EX LIBRJS MOUNTAIN SCOUTING A HAND-BOOK FOR Officers and Soldiers on the Frontiers PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS NOTES ON THE ART OF TRA VEL, BY EDWARD S. FARROW, U. S. ARMY. Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the L. & Military Academy, and For- merly Commanding Indian iScovta in the Department of the ( olvmbia. NEW YORK : PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1881. [A F"3 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year t38i, BY EDWARD S. FARROW, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. INSCRIBED TO OLIVER OTIS HOWARD, Brigadier and Brevet Major General, U. S. Army AS A TRIBUTE TO HIS UNEQUALKD ENTERPRISE AND PATRONAGE OF THE ART OF WAR, FROM HIS AFFECTIONATE; FRIEND THE AUTHOR. M25521 PREFACE. THE object of my book is to investigate that chain of many minor successes, each link of which must be perfect, in order to insure the success of any expedition. A long and dangerous journey, without the loss of properly, comfort, nealth or life, can only be accomplished after having learned how to prepare for all emergencies; how to avoid un- necessary hardships; and how to find out the capabilities of the country and of the party. I make no claim to discoveries in mountain-craft, nor do I p, etend to present any facts which have not occurred to others in similar situations. I have endeavored to present, in small compass, such knowl- edge as the young officer often acquires by bitter experience and under the most unfavorable circumstances. My book is not intended for officers who have seen service on the frontiers, many of whom are my competent teachers; but for the novice, who is so placed that he must depend upon himself in times of. emergency. To complete my -vork, I have drawn largely on the experi- ences of older officers and have introduced frequent notes re- corded during the study of Indian character while in their peaceful villages, following their rugged trails, and in their hos- tile camps. I have also freely consulted SCOTT'S MILITARY DICTION- ARY, WALKER'S MANLY SPORTS and other works of reference. I hope my readers will for * ard me any additions or correc- tions that may appear to them to add to the value of the work. E. S. F. WEST POINT, N. Y., December, 1881. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. THE HOESE. .... 9 II. THE RIFLE. .... 25 III. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. . 41 IV. USEFUL INFORMATION IN POST AND FIELD. 62 V. FIELD EQUIPAGE AND SUPPLIES. . 88 VI.- MOUNTAIN TKAVEL. . . . 100 VII. PACK MULES AND PACKING. . , 111 VIII. MAECHING. . . . 130 IX. FOKCED MARCHES. . . . 141 X. CROSSING RIVERS. . . . 152 XI. THE CAMP. .... 164 XII. THE MESS. .... 176 XIII. LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY. . . 194 XIV. INDIAN CHARACTER. . . . 213 XV. THE TRAIL, SIGNS AND SIGNALS. . 228 XVI. SKIRMISHING 239 APPENDIX. I. A[ SYSTEM OF SWIMMING. . . 3 II. ROWING. .... 19 III. THE CHINOOK VOCABULARY. 22 MOUNTAIN SCOUTING. CHAPTER I. THE HORSE. A THOROUGH knowledge of the horse and his judicious treatment are essential to a successful mountain journey. If there be left any latitude in the selection of your horse, see that " he is not less than fourteen nor more than sixteen hands high ; weighs not less than seven hundred and fifty, nor more than eleven hundred pounds ; age not less than five, nor more than eight years ; head and ears small ; forehead broad ; eyes large and prominent ; shoulders long and sloping well back ; fore legs straight and standing well under; chest broad and deep ; barrel large, and increasing from girdle to flank ; withers elevated ; back short and straight ; loins and haunches broad and muscular ; hocks well bent and under the horse ; pasterns slanting ; and feet small and sound." My idea of the perfect horse is depicted in the following drawing. Range horses, or those that have been raised exclusively io Mountain Scouting. on grass, are better suited for mountain service than those fed on grain. Hence it is that the square-built, large-trunked, short-legged Indian pony endures this service so much better than the American horse that has been accustomed to grain. The Indian pony, generally believed to be the result of a cross between the Southern mustang and a small type of the Canadian, is never fed, stabled, combed, shod nor doctored ; and when not under the saddle is left to shift for himself. In the winter he is a mere animated skeleton. His proportions vary according to the localities in which he is found, but he seldom exceeds thirteen hands in height. He is wonderfully sagacious and sure-footed. He can climb a steep, rocky hill with assurance and activity, and rush down a precipitous declivity with much indifference. He will get over and through places, which appear utterly impracticable, with ease and rapidity, while the American horse would labor to travel at r. walk. He particularly excels in the passage of swamps, marshy places and sands perforated with gopher holes. When full mouthed, the horse will have forty teeth, twenty in each jaw. The mare possesses only thirty-six. The age of the horse may be determined by observing the teeth, the times at which they appear, are shed and replaced, and the altera- tions in their form and markings ; 2 years, all milch teeth, which are easily distinguished from the permanent by being smaller, whiter and having necks ; 3 years, two permanent teeth, central incisors ; 4 years, four permanent teeth, central and lateral incisors ; 5 years, all permanent teeth. . From this time on, the age of the horse is decided by the marks on the teeth ; 6 years, the marks on the central incisors re worn out, and the points of the tushes are blunted ; 7 years, the marks on the central and lateral incisors are worn out, those on the corner incisors still showing ; 8 years, all the cavities are filled up. Beyond this age the criteria are uncer- tain. The Horse. u The markings on the teetli (except those of crib-biters) are moie distinct in the upper than in the lower jaw, and may be easily examined by the aid of a mirror. The following facts are noted in connection with the horse's nature, management and capabilities : 1. He judges everything by seeing, smelling (feeling), and hearing. 2. He will resist no demand consistent with the laws of his nature, being unconscious of his strength. 3. He has a strong memory of places, and very readily finds again a trail or road which he has once before traveled. 4. He possesses the faculty of directing his course to the nearest water. 5. The absolute command of him can only be obtained by an admixture of kindness and firmness. 6. His lips and teeth adapt him to clipping short herbage he can find an abundance where the ox would starve. 7. A good horse is ruined by the practice of passing a loop- ed rope around the lower jaw, which is too often employed as an aid in keeping the seat when riding. 8. Avoid raising the arms when driving a horse. He is con- stantly in fear that they may fly off and strike him. 9. When he hangs back and will not lead, never get in front of him and pull, for there is no use, unless you are stronger than the horse. Place yourself opposite his shoulder and hold his head in front of you by grasping the bridle near the mouth, touching him with a whip held in the other hand. 10. Never whip a horse to hurt him. When he is stubborn, apply the whip lightly about his legs and flanks, and not pn his back. n. When a horse will not stand, and is addicted to the habit of kicking, tie up one of his fore legs and leave him on three. He can then neither run away nor kick, and will soon learn that you do not intend to hurt him. If not pressed, he can hop two or three miles on three legs. Two miles of hop- ping is a sure cure for a kicker or a jibber. 12 Mountain Scouting. 12. To overcome the stubbornness of ahorse that has thrown himself down, do not flog him. Twisting or biting his tail is the usual way to manage him. A tuft of grass set ablaze and placed under his nostril will cause him to rise. 13. It is not well to use a whip on the horse from which you shoot ; if so, when you raise the gun to fire he is sure to be un- steady, feeling a dread of its being the whip. 14. A load on a horse's back is the worst application of his strength ; he can draw about seven times as much as he can carry. 15. An average horse equals six men at a pull, and requires about five gallons of water daily. 16. Experiment has shown the following endurance of horses : A healthy horse will live on water alone twenty-one days ; he will live without eating or drinking about fifteen days; he will live if fed, and without water, for about six days. The average length of life of the horse in all localities and under all circumstances is about twenty-one years. Before starting on a long journey, on horseback, every effort should be made to secure a proper equipment. In selecting a saddle, see that it is light, strong and large enough to permit the weight to be evenly distributed over the horse's back. It should be sufficiently raised to admit a free circulation between it and the spine, while the pommel is high enough to prevent the rider from being thrown forward. The cynch should be made of some soft and elastic material, such as hair, and not less than four inches in width. I have ridden on a hunting saddle, shown in the drawing on the page opposite, very much on the order of the present milit iry saddles, but so constructed as to better fit the horse, and less liable to produce a 'sore back.' This saddle seems well adapted to use in a wild country. It may be supplied with rings and ' DV at pleasure. The stirrup iron is of large size, so as to admit the free passage, in and out, of the boot with mud or clay about it. It is also heavy, and the The Horse. foot can readily find it should it when the horse is in rapid motion. 13 be lost for a moment The saddle-blanket should be folded smoothly and evenly and cover all the back touched by the saddle. A piece of linen cloth placed under the blanket will often prevent sore back. 14 Mountain Scouting. If a horse is sweating very much when unsaddled, it is well to allow the saddle-blanket to remain strapped upon his back until he is dry. Cold water should never be applied to the back while heated it is all right to wash it after it cools, but not before. The bridle should fit the horse comfortably and there should be room for the finger between the chin and the curb- chain. If the horse be tender-chinned, the chain should be covered with leather. The bit should be sufficiently light and easy not to fret or chafe the horse. Many bits are instruments of torture and the horse will often set his >jaws against them to alleviate the pain. An excellent bridle is one so constructed that the bit may be removed by unbuckling, thus converting it into a halter for leading or picketing, and at the same time ad- mitting of the use of any bit. The bit cannot be too carefully adjusted. If the horse open his mouth, writhe his jaws and throw out his tongue if he have no appuy, violently toss his head up and down, carry it low or refuse to go forward, the bit needs a proper and im- mediate adjustment. The spur should be used by accomplished riders only, and then with great prudence and thorough knowledge of the horse. It is often advantageously replaced by a light switch or Indian whip. The first two essentials for good horsemanship are a firm seat and a light hand. To mount safely and easily, stand at the left shoulder of the horse, looking to the rear ; take the reins in the right hand, dividing them by the middle finger of the left hand until the horse's mouth is felt ; close the left hand, about ten inches in front of the saddle, firmly on the mane and reins, and throw the loop to the off side, with the right hand ; place the left foot into the stirrup, the right hand assisting after quitting the mane ; then using the mane as a slight hold, raise the body The Horse. 15 into the air, passing the right leg over the horse, assisting in this by taking hold of the back of the saddle and steadying the fall of the body by placing the right hand on the pommel. Dismounting may be accomplished by a reverse process. In dismounting on rough and dangerous trails, to avoid accident, it is better to disengage both feet from the stirrups at once and vault from the saddle to the ground. Having gained the saddle, the rider should seat himself so as to place every part of the body in such position that it can act upon the horse in every emergency. The proper length of stirrup is when the tread of the stirrup is about one-half inch below the inner ankle-bone and when the feet are in the stirrups, the heels should be two or three inches lower than the toes. The grip in riding should be maintained by the thigh and knee, and not by the knee and calf only. The positions of the feet and hands exercise some influence on the security of the seat ; and without the acquisition of a firm seat, the acquirement of good hands is impossible. The rein-hold varies with the design of the rider and the propensities of the horse. The drawings show the usual methods of holding and shifting the reins. In holding them separately, one passes into each hand, between the third and fourth fingers, and out over the fore- finger, where it is held down by the thumb. Frequently the reins are held in the left hand, as when first taken up. Here, the left rein passes under the little finger, and i6 Mountain Scouting. the right under the third, both passing through the hand, and the superfluous rein uanging over the first joint of the fore- finger, the thumb securing it. Sometimes, the right rein enters the hand over the fore- finger from abt>ve and crosses the left rein in the palm, where the fingers close upon them. The loop, formed of the residue, hangs down between the hand and body. The reins must be shifted expertly without breaking the time or altering the pace. To shift them from the left hand : Turn the thumbs toward each other and carry the right hand over the left ; place the fore-finger of the right hand downward, in the place of the little finger of the left hand, between the reins ; and pass the reins through the right hand, placing the thumb upon the left rein, near the second joint of the fore-finger. To return them to the left hand : Carry the left hand over the right and place the little finger of the left hand downward between the reins ; then carry them smoothly upward through the hand, and let the ends hang over the fore-finger. Quickness, firmness, gentleness and lightness are essentially necessary to good hands. The necessity for readiness in the rider's hand is obvious in both the standing and flying leaps. Without it, the horse will be embarrassed and both the animal and his rider endangered. While the rider quickly and fearlessly gives the horse his The Horse. 17 head, he must preserve his own equilibrium, by leaning for- ward as the horse rises, and backward as he alights. In the leap, the rider should not raise his body upright, nor slacken the hold with his legs, before the hind feet of the horse come to the ground. The horse requires no support or assist- ance from the hand until he is coming to the ground. I have stated that, in theory, the rider should lean forward during the time in which the horse is on his hind legs ; but, in practice, this position is so momentary, and the spring from the hind legs is so powerful, that it is dangerous to lean for- ward at all, and would be difficult, if not impossible, to get back in time to render the horse the assistance he needs when his feet touch the ground. The drawing shows the theoretical position of the rider, and the danger of the same is apparent, should the horse not go fair, or refuse to take his leap. The hand and leg should at all times work together in guid- ing the horse the hand will retain the head and neck in proper position, while the leg will communicate the forward impulse. It should also be remembered that the strongest part of the horse and the center of action is a little in rear of his shoulder- blades ; hence, riding rather forward in the saddle is a relief to the horse, while leaning back and bearing upon his loins his weakest part cause much fatigue. 1 8 Mountain Scouting. In all critical situations, with a horse addicted to bolting, rearing, kicking, etc., the seat should be maintained as in leaps. If the horse runs away do not devote your strength to vain pulling, but guide him out of danger and let him run until he is tired. For a bolting horse a Bucephalus nose-band is very useful. If he rears give him his head and lean forward. If he kicks, sit firmly in the saddle and keep his head up. Before mounting any horse, the rider should ascertain whether the saddle and every article of equipment are good and well fixed. The shoes on a horse's feet have much to do with the com- fort of both his rider and himself. Many horses are rendered absolutely unserviceable by improper shoeing. It should be one of the first duties of those having the man- agement of horses to study the nature and structure of the horse's foot and the best manner of keeping it shod. The drawing represents the ground surface of the hoof pre- pared for the shoe : a, a i, a 2, show the front, inner and outer toe ; b i, b 2, show the inner and outer quarter ; c i, c 2, show the inner and outer heel ; d, d, d, show the sole ; e, e, show the crust or wall of the hoof ; f, f, show the bars ; g, g, show the The Horse. i 9 commissures ; h, k, 1, show the frog (h being immediately un- der the navicular joint) ; i, i, show the bulbs of the heels. If the following simple suggestions be followed, the horse will carry his rider over rough roads and will not be in pain while traveling. Remove the old shoes, one at a time (withdrawing the clenches), rasp the edge of the hoof all around and remove any stubs that may be left in the crust. Pare out the foot, without cutting the sides of the bars, shaving the frog, or opening the heels. Neither heel nor frog s lould be pared more than is necessary to remove what is ragged, for no reproduction occurs here as in the case of the hoof. If the horse has a low heel, the foot should be pared at the toe only. Under no circumstances should the fore part of the hoof be allowed to grow long ; if so, it is sure to throw the horse very much on his heels, making them tender and causing lameness, and also to strain the ligaments of the fetlock joints. Do not select a shoe that is too light. A light shoe is apt to bend long before it is worn out, and the consequent pain is injurious to the horse. As a rule, select the short shoes for the horses having short pasterns. The ' seating ' should be carefully looked after at all times. The nail-holes should be stamped so as to pass straigh^ through the shoe, and come out in the flat of the web. In this way the nail will come out low down in the thickest part of the hoof, and give a strong clench (made out of the shank of the nail), thus securing a firmer hold for the shoe, without pricking the foot. The soundness of the foot is greatly influenced by the number of nails, and where they are placed. To prevent unsoundness, the nails should be so placed as to allow the foot to expand. The inner quarter and the heel of the hoof expand the most, and should be left free from nails. Pressure on the heels may be prevented by driving the nails, toward the toe, a little tighter th an the heel nails. 2o Mountain Scouting. For a fore shoe, five nails are a sufficiency ; three on the out- side and two on the inside. For rough roads,four on the out- side might be advisable, but never more. A ' clip ' should be turned UD at the toe to keep the shoe steady and prevent its being forced back ; but one should never appear at the side of the shoe, as it interferes with the expansion of the hoofs. A new shoe, turned up at. the toe, feels to the horse like an old shoe and insures better traveling. Be careful to have the shoe fitted to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe, as is too often done. The shoe should not project bevond the hoof at the sides and in rear. Many shoes are lost through this fault ; more- over, the projections will check the sinking of the pastern bone, and cause the horse to step short. To properly fit the shoe, it should be made hot enough to scorch the hoof all around a hot shoe does not injure the hoof. The drawing shows an excellent form of front shoe and the position of nail-holes ; a, a, show the heels, same thickness as the rest of the shoe ; b, b, show the points at which the heels Th: House. 21 of hoof terminate ; c, c, show the seating ; d, e, show the posi- tion of nail-holes. After nailing on the shoe the clenches should not be trim- med by rasping. The rasp should never be used above the clenches, as it tears off the outer covering of the hoof thus leaving the horn exposed to the air, when it soon becomes dry and brittle and breaks off. The functions of the hoof's covering are the same as those of the finger-nail. On a well formed foot, the horny crust is about one-half inch thick at the edge and the angle formed by the front of the foot and the horizontal surface should be fifty degrees. In consequence of the weight of a horse falling differently on the hind feet, certain strains of the hock and back sinews should be guarded against by raising the heels of the shoe. The hind-foot expands less than the fore-foot, and the inside quarter and heel should be left free to expand. The holes on the inside should be closer together than those on the outside, and should be placed forward toward the toe. Three nails on each side is sufficient to firmly hold the hind shoe. A small hind-foot may be shod with three nails on the outside and two on the inside. The largest foot should never have more than seven nails. The shoes should be removed, placed ii? the fire, and refitted or replaced by new ones once a month. Tender-footed horses travel better when the sole has a leather, gutta-percha or water-proof felt covering. Indian ponies, having very tough and elastic hoofs, can make long journeys without being shod ; but if this is permitted, the hoof soon wears so smooth that it is difficult for them to walk on grass or rocks. Horses that brush and kick should be furnished special shoes. In ' -ise of lameness, remove the shoe and carefully examine the foot yourself. It avails nothing to direct a farrier to ex- amine a foot that he himself has sh plied with nutritious forage. Oats contain about three-fourths their weight of nutritious matter. When good, they should be dry, sweet, heavy and rat- tle like shot. They are most preferable when about one year old. New oats are difficult to grind down, and often occa- sion colic and staggers. All such, or those that are wet and musty, should be kiln-dried before feeding. Oats possess an invigorating principle not found in any other grain. Oat meal in the form of gruel constitutes one of the most satisfac- tory articles of food for the sick and tired horse. Barley contains about nine-tenths its weight of nutritious matter, but is not so good as oats as an article of food. Horses fed upon it, are subject to mange, surfeit, and inflammatory complaints. Barley straw induces diseases of the skin. Hay should be one year old, if procurable, when fed. New hay acts as a purgative. Old hay becomes dry, tasteless, in- nutritive, and often mow-burnt, in which condition it becomes really poisonous. Horses fed on such soon become languid, hide-bound, worthless, and often victims of diabetes. Hay must not be fed in too large quantities. Many diseases of the horse are the results of over-feeding with hay. Horses are prone to eat more than they should, hence it is necessary to add grain containing more nutriment in a smaller compass. Wheat contains more nutritious matter than barley and more gluten than any other grain. It should be fed in small quantities, or colic and fomentation will result. It is difficult of digestion, and the horse fed on it should have but little hay and water soon afterwards. Peas and beans, in small quantities and about one year old. are excellent articles of food for horses. They should be weii crushed before feeding and generally fed with hay. If fed alone, they might produce the megrims or staggers. Carrots, when sliced and mixed with grain, make a splendid provender for the horse, and are found to be very beneficial in The Horse. 23 all breathing and skin disorders, coughs and broken wind. They should be fed in small quantities, as they are slightly laxative and diuretic at rst. Potatoes possess great virtue as an article of horse food. If they are slightly steamed before feeding, horses will prefer them to oats. If they are mixed with other provender, there is a great saving in expense and an increased capability for work. One acre of potatoes is equivalent to four acres of hay. I was first convinced in 1879 that potatoes (even raw) con- stituted a most valuable article of food for horses. I had made along journey, following the trail of a few marauding In- dians, over very barren and rocky mountains. After traveling three days without any grass or substantial food for the horses, I camped on the south fork of the Salmon river. Near my camp were the remains of a ranch to the extent of a small po- tato patch. The Indians had murdered the owners and set fire to the grass and buildings a few days before. I ordered the herd to be turned into the potato patch, thinking that the green potato tops would be better than nothing for them to eat. It was not long before the males were discovered rooting up the ground, like so many hogs, and eagerly devouring the raw potatoes. The horses followed suit. The next day the march was along one of twenty-five miles, over a hi^h and exceedingly difficult mountain; but, notwithstanding, every animal went in- to camp with a light and elastic step, holding his head high. If the horse can be supplied a reasonably fair amount of nu- tritious forage, and his feet be kept in proper condition, he is not likely to become unserviceable in the field. In mountainous countries some means should be contrived to prevent horses from ' balling ' and slipping in winter and from picking up stones in summer. The ' Wheeler Anti-Snow Ball Pad and Hoof Protector ' is the best preventive for these troubles that I ever used. 24 Mountain Scouting. The drawings show the form of this pad and the manner of FORM OF PAD. ADJUSTED PAD. adjusting it. It is made in sizes to fit any foot, and is fitted without removing the shoe. It is made, of vulcanized rubber into which a brass spring with catches is molded. Neither straps nor nails are required. When properly sprung into po- sition (the frog uncovered) it cannot be thrown out by the strongest actioned horse. The Rifle, 25 CHAPTER II. THE RIFLE. WHILE drills, dress parades and guard-mountings make up the rudiments of a soldier's education, the rifle and rifle prac- tice should form the subjects of the first and most important chapter. I will not here go into the details of this interesting study, but will confine my remarks to some of the errors and inac- curacies of fire, susceptible of practical correction, chief among which is that resulting from the miserable sights forced upon the service rifle. When firing in vacuo, the trajectory is easily traced and its properties simply discussed. Considering its position with reference to the line of sight it will be seen that near the muz- zle it is below the line of sight for some distance, then it cuts it ; beyond this point it rises above the line of sight for some distance, then falls and cuts it again. This second point of intersection is the point blank and determines the point blank range. With a good rifle, up to 175 or even 200 yards, the line of fire will not cut the line of sight ; or, in other words, it will not shoot high. In my practice with a 50 calibre Remington in a still and light atmosphere, this point was found to be at an average dis- tance of 183 feet from the muzzle. Now, inasmuch as it is necessary, in order to hit an object within or beyond the point blank, to aim below or above it certain distances, it is readily seen how indispensable are the contrivances (sights) which will so alter the point blank as to make it coincide with any object directly aimed at. The range in vacuo equals ^~ in which x and y are the horizontal and vertical components of the im- 26 Mountain Scouting. pulsive force, and g the acceleration due to the force of grav- ity. From this we see that (velocity being constant) the range will be the same when the angles of fire are equally distant from 45 ; thus, angles of fire 36 and 54 will give the same range. It is also seen that the range will be a maximum when xy is a maximum, or when x=y, or when the angle of fire is 45. Also, that when the angle of fire is 45, the height of the culminating point of the trajectory is equal to one-fourth the range and is a maximum that it is o when the angle of fire is o or 90. These simple laws of motion of a projectile in vacuo are greatly modified when the movement is through air. For instance, in air the maximum range with our service rifle is attained with an- elevation of about 30 (while it is 45 in vacuo). The progressive velocity of fall of the bullet being so much less than its initial velocity, the air resistance opposed to its descent will be inappreciably small in comparison with that in the direction of its motion of translation (the resistances being proportional to the squares of the velocities). Hence, when the bullet would have been at certain points, in vacuo, it will in reality be at points below and in rear of them, by distances increasing from the point of departure (since the resistance of air causes the spaces passed over in equal times to become progressively smaller and smaller), thus causing the trajectory in air to be constantly below and in rear of its place in vacuo and changing its curvature, so that the left branch presents a flattened form while the right branch approaches the vertical. From thus destroying the symmetry of this curve, there results that the angle of fall is greater than the angle of ascent, and more considerably so as it is distant f'rom the origin, that the point of culmination is lowered, and that the range is greatly diminished. In practice the object aimed at has a certain height ; hence, it will not only be struck when at point blank, but also when at points in rear or in front of the point blank where the vertical The Rifle. 27 distances of the trajectory from such points shall be equal to or less than the height of the object. This distance between these two points, known as the dangerous space, is greater as the trajectory is flattened or as the height of the object is greater. The illustration represents an object, P P', in advance of the point blank, which is struck at P'. If it were at point blank, it would be struck at P. An object may also be struck when in rear of the point blank. The sum of the distances in front and rear of the point blank, at which the object could be struck at its bottom and top, is the dangerous space. This permits us to make slight errors in estimating distances ; we can either over or underestimate them so long as the errors do not exceed the limits of the dangerous space. (Fbr dangerous spaces of the service rifle and carbine see Chapter IV.) I think I am echoing the opinions of our best sportsmen when I say that the Remington rifles are far in advance of others in the attempt to increase the dangerous space, and hence the accuracy of the arm. 28 Mountain Scouting* The diagram shows how, with an equal Divergence of the bullets in both cases, those having flat trajectories hit the target, while the two having highly curved trajectories miss it, the one striking above and the other below it. In hunting, or when firing at an enemy over an unknown distance, the importance of a flat trajectory is evident but it is still important even where the distance is definitely known. When firing at long range a delicate estimation of distance is necessary to obtain accuracy of fire, even when using the best and most accurately graduated sights. Any ordinary man can be drilled to estimate distances up to 600 yards with great accuracy and dispatch. Distances may be appreciated by the eye alone or by the aid of instruments. The latter method is of no prac- tical value in the field before an enemy, and should only be employed on the drill ground as an aid where time is an im- portant element. The tige and stadia are * worthless, and should not be noticed. The stadiometer is but little superior. The form described by General Wingate is the best. The writer's stadiometer, the principle of which is based on the proportionality of the corresponding sides of similar tri- angles and an application of the plummets, does good work on an undulating and broken drill ground, where actual chain measurement would be impracticable if not impossible. Pro- longed practice and experience in the appreciation of distances are necessary to give the coup axil that insures sufficient ac- curacy. The practice should be conducted over smooth, broken and undulating ground, and frequently from elevated points. The distances should also be estimated in all direc- tions as regards light and the condition of the atmosphere. The following are the important causes which vary the direc- tion and intensity of the forces acting on the bullet, and which may be greatly obviated by carefulness and an understanding of the subject : i. A frequent cause of inaccuracy of fire is a false or defect- The Rifle. 29 ive barrel, short swells and long depressions being often found on its interior. These swells or ridges, by increasing the fric- tion, may so affect the recoil as to have an injurious effect on the fire, or so affect the exterior form of the bullet as to pro- duce an irregularity in its motion. The depressions or swells change the interior lines of the piece and give the bullet a false direction. 2. Another cause of inaccuracy of fire is the vibration of the barrel when firing, caused by the want of a homogeneous dis- tribution of metal about its axis, and often to binding bands. These vibrations tend to alter the direction of the bullet as it leaves the muzzle. 3. Recoil causes the man to turn to the side from which he fires, and produces deviation in that direction. It is supported by pressing the butt firmly against the shoulder with the right hand, the left hand supporting the weight of the rifle, and varies with the position of the rifle relative to the horizontal, being a maximum when the shot is fired vertically upward. The shock of the recoil against the shoulder is diminished by the bend in the stock, serving to decompose the force into two components, one acting through the stock against the shoulder, the other in. the direction of the axis of the barrel, tending to raise it. Whatever lessens the recoil theoretically increases the range The recoil is only 95 Ibs. for the Remington rifle (70 grains powder and bullet of 450 grains), while in our service rifle, caliber .45, it is 174 Ibs. 4. When the bullet reaches the muzzle of the rifle, it will revolve about its axis nearly 800 times in a second, and a point on its exterior side surface will have an axial velocity of about ninety feet per second. This in connection with the resistance of the air produces a lateral drifting of the bullet in the direc- tion in which the grooves have a turn. This is known as drift, and is greater in the descending than in the ascending branch of the trajectory. It increases as the diameter of the bullet, the angle of fire, the velocity of rotation and the range 30 Mountain Scouting. increase, and as the velocity of translation decreases. The drift in our service rifle (caliber .45, seventy grains powder) at 500 yards is two feet. 5. The pull of the trigger should not be too great, a three- pound pull being the minimum. It should be pressed by a steadily increasing pressure of the. finger in the direction of the axis of the barrel, without communicating motion to the rifle, the breath being held until the hammer falls. If the trigger is too hard and is pulled convulsively, the muzzle will be turned to the right. There should be a quick and decided connec- tion between the mind and finger. Few men can pull off the trigger of our average service rifle with the first joint of a single finger. I have frequently supported the whole weight of the rifle, at full cock, on the trigger, without pulling it off, and I consider this a very serious defect. Every man should invariably fire his own and the same gun, in order to become acquainted with its defects of construction, and learn how to make allowances for consequent deviations from the theoretical trajectory. 6. The principal cause of the inaccuracy of fire of our ser- vice rifle is that it is sighted too coarsely. Without apparent movement, this rifle may be sighted on any object within a horizontal radius of many feet. It seems that very little atten- tion has been paid to this most important part of the rifle's construction. If our rifle is to be furnished with the rough, and too frequently misplaced, plain bead fore- sight and open rear-sight, we certainly have no right to look for good shots in the Army. I think it would be well to follow the Remington system in this matter. Replace the present bead sight by the ' Beach Combination Sight,' which is such that it forms either an open bead or a globe sight with cover, ac- cording as the leaf is turned up or down, thus adapting it either to hunting or target use (and if I mistake not our frontier field The Rifle. 31 service is more on the order of hunting than range practice). The globe of this sight is so constructed as to permit the use of all descriptions of sights, detachable pieces of the various forms in use being slipped into a slot in the globe and held by a screw The four sights represented seem to be favorites with the best long-range shots. A spirit-level and wind gauge adjustment may be attached to this sight, and insure any degree of nicety. Then replace the open rear-sight by such a sight as is found on the Remington-Creedmore rifle and represented on the fol- lowing page one provided with a vernier scale operated by a screw' that will accurately mark an alteration of less than tSie one-hundredth of an inch in the elevation, each minute of elevation on the scale corresponding to about one inch for each 100 yards of range, and we will have a system of sights in keeping with our rifle and the efficiency of the arm will be assured. There is nothing objectionable in such sights, and their adjustment is extremely simple. To adjust the rear sight, the eye-piece is first loosened, then after the sight is properly set by means of the screw, the eye-piece is tightened and holds the slide firmly, irrespective of the screw, which is intended only for convenience in adjusting the eye-piece. We have an excellent rifle, handy in itself and a hard shoot- er, but its sights have annoyed every officer who has had oc- casion to use it. Before proceeding I will call attention to a rear sight made by William Lyman, of Middleford, Conn., which is most ex- cellent. I can do better shooting with it than with any other, when the target is a moving object. When aiming, it has the appearance of a ring or hoop, which shows the front sight and the object aimed at, without inter- J/.VY/ h lain Scouting The Rifle. 33 cepting any part of the view. Its rim may be instantly changed to give it a large aperture with a narrow rim, or a small aperture with a wider rim. For all quick shooting the large aperture should be used. It possesses the following advantages : it allows an instantaneous aim to be taken the object being sighted as quickly as if only the front sight were used ; it readily permits one to shoot moving objects, running or flying, with both the eyes in use ; it is also very accurate, simple and strong. Any kind of front sight may be used with it, and it may be put on any rifle in the same way that a peep sight is attached and adjusted for shooting any distance up to 1,000 yards. The engraving shows the manner of its construction. 34 Mountain Scouting. 7. It will be readily seen that a defective position of the line of sight will cause an inaccuracy of fire, and this may be occasioned by a false position being given to either the front or rear sight. If the front sight be to the right of its proper place, the bullet will go to the left and vice versa. The bullet will also be raised (range increased), since the top of the sight is lower than it is when in its proper position. If the rear sight be to the right or left of its true place, the bullet will go to the right or left, and will be lowered (range diminished), since the top of the sight will be lower than when in its true posi- tion. 8. A very frequent cause of inaccuracy of fire is the incor- rect graduation of the rear sight. Of course, if the elevations corresponding to certain ranges are not accurately marked, the fire will be wild. In determining the graduation .for any particular rifle, avoid all proportions and make a series of ex- periments with the greatest care. With a properly made arm and cartridge, and the elevating sight accurately graduated, any one can, by care and practice, become a good marks- man. 9. A serious cause of inaccuracy, originating with the firer, is the faulty position that he gives to the musket in firing, by inclining to the right or left, which tends to carry the bullet to the side to which the rifle is inclined, and to diminish the range. When firing at long ranges a trifling inclination to the right or left will throw the bullet very wide of the target. 10. To prevent inaccuracies while aiming, in addition to keep- ing the sight vertical, the firer should observe the following : The eye should glance from the sights to the target, being constantly on the target. If the particular rifle carries higher or lower than the aver- age, it must be remedied by aiming with a fine or a coarse sight. In aiming raise the rifle. Upward motion acts against gravity, and has a tendency to prevent any lateral motion of ;he muzzle. The Kiflc. 35 Held the butt firmly against the shoulder, and do not turn the head away at the instant of pulling the trigger. Fire low rather than too high. u. After firing a few shots on a dry, hot day, the /bullets gradually fall lower and lower, in consequence of the fouling of the barrel. The barrel should be kept clean and, as far as possible, not over-heated. 12. The condition of the atmosphere noticeably affects the course of the bullet. The more moisture there is in the air, the less the elevation required. The bullet is frequently noticed to fall immediately after a rain. Warm air offers less resistance to the bullet than does cold air. A fall of 20 in temperature will cause the bullet to lower ten or eleven inches at 300 yards range. In firing over water the elevation must be. increased, in consequence of the lower temperature of the air over the water. In ascending the mountain the air be- comes more and more rare, and consequently the resistance to the bullet is less on the mountain than at its base. Mirage, an optical illusion occurring in level districts on very warm days, causes the target to apparently raise in the air and become distorted in shape. This materially affects such objects as are near the ground, and engenders a tendency to shoot too high. 13. The influence of light and shade on the firing is very remarkable. On a bright day the target is refracted so as to apparently stand higher, which would theoretically require a lower elevation than on a very dull day. When the light shines directly on the target, when the target is against a light background (so that the details are better brought out), when the sun shines on the firer's back, when the atmosphere is clear, when the ground is level and uniform in appearance or when it gradually rises toward the target, the same will appear much nearer, and will theoretically require a higher elevation. The best shooting is invariably done on cloudy days when the sun's light is evenly diffused. It is very difficult to shoot well 36 Mountain Scouting. when passing clouds intercept portions of the sun's light and heat. It is readily seen how this disturbance might set up cur- rents in the air which would tend to carry the bullet from its course, and how the rays of light deflected from their course before reaching the eye would cause the target to apparently occupy a false position. It will be well to diminish the ele- vation should the sun suddenly appear and light up the target while the firer still remains in the shade, and to increase it should the target remain in the shade while the sun shines on the firer. 14. Bright sights and barrels are obviously objectionable. The reflection of the sun's light on the sights causes them to appear as brilliant points and precludes the possibility of an accurate aim. If the sun's rays come laterally the trouble will be yet greater, inasmuch as they will brighten the rear side of the front sight and the opposite side of the rear sight notch and cause a tendency to shoot away from the sun. The refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel causes the target to become indistinct and to assume the appearance of motion. The sights and barrel about the muzzle should be blackened with smoke if nothing better is at hand. 15. The effect of the wind upon the trajectory and the allow- ance to be made therefor are most troublesome questions for the marksman. Winds are generally classified as follows : Gentle, 4 n iles per hour. Moderate, 10 miles per hour. Fresh, 20 miles per hour. Strong, 35 miles per hour. Very high, 50 miles per hour. Gale, 80 miles per hour. Inasmuch as the wind is continually changing in intensity and direction, it is almost impossible to make tables of allow- ances for it. The best skill and judgment of the marksman are brought into play when firing in mountain districts, where there are many cross-currents with which to contend. All The Rifle. 37 winds, except toward the target, retard the bullet and render a higher elevation necessary. A wind from the rear helps the bullet and tends to high shooting. Experience has shown it necessary to alter the wind gauge twelve or more feet between two consecutive shots over a range of 1,000 yards, in order to make a bull's eye each time, when the wind was too high or variable. The inclination is generally to under-estimate for wind allowance, nearly every one disliking to aim far away from the target. I believe that any one with a good mind and clear sight, possessing nerve, coolness and a quick connection between will and finger, can by practice and endeavors to cor- rect the inaccuracies pointed out in this chapter, do good shooting. The enlisted men in our service are anxious to learn how to shoot well, and in the majority of cases are very apt scholars. It is only necessary that the officers teach them the practical correction of the errors, which they are to investigate theoreti- cally. In Busk's ' Hand-book for Hythe ' it is stated that " one hour a day of private practice in aiming drill will, in a few weeks, make a man a first-class shot." I believe this, for the position and the aiming drills constitute the very foundation of any system of practice. It is an absurd mistake in our ser- vice to have recruits fire off-hand at a target one hundred yards distant, when they scarcely know the difference between a rifle and a shotgun, and cannot hit a barn-door thirty paces distant with either. H. M. Quackenbush, of Herkimer, N. Y., manufactures an air rifle, which, in my opinion, is excellent for practice. I am confident if it was adopted at the various posts as a means of practice in short range shooting, it would be of great benefit to the soldier. The drawing illustrates its principle and shows the gun loaded, ready to shoot. Pulling the trigger releases the piston , which is then thrown forward by the spring, expelling the Mountain Scouting. air from the chamber (C) through the barrel (E) with great force, carrying the dart or slug before it. To load, the barrel (E) is pushed into the chamber (C) which re-sets the piston and compresses the spring, as above shown. The barrel is then withdrawn until the opening (/) in it corresponds with the opening in the head at (O) so that the dart or slug may The Rifle. 39 be inserted, after which the barrel is to be drawn out as far as possible, as shown. The barrel is easily pushed into the chamber, by placing the muzzle upon the floor or against some firm object, as shown in the drawing. Having learned by practice the capabilities of the rifle, care must be exercised in its preservation. Mercurial ointment or belmontyle oil is an excellent preventive of rusting of the barrels and gun furniture sweet oil frequently ' gums' and is not so good. Spirits of turpentine is good for cleaning the interior. A good vegetable oil for the locks and small parts may be obtained by pouring a handful of shot or a few bullets into a bottle of oil, and allowing it to remain in the air uncorked for several days, when the clear oil on top is drawn off for use. The stock is frequently broken, in the field, and it is often difficult for either a smith or a carpenter to mend it. This is best accomplished by rawhide lashings. I have seen stocks, broken into splinters when struck by bullets, mended and made as strong as ever by rawhide sewn around them and left to dry. Tendons and stout fish skins may be used for like pur- poses. Often, instead of sewing, the skin of an animal's leg may be drawn over the stock and left to dry and contract. When the soldier, in haste or in the dark, snatches up his rifle without his cartridge belt, he is often annoyed by its becoming useless after the first discharge. This might be obviated by making fast to the rifle a small sack carrying a few cartridges, or by letting a spring locker into the butt of the stock for the same purpose. In the absence of both of these precautions the soldier should at all times carry a few loose cartridges in his pocket. When it is necessary to fire at night, when the sights cannot be distinctly seen, a dampened lucifer match should be rubbed on the top of the front sight and on the bottom of the notch of the rear sight. 40 Mountain Scouting. In case the rear sight is replaced by one with a more ac- curate graduation, care should be taken not to place it too near the eye, else it might become out of focus and indistinct when the eye is directed at the object aimed at. It is a good rule to carry the rifle at half-cock, and never allow it to point at any one, whether loaded or not.* * Those desiring a more thorough knowledge, of this subject are referred to the excellent work of General George W. Wingate. Medical and Surgical Hints. 41 CHAPTER III. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. Peculiar and local diseases prevail in nearly every section of country ; and wounds from gun-shot and weapons, bruised and broken bones, are casualties that may befall men in the field at any time. It is, therefore, important for those in command to have, in all cases of emergency, a suf- ficient knowledge of medicine and practical surgery to en- able them to relieve the sick and wounded (both men and horses) until professional aid can be secured. Before taking the field, for a long or indefinite period, if the transportation will permit, see that you have compactly stored, in good shape for packing, the following articles : a case of pocket surgical instruments, consisting of, at least, a lancet, scalpel, small knife, forceps and scissors ; a few rolls of sticking and adhesive plaster ; some silk, needles and waxed thread ; an assortment of bandages, splints, sponges and some red flannel ; some lint, oil- silk and tow ; a flask of wine or brandy ; a hypodermic injection syringe ; a tourniquet and small cup ; blue mass, quinine, opium and cathartic, put up in usual doses ; a little chloroform, laudanum, hartshorn, camphor, solution of morphia, iodine, tincture of chloride of iron, chloride of lime, tincture of myrrh and aloes, tincture of arnica (excellent for strains and contusions), spirits of nitre, ammonia and turpentine ; sulphates of iron, zinc and copper ; pulverized indigo, car- ron oil, saltpetre, tartar emetic, nitrate of potash, prepared chalk, tincture of opium and catechu, cantharides (in pow- der), sugar of lead, acetic acid and powdered mustard ; emetics and aperients (mild and powerful) ; nitrate of silver 42 Mountain Scouting. in a holder ; cold cream or glycerine (cooling for irritated surfaces) ; a cordial for diarrhoea, a sudorific (Dover's powders excellent), and some simple cerate or a mixture of wax and lard ; some alum, Jamaica ginger, castor oil, lin- seed oil and meal, flaxseed, and an assortment of cathartic, diuretic, sedative, febrifuge and alterative 'balls'; also some astringent ointment (one part acetate of lead and three parts of lard), hoof ointment (equal parts of tar and lard) and strong liniment. I would urge that each soldier, on going into the field, carry on his person, in a waterproof pocket or envelope, a bandage and piece of lint such a precaution will often avoid much suffering. If easily procured, any of the following excellent dress- ings and disinfectants against decomposition of wound discharge swill be found very useful ; carbolic acid (in weak solution), permanganate of potash (applied with glass syringe), chloride of zinc (in weak solution), chloride of lime (as a lotion), and charcoal (powdered and sprinkled on the poultice). The fracture or dislocation of a limb is the most frequent of all accidents attending a mountain journey. A mis-step of the traveler or a fall of the horse often results in this mishap. For the benefit of those who are not informed as to the shapes and locations of the most exposed bones of the body, I will produce on the opposite page an accurate illustration of those in the upper and lower extremities. Referring to the arm is seen H, the shoulder blade ; N, the clavicle ; O, the humerus ; Q, the ulna ; P, the radius; R, the carpus ; S, the meta-carpus ; T, the phalanges. Referring to the leg is seen C, the femur ; E, the fibula ; D, the tibia ; F, the heel-bone ; G, the tarsus ; H, the meta-tarsus ; I, the phalanges. By carefully observing the shapes and positions of these Medical and Surgical Hints. 4-i 44 Mountain Scouting. bones, any one might reset the parts, place the splints and greatly alleviate the suffering in the absence of the surgeon. When fractures occur and there are no splints at hand, they must be improvised from such materials as may be found. If the thigh be fractured, a rifle may be used for a splint, placing its butt in the axilla, and allowing it to pr.ss along the outside of the limb, being secured by bandages around the trunk and ankle. A fractured leg may be secured with a splint of any de- scription placed along its outside and the whole then wrapped in a coat or blanket and made fast by straps. It is a splendid plan to tie the fractured leg at the ankles, and convenient points, to the uninjured leg, and rest it on a knapsack or piece of board. Coats, blankets or some soft material should be placed underneath the leg. In this manner the two legs will move as one and the broken bone will not injure the flesh. A fractured leg may be 'put up' with a gun stock or sword scabbard even a roll of straw or grass makes a good temporary splint. Medical and Surgical Hints. 45 A fracture of the arm may be ' put up ' with a bayonet scabbard or with thin bundles of straw or grass. Light pieces of board, bark or even the soles of shoes or boots are often useful for splints. The fore-arm should be care- fully supported in a sling. Often a severe shock or collapse from pain or nervous fear follows the fracture, in which case a stimulant (whisky and water) should be adminis- tered. Dislocated and broken ribs are often the results of falls and other accidents. The following illustration shows the normal position of the ribs and adjacent bones a is the breast-bone ; c. c. c. the ribs, which are fastened at one end to the spine b. ., and at the other end are attached to the breast-bone by means of strips of cartilage, d. d. d ; e is the collar bone. There are twelve (12) ribs on each side, all of different lengths the shortest are at the top and have the smallest curves ; descending they increase in length to the seventh, which is the longest, then decrease. The last two 46 Mountain Scouting have no cartilages, are very short, and are attached to the spine only. The following drawing shows the formation of the pelvis, and the sacrum, which supports the spine. It is frequently injured by gun-shots, and it might be well to bear in. mind its form and position. To know how to arrest bleeding is all-important, as life may often be saved by promptly adopting simple means. Bleeding may be from veins or from arteries. In the first case the blood is of a dark color, and flows slowly in a stream towards the heart ; in the second case it is of a bright red color, forcibly issues in jets, and is in. a direction from the heart. In ordinary venous hemorrhage, such as the bursting of a varicose vein, the bleeding may be stopped by pressure or elevation of the limb. Should there be any difficulty in checking it, ligatures should be applied. When the bleeding is arterial the limb should be firmly grasped by both hands above the wound, so as to cut off the current from the heart by firmly compressing the wounded vessel against the bone, until a tourniquet may be applied. A temporary tourniquet may be adjusted by placing a flat or roundish stone over the course of the artery and above the wound, between it and the center of circulation, holding Medical and Surgical Hints. 4y it in situ by means of a band, handkerchief, string or thong, the ends of which are securely tied. A stick or bayonet is then passed through the band or thong and twisted round and round several times, until the band is so tightened as to press the stone forcibly on the artery, which, being com- pressed against the main bone of the limb, will cut off the passage of blood through the vessel. If the bleeding be from the hand, fore-arm or arm, apply the tourniquet or bandage near the shoulder. If from the foot, leg or thigh, apply it between the knee and hip. As a rule the main arteries are so placed that they are not likely to be reached and injured ; they are deep in the flesh, and follow the courses of the inner seams of the coat sleeves and pants. Thus the main artery of the arm runs from the axilla down the inner side of the arm, at the lower edge of the biceps muscle, to the end of the elbow ; that of the thigh runs from midway the groin, down the inner side of the thigh, under the deeper muscles to the back of the thigh near the ham. Ice, if convenient, may be applied to wounds of small vessels, with good results, causing a rapid congelation of the blood. Hot water will accomplish the same, and is far preferable if the patient be feeble. When the patient becomes faint and insensible from loss of blood, he should be placed flat on his back, with his head low. Cautery may be resorted to when the tourniquet fails to do its work. The accompanying drawing will serve to show the at- tachment of the muscles a b to the bone, the functions of ligaments and the manner in which the arteries are covered and protected by the muscles. 48 Mountain Scouting. In resetting a strong and muscular limb it is often neces- sary to keep up a great strain on the muscles in order to weary them and cause them to relax, when the bone may be set with less difficulty. Besides the wounds caused by gun-shots, a person in the field is liable to a great variety of others, which might be classified according to the nature of the article or weapon with which they are inflicted, as incised, punctured, lacer- ated and contused. Incised wounds, such as are made by a sword or knife, should be carefully cleansed, all extraneous substances re- moved, the edges brought together, adhesive plaster applied, and the muscles near by relaxed. Punctured wounds, such as are made by bayonets, pointed rocks, etc., very often excite inflammation in their vicinity, cause formation of matter under the fascia and frequently result in hemorrhage. The wounded part should be kept at rest, all sub-cutaneous oozing of the blood prevented, and an exit made for the discharge. If suppuration sets in, an incision should be made at once in order to let out the pus. Probing in search of extraneous matter is very hurtful. Lacerated wounds, such as are inflicted by blunt and obtuse bodies, are invariably attended with severe pain, are slow in healing, and are very liable to gangrene. They should be thoroughly cleansed, all foreign bodies removed and the flaps of torn skin replaced as far as possible. A good poultice and disinfectant should be applied to the wound. Contused wounds, such as are produced by any blows with- out breaking the skin, should be attended to without delay, the parts restored to the normal state by a few days of rest, and some stimulating liniment applied. For a contusion of the head, apply cold water, administer cathartics, make the diet light, take no stimulants and re- main quiet. Medical and Surgical Hints. 49 For scalp wounds, cleanse the exposed surfaces and re- place the torn scalp the parts will generally heal ; if abcesses form they should be evacuated by timely incisions. In the treatment of wounds the diet should be carefully atten led to. In cases like a wounded lung it is necessary to reduce the patient to nearly a state of starvation. The most excruciating pains from shots are readily re- lieved by the hypodermic injection of a solution of morphia. Ice, if procurable, will subdue inflammatory symptoms. No description of spirits should be poured upon a bleeding wound, as it only serves to irritate and influence it. A wounded man is always thirsty ; give him cold water, but never spirits. The following remedies may often be used to great advantage : -Scurvy may be prevented by using the following anti- scorbutics : 1. Fresh vegetables, wild onions, fresh fruit, and even un- ripe fruit, with a risk of diarrhoea. 2. Dried or canned vegetables, especially potatoes and cauliflower. 3. Vinegar, citric acid or lemon juice. 4. Citrates, malates, tartrates and lactates of potash, used in food or drink. 5. Pure air, exercise and cleanliness. 6. Tincture of chloride of iron, taken daily, or infusion of hemlock leaves. 7. Raw potatoes and fresh raw meat. Malaria should be promptly checked. Quinine in suffici- ent doses is the remedy. A halt to the leeward of a marsh or swamp should be avoided. A camp on low ground is often less affected by malaria than the low hills that over- look it. Violent exertion, resulting in exhaustion and perspiration often averts an attack, and any simple aperient is likewise good. 50 Mountain Scouting. Diarrhoea may be treated with an ounce of castor oil and fifteen drops of laudanum suspended in water. The patient should eat neither bread nor meat, but confine his diet to a little rice broth, thickened milk and the like. If it is ac- companied by severe cramps, apply hot rocks or pans to the feet and hot fomentations to the stomach. Poisoned persons must be treated with the greatest caution, inasmuch as it is necessary to deal with dangerous remedies. Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting, and an emetic should be promptly given ; in others, the action on the stomach may be diminished by oily and mucilaginous drinks, such as magnesia, milk and oil, barley water, flour and water and raw eggs. For poisonous acids, such as nitric, oxalic, muriatic or sulphuric acid, avoid emetics. For nitrate of silver, give plenty of salt water, followed by barley water or gruel. For strychnine, narcotic poisons, opium, mushrooms, belladonna, etc., give strong emetics at once, pour cold water on the head, neck and shoulders, place mustard poul- tices on the feet and keep the person moving about, giving strong coffee as a stimulant. Water should always accompany the emetic, to make the vomiting easy, and great effort made to prevent the patient from becoming drowsy and stupid. A charge of gunpowder swallowed in water, mustard in hot water, or warm soap- suds are prompt emetics. In the absence of all these a careful tickling of the throat often does the work. The following are good poultices : Mustard poultice two ounces powdered mustard, two ounces linseed meal, eight ounces boiling water ; Charcoal poultice one-third ounce charcoal, two ounces bread, one ounce linseed meal, eight ounces boiling water. For suffocation by gases, etc., remove the patient to pure air, apply cold water to the face and chest, rub the body Medical and Surgic-al Hints. 51 lively, give hot coffee or spirits, and endeavor to induce artificial respiration. To revive an apparently drowned man, proceed as set forth in the Appendix. For sore and blistered feet, strong whisky and melted tallow rubbed on the foot, which is afterwards covered with a sock, act well. Great relief is found in tepid bathing, a small quantity of alum or salt being dissolved in the water. The feet should be washed daily, while on the inarch, and both the feet and inside of the stockings should be well soaped. In severe cases of soreness, a raw egg broken in the boot before putting it on is a splendid antidote. Blis- ters of the feet should not be opened, but a thread should be drawn through them and the liquid allowed to run off. If the foot soreness is simply owing to bad boots or socks, relief may be often found by changing the boots and socks from one foot to the other, and turning the stockings inside out. Chafing is remedied by keeping the parts clean and pow- dering with fuller's earth. Sprains are relieved by hot fomentations and by rags kept saturated with cold water and bound round the parts. Burns and scalds are treated by keeping them from ex- posure to the air and applying carron oil (a mixture of equal parts of oil and lime water), flour, or scraped potatoes. Snow blindness is an affection to be met with in all mountainous localities where there are glaring sheets of snow. Some persons are simply blind, others experience great pain, the lips chapping and the face and exposed parts severely blistering. A person having once experienced snow blindness, is subject to frequent attacks. Green or blue glasses and a green lined broad brimmed hat give the eye protection. In the absence of glasses, wet powder and grease, or charcoal, smeared on the nose and nhvit the eves, will afford much relief 5 2 Mountain Scouting. A few drops of opium, in tincture, placed within the eye- lids will also afford relief Water and weak brandy is an excellent eye-wash. For sunstroke, remove the collar and stock, loosen the shirt and coat, and continue to throw cold water on the head and spine until consciousness returns. For wasp and scorpion stings, etc., extract the sting, if it remains in the wound, and rub acetic acid, the nicotine from a pipe or chewed tobacco, upon the wound. Rattlesnakes and venomous reptiles are met with on nearly every mountain trail. Rattlesnakes seldom bite (except in August, when they are blind and snap at anything), yet it is well to know the antidotes. The Western mountaineers place great dependence on strong whisky. The action of the poison seems to counter- act the effects of the whisky, and a very large quantity may be taken without causing intoxication. No time should be lost in administering the spirits. Hartshorn applied externally and taken internally, in small doses, is a good remedy. Plantain leaves finely chewed and applied to the wound, after sucking out the poison, are also good. Pulverized indigo made into a soft poultice will draw out the poison when applied to the wound. The poison turns the indigo white. When the indigo ceases to change color it is a sign that the poison has been withdrawn. In the absence of antidotes, tie a ligature as firmly as pos- sible above the wounded part, suck the wound, if the mouth and lips be free from sores, and caustic it. If no caustic be at hand, explode gunpowder into the wound, or burn it out with the end of a bayonet or ramrod heated to a white heat, avoiding the arteries. Use every effort to prevent the patient from falling into the lethargy and drowsiness that always follow. The following cruel course is taken by the Indians of the Medical and Surgical Hints. 53 Northwest in treating a poisonous bite : a bird or animal with a quick circulation of the blood is secured, an incision is made into the flesh of the creature and placed in contact with the wound. The bird or animal soon dies. This is repeated several times until the contact produces no effect, when the victim is considered out of all danger. A ban- dage is generally placed between the wound and the heart to prevent the return of venous blood. A few years since an Indian scout was riding with me, several miles in advance of the command. While crossing a timbered ridge we came upon a number of 'fool-hens.' Not wishing to fire shots, we secured long poles and began to knock them off the logs and trees. As the unfortunate Indian stooped to pick up his first bird, not dead, but merely stunned, an immense rattlesnake struck him on the back of the left hand. Without hesitation he made an incision in the breast of the fool-hen and applied it to the wound. At his request I secured four other birds, which he used in like manner. Three died from the poison ; the fourth one was not affected by it, but was subsequently killed and eaten. The Indian continued in good health, and never ex- perienced any suffering or inconvenience from the bite. Indians have been known to sacrifice their dogs and even horses in this manner, when no bird or other animal could be secured. , On taking the field, provision should always be made for transport for the sick and wounded, in case there be any. If wagons are to accompany the command, one or more should be so fitted up as to be easily converted into ambu- lances in cases of emergency. The drawing represents such a contrivance. The two stretchers shown are detachable, and may be placed inside the wagon when moving over level roads, or may be removed and transported by men when moving over rough and rocky country, or when it becomes necessary to take the wagons 54 Mountain Scouting. apart in order to get them up or down very steep places. The stretchers are so constructed with hinges and hooks as to be folded into a very small space when not needed, and to permit the supports to be used as handles. Being frequently detached from all transportation, an of- ficer in command might be called upon, in case of accident, to resort to numerous expedients to relieve the sick and succor the wounded. He should know how to make stretchers and how to transport them. Avoid carrying the stretcher on the shoulders. The front and rear bearers of the stretcher should be 'out of step,' and men of equal height, strength and length of step, so far as is practicable, should be selected. The sick or wounded man should be carried with his face toward the direction in which he is moving. In crossing ditches, dikes, hollows, fences, etc., the stretcher should be kept horizontal. The following stretchers may be readily extemporized : i. A blanket is held by four men, one at each corner, and is then doubled so that the two loops shall be brought to- gether at each end ; one pole (or t f ,vo rifles lashed together) passes through the four loops, while another passes within the double of the blanket on the other side. Medical and Surgical Hints. 55 2. Roll a small stone into each corner of the blanket, and thus form projections which will prevent the slipping of the strings or thongs with which it is made fast to a frame of poles (or rifles lashed together), as shown in the drawing. Strips of the blanket may be used for strings. This stretcher may be still further simplified and less ma- terial required when two corners of the blanket are fastened to a short cross-piece at the head, while the other end is gathered up and tied altogether to the main pole. The pressure of the pole on the shoulder (most readily borne on the shoulder) when bearing the stretcher, may be diminished by a short pole or gun held lever-wise over the other shoulder, so as to take a portion of its weight. 3. Four rifles and two coats, in a great emergency, may be made into a stretcher. The sleeves of one coat are turn- ed into the inside. The rifles are then passed through the sleeves (muzzle to muzzle) and firmly lashed together, when each coat is buttoned throughout the front. For a man who can sit up, one rifle through the sleeves of a coat, and the coat tail lashed to another rifle, will form a 5 6 Mountain Scouting. good stretcher. The sick man may bear against one of the bearers and let his legs hang down 4. A stretcher may be made by suspending an ox, mule or horse hide between two poles, or by interlacing the belts and gun-straps. Even the knapsack may be fastened be- tween the poles or rifles so as to form a good transport. 5. If it is possible to transport a wagon, a stretcher made of belts, ropes, etc., may be hung from its sides within, or the bottom of the body of the wagon may be filled with blankets, small branches covered with straw, hay, ferns, rushes or any soft material. A man who is unable to walk, but who can sit and prac- tically support himself, may be transported by two men, who either support him 6n a short pole held between them, with his arms upon their shoulders, or join their hands and arms so as to make a comfortable seat for him. 6. Three cross pieces are lashed to two elastic poles, eight or ten feet long. This frame-work is then supported over the wounded man as he lies on his blanket or canvas and the latter is securely fastened to the frame. One cross- piece is in front of the feet, another behind the head, and the third one being over the man, will steady him in the trans- Medical and Surgical- Hints 57 port. Small twigs may form a framework, which, covered with a blanket or coat, will protect the sick man from the sun, wind or rain. After a fight the Indians carry their wounded wonderful distances, palanquin fashion. If horses can be spared they may transport the litter in- stead of men. In this event the poles should be very elas- tic, about eighteen feet long, united by cross-pieces three- and-a-half feet long, the ends being firmly secured to the sides of the animals by strong fastenings. The Indians of- ten use one horse with this litter, allowing one end to trail on the ground. When only one animal can be spared, great caution must be exercised in passing over broken and rocky ground. In case of a ^reat emergency, after knotting together the ends of a blanket, two men could be laid in the bights and transported, one on each side of the horse, the central part of the blanket being laid across the horse's back and se- cured. The Indians frequently transport their children in this manner. The foregoing are some of the numerous contrivances for transport, depending upon the nature of the material available and the officer's ingenuity. * Bed sores,' a form of gangrene from pressure, appear on the sacrum, elbows, shoulders, back of head and trochanters, when the patient is constrained to lie for a long time in one position. For treatment, remove pressure as far as possible, wash and remove sloughs if they exist, and apply a soft poultice. Myrrh, resin, iodine and other warm astringent applications are good. If possible, visit a dentist and see that your teeth are in good order before going into the field. This chapter would hardly be complete without a few hints and directions as to the treatment of the stock, in the absence of a qualified veterinary surgeon. 58 Mountain Scouting. Sore mouth is caused by the cutting and tearing of the bit at the corners of the mouth. To cure it wash the mouth clean and sprinkle common salt on the sores or apply tincture of myrrh. Cut tongue is caused by severe jerks of the bit, and is often very serious. Salt water, alum water, saltpetre and tincture of myrrh are good remedies. Sore back should never occur in a well-regulated expedi- tion. The slightest tendency to gall should be promptly looked after ; and, if necessary, the rider should walk until the back is perfectly sound. Hot water and poultices make the best early treatment. Leather, burned to a crisp and finely powdered, when spread over the wound, causes it to heal very promptly. There is no excuse for the frightful wounds on the backs of mules and horses due to improper saddling. Diarrhoea, often caused by exposure, over-exertion and an excess of spring water, is best treated by giving a mix- ture of tincture catechu, prepared chalk and tincture of opium (in the proportion of one, two and four parts) fol- lowed by gruel and hay. Colic is one of the most frequent ailments of the horse. The water, grain and grass of many districts cause severe attacks. As remedies, mix a tablespoonful of laudanum and twice as much whisky in a cupful of water, or dissolve some chloride of lime (about a tablespoonful) in a cup of water, and pour down the horse's throat. If there be much constipation give dissolved aloes (four drachms), apply hot fomentations and bleed, taking about one gallon of blood. To bleed the horse rub the neck on the near side, near the throat, until the vein rises, tie a bandage around the neck about its middle and strike the flearn into the vein ; when it is full, hold the horse's head well up and pry open his jaws until the blood flows sufficiently. Medical and Surgical Hints. 59 Megrims or vertigo a sudden rush of blood to the head of the horse, generally when ascending a hill, may be re- lieved by prompt bleeding, followed by the 'cathartic ball.' A horse so affected suddenly stops, shakes his head and often falls unconscious. Cramps, colds, spasmodic coughs, etc., are often caused by applying cold water to the heated back or by drinking cold water when overheated. To cure, blister the throat, if sore, and give a little nitre or aloes ; or, give a mixture of one ounce Jamaica ginger, one cup of rum and two cups of water in moderate doses. Corns, or the bruising of the sensitive parts of the foot by the contraction of the hoof, if neglected, will produce se- vere lameness or even quitter. They are indicated by the horse's placing one foot in advance of the other and resting upon the toe. For treatment, cut away the hoof so as to relieve the pressure, cut out and cauterize the corn. Apply flaxseed poultices and hoof ointment, and shoe carefully when the foot will permit it. The illustration shows a convenient form of boot to be used while the foot is undergoing treatment. For ikrush, a deceased action of the sensible frog, secreting pus instead of horn, wash the feet with soap and water and apply ointment (equal parts of tar and lard melted). If neglected it will run into canker. Sand-crack, a disposition in the hoof to crack, often occasioned by poor shoeing, may be abated by frequent applications of linseed meal poultices, after washing with soap, water and pow- dered charcoal. Cautery is necessary in severe cases. Quarter-crack is caused by pressure and contraction, most 6d Mountain Scouting. frequently the result of fitting the shoe too tightly on the inner quarter, in order to prevent interfering. It is treated by making a groove (with a rasp) under and parallel with the cornet, to the extent of about one-half inch on each side of the crack. A few small notches are then cut on each side of the groove, and the edges of the crack cut away. Finally the crack is cauterized and dressed with tar every morning for several weeks. In the course of time the incision works its way down to the bottom of the hoof, followed by a sound foot covering. For punctured feet, extract the cause of injury and poul- tice until the pain subsides ; then apply tar and tincture of myrrh, keeping the foot in the boot. For 'grease,' remove the hair, apply finely-powdered char- coal and poultices; give 'cathartic ball' and feed green food, if possible. When ticks are abundant, oil or fat smeared around the fetlock or pastern is a protection against them. For epizootic, influenza, distemper, etc., give an ounce of spirits of nitre in a bucket of water three times daily. Feed little grass or hay, but give oatmeal gruel frequently, and blister the parts if there be much soreness. Certain flies often deposit their eggs in wounds, and even in the 'sheaths' of well animals, which soon develop into a living mass of carnivorous larvae. The remedy is to thoroughly cleanse the parts and blow calomel into the wounds. Animals are frequently poisoned by drinking alkaline water. For treatment, rake the animal and pour grease or mild acid down his throat, or dose him with flour and water. Wounds and contusions should, if possible, be cured by the continued application of hot fomentations, poultices and cold water ; still, an escharotic is often necessary, and blis- tering is good in severe cases of sprains. Medical and Surgical Hints, 61 The drawing will give an idea of the osteology of the horse 1. The seven bones of the neck. 2. Breast bone. 3. Shoulder blade. 4. 5 and 6. Humerus, radius and ulna. 7, 8. Cartilages and ribs. 9, 10. Carpus and meta-carpal bones. n, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25. Upper and lower pasterns and coffin bones of the fore and hind feet. 14. The eighteen bones of the spine. 15. The six bones of the loins. 16. The haunch. 17. 18, 19, 20. The femur, knee-cap, tibia and fibula. 21, 22. The hock and meta-tarsal bones. 26. Caudal vertebree. A knowledge of the functions and location of these bones will often assist greatly in treating fractures and disloca- tions. 62 Mountain Scouting. CHAPTER IV. USEFUL INFORMATION IN POST AND FIELD. SHOULD the substance of the following items become im- pressed upon the memory of the soldier, I feel sure that he will find some of the hints useful when in positions of responsibility and having few or no facilities. I have numbered the para- graphs for the convenience of future reference. 1. When the boots or shoes become water-soaked, it is a splendid plan to fill them full of oats or barley, if at hand. The grain rapidly absorbs the moisture and, in expanding, prevents the boot or shoe from shrinking. 2. The efficiency of the following method of picketing horses or of even securing the ropes of a tent in a dry and sandy soil, where the pickets or pins will n A hold, is wonderful. Simply tie to the end of the rope some article with a longi- tudinal dimension of at least four inches; anything will do a stick, some twigs, a stone or tent peg. Plant this from one to three feet in the sand. If it be buried one foot deep in ordi- nary dry and sandy soil, it will require a strain of about 25 pounds to draw it up; if it be buried two feet deep, it will re- quire a force of more than 80 pounds to draw it up, and it will require more than 500 pounds if buried three feet deep. Theoretically this is obvious for, supposing the earth to consist of smooth, spherical grains of one size, and granting that these grains cannot move horizontally at the moment of drawing, and that they must move vertically upwards, it is plain that the substance attached to the rope when moved upwards must start before it an inverted pile of grains. Take the most unfavorable case, supposing it to be a triangular pile, then the Use fid Information in Post and Field. 63 n (n 4- i) ( n + 2), number of grains to be started varies as I. 2- 3. or in a ratio greater than n* (n being the number of layers of sand above.) A rope attached to several of these planted ropes, and rest- ing on the ground, will form a good picket line. 3. When cavalry and infantry are advancing rapidly together, the infantry are greatly assisted when permitted to lay hold of the stirrup-straps of the horsemen. 4. To calculate the weight of a stack of hay, measure the length and breadth of the stack, also its height from the ground to the eaves, and from the eaves to the top. Find the continued product of the length, breadth and height from the ground to the eaves, augmented by i the height from the eaves to the top, and multiply the result by fourteen-thirds. The product will be the weight of old hay in pounds. New hay weighs, in bulk, f as much as old hay. For example, suppose a stack of old hay to measure sixty feet in length, twenty-four feet in breadth, nine feet from the ground to the eaves, and six feet from the eaves to the top; 64 Mountain Scouting. then, 60 X 24 x (9 -f |) X = 73,920 Ibs. The same sized stack of new hay would weigh 49,280 Ibs. 5. To render canvas, duck or even calico waterproof, prepare a mixture of melted wax and spirits of turpentine in the pro- portion of one ounce wax to one pint of spirits. After having stirred the mixture well, "dip the material into it and hang it in a current of dry air. To make tarpaulins, soak the canvas in salt water and apply the dressing; as the water evaporates the tar enters the fabric. Boiled linseed oil, when soaked into cloth or linen, will cause it to resist the action of water. 6. Frequently of necessity, the camp is made on a sandy beach where there is no sign of fresh water. In such a case, the mules, if permitted, will paw and dig up the sand near the water's edge, and slowly satisfy their thirst by drinking the fresh water as it trickles through the sand in small quantities but this process is very slow. To distil salt water in an emergency, take a camp kettle full, cover the top and insert a gun barrel at the top inclining down- ward. Keep the barrel cool by means of water, and cause the water in the kettle to boil. The condensed steam may be caught at the lower end of the barrel and consumed. If there be no conveniences at hand, find a hollow in the rocks, or make a hole in the earth and fill with salt water. Drop hot stones into it until the water hisses and gives out large clouds of vapor, which may be caught by a cloth suspended above, and then be wrung from it or sucked out. One drop a second would make about a gallon in one day. Muddy water may be purified by filtering sand, charcoal, sponge, grass, moss, stone and cloths being good filters. The illustration represents a convenient apparatus for puri- fying muddy and impure waters. It is so constructed as to fit into the mouth of a canteen or bottle, and permits the water to be sucked out after passing through the filtering substances, Useful Information in Post and Field. 65 and being freed from the ova and larvae of many water insects and other impurities suspended in it. In its absence, suck the impure water through the handkerchief or a handful of grass or rushes held close together, or even through snow. A small piece of alum placed in muddy water will purify it wonderfully well, the alum and mud forming a clayey deposit. Putrid water should be boiled with charcoal before drinking it. The Indians purify all waters by plunging hot irons and rocks into them. When very thirsty, and only a very small amount of water is at hand, drink it with a spoon, or through a small hole in the cork of the canteen. It will do as much good as when taken in large mouthfuls. 7. The following is a table of the dangeious spaces, in yards, of the Springfield . rifle and carbine, calculated under the assumption that the gun, when fired, is 56 inches above the ground, and aimed at the middle points of infantry and cavalry soldiers, 34 and 48 inches above the horizontal, respectively. The dangerous space will be increased by the fir^r lying down or aiming at his adversary's feet. For the rifle, the range corresponding to the maximum dangerous space is 262 yards for infantry and 291 yards for 66 Mountain Scouting. cavalry; and for the carbine, 204 yards for infantry and 230 yards for cavalry. K1FLE. Agst. Infantry. Agst. Cavalry. C Q Falling branch of i Palling branch of .1 trajectory. I trajectory. j "a" g 1 O "o P I .1 1 i | i I 5* g 43 * o ^ i O la bO 1 1 s JL JL s 1 1 100 40 60 77 ; 40 60 130 ; 200 90 110 71 i 90 110 103 300 52 100 55 71 150 80 400 28 60 41 33 88 60 500 21 40 30 ij 22 59 42 600 15 29 24 i' 16 40 34 700 12 23 21 13 32 31 800 9 20 18 ! 10 28 25 900 8 17 15 8 23 20 1,000 6 13 12 7 19 17 1,100 5 11 7 6 16 8 t/AXUflJNJ].. Agst. Infantry. Agst. Cavalry. ! Falling branch of | Falling bianch of 8 trajectory. 8 trajectory. '5" I c o JA O fi +j 1 i 1 1 1 1 f ? ? i g, o t3 X "a | o 5 j 1 1 A ; 40 60 59 40 60 99 HO- 120 53 80 120 80 ST 60 42 29 84 60 20 43 37 18 60 53 13 36 30 14 50 43 11 29 22 10 41 30 8 19 15 8 28 21 6 13 12 7 18 18 5 12 10 8 15 15 5 9 7 5 13 11 4 6 2 4 9 6 8. When detached without canvas for a long period of time, it is better to spend the spare time in making a temporary house than in idleness. A good hut may be readily constructed on suitable ground or a hillside by excavating and covering with a roof; but if timber is convenient, it is better to build a log hut, covering with bark, skins, bushes, reed mats, sea weeds or any suitable material procurable. In building the hut four poles are planted in the ground where the corners are to rest. The logs are then piled one above another against these poles, as shown in the drawing, being notched where they cross so as to bring their sides together. Useful Information in Post and Field. 67 Aiter the walls are completed the doors and windows are rut. a hole chopped through the logs, including that on the gr ,-_iiid, for a fire-place (a chimney and fire back may be formed of clay, turf, stones, etc.,) and the roof put on. A roof of split logs gouged out in the center, like a long curved gutter, is good. A layer is placed side by side, with the hollow side up, and a second layer is put on them, with the hollow side down. Bark taken in long strips makes good roofing or sides. The roof should have a pitch of not less than 45 to keep out the rain. All the cracks should be carefully filled with, moss, grass, mud, clay, etc. Good substitutes for window panes are waxed or oiled paper or thin white cloth. The huts of Indians and all savages are generally round or approximate to the circular form, probably because of the maximum house for a minimum cover. It might be well to remember that logs split better from the crown or small end toward the butt. 9. When destitute of all tools, to fell a tree; light a small fire about the root, prevent the same from flaming upwards by applying leaves, etc. After the fire has burned out a portion of the tree, move it aside and knock away the charred wood, thus exposing a fresh surface for the action of the fire. One man can attend to the burning of many trees at once, if desirable. 68 Mountain Scouting. After the trees fall, the tops and branches may be burned off as they lie on the ground. 10. The following weights and estimates are often valuable when purchasing supplies in the field: One bushel of wheat weighs sixty pounds; of rye, fifty-eight pounds; of barley fifty-four pounds; of oats, forty-two pounds; of beans, sixty- two pounds; of peas and maize, sixty-six pounds; of potatoes, sixty pounds; of onions, fifty-six pounds. About fifty pounds of wheat and thirty pounds of oats go to the cubic foot. One cubic yard of well-pressed hay weighs 225 pounds; one cubic yard of straw weighs 145 pounds; one cubic yard of grain will average twenty bushels. The following numbers of bushels will safely go to the acre; wheat, rye and beans, 25; oats, 45; barley, 37!; peas, 25; maize, 30; potatoes, 250. n. To properly pitch the ordinary wall tent, after selecting H L a suitable spot, place the ridge pole, A B, upon the ground, approximately beneath its place when in position. Drive pins at A and B. From A and B continue A B to C and Z>, by stepping one pace from each end. From C and D make four paces at right angles with C D on each side, and determine the points E, F, G y H. At these points drive the corner tent pegs. By following these directions the tent may be promptly pitched and will make a beautiful appearance, every portion of canvas being in proper position and free from wrinkles. Useful Information in Post and Field. 69 The drawing shows the form ot the tent when properly pitched. 12. The cubical contents of a trench equals J h (db -f cd + ad + % be) in which and b are the length and breadth of the top of the ditch, c and d are the length and breadth of the bottom and h the depth. ( 13. The mean velocity of water in rivers equals when v is the surface velocity expressed in inches. The surface velocity may be determined by carefully noting the time required for a chip or any small substance to float a measured distance. The following are the usual expressions applied to river velocities: Sluggish, about 1| ft. per sec. , or 1 mile per hr. Ordinary, Rapid, Very Rapid," Torrent, 3 5 8 9 or more 14. When using hand spikes, avoid placing more than two men at one spike. See that the fulcrum is stable before bear- ing down, or time will be lost. Do not allow men to put their shoulders under a lever while lifting, or their chins and heads over it when bearing down. 70 Mountain Scouting. In raising a heavy gun on skidding, do not allow its axis to slope more than 3, or the gun may rush to the front or rear. 15. In uncoiling a new coil of rope, pass the end at the core to the opposite side and draw it out; the turns of* the rope will then run out without kinking. 16. When using the howitzer or any gun on wheels, in the mountains, great care should be taken to have the wheels on the same horizontal while firing. The deflection caused by one wheel being higher than the other = R tan. a. tan. , in which R = range, = elevation and ^ = the angle of the trunnions with the horizon. 17. The following table shows the weights of certain woods. Willow weighs about 25 Ibs. per cubic ft. Poplar " 24 Fir " 32 Elm 36 Sycamore 37 Pine " 40 Beech 43 Ash " 47 Oak 54 When green, the weight is about one-fourth more. To find the weight of a tree, calculate its contents in cubic feet, and multiply the result by the weight of one cubic foot of the wood. 1 8. Opera glasses are invaluable as night glasses. With most persons they nearly double the limit of vision, and enable their eyesight to compare fayprably with that of the night- roving animals. 19. The glittering of the sun upon the arms of distant troops indicates the direction of their march. If the rays seem per- pendicular, and constant, they are moving toward ycu; if slanting to the right and downwards, they are moving to your right; if the rays are varied and intermittent, they are moving away from you. Useful Information in Post and Field- 71 Dust raised by infantry forms a dense low cloud, while that raised by cavalry forms a higher and lighter one. 20. All soldiers should practice making the simple and im- portant knots; a knowledge of their uses and being able to make them are essential in nearly all makeshift appliances. The most elementary ones are the timber hitch, the bowline and the clove hitch. tit* The drawing shows these knots, also a simple form of tourniquet. A single or double band encloses the two pieces it is desired to lash to- gether. A stick is then placed in the band and forcibly twisted around. For a more complete description of knots, see page 114. 21. By means of the clove hitch, clothes or other articles are tied to tent poles when jointed, notched or at all uneven. The illustration shows the method. The clothing, bags, etc., are hung upon the button at the end of the rope. 22. The following seems a good disposition of the rifle at night, when wishing to avoid its misplacement and prevent sneaking savages from stealing it. ' When getting sleepy you return your rifle between your legs, roll over and go to sleep. Some people may think this a 7 2 Mountain Scouting. queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are most combined. The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; the muzzle points between the knees and the arms encircle the. lock and breech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are al- ways prepared to start up armed at a moment's notice.' (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia.') The stock may be raised up and supported, if desired, to avoid any unpleasant pressure on the arm. The longer the gun the better. 23. It is very important to have all Government horses dis- tinctly branded *U. S.' immediately upon purchase. Many frontier horse thieves acquire considerable skill in changing these letters, by means of additions, so as to conform to certain legal brands. A clear wood or charcoal fire is best for heating the branding iron, and it should be heated hot enough to thor- oughly singe the skin without burning it. To effectually brand, the roots of the hair should be destroyed by burning. It is readily seen how, by additions, etc., the U. S. may be converted into J. S., O. S., etc. 24. When you wisli to roll up your shirt sleeves, do not turn the cuffs inside out, but turn them inward and roll up the sleeves, inward to the arm. By following this plan the sleeves will remain tucked up, without being touched, while if they be rolled outward they become loose every few minutes. 25. To determine the time of march (T) of a column: Let D = the distance (infect) to be passed over; L = the length of the column in feet; D l = the distance (in feet) passed over in one minute by the column, including halts, and T 1 = the time of delay (in minutes) due to the elongation of the col- umn in passing defiles, the physical condition of the command L and the irregularities of the route; then, = the time (in D 1 Useful Information in Post and Field. 73 minutes) for the column to pass over a distance equal to its length, and T (in minutes) = L D D 1 T l + L + D T+ 1 = D 1 D 1 D 1 Thus, for a column of troops 860 feet in depth, moving at the rate of 100 yards per minute (including halts) and delayed eleven minutes, to pass over six miles, 300 x ii + 860 4- 31680 T= = 119^ m. = i h. 59.47 m. 300 26. To facilitate the climbing of a large tree with rough bark, unite the feet by dampened handkerchiefs, towels, or raveled ropes tied together (avoiding a round rope) so that their distance apart shall be about f of the diameter of the tree. Every time that the body and arms are raised in climb- ing, press the connecting rope or substance against the bark with the feet. The roughness of the bark and the oblique pressure against the trunk of the tree will prevent the rope from slipping down. 27. To calculate the distance of an enemy's gun, count the beats of the pulse (the average pulse beats at the rate of sev- enty-five in a minute) between the moment of the flash and the sound of the report by 300 the result will be the distance in yards. If a watch be handy, the same distance, nearly, may be determined by multiplying the number of seconds between the flash and report by 365. The numbers 300 and 365 are taken because easily memo- rized and giving results sufficiently correct for practical pur- poses. 28. In the following drawing is represented the Malay hitch. I would urge that all soldiers and travelers become familiar with it, and learn how, by its means, to attach together wisps of grass, straw, reeds, poles, laths, planks, etc., and form flexi- 74 Mountain Scouting. l)lc mattings. Innumerable articles, from a boat-sail to the roof uf a house, may be thus constructed. The great advantage of the Malay hitch is that when no longer required, the structure may be shaken to pieces, leaving neither holes or imperfections in the material nor kinks or knots in the rope. 29. To dig for water without spade or shovel, proceed as follows in a soil free from rocks: Take a bamboo or pole from six to fifteen feet long and two or three inches in diameter, and split the larger and lower end into ten or twelve pieces. Tear away the grass and work the pole up and down vertically. The soil soon works its way up into the splits of the pole, which is then withdrawn. After shaking the earth out, it is again introduced into the soil and used as before. Small holes eight or ten feet deep may be made in this way. 30. To procure water for the stock when it is inaccessible by reason of precipices, etc.: If in a forest where poles are at hand, and the water is not to be raised more than fifteen feet, take a long pole and cause it to act as a lever over a rock or limb, a bucket being attached to the long arm so as to reach the water, and a heavy stone or rock to the short one. If the water is to be raised many feet, take a long rope, or connect the lariats, and fasten the bucket to one end; make the other end of the rope fast to a horse, after passing it over Useful Information in Post and Field. 75 a smooth log or rock, and have the horse driven over a certain calculated distance. I have procured water, in this way, from the Salmon river when it was ninety-five feet below the camp. 31. If without matches, a spark may be obtained as follows: ist. Take out the object glass of a telescope, if there be one, and use it as a burning glass. The inside of a highly polished watch case might answer. 2d. Try the Indian method of producing fire by the friction of two pieces of wood, called the drill stick and the fire-block. Any hard and dry stick will do for the former, but the latter must be an inflammable wood, with a medium softness and little grain. A walnut gun stock is excellent. The drill stick is roundly pointed at the end and brought to bear upon the fire- block with pressure, while it is rapidly revolved by means of the Hands or a string passing around it. A little powdered charcoal sprinkled on the fire-block (which may be scraped off the trees in most any section where forest fires have raged) will greatly assist in the production of the spark. 3d. By means of a flint and steel. The flint may be replaced by silicious stones quartz, agate, jaspar, etc., or even by granite. Crockery wil 1 often make a good spark. If there be no steel at hand, a link of chain, a piece of a bit or horse shoe may be case-hardened and used. Pyrites is frequently em- ployed. 32. When it is necessary to use feed bags on the stock in consequence of mud, sand, water, etc., it is all important to provide some means of ventilation. I have seen horses suffer intensely when their noses were confined in a close feed bag, so that the jaws could not be opened without compressing the nostrils so as to prevent the ingress of sufficient air, and this for nearly an hour. J6 Mountain Scouting* The drawing represents Boyle's ventilated nose bag, which in every respect is excellent. 33. When traveling with a wagon train and attacked by In- dians, if practicable, make the following plan of defense: Hasten to the nearest water and place one wagon, containing the sick and the ammunition, near it. With this as a center, form, as nearly as possible, the other wagons in a circle about it, so that each inner fore wheel shall nearly touch the outer hind wheel of the wagon preceding, the poles extending out- ward. Place the men and stock inside the circle, lock the wagons by means of drag or other chains, and throw up earth, rocks, logs or bushes under them. When desirable, by moving a single wagon slightly forward, the stock may be led out and hitched without confusion. 34. To secure a prisoner with the minimum amount of string, bring his hands behind him, back to back, and tightly tie the thumbs together, also the little fingers. In the absence of strings, a strip torn from the linen will suffice. In darkness, or when the prisoner might escape by running, it is well to pass his arms around a standing tree or tent pole before tying his hands. Several prisoners are made fast to a pole or rope, behind one another. If the prisoner is to be mounted, see that he is made fast to the saddle or girth on the horse ridden by the guard (the off Useful Information in Post and Field. 77 stirrup may be used in absence of any other fastening), and that his ankles are strapped together under the horse's belly. 35. To trace a right angle on the ground, take a rope twelve feet long and mark distances of three and four feet from the ends, respectively. Peg the central section of five feet to the ground and bring the two ends of the rope to a point on the ground, and thus form a right angle. Any multiple of twelve feet may be used for convenience, since any triangle whose sides are in the proportion of three, four and five, is right angled. 36. A scale of equal parts may be made by folding a slip of paper in half, then folding each part in half, and so on. The diagonal fold of a sheet of paper with a square corner makes an angle of 45, or four points of the compass. This again diagonally folded will give 22!, or two points of the com- pass, and so on. 37. The meridian may be determined at night by passing a plane through a plumb-line and the north star. ......... * ....... * ..... _ *- ^ i rjrande Ourse 1 * I \ i- fjole arctiyucf T N ^ \ poiaire i ,/ The trace of this plane on a horizontal plane will be the pro- jection of the meridian sought, the north star being only ii from the true pole. 78 Mountain Scouting. It is easy to recognize the north star it is the seventh star of the little bear and is found precisely in the prolongation of the two first stars of the great bear (grande ourse), a const; Na- tion disposed in symmetrical order as in the drawing. (Aide Memoir e d ' Etat Major. ) To practically determine the variation of the compass, erec u a pole, and at a distance of 200 yards set up another, so that the two are in a line with the true north; the variation of the compass may be ascertained the next morning by taking the bearing of one pole from the other. n(n 4- i) (04- 2) 38. In a triangular pile of spherical shot, S = n(n 4- i) (2n 4- i) 1.2.3 in a square pile, S= ; in a rectangular pile, 1.2.3 n (n 4- i) (2n 4- yn + i) S = ; where S = number of shots, n = 1.2.3 number of courses, and m = difference between the number in the length and the number in the breadth of the base course. The triangular and square piles terminate each in a single ball. The number of balls in a triangular face is found by multi- plying half the number in the breadth at the base by the num- ber in the breadth at the base plus one. In all piles, the breadth at the bottom is equal to the number of courses. In an oblong pile, the top row is one more than the differ- ence between the length and breadth of the bottom. In the case of Armstrong shot or shell, m r S = (20 4- r i) ; where n = the number in the length 2 of the top course, r = the number of courses, and m = the number in the breadth. 39. Ink, in an emergency, may be made by rubbing charcoal, Useful Information in Post and Field. 79 gunpowder or soot into a little milk or warm water, to which is added a small quantity of gum or glue. Very strong coffee will make a fair ink that will not rub. 40. The working loads of hemp ropes are about as follows: Circumference of rope in inclies. 1 \ V'orki If' 4 n 4 11 16 1 8* 16 44- ng load. CWt. < ( 2 2i 3 3* . 1 ton and 4 1 " 44- 1 " 5 . ..2 " " The breaking weight (in tons) of hemp rope is C*X8, and C 2 its weight (per fathom) is , C being the circumference of the 4 rope expressed in inches. The working loads of ordinary chains are as follows: Diameter of link. Weight per Working fathom. load. Ibs... . 0.7 tons. 8 ..10 14 17 22 . 2 8 32 4.0 43 5.5 . 56 . 7.0 Chains are heavier than ropes, for a given strength, in the proportion of seven to two. A stay across the link of a chain increases its strength about one-sixth. 41. The following are good make-shift candlesticks: A bay- onet stuck into the ground; an empty bottle; a hollow bone; a nail driven through a board and projecting upward; a hole cut into the ground, or into a potato, slice of bread, etc. 42. The formula for finding the weight of animals, in pounds, 8o Mountain Scouting. is (G x .08) L X 42; in which, G is the girth in feet, taken close behind the shoulder, and L is the distance in feet from the fore part of the shoulder blade to the bone of the tail. For cattle, fifty per cent, should be allowed for skin, offab head, etc.; about forty-five per cent, for sheep; and twenty- five per cent, for swine. 43. In the case of beams supporting weights over ditches, ravines, etc.; if the depth of the beam be doubled, other things equal, its strength will be increased four times; if its breadth be doubled, other things equal, its strength will be doubled. By increasing the distance between the supports, the strength of the beam is decreased in the same ratio. Half the distance between the supports will enable the beam to bear twice the load. Place a prop or skid under the center of the beam, when possible. If instead of concentrating the load at the center of the beam, it be equally distributed over it, the beam will bear twice the load. The effect of the load on a beam will decrease in the *-atio of its proximity to the support. A beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other will bear one-half the weight of the same when supported at each end. The strength of round timber is about one-half of chat of square timber, whose side = the diameter of the round timber. 44. To measure the breadth of a river without instruments and without crossing it: Useful Information in Post and Field. 81 ist. Assume dc in any direction, and make be = bd (ab being as nearly perpendicular to the banks as practicable); then, locating e on ac produced, make bf=be\ join / and d and prolong /# to ab at g; then bg = ab. 2d. Produce be until the angle ^0 = 45; then, be = ab. 3d. Without reference to figure, the following methods may be used according to the location of the distance to be meas- ured with respect to the surrounding country. a. Let AB = the distance to be measured. Produce AB to any point, D, and bisect BD in C. Through D, draw Da, making any angle with DA, and take ~Dc and D=DC and DB, respectively. Join Bf the object equals the height of the eye above the mirror, multiplied by the distance of mirror from the object divided by the distance of mirror from the observer. These methods apply only to such objects as trees, walls, precipices, etc., where the highest point is vertically above the accessible base. Still, when the base is not accessible, its distance may be readily calculated, as shown in paragraph 44. To determine the height of a mountain by means of a ther- mometer: Let T = the temperature of boiling water at any station, deducted from 212; and H = the height, in feet, of the station above the sea. Boil some water and ascertain T by leans of the thermometer; then, H = 52oT + T 2 . To determine its height by means of a barometer and ther- lometer: Observe the altitudes A and A 1 of the mercurial :olumn in inches and fractions of an inch, at the base and summit of the mountain. Also, note the mean of the readings >f the thermometer (Fahrenheit) at the times of the baromet- ical observations. Then, height of mountain (in feet) = A A 1 55,000 X AA 1 For a mean temperature of 55 Fahrenheit, augment or diminish this result by its ^ part taken as many times as there is a difference (in degrees) between the mean readings noted and 55. The determined height, when not greater than 2,000 feet, will be very accurate. 46. The " Toe and Side Weights " shown in the drawing are excellent for all horses that knee-knock, hitch, click, interfere, 84 Mountain Scouting. or single foot. They are entirely metallic, without straps or buckles, and are held on the foot by small steel screws, which pass through the shoe and into the spurs on the weights. A few should be taken on every journey with stock. 47. The weight (in pounds) of an iron shot = the diameter cubed X^T; the weight (in pounds) of a leaden shot = the di- ameter cubed x A; the diameter (in inches) of an iron shot = (the cube root of the weight) x 1.923; the diameter (in inches) of a leaden shot = the cube root of 4* times the weight. The weight (in pounds) of an iron shell = A x (the difference of the cubes of the external and internal diameters). The weight of powder (in pounds) contained in a shell equals the cube (in inches) of the interior diameter ^57-3 The weight of powder (in pounds) required to fill a box equals the continued product of the inches in the length, breadth and depth 30 If the powder is not shaken, divide by 31.4182 instead of 30. The weight of powder (in pounds) to fill a cylinder equals the length (in inches) x square of the diameter The diameter, in inches, of a shell to contain a weight of powder = (the cube root of the number of pounds) X 57.3. The length of the bore of a gun (in inches) filled by n pounds of powder equals 72x38.2 square of the diameter of bore 48. It is important to learn how to use the lasso. It consists of a very strong thin plaited rope made of raw hide. One end is attached to the saddle, the other end forms a noose. When going to use it, the rider keeps a small coil in his bridle hand, and in the other holds the running noose, ^having a diameter Useful Information in Post and Field. 85 from 3 to 8 feet; this he whirls around his head, and by a dex- terous movement of the wrist keeps the noose open; then, throwing it, he causes it to fall over the head of the animal. 49. At 30 yards, a person with ordinary sight can distinguish the white of the eye; at 80 yards, the eyes can be seen; at 100 yards, the body and movements of same can be seen and the buttons counted; at 200 yards, the buttons look like faint stripes; at 300 yards, the features of the face are distinguish- able; at 400 yards, the face appears like a dot, and the move- ;nts of the legs and arms are distinct; at 500 yards, the head is ible; at 600 yards, individual movements are observed, but tails disappear; at 700 yards, the movements of the legs and ns become indistinct; at 800 yards, individual movements cannot be observed; at 900 yards, the head appears like a dot; at 1,000 yards, a line of men appear like a broad ragged line; 2,000 yards, infantry presents a thick line with a bright one bove it, cavalry a thicker one with an uneven top and a single an or horse looks like a dot. The sun on your back, or looking over a light surf ice, such water or snow, tends to make objects look near; while with he sun in your face, or looking ->ver a lark jackground or un- ulating surface, has the contrary effect. 50. To prevent a mule from braying, when silence is neces- ry in a hostile country, tie a heavy rock to his tail. A mule invariably elevates his tail when he wishes to bray, and if this heavily weighted down, an end is put to one of the greatest f nuisances. The Indians cruelly avoid such noises by so placing a needle hat it will prick the mule whenever he endeavors to open his jaws. 51. The Block House is a useful defense against Indians in a mountainous country, where the surrounding heights cannot be held. They are usually placed at the two diagonal corners of a picket work. Its plan should have re-entering angles, or be m 86 Mountain Scouting. the form of a cross, so that the faces may be defended by flank fires. When used against Indians, without artillery, square logs, laid on each other, replace the usual double row of piles. A The height of each story should be about ten feet, the upper one projecting all around and serving as a machicoulis. The roof should have a layer of earth or sand upon it, as a guard against fire, and escapes should be provided in it for the smoke. All trees an'd bushes, within range, that would afford cover, should be removed, if possible. 52. All travelers should endeavor to be 'weather wise,' and a small aneroid barometer should be carried and frequently observed. A change of the moon greatly influences the weather. A halo around the moon indicates approaching wet weather; the greater the circle the nearer the rain. It is generally believed that * the third day before the new moon regulates the weather on each quarter-day of that lunation, and also characterizes the Vseful Information in Post and Field. general aspect of the whole period. Thus, if the new moon happened on the 26th of May the term day was the 24th; the weather of that day was to be that of the 26th and the 3d, nth and ipth of June, the quarter-days, respectively.' Fine weather may be expected when swallows fly high; but when they or any birds of long flight hang about home or fly p and down or low, rain and wind may be expected. When the stock seek sheltered places and do not cover their usual range, when smoke does not ascend readily during a calm, an unfavorable change must be expected. Dew and fog are indications of fine weather neither occurs under an overcast sky, or when the wind is blowing. A constant study of the heavenly phenomena will enable any- ne to know what sort of sky precedes a storm or fair weather. 88 Mountain Scouting, CHAPTER V. EQUIPAGE AND SUPPLIES. When a regular command is ordered into the field, the commanding officer should use his own discretion in desig- nating the equipage, supplies and individual outfits to be taken. The following observations may, however, be use- ful, when with a view to comfort and efficiency, certain de- viations from the general regulations are permitted. CLOTHING. The importance of flannel (or cotton in its absence,) next to the skin cannot be overrated. Both shirt and drawers should be made of well shrunken material of good quality and unobtrusive color. The shirts should be supplied with turn-down collars and breast pockets, which are very con- venient for holding a variety of small articles when no waistcoat is worn. Long woolen stockings, to-be worn with shoes and over the bottoms of the pants should also be taken. The Government woolen sock is excellent, but in a locality where the ground is very hot, I prefer some- thing still thicker. For the coat and waistcoat, nothing can surpass the Goodyear garments. A waterproof or can- vas blouse, cut sufficiently short to clear the saddle and pro- vided with numerous convenient pockets, will be useful and handy on all occasions. The drawings show the outside and inside finish of a con- venient pattern. Equipage and Supplies. 89 The waistcoat, generally worn without the coat, should be cut rather long, have several pockets and, by means of bands tacked on it, be made to carry, like a cartridge belt, about twenty cartridges. The pants should be constructed of thick woolen material, reinforced on the inside where they touch the saddle, with soft buckskin or leather. They may be greatly protected by wearing a light pair of overalls. There should be no hem at the bottoms of the legs, as the dampness is thus re- tained for a long time. In the selection of all outer clothing some attention should be paid to color. Gray, buff, or neutral tints not only ab- sorb but little heat in very warm weather, but are the least conspicuous. A soft and dark felt hat, with a moderately wide brim, is the best headdress. A pair of warm mittens and a pair of stout driving gloves, with buckskin put in between the fing- ers, will suffice for the hand covering. A few silk or cotton handkerchiefs for neckwear are indispensable. As a general thing, when on^a rugged trail, boots rapid- ly impair the soundness of the feet, and are most judici- ously replaced by flexible low-cut shoes, covered with buck- skin leggings, of the style represented, or worn with long 90 Mountain Scouting. woolen stockings containing the bottoms of the pants, so as to protect from the sun, dust, snake bites, etc. If boots must be worn, considering comfort and econo my, I know no pattern preferable to the Government B. S. boots. They should be selected about one size too large and so as to come well up to the knee and fit the leg com- pactly, after admitting the bottoms of the pants. They should have broad soles and low heels, and be sufficiently flexible to allow the wearer to walk with freedom. When traveling through snows, light moccasins covering two pairs of woolen socks, are excellent. The Indians wear the lightest possible moccasin on all occasions, probably be- cause of comfort and the custom of creeping up on game without any noise. I have often found comfort in a dressing gown while in the field. Such a garment is a relief when put on after making camp, or when around the campfire, and serves as a warm extra dress in which to sleep. A pair of old slippers is another luxury in the camp. THE TOILET. It is a well known fact that dirt and grease protect the skin against inclement weather. An Indian will seldom wash unless he can grease himself afterwards and with him, in many instances, grease takes the place of clothing. We can readily see the necessity of an equality of the ac- tivity of the skin and the calls upon it, and why, when ex posure is very great, the pores should be defended. No very extensive preparation is necessary in this part of the outfit, but the traveler should see that he has his tooth brush, comb and brush, a few towels, both large and small, and soap, all placed in a water-proof wrapper or traveling- Equipage and Supplies. 91 case made for the occasion. This part of the outfit should be transported upon the saddle, in the saddle bags or in the clothing bag in order tnat the articles may be convenient for use upon arriving in camp. The soap may be nicely kept and preserved in a suitable tin box. 1 do not think it well, in rough travel, to wash in the early i art of a dark wintry morning. The best time is after the morning's ride or march, or after making an early camp. BEDDING. It is absurd for a soldier to take a mattress in the field, even on a short journey. A buffalo robe and three blank- ets ; or even the blankets, poncho and the allowance of can- vas, will, if properly placed, make a most inviting bed. I have used with great satisfaction what is known as the ter bed. It is made of strong, light rubber. When not in Use, it may be wrapped about the clothing bag, inside the on Her canvas covering, and will form a waterproof protec- tion for its contents. When required for use, it is filled with water and placed upon the ground or bed. Elie water pillow is another invaluable article of similar and construction. When being transported this may be wrapt about official papers and will prove a good protec- tion for them in case the pack should, by accident, go under the water. When preparing the pillow for use, it is easily filled with 92 Mountain Scouting. air exhaled from the body and is made to assume any de- gree of softness by varying its contents of air. In many camps water is a scarce article, and in order to be on the safe side, I would recommend an air bed and pil- low, and for convenience would have them combined in one. In addition to the clothing and bedding, it is a good plan to have a small satchel or sort of 'ditty bag' accompany the personal outfit. It should contain thread, needles, wax, a roll of tape, a ball of twine, a few buttons of all sorts, a pa- per of pins, a bodkin, a thimble, a pair of scissors, a few shoe- strings, a small awl or sail needle and some buckskin. The provision of a suitable quantity of reading matter and writing materials should never be neglected. The drawing shows an ingenious contrivance for fasten- Equipage and Supplies. 93 tg on buttons which is of great use in the field. A few of ese fasteners may be carried in the vest or hip pocket, and a button lost while on the march may be easily replaced. Before leaving the settlements, each man should provide some means of exactly measuring feet and inches. It is well to mark a scale of inches on something sure to be at hand, for instance on the gun-stock or inside the belt. I would recommend that every man know his height, the full stretch of his extended arms, the exact height of his eye above the ground when standing and when kneeling, his cubit, the length of his foot, the width of his fingers and the exact amount contained in his cup or canteen. Some of these will daily prove a convenient unit of measurement. The small combination mirror, pin cushion and tape leasure here represented is very useful, may easily be trans- ported in the pocket and will be called into frequent requi- sition. The clothing, bedding and personal effects are usually rolled tightly and tied up in the tent or canvas when pre- pared for transportation. Most frequently a modification 94 Mountain Scouting. of the Tente d' Abri of the French, is furnished our scout- ing columns in the field and is well suited for such work; but, when there is left any choice or selection in the matter of canvas, it may be very much improved upon. In selecting the tent, one should consider its lightness, its capability of being quickly pitched (and in different ways depending upon the climate and the facilities for securing poles,) its ventilation, its capability of neatly enclosing the bundle and serving as a waterproof covering for the bed when not pitched, but merely wrapped about it It is believed that the author's Combination Shelter, Storm and Common Tent better meets the requirements of the tentage, to be used in all climates and independently of the transportation, than any other that has been tested. The tent may be made on a large scale and will well re- place the present form of Hospital Tent, affording a max- imum available sheltered space for the minimum amount of canvas and will admit of being combined so as to form a single shelter for any number of men, standing either high or low. This combination tent (service size) and its capa- bilities will be noticed at length in the chapter 'Forced Marches.' The French Officers' Tent, here represented, is a very sat- isfactory one so far as room and lightness are concerned, Equipage and Supplies. 95 >ut it possesses the disadvantages of numerous pegs and guy ropes and not being suitable for wrapping about the bundle. Every man, on going into the field should take an extra lariat, as one will generally wear out during a long journey, and besides, they will be found very useful in making the bundles secure and in crossing deep streams, etc. If the transportation will admit of it, a coil of half-inch rope should also be taken. A few extra locks, screws, springs, tumblers, etc., should be taken along, in order to keep the arms in thorough re- pair. A sufficient number of spades and axes (a few hatchets never come amiss) should be packed with the equipage. A small hand saw, a rasp, a few gimlets, brad-awls, saddler's awls, nails, screws and coils of wire packed closely in a small chest or canvas roll will be found well worth the transportation and frequently useful. A good hunting knife is indispensable, and I know noth- ing more valuable in this connection than the trowel bayo- net of Colonel Rice (one edge kept sharp.) While invaluable as an intrenching tool, the soldier soon learns to use it as a knife, a hatchet, a spade and chopping axe. A proper supply of horse and mule shoes and nails should be carefully provided. They should be transported in sev- eral small leather or canvas sacks, each furnished with a hammer, rasp and pincers, which will become very handy in case the command is divided into detachments. 9 6 Mountain Scouting. The value and importance of a portaole forge cannot be overestimated. The drawing represents a convenient form. It is very simple in its construction, gives a strong and steady blast, with but little labor, and its dimensions are such that it may be easily packed in a cracker box and form a very handy side or top pack for the pack mule. This forge is twelve inches by seventeen inches and fifteen inches in height, has a seven inch fan, and weighs a little less than fif- ty pounds. In case there be no forge or no facilities for shoe- ing the animals, it will be well to provide a few sandals like represented in the _g^tfl drawing, to be used in case a horse loses his shoe and cannot Sufficient has been W|i ^jjir already said in con- nection with the ^JH^r horse equipment; but make sure that the saddle is sufficiently roomy, well padded and without hem or edging. Equipage and Supplies. 97 A pair of light saddle bags should al- ways accompany the saddle. The draw- ing represents a very suitable style, manu- factured especially for scouting purposes, and furnished with a small assortment of instruments and necessities for the march. The smaller the spurs the better, un- less the animal is very lazy; then, a pair of substantial Mexican spurs, with wide straps, will be found the most satisfacto- ry kind of 'persuader.' U 9 It is a good rule to leave behind all notions of snaffles and double reins, and to ride with nothing but an easy curb. A temporary but not desirable substitute for the curb may be made by noosing a string, and putting the noose around the horse's lower jaw. Have no more buckles in the equipment than are abso- lutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle or strap so much during exposure as the rusting out of buckles and the pulling through of their tongues. Both are sources of endless annoyance. The ration, as established for the U. S. Army, is composed of twelve ounces of pork or bacon, or one pound and four ounces of salt or fresh beef ; one pound and two ounces of soft bread or flour, or one pound of hard bread, or one pound and four ounces of corn meal. To every one hundred 98 Mountain Scouting. rations, fifteen pounds of beans or peas, or ten pounds of rice or hominy; ten pounds of green coffee or eight pounds of roasted (or roasted and ground) coffee, or one pound and eight ounces of tea; fifteen pounds of sugar; four quarts of vinegar; one pound and four ounces of adamantine or star candles; four pounds of soap; three pounds and twelve ounces of salt; four ounces of pepper; thirty pounds of po- tatoes (when practicable) and one quart of molasses. Citric Acid may be easily transported, and when mixed with sugar and water, makes a very refreshing drink and an excellent antiscorputic. A small supply should always ac- company the rations. Beans, peas, salt and potatoes (fresh) are to be purchased by weight sixty pounds to the bushel. Desiccated com- pressed vegetables may be substituted for beans, peas y rice, hominy or fresh potatoes at the rate of one ounce to the ra- tion. One ration, consisting of ^ pork, ^ salt beef, % bacon; Y>2, flour, YZ bread, in boxes; beans or peas; rice or hom- iny ; 24 roasted and ground coffee, ^ tea ; sugar, vin- egar, adamantine candles, soap, salt, pepper, molasses and potatoes, weighs 3.0311 pounds net. One ration, consisting of )^ pork, ^ salt beef, ^ bacon ; bread in boxes, beans or peas ; rice or hominy ; ^ roasted and ground coffee, ^ tea, sugar, vinegar, adamantine cand- les, soap, salt, pepper and molasses, weighs 2.5436 pounds net. It is not advisable to transport pork on pack mules, as it soon becomes dried by the sun, and much of the fat is melted out. A succulent fifty pound pack, after a few weeks' transportation, will dwindle away to a hard chunk of fif- teen or twenty pounds. The number of rations to be carried will depend upon the size of the party, the extent of the journey, the possibility of procuring rations, and the amount of game that can be se- Equipage and Supplies. 99 cured by the hunting detachment. It is a golden rule to set out with the mules lightly loaded, and an excellent plan to discreetly cache a portion of the supplies when there is a cer- tainty of at least a part of the command retracing the 'trail.' In connection with packing and transportation, it will be useful to remember the following measurements and capa- cities: A box 4 in. by 4 in. by 3.6 in. will hold about i qt. " 5 in. by 5 in. by 5 in. " 2 qts. " 8 in. by 8.4 in. by 8 in. " i pk. " 24 in. by 16 in. by 28 in. " i bbl. The messing outfit will be noticed in the chapter 'The Mess;' but make sure that the cooking implements and table necessaries are so selected as to nest compactly. The camp kettles may enclose the dishpans, and these the skillets and smaller articles. It is best with a view to packing to have the skillets, fryingpans, etc., so constructed that a spoon may be applied as a handle, and removed when not in use or when packed. The drawing shows the idea. The buckets should be made of rubber or canvas, and should be constructed with folding frames, as shown in the drawing. Such buckets will sustain great pressure without giving, and when folded for transportation will occupy an exceedingly small space. ico Mountain Scouting. CHAPTER VI. MOUNTAIN TRAVEL. A good mountaineer is usually guided by the same instinct that carries the bee to its hive. By day he uses the sun and the prominent landmarks ; while in his night marches, the stars may serve to give the direction. Polaris and Ursa Ma- jor, or the Southern Cross, give the north and south bear- ing, while the Zodiacal stars indicate the east and west points. It is seldom that the ordinary traveler, even when provided with compass, sextant and chronometer and after careful practice and cultivation, becomes skilled in moun- tain craft. In a mountainous country, where the routes of possible travel are few, a guide with a good local knowledge is very desirable ; for the compass is by no means sure when in the vicinity of granitic rocks (rich in hornblende and other iron bearing ores). Unless possessing a local knowledge of the country, guides are only useful when water and camping pla- ces are scarce and must be hunted and when messengers may be needed. Before going into the mountains, if possible, a map should be secured, correctly showing the large streams, their general directions and important tributaries, and the line of march and probable location of the camp should be noted on the map daily. It will not do to trust too much to the 'bump of locality,' but every 'sign' indicating direction should be carefully considered. In some lati- tudes the moss grows much thicker and stronger on the north side of the firs and pines, which fact may enable the traveler to direct his course through the forest in the ab- sence of all other guides. Again, the ripples in the snow on the mountain tops often run in fixed directions, in conse- quence of constant winds, and these may serve as a gu.ide. Mountain Tuwl. 101 In order to successfully travel the, m,o,iintains, it is neces- sary to understand their complete /m^kfe , up' ; und :n know how to skillfully follow the divides. When the divide A E B separates the waters of two streams not uniting with each other, as C and D in the drawing, it is known as a principal divide, and always affords the best route of travel. The sides of canyons and ravines are frequently so pre- cipitous that it is neither advisable nor possible to cross them ; and although it is sometimes easy traveling along the bottoms (the level land enclosed between the sides,) when not too narrow and rocky, the best route will, consid- ing all things, be found along the divides. Such a route -is frequently long and crooked, but it is a ^ >od one. Suppose it be required to pass from the stream C to the stream Z>, parallel to it, but separated from it by very high and broken mountains. To accomplish this most expeditiously, follow up the stream to C, where we will suppose a tributary of the stream puts in. Now if there be a good route, apparently, over the divide above this tributary, turn to the right and follow it, until the principal divide is reached at E, The route, if IO2 AJoiint-iin Scouting. practicable, may be taken aiowg the bottom, should water be desicab-.e, ac far as necessary and then the divide C E may be taken. Having reached the principal divide, pass over it and descend by any suitable and practical divide as E D, leading from the principal divide, to the other stream. It will be found that all the divides lead to the principal di- vide,' and hence there will be no doubt as to finding the principal divide; but it will often require good judgment in selecting the most practicable divide leading to it. It will be still more difficult to select the practicable divide in descend- ing, as all appear more or less practicable from the summit. The innumerable cul de sacs, met within descending, can on- ly be avoided by exercising great caution. In every case the divide selected should separate tributary ravines of two important tributaries of the stream. It is seen in the draw- ing how these ravines frequently overlap each other and ren- der the route very sinuous. It is recommended to follow game trails, when discovered, in passing from one stream to another. They usually fol- low the most direct and practicable route over a fair divide. When arriving at the steep edge of a ridge, and where dif- ficulty in finding a good trail is anticipated, it is a safe rule to descend first, on foot, and seek a trail for the com- mand or train as you climb back again. It is much easier to make this selection while ascending than while descend- ing ; for when at the bottom of a hill, its bluffs and preci- pices face you, so that they may be readily avoided, but when at the top of the hill these parts are overlooked and not seen, until closely approached. The investigation of ravines is the exact reverse of that of the divides; but localities are much more readily lost when the ravines proceed thence in various directions. On cross- ing a divide and coming upon a system of ravines leading to a different principal ravine, the traveler should make very sure of his course and frequently take the bearings of the most prominent landmarks. Mountain Travel. 103 A person may be readily lost in the mountains, and it is never safe to stray off from the camp or command when alone. Should necessity demand it, however, it will prove an excellent rule to take along the rifle and a good supply of ammunition and matches. Observation goes to show that the horse and other ani- mals, when running on an open ground, will gradually turn their courses to the left. The same is true of man, when lost on the prairies and cut off from all guiding marks or objects and it is still more the case, when he is lost in the mountains, the irregularities of the route of travel seeming to confuse his ideas of direction and locality. This turning to the left is so rapid with the average lost man, that he will frequently travel in a circle and will, in the course of the day, arrive at the point left in the morning. It should be remembered that, when lost, it is best not to increase the perplexity of the matter by wandering still farther, but set to work to find the way back to known localities. Leave a broad trail for the relieving party to follow and make a great smoke, if possible. The sense of desolation attending most lost persons is suf- ficiently overpowering to cause them to lose their presence of mind, to wander widely about and rapidly exhaust their vital powers. Colonel Dodge relates the following remarkable account: "When serving in Texas, a soldier of my company be- came lost while returning to the post from a small village two miles off. A party was sent out to search for him, and on the second or third day came upon him almost naked in a little thicket. As soon as he discovered the party, he bounded off like a deer and was pursued. After an exciting chase he climbed a tree, from which he was taken by force, and with the greatest difficulty struggling, striking and biting like a wild animal. He was brought back to the post perfectly wild and crazy ; confined, watched and attended 104 Mountain Scouting. with the greatest care for over a month before he recovered his mind. He was an excellent man, more than usually in- telligent, but I doubt if he ever fully recovered from the shock. He recollected nothing but going a little distance off the road and getting turned around and realizing that he was lost." When lost beyond all hope, when there are reasons to be- lieve that a search will not be made, and when it is possible to keep alive for a few days, I believe it a good plan to make for the nearest large water course and follow it down by shore or raft, until the settlements are finally reached. But, before proceeding, to this final course be sure that you have well endeavored to answer the following questions, viz.: A. What is the least distance within which the lost trail lies? By remaining cool, this may be quite accurately deter- mined by the careful traveler. He knows how long he has been traveling on foot or on horseback, and the average rate of his travel, and he can usually make a fine allowance for loitering, stoppages and remembered zigzags. The lost man may always console himself with the fact that he is nearer the lost trail than he imagines. B. What is the general direction of the trail ? The traveler should at all times keep in mind the gener- al bearing of prominent landmarks, and the general courses of important streams and ridges. During sunshine, the shadows of trees, etc., will give east and west points. In tropical countries, Orion and Antares give excellent east and west points, and are easily sighted. An almanac, show- ing the times and bearings of sun rise, sun set, moon rise and moon set for various latitudes, is invaluable to the mountain traveler. C. On leaving the trail, was the travel to the right or to the left of it ? This question must be answered from memory or the Mountain Travel. 105 note book, and it is very important that the traveler be able to answer it with proper assurance. Suppose the traveler is at i when he decides that he is lost, and suppose that the trail certainly lies within the dis- tance i 7 ; then the circle 7 3 9 5 cuts the trail some- where. The traveler starting from i, may first go to 7, and then, in the extreme case, make the entire circuit 7 3 9 5 7, or travel a distance 7.28 times i 7 before exhausting his search. Now, suppose that both questions A and Bean be answered and that the trail lies within the directions i 15 and i 13; then, the trail somewhere cuts the arc 15 9 13, or possibly the arc n 7 17. Produce 7 i 9 until it cuts the tangents to the circle 7 3 9 5 , which are perpendicular to i 15 and i 13. Call this distance x. Now this line must cut every trail within and parallel to i 15 or i 13 that cuts the circle, and it is furthermore obvious that it must cut every trail that is within and parallel to an intermediate direction 113 i9 Since x = = ; when 15 i 13 cos 13 19 cos y z 15 113* io6 Mountain Scouting. =60, * = =90 i 9 cos 30' i 9 r = cos 45 i 9 I20 V , X = cos 60' nearly; when 15 i 13 (i 9) i^, nearly; when 15 i 13= (i 9) 2; when 15 i 13 = 140, A*= i 9 = (i 9) 3, nearly; etc. cos 7art of the contents may be removed, whenever desired for im- mediate use, without unloading the 'cargo,' slacking .the lash rope, or even halting the animal carrying them. These are certainly important advantages in case of a surprise or sudden attack upon the train, or the unexpected discovery of the enemy; or, if used for medicine or subsistence stores, in case, of sudden illness, or the necessity of eating a meal under circumstances forbidding a halt. Many instances will doubtless recur to every officer of experience in field ser- 128 Mountain Scouting. vice, where disasters have resulted from not having been able to quickly replenish the supply of ammunition. The devices by which this box is made available for sud- den emergencies, are essentially three in number, viz: FIRST, and most important: The angle castings or corner bands in the center of each side of the top of the box, each of which has a diagonal circular opening, or socket, for the lash rope. SECOND: The center partition, ife inches thick, on the top of which is screwed a center strip, 2^2 inches in width, with two lids hinged thereto, opening from the ends. THIRD: The sub-division of the interior of the box, by adjustable partitions, into compartments, adapted in num- ber and arrangement, to the nature of the contents, and shape and size of the packages. These compartments prevent the shaking or damaging of the packages by the motion of the animal, which would oc- cur with an ordinary box after being partially emptied; and permit the load to be kept practically balanced by tak ing out- of each box, alternately, all or part of the contents of one or more compartments, thus obviating any neces- sity for unloading, or touching a rope during the march other than the usual adjustment of the lash rope. By fill ing only a portion of the compartments, when the packages are unusually heavy, or when the animal is not in good condition, the weight of the load may be adapted to the circumstances of the case, without danger of rattling, shak- ing or breaking the packages; for hard bread or other stores of light weight, the boxes may be made larger, if desired; or if necessary, four boxes of the usual size can be packed on one animal. No special fittings or attachments, to the ordinary aparejo or pack-saddle, are required; the boxes are complete in themselves and in case of emergency they may be packed with very little in the way of outfit a few old sacks filled Pack Mules and Packing. 129 with hay or straw, a couple of cinches and a piece of rope will answer. The ammunition boxes now supplied by the Ordnance De- partment are very unsuitable for 'packing;' two being too light for an economical load, while three are awkward to han- dle, very difficult to lash so as to be kept in place on an aparejo or pack-saddle, and are liable to chafe and strain the animal's back. Mr. Madigan has lately invented a Tripod and Packing Box for the Gatling Gun and an Improi'ed Pack-saddle for Transporting the Hotchkiss Gun, both of which are highly endorsed by officers serving in New Mexico and other mountainous countries. 13 Mountain Scouting. V CHAPTER VIII. jf MARCHING. A GOOD commander will so conduct the march as to pre- sent his men in fighting order at any moment. With this in view, it will be necessary to observe the following points: 1. All things to be arranged in the column of march in the same order in which they are likely to be required. 2. The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men to be se- cured, carefully considering the proper indulgences, the weather, the physical features of the country and import- ant hygienic principles. 3. The animals to be herded, loaded, driven and guarded with the greatest care. When distant from the enemy, or when in broken or dusty country, certain considerations of the first order may very properly give way to ease and comfort, but, as a gen- eral rule, the transportation (kept well closed up) should follow closely in rear of the mam command. A few mounted men should constitute the advance guard while marching through the hostile country. They should keep a vigilant lookout in all directions and carefully recon- noitre every place where the enemy might lie in ambush. When marching without a guide who knows the country, and when the requisites for a camp are scarce, an addi- tional armed party should be sent in advance to hunt the camps. They should make a careful search on both sides of the trail and be sufficiently far advanced to return to the command, in case of failure to locate a suitable camp Marching. 131 within the distance of a reasonable day's march. Thirty- five miles might be considered the limit of search. It is safe to assume that a camp with the necessary requisites, (wood, water and grass), after a march of thirty-five miles, is many times better in the long run than a camp without wa- ter and grass even after a small march of ten or fifteen miles. Numerous circumstances of the march will determine the strength of the rear guard. It should, at all times, be kept close to the transportation, for its protection incase of sur- prise. The question of equipment is an important one, when an engagement may be expected at any moment. The difficult problem of drawing the proper line between the number of articles that should be in hand, when the en- gagement ensues, and the weight that should be transported on the person has received much attention of late. The ex- cellent campaign equipment, devised by J. E. Bloom, Esq., late of the Artillery, is the nearest approach to perfection, as yet. By this device, the center of gravity of the soldier remains nearly normal, and the strain falls upon those por- tions of the body which can best bear them. It seems that the principal objection to the 'roll' as worn during the late war, was that the weight fell upon one side of the body, thus heating it, etc. In Mr. Bloom's system of equipment this objection is entirely overcome, and the soldier is enabled to transport the following with great fa- cility: One hundred cartridges, (cal. 45), one blanket, one shelter tent, one overcoat, one pair pants, one pair drawers, one undershirt, one woolen shirt, one pair socks, one pair shoes, towel, soap, etc., in addition to his rifle. The equipment consists in a system of supporting straps, by means of which the weight to be carried is directly trans- ferred to and supported equally by the shoulders, without producing any horizontal pressure upon the chest. This.ob- 132 Mountain Scouting. ject is accomplished by means of a yoke, composed of two leather straps A A, passing over the shoulders and joined by the same rivets at their ends front and rear, (opposite to the extremity of the sternum bone) both to plates or stirrups B B, and also to a double blanket strap C C, for securing the blankets and articles rolled therein. The blanket roll is adjusted so as to fully clear, by an inch, the shoulder over whfch it passes, being thus suspended from a central point Marching. 133 front and rear, upon a line passing through the center of gravity of the body thus causing such a disposition of these articles as not to disturb the equilibrium of the body. The weight of the cartridge belt, of any variety, is sup- ported from stirrups, both at front and back, by means of hooks, or hook-plates I I. which are connected with the belt through the adjustable straps and snap-hooks J J. The ha- versack, canteen, gamebags, etc., are likewise suspended "from side slots in the stirrups by means of straps M M. The blanket roll, when firmly made and adjusted, exerts more than sufficient outward thrust to counteract all inward strains, (which would otherwise fall upon the chest,) due to the weight of the 'roll, ammunition belt, etc. This should be passed over the left shoulder, when the soldier is right handed or fires from the right shoulder, and vice versa. The following advantages of such an equipment are ap- parent; 1. Lightness and simplicity; and, being practically in one piece, there are no parts to be lost by the most careless. 2. Facility and quickness of slinging and unslinging. 3. It does not interfere with the action of the soldier, or the natural equilibrium of his body. 4. It does not heat the soldier ; but allows him to sleep with all accoutrements upon the person the upper part of the 'roll' forming a pillow for the head. The European soldier, on going into action, is allowed the following ammunition: France, 92; Germany, try; Russia, 120; England, 100; Austria, 119. The equipment described will enable him to carry 100 rounds, in addition to his kit, etc., with ease and safety. The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men will depend very much upon their being properly supplied and having a sufficiency of time in which to cook and look after their comfort. Sufficient has already been said regarding tne clothing 134 Mountain Scouting. and foot gear. The drawing shows a form of boot very suitable for long marches over rough and broken ground, and up and down hill, should it be impracticable to wear single soled and laced shoes with leggings. The leg proper is at- tached to the lower part, about the instep, by means of some strong and elastic material. With this description of boot a long march may be made over rough and rocky ground without wearying or injuring the foot. With an easy fitting shoe or boot, a march over the most rugged mountain, where the mind is kept busy with a con- stant change of scenery and the muscles rested by a variety of action, is far easier than the same march over a level plain, where there is little or no stimulant to greater exer- tion. Even with the most careful management and preparation for the march, it will not do to expect too much the first few days, as it requires some little time for persons and Marching. 135 things to settle into the new condition of matters. Suffi- cient allowance must be made for the reluctant co-opera- tion of individuals, inasmuch as they have a much less in- terest in the success of the expedition than the command- ing officer. It is a frequent question with them, why should we tax our energies and risk our lives in an enterprise for which we receive so little remuneration and about which we are indiffer- ent? This is most frequently the case with recruits, and it is a good rule to march all such near the head of the col- umn, as they experience less fatigue than when following in rear, and are more inclined to exertion, knowing that they are watched by older men, and that they will be sup- ported by them in the moments of danger. When long journeys are to be made, the daily marches should be short: for, if too long, rapid or ill-regulated, sickness is sure to result. Brief halts should also be made, their frequency depend- ing upon the condition of the ' trail ' and weather. It is a fair rule to march three miles (one hour) and then rest ten minutes. Places having a free circulation of air, well shaded and near running water should be selected for halts, when possible. Considering all things, it is best to start on the march with the early dawn, ' noon ' a few hours dur- ing the heat of the day (near grass and water), and con- tinue the march in the afternoon. In this manner twenty miles per day would be but a fair average march over the mountains. The march on exceedingly hot and rainy days should be completed before noon when possible. It should be made an invariable rule to serve the coffee before marching, without regard to the hour. The frequent use of water on the march is a matter of habit; some drink at every spring or stream and as often as twenty-five or thirty times in a day, while others will be satisfied with two drinkings during the same time. Thirst may be prevented, to some extent, by drinking a large quan- 136 Mountain Scouting. tity of water before breakfast, or by chewing a green leaf or twig, when thirsty. Water from stagnant pools should be purified before using, or fevers and dysenteries will fol- low. When drinking from a muddy pool or stream, place the shirt sleeve or handkerchief over the mouth ancj thus avoid the particles of dirt. When marching through poor- ly watered sections of country, I have found it an excellent plan to fill the canteen, before leaving camp, with a mixture of water and unsweetened tea or coffee. This when taken cold on the march, allays the thirst and is an excellent bev- erage. There is nothing more hurtful to a command than to be compelled to make long or forced marches while fasting. To prevent such, a lunch should be taken when possible. The drawing shows a handy air-tight and elastic lunch- pouch. It may be attached to the belt or carried in the pocket, and will preserve a small quantity of food in good condition. When not in use, it may be so folded as to oc- cupy a very limited space, and may be made to serve a number of useful purposes while in camp. I would recommend that the monotony of travel be re- lieved by what might be termed 'noted days,' having an extra good meal, a larger issue of sugar, tobacco, etc., than usual, and a shorter march if expedient. Sucn anticipated rewards for extra services, especially with Indian scouts, ac- complish much good. Marching. 137 The formation of all cliques, whether on the march or in the camp, should be prohibited; but, anything in reason should be done to promote the merriment of all. When the animals have been recently taken from grain, it is necessary to make very short and easy drives for the first few days ; and sufficient time should be allowed for drinking, at suitable periods, while on the march. When making night marches over an unwatered section of coun try, if there be any dew upon the grass, the stock should be allowed to halt and graze every hour. Alkaline springs are of frequent occurrence in mountain valleys, and may be detected by the yellow color of the grass growing around them. The animals should not be allowed to graze near them or drink the water, which is ex- ceedingly poisonous. It will seldom injure the animals to vary their hours of rest and labor ; and when the day bids fair to being very warm, it is often well to start them on the march hungry, make an early drive and go into camp before the heat of the day. During the first days of the march, it can be ascertained what animals are wild and likely to lead off the herd or cause other mischief ; all such should be carefully led, the others being permitted to run loose, in order that they may pick up grass along the 'trail' while moving. The stock should not travel faster than at a walk, nor be taken off for hunting purposes, unless necessary. In going up or down rugged mountains, all packs should be firmly lashed, in order that the animals may better sup- port their burdens. On first starting out they will appear to be hardly able to move under the loads, but soon the packs will settle, the lashings loosen and they will exper- ience no trouble. The packers should be vigilant and see that the packs do not work loose and that the animals do not scatter along the trail. The train should not be stopped 138 Mountain Scouting. to adjust a cargo only the mule in question should be halted, the others being compelled to move on. Theapare- jos should not be removed while on the march, nor while 'nooning/ for less than an hour. There is much truth in the saying that the best packers are those who make the least use of the whip and the most use of their tongues. The Mexican or California saddles are extensively used Ma re king. \ 3 9 throughout the Western country; and, in proportion to their excessive cost, are considered by the traders and Indians far superior to any other saddles manufactured. They are usually furnished with wool-lined bastos, llama skin anque- ras, sudaderos, tapaderos and stirrup leathers handsome- ly cut-stamped. When made of good material, in addition to giving perfect satisfaction, they will last a century and then command a fair price. These are usually accompanied by 'Cantanas' of goat, seal or llama skin, which are invaluable when traveling with- out pack animals or wagons. These are frequently so constructed as to admit of being taken off the saddle and borne on the person. There is some diversity of opinion as to the best mode of slinging the rifle while on horseback. With a short rifle or carbine there is no better way than to suspend it over the left shoulder, by means of a broad strap made fast to the piece near the guard, the muzzle pas- sing through a loop attached to the stirrup strap. 140 Mountain Scouting. A very handy way of carrying the rifle, especially a long one, is to allow it to rest horizontally against the pommel of the saddle, in front of the body and above the legs. It may be steadied by passing it through a loop of wide leath- er, slipped over the pommel, and by an occasional appli- ance of the hand. The rifle, if loaded, should be invariably carried at a half cock ; but, indeed it would be far better to transport it unloaded, unless a sudden attack or surprise might be expected. I think it much better to carry the revolver at the side than to piace it in a holster attached to the saddle, as in the latter case it is often useless, when dismounted. It is quite important to frequently take the bearing, when facing towards the starting point, as this will materially aid, should the return march be made over a different route. It will be surprising to ascertain how few persons are ca- pable of retracing their steps without a guide or compass, for any very great distance. Men of noted intelligence and soldierly qualities, but without a cultivation of the sense of locality, have been known to wander about in a circle for several days, being within 500 yards of the 'trail' or object- ive point all the while, yet absolutely lost. Before starting on the march a strong lariat, not less than fifteen feet in length, should be secured. The best are made of rawhide plaited. When coiled and provided with snap pers they may be made fast to the front of the saddle, and carried without any interference. They may be used for lash ropes and in innumerable emergencies arising during the march. Forced Marches. 141 CHAPTER IX. % FORCED MARCHES. FORCED marches, both offensive and defensive, are frequent ly necessary ; and, in either case, the important considerations are to travel rapidly without encumbrance and to have at hand all things necessary for the comfort and safety of the command. The matter of proper equipment for the forced march is frequently a difficult one, when the element time is an uncer- tain factor, and the character of the country to be traveled over is unknown. Assuming that, in case of necessity, the country will afford the necessary supplies, the question 6f most proper equipment may be easily disposed of in particu- lar cases. Whether the troops are mounted or not, the equi- page should be selected so as to avoid all strains and unequal pressures ; and, with a constant view to comfort and conveni- ence, the useful points should be most numerous and the weight in toto a minimum. Of course, the time will never come when regular troops will scout or campaign without tents ; but there is no doubt as to the bivouac, a temporary make-shift, being far prefer- able to tenting in a dangerous or rugged mountainous coun- try. Bivouacking is not only healthier, in consequence of the soldier inhaling purer air, but he is enabled to better see and hear, and does not indicate to sneaking hostiles the exact spot where he is lying and enable them to move accordingly. A mound of sand or earth, covered by a cloth or blanket, will make an excellent pillow ; whilst a blanket judiciously pitched over a little turned-up earth or accumulation of twigs, 142 Mountain Scouting., leaves or grass, serving as a comfortable bed, will give a shel- ter surprisingly complete so far as protection from cold winds or drifting rains is concerned. This plan of flying camps could be very advantageously carried out by transporting extra combination blankets, so made as to admit of being worn as aprons when moving through wet bushes or during rainy weather, and to be packed when not in use, singly or in great numbers (as horse blankets) upon any loose stock that may accompany the com- mand. The blankets will prove invaluable for many pur- poses, after the march is completed, even if it is not desirable to adjust them as shelters. The Indians of the Northwest, when traveling rapidly, invariably transport their extra blankets on the lead-horses, and make such uses of them as the nature of the weather necessitates. When without cover of any description, a shelter may be frequently made by selecting several small trees or bushes, cutting away the lower branches and drawing together and interlacing the upper ones. Others, if needed, may be added loose grass and twigs being thrown over all. A still more substantial shelter may be made, if the material is at hand, by sinking two forked uprights, placing a horizon- tal pole across them, inclining a number of shorter poles and closely interlacing small twigs, grasses or reeds. ' A very simple shelter may be formed by placing several poles in a semi-circle, and binding the small ends together with a rope or thong and covering this frame with canvas, Forced Marches. '43 blankets, hides or brush. It is preferable to the foregoing, having its sides covered. The time has now come when our camp equipage needs re- construction. As a help in this direction, the author's POR- TABLE COMBINATION SHELTER, STORM AND COMMON TENT has been perfected, and criticism has been invited from various sources at home and abroad. Many prominent officers of the army and the National Guard have expressed their approba- tion of the same, and thus far not an adverse criticism has been received. The tent consists of a peculiarly shaped sheet of light canvas or other suitable material, having a strong cord and flaps (several inches wide) about its edges and furnished with hooks and rings or tapes at suitable intervals. The shape of the tent is described as follows : A B D C is a rectangle; B F = y 2 F D; A E = % E C; B F D and A E C are right angles. For regular troops C D = 6 feet, and for the officer's tent C D = 7 feet. The shape of the canvas is such as to permit its being secured about the kit so as to thoroughly protect it the triangular end flaps being folded over before rolling; also, 144 Mountain Scouting. when folded over from both sides along lines parallel to A C and B D, and at distances from them a little less than one-fourth of C D, as shown in the accompanying drawing, to form an excellent bed covering for a single sleeper. When spread upon the ground, the blankets are placed upon the central portion of the rectangle A B D C. The canvas is in this manner, a double layer of canvas covers all of the sleeper (his feet resting along the line A B) except his head, which appears at the triangular opening D H C. When used as a shelter tent, the edges E C, C D and D F, rest upon the ground. When pitched in this manner, the tent covers a maximum available space for a minimum can- vas, with the following advantages: i st. Quickly, easily and securely pitched. 2d. The tent is composed of but one piece of canvas the allow- ance of one man. 3d. Three of its faces are covered, two of which may be raised for the purposes of ventilation. 4th. By attaching a blanket, extra piece of canvas or a second tent along the upper edge, the fourth face may be closed ; or, by varying its inclination, more or less shade may be secured. Forced Marches. Two of these tents may be so combined as to form a tent having a laige base and a small altitude, that will withstand a wind storm ( a component less than one-half of the force of the wind tending to overturn it). In consequence of the gradually sloping walls, there is much available space for the purposes of shelter and sleeping. By subjecting the canvas to the Neptunite process, it will shed the water, during a rain storm, when pitched in this manner, and will not become heavy by wetting. If concealment be desirable, this form of tent is particularly valuable. The drawing shows how two shelters may be combined so as to form the common or * A ' tent. Here the canvas is reversed. The edge C D is at the ridge, and the edges E A, A B and B F rest upon the ground. The poles used for the shelters are joined two and two, and form the long poles required for the common tent. This form of tent is particularly desirable during rain storms, and is well suited for officers and others, living two in a tent, who are liable to become separated at any time. It moreover fur- nishes a covering for the kit of each, and the individual will at all times have his proper allowance of canvas with his own bedding, or in case of forced marches, etc., he may carry it on his person or behind the saddle. 146 Mountain Scouting. The poles are made of strong and light wood, with plain fer- rule joints and projecting screws, which serve to strengthen the joints and hold the corners of the canvas in place, being run through a worked hole or ring arranged for the purpose. The shelter tent may be neatly pitched, without poles, whenever it is possible to suspend the ridge rope (formed by uniting the guy-ropes) between trees or their branches, piles of stores, saddles, aparajoes, rocks, etc.; or, it may be pitched against a fence, fallen tree, etc. When without poles or any facilities on the open prairie, either the carbine or ramrod will make a good substitute. The following is an extract from the proceedings of a Board of Officers, convened at West Point, N. Y., per Special Orders No. 123, Headquarters Department of West Point, to examine and report upon the merits of this tent : DIMENSIONS OF OFFICER'S TENT PITCHED. First as a shelter tent. Base 7 feet square; 3^2 feet high. Second as a storm tent, combining two shelter tents, omit- ting the poles of one. Base 7 feet by 14 feet ; 3^ feet high. Third as a common or * A' tent. Base 7 feet square; 7 feet 2 inches high. Weight, including poles, 3 Ibs. 2 ozs. The following are some of the advantages of the tent : 1. Capable of sub-division. 2. Maximum available space for minimum canvas. 3. Same poles for each form of tent. 4. The tent is expeditiously pitched. 5. As a shelter tent it is far more secure and roomy than the one now used. 6. Three faces of the tent are covered, and the fourth may be covered by a blanket or odd piece of canvas. 7. No ridge pole is required. 8. The only ropes required may be used to tie up the bundle. 9. It is a superior wrapper for the bundle. Forced Marches. 147 10. When not pitched it serves, on account of its peculiar form, as an excellent bed covering. 11. It is the only practicable storm tent, and to this point the Board particularly invite attention. 12. It forms a roomy and convenient 'A' or common tent, and as it can be opened at both ends, it can be rendered more comfortable in warm weather than the old tent. 13. Thirty-four (34) tents (officer's) or forty (40) tents (men's), with poles in suitably constructed bags, form a handy pack for a mule. The common tent is here referred to. 14. If transportation is abandoned, the tent is easily borne on the person. 15. It is readily adapted to a wind or rain storm. 1 6. The shelter tents are easily put together to form a se- cure storm or common tent. In conclusion, the Board is of the opinion that if " Far- row's Portable Combination Shelter, Storm and Common Tent" is adopted, it will prove a valuable addition to the camp equipage now issued. * * * * (Signed) C. T. ALEXANDER, MAJOR AND SURGEON, PRESIDENT. (Signed) EZRA B. FULLER, IST LIEUT., SEVENTH CAVALRY, (Signed) E. J. McCLERNAND, TST LIEUT., 2d CAVALRY, RECORDER. By furnishing a light and useful canvas, like the one above noticed, in connection with the system of ' campaign equip- ment' described in the last chapter, the soldier will be pos- sessed of a field equipment, formed upon scientific principles and capable of practical use in every way satisfactory. The ' rolls' admit of being packed handily on pack mules, twenty on a mule. Before going into an engagement or becoming detached from the train, the mules may be readily unpacked and the men shoulder their 'rolls.' Ordinarily the 'roll' should contain the shelter tent and one blanket only ; the other articles (one blanket and change of clothing) may be put in at the discretion of the commanding officer. i-,8 Mountain Scouting. The following advantages of such an equipment are evi- dent : 1. Each of the ' rolls ' contains sufficient to make a com- plete shelter tent, a warm bed, and to afford each man a change of clothes. 2. The weight is comparatively little, being only ten pounds. 3. The weight is actually uniformly distributed over the body, and the shape and bulk of the combination are uch as to permit its being worn without inconveniencing the soldier. 4. In the first moments of the skirmish, it furnishes a ready cover (by slipping it to the front and over the head), which will protect the soldier to some extent until the trowel bayo- net has been employed. Two or three ' rolls' placed together will afford an excellent cover for two or three men. When not engaged in forced marches, and when not com- pelled to leave the means of transportation, the men should bear only their rifles, ammunition, intrenching tools and, at times, canteens. The haversack and contents are useless and burdensome. It is not needed during an ordinary march, and is certainly in the way about the time of an engagement. A few pieces of hard bread placed in the hip pocket of the soldier do not incommode him and are always attainable ; whereas, the haversack is often lost and oftener abandoned before the soldier has had an opportunity to appease his hunger. In the engagement of the troops under Captain Evan Miles, near Umatilla agency, Oregon, July 13, 1878, eighty- nine of the men wore haversacks, thirty-one of whicn were lost and abandoned during the fight, and were missing on arrival into camp the same evening. In my opinion, there is no necessity for a haversack at any time. As forced marches are frequently made at night, a suitable contrivance for giving light, when it is difficult to follow the Forced Marches. trail, is very desirable. The Ferguson Patent Lamps are excel- lent for all outdoor work. FRONT. BACK. The drawing shows a combination head or staff jack, belt, dash, camp or hunting lamp and dark lantern, which I con- sider invaluable for night travel and camping purposes. Its weight is one pound, its dimensions &%, 3^6 and 2^ inches. Its parts are regulated from the outside, and it is constructed so as to burn sperm, lard, signal or other mixed oils, without a chimney. The flame cannot be extinguished by wind, rain or jolting, and is reliable in any weather. The cap or cover is used for obscuring the light when necessary, also for protecting the glass face in transportation, and may be taken off, if desired, by simply drawing out the hinge pin. It has folding handles at the back and a metal loop, by which it may be hung in any desired position. By passing a strap or cord through an opening at the back, just above the handles, it may be attached to the waist. It is very useful about a camp, for the purposes of tent lights and for starting the camp fires in rainy weather; or, for night travel and hunt- ing. There is almost no end to the uses to which it may be applied in the course of an extensive journey. The light is 15 Mountain Scouting. sufficiently strong to enable a person to see at least eight rods ahead, and is reflected 250 feet or more. By means of a socket attachment, the lamp maybe adjusted to a stick or pole and properly placed for reading and writing at night. A person using this lamp is enabled to see very clearly in three or four feet of water, by adjusting a reflector to the face of the lamp, so as to catch the rays of light and reflect them downward. The head attachment is made to fit perfectly any kind or size of hat, and so adjusted as to throw the light full on the object viewed. In night firing, it brings the light very close to the rifle. The dash attachment not only holds the lamp in an upright position on a straight or curved dash; but the lamp may be attached to either the right or left side, or to the top of the dash, by simply reversing the arm. The bracket attachment may be used for attaching the lamp to a wooden dash or pillar, and is adjustable to either an up- right or horizontal position, and may be used either right or left hand. Frequently, in consequence of the loss of pack animals and when it is necessary to reduce the loads in view of forced and rapid marches, articles must be left behind. They should be hid away or ' cached,' with the expectation of again taking them up. The articles are frequently ' cached ' in caves, in rocks, or in the earth; sometimes, in the tops of trees with thick boughs, so that they cannot be seen from below. A Forced Marches. 151 spruce tree will give excellent cover to anything placed in its branches. Care should be taken to remove all tracks or signs that would lead to the ' caches,' so as to evade the keen scrutiny of hostiles, and make them safe from animals that might destroy them. A small ' cache ' may be made, in safety, by bending down a young tree, tying the bundle to the top and allowing it to spring up again. As a general rule, the 'caches' should be made at a dis- tance from all trails and points where hostiles or others are likely to pass, and should be secured by rocks too heavy for any animal to remove. The direction and distance of the ' cache ' from some prominent mark, such as a rock, tree or the place of the fire (which will exist for years) should be re- corded by the commanding officer. Indians are very shrewd in finding whatever is left at or near a former camp or trail, and it is seldom that the inex- perienced succeed in hiding anything away from them. A ruse frequently resorted to in order to- cover up all sign of the 'cache,' is to pitch a tent over it and occupy the tent until all signs are effaced. By making a fire or picketing the horses over it, the same purpose is attained. It is a very good plan to make two 'caches,' one contain- ing a few things of little value and concealed with little care, the other containing the articles of value and made .with all possible care. After the first has been discovered, all further search in nine cases out of ten will be abandoned. One of the best ruses, in this connection, that I ever prac- ticed, was to make the ' cache ' look like a grave, placing a stone or head-board appropriately marked. The ruse is gen- erally successful with hostiles and is particularly sure with renegade white men. When making ' caches,' it should be remembered that a heavy rain will cause the ground lately disturbed to sink. 152 ' Mountain Scouting. CHAPTER X. CROSSING RIVERS. THE principal delays and difficulties encountered by a marching column in a mountainous country attend the crossing of numerous streams and rivers. The make-up of the column, and the nature of the stream and its approaches will, in general, decide the most proper mode of crossing. Dismounted men may often save time and labor by leap- ing over deep and narrow streams or ravines, although it may be necessary to drive the stock many miles up or down stream before finding a suitable crossing. If a pole eight or ten feet long can be secured, by a union of leaping and vaulting a wonderfully great distance may be passed over. The planting of the pole and the spring should take place at the same instant, in order that the swing may be perfect and the upper and lower members act in unison. If the left hand is below, the leaper should spring with the left foot, and vice versa. During the swing upward the leaper should turn his body, so that when he begins the descent his face shall be directed to the place where the leap was begun. The descent must take place upon the balls of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. Crossing Rivers. 'S3 The leap may be made longer by forcing the body up very high, by pressure of the hands, (one of which is on or near the end of the pole) so that the leaper can swing over the top of the pole and allow it to pass between the legs while descending. To transport the packs over such a deep and narrow stream or ravine, find, if possible, a tall, overhanging tree, unite the lariats or lash ropes and pass the rope over the fork of a high and projecting branch. One end of the rope, after passing over the branch, is made fast to a limb or rock near the ground, while the packs are attached to the other end and swung across, being guided by ropes fastened to the swing rope and held by men on both sides. After the swing rope has been once adjusted, it may be used for the purpose of swinging the men across. A fallen tree or beam, across a stream or ravine, will often afford a good footway without an expendi- ture of labor. After a little practice, the men will be enabled to travel the beam or even a suspended rope with much ease and rapidity. The surest positions are, while traveling, in the rest sideways (keeping the body in an up- right position), and riding over the beam sitting astride (forward, sideward or backward). In case of giddiness, it is well to lean forward, clasp the beam with the arms and move along in a lying position. The suspended rope may be easily traveled in the balance rest, crossways and sideward, or forward and backward hanging by the hands and legs, the latter either locked or moving in unison with the hands. When the stream is too wide to be spanned by a single tree, a good footway may be secured by felling several trees, 154 Mountain Scouting. judiciously selected on each bank. The tops of the trees should point well up stream. Thus, the trees b and c, se- lected so as to cover the most sluggish portions of the cur- rent, have their tops closely interlacing up stream, in con- sequence of the current at d. The additional trees like a, are selected so as to strengthen the work, being made fast to the banks further up stream. In this manner, the foundation for a temporary bridge over a wide and deep stream may be quickly and readily made. The quickest and most convenient mode of crossing such rivers as will permit it, is to ford them; and the selection of the safest place for fording is a matter of some practical importance. The depth of the ford should not exceed three feet for infantry, nor four feet for cavalry, and its bottom should be firm and even. For a small party, one of hard sand or gravel is the safest ; but a sandy bottom is very bad for a large number of men or animals, as the sand is stirred up and carried away by the current and thus ren- ders the ford impracticable for the hindmost. In hunting a suitable ford, follow the windings up stream rather than down, where tributaries are continually putting in and increasing the volume of water. As a rule, a stream presents few fordable places in the winding portions of its course, except in the case of double bends. It usually runs deep along hollow curves and beneath steep and overhang- Crossing Rivers. 155 ing banks, while all projecting points (except jutting rocks) have shoals extending from them, with frequent return cur- rents on the upper side. A road or ' trail ' starting from each of the opposite banks, will generally indicate the ex- istence of a ford ; but a ' trail,' on one side only, often in- dicates merely a watering place of animals. The best ford seldom leads directly across a stream, but must be selected at a point where the width of the stream is greater than usual with the point of egress some distance down stream, in order that those crossing may secure the advantage of the current. In certain cases, however, owing to the formation of the river banks, it is necessary to ford obliquely up the stream. This is always attended with much labor and difficulty, and frequently in the struggle with the current the footings of men and animals are lost. In such cases, it will accomplish much if mounted men are placed at suitable points, to urge forward with whips any animals that do not work properly. To insure reaching the proper point of egress, some of the animals will need frequent assistance by means of attached lariat ropes. When the river is deep and rapid, in consequence of the body's buoyancy diminishing its power to resist the action of the current, it might be well to place a heavy rock in the arms before entering the ford. When the different arms cross a ford separately, the in- fantry should precede the cavalry and artillery; otherwise they would destroy the bottom and render the crossing for the infantry difficult or impossible. While fording, it is important to direct the eyes to some fixed point upon the shore and not look at the water, and particularly when the water-course is broad or the current rapid. It is imprudent to trust too much to fords in brooks and rivers in mountainous countries where they are subject to sudden variations. When the snow begins to melt in the spring, the moun- T 56 Mountain Scouting. tain streams rise rapidly, and on sandy bottoms the torrents of water are continually cutting new channels many feet in depth. Where there is a bar in the morning, there may be ten feet of water at noon and a bar again at night. The currents set in all directions relative to the course of the stream, and cut innumerable channels with very steep sides. It is extremely dangerous to attempt the crossing of such streams one moment stepping in water a few inches deep ; the next, being in swimming water and struggling for a footing on the bar but a short distance beyond. Many of the Western streams flow over large beds of quicksand and must be approached and crossed with the greatest caution. There are several varieties of quicksand: the less dangerous classes appear to have no bottom, there being an absence of everything except sand and water while the more dangerous are those which catch and tena- ciously hold the victim, allowing him to slowly sink out of sight and cutting him off from everything except external assistance. These sands, however, generally have a firm surface and will give sufficient time for warning to any one on the alert. On arrival upon the bank of such a river, the best track for the ford should be carefully selected by men on foot. The footmen, if any, should cross before the ani- mals, thus making the ford more secure by packing the sand. The stock should be watered before entering upon the ford, and under no circumstances permitted to stop in the stream. Most animals, and particularly mules, on feeling their feet sink in the sand, become alarmed with fear, loose all control of their power, and sooner or later lie down and make no effort to get on their feet again. Beaver dams are generally found in muddy places, and it is a good rule to be on the lookout for mire in their vi- cinity. Crossing Rivers. 157 Unfordable streams may be readily crossed by means of flying bridges or rafts, when there is sufficient current and when ropes and timber are handy. The flying bridge or raft may be successfully navigated by attaching it to a swinging cable made fast up stream; or, by making it fast to a traveler running on a cable stretched across the stream. In the first case, the lower end of the cable should terminate in a bridle. On leaving the shore, the end of the bridle farthest from it is gathered in, while the other one is slackened, and the raft shoots across the stream. To re-cross, the end of the bridle farthest from the shore is hauled in and the other again slackened. The same may be effected by means of rudders, the cable being made fast to the raft about one-third of its length from the bow, while it is kept headed obliquely up stream. The principle of action in this case is the same as that of a kite in the air. In the second case, the cable stretched across the stream must be carefully secured when the current is great. The maximum pull of the raft will be S V 2 , in which S is the area of the immersed side of the raft in square feet, and V the velocity of the current in feet per second. To insure proper progress, the velocity of the current should not be less than two miles per hour. Referring to the following drawing, the component of the force of the current which tends to force the raft di- rectly across the stream may be readily traced. If the raft is kept on the course M N, and the current is running in the direction A X, it is plainly seen how such a 158 Mountain Scouting. force, A B, is divided into two components, A C and A D, acting parallel and perpendicularly to M N. -'B CM -X A The component A D is again sub-divided into two com- ponents, A E and A F, acting parallel and perpendicularly to A X. D E = A F is the component of the power of the current tending to force the raft across the stream. To produce the best effect, the side of the raft should be kept at an angle of 55 with the direction of the current, or BAC = 55 . The cable may be taken across the stream by a swimmer, or by means of a lobstick made by splitting a stick, in- serting a rock or pebble and lashing the stick with twine. A small line is first made fast to the cable, the end of which is sent across; whereupon, the end of the cable is drawn over. Under certain circumstances, the small line may be sent over by means of an arrow, rocket or kite. The mountain streams, during the seasons of high water, remain above the fording stage for several weeks, and often render it necessary, when time is an important element, to cross them by swimming or ferrying rudely constructed boats or rafts. Timber rafts may be quickly constructed in a wooded country. The size and description of the timber must de- termine the number of layers there should be.* The tim- * The cubic contents, in feet, of round timber = Z (G 2 X. 07958), in which L = length of the log in feet, and G is the mean between the girths at both ends in feet. The floating power of any log may be readily calculated when the specific gravity of the wood is known. Crossing Rivers. 159 ber for rafts should be floated, if possible, to the place re- quired and put together in the water. The Indians use ' bull-boats ' for crossing deep rivers. The frame-work is made of willows, cotton-woods, or any small trees that grow along the banks of the streams, firmly lashed into the shape of half an egg. The frame is covered with a green or soaked hide and left to dry. Several hides may be sewn together so as to cover quite a large frame. A boat constructed of three hides will transport 1,000 pounds with perfect safety. The Indians of the Northwest often use dug-out canoes and logs lashed together ; also canoes made of bundles of reeds and cedar bark, with projecting prows, very much resembling some of the iron-clad rams. Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of our service, invented a por- table boat, made in sections, which was used to good advan- tage in several expeditions in Oregon and Washington Ter- ritory. A single boat, with all its appurtenances, capable of sustaining ten men, could be easily packed on a single mule. Frequently the supplies, in part, are transported in casks; if so, it is a simple matter to construct a cask raft, which will do remarkably good service. If the number of gallons that a cask will hold is known, its buoyancy may be easily ascertained by multiplying that number by ten (the num- ber of pounds weight in a gallon of water). Casks are so useful for packing puposes, so easily and safely transported, and form such admirable rafts, it is difficult to conceive, where transport is a serious matter, of a more economical preparation for crossing unknown rivers on wild expedi- 160 Mountain Scouting. tions. The larger the casks (consistently with ease of pack- ing) the better, as the weight will be smaller in proportion to the buoyancy. To make the raft, the casks are placed in a row, side by side, with the bungs up ; two rails or saplings called gun- nels are laid along them about four inches from each end. Slings of strong rope are passed under the casks, from end to end of the gunnels. The ends of the sling should be made fast to the gunnel, by means of the bowline and fish- erman's bend. Between the casks there are brace lashings, as shown in the drawing. In the absence of sufficient rope the gunnels must be nailed or spiked to the casks; but the use of nails or spikes in rafts or floating bridges is to be avoided when possible, as they admit of insufficient play. To determine the number of casks required to construct a raft that will support N pounds, find the solid contents of one cask in cubic inches and multiply it by the specific grav- ity of water. From the product subtract the weight of the cask, the remainder will be the weight it will support with- out sinking. Take a sufficient number of casks to bring this weight up to N pounds. In emergencies, the tents and paulins, when securely lashed over suitable frames of boxes, aparejos, etc., will form very good ferrying rafts. See Appendix for the analysis of Rowing. When there is no time or material for building a raft, the supplies should be wrapped as nearly water-tight as possible in the canvas and rubber blankets of the command. and towed across by the swimmers. Crossing Rivers. 161 By resting the body on a log of light wood, if obtainable, it will be well supported and the crossing rendered much easier. If the part of a tree near the roots be selected, the stumps of the roots will form pegs on which to hang the clothes, supplies, etc. All soldiers should know how to swim, in order to be ef- fective and perform various important services. A com- mand consisting of troops who cannot swim, may be re- tarded by an insignificant stream, if not completely para- lyzed in its operations. The emergencies requiring a knowledge of the art are of daily occurrence. Time and again have insignificant streams swollen into plunging tor- rents, without any warning whatever. Numerous lives have been lost by the sudden appearance of sweeping streams of water, where a few moments before nothing but dry earth could be found. Whole commands have been carried away by sudden raises during the night, although the camps were made upon the banks many feet above the usual water-level. The following extract from the report of a commanding officer, who experienced such a washing out, although en- camped where, the day before, there was no sign of water, will serve to illustrate : " The only thing that prevented total destruction was the fact that my camp was surrounded by a belt of timber on three sides, and as the men were carried off by the current, they were enabled to save themselves by catching the limbs of trees. When day broke, it showed almost all the men of my company on the tops of the trees, without any covering except remnants of underclothes, and beneath them the tor- rent still raging. After the lapse of a few hours, the water began to fall, and a few men who could swim got to the hills. Afterward the others, myself among the number, were got off with life lines and various other means. Up to this time nothing was to be seen of what had been my 162 Mountain Scouting. camp, except the top of an army wagon, which had stuck to a log on the ground, and on this wagon were collected eleven men, who were thus saved from a watery grave. Six men of my company were drowned and twenty-six horses lost." A complete SYSTEM OF LAND-TAUGHT SWIMMING, originally prepared by the author for the instruction of the Cadets at the United States Military Academy, is inserted in the Ap- pendix. Great care must be exercised when swimming the stock. Suitable points of ingress and egress (the latter at least a distance equal to the width of the stream below the former, if possible) are first selected. At the point of ingress, the bed of the stream must be firm, or else made so by throwing in brush, timber or rocks, in order to prevent bogging or miring. The -point of egress must furnish a point of support upon which the animal can place his hind feet, just before springing upon the bank. If the soldier can swim, he should drive his horse into the water, seize his tail and guide him to the point of egress splashing water in his face, should the animal endeavor to turn his head or change his course. If the soldier cannot swim, he should make himself fast to the saddle, lay hold upon the mane, ride into the river and give his horse a loose rein. The plan of having each horseman carry a footman mount- ed behind will often prove successful. It was in this manner that the Necker was crossed by Marshals Turenne and Gra- mont in 1645. When there is danger of the horses drowning, should they land beyond the point of egress, the following plan, pro- vided the current is not too strong, should be adopted : Let a few of the swimmers cross the river, taking with them one end of a rope (made by uniting the lariats or lash ropes), the other end being retained at the point of ingress Crossing Rivers. 163 and made fast to the neck of a quiet and easy swimming horse. The horses are then brought up in succession, and each made fast to the tail of the horse preceding, by means of lariats, until they are all tied together. When all is ready, the first horse is carefully led into the water (followed by the others) and started on a line for the point of egress the men on the opposite shore pulling in the rope and helping him to stem the current. As soon as this horse strikes bottom, by pulling those behind him, he assists them in landing. The men who cannot swim at all should be tied upon the best swimming horses and sent over. When the current is not very strong, I believe it is safer and more satisfactory to swim along with the horse, on the down stream side, and only very poor swimmers should re- main in the saddle, as the animal is very apt to lose his equi- librium and roll over. Mules are splendid swimmers, unless by accident they get water in their ears. When this happens they cease to move and drop their ears, and unless gotten out of the water at once will drown. They should be permitted to enter the water slowly and without crowding, or they will probably submerge their heads. If the&?// mare be first taken across, the mules will follow without much urging. When the animals are tied together, as above described,, great care must be taken to keep them all straight on the course across the stream, or a serious accident may result. If some swing out of the course an entanglement may sooner or later follow, or the animals may rapidly travel down stream, swimming round and round in circles. When such happens, good swimmers must hasten to the rescue and cut the ropes at close intervals. 164 Mountain Scouting. CHAPTER XL THE CAMP. A locality well sheltered and secured, and affording fuel, grass and fresh water, should be selected for the camp. If it is expected to remain in the camp for any great length of time, its sanitary condition must be carefully ob- served. All ponds, swamps, lands recently stripped of their timber, and muddy rivers must be kept at a distance. In a malarious district, it is well to habitually sleep between two fires. The flood level of the nearest water should also be care- fully noticed weeds and stray bits of drift-wood washed into the branches of adjacent trees or bushes will serve as a guide. Many streams are subject to sudden and terrific- rises, and frequently without any apparent cause. When camping for the night on a fordable stream, with the indention of crossing, make it an invariable rule to cross it before going into camp. A sudden rise or appearance of the enemy might seriously interfere with the crossing next morning. Wind storms are a common annoyance in the camp. When there is time to prepare for their coming, the tent pegs should be secured and sufficient guy-ropes attached to the tent. If the soil is loose and sandy, rocks or other hard material should be placed under the tent poles to prevent their working into the soil, and leaving the tent slack and unsteady the pegs should also be inclined toward the tent The Camp. 165 and driven in the direction of the prolongation of the tent cords (if they are inclined from the tent, they will soon be jerked loose). When the pegs will not hold at all, fasten the tent cords to brush or rocks buried in the soil. A few trees add very much to the comfort of a camp, and when they are so situated as to permit the guy or ridge ropes to be made fast to them or their branches, the wind storm need not be dreaded. So far as may be prudent, the camp should be protected by bluffs and thickets, and the backs of the tents should be placed towards the wind. It is not wise to camp beneath certain trees, whose branches are liable to suddenly fall off. In a hostile country, the security of the command will depend very much upon the judicious selection of a camp as regards its capability of defense. If on the bank of a stream, a concave bend, where the water isMeep, should be selected. In such a position the defending party can cross his fire in case of an attack from the other bank, or can herd the stock in the concavity of the bend in order to avoid a stampede. When the camp is remote from a stream or river, a portion of it should rest on the highest hill or bluff within range. As a rule, the tents should be pitched on that side of the camp most exposed to attack. When the packs and aparejos are removed, in camp, they should be arranged so as to form a fortification in case of need. 1 66 Mountain Scouting. Skunks and rattlesnakes frequently visit camp. The skunk, when hungry, is quite fearless and will not hesitate to enter a tent in search of food, or to attempt to devour the face or hand of a sleeping person. Instances are not rare in which their bites have resulted in a most fatal and horrible hydrophobia. At first frost, rattlesnakes commence a pilgrimaged/2 masse, across rivers and lakes, up and down mountains, to their winter rendezvous (some inapproachable cavern) where hun- dreds assemble and remain in the torpid state during the winter. The male and female go out in company upon their summer's peregrinations. The two are never found together, but are within hearing of each other's rattle and display a wonderful instinct in tracking each other. The Indians take advantage of this and ingeniously trap them, before they reach their blankets. Having prepared an old log by removing its central portion, so as to leave an open- ing sufficiently large to permit the snake to crawl through, but not to turn around after having once entered, the dead snake is dragged along -the ground up to the log and then through it. The further end of the log is then closed by means of nails or wooden pegs. It is not long before the companion snake trails the dead snake, and enters the log; where, being unable to crawl through, turn around or back out (in consequence of the backward inclination of his scales), he is retained in a helpless condition for any length of time. The snake usually strikes after the warning of the rattle a peculiarly hollow death-like sound from an ele- vation of about one-third his length, after coiling up the The Camp. 167 body. He is very susceptible of cold and, at night, will crawl into a tent or shanty and coil up near the fire or in the bedding. As a usual thing, venomous snakes congregate close to the water. If holes are discovered in the ground, in the vicinity of the beds, it will be well to stamp the earth and rocks into them, as they are frequently the burrows of va- rious reptiles. When hostile Indians are supposed to be about, the place selected for camp should be carefully examined on all sides, in order to discover any tracks or Indian signs, before re- moving the packs or unsaddling. It is a favorite trick of the Indians to stampede the animals upon first arrival in camp, when the attention of every one is preoccupied and more or less confusion reigns. They seldom attempt a stampede at night, preferring the day-light for such work, and invariably select the early dawn of day or some mo- ment when the command is in a probable state of confusion. A stampede is one of the most dreaded disasters that can happen. Frequently, the animals are not only widely scat- tered, but irretrievably lost; and much damage follows the rush of the infuriated herd through the camp, frequently trampling the men and tents, and killing themselves by com- ing in contact with trees and projecting rocks. 1 68 Mountain Scouting. When attempting a stampede, a few Indians will some- times steal into camp, go to the bell mare, remove the bell, place it on one of their fleetest animals and ride out of camp (before noticed) followed by the entire herd. Again, they sneakingly approach as near the herd as possible, and dash into it, with their horses at full speed, at the same time terrifying them by the most hideous yells, and succeed in driving off the stock before any effectual resistance can be made. It is often effected by starting an Indian pony into the herd or camp, with a buffalo robe dangling at his heels. The alarm is soon communicated to all the animals. When the herd is once started, it is pushed forward as rapidly as possible for a few days, so as to make distance between it and the pursuing party, while many Indians pass to the rear to offer resistance to the pursuers, if close at hand. Horses, and especially mules, that have been once stam- peded, cannot be trusted beyond the control of the herders. They will, at very unreasonable moments, stampede in the most frantic manner without any apparent good reason. Even the passage of a deer, wolf, strange horse or herder among them will cause them to take alarm and scatter all over the country. The herders cannot be too diligent; they should at all times be ready for any emergency, and whe the animals take fright they should hasten with the b mare in advance of them and gradually turn them in i\^ direction of camp. The stock should not be tied up to a picket line unless an attack is anticipated; for, when unable to forage at night, they soon become weak and unserviceable. They should be so herded during the day time, as to leave a sufficiency of good grass near the camp for night grazing. When how- ever, it becomes necessary to picket the animals, they should be placed upon the best grass and their places changed every two hours. The picket rope should not be less than 10 or 12 yards long, and should not be made fast to a tree, The Camp. 169 or it will twist and wind about it, as the animal feeds around it. The rope should be so attached to the animal's neck as not to slip and choke him. For wild horses, the ordinary hobble (page 1 13) is more satisfactory. The side hobble (made by buckling a strap around the fore and hind leg, on the same side) affords a still more effective anchorage, as the animal can not well move faster than at a walk. Immediately upon going into camp, pickets should be posted in strong positions, and sufficiently close to the camp, to give timely alarm in case of the enemy's approach. The picket should be posted, during daylight, on some eminence near the camp, where he can keep a lookout in all directions. During the night, he should be posted several hundred yards farther in advance of the point subject to attack and on low ground, in order that he may be screened from observa- tion, and at the same time see to the best advantage, as low objects will then appear high and stand in bold relief against the sky; moreover, in timber, it is easy to see a great dis- tance between the trunks of the trees, while their tops and branches hide all objects beyond. If the picket diseovers the enemy and is not seen himself, he should quickly with- draw and report the facts in order that no time be lost in preparing for action. But, if the picket is discovered by the enemy, he should first discharge his piece and then retreat. To save time and avoid all false alarms, a well defined sys- tem of night and day signals should be devised before go- ing into the Indian country, and thoroughly understood by every picket. In this way, they could very readily commu- nicate their discoveries to the camp. In consequence of his very acute senses of hearing and smelling, a mule will discover the approach of any one, much sooner than a man. I consider it a good plan, in many cases, to send a mule out with each picket, having taken the precaution to prevent his braying; he will not only act as a good sentinel, but will serve to carry the picket into camp with the alarm. 170 Mountain Scouting. On a very dark night, it might be a good plan to set an alarm gun (for ways of setting it, see page 210.) Even the click of the hammer might serve to call attention. A spot should be selected for the stock at night, close to which there are no unguarded clumps of brush or thickets, as the Indians often take advantage of such cover to shoot or steal the animals, before their presence can be observed. So far as is practicable, the fires should be placed to the leeward of the camp and grazing ground, to avoid accidents and the frequent attempts of Indians to set fire to the grass, in the vicinity of a camp, when it is too strong to be attack- ed. The fires should be so placed with respect to the tents that the smoke may be carried away by the wind and cause no discomfort. It will not do to be fastidious in making the camp fire. It should be so constructed as not to smoke in the face or tent, not to be seen from the distance, to be quickly extinguished, to admit of many gathering around it, and at the same time economize fuel. An Indian builds a small fire and sits near it when warming his body; a white man usually builds a large fire and can not get near it. As a rule, if warmth is desired, see that the fire is kept close to the ground; if light is wanted, elevate it i^ or 2 feet above the ground. To cause large logs to burn brightly, air should reach them on all sides. The Camp. 171 In wet weather, sufficient dry fuel to start a fire may be found, in most cases, under logs, rocks or leaning trees. When no dry place can be found, the fire should be started in a pan or kettle and then transferred to the ground. Fuel is scarce in many localities and particularly at the lower ends of canyons, where the bottoms widen out and where there is but little protection from the wind. 'Sage- brush' and ' 'Grease-wood 1 are frequent substitutes. ' 'Buffa- lo chips,' when dry, burn well and are easily lighted. ''Sea weed? makes a very hot, but not a cheerful fire. An excel- lent substitute for fire-wood is 'bones,' even those of an ani- mal freshly killed. The bones of cooked meat give a fire of great intensity, with a flame depending on the fat in them, and an odor no worse than that of charred meat. Every precaution should be taken against setting the grass on fire, and places sufficiently large for the fires should be cleared away. When the grass is dry, it will burn like tinder; and if the wind be blowing, the flame will rapidly spread and sweep every thing before it. It is a frequent misfortune to have the supplies and equipage destroyed in this manner, besides stampeding the animals, destroying their food and announcing the position of the camp to any enemy on the alert for smoke, etc. If by accident, the fire starts, the men should lose no time in fighting it with brush or blankets (wet if possible) and throwing sand upon it, if at hand. It is often necessary to start counter fires and burn around supplies and other places in order to save them from the flames. The fires are extremely dangerous in canyons and other places where vegetation is abundant and the grass very high. Good grass is one of the most necessary elements of the camp. All graminivorous animals, except the elk and deer, prefer the 'buffalo and 'bunch grass' to that of the lowland. * Buffalo grass' is very short, but nutritious it becomes thoroughly cured during the summer and is a favorite in 1 7 2 Mountain Scouting. all seasons. ' Gramma grass, found upon the mountain sides, and growing to the height of one or two feet, is an ex- cellent variety of ' Buffalo grass.' By scraping a hollow in the ground, about where the hip bones would otherwise press, and covering with several thicknesses of this grass, a most luxurious bed may be formed. If time will permit the construction of a frame, lashed with thongs, ropes or raw hides, as shown in the drawing, and it is well covered with grass, the perfection of camp beds will have been attained. The grass secured for the bed, will serve as an extra meal for the horse, while preparing to move the camp. The stock will willingly eat the bark and branches of cotton-wood trees, when the snow is too deep to get at grass. Water is generally found in abundance in most moun- tainous districts either in the beds of streams, in springs or in openings in the rocks. In sandy countries, the beds of the apparently dried up water-courses should be care- fully explored for water near their sources. Water is fre- quently found under stones in the deepest parts of the bed. Tracts of low land, on which green grass, reeds, water- plants, cotton-wood or willow trees are found, should be carefully examined. In the partly dried up water-courses, the most water will be found at the points where the tribu- taries put into the main water-course. In a country where deer and fowl abound, water may be generally located by observing the points to -which the trails seem to converge and toward which the wild fowl direct their movements just before evening. The Camp. 173 Horses, mules and dogs exhibit a wonderful instinct in finding pools of water where it would scarcely be expected to exist. Trees and water generally go together in sections of country where timber is very scarce. Water may be secured in large quantities during a rain shower, by catching the drippings of the tents, and by sus- pending pieces of canvas and blankets by the corners and placing small weights on their centers. It may also be col- lected by dragging the blankets over grass, wet with dew, and then wringing out the water that has accumulated. This should be resorted to only in cases of necessity; and as a rule, the stock should not graze on grass covered with dew. It is not well to drink water that is putrid or charged with salts, as they do not quench the thirst, but increase it and produce fevers and dysenteries; in such localities, the best remedy is to bathe in the water. The tents usually used in field service or hasty marches are the shelter tents already described and the 'A' or com- mon tents. The drawing shows the ordinary 'A* tent com- posed of a single piece of canvas, which in consequence of its weight is not so well suited for light travel as the au- thor's combination 'A' tent described on page 145. I have received from Gilbert Thompson, Esq., the designs of a tent that offers many advantages over the heavy tents 174 Mountain Scouting. that are, at present, used. With a weight of 24 pounds of canvas (10 oz. duck), it covers over 100 square feet of ground, and is so constructed that one man may easily put it up and take it down. It affords ample accommodation for 6 men (within the space 1245), with end spaces (165 and 234) sufficiently large to receive a small stove and valuable boxes. It is without annoying guy-ropes, and possesses many advantages of ventilation, when any of the sides B, A, or & are raised; and may be so pitched as to expose one of the angular faces 6 R, or 3 R* to the wind. Another great advantage over the 'A' tent is that it affords a greater available space, for the same weight of canvas. The ground plan and the dimensions, also a perspective view of the tent when pitched, are shown in the drawing. The tent, and especially during the summer months, is not the most important article of equipage. It is seldom that injury results from simple wetting, if the body is free- ly exposed to the open air. It is absurd to take chairs and tables in the field a 'dig out' in the tent will serve to make a table and seats, the feet and legs of the person being placed in the trench. The Camp. 175 If possible, a level spot snould be selected for the tent or bed, and when the wind is high, it should not be placed near a single tree, as this is apt to create a violent eddy. This may be frequently observed in a corn-field after a wind storm, the stalks being knocked down in circles around isolated trees, while elsewhere they remain standing. Sleeping in hollows and slight canyons during quiet wea- ther is not wholesome, as cold air pours down into these from the higher ground. Horses are frequently noticed to draw up to the surrounding plain, where the frosts are less severely felt as the night sets in. If compelled to sleep on the snow, it should be piled upon each side, and if possible the face and ears should be smeared with oil or grease. Remembering that the favorite times for an Indian at- tack are at sunrise or sunset, or when coming out of or going into camp, it appears most proper to have reveille about 4 A. M., so as to have the column in motion by the dawn of day. There is nothing more annoying about the time of break- ing camp than the difficulty experienced in bridling wild stock, or the delay occasioned by the loss of such animals as are prone to stray off from camp. A good way to catch a refractory animal is to have two men stretch a long rope about the height of his neck, and while other men drive the animal against it, let one of them, with the rope, run round behind the animal, and quickly make a turn about his neck. In turning the wild stock out to graze, it is a good plan to leave the lariat ropes upon them, the ends trailing on the ground. If time be an object, it will be better to leave lost mules behind (when their services can be spared), for they will, in consequence of their very acute power of smell, trail the stock and follow to camp. A bell mare of quiet and regular habits is indispensable in the camp serving to keep the herd together and close in hand. 176 Mountain Scouting. CHAPTER XII. THE MESS. GOOD powder is no more a munition of war than good food. One of the principal elements of success in cooking is the proper provision of the few most indispensable articles of kitchen and table furniture. For every six persons, there should be supplied one camp-kettle (the kettles being of such sizes as to admit of packing one within the other, and the smallest one large enough for making soup or coffee); a heavy tin coffee-pot ; ten tin cups, with revolving handles ; ten strong tin plates ; one wrought-iron frying-pan ; one wrought-iron bake-oven ; one heavy tin mess-pan ; one strong water bucket (wooden buckets to be avoided); one extra small camp-kettle ; ten knives, forks and spoons, with iron handles. One spade, axe, hatchet and chopping-knife should accompany each mess kit. The mess boxes must be prepared with a view to their being transported on pack mules, if necessary ; and when taken two together, should form a handy pack. The boxes may be readily constructed so as to form convenient tables, when the lids are thrown open. Matches should never be transported in the mess boxes, unless they are placed in tin boxes or tightly-corked bottles. The frying-pan is the most invaluable of all cooking utensils. It may be made to serve a host of purposes fish and game may be cooked in it, stews prepared, flapjacks made, coffee roasted, etc. The handle should be detach- able, or have a ' parasol joint ' made close to the pan, so that it may be folded across it. I consider a handy camp stove a great luxury in the field, The Mess. 177 and I know of no good objections urged against them, whether the party be large or small. Dunklee's Camping Stoves are excellent in every respect. The drawing shows a very desirable stove for officers' mess, cooking for two or four persons. When packed for transportation, all the apparatus is inside. The total weight is 22 pounds. The ' CENTURION 'Field Stove, Baker and Mess Kit complete invented by Captain Clifford, of the Infantry, is well recommended by all who have used it. It is 30 X 20 X 13 when packed for transportation, and will cook and bake for 100 persons. Below is represented an excellent stove for a detachment of ten or twelve men. Dimensions, Packed, 12X 12X21 178 Mountain Scouting. While very durable, and especially adapted to camp- ing purposes, its weight is only 35 pounds, and its dimen- sions are such as to permit it to be enclosed in an ordinary hard-bread box. The ware is so constructed that it nests and packs in the oven, which has a capacity sufficient for roasting 20 pounds of beef. The oven packs inside the stove, and leaves sufficient room for packing the plates, knives, forks, spoons and drinking cups. This stove boils, bakes or broils; and when fuel is scarce, its excellence is very appar- ent, as it requires so little. In cold weather, it may be placed inside the tent, where it is a great luxury and saves much trouble. When without a stove, and it is necessary to cook for a large party, using but little fuel, prepare a narrow trench, with one end open to the wind, building a small chimney arrangement at the other. After making the fire in the trench, place the pots and kettles in a row over it. There is a great deal of art in kindling a spark into a flame, and it should be remembered that " small sticks kindle a flame but large ones put it out." The surest plan, when starting a fire, is to place three logs with their ends crossing each other, so that each may support the combustion of the others. As the ends burn away, the logs should be pushed closer together. The fire may be frequently encouraged by introducing the saltpeter existing in great quantities in the ashes of many plants, such as dill, sunflower, etc. To insure success in cooking, accurate measurement, proper mixing and preciseness in the preparation of in- gredients are very important. The following are approximate weights and measures : Three teaspoonfuls __ - = One tablespoonful. Four tablespoonfuls One wine glass. The Mess. 179 Two wine glasses = One gill. Two gills == One cup. Two cupfuls = One pint. One quart sifted flour = One pound. One quart powdered sugar = One pound, seven ozs. One quart granulated sugar = One pound, nine ozs. Seven tablespoonfuls of same One-half pint. One pint closely packed butter. = One pound One tablespoonful salt = One ounce. Ten eggs = One pound. The drawing shows a convenient form of scales for the use of cooks. These scales may be readily transported in the pocket, -and will do away with all guessing at propor- tions, the practice of so many indifferent cooks. Those desiring a more complete chapter on this subject are referred to the " Manual for Army Cooks," from which much of what follows is taken : METHODS OF COOKING. Roasting is that process by which a substance is acted upon by the heat of a fire, without interposition of uten- sils, and generally in the open air. Baking is that process by which a substance is acted upon by heat in an oven. The temperature of the oven is usually about 400 Fah. Stewing is that process of cooking by which the sub- stance to be cooked is placed in a small portion of fluid and cooked slowly by simmering. To simmer is to boil slowly, and is accomplished by re- moving the liquid so far from the fire as to keep it up to a very slow-boiling point. i8o Mountain Scouting. At high altitudes the boiling point is so low that it is difficult to cook vegetables, with pure water, at all. Rapid boiling should be carefully avoided, as no addi- tional heat is developed by it and much of the aroma of the immersed body is lost. On boiling such articles as beans and pease, it is very desirable to use soft water. Broiling is that process by which the substance to be cooked is acted upon by the direct heat of the fire, with only the interposition of a gridiron or some similar appa- ratus. The fire should be clear and free from smoke. It is much better to broil before a fire than over it, as in the former process the juices of the meat can be caught in a dripping-pan, and used as a dressing. The article should be turned frequently, so as to have both sides cooked alike. Frying is that process by which the article to be cooked is immersed in hot fat. Fat raised to 400 Fah., is sufficiently hot for frying pur- poses ; and such is the case when small jets of smoke are observed to issue from the top of the fat. Sauteing is that process of frying by which a substance is cooked in a frying-pan or skillet, with just sufficient grease to cover the bottom of the pan. The grease should be frying hot for the purpose. Salt and pepper should always be used sparingly until after the food is prepared. SOUP. The principal nourishment of meat soup comes from the raw meat. Failure in making soup is generally owing to rapid boiling and neglecting to skim the pot. The pot should be kept covered while the soup is cooking, except when it is necessary to skim and add the necessary ingre- dients. If cooked meat is to be used, it should be added after the soup has cooked nearly an hour. When vegetables are used, they should be added about one hour and a half before it is cooked or only in time to become thoroughly done. The Mess. 181 Potatoes are an exception ; they should be put in one- half hour before the soup is cooked. -Beef, Elk or Deer Soup : Time, three hours. Fifteen pounds of meat cut into small pieces ; about two cans of vegetables or three pounds of fresh vegetables ; six tablespoonfuls of salt and one-third as much sugar ; one pound of rice ; two pounds of hard bread ; two and one-half gallons of water. Let it simmer gently and remove the fat. In all soups, the vegetables may be varied according to season and opportunity, using onions, potatoes, carrots, turnips, parsnips, cabbage, green or canned corn, fresh or canned tomatoes, celery or celery seed, cauliflowers, okra, rice, pumpkins, squash, green pease, string beans, &c. Tomato Soup : Time, one hour. Three pints of cold water ; three pounds of fresh or canned tomatoes ; one onion, chopped fine ; one large spoonful of sifted flour ; a piece of butter the size of an egg ; pepper and salt. Prepare the tomatoes and mix the flour and butter into a smooth paste.- Place these together with the onion and a teaspoonful of salt into a kettle with the water, and stir frequently to dissolve the tomatoes and to prevent them from scorching. One pint of boiled milk, if procurable, will benefit the soup very much. Rice Soup : Time, six hours. Four pounds of fresh lean beef; two pounds of soup- bone ; one gallon of cold water ; one onion, sliced ; three- quarters of a pound of rice ; pepper and salt. Put the meat and bones into a pot with water, one table- spoonful of salt and the sliced onion, and cook. Three- quarters of an hour before the soup is cooked strain it through a colander, return it with the good meat to the pot. Stir the rice into the strained soup thirty minutes 1 82 Mountain Scouting. before it is cooked ; stir frequently to prevent it from scorching or sticking to the bottom of the kettle. Bean Soup : Time, three hours. Two quarts of beans ; one pound of salt pork ; six quarts of cold water ; one teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda ; pep- per. Pick over the beans, wash and soak them over night in cold water, and cut the pork into thin slices. Place the beans, with the allowance of cold water and bicarbonate of soda, into the kettle, cover it, heat gradually and boil for thirty minutes ; remove the scum as it rises. Turn off the water and replenish with six quarts of fresh boiling water. Cover again and boil gently for one and a half hours, stir- ring the beans frequently; then put in the sliced pork. As soon as the beans become tender and crack, take out the pork and mash the beans into a paste. Remove the skins of the beans, replace the pork into the kettle and complete the boiling. This soup is much richer when a half pound of lean beef, for every quart of water, is added. If bicarbonate of soda is not used, it will require a much longer time to make the soup. Frequent stirring is necessary to prevent burn- ing. Venison Broth : Time, four hours. Five pounds of lean venison ; one and one-fourth gallons of cold water ; two onions, sliced ; one full cup of rice ; pepper and salt. Cut the venison into small slices and put them into the kettle with the water and salt. Put in the onions one hour before the soup is cooked, and the rice thirty minutes later. Fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to great advan- tage, and frequent stirring is necessary to prevent scorch- ing or sticking to the bottom of the kettle. FISH. Fresh fish are best as soon as taken from the water. The Mess. 183 They should not be soaked unless they have been frozen or have inhabited muddy streams. Boiled Fish : A fish, or part of a fish, weighing less than three pounds (except rock-fish) is too small for boiling. The time required for boiling depends upon the size and variety. Salmon requires about 25 minutes, while six min- utes per pound is sufficient for most kinds. As a rule, fish with white flesh require less time for boiling than fish with dark flesh. Care must be taken that the fish is neither underdone, boiled too much nor allowed to remain in the water after it is cooked. The fish is done when the meat separates easily from the back bone. Place the fish into enough boiling water to cover it about an inch, with two tablespoonfuls of salt and four tablespoonfuls of vin- egar to a piece of fish of about five pounds weight, and cause it to boil steadily until done, Fried Fish : Large fish should be cut up before frying. Wipe the fish dry, rub it over with sifted flour, or sprinkle it with grated bread crumbs or rolled crackers. Put into a frying pan enough lard to well cover the fish. As soon as this is hot put in the fish, fry briskly until a clear golden brown appears. Then turn and fry the other side to the same color. Just as the fish is turning brown, sprinkle it lightly with pepper and salt. Baked Fish : Baked fish should be sufficiently large to admit of being stuffed, and will require from thirty to fifty minutes to bake. Prepare a stuffing of bread crumbs, with sufficient butter, lard or beef dripping to make the mixture moist, and season with pepper and salt ; also, a little thyme or sage, if obtainable. Scorching is prevented by placing a well-greased paper over the fish. Baked fish are excellent when eaten cold. Fish Chowder : One-half pound of salt pork; four onions; six potatoes; three pounds of fish; one-half pound of hard- bread. 184 Mountain Scouting. Cleanse and cut the pork into thin slices, also slice the onions. Put the pork and onions together into a pot and fry them brown; then season lightly with salt and plenty of pepper. Slice the potatoes and lay them in cold water until wanted. Wash the fish, cut it into small pieces and soak the hard-bread in water until tender. When the pork and onions have browned and been seasoned, add a layer of fish; on the fish a layer of potatoes; on the potatoes a layer of crackers, and repeat the process until the kettle is nearly full. Set it over a gentle fire, let it heat gradually, and simmer until done. Fish Sauce : One pint of boiling water; two tablespoon- fulsof butter; same amount of sifted flour; pepper and salt. Mix the butter and flour into a smooth paste, in a sauce- pan on the fire, and pour over the boiling water, stirring it in well. The addition of a little vinegar will impart an acid taste. MEAT. Good fresh beef presents the following characteristics : The lean, when freshly cut, is of a bright red color, easily compressed and elastic, the grain fine and interspersed with fat, of a yellowish white color. The suet should be firm and perfectly white. In good mutton the fat is white also. All frozen meats, game and fish should be put into cold water to thaw before they are cooked. Meat should not be placed in contact with ice, nor wrapped in anything that may impart a flavor. It becomes more tender and digestive by keeping it a while. Baked Beef : Time, from fifteen to twenty minutes to the pound, depending on the oven, the quality of the meat, size and shape of the joint and the time it has been killed ; freshly-killed meat requires a longer time to cook. Cleanse the meat; place it in the pan with the fat side up; put the pan into a hot oven, and when the heat has started The Mess. enough of the oil of the fat, commence to baste, which should be performed quickly and frequently, closing the oven door as soon as basting is done. When nearly done, sprinkle with salt and pepper. If the beef is not sufficiently fat and juicy to furnish materials for basting, a tablespoonful or more of gravy or beef dripping should be put into the pan ; the practice of putting water into the pan to baste with is improper. Broiled Beefsteak, Venison and Porksteak : A steak should not be less than three-quarters of an inch nor more than an inch and a-quarter thick. If beating is necessary, beat on both sides, but not enough to tear the beef and allow the juices to escape. Prepare a bed of live coals (wood coals are the best) ; wipe the gridiron clean and put it over the bed of coals ; as soon as heated, put the steak on it and broil ; turn once or twice. If the fire smokes or blazes from the dripping fat, withdraw the gridiron for a moment. It should cook in fifteen minutes. After it is dished, season with pepper and salt. The frying-pan serves splendidly as a broiler. The Indians use their fish-spears (something like shown in the drawing) for gridirons. They also frequently plant them in the ground, near the fire, and insert their spits in the hollow handles. Boiled Beef or Venison : Time, fifteen minutes to the pound, or longer, depending upon the shape and quality of the piece. 1 86 Mountain Scouting. Cleanse the meat. Put it into a kettle of boiling water, rather more than enough to cover it. Cover and bring the kettle to a boil quickly, and let it boil for ten or fif- teen minutes ; then let it simmer until the meat is cooked. Remove the scum as it rises. While boiling, turn the beef several times. If the water needs replenishing, use boil- ing water. A short time before the meat is done, put into the kettle one teaspoonful of salt for every five pounds of meat. Put carrots and turnips (quartered) in the kettle, one and a half hours and potatoes twenty or thirty minutes, before the meat is cooked. Fresh Beef, Elk or Deer Stew : Time, from two to three hours. Cut ten pounds of meat into small strips. Put into a large mess-pan with four tablespoonfuls of salt, half, as much sugar, a little pepper and about three pounds of po- tatoes and onions, or any other vegetables procurable. Keep on the fire and stir until a thick gravy is formed, ad- ding a little flour and about three and one-half gallons of water. Let it simmer until the meat is tender. Venison requires about 2^ hours; beef, about 2f hours; and elk, about 3 hours. Beef, Pork, Elk or Venison Pie : Fresh meat, potatoes, onions, tomatoes, pieces of butter or meat dripping the size of a hazel nut ; pepper and salt on every layer. Cut the meat into two-inch pieces, removing the bone and any superabundance of fat. Cut the potatoes into slices a quarter of an inch thick, rinse in cold water and parboil them. Chop the onions fine. Slice the tomatoes. Roll the pieces of butter in sifted flour. Put the pieces of meat and bone into a kettle of cold water, just enough to cover the meat. Cover closely; remove the scum as it rises. Let it simmer steadily until half done. Remove it from the fire. Take up the meat and strain the gravy; ta E The Mess. 187 keep both warm. Line a mess-pan with a paste, first greas- ing the sides and bottom. Put in a layer of the semi- stewed meat, on the meat a layer of chopped onion, on the onion a layer of sliced tomato, on the tomato a half dozen or more pieces of floured butter, on these a layer of potato, on the potato a layer of meat, and so on in succes- sive layers. Pour over the strained gravy, put on the top crust, place in the oven and bake from one to one and one-half hour3 with a moderate heat. Fried Liver : Liver to be good should be fresh; uniform n appearance on the surface ; firm ; of a bright red color hen cut, and free from nodules. It must be thoroughly one to be palatable. Cut the liver into slices a quarter of an inch thick, and k it one hour in cold, salt water ; rinse well with warm ater, and dip each slice into flour seasoned with pepper nd salt ; put into a frying pan enough meat dripping, or con fat, to just cover the bottom of the pan when melted; while this is hot, put in the liver and fry a deep brown; turn nd fry the other side the same color ; then dish, pouring e grease remaining in the pan over the liver. Beef, Elk or Venison Hash : The meats may be used singly r together. Four pounds of meat (without bone) ; two ions ; two pounds of boiled potato ; the meat cut into alf-inch pieces ; the onion parboiled and minced ; the po- tato chopped into very small pieces. Mix all together and ason with pepper and salt. Put the mixture into a kettle ; tir into it about a quart of gravy, meat dripping, or ater. Stir well together and cover ; let it simmer for thirty minutes, or until the meat is quite tender, frequently stirring it. When the hash is done pour it into a dish over toasted or fried hard-bread. Baked Pork and Beans : Time, from six to eight hours. Two quarts of beans ; three pounds of salt pork ; one teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda. 1 88 Mountain Scouting. Prepare the beans and soak them over night in cold water; soft water is preferable. Parboil the pork and cut it into thin slices. Drain the soaked beans ; put them into a kettle with enough fresh cold water to cover them ; put in the bicarbonate of soda. Cover; boil for fifteen or twenty minutes ; remove the scum as it rises; pour off the water; replace with boiling water ; cover ; boil steadily until ten- der ; drain and season with pepper. Put one-half of the b cans in a deep mess-pan ; lay over them the sliced pork, then cover the pork with the other half of the beans. Pour over from a half-pint to a pint of boiling water ; put the pan into the oven and bake with a uniform heat. Every hour add a little boiling water. When cooked, the beans should be comparatively dry. GAME. The viscera should be taken out as soon as the game is killed. If the meat is not to be cooked at once hang it up in a cool dry place. Birds should be kept in their feathers and animals in their skins. Bear and buffalo meats are better baked than cooked in any other way. Prepare, cook, and serve bear and buffalo meats like fresh pork or fresh beef. At least twelve hours should elapse between the time of killing and cooking birds ; but they should be drawn as soon as possible. If the bird is young, the lower part of its legs are soft, and the lower mandible will not sustain its weight. VEGETABLES. If possible, summer vegetables should be cooked on the same day they are gathered. Boiled Potatoes : Time, twenty to thirty minutes. Wash the potatoes ; cut off a piece of the skin at the eyed end ; put them into a kettle of boiling salt water, enough to cover them ; cover : boil steadily until a fork The Mess. 189 will easily pierce the largest. If cooked too much they become watery. As a rule, the smaller the eye the better the potato. Peeling them before boiling is wasteful, and should only be resorted to late in the spring, when the potatoes have commenced to sprout. They should be of a uniform size, that they may be cooked in the same time. If they are of unequal size, cut the large ones. Baked Potatoes : Time, thirty minutes. Prepare the potatoes and cut off a piece of the skin at the eyed end, and put them into the oven without their touching one another. Turn them frequently and bake in a uniform heat. They should be peeled if baked with meat ; or, if boiled in their skins, they may be peeled and placed in the baking pan with the meat about half an hour before it is done. Potatoes roasted or baked in their skins, in hot ashes, are excellent. Fried Potatoes : Prepare the potatoes and slice them into thin pieces. Put into a frying-pan fat or meat dripping to just cover the bottom of the pan when melted. When this becomes hot put in the potatoes and season with pep- per and salt. Fry gently, stirring them frequently, and until they become light brown. Fried Onions : Peel, slice and fry the onions brown in hot butter, beef dripping or lard ; season with pepper and salt. Stir them constantly to avoid burning. Boiled Onions : Peel the onions (as uniform in size as possible) and lay them in cold salt water for fifteen minutes; put them into a kettle of boiling salt water; cover and boil gently ; when cooked so that a straw can pierce them, drain and season with butter, pepper and salt. The strength of the onions may be reduced by boiling them in two or more waters. 190 Mountain Scouting. Fried Parsnips : Boil the parsnips until tender; scrape off the skin and cut them lengthwise into slices a quarter of an inch thick ; dip each slice into flour ; put into a fry- ing-pan enough lard or meat dripping to just cover the bottom of the pan when melted ; when this becomes hot put in the parsnips, fry brown, turn and fry the other side the same color ; when cooked, drain off the grease and season with pepper. Stewed Parsnips : Boil and cut the parsnips into thin slices ; put them into a kettle, with enough liquor from boiled fresh meat to about half cover them ; season with pepper, salt and grated nutmeg. Cover and stew gently for fifteen minutes, stirring frequently. Boiled Cabbage : If the cabbage is large, quarter it ; if small, cut it into halves ; remove the outer and all bad leaves ; examine carefully for insects ; wash, and lay it in cold water for half an hour. Put it into a kettle of boiling salt water, and cover. When cooked (so that the stalk is tender), drain off the water and season with butter, pepper and salt. The odor from boiling cabbage may be lessened by put- ting pieces of charcoal into the kettle. Stewed Tomatoes: Peel (by scalding) and cut up the tomatoes, rejecting the unripe and hard portions ; put them into a kettle, season with butter, pepper and salt, and, if the tomatoes are very acid, a little sugar. Cover, and stew gently for three-quarters of an hour, frequently stir- ring. The stew can be thickened with hard-bread crumbs. Minced onion cooked with the tomatoes improves the flavor of the stew. A mixture of equal quantities of tomatoes and young corn, cut from the cobb, may be cooked as above. Fried Mushrooms : Select mushrooms of uniform size ; peel them and cut off the lower part of the stem. Heat in a frying-pan enough butter to thinly cover the bottom ; Tht Mess. 191 put in the mushrooms and fry both sides to a golden brown. Edible mushrooms are found in open sunny fields and elevated ground where the air is fresh. They spring up after low-lying fogs, heavy dews, or rains. They first appear very small and of a round form on a little stalk ; the upper part and stalk being white. As the size increases, the under part gradually opens and assumes a delicate salmon color, which in the course of a day changes to a dark brown, The odor is agreeable, flesh solid and brittle and skin easily peeled. The spores are white and usually of an oval shape. Boiled Rice : Time, thirty minutes. One pound of rice ; one gallon of boiling water ; four teaspoonfuls of salt. Wash -and drain the rice and place it into the kettle of boiling water, adding the salt. Cover and boil steadily for fifteen minutes, then thoroughly drain off the water. Place the rice (in the covered kettle) into a larger kettle of boiling water and steam it for ten minutes; and, finally, uncover the rice and steam a few minutes longer. Rice is frequently spoiled in boiling, by being re- duced to a watery mass, Rice Pudding : One quart of clean rice ; six quarts of sweet milk (or an equivalent of condensed milk); one pound sugar; two teaspoonfuls salt ; enough grated nut- meg and ground cinnamon to flavor. Cover the rice with a portion of the milk and let it soak two hours ; then add the remainder of the milk, and stir into this the sugar, salt, and spices. Put into a well-greased dish-pan and bake two and a half hours in a slow oven. Serve either hot or cold. Frequently, owing to a scarcity of water and forage, the camp will be made near a dwelling house or ranch, when 192 Mountain Scouting. advantage may be taken of stoves, fireplaces and all con- veniences for cooking. If it is suspected that the enemy is in the neighborhood, prompt and proper attention must be given to the fortifica- tions, and every precaution taken to make the place as strong as possible, in case of a sudden attack. Often, in the absence of rock and timber, strong mud or clay fortifica- tions may be quickly thrown up, so as to form a safe point of retreat in case of danger. COFFEE. Coffee should be quickly and evenly roasted to a light brown color. A few burned grains will impart a disagree- able flavor to it when made. Only a sufficiency for four or five days should be roasted at one time, and it should never be ground until required for use. The following is an excellent method of making coffee both in barracks and in the field. It is the favorite receipt at Delmonico's : Heat the grounds hot in a mess-pan, one tablespoonful to each person and one for the pot or kettle ; then pour on boiling water, one cupful for each spoonful of coffee. Cover tight and stand where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 15 or 20 minutes. Then strain into the cups. The coffee should The Mess. 193 never be boiled. "Coffee boiled is coffee spoiled " should be remembered. TEA. The making of tea should be so timed that it may be served as soon as drawn, and the water used should be fresh from the well or spring. Bring the water to a boil as soon as possible ; fill the heated pot or kettle with boiling water, put into it one teaspoonful of tea for every cup of tea that is to be drawn, and set the covered kettle on the stove or near the fire to draw, but not to boil. It should not draw long enough to dissolve the tannin, which gives the tea an astringent taste. The time for drawing varies with the different teas, and is about as follows : Green tea, five minutes ; Oolong tea, eight minutes ; English break- fast, fifteen minutes. CHOCOLATE. Six tablespoonfuls of scraped or grated chocolate to each pint of water; add as much milk (if procurable) as water, and sweeten to taste. Put on the water and bring it to a boil ; rub the chocolate smooth in a little cold water, and stir into the boiling water. Boil twent minutes ; add the milk and boil ten minutes more, stirring frequently. Sweeten upon the fire or in the cups. Numerous fancy and palatable dishes may be prepared, from the simple articles of the army ration, by the careful and skillful cook. Mountain Scouting CHAPTER XIII. LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY. IT is frequently the case that supplies are taken by the enemy, destroyed by fire, lost in transportation or while crossing rivers and streams; and under such possible con- tingencies, with a view to securing food, it might be well to understand the habits of the birds and animals found in the country, about the line of march, and the properties of its various wild productions. Many varieties of wild ber- ries and innumerable roots (such as camas, resembling the sweet potato in taste and nutritive properties) are found in nearly all localities and constitute excellent articles of food. Even the most barren trails will yield abundantly when properly laid under contribution. Tobacco may be replaced by either the sumach leaf or .red-willow (shongsasha) bark, found along the mountain streams. The bark is roasted and pulverized, when it is found to possess most of the narcotic properties of tobacco. Equal portions of tobacco and yellow willow bark, when mixed, will afford a double quantity of excellent smoking . material. Coffee may be very satisfactorilv replaced by a decoc- ' tion of horse mint; and a little gun powder, sprinkled on the slightly burnt meat, will impart the taste of a rich salt and pepper seasoning. Whenever it is prudent, hunting parties, consisting of .three or four men, should be sent out daily. They will not Living Off the Country. 195 only supply the camp with a variety of game, but will at the same time perform the valuable duties of scouts and flankers. In order that they may be successful, they must carefully note the habits of the different game and the points to be observed in hunting it. I will here submit a few notes on the game most frequently met with in the. Northwest. Among the animals of the genus cervus, the elks are the largest and most sought after by the Indians and hunters. Their flesh resembles beef, though less highly flavored, and the skin is variously used in articles of cloth- ing, etc. The average weight is about 500 pounds. Their habits vary with the locality and season \ of the year. They usually travel at night and in single file, leaving a well-defined trail, and seldom re- main longer than one day in any particular neighborhood. Unless shot in the proper place (through the shoulder blades a few inches beneath the withers), they will con- tinue to run for many miles, and their speed in flight is so great (unless forced to break the trot) that they mock the chase. When passing through timber the antlers are thrown back on each side of the body. If permitted to trot, they will advance twenty miles or more without tir- ing or stopping. They possess the faculty of doubling and hiding with great facility, and their senses are so keen in apprehension, that great caution is necessary in order to approach them. Elk or other fresh meat may be cured or 'jerked' by; cutting it into very thin strips and drying it in the sun ; or, , by placing the strips on a frame-work of poles and running a slow fire beneath it. Salt should not be used; it is only necessary to keep the meat dry to avoid putrifaction. 196 Mountain Scouting. There are four species of deer; the common American, the red, the black-tailed and the long-tailed deer. Like those in the Eastern States, they are of a mild, innocent, timid aspect; beautifully formed, with slender and nervous limbs; but, the flesh is more lean and less inviting, in con- sequence of their having less opportunity for browsing upon shrubbery of the sacchariferous kinds. They generally use their noses in the direction of the wind, and their eyes in the opposite one, and can only be approached across the wind. The proper time to stalk them is early in the morning or just before dark, when they are feeding and less on the alert. ' Salt licks,' or saline incrustations, have great at- tractions for them, and they will frequently travel long dis- tances at night in order to visit them. The slightest move- ment of an object will attract their'attention, and they usu- ally show alarm by throwing up the head and suddenly jerking the tail. Living Off the Country. 197 Should a fawn be discovered, it is a sure sign that there is a doe secreted within calling distance, and she may be captured if sufficient caution be exercised. The Indians produce a noise by means of the mouth, very much like the bleating of a young fawn, and thus call the doe within range. Red deer are found in all latitudes. They are not migra- tory, but remain throughout the year near their chosen haunts, generally the cover of the thick clumps of willows, or cotton-woods. They are most abundant about the head-waters of the Salmon and Clearwater rivers. During the summer they live on the mountain grass, but descend into the warm valleys in winter, when they are easily taken. They have less vitality than the other large animals, but are seldom dropped unless the back be broken. Black-tailed deer are slightly larger, but much darker than the red deer. The tail for about three inches is tipped with short, black hair. They are extremely fleet and use all four legs at once in making the spring. They are sel- dom seen away from the mountains, except in August and September, when they make excursions of many hundreds of miles. They seem to possess much curiosity : for a few moments they will bound off with great celerity, then stop and investigate the cause of alarm. This is the moment for the hunter to fire. They prefer the dense cover of pine or cedar thickets, and generally hide in cations where they can observe all going on lower down, and get timely notice of anything approaching from above. They feed during the night and in the early morning, and are very similar to the elk in all their habits. They are very tenacious of life and will generally run off after being shot. The long-tailed deer are found very high up in the Rocky Mountains, and are distinguished by their very long tails their bodies are also much longer than those of the other species. They are exceedingly scarry and must be most 198 Mountain Scouting. cautiously approached. Their flesh is very tender and of a most pleasant flavor. The sharpness of the hoof and the precision with which it is used render it a very dangerous weapon. Antelopes are found on nearly all the elevated prairies, but they seldom go into the timbered sections. During the winter they penetrate the mountain valleys wherever they can find good shelter and pasturage. The prong-horn (horns curvated at the ends) is the species found in West- ern North America. They are gen- erally red and average about fifty pounds when dressed. The meat is sweeter and more tender than that of deer. Curiosity is their besetting fault. A handkerchief fastened to the ram-rod, planted in the ground, will so attract them that they will approach it until within easy range of the hunter secreted in the grass or hills near by. They have exceedingly acute senses of hearing and vision, but seldom associate sound and danger. By firing so that the bullet will knock up the earth in front of them, they will generally retreat from that point toward the firer. They possess the faculty of finding water in desert local- ities. In September and October they move in large herds, following and imitating their leader in all his motions. They possess great courage and vitality, and unless prop- erty hit, will carry off several bullets. Their tracks are much shorter than those of the deer, are sharp at the toes and broad and round at the heels. The buffaloes, of the bovine genus, are the largest and most important, for food and covering, of any of the ani- mals of the North American prairies and mountains. They Living Off the Country. 199 are generally about the size of our domestic neat cattle, with a long, shaggy, woolly hair covering their head, neck and shoulders, which gives them the formidable appear- ance of a lion, when at a distance. They are cloven-footed, chew the cud, and select the same kind of food as our horned cattle. Their flesh is much superior to beef, in flavor, and is remarkably easy of digestion. When running, they lean alternately from one side to the other and carry their heads very low ; and although clumsy in appearance, they will run for a long time without slackening their speed, up and down very steep hills. Their legs and feet are small and trim, the forelegs being covered with the long hair of the shoulders as low down as the knee. When feeding they scatter over a large space, but when fleeing from danger, they collect into herds, composed pro- miscuously of bulls and cows; and having once laid their course are not easily diverted from it. They possess the faculty of selecting the best route over the roughest country. The limits of their range are becoming more and more circumscribed; and, if they continue to diminish as hereto- fore, they will soon become extinct. They are frequently taken by still-hunting, but oftener by pursuing them on horseback, when the former is impracticable. Their power of scent is great, and they perceive the hunter at a great distance, when he is on the windward side. They do not become alarmed at the report of the rifle; and, so long as the hunter is not seen or scented, they will stand and gaze about while those near by are being shot down. To produce the best effect, the shot should be delivered soo Mountain Scouting. about the center of the body and eight or nine inches be- hind the fore-shoulder. The tongue, hump and marrow-bones are the most de- sirable parts of the buffalo. The tongue is best taken out by severing the skin between the prongs of the lower jaw- bone, and drawing it through the orifice. The hump is removed by skinning down on each side of the shoulders and cutting loose the meat. The movements of the immense herds regulate the loca- tion of many Plain's Indians; and constituting, as they do, their commissariat, frequently govern their ability for war. The Indians and trappers of the Northwest prepare a food known as ' pemmican ' as follows : The buffalo flesh is cut into convenient flat steaks or slices, and hung in the sun or over a slow fire until dry. The dried meat is ground between two rocks until very fine, and is then pressed into a bag made of hide. This is securely stitched and the pem- mican allowed to cool and harden. When required for use, it is cut from the hard mass and either eaten cold, or is mixed with flour forming a porridge called * robiboo.' A smaller species than the Plains buffalo is said to in- habit the Rocky Mountains in various localities. I am in- clined to think it an error, however, and that the mountain buffaloes are really visitors from the Plains, appearing smaller because generally seen at a great distance, occupy- ing as they do the very precipitous and inaccessible sides of the mountains. Antelopes are always found in the vicinity of a buffalo herd. There are four varieties of bears the grizzly, cinnamon, brown and black. All the bear family, in their habits, are quite alike hybernating in winter, possessing little or no courage unless cornered, having a keen sense of smell and at times exhibit- ing great intelligence. Living Off the Country. 201 So far as physical strength goes, the grizzly has no equal, and frequently weighs six or eight hundred pounds. He depends more upon his strength than speed for taking his prey, and generally lurks in willows or. thickets, so as to suddenly seize upon any animal passing near him. He apparently eats very little (mostly ants, insects, roots and wild fruits), but keeps quite fat. The shades of color vary from light gray to dark brown; and the hair is finer, longer and more abundant than that of any other species. The cinnamon bear resembles the grizzly in all respects except size, but is not a variety of the latter as is frequently supposed. The brown bear is more solitary in his habits, less ferocious, and is but little esteemed either for food or for his skin. The black bear possesses a very valu- able pure black, well-coated skin. He lives more upon vegetable food and furnishes from 200 to 300 pounds of very excellent meat. If cornered, he will make a good fight; but if pursued, he will run with great speed and will head for the nearest tree, rocks, or jungle. It is seldom, indeed, that he does not get the wind of the hunter in time to make off. The cougar (California lion) is very shy and only prowls at night. When hungry he will approach the camp, and is best secured by means of the spring gun. When pursued^ he soon becomes tired and either ascends a leaning tree or takes refuge in the branches of fallen trees; and, unless shot through the brain, will endanger the life of the approaching hunter. Brown wolverines are inhabitants of the Salmon River mountains and differ in several particulars from those of other localities. They are, when full grown, about two feet in length, with comparatively small bodies. They have short legs and necks and very small eyes and ears. They live in 2O2 Mountain Scouting. caves and under rocks, and are seldom bagged, being ex- tremely far-scented and always remaining near their hiding places. They are easily captured, however, when overtaken, and furnish good meat and a skin covered with fine fur more than an inch long. Mountain sheep, very much resembling the chamois of Europe in their habits, are found on the most inaccessible peaks and plateaux of the Rocky Mountains. They climb over steep and rugged cliffs and skim the almost vertical si opes and fearful precipices of smooth granite with won- derful daring and swiftness. Frequently they leap from great heights, landing on their horns, probably in conse- quence of their great weight. Their feet are very soft and spongy and enable them to cling to projections so as to ease up during a descent. Although gregarious, they seldom exceed six or eight in one flock. They seem to be a combination of animals the body is that of the deer, but much larger ; while the head is that of the domestic sheep, except the horns, which vary from fifteen to twenty inches in circumference at their junc- ture with the head. The least unusual noise or appearance fills them with dread alarm, and they will most curiously disappear with- out leaving any sign or passing again in view. The Sheep- Eater Indians, captured by my command in 1879, near tne Middle Fork of the Salmon River, in Idaho, are so called from the fact that they subsist principally upon the flesh of mountain sheep, and make their articles of clothing of their skins, which are covered with a peculiar hair resembling wool, which serves to keep the body very warm in the win- ter. These Indians would usually capture them by sur- rounding the mountain on which they were grazing or reposing and cautiously closing in upon them. Their flesh is fat and delicious, when in best season, during the months of September and October. Living Off the Country. 203 Their heads and horns frequently weigh as much as seventy pounds. The Indians say that mountain sheep and deer (especially black tailed deer) are never found together, and that when- ever the deer suddenly come down to the river bottoms it is a sure sign that the sheep are on the mountains, and they hunt them accordingly. There are five different species of wolves in the Western mountains. The common gray wolf has the appearance and habits of those found in the East. The blue wolf is rarely seen, is very sneaky and roguish in his disposition, and usually prowls at night. He is very angular, has long hair, freely interspersed with white, and always has the appearance of being nearly starved. He is the most cow- ardly of all the species. The white wolf resembles the blue wolf in everything except color. They are very seldom seen. Many of the mountain Indians regard the capture of a white wolf as the grandest accomplishment of the chase, and hold their skins in very high estimation. The black wolf is larger than any of the other species and 204 Mountain Scouting. more noble in his appearance. He is the strongest of the wolf kind, is very daring and will not run unless the odds are very much against him. He resembles the fox very much in general appearance, but is several times larger. The coyote is scarcely larger than the fox and is very uni- form in size, color and habits. Like the other species, he is always prowling and cowardly. His hair is of a dull red- dish gray, very long and blended with brown fur at the roots. He exhibits a great deal of curiosity; and, when it is safe to do so, will follow parties or caravans, like a dog. They frequently congregate about the camp at night and howl fearfully, and will often cause annoyance by skulking into camp and seizing articles of supplies. They are usually found where all other game is scarce, and are only good for food in the total absence of all other varieties. The fox is found in three different kinds : the red, gray and silver. They do not differ from those found east of the mountains. The skin of the silver fox ranks high among the furs of commerce. Martins are found in the woody mountains of the Salmon, but are more abundant and of better quality farther north. Of the feline kind, there are the panther, the wild cat and the lynx. The panther is much like the cougar, but smaller. He is an excellent climber, very ferocious, but never makes fight with man. The wildcat is widely diffused throughout the mountains, and a species known as the 'long tail' are much larger than the Eastern specimens. They are of a dull reddish color, run rapidly and possess much endurance. They live in rocks, hollow trees and dense thickets, and feed principally upon birds and prairie dogs. Lynx are very abundant in the lower wooded mountains, but seldom come under observation. The beaver (castor Americanus), a variety of the Euro- Living Off the Country. 205 pean species, is abundantly found throughout the mountain streams; and, besides its valuable fur, it furnishes the hunter an excellent flesh for food. I never saw any evidence of the truth of the as- sertion that while the flesh of the hind parts is like fish in smell and taste, its fore parts are of the quality of land animals. They are of very social habits, and may be frequently taken when about their villages ; but they are generally on the alert and require the hunter to approach with great caution. The land otter is also found along the mountain streams and furnishes a very good skin and food. It varies in color from a light to a dark brown ; and, in formation, is adapted to both land and water. It is generally taken while sliding down steep snow drifts or grassy banks, an amusement for which it manifests a great love. The badger, marmot, mink and musk-rat are found in nearly every Western locality and do not differ materially from those on the eastern part of the continent. * The woodchuck (Arctomys monax) is the most numerous of all burrowing species, and in the absence of other food, makes a very tempting dish. The prairie-dog (Arctomys, ludovicianus) is a smaller species of marmot found on all the prairies west of the Mis- sissippi. They are cautious, provident and phlegmatic are very fond of society and seem to have regular hours for visiting. They burrow in dry and arid ground, digging their holes in close vicinity, and live on grass, roots and other vegetable substances In their villages, which often extend over miles, they live like law-abiding citizens. 206 Mountain Scouting. Their sentinels are regularly posted and are quick to g /e the alarm upon the approach of any unknown or dangerous object. Being susceptible of .atmospheric influences, they will -serve as excellent barometers. Just before a storm they are very demonstrative, and rush up to one another and from burrow to burrow as though they were exchanging thoughts. Their flesh is very good as food, and nearly all the carniv- ora in their neighborhoods prey upon them. The rattle- snake and burrowing owl are their frequent, but I believe unwelcome, guests. They are so called, not from their appearance, but from their barking, which is like that of a small dog. There are two varieties of squirrels found west of the Rocky Mountains that I have never heard described. One is a handsome gray, about one-third larger than those found in the East; while the other is a beautiful variety of striped .squirrel, about one-half as large. The inoffensive hare and rabbit are found in three varie- ties. The common hare has the same characteristics as in other regions. The jack rabbit strictly belongs to the Plains, but is always ;^ ; Living off the Country. 207 found in the sage-brush bottoms throughout the moun- tains. It runs with great ease and swiftness, and its motions are an alternate running and leaping at almost incredible distances. Its flesh, when used for food, is rather tender and of a pleasant flavor. The rock rabbit is very small, being only five or six inches long and has pointed ears. They live in the rocks and sel- dom go very far from their holes. The Indians consider their flesh a great luxury. The largest part of the feathered race of the West are migratory. Among these are several spe- cies of grouse (including the ruffed grouse, . improperly called partridge and pheasant), . several varieties of eagles and hawks and the common Eastern quail. The gray or sage grouse, the pinnated or prairie grouse, the willow or sharp-tailed grouse and the mountain or blue grouse are all more or less abundant in the mountains, although, they properly belong in lower altitudes. Near the head-waters of the Salmon,. I have noticed a species of quail, much smaller than the ortyx virginianus^ lighter colored and better spotted, and having a beautifully striped neck. Its habits are gregarious and it is remarkably tame. As the Autumn advances, the variety and number of geese, cranes, swans and ducks multiply. Nearly all the year round, a peculiar variety of wild goose, possessing many of the features and characteristics of the sand- hill crane, is found about the 208 Mountain Scouting. most elevated mountain lakes. The Indians associate their presence with deer, and will travel many miles when hunt- ing deer in order to take in such lakes as are known to be patronized by these birds. The loon (colymbus glacialis), or northern diver, is very plentiful about the Columbia river and its tributaries, and is occasionally found at the extreme head-waters near the summit of the Rockies. It is seldom seeti, but frequently utters its horrible cries, which once heard are never forgotten. Many of the mountain Indians regard its cry as an indication of the presence of the evil spirit, and are exceedingly restless while in its vi- cinity. Spring, with its rising vegetation, brings its many genera and still more numerous species of feathered tribes, which remain for different periods of time, so that the skillful huntsman may always be repaid with a variety of ornitho- logical treasures. The curlew (scolopax borealis) is found very abundant and in a wild state on the high grounds (probably nesting), many hundreds of miles from the sea-shore, where it be- longs. It requires very hard hitting to kill it, and the hunter must possess skill and patience. Its plaintive cry is well expressed in its name. When one is wounded, it will attract all of its companions, within sight or hearing, to the spot. Vast numbers of locusts, grasshoppers and crickets are continually passing over the mountains; and, in the absence of other food, are greedily eaten by the savages. Living Off the Coimtry. 209 Crickets, something on the order of genus gryllus, but about one-half size larger, make a favorite dish on occasions of ceremony. The Indians lay in large stores, merely srnoke-dried, which they afterward serve up with roots and underground productions. It will be well to observe, at all times while hunting, the following suggestions : \st. Advance across or against the wind. 2d. Keep out of sight while approaching the game that has been located. $d. Cautiously approach the top of every ridge, so as to be able to see any game, before exposing the body to view. 4t/i. Never fire when seized with the ' 'buck fever ,' but wait until perfectly cool; and then take a rest for the rifle, if possible. $th. Underestimate rather than overestimate the distance of the game, and thus secure the advantage of ricochet shots. 6th. Reload immediately after firing; and should the wounded game run off, hunt in some other direction than that taken by it. 1th. Never hunt alone, unless within sight or hearing of the camp. %th. While preparing the game, should there be no tree or brush to which to make the horse fast, either hobble him or tie him to the animal's horns or body. qth. When game falls in deep water, take a long, light string and tie a stick on the end of it ; throw the stick beyond the floating game and gradually draw it in. The Remington combination (40-50) breech-loading rifle and shot-gun is excellent for hunting purposes, and a single one judiciously handled will furnish a large command a good daily allowance of game in great variety. A few shot- guns should accompany every command in the field. The hunters should be selected with a view to the par- ticular game sought after, as they seldom have the same success with all game. I seldom miss an elk, deer, or bear; 2IO Mountain Scouting. As a rule, good target shots but could never hit a coyote, are poor hunters. When game is abundant and its habits are well under- stood, it may be readily secured without any great exertion by means of spring guns. O The drawings show two simple modes of setting the guns. When the game passes along the trail in front of the muzzle and comes in contact with the cord ( Fulton Street, IVe^v York. , SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. ESTABLISHED 1830. MILITARY, SPORTING AND HUNTING REPEATING RIFLES. 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BRANCH ESTABLISHMENTS: g Cambridge, Mass., New Haven, Conn., % Long Branch and g Ocean Grove, N. J. Photographer to the Classes of U. S. M. A., W. P., of '75, 76, '77, '78, '79, '80, '81, '82. Howard Manufacturing Co. NEW YORK, SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF NOVELTIES Required by Hunters, Travelers and all Practical Persons. SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 3OOO Engravings, 184O Pages. Quarto. A WHOLE LIBRARY IN ITSELF. Best in Definitions Best in Etymology. Published by O. & . JtlJKRKlAIVl, Springfield, Ma. Some of the cuts in Chapter XIII. are taken from this work. Goodyear Rubber Company, 488, 49O, 492 Broadway, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF RUBBER GOODS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. Campaign and Field Outfits a Specialty. SEND FOR CATALOGUE. ROBERT L. BURNETT, FORMERLY Captain 12th and 21st V. S. In. and Bet. Major U. 8. A. HENR Y E. SMITH, FORMERLY Captain 12th and 21st U. S. Inf. and Bvt. Major U. S. A. 58 Broadway, TRANSACT ALL CLASSES OF FINANCIAL BUSINESS FOR ARMY OFFICERS. York. Baltimore, Light and German Streets, Baltimore, Maryland. The LARGEST, LATEST BUILT and MOST CONVENIENT HOTEL IN THE CITY Rates, $ 3 . O and $ 2 . 5 O per day, according to location of Rooms. Permanent Board by the Month at $40. OO and upwards. Special arrangements witt always be made satisfactory for families, vr for parties by telegraph. Dinner tickets $8 per dozen. Officers of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps may always rely upon the best of accommodations at 20 per cent, discount on advertised transient rates, and the under- signed talces the liberty of referring to his personal record in the Army, as evidence the best that Army and Navy patronage is especially solicited, and will be properly cared for. ^ F. W. COLEMAN, Manager. WORKS BY GEN. 0. 0. HOWARD, U. S. ARMY- COUNT AGENOR DE GASPARIN By THOMAS BOREL. Trans- lated from the French by GEN. O. O. HOWARD. Octavo. Cloth $1. A faithful record of a noble life, a life deserving the special ap- preciation of patriotic Americans. Published and for sale by G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 27 & 29 West 23d St., New York. DON ALPS SCHOOL DAYS. A story of New England school life. An excellent book for boys. Fully illustrated. $1.25. NEZ PERCE JOSEPH. An account of his ancestors, his lands, his confederates, his ene- mies, his murders, his war, his pursuit and capture. By OLIVER O. HOWARD, Brig. Gen. U. S. A., and Superintendent West Point. With maps and portraits, $2.50. For these books send orders to the Publishers, LEE & SHEPARD, Boston, or to GEN. HOWARD, West Point, N. Y. TARGET AIR GUNS. Especially adapted for target practice. Equally suited for touching up trespassing cats and dogs, killing rats and small game. Our guns are extremely simple in construction, well made and hand- somely finished; easily operated, and shoot with force and accuracy, and not liable to get out of order. All first-class gun dealers sell them. Illustrated circular sent on application. Address the manufacturer, H. M. QUACKENBUSH, Herkimer, N. Y. Prices, $9, $10, and $12. [See page 38 of this work.] ELECTROTYPES OF ANY CUTS APPEARING IN THIS WORK, OR IN ANY of our publications, will be furnished on application. Address METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING CO,, 252 Broadway, N Tf WORKS BY THE AUTHOR OF MOUNTAIN SCOUTING. FARROW'S PACK MULES AND PACKING. With description of the Packing Gear and full instructions for Packing. Fully Illustrated. 24 mo, paper $ 50 34 mo, cloth 100 FARROW'S NOTES ON THE SALMON RIVER MOUNTAINS OF IDAHO. With maps, fully setting forth practicable routes over the ROCKY MOUNTAINS; ana copious remarKS upon the mineral resources of that section. 24 mo, paper $ 50 24 mo, cloth 100 FARROW'S WEST POINT AND THE MILITARY ACADEMY. With Requirements for Entering, System of Training, Regulations, Instructions, Text Books, etc., etc. 12 mo, paper $1 00 12 mo, cloth 1 50 FARROW'S MILITARY SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS. A complete course of Gymnastics and a system of Swimming. Pre- pared for the use of the Cadets at West Point, and other Military Col- leges. Fully Illustrated. 16 mo, paper $100 16 mo, cloth 1 50 "Having given FARROW'S MILITARY SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS the examination it deserves, I have great pleasure in expressing my unqualified approval. The exercises recommended are excellent, and. their progressive arrangement is admirably adapted to proper physical development. Haying been 26 years in the profession, and part of the time Instructor of Gymnastics, in the British Army, I can fully appreciate the fidelity with which the author has executed his work." J. R. JUDD. Adopted at West Point and many of the Military Colleges in the United States. SENT POST PAID BY METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING COMPANY. 252 BROADWAY, N. Y. THE IMPROVED PARKER BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN SIMPLE, DURABLE, EFFECTIVE THE HIGHEST AWARD The Parker Won the FIRST PREMIUM, GRAND MEDAL, AND DIPLOMA Over All Competitors, All Hard Rubber Locks with Checked Stocks and Pat- ent Snap Forend. Barrels, $75 to $300. Damascus or Lami'i BWs, $50 to $70 Send Stamp for Illustra- ted Catalogue. PARKER BROS., OOJVIV. Show Rooms, 97 Chambers Street, New York. FOX'S PATENT Breech Loading Shot Gun. WONDEKFULLY SIMPLE. WOKDEKFULLY STRONG. Prices range from $45 to $150. SEND FOR CIRCULAR TO AMERICAN ARMS COM- PANY, BOSTON, MASS. We would respectfully refer to the following testimonial which explains itself: WASHINGTON, D. C. It gives me great pleasure to accede to your request for a few words respecting the behavior of the " Fox Gun," which I used during a season in Arizona. It is proper to state that no severer test could be given a gun than the service it necessarily undergoes in the rough campaign life of a Government exploring party. It must not only stand exposure to the vicis- situdes of the weather, especially the prolonged wet season, but when in use on the dry plains, where the air is often filled with flying sand, it is next to impossible to prevent the gritty particles from lodging between the barrels and the stock. This, as every sportsman knows, is a fruitful source of an- noyance, and often of positive injury to the weapon. < During the season, at a low estimate, not less than fifteen hundred shots were fired. Again, as all travelling was performed on horseback, the gun was constantly carried in a sling before the saddle ; this alone being no light trial, and one particularly liable to render the gun shaky. And now, at the end of its six month's service, I can say that the gun is practically in as good condition as when taken from the shop ; a statement to be appreciated when it is understood that three other breech-loaders, from makers of first-class reputation, with less service, were either partially or wholly disabled ere leaving the field. H. W. HENSHAW, of Wheeler's U.S. Exploring Expedition. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. NOV 101946 Ap R 21 1942 Jl "* db *?* A 280sc' - * . 3JAN'56PLC ^ p 5 MftV Xl ^6^ WU' '1 QQ1 3 1^5 HOL CIR. OCT 1 1 1985 LD 21-100m-7,'40 (6936s) GENERAL LIBRARY - U.C. BERKELEY BQOO'ltmflS M25521 F 3 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY