
 had been loved 
 
 Future Perfect. 
 
 
 1.... Singular. 
 
 2.. ..Singular 
 
 
 I 
 
 Tnoa 
 
 Com. 
 
 shall have loved, 
 
 shalt have loved. 
 
 Prog. 
 
 shall have been loving, 
 
 shalt have been loving, 
 
 Pas. 
 
 shall have been loved, 
 
 shalt have been loved, 
 
 
 3... Singular. 
 
 
 He, She, 
 
 It 
 
 
 Com. shall have 
 
 loved, 
 
 
 Prog, shall have been loving, 
 
 
 Pas. shall have been loved. 
 
 Com. 
 
 Prog. 
 
 Pas. 
 
 1.... Plural. 
 We 
 
 shall have loved, 
 shall have been loving, 
 shall have been loved, 
 
 2. ...Plural. 
 Ye or You 
 shall have loved, 
 shall have been loi»»ng, 
 shall have been loved. 
 
 3. ...Plural. 
 They 
 Com. shall have loved. 
 Prog, shall have been loving, 
 Pas. shall have been loved 
 
 ^ 
 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 
 
 237 
 
 POTENTIAL MODE, 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 1 . Singular. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 
 3. ...Singular 
 
 
 I 
 
 Thou 
 
 He, Sh^, It, 
 
 Com 
 
 may* love, 
 
 mayst love, 
 
 may love, 
 
 Prog 
 
 may be loving, 
 
 raayst be loving. 
 
 may be loving 
 
 Pas. 
 
 may be loved. 
 
 mayst be loved, 
 
 may be loved. 
 
 
 1.... Plural. 
 
 2....Plural. 
 
 3... .Plural. 
 
 
 We 
 
 Ye or You 
 
 They 
 
 Com. 
 
 may love, 
 
 may love, 
 
 may love, 
 
 Prog. 
 
 may be loving, 
 
 may be loving. 
 
 may be iovmg, 
 
 Pas. 
 
 may be loved, 
 
 may be loved. 
 Fast Tense. 
 
 may be loved. 
 
 
 i... .Singular. 
 
 2.... Singular. 
 
 3. ...Singular. 
 
 I Thou He, Sh/, It, 
 
 Com. might love, mightst love, might love, 
 
 Prog, might be loving, mightst be loving, might be loving 
 
 Pas. might be loved, mightst be loved, might be loved. 
 
 1... .Plural. 2.. ..Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You 
 
 Com. might love, might love. 
 
 Prog, might be loving, might be loving. 
 Pas. mio"ht be loved, mio-ht be Icved, 
 
 'i... .Plural. 
 
 They 
 
 niiglit love, 
 might be loving, 
 mifrht be loved 
 
 Present Perfec Tense. 
 
 I.... Singular. 
 
 I 
 
 Com. may have loved. 
 Prog, -may have been loving. 
 Pas. may have been loved, 
 
 2.. ..Singular. 
 Thou 
 
 mayst l.ave loved, 
 mavst have been lovingr 
 mayst have been loved, 
 
 * Let the pupil use also the auxiliaries can and musty in the 
 present and present perfect tenses ; and could, icould, and shou.d, 
 in the past and past perfect tenses. 
 
238 APPENDIX. 
 
 ^....Singular. 
 He, She, It 
 Com. may have loved, 
 Prog, may have been loving, 
 Pas. may have been loved. 
 
 1.... Plural. 2. ...Plural. 
 
 We Ye or You 
 
 Com, may have loved, may have loved, 
 
 Prog may Jiave been loving, may have been loving 
 
 Pas. may have been loved, may have been loved, 
 
 d.. .Plural. 
 They 
 Com. may have loved, 
 Prog, may have been loving, 
 Pas. may have been loved. 
 
 Past Perfect Tense. 
 
 1.... Singular. 2.... Singular. 
 
 I Tnou 
 
 Com. might have loved, mightst have loved, 
 
 Prog, might have been loving, mightst have been loving 
 
 Pas. might have been loved, mightst have been loved. 
 
 
 S.... Singular. 
 
 
 He, She, It 
 
 Coin. 
 
 might have loved. 
 
 Prog. 
 
 , might have been loving. 
 
 Pas. 
 
 might have been loved. 
 
 ..PIZIT 
 
 al. 2....PI 
 
 We Ye or You 
 
 Com might have loved, might have loved, 
 
 Prog miglit ha\/e been loving, might have been loving, 
 
 Pas. might have been loved, might have been loved. 
 
 Z... .Plural. 
 They 
 Com. might have loved. 
 Prog, might have been loving. 
 Pas. might have been loved 
 
CUAJUGATION OF THE VERB. 239 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
 
 The subjunctive mode is the same as the indicative oi 
 potential, with (f prefixed, 
 
 IMPERATIVE MODE. 
 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 Common Form^ Love, or Love thou, Love, or Love ye or yen, 
 Emphatic Form^ Do thou love, Do ye or you love, 
 
 Progressice Form,, Be thou loving, Be ye or you loving, 
 
 Passive Fornix Be thou loved, Be ye or you loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MODE. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Covnnon Form^ To love. 
 
 Progressive Form, To be loving. 
 Passive Form, To be loved. 
 
 Perfect Tense. 
 
 Common Form, To have loved, 
 
 Progressive Form, To have been loving, 
 Passive Form^ To have been loved. 
 
 PARTICIPL E S. 
 
 r Loving, (comvion form,) 
 Present, I Being loving, (^jjrogrcssivc form,) 
 
 \ Being loved, or loved, (passive form ) 
 
 Past, Loved, (used only in combination.) 
 
 / Having loved, (common form.,) 
 Perfect, ^ FJaving been loving, (progressive form^) 
 ( Having been Icved, (passive form.) 
 
 Note. Some few intransitive verbs take the passive form • as, 
 1* I am come; " «' The sun is risen; " "He is fallen." 
 
<. 
 
 240 APPENDIX. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 A?J adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of u 
 rerZ*, adjective, participle^ or other adverh. 
 
 Adverbs may be divided into four general classes : — 
 adverbs o^ place ^ o^ time, o^ cause ^ oi manner. 
 
 Adverbs of place answer the questions, Where 7 Whitli- 
 ?r ? Whence 7 as, Aere, there^ ahove^ yonder, beloio, some- 
 where, back, upioards, downwards, &c. 
 
 Adverbs of time answer the questions. When ? How 
 long ? How often ? as, then, yesterday, always, ever, con- 
 'inually, often, frequently , &c. 
 
 Adverbs of cause answer the questions, Why 7 Where- 
 
 Ore ? as, lohy, wherefore, therefore, then. 
 
 Note. Causal relations are commonly expressed by phrases 
 and clauses. (See 132, a.) 
 
 Adverbs of manner answer the question. How ? as, ele- 
 gantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are generally derived 
 from adjectives denoting quality. 
 
 Under this head may be classed those which answer the ques- 
 tion, How ? in respect to quantity or quality ; as, How much ? 
 How good? &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, 
 wholly, totally, quite, exceedingly. 
 
 Modal adverbs belong to this class. (See 134, a.) The fol- 
 iowing are the principal modal adverbs : — 7jes, yea, verily, truly, 
 surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, certainly ; no, nay, not . 
 possibly, probably, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 
 
 All phrases or clauses which denote place, tim,e, cause, 
 or manner, are of the nature of adverbs. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison ; as, 
 eoouy sooner soonest ; bravely more bravely, most bravely, 
 
 / 
 
PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS 
 
 24). 
 
 Note. For interrogative and conjunctive adverbs, see Les- 
 eonsXIV. andXV. 
 
 LESSON XliI 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 Note. For the construction and use of the prepositions, g<e 
 Chapter 11. 
 
 A. preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
 tween a noun or pronoun and some preceding word ; as, 
 tipon^ on, ivith. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal prepositions in 
 use : — 
 
 Aboard, 
 
 before. 
 
 for, 
 
 throughout, 
 
 about. 
 
 behind. 
 
 from, 
 
 Ull, 
 
 above, 
 
 ^ below, 
 
 in, into. 
 
 to, 
 
 according to. 
 
 beneath, 
 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 touching, 
 
 across, 
 
 beside or 
 
 of, 
 
 toward or 
 
 after. 
 
 besides. 
 
 off, 
 
 towards, 
 
 against, 
 
 between. 
 
 on, 
 
 under. 
 
 along, 
 
 betwixt, 
 
 out of. 
 
 underneath, 
 
 amid or 
 
 beyond, 
 
 over. 
 
 until. 
 
 amidst, 
 
 by, 
 
 past. 
 
 unto. 
 
 among or 
 
 concerning, 
 
 regarding. 
 
 up, 
 
 amongst, 
 
 down, 
 
 respecting, 
 
 upon. 
 
 around, 
 
 during, 
 
 round, 
 
 with, 
 
 at, 
 
 except. 
 
 since, 
 
 withm, 
 
 athwart. 
 
 excepting. 
 
 through, 
 
 without 
 
 INTERJECTIOJNS. 
 
 An interjection is a word used to express some emotion 
 of the mind ; as, oh / alas f 
 
 f Jiterjectiong are to be found chie^y in sentences expressive of 
 joy, sorrow, or reverence. 
 
 91 
 
242 APPENDIX. 
 
 LESSON XIV 
 
 INTERROGATIVES. 
 
 Note. This lesson should be studied in connection with 
 Section IX. page 121 
 
 Inter rogatives are words used in asking questions. 
 
 There are three kinds of interrogatives, — pronouns, ad- 
 \jectives^ and adverbs. 
 
 Interrogative jjronouns are used to inquire for some pei 
 son or thing. They are jvho., ivhich, and loJiat, 
 
 Who is used to inquire for persons ; 2vhat, as a pronoun, 
 inquires for things ; which refers to one of several persons 
 or things ; as, " Who wrote } James.''^ " ^V}lat do you 
 see } A iree." '•''Which shall I take? The largest oupy 
 
 Interrogative adjectives are used to inquire for some de- 
 scription of a person or thing. They are, lahich, ivliat.^ 
 joined to the noun to be described ; how many, used to in- 
 quire for number ; as, " What book have you ? A blank 
 book." " Which path shall we follow ? The right-hand 
 path." " IIoiv many lessons has he learned ? Four 
 lessons." 
 
 Interrogative adverbs inquire for some circumstance of 
 place, time, cause, or manner ; as, " Where, when, why, 
 how, did he go ^ " 
 
 For a list of the several interrogatives, see H 258, ( a.) 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 CONNECTIVES 
 
 Connectives are words used to unite the elements of b 
 sentence ; as, " When a wise man is derided by a fooMr 
 he will not be indignant." 
 
CONNECTIVES. 243 
 
 Connectives are divided into two classes, — coordinate 
 and subo'<^dinate. 
 
 Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions. They 
 are used to unite either coordinate clauses or coordinate 
 parts of a clause ; as, " Life is short, and art is long ; " 
 " Vice and miseiy are inseparable." 
 
 Coordinate conjunctions are of three kinds, — copulative^ 
 adversative, and alternative. (See ^ 157, and Sections I 
 il, and III Chapter IV.) 
 
 A sulordinate connective is used to join a subordinate 
 clause to some preceding word or clause ; as, " I knew that 
 he was deceitful." 
 
 Subordinate connectives are conjunctions., relative pro- 
 nouns, and conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 Subordinate connectives are used to connect the three 
 kinds of clauses, — substantive, adjective, and adverbidl. 
 
 Substantive clauses are connected by that and the various 
 interrogatives. (See 1] 25S, I, 2, 3.) 
 
 Adverbial clauses are connected by conjunctive adverbs 
 
 Adjective clauses are connected by relative pronouns. 
 
 A relative pronoun is used to represent a preceding aour. 
 or pronoun, called the antecedent, and to connect with ii 
 the adjective clause which depends upon and hniiis it. 
 
 For the different relatives, and their different uses, see tscc 
 tion III. page 135. 
 
 Relative and interrogative pronouns have the same acci- 
 dents as the noun or personal pronoun, namely, number 
 person, gender, and case, and are thus declined : — 
 
 &ing. and Plur. <Saig. and Plur 
 Mm. Who, Which, 
 
 Poss. whose, whose, 
 
 Obj. whom, which. 
 
 Instead of whose, of which is most commonly used as the pos- 
 epssive of which. 
 
 What and that are used only in the nom'native and ob 
 ^ective cases. 
 
344 APPENDIX. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 
 
 Note. The principles of construction have been given in the 
 body of this work. For convenience of reference, the rules are 
 here brought together, with a few additional notes. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 THE SUBJECT. 
 
 Rule I. A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of a 
 oroposition, must be in the nominative case. (Page 26- 
 See, also, ^H 33, a, b, c, I9i, 281.) 
 
 THE PREDICATE. 
 
 Rule II. A noun or pronoun, used with the copula to 
 form the predicate^ must be in the nominative case, (Page 
 29. See, also, ^^ 198, 283.) 
 
 Rule 111. An adjective used with the copula to form 
 the predicate^ belongs to the subject. (Page 32. See, 
 also, V, 200.) 
 
 NoTK 1. Adjectives may thus belong to a substantive phrasa 
 or clause: as, " To steal is hasc.^' 
 
 Note 2. Sometimes an adverb, or even a preposition, is joined 
 to the copula, to form the predicate ; as, " Thy glorious day Is 
 o'er " ' The boy is cheerful, but his brother is not so." 
 
 Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in 
 number and person. (Page 35.) 
 
 Note. Some verbs are used only in one person, and are hence 
 ealled unipersonal ; as, " It rnins ; " " Methinks." 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 
 
 Rule V. An adjective or participle, ujsed as a modifier ^ 
 Oijlongs to the noun ui pronoun which it limits (Page 51 ' 
 
SYNTAX. 246 
 
 ."^ >TE I, Adjectives which imply number, should agree in 
 number with the nouns to whicii they belong; as, "crimen;" 
 '" several men." When two numerals precede a noun, one sin 
 gular and the other plural, the plural should be placed next to 
 Oie noun ; as, " the first two lino. , " not " the two first lines." 
 
 NsTE 2. When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, 
 and this to the last mentioned, as, " Wealth and poverty are both 
 temptations ; that tends to exc ie pride, this discontentment." 
 
 For the use of comparatives and superlatives, see Till 61, 62, 
 and 63. 
 
 Note 3. In the use of the indefinite article, a should be placed 
 before the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel ; 
 as, " a bouse ; " *' a [yjunion ; " " an inch ; " " an Aour." 
 
 NoTK 4. When the article, or any other merely limiting word, 
 stands before two connected adjectives, ( 1,) it should be repeated, 
 if they 'telony to different objects, as, "a white and a red flag," 
 i. e. tw J Hag.s ; (2,) it should be used but once, if they belong 
 to the 'lame object; as, " f/a's tall and beautiful tree," i. e. one 
 tree. 
 
 No7 K 5. By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, 
 to denote proportionate equality (332, a.) ; as, " The more 1 see 
 it, the better I like it." 
 
 Rii^LE VI. A noun or pronoun used to identify anotliei 
 noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case ; 
 as, " His brother George was absent." (Page 53.) 
 
 Note. Two or more proper nanies, or a title and a proper 
 nam(5, applied to one person, though in apposition, should be 
 take) I as one complex noun ; as, " George Washington ; " " Gen- 
 eral Gates." 
 
 UuLE VII. A noun or pronoun, used to Umit another 
 noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive ( 
 case ; as, " Stephen"* s courage failed." (Page 55. See 
 ^ 164; see, also, ^ 205.) 
 
 THE OBJECTIVK ELEMENT. 
 
 Rule Vlll. A noun or pronoun, used as tVe object of a 
 transiiive verb or its participles, must be in the objectne 
 '21 * 
 
246 
 
 APPExifDIX. 
 
 case ; as, " We paid /iw?i," (Page 58. See ^Ij 106 ixad 
 295.) 
 
 ADVERBIAL E L E !>! E N T . 
 
 Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, 
 adjectives, and other adverbs. (Page 65.) ..^^^ 
 
 Note. Two iiecfatives occurrinir in the same sentence render 
 it affirmative ; as, " JVor did they not perceive their evil plight ' 
 s="They did perceive their evil plight." Two negatives are 
 often elegantly used to express an affirmation, one being the 
 prefix of a derivative word; as, "JVbr was he Mwsuccessful ; " 
 "Mine is not an wnwelcome task." 
 
 INTERJECTIONS, AND THE CASE INDE- 
 PENDENT. 
 
 Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the 
 mterjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
 of the sentence. (Page 68.) 
 
 Note 1. A noun may be in the nominative case independent, 
 (1,) by direct address ; as, '-'■Friends^ awake ; " — ( 2,) by exclama- 
 iion ; as, " Oh, solitude ! " — ( 3,) by pleonasm ; as, " And Har- 
 ry's jiesh^ it fell away." 
 
 Note 2. When a noun is used absohitely with a participle, the 
 two are equivalent to- a subordinate clause, and are, therefore, 
 grammatically related to the principal clause. (See IT 351.) 
 
 CONNECTIVES. 
 
 Note. The following rules apply either to connectives or to 
 words in some way associated with connectives. 
 
 Rule XL Coordinate con junctions are used to connect 
 limilar elements. (Page 75.) 
 
 Rjle XIL When a verb or pronoun relates to two or 
 more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — 
 
 1st. If It ag-ees with them conjointly^ it must be in tne 
 'liiH-al number ; 
 
SYNIAX. 247 
 
 . 2d. But, if it agrees with them taken separately, it must 
 Lc of the same number as that which stands rexi to it ; — 
 3d. If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must be 
 of the same number as that with which it agrees. (Page 
 77.) 
 
 Rule Xlil A preposition is used to show the relation 
 of its object to the preceding word, on which the object 
 depends ; as, '-'■ George went into the garden." (Page 
 85.) 
 
 Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to complete the 
 
 relation of a preposition, must be in the objective case ; as, 
 
 "They gathered around him.'''' (Page 85.) 
 
 Note 1. The object of the preposition may be either a toordy 
 ■phrase^ or clause; as, " He came in haste; " " This is a book for 
 you to read ; '" " Much depends upon who the commissioners are.*' 
 
 Note 2. The objective is used without a preposition, after 
 UJce^ nigh, near, and tcorth. See, also, Note, page 109. 
 
 Rule XV. The infinitive depends upon the word which 
 t limits ; as, " We went to see you." (Page 87.) 
 
 Note 1. This rule applies to the infinitive only when it is a 
 subordinate element *, when it is a principal element, apply either 
 Rule I. or Rule II. 
 
 Note 2. The infinitive is often used after so, as, too, and than. 
 (See ^ 233, a.) 
 
 For the omission of the to, see IT 213; also IT 235, (a.) 
 
 Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are used to join 
 
 dissimilar elements. (Page 128.) 
 
 Note, These connectives jire of three kinds, — conjunctions^ 
 conjunctive adverbs, and relative 'pronouns. 
 
 Rule XVll. The relative pronoun must agree with 
 
 it«! antecedent m person, number., and gender, but not in 
 
 case. (Page 186.) 
 
 JNoTK I. This rule is equally true of the personal pronouns, 
 »hough they do not always, libf; the relative, have an immediate 
 Antecedent. 
 
24b 
 
 APFEiNUlX. 
 
 Note 2. When the antecedent is compound, apply Rule XII. 
 
 Note 3. When the antecedent is a collective noun, the pro- 
 noun should be in the plural number, if the antecedent refers to 
 the individuals composing the collection ; otherwise it should be 
 in the singular ; as, " The committee toho were appointed last 
 year submitted no report." If reference were made to the com- 
 mittee as a body, who could not be used, but which or that must 
 be substituted. 
 
 For the construction of the relative, see Sect. Ill,, Chap III. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 
 
 A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented syl- 
 lables, constituting a line of poetry. 
 
 Verse is of two kinds, — rhyme and blank verse. 
 
 In rhyme, there is a correspondence in sound between 
 the last syllables of different lines. 
 
 Blank verse is v/ithout rh5'"me. 
 
 Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particular 
 syllable, to distinguish it from others. Every word con- 
 sisting of more than one syllable, must have one of its syl- 
 lables accented. 
 
 The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in utter- 
 ing it. All syllables are either long or short. 
 
 A long syllable is equal in quantity to two short ones. 
 
 Afoot is a portion of verse containing two or more syl- 
 lables, combined according to accent. 
 
 The principal feet, in English, are the iambus, the 
 ir<)chee, the anapcEst, and the dactyle. 
 
 The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable. 
 
PROsoDir. i"49 
 
 Tlie trochee consists of a long and a slwrt syllablt. 
 
 The anapaest consists of two short syllables and onr Irj.ig 
 one. 
 
 The dactyle consists of one long and two sho''t ff]- 
 lables. 
 
 Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the fee. w\ ti 
 compose it. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. 
 
 1. Iambic of one foot : — 
 
 Thgy go 
 To sow. 
 
 2. lamhic of two feet : — 
 
 To me I the rose 
 No longer glows. 
 
 3. Iambic of three feet : — 
 
 No Toy- I al pomp 1 adorns 
 This King of righteousness 
 
 4. Iambic of four feet : — 
 
 And cold- | er still j the winds , aid blow, 
 And darker hours of night came on. 
 
 5. Iambic of fve feet^ or pentameter : — 
 
 On r-*^- i ed rocks, | the drag- j on's late j abodes, 
 The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 
 
 G. Iambic of six feet^ cr hexameter : — 
 
 His heart | is sad, j his hope j is gone, | his light | is passed 
 He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 
 
 7. Iambic of seven feet, or heptameter : — 
 
 Thg lof- I ty hill, ! the hflm- I ble lawn, | with count- ', 
 
 less beati- | ties shine. 
 The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power 
 
 divine. 
 
 Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; that of si? 
 feet is called Alexandrine 
 
250 APPEISTDIX. 
 
 Iambic of seve. ii feet is commonly divided into two 
 lines, — the first containing four feet, the second three 
 This is called common metre ; as, 
 
 The lofty hill, the humble lawn. 
 
 With countless beauties shine ; 
 The silent grove, the soiemn shade, 
 
 Proclaim thy power divine. 
 
 In long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short 
 metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three 
 iambic feet, the third four. 
 
 Each species of iambic verse may have one additional 
 short syllable. Thus, in the second species, — 
 
 Upon I a moun- | tain. 
 
 TROCHAIC VERSE. 
 
 1. Trochaic of one foot : — 
 
 Changing, 
 Ranging. 
 
 2. Trochaic of tico feet : — 
 
 Fancf- j viewing, 
 Joys ensuing. 
 
 3. Trochaic of three feet : — 
 
 Go where | glory j waits thge, 
 But when fame elates thee. 
 
 4. Trochaic of four feet : — 
 
 Round a j holy | calm dlf- | fOstng, 
 Love of peace and lonely musing. 
 
 5 Trochaic offve feet : — 
 
 All that ! walk 6n | foot 6r | ride in | chariQts, 
 All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
 
 6. Trochaic of six feet : — 
 
 On a I mountain | stretched, bg- | ngath a | hoary | wiliSw, 
 kjay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 
 
PROSODY 2i*l 
 
 In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd 
 syllables ; in iambic, on the even. 
 
 Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; 
 
 as. 
 
 Idle, I after | dinner, | In his ] chair 
 
 Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 
 
 ANAP^STIC VERSE. 
 
 1. AnapcBstic of one foot : — 
 
 But in vain 
 They complain. 
 
 2. AnapcBstic of tiuo feet : — 
 
 Where the sun | loves to pause 
 With so fond a delay. 
 
 3. AnapcEstic of three feet : — 
 
 From the cen- | trg, all round | to the s5a, 
 I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 
 
 4. AnapcBstic of four feet : — 
 
 At the close | of the day, | when thg ham j let Is still. 
 And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. 
 
 In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syl- 
 lable. The first foot of an anapsestic verse may be an 
 iambus ; as, 
 
 And mor- j tals the sweets | of forget- | fulnes!? prOve 
 
 DACTYLIC VERSE 
 
 1. Dactylic of one foot : — 
 
 CheerftUy, 
 Fearfully. 
 
 2. Dactylic of two feet : — 
 
 Free from ftnx- | ifity, 
 Care and satiety 
 
25'' 
 
 }i APPENDIX. 
 
 3, Dactylic of ihrce feet : — 
 
 Wearing a- j way in las j yuuLiifulngsa, 
 Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 
 
 4. Dactylic of four feet : — 
 
 Boys Vi^Ill an- | tlcipSte, | lavish, and ] dissip&te 
 All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 
 
 Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The 
 different kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse- 
 Thus : — 
 
 I come, I I come ; | ye have called | me long ; 
 
 I come I o'er the moun- \ tains with light | and song. 
 
 Note. For exercises in scanning, let thie pupil apply these, 
 rules to different verses in his reading lessons. 
 
 nt^^m 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition 
 by means of points. 
 
 These points may be divided into two classes, — those 
 which separate the parts of a sentence, and those which 
 separate entire sentences. 
 
 The former are the comma ( ) , the semicolon ( ; ) , the 
 colon (:), the dash { — ), and the parenthesis ( ),• 
 the latter are the period ( . ) , the interrogation point {f)x 
 and the exclamation point ( ! ) . 
 
 I.__P0INTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 
 
 The Comma. 
 
 The comma is used principally to separate the elements 
 of compact sentences. (421.) 
 
PUNCTUATION. 253 
 
 The use of the comma may be reduced to three general 
 piinciples : — 
 
 I. When the elements of a sentence are simple^ and are 
 arranged in the natural order, (401,) they should not be 
 separated ; but when any element is transposed, loosely 
 connected, or used parenthetically, it should be pointed off. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 "The path of virtue is the path of peace." 
 
 " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue mvst make." 
 
 ^'■Intrinsically^ the other is the most valuable." 
 
 " In general^ his work is superior to mine." 
 
 " He lived, as he said^ upon a vegetable diet." 
 
 (a.) The following words and phrases are pointed off by this 
 rule : — JJgain, besides^ moreover, nay, hence, thus, formerly, Jirst, 
 secondly, lastly, namely, once more, in short, in truth, above all, 
 on the contrary, in the next place. 
 
 ( b.) The nominative case independent, and several of the inter- 
 jections, are pointed off by the comma; since they are not ele- 
 ments of the sentence, and consequently are not closely con- v i 
 nected ; as, " My son, hear the instructions of thy father ; " ^ 
 " For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the 
 north." 
 
 (c.) When a simple element ot the third class is not closely 
 connected, or used in a restrictive sense, it is pointed off by the 
 comma, though arranged in the natural order ; as, " He will go, 
 if it is possible.^' 
 
 II. When an element is complex, and considerably 
 extended, it should be pointed off by the comma. 
 
 (a.) By this rule, the complex subject of a simple sentence, 
 when long, should be separated by the comma from the predicate ; 
 as, " The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to excrcito 
 the noblest virtues of the human soul." 
 
 (6.) The Clauses of a complex sentence should be separated by 
 the comma, when the subordinate clause is complex, and is not 
 used in a restrictive sense ; as, " We sometimes forget our 
 faults, when we are not reminded of them ' Abridged clauses 
 
 22 
 
254 APPENDIX, 
 
 (341) generally follow the same rule as complete clauses as, 
 •' Shame being lost^ all virtue is lost." 
 
 ( c.) The noun in apposition, when limited by several words, 
 should be pointed off; as, " Paul, tke apostle of the Gentiles.' 
 
 ( d.) When a sentence contains several extended adverbial ele- 
 ments of the second or third class, they should be separated by 
 the comma ; as, " The ancients separated the corn from the ear , 
 by causing an ox to trample on the sheaves.'' 
 
 III. When an element is compound^ the component 
 parts are generally separated by the comma ; as, " Some 
 ^ men sm frequently, deliherately, diW& presumptuously ^ 
 
 (a.) When a compound element consists of but two simple ele- 
 ments, the parts should not be separated, unless the conjunction 
 which connects them is understood ; as, " Feter and Johri went up 
 "> into the temple ; " "A hold^ decisive blow was struck." 
 
 (&.) When or denotes an alternative of words, and not ideas, 
 the two connected words should be separated by the comma ; as, 
 " The gulf or bay, is dangerous." Nearly allied to this construc- 
 tion is that in which tlie same word is repeated; as, " Verily ver- 
 ily, I say unto you." 
 
 (c.) Two simple elements, so connected as to show opposition 
 or contrast, should be pointed by the general rule ; as, " Though 
 deep, yet clear ; " " Though /aZ/e/i, great." 
 
 (d.) If both elements are complex, and considerably extended^ 
 or if one is complex and the other is not, a comma may be placed 
 between them. This rule applies particularly to the compound 
 predicate; as, " He left, and took his brother with him." 
 
 ( e.) When words are joined in pairs, the pairs are separated 
 from each other, but not the words composing them ; as, " Hope 
 and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives." 
 
 (/•) When the conjunction which connects two elements is 
 omitted, the comma takes its place ; as, " Thomas is a plain, hon- 
 est man." So, also, when a verb is understood, the comma take* 
 its place ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, curioa- 
 Hy ; from curiosity, knowledge." 
 
 (g.) When the connected parts are clauses, whether coordi 
 
PUNCTUATICN. 255 
 
 nate or subordinate, and are closely united, they should be scpa 
 rated by the comma ; as, " Life is short, and art is long ;" " I 
 neither knew wJuit I was, where 1 was, nor from whence I came.'''' 
 
 The Colon and Semicolon. 
 
 The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate 
 the members of a loose sentence (420) ; as, '• Every thing 
 grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disap- 
 pears." 
 
 Note. The colon is now but little used, except before examples 
 following- the expressions as follows, the following examples, in these 
 words, &c. ; as, "Perform the following txercises ;" — "He used 
 tliese words : " Mr. President," &c. 
 
 (o.) When, in a complex sentence, "several subordinate clauses 
 are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the 
 principal clause, they are separated by the semicolon; as, "Phi" 
 losophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that 
 she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will 
 always be progressive ; and that future generations will continue 
 to make discoveries. 
 
 The Dash and Parenthesis. 
 
 The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
 unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence 
 IS left unfinished; as, "He sometimes counsel takes — 
 and sometimes snuff;" "But I must first " 
 
 (a.) The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis, 
 as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the 
 town in which they had been so wretched." 
 
 The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence 
 not necessary to the construction, but in some way explana- 
 tory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider 
 (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the 
 fatal consequences of a wicked life." 
 
256 APPENDIX. 
 
 11. — POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A 
 
 SENTENCE 
 
 The Period. 
 
 The period is used at the close of a declarative or im- 
 j,*erative sentence ; as, " The work is done." " Obey your 
 parents." 
 
 The period is also used to denote an abbreviation ; as, 
 ^' P. M. ; " " Dr." 
 
 Interrogation Point. 
 
 An interrogatioii point is used at the close of a ques- 
 tion ; as, " Who comes there ? " 
 
 (a.) When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordi- 
 ■ nate clause, — 
 
 (1.) Tlie interrogation point is employed when the clause is 
 quoted directly (299, c.) ; as, " He said, ' Wliy do you iveep ? ' " 
 
 (2.) The interrogation point is not employed wlien the clause is 
 quoted indirectly (299) ; as, " He asked me why I wept." 
 
 Exclamation Point. 
 
 An exclamation point is used at tlie close of an exclam- 
 atory sentence ; as, " How unsearchable are his ways ! " 
 
 ( a.) An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after 
 an exclamatory expression or an interjection; as, " O, Jove su- 
 preme ! whom men and gods revere ! " " Oh ' let soft pity touch 
 the mind ! " 
 
 OTHER MARKS USED IN IV RI TING. 
 
 Brackets ( [ ] ) are used wlien a word or phrase is in 
 troduced for explanation or correction ; as, " He [th^ 
 teacher] thus explained the difficulty." 
 
MARKS USED IN WRITING. 257 
 
 The apostrophe ( ' ) is used either to denote the omission 
 of a letter or the possessive case ; as, " o'er ; " " John's.' 
 
 The quotation marks ( " " ) are used to include a pas- 
 sage taken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said^ 
 " I relinquish my claim." 
 
 The asterisk ( * ) , the ohelisk ( t ) , the doiihle dagger 
 < I) , and the parallels ( || ) , are used to refer to notes 
 in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. 
 
 The caret ( /^ ) is used in writing, to show that some 
 letter, word, or phrase, has been omitted ; as, " The 
 
 lies 
 
 pencil on the table." 
 
 A 
 
 The hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com- 
 pound word ; as, look-hinder. When placed at the end 
 of a line, it shows that a word is divided, the remain- 
 ing part being carried to the next line. 
 
 The ellipsis (***)( ) is used to denote the 
 
 omission of certain letters or words ; as, " C * * * 11 ; " 
 
 u k g." 
 
 ™, , i connects a number of words with one 
 
 The brace { 
 
 { common term. 
 
 The i7idex ( t^ ) points to some remarkable passage. 
 
 The section ( § ) denotes the divisions of a treatise. 
 
 A paragraph ( ^ ) denotes the beginning of a new 
 subject. 
 
 The vowel marks are the diaeresis (••), placed over 
 the second of two vowels which are separated; the lo7ig 
 sound ( - ) , placed over a long vowel ; the breve or short 
 sound ( ^ ) , placed over a short vowel ; and accents, grave 
 ( ^ ) , acnte ( ' ) , and circumflex ( A ) . 
 
 Note. For exercises in punctuation, let the pupil explain the 
 marks in any passage in his reading lesson. 
 
 22* 
 
258 APP£r«Xj.x. 
 
 RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 
 
 1. The first word of eveiy entire sentence should begin 
 with a capital ; as, " Jesus wept." 
 
 2. Titles of honor and respect, and every proper name, 
 and every adjective derived from a proper name, should 
 begin with a capital ; as. His Highness, Boston, Bos- 
 tonian. 
 
 3. Every' appellation of the Deity should begin with a 
 capital ; as, God, Jehoimh, the Eternal. 
 
 4. The first word of every line in poetry should begin 
 with a capital. 
 
 5. The words / and O should always be capitals. 
 
 6. Any important word may begin with a capital. 
 
 7. The principal words' in the titles of books should 
 begin with capitals ; as, Pope's " Essay on Man." 
 
 8. The first word of a direct quolation, when the quo- 
 tation forms a complete sentence by itself, should begin 
 
 with a capit 
 
 ai« 
 
 / 
 
 THE END. 
 
t 
 
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