EX LIBRJS 
 

MOUNTAIN SCOUTING 
 
 A HAND-BOOK FOR 
 
 Officers and Soldiers on the Frontiers 
 
 PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED AND CONTAINING 
 
 NUMEROUS NOTES ON THE ART OF 
 
 TRA VEL, 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD S. FARROW, U. S. ARMY. 
 
 Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the L. & Military Academy, and For- 
 merly Commanding Indian iScovta in the Department of the 
 
 ( olvmbia. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 
 1881. 
 
[A 
 
 F"3 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year t38i, 
 
 BY EDWARD S. FARROW, 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
INSCRIBED 
 
 TO 
 
 OLIVER OTIS HOWARD, 
 
 Brigadier and Brevet Major General, U. S. Army 
 
 AS A TRIBUTE TO HIS 
 
 UNEQUALKD ENTERPRISE AND PATRONAGE 
 
 OF THE ART OF WAR, 
 
 FROM HIS AFFECTIONATE; FRIEND 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
 M25521 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE object of my book is to investigate that chain of many 
 minor successes, each link of which must be perfect, in order 
 to insure the success of any expedition. 
 
 A long and dangerous journey, without the loss of properly, 
 comfort, nealth or life, can only be accomplished after having 
 learned how to prepare for all emergencies; how to avoid un- 
 necessary hardships; and how to find out the capabilities of 
 the country and of the party. 
 
 I make no claim to discoveries in mountain-craft, nor do 
 I p, etend to present any facts which have not occurred to others 
 in similar situations. 
 
 I have endeavored to present, in small compass, such knowl- 
 edge as the young officer often acquires by bitter experience 
 and under the most unfavorable circumstances. 
 
 My book is not intended for officers who have seen service 
 on the frontiers, many of whom are my competent teachers; 
 but for the novice, who is so placed that he must depend upon 
 himself in times of. emergency. 
 
 To complete my -vork, I have drawn largely on the experi- 
 ences of older officers and have introduced frequent notes re- 
 corded during the study of Indian character while in their 
 peaceful villages, following their rugged trails, and in their hos- 
 tile camps. 
 
 I have also freely consulted SCOTT'S MILITARY DICTION- 
 ARY, WALKER'S MANLY SPORTS and other works of reference. 
 
 I hope my readers will for * ard me any additions or correc- 
 tions that may appear to them to add to the value of the 
 work. 
 
 E. S. F. 
 WEST POINT, N. Y., December, 1881. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. THE HOESE. .... 9 
 
 II. THE RIFLE. .... 25 
 
 III. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. . 41 
 
 IV. USEFUL INFORMATION IN POST AND FIELD. 62 
 
 V. FIELD EQUIPAGE AND SUPPLIES. . 88 
 
 VI.- MOUNTAIN TKAVEL. . . . 100 
 
 VII. PACK MULES AND PACKING. . , 111 
 
 VIII. MAECHING. . . . 130 
 
 IX. FOKCED MARCHES. . . . 141 
 
 X. CROSSING RIVERS. . . . 152 
 
 XI. THE CAMP. .... 164 
 
 XII. THE MESS. .... 176 
 
 XIII. LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY. . . 194 
 
 XIV. INDIAN CHARACTER. . . . 213 
 
 XV. THE TRAIL, SIGNS AND SIGNALS. . 228 
 
 XVI. SKIRMISHING 239 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. A[ SYSTEM OF SWIMMING. . . 3 
 
 II. ROWING. .... 19 
 
 III. THE CHINOOK VOCABULARY. 22 
 
MOUNTAIN SCOUTING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 A THOROUGH knowledge of the horse and his judicious 
 treatment are essential to a successful mountain journey. If 
 there be left any latitude in the selection of your horse, see 
 that " he is not less than fourteen nor more than sixteen hands 
 high ; weighs not less than seven hundred and fifty, nor more 
 than eleven hundred pounds ; age not less than five, nor more 
 than eight years ; head and ears small ; forehead broad ; eyes 
 large and prominent ; shoulders long and sloping well back ; 
 fore legs straight and standing well under; chest broad and 
 deep ; barrel large, and increasing from girdle to flank ; withers 
 elevated ; back short and straight ; loins and haunches broad 
 and muscular ; hocks well bent and under the horse ; pasterns 
 slanting ; and feet small and sound." 
 
 My idea of the perfect horse is depicted in the following 
 drawing. 
 
 Range horses, or those that have been raised exclusively 
 
io Mountain Scouting. 
 
 on grass, are better suited for mountain service than those fed 
 on grain. Hence it is that the square-built, large-trunked, 
 short-legged Indian pony endures this service so much better 
 than the American horse that has been accustomed to grain. 
 
 The Indian pony, generally believed to be the result of a 
 cross between the Southern mustang and a small type of the 
 Canadian, is never fed, stabled, combed, shod nor doctored ; 
 and when not under the saddle is left to shift for himself. In 
 the winter he is a mere animated skeleton. 
 
 His proportions vary according to the localities in which he 
 is found, but he seldom exceeds thirteen hands in height. He 
 is wonderfully sagacious and sure-footed. He can climb a 
 steep, rocky hill with assurance and activity, and rush down a 
 precipitous declivity with much indifference. He will get 
 over and through places, which appear utterly impracticable, 
 with ease and rapidity, while the American horse would labor 
 to travel at r. walk. He particularly excels in the passage of 
 swamps, marshy places and sands perforated with gopher 
 holes. 
 
 When full mouthed, the horse will have forty teeth, twenty 
 in each jaw. The mare possesses only thirty-six. The age of 
 the horse may be determined by observing the teeth, the times 
 at which they appear, are shed and replaced, and the altera- 
 tions in their form and markings ; 2 years, all milch teeth, 
 which are easily distinguished from the permanent by being 
 smaller, whiter and having necks ; 3 years, two permanent 
 teeth, central incisors ; 4 years, four permanent teeth, central 
 and lateral incisors ; 5 years, all permanent teeth. 
 . From this time on, the age of the horse is decided by the 
 marks on the teeth ; 6 years, the marks on the central incisors 
 re worn out, and the points of the tushes are blunted ; 7 years, 
 the marks on the central and lateral incisors are worn out, 
 those on the corner incisors still showing ; 8 years, all the 
 cavities are filled up. Beyond this age the criteria are uncer- 
 tain. 
 
The Horse. u 
 
 The markings on the teetli (except those of crib-biters) are 
 moie distinct in the upper than in the lower jaw, and may be 
 easily examined by the aid of a mirror. 
 
 The following facts are noted in connection with the horse's 
 nature, management and capabilities : 
 
 1. He judges everything by seeing, smelling (feeling), and 
 hearing. 
 
 2. He will resist no demand consistent with the laws of his 
 nature, being unconscious of his strength. 
 
 3. He has a strong memory of places, and very readily finds 
 again a trail or road which he has once before traveled. 
 
 4. He possesses the faculty of directing his course to the 
 nearest water. 
 
 5. The absolute command of him can only be obtained by 
 an admixture of kindness and firmness. 
 
 6. His lips and teeth adapt him to clipping short herbage 
 he can find an abundance where the ox would starve. 
 
 7. A good horse is ruined by the practice of passing a loop- 
 ed rope around the lower jaw, which is too often employed as 
 an aid in keeping the seat when riding. 
 
 8. Avoid raising the arms when driving a horse. He is con- 
 stantly in fear that they may fly off and strike him. 
 
 9. When he hangs back and will not lead, never get in front 
 of him and pull, for there is no use, unless you are stronger 
 than the horse. Place yourself opposite his shoulder and hold 
 his head in front of you by grasping the bridle near the mouth, 
 touching him with a whip held in the other hand. 
 
 10. Never whip a horse to hurt him. When he is stubborn, 
 apply the whip lightly about his legs and flanks, and not pn 
 his back. 
 
 n. When a horse will not stand, and is addicted to the 
 habit of kicking, tie up one of his fore legs and leave him on 
 three. He can then neither run away nor kick, and will soon 
 learn that you do not intend to hurt him. If not pressed, he 
 can hop two or three miles on three legs. Two miles of hop- 
 ping is a sure cure for a kicker or a jibber. 
 
12 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 12. To overcome the stubbornness of ahorse that has thrown 
 himself down, do not flog him. Twisting or biting his tail is 
 the usual way to manage him. A tuft of grass set ablaze and 
 placed under his nostril will cause him to rise. 
 
 13. It is not well to use a whip on the horse from which you 
 shoot ; if so, when you raise the gun to fire he is sure to be un- 
 steady, feeling a dread of its being the whip. 
 
 14. A load on a horse's back is the worst application of his 
 strength ; he can draw about seven times as much as he 
 can carry. 
 
 15. An average horse equals six men at a pull, and requires 
 about five gallons of water daily. 
 
 16. Experiment has shown the following endurance of 
 horses : A healthy horse will live on water alone twenty-one 
 days ; he will live without eating or drinking about fifteen days; 
 he will live if fed, and without water, for about six days. 
 The average length of life of the horse in all localities and 
 under all circumstances is about twenty-one years. 
 
 Before starting on a long journey, on horseback, every effort 
 should be made to secure a proper equipment. 
 
 In selecting a saddle, see that it is light, strong and large 
 enough to permit the weight to be evenly distributed over the 
 horse's back. It should be sufficiently raised to admit a free 
 circulation between it and the spine, while the pommel is high 
 enough to prevent the rider from being thrown forward. 
 
 The cynch should be made of some soft and elastic material, 
 such as hair, and not less than four inches in width. 
 
 I have ridden on a hunting saddle, shown in the drawing 
 on the page opposite, very much on the order of the present 
 milit iry saddles, but so constructed as to better fit the horse, 
 and less liable to produce a 'sore back.' This saddle 
 seems well adapted to use in a wild country. It may be 
 supplied with rings and ' DV at pleasure. The stirrup iron 
 is of large size, so as to admit the free passage, in and out, of 
 the boot with mud or clay about it. It is also heavy, and the 
 
The Horse. 
 
 foot can readily find it should it 
 when the horse is in rapid motion. 
 
 13 
 be lost for a moment 
 
 The saddle-blanket should be folded smoothly and evenly 
 and cover all the back touched by the saddle. A piece of 
 linen cloth placed under the blanket will often prevent sore 
 back. 
 
14 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 If a horse is sweating very much when unsaddled, it is well 
 to allow the saddle-blanket to remain strapped upon his back 
 until he is dry. Cold water should never be applied to the 
 back while heated it is all right to wash it after it cools, but 
 not before. 
 
 The bridle should fit the horse comfortably and there 
 should be room for the finger between the chin and the curb- 
 chain. If the horse be tender-chinned, the chain should be 
 covered with leather. 
 
 The bit should be sufficiently light and easy not to fret or 
 chafe the horse. Many bits are instruments of torture and 
 the horse will often set his >jaws against them to alleviate 
 the pain. 
 
 An excellent bridle is one so constructed that the bit 
 may be removed by unbuckling, thus converting it into a 
 halter for leading or picketing, and at the same time ad- 
 mitting of the use of any bit. 
 
 The bit cannot be too carefully adjusted. If the horse 
 open his mouth, writhe his jaws and throw out his tongue if 
 he have no appuy, violently toss his head up and down, carry 
 it low or refuse to go forward, the bit needs a proper and im- 
 mediate adjustment. 
 
 The spur should be used by accomplished riders only, and 
 then with great prudence and thorough knowledge of the 
 horse. It is often advantageously replaced by a light switch 
 or Indian whip. 
 
 The first two essentials for good horsemanship are a firm 
 seat and a light hand. 
 
 To mount safely and easily, stand at the left shoulder of the 
 horse, looking to the rear ; take the reins in the right hand, 
 dividing them by the middle finger of the left hand until the 
 horse's mouth is felt ; close the left hand, about ten inches in 
 front of the saddle, firmly on the mane and reins, and throw 
 the loop to the off side, with the right hand ; place the left 
 foot into the stirrup, the right hand assisting after quitting the 
 mane ; then using the mane as a slight hold, raise the body 
 
The Horse. 15 
 
 into the air, passing the right leg over the horse, assisting in 
 this by taking hold of the back of the saddle and steadying the 
 fall of the body by placing the right hand on the pommel. 
 
 Dismounting may be accomplished by a reverse process. 
 
 In dismounting on rough and dangerous trails, to avoid 
 accident, it is better to disengage both feet from the stirrups 
 at once and vault from the saddle to the ground. 
 
 Having gained the saddle, the rider should seat himself so 
 as to place every part of the body in such position that it can 
 act upon the horse in every emergency. 
 
 The proper length of stirrup is when the tread of the 
 stirrup is about one-half inch below the inner ankle-bone and 
 when the feet are in the stirrups, the heels should be two or 
 three inches lower than the toes. 
 
 The grip in riding should be maintained by the thigh and 
 knee, and not by the knee and calf only. The positions of 
 the feet and hands exercise some influence on the security of 
 the seat ; and without the acquisition of a firm seat, the 
 acquirement of good hands is impossible. 
 
 The rein-hold varies with the design of the rider and the 
 propensities of the horse. The drawings show the usual 
 methods of holding and shifting the reins. 
 
 In holding them separately, one passes into each hand, 
 between the third and fourth fingers, and out over the fore- 
 finger, where it is held down by the thumb. 
 
 Frequently the reins are held in the left hand, as when first 
 taken up. Here, the left rein passes under the little finger, and 
 
i6 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 the right under the third, both passing through the hand, and 
 the superfluous rein uanging over the first joint of the fore- 
 finger, the thumb securing it. 
 
 Sometimes, the right rein enters the hand over the fore- 
 finger from abt>ve and crosses the left rein in the palm, where 
 the fingers close upon them. The loop, formed of the residue, 
 hangs down between the hand and body. 
 
 The reins must be shifted expertly without breaking the 
 time or altering the pace. 
 
 To shift them from the left hand : Turn the thumbs toward 
 each other and carry the right hand over the left ; place the 
 fore-finger of the right hand downward, in the place of the 
 little finger of the left hand, between the reins ; and pass the 
 reins through the right hand, placing the thumb upon the left 
 rein, near the second joint of the fore-finger. 
 
 To return them to the left hand : Carry the left hand over 
 the right and place the little finger of the left hand downward 
 between the reins ; then carry them smoothly upward through 
 the hand, and let the ends hang over the fore-finger. 
 
 Quickness, firmness, gentleness and lightness are essentially 
 necessary to good hands. 
 
 The necessity for readiness in the rider's hand is obvious in 
 both the standing and flying leaps. Without it, the horse will 
 be embarrassed and both the animal and his rider endangered. 
 
 While the rider quickly and fearlessly gives the horse his 
 
The Horse. 17 
 
 head, he must preserve his own equilibrium, by leaning for- 
 ward as the horse rises, and backward as he alights. 
 
 In the leap, the rider should not raise his body upright, nor 
 slacken the hold with his legs, before the hind feet of the horse 
 come to the ground. The horse requires no support or assist- 
 ance from the hand until he is coming to the ground. 
 
 I have stated that, in theory, the rider should lean forward 
 during the time in which the horse is on his hind legs ; but, 
 in practice, this position is so momentary, and the spring from 
 the hind legs is so powerful, that it is dangerous to lean for- 
 ward at all, and would be difficult, if not impossible, to get 
 back in time to render the horse the assistance he needs when 
 his feet touch the ground. 
 
 The drawing shows the theoretical position of the rider, and 
 
 the danger of the same is apparent, should the horse not go 
 fair, or refuse to take his leap. 
 
 The hand and leg should at all times work together in guid- 
 ing the horse the hand will retain the head and neck in proper 
 position, while the leg will communicate the forward impulse. 
 
 It should also be remembered that the strongest part of the 
 horse and the center of action is a little in rear of his shoulder- 
 blades ; hence, riding rather forward in the saddle is a relief to 
 the horse, while leaning back and bearing upon his loins his 
 weakest part cause much fatigue. 
 
1 8 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 In all critical situations, with a horse addicted to bolting, 
 rearing, kicking, etc., the seat should be maintained as in leaps. 
 
 If the horse runs away do not devote your strength to vain 
 pulling, but guide him out of danger and let him run until he 
 is tired. For a bolting horse a Bucephalus nose-band is very 
 useful. 
 
 If he rears give him his head and lean forward. 
 
 If he kicks, sit firmly in the saddle and keep his head up. 
 
 Before mounting any horse, the rider should ascertain 
 whether the saddle and every article of equipment are good 
 and well fixed. 
 
 The shoes on a horse's feet have much to do with the com- 
 fort of both his rider and himself. Many horses are rendered 
 absolutely unserviceable by improper shoeing. 
 
 It should be one of the first duties of those having the man- 
 agement of horses to study the nature and structure of the 
 horse's foot and the best manner of keeping it shod. 
 
 The drawing represents the ground surface of the hoof pre- 
 pared for the shoe : a, a i, a 2, show the front, inner and outer 
 toe ; b i, b 2, show the inner and outer quarter ; c i, c 2, show 
 the inner and outer heel ; d, d, d, show the sole ; e, e, show the 
 crust or wall of the hoof ; f, f, show the bars ; g, g, show the 
 
The Horse. i 9 
 
 commissures ; h, k, 1, show the frog (h being immediately un- 
 der the navicular joint) ; i, i, show the bulbs of the heels. 
 
 If the following simple suggestions be followed, the horse 
 will carry his rider over rough roads and will not be in pain 
 while traveling. 
 
 Remove the old shoes, one at a time (withdrawing the 
 clenches), rasp the edge of the hoof all around and remove any 
 stubs that may be left in the crust. 
 
 Pare out the foot, without cutting the sides of the bars, 
 shaving the frog, or opening the heels. Neither heel nor frog 
 s lould be pared more than is necessary to remove what is ragged, 
 for no reproduction occurs here as in the case of the hoof. 
 
 If the horse has a low heel, the foot should be pared at the 
 toe only. Under no circumstances should the fore part of 
 the hoof be allowed to grow long ; if so, it is sure to throw the 
 horse very much on his heels, making them tender and causing 
 lameness, and also to strain the ligaments of the fetlock joints. 
 
 Do not select a shoe that is too light. A light shoe is apt to 
 bend long before it is worn out, and the consequent pain is 
 injurious to the horse. As a rule, select the short shoes for 
 the horses having short pasterns. 
 
 The ' seating ' should be carefully looked after at all times. 
 
 The nail-holes should be stamped so as to pass straigh^ 
 through the shoe, and come out in the flat of the web. 
 
 In this way the nail will come out low down in the thickest 
 part of the hoof, and give a strong clench (made out of the 
 shank of the nail), thus securing a firmer hold for the shoe, 
 without pricking the foot. 
 
 The soundness of the foot is greatly influenced by the 
 number of nails, and where they are placed. To prevent 
 unsoundness, the nails should be so placed as to allow the 
 foot to expand. The inner quarter and the heel of the hoof 
 expand the most, and should be left free from nails. 
 
 Pressure on the heels may be prevented by driving the nails, 
 toward the toe, a little tighter th an the heel nails. 
 
2o Mountain Scouting. 
 
 For a fore shoe, five nails are a sufficiency ; three on the out- 
 side and two on the inside. For rough roads,four on the out- 
 side might be advisable, but never more. 
 
 A ' clip ' should be turned UD at the toe to keep the shoe 
 steady and prevent its being forced back ; but one should 
 never appear at the side of the shoe, as it interferes with the 
 expansion of the hoofs. 
 
 A new shoe, turned up at. the toe, feels to the horse like an 
 old shoe and insures better traveling. 
 
 Be careful to have the shoe fitted to the foot, and not the 
 foot to the shoe, as is too often done. 
 
 The shoe should not project bevond the hoof at the sides 
 and in rear. Many shoes are lost through this fault ; more- 
 over, the projections will check the sinking of the pastern 
 bone, and cause the horse to step short. 
 
 To properly fit the shoe, it should be made hot enough to 
 scorch the hoof all around a hot shoe does not injure the 
 hoof. 
 
 The drawing shows an excellent form of front shoe and the 
 position of nail-holes ; a, a, show the heels, same thickness as 
 the rest of the shoe ; b, b, show the points at which the heels 
 
Th: House. 21 
 
 of hoof terminate ; c, c, show the seating ; d, e, show the posi- 
 tion of nail-holes. 
 
 After nailing on the shoe the clenches should not be trim- 
 med by rasping. The rasp should never be used above the 
 clenches, as it tears off the outer covering of the hoof thus 
 leaving the horn exposed to the air, when it soon becomes dry 
 and brittle and breaks off. 
 
 The functions of the hoof's covering are the same as those 
 of the finger-nail. 
 
 On a well formed foot, the horny crust is about one-half 
 inch thick at the edge and the angle formed by the front of 
 the foot and the horizontal surface should be fifty degrees. 
 
 In consequence of the weight of a horse falling differently 
 on the hind feet, certain strains of the hock and back sinews 
 should be guarded against by raising the heels of the shoe. 
 The hind-foot expands less than the fore-foot, and the inside 
 quarter and heel should be left free to expand. 
 
 The holes on the inside should be closer together than those 
 on the outside, and should be placed forward toward the toe. 
 Three nails on each side is sufficient to firmly hold the hind 
 shoe. A small hind-foot may be shod with three nails on the 
 outside and two on the inside. 
 
 The largest foot should never have more than seven nails. 
 
 The shoes should be removed, placed ii? the fire, and refitted 
 or replaced by new ones once a month. 
 
 Tender-footed horses travel better when the sole has a 
 leather, gutta-percha or water-proof felt covering. 
 
 Indian ponies, having very tough and elastic hoofs, can make 
 long journeys without being shod ; but if this is permitted, the 
 hoof soon wears so smooth that it is difficult for them to walk 
 on grass or rocks. 
 
 Horses that brush and kick should be furnished special 
 shoes. 
 
 In ' -ise of lameness, remove the shoe and carefully examine 
 the foot yourself. It avails nothing to direct a farrier to ex- 
 amine a foot that he himself has sh<l. 
 
22 Mountain Scouting, 
 
 In order that horses may stand up well they should be sur> 
 plied with nutritious forage. 
 
 Oats contain about three-fourths their weight of nutritious 
 matter. When good, they should be dry, sweet, heavy and rat- 
 tle like shot. They are most preferable when about one year 
 old. New oats are difficult to grind down, and often occa- 
 sion colic and staggers. All such, or those that are wet 
 and musty, should be kiln-dried before feeding. Oats possess 
 an invigorating principle not found in any other grain. Oat 
 meal in the form of gruel constitutes one of the most satisfac- 
 tory articles of food for the sick and tired horse. 
 
 Barley contains about nine-tenths its weight of nutritious 
 matter, but is not so good as oats as an article of food. Horses 
 fed upon it, are subject to mange, surfeit, and inflammatory 
 complaints. Barley straw induces diseases of the skin. 
 
 Hay should be one year old, if procurable, when fed. New 
 hay acts as a purgative. Old hay becomes dry, tasteless, in- 
 nutritive, and often mow-burnt, in which condition it becomes 
 really poisonous. Horses fed on such soon become languid, 
 hide-bound, worthless, and often victims of diabetes. Hay 
 must not be fed in too large quantities. Many diseases of the 
 horse are the results of over-feeding with hay. Horses are 
 prone to eat more than they should, hence it is necessary to 
 add grain containing more nutriment in a smaller compass. 
 
 Wheat contains more nutritious matter than barley and 
 more gluten than any other grain. It should be fed in small 
 quantities, or colic and fomentation will result. It is difficult 
 of digestion, and the horse fed on it should have but little hay 
 and water soon afterwards. 
 
 Peas and beans, in small quantities and about one year old. 
 are excellent articles of food for horses. They should be weii 
 crushed before feeding and generally fed with hay. If fed 
 alone, they might produce the megrims or staggers. 
 
 Carrots, when sliced and mixed with grain, make a splendid 
 provender for the horse, and are found to be very beneficial in 
 
The Horse. 23 
 
 all breathing and skin disorders, coughs and broken wind. 
 They should be fed in small quantities, as they are slightly 
 laxative and diuretic at rst. 
 
 Potatoes possess great virtue as an article of horse food. If 
 they are slightly steamed before feeding, horses will prefer 
 them to oats. If they are mixed with other provender, there 
 is a great saving in expense and an increased capability for 
 work. One acre of potatoes is equivalent to four acres of 
 hay. 
 
 I was first convinced in 1879 that potatoes (even raw) con- 
 stituted a most valuable article of food for horses. I had 
 made along journey, following the trail of a few marauding In- 
 dians, over very barren and rocky mountains. After traveling 
 three days without any grass or substantial food for the horses, 
 I camped on the south fork of the Salmon river. Near my 
 camp were the remains of a ranch to the extent of a small po- 
 tato patch. The Indians had murdered the owners and set fire 
 to the grass and buildings a few days before. I ordered the 
 herd to be turned into the potato patch, thinking that the 
 green potato tops would be better than nothing for them to eat. 
 It was not long before the males were discovered rooting up 
 the ground, like so many hogs, and eagerly devouring the raw 
 potatoes. The horses followed suit. The next day the march 
 was along one of twenty-five miles, over a hi^h and exceedingly 
 difficult mountain; but, notwithstanding, every animal went in- 
 to camp with a light and elastic step, holding his head high. 
 
 If the horse can be supplied a reasonably fair amount of nu- 
 tritious forage, and his feet be kept in proper condition, he is 
 not likely to become unserviceable in the field. 
 
 In mountainous countries some means should be contrived 
 to prevent horses from ' balling ' and slipping in winter and 
 from picking up stones in summer. The ' Wheeler Anti-Snow 
 Ball Pad and Hoof Protector ' is the best preventive for these 
 troubles that I ever used. 
 
24 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 The drawings show the form of this pad and the manner of 
 
 FORM OF PAD. 
 
 ADJUSTED PAD. 
 
 adjusting it. It is made in sizes to fit any foot, and is fitted 
 without removing the shoe. It is made, of vulcanized rubber 
 into which a brass spring with catches is molded. Neither 
 straps nor nails are required. When properly sprung into po- 
 sition (the frog uncovered) it cannot be thrown out by the 
 strongest actioned horse. 
 
The Rifle, 25 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE RIFLE. 
 
 WHILE drills, dress parades and guard-mountings make up 
 the rudiments of a soldier's education, the rifle and rifle prac- 
 tice should form the subjects of the first and most important 
 chapter. 
 
 I will not here go into the details of this interesting study, 
 but will confine my remarks to some of the errors and inac- 
 curacies of fire, susceptible of practical correction, chief among 
 which is that resulting from the miserable sights forced upon 
 the service rifle. 
 
 When firing in vacuo, the trajectory is easily traced and its 
 properties simply discussed. Considering its position with 
 reference to the line of sight it will be seen that near the muz- 
 zle it is below the line of sight for some distance, then it cuts 
 it ; beyond this point it rises above the line of sight for some 
 distance, then falls and cuts it again. This second point of 
 intersection is the point blank and determines the point blank 
 range. With a good rifle, up to 175 or even 200 yards, the line 
 of fire will not cut the line of sight ; or, in other words, it will 
 not shoot high. 
 
 In my practice with a 50 calibre Remington in a still and 
 light atmosphere, this point was found to be at an average dis- 
 tance of 183 feet from the muzzle. Now, inasmuch as it is 
 necessary, in order to hit an object within or beyond the point 
 blank, to aim below or above it certain distances, it is readily 
 seen how indispensable are the contrivances (sights) which will 
 so alter the point blank as to make it coincide with any object 
 directly aimed at. The range in vacuo equals ^~ in which x 
 and y are the horizontal and vertical components of the im- 
 
26 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 pulsive force, and g the acceleration due to the force of grav- 
 ity. From this we see that (velocity being constant) the range 
 will be the same when the angles of fire are equally distant 
 from 45 ; thus, angles of fire 36 and 54 will give the same 
 range. It is also seen that the range will be a maximum when 
 xy is a maximum, or when x=y, or when the angle of fire is 
 45. Also, that when the angle of fire is 45, the height of the 
 culminating point of the trajectory is equal to one-fourth the 
 range and is a maximum that it is o when the angle of fire 
 is o or 90. These simple laws of motion of a projectile in 
 vacuo are greatly modified when the movement is through air. 
 For instance, in air the maximum range with our service rifle 
 is attained with an- elevation of about 30 (while it is 45 in 
 vacuo). 
 
 The progressive velocity of fall of the bullet being so much 
 less than its initial velocity, the air resistance opposed to its 
 descent will be inappreciably small in comparison with that in 
 the direction of its motion of translation (the resistances being 
 proportional to the squares of the velocities). Hence, when 
 the bullet would have been at certain points, in vacuo, it will 
 in reality be at points below and in rear of them, by distances 
 increasing from the point of departure (since the resistance of 
 air causes the spaces passed over in equal times to become 
 progressively smaller and smaller), thus causing the trajectory 
 in air to be constantly below and in rear of its place in vacuo 
 and changing its curvature, so that the left branch presents a 
 flattened form while the right branch approaches the vertical. 
 From thus destroying the symmetry of this curve, there results 
 that the angle of fall is greater than the angle of ascent, and 
 more considerably so as it is distant f'rom the origin, that the 
 point of culmination is lowered, and that the range is greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 In practice the object aimed at has a certain height ; hence, 
 it will not only be struck when at point blank, but also when at 
 points in rear or in front of the point blank where the vertical 
 
The Rifle. 
 
 27 
 
 distances of the trajectory from such points shall be equal to 
 or less than the height of the object. This distance between 
 these two points, known as the dangerous space, is greater as 
 the trajectory is flattened or as the height of the object is 
 greater. 
 
 The illustration represents an object, P P', in advance of the 
 point blank, which is struck at P'. If it were at point blank, 
 it would be struck at P. An object may also be struck when 
 in rear of the point blank. The sum of the distances in front 
 and rear of the point blank, at which the object could be struck 
 at its bottom and top, is the dangerous space. This permits us 
 to make slight errors in estimating distances ; we can either 
 over or underestimate them so long as the errors do not exceed 
 the limits of the dangerous space. (Fbr dangerous spaces of 
 the service rifle and carbine see Chapter IV.) 
 
 I think I am echoing the opinions of our best sportsmen 
 when I say that the Remington rifles are far in advance of 
 others in the attempt to increase the dangerous space, and 
 hence the accuracy of the arm. 
 
28 Mountain Scouting* 
 
 The diagram shows how, with an equal Divergence of the 
 bullets in both cases, those having flat trajectories hit the 
 target, while the two having highly curved trajectories miss 
 it, the one striking above and the other below it. 
 
 In hunting, or when firing at an enemy over an unknown 
 distance, the importance of a flat trajectory is evident but it 
 is still important even where the distance is definitely known. 
 
 When firing at long range a delicate estimation of distance is 
 necessary to obtain accuracy of fire, even when using the best 
 and most accurately graduated sights. Any ordinary man can be 
 drilled to estimate distances up to 600 yards with great accuracy 
 and dispatch. Distances may be appreciated by the eye alone 
 or by the aid of instruments. The latter method is of no prac- 
 tical value in the field before an enemy, and should only be 
 employed on the drill ground as an aid where time is an im- 
 portant element. 
 
 The tige and stadia are * worthless, and should not be noticed. 
 
 The stadiometer is but little superior. The form described 
 by General Wingate is the best. 
 
 The writer's stadiometer, the principle of which is based on 
 the proportionality of the corresponding sides of similar tri- 
 angles and an application of the plummets, does good work on 
 an undulating and broken drill ground, where actual chain 
 measurement would be impracticable if not impossible. Pro- 
 longed practice and experience in the appreciation of distances 
 are necessary to give the coup axil that insures sufficient ac- 
 curacy. The practice should be conducted over smooth, 
 broken and undulating ground, and frequently from elevated 
 points. The distances should also be estimated in all direc- 
 tions as regards light and the condition of the atmosphere. 
 
 The following are the important causes which vary the direc- 
 tion and intensity of the forces acting on the bullet, and which 
 may be greatly obviated by carefulness and an understanding 
 of the subject : 
 
 i. A frequent cause of inaccuracy of fire is a false or defect- 
 
The Rifle. 29 
 
 ive barrel, short swells and long depressions being often found 
 on its interior. These swells or ridges, by increasing the fric- 
 tion, may so affect the recoil as to have an injurious effect on 
 the fire, or so affect the exterior form of the bullet as to pro- 
 duce an irregularity in its motion. The depressions or swells 
 change the interior lines of the piece and give the bullet a false 
 direction. 
 
 2. Another cause of inaccuracy of fire is the vibration of the 
 barrel when firing, caused by the want of a homogeneous dis- 
 tribution of metal about its axis, and often to binding bands. 
 These vibrations tend to alter the direction of the bullet as it 
 leaves the muzzle. 
 
 3. Recoil causes the man to turn to the side from which he 
 fires, and produces deviation in that direction. It is supported 
 by pressing the butt firmly against the shoulder with the right 
 hand, the left hand supporting the weight of the rifle, and varies 
 with the position of the rifle relative to the horizontal, being a 
 maximum when the shot is fired vertically upward. The shock 
 of the recoil against the shoulder is diminished by the bend in 
 the stock, serving to decompose the force into two components, 
 one acting through the stock against the shoulder, the other in. 
 the direction of the axis of the barrel, tending to raise it. 
 Whatever lessens the recoil theoretically increases the range 
 The recoil is only 95 Ibs. for the Remington rifle (70 grains 
 powder and bullet of 450 grains), while in our service rifle, 
 caliber .45, it is 174 Ibs. 
 
 4. When the bullet reaches the muzzle of the rifle, it will 
 revolve about its axis nearly 800 times in a second, and a point 
 on its exterior side surface will have an axial velocity of about 
 ninety feet per second. This in connection with the resistance 
 of the air produces a lateral drifting of the bullet in the direc- 
 tion in which the grooves have a turn. This is known as 
 drift, and is greater in the descending than in the ascending 
 branch of the trajectory. It increases as the diameter of the 
 bullet, the angle of fire, the velocity of rotation and the range 
 
30 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 increase, and as the velocity of translation decreases. The 
 drift in our service rifle (caliber .45, seventy grains powder) at 
 500 yards is two feet. 
 
 5. The pull of the trigger should not be too great, a three- 
 pound pull being the minimum. It should be pressed by a 
 steadily increasing pressure of the. finger in the direction of the 
 axis of the barrel, without communicating motion to the rifle, 
 the breath being held until the hammer falls. If the trigger is 
 too hard and is pulled convulsively, the muzzle will be turned 
 to the right. There should be a quick and decided connec- 
 tion between the mind and finger. Few men can pull off 
 the trigger of our average service rifle with the first joint of a 
 single finger. I have frequently supported the whole weight 
 of the rifle, at full cock, on the trigger, without pulling it off, 
 and I consider this a very serious defect. Every man should 
 invariably fire his own and the same gun, in order to become 
 acquainted with its defects of construction, and learn how to 
 make allowances for consequent deviations from the theoretical 
 trajectory. 
 
 6. The principal cause of the inaccuracy of fire of our ser- 
 vice rifle is that it is sighted too coarsely. Without apparent 
 movement, this rifle may be sighted on any object within a 
 horizontal radius of many feet. It seems that very little atten- 
 tion has been paid to this most important part of the rifle's 
 construction. If our rifle is to be furnished with the rough, 
 
 and too frequently misplaced, plain bead fore- 
 sight and open rear-sight, we certainly have no 
 right to look for good shots in the Army. I 
 think it would be well to follow the Remington system in this 
 matter. 
 
 Replace the present bead sight by the ' Beach Combination 
 Sight,' which is such that it forms either an 
 open bead or a globe sight with cover, ac- 
 cording as the leaf is turned up or down, 
 thus adapting it either to hunting or target 
 use (and if I mistake not our frontier field 
 
The Rifle. 31 
 
 service is more on the order of hunting than range practice). 
 The globe of this sight is so constructed as to permit the 
 use of all descriptions of sights, detachable pieces of the 
 various forms in use being slipped into a slot in the globe 
 and held by a screw 
 
 The four sights represented seem to be favorites with the 
 best long-range shots. 
 
 A spirit-level and wind gauge adjustment may be attached to 
 this sight, and insure any degree of nicety. 
 
 Then replace the open rear-sight by such a sight as is found 
 on the Remington-Creedmore rifle and represented on the fol- 
 lowing page one provided with a vernier scale operated by 
 a screw' that will accurately mark an alteration of less than 
 tSie one-hundredth of an inch in the elevation, each minute of 
 elevation on the scale corresponding to about one inch for 
 each 100 yards of range, and we will have a system of sights 
 in keeping with our rifle and the efficiency of the arm will be 
 assured. There is nothing objectionable in such sights, and 
 their adjustment is extremely simple. To adjust the rear 
 sight, the eye-piece is first loosened, then after the sight is 
 properly set by means of the screw, the eye-piece is tightened 
 and holds the slide firmly, irrespective of the screw, which 
 is intended only for convenience in adjusting the eye-piece. 
 
 We have an excellent rifle, handy in itself and a hard shoot- 
 er, but its sights have annoyed every officer who has had oc- 
 casion to use it. 
 
 Before proceeding I will call attention to a rear sight made 
 by William Lyman, of Middleford, Conn., which is most ex- 
 cellent. I can do better shooting with it than with any other, 
 when the target is a moving object. 
 
 When aiming, it has the appearance of a ring or hoop, which 
 shows the front sight and the object aimed at, without inter- 
 
J/.VY/ h lain Scouting 
 
The Rifle. 
 
 33 
 
 cepting any part of the view. Its rim may be instantly changed 
 to give it a large aperture with a narrow rim, or a small aperture 
 with a wider rim. For all quick shooting the large aperture 
 should be used. It possesses the following advantages : it allows 
 an instantaneous aim to be taken the object being sighted as 
 quickly as if only the front sight were used ; it readily permits 
 one to shoot moving objects, running or flying, with both the 
 eyes in use ; it is also very accurate, simple and strong. Any 
 kind of front sight may be used with it, and it may be put on any 
 rifle in the same way that a peep sight is attached and adjusted 
 for shooting any distance up to 1,000 yards. 
 
 The engraving shows the manner of its construction. 
 
34 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 7. It will be readily seen that a defective position of the 
 line of sight will cause an inaccuracy of fire, and this may be 
 occasioned by a false position being given to either the front 
 or rear sight. If the front sight be to the right of its proper 
 place, the bullet will go to the left and vice versa. The bullet 
 will also be raised (range increased), since the top of the sight is 
 lower than it is when in its proper position. If the rear sight 
 be to the right or left of its true place, the bullet will go to the 
 right or left, and will be lowered (range diminished), since 
 the top of the sight will be lower than when in its true posi- 
 tion. 
 
 8. A very frequent cause of inaccuracy of fire is the incor- 
 rect graduation of the rear sight. Of course, if the elevations 
 corresponding to certain ranges are not accurately marked, 
 the fire will be wild. In determining the graduation .for any 
 particular rifle, avoid all proportions and make a series of ex- 
 periments with the greatest care. With a properly made arm 
 and cartridge, and the elevating sight accurately graduated, 
 any one can, by care and practice, become a good marks- 
 man. 
 
 9. A serious cause of inaccuracy, originating with the firer, 
 is the faulty position that he gives to the musket in firing, by 
 inclining to the right or left, which tends to carry the bullet to 
 the side to which the rifle is inclined, and to diminish the 
 range. When firing at long ranges a trifling inclination to the 
 right or left will throw the bullet very wide of the target. 
 
 10. To prevent inaccuracies while aiming, in addition to keep- 
 ing the sight vertical, the firer should observe the following : 
 
 The eye should glance from the sights to the target, being 
 constantly on the target. 
 
 If the particular rifle carries higher or lower than the aver- 
 age, it must be remedied by aiming with a fine or a coarse 
 sight. In aiming raise the rifle. Upward motion acts against 
 gravity, and has a tendency to prevent any lateral motion of 
 ;he muzzle. 
 
The Kiflc. 35 
 
 Held the butt firmly against the shoulder, and do not turn 
 the head away at the instant of pulling the trigger. Fire low 
 rather than too high. 
 
 u. After firing a few shots on a dry, hot day, the /bullets 
 gradually fall lower and lower, in consequence of the fouling 
 of the barrel. The barrel should be kept clean and, as far as 
 possible, not over-heated. 
 
 12. The condition of the atmosphere noticeably affects 
 the course of the bullet. The more moisture there is in the 
 air, the less the elevation required. The bullet is frequently 
 noticed to fall immediately after a rain. Warm air offers less 
 resistance to the bullet than does cold air. A fall of 20 in 
 temperature will cause the bullet to lower ten or eleven 
 inches at 300 yards range. In firing over water the elevation 
 must be. increased, in consequence of the lower temperature of 
 the air over the water. In ascending the mountain the air be- 
 comes more and more rare, and consequently the resistance to 
 the bullet is less on the mountain than at its base. Mirage, an 
 optical illusion occurring in level districts on very warm days, 
 causes the target to apparently raise in the air and become 
 distorted in shape. This materially affects such objects as are 
 near the ground, and engenders a tendency to shoot too 
 high. 
 
 13. The influence of light and shade on the firing is 
 very remarkable. On a bright day the target is refracted so as 
 to apparently stand higher, which would theoretically require 
 a lower elevation than on a very dull day. When the light 
 shines directly on the target, when the target is against a light 
 background (so that the details are better brought out), when 
 the sun shines on the firer's back, when the atmosphere is clear, 
 when the ground is level and uniform in appearance or when it 
 gradually rises toward the target, the same will appear much 
 nearer, and will theoretically require a higher elevation. The 
 best shooting is invariably done on cloudy days when the 
 sun's light is evenly diffused. It is very difficult to shoot well 
 
36 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 when passing clouds intercept portions of the sun's light and 
 heat. It is readily seen how this disturbance might set up cur- 
 rents in the air which would tend to carry the bullet from its 
 course, and how the rays of light deflected from their course 
 before reaching the eye would cause the target to apparently 
 occupy a false position. It will be well to diminish the ele- 
 vation should the sun suddenly appear and light up the target 
 while the firer still remains in the shade, and to increase it 
 should the target remain in the shade while the sun shines on 
 the firer. 
 
 14. Bright sights and barrels are obviously objectionable. 
 The reflection of the sun's light on the sights causes them to 
 appear as brilliant points and precludes the possibility of an 
 accurate aim. If the sun's rays come laterally the trouble will 
 be yet greater, inasmuch as they will brighten the rear side of 
 the front sight and the opposite side of the rear sight notch 
 and cause a tendency to shoot away from the sun. 
 
 The refraction of the sun's rays from the polished barrel 
 causes the target to become indistinct and to assume the 
 appearance of motion. The sights and barrel about the muzzle 
 should be blackened with smoke if nothing better is at hand. 
 
 15. The effect of the wind upon the trajectory and the allow- 
 ance to be made therefor are most troublesome questions for 
 the marksman. Winds are generally classified as follows : 
 
 Gentle, 4 n iles per hour. 
 
 Moderate, 10 miles per hour. 
 
 Fresh, 20 miles per hour. 
 
 Strong, 35 miles per hour. 
 
 Very high, 50 miles per hour. 
 
 Gale, 80 miles per hour. 
 
 Inasmuch as the wind is continually changing in intensity 
 and direction, it is almost impossible to make tables of allow- 
 ances for it. The best skill and judgment of the marksman 
 are brought into play when firing in mountain districts, where 
 there are many cross-currents with which to contend. All 
 
The Rifle. 37 
 
 winds, except toward the target, retard the bullet and render 
 a higher elevation necessary. A wind from the rear helps the 
 bullet and tends to high shooting. Experience has shown it 
 necessary to alter the wind gauge twelve or more feet between 
 two consecutive shots over a range of 1,000 yards, in order to 
 make a bull's eye each time, when the wind was too high or 
 variable. The inclination is generally to under-estimate for 
 wind allowance, nearly every one disliking to aim far away 
 from the target. I believe that any one with a good mind and 
 clear sight, possessing nerve, coolness and a quick connection 
 between will and finger, can by practice and endeavors to cor- 
 rect the inaccuracies pointed out in this chapter, do good 
 shooting. 
 
 The enlisted men in our service are anxious to learn how to 
 shoot well, and in the majority of cases are very apt scholars. 
 It is only necessary that the officers teach them the practical 
 correction of the errors, which they are to investigate theoreti- 
 cally. 
 
 In Busk's ' Hand-book for Hythe ' it is stated that " one 
 hour a day of private practice in aiming drill will, in a few 
 weeks, make a man a first-class shot." I believe this, for the 
 position and the aiming drills constitute the very foundation 
 of any system of practice. It is an absurd mistake in our ser- 
 vice to have recruits fire off-hand at a target one hundred yards 
 distant, when they scarcely know the difference between a 
 rifle and a shotgun, and cannot hit a barn-door thirty paces 
 distant with either. 
 
 H. M. Quackenbush, of Herkimer, N. Y., manufactures an 
 air rifle, which, in my opinion, is excellent for practice. I am 
 confident if it was adopted at the various posts as a means of 
 practice in short range shooting, it would be of great benefit to 
 the soldier. 
 
 The drawing illustrates its principle and shows the gun 
 loaded, ready to shoot. Pulling the trigger releases the piston 
 , which is then thrown forward by the spring, expelling the 
 
Mountain Scouting. 
 
 air from the chamber (C) through the barrel (E) with great 
 force, carrying the dart or slug before it. To load, the barrel 
 (E) is pushed into the chamber (C) which re-sets the piston 
 
 and compresses the spring, as above shown. The barrel 
 is then withdrawn until the opening (/) in it corresponds 
 with the opening in the head at (O) so that the dart or slug may 
 
The Rifle. 39 
 
 be inserted, after which the barrel is to be drawn out as far as 
 possible, as shown. The barrel is easily pushed into the 
 chamber, by placing the muzzle upon the floor or against some 
 firm object, as shown in the drawing. 
 
 Having learned by practice the capabilities of the rifle, care 
 must be exercised in its preservation. Mercurial ointment or 
 belmontyle oil is an excellent preventive of rusting of the 
 barrels and gun furniture sweet oil frequently ' gums' and is 
 not so good. Spirits of turpentine is good for cleaning the 
 interior. 
 
 A good vegetable oil for the locks and small parts may be 
 obtained by pouring a handful of shot or a few bullets into a 
 bottle of oil, and allowing it to remain in the air uncorked for 
 several days, when the clear oil on top is drawn off for use. 
 
 The stock is frequently broken, in the field, and it is often 
 difficult for either a smith or a carpenter to mend it. This is 
 best accomplished by rawhide lashings. I have seen stocks, 
 broken into splinters when struck by bullets, mended and 
 made as strong as ever by rawhide sewn around them and left to 
 dry. Tendons and stout fish skins may be used for like pur- 
 poses. Often, instead of sewing, the skin of an animal's leg 
 may be drawn over the stock and left to dry and contract. 
 When the soldier, in haste or in the dark, snatches up his 
 rifle without his cartridge belt, he is often annoyed by its 
 becoming useless after the first discharge. This might be 
 obviated by making fast to the rifle a small sack carrying a 
 few cartridges, or by letting a spring locker into the butt of 
 the stock for the same purpose. In the absence of both of 
 these precautions the soldier should at all times carry a few 
 loose cartridges in his pocket. 
 
 When it is necessary to fire at night, when the sights cannot 
 be distinctly seen, a dampened lucifer match should be rubbed 
 on the top of the front sight and on the bottom of the notch 
 of the rear sight. 
 
40 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 In case the rear sight is replaced by one with a more ac- 
 curate graduation, care should be taken not to place it too 
 near the eye, else it might become out of focus and indistinct 
 when the eye is directed at the object aimed at. 
 
 It is a good rule to carry the rifle at half-cock, and never 
 allow it to point at any one, whether loaded or not.* 
 
 * Those desiring a more thorough knowledge, of this subject are 
 referred to the excellent work of General George W. Wingate. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 41 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL HINTS. 
 
 Peculiar and local diseases prevail in nearly every section 
 of country ; and wounds from gun-shot and weapons, 
 bruised and broken bones, are casualties that may befall 
 men in the field at any time. It is, therefore, important for 
 those in command to have, in all cases of emergency, a suf- 
 ficient knowledge of medicine and practical surgery to en- 
 able them to relieve the sick and wounded (both men and 
 horses) until professional aid can be secured. 
 
 Before taking the field, for a long or indefinite period, if 
 the transportation will permit, see that you have compactly 
 stored, in good shape for packing, the following articles : 
 a case of pocket surgical instruments, consisting of, at least, 
 a lancet, scalpel, small knife, forceps and scissors ; a few 
 rolls of sticking and adhesive plaster ; some silk, needles 
 and waxed thread ; an assortment of bandages, splints, 
 sponges and some red flannel ; some lint, oil- silk and tow ; 
 a flask of wine or brandy ; a hypodermic injection syringe ; 
 a tourniquet and small cup ; blue mass, quinine, opium 
 and cathartic, put up in usual doses ; a little chloroform, 
 laudanum, hartshorn, camphor, solution of morphia, iodine, 
 tincture of chloride of iron, chloride of lime, tincture of 
 myrrh and aloes, tincture of arnica (excellent for strains 
 and contusions), spirits of nitre, ammonia and turpentine ; 
 sulphates of iron, zinc and copper ; pulverized indigo, car- 
 ron oil, saltpetre, tartar emetic, nitrate of potash, prepared 
 chalk, tincture of opium and catechu, cantharides (in pow- 
 der), sugar of lead, acetic acid and powdered mustard ; 
 emetics and aperients (mild and powerful) ; nitrate of silver 
 
42 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 in a holder ; cold cream or glycerine (cooling for irritated 
 surfaces) ; a cordial for diarrhoea, a sudorific (Dover's 
 powders excellent), and some simple cerate or a mixture of 
 wax and lard ; some alum, Jamaica ginger, castor oil, lin- 
 seed oil and meal, flaxseed, and an assortment of cathartic, 
 diuretic, sedative, febrifuge and alterative 'balls'; also 
 some astringent ointment (one part acetate of lead and 
 three parts of lard), hoof ointment (equal parts of tar and 
 lard) and strong liniment. 
 
 I would urge that each soldier, on going into the field, 
 carry on his person, in a waterproof pocket or envelope, a 
 bandage and piece of lint such a precaution will often avoid 
 much suffering. 
 
 If easily procured, any of the following excellent dress- 
 ings and disinfectants against decomposition of wound 
 discharge swill be found very useful ; carbolic acid (in 
 weak solution), permanganate of potash (applied with 
 glass syringe), chloride of zinc (in weak solution), chloride 
 of lime (as a lotion), and charcoal (powdered and sprinkled 
 on the poultice). 
 
 The fracture or dislocation of a limb is the most frequent 
 of all accidents attending a mountain journey. A mis-step 
 of the traveler or a fall of the horse often results in this 
 mishap. 
 
 For the benefit of those who are not informed as to the 
 shapes and locations of the most exposed bones of the body, 
 I will produce on the opposite page an accurate illustration 
 of those in the upper and lower extremities. 
 
 Referring to the arm is seen H, the shoulder blade ; N, 
 the clavicle ; O, the humerus ; Q, the ulna ; P, the radius; 
 R, the carpus ; S, the meta-carpus ; T, the phalanges. 
 
 Referring to the leg is seen C, the femur ; E, the fibula ; 
 D, the tibia ; F, the heel-bone ; G, the tarsus ; H, the 
 meta-tarsus ; I, the phalanges. 
 
 By carefully observing the shapes and positions of these 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 
 
 4-i 
 
44 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 bones, any one might reset the parts, place the splints and 
 greatly alleviate the suffering in the absence of the surgeon. 
 
 When fractures occur and there are no splints at hand, 
 they must be improvised from such materials as may be 
 found. If the thigh be fractured, a rifle may be used for a 
 splint, placing its butt in the axilla, and allowing it to pr.ss 
 along the outside of the limb, being secured by bandages 
 around the trunk and ankle. 
 
 A fractured leg may be secured with a splint of any de- 
 scription placed along its outside and the whole then 
 wrapped in a coat or blanket and made fast by straps. 
 
 It is a splendid plan to tie the fractured leg at the ankles, 
 and convenient points, to the uninjured leg, and rest it on a 
 knapsack or piece of board. Coats, blankets or some soft 
 material should be placed underneath the leg. In this 
 manner the two legs will move as one and the broken bone 
 will not injure the flesh. 
 
 A fractured leg may be 'put up' with a gun stock or 
 sword scabbard even a roll of straw or grass makes a good 
 temporary splint. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 45 
 
 A fracture of the arm may be ' put up ' with a bayonet 
 scabbard or with thin bundles of straw or grass. Light 
 pieces of board, bark or even the soles of shoes or boots 
 are often useful for splints. The fore-arm should be care- 
 fully supported in a sling. Often a severe shock or collapse 
 from pain or nervous fear follows the fracture, in which 
 case a stimulant (whisky and water) should be adminis- 
 tered. 
 
 Dislocated and broken ribs are often the results of falls 
 and other accidents. The following illustration shows the 
 
 normal position of the ribs and adjacent bones a is the 
 breast-bone ; c. c. c. the ribs, which are fastened at one end 
 to the spine b. ., and at the other end are attached to the 
 breast-bone by means of strips of cartilage, d. d. d ; e is the 
 collar bone. There are twelve (12) ribs on each side, all of 
 different lengths the shortest are at the top and have the 
 smallest curves ; descending they increase in length to the 
 seventh, which is the longest, then decrease. The last two 
 
46 Mountain Scouting 
 
 have no cartilages, are very short, and are attached to the 
 spine only. 
 
 The following drawing shows the formation of the pelvis, 
 and the sacrum, which supports the spine. 
 
 It is frequently injured by gun-shots, and it might be well 
 to bear in. mind its form and position. 
 
 To know how to arrest bleeding is all-important, as life 
 may often be saved by promptly adopting simple means. 
 
 Bleeding may be from veins or from arteries. In the first 
 case the blood is of a dark color, and flows slowly in a 
 stream towards the heart ; in the second case it is of a 
 bright red color, forcibly issues in jets, and is in. a direction 
 from the heart. 
 
 In ordinary venous hemorrhage, such as the bursting of 
 a varicose vein, the bleeding may be stopped by pressure or 
 elevation of the limb. Should there be any difficulty in 
 checking it, ligatures should be applied. 
 
 When the bleeding is arterial the limb should be firmly 
 grasped by both hands above the wound, so as to cut off 
 the current from the heart by firmly compressing the 
 wounded vessel against the bone, until a tourniquet may be 
 applied. 
 
 A temporary tourniquet may be adjusted by placing a flat 
 or roundish stone over the course of the artery and above 
 the wound, between it and the center of circulation, holding 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 4y 
 
 it in situ by means of a band, handkerchief, string or thong, 
 the ends of which are securely tied. A stick or bayonet is 
 then passed through the band or thong and twisted round 
 and round several times, until the band is so tightened as to 
 press the stone forcibly on the artery, which, being com- 
 pressed against the main bone of the limb, will cut off the 
 passage of blood through the vessel. If the bleeding be 
 from the hand, fore-arm or arm, apply the tourniquet or 
 bandage near the shoulder. If from the foot, leg or thigh, 
 apply it between the knee and hip. 
 
 As a rule the main arteries are so placed that they are 
 not likely to be reached and injured ; they are deep in the 
 flesh, and follow the courses of the inner seams of the coat 
 sleeves and pants. Thus the main artery of the arm runs 
 from the axilla down the inner side of the arm, at the lower 
 edge of the biceps muscle, to the end of the elbow ; that of 
 the thigh runs from midway the groin, down the inner side 
 of the thigh, under the deeper muscles to the back of the 
 thigh near the ham. 
 
 Ice, if convenient, may be applied to wounds of small 
 vessels, with good results, causing a rapid congelation 
 of the blood. Hot water will accomplish the same, and is 
 far preferable if the patient be feeble. When the patient 
 becomes faint and insensible from loss of blood, he should 
 be placed flat on his back, with his head low. Cautery may 
 be resorted to when the tourniquet fails to do its work. 
 
 The accompanying drawing will serve to show the at- 
 
 tachment of the muscles a b to the bone, the functions of 
 ligaments and the manner in which the arteries are covered 
 and protected by the muscles. 
 
48 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 In resetting a strong and muscular limb it is often neces- 
 sary to keep up a great strain on the muscles in order to 
 weary them and cause them to relax, when the bone may be 
 set with less difficulty. 
 
 Besides the wounds caused by gun-shots, a person in the 
 field is liable to a great variety of others, which might be 
 classified according to the nature of the article or weapon 
 with which they are inflicted, as incised, punctured, lacer- 
 ated and contused. 
 
 Incised wounds, such as are made by a sword or knife, 
 should be carefully cleansed, all extraneous substances re- 
 moved, the edges brought together, adhesive plaster applied, 
 and the muscles near by relaxed. 
 
 Punctured wounds, such as are made by bayonets, pointed 
 rocks, etc., very often excite inflammation in their vicinity, 
 cause formation of matter under the fascia and frequently 
 result in hemorrhage. The wounded part should be kept 
 at rest, all sub-cutaneous oozing of the blood prevented, and 
 an exit made for the discharge. If suppuration sets in, 
 an incision should be made at once in order to let out the 
 pus. Probing in search of extraneous matter is very hurtful. 
 
 Lacerated wounds, such as are inflicted by blunt and 
 obtuse bodies, are invariably attended with severe pain, are 
 slow in healing, and are very liable to gangrene. They 
 should be thoroughly cleansed, all foreign bodies removed 
 and the flaps of torn skin replaced as far as possible. A 
 good poultice and disinfectant should be applied to the 
 wound. 
 
 Contused wounds, such as are produced by any blows with- 
 out breaking the skin, should be attended to without delay, 
 the parts restored to the normal state by a few days of rest, 
 and some stimulating liniment applied. 
 
 For a contusion of the head, apply cold water, administer 
 cathartics, make the diet light, take no stimulants and re- 
 main quiet. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 49 
 
 For scalp wounds, cleanse the exposed surfaces and re- 
 place the torn scalp the parts will generally heal ; if 
 abcesses form they should be evacuated by timely incisions. 
 
 In the treatment of wounds the diet should be carefully 
 atten led to. In cases like a wounded lung it is necessary 
 to reduce the patient to nearly a state of starvation. 
 
 The most excruciating pains from shots are readily re- 
 lieved by the hypodermic injection of a solution of morphia. 
 Ice, if procurable, will subdue inflammatory symptoms. 
 No description of spirits should be poured upon a bleeding 
 wound, as it only serves to irritate and influence it. 
 
 A wounded man is always thirsty ; give him cold water, 
 but never spirits. 
 
 The following remedies may often be used to great 
 advantage : 
 
 -Scurvy may be prevented by using the following anti- 
 scorbutics : 
 
 1. Fresh vegetables, wild onions, fresh fruit, and even un- 
 ripe fruit, with a risk of diarrhoea. 
 
 2. Dried or canned vegetables, especially potatoes and 
 cauliflower. 
 
 3. Vinegar, citric acid or lemon juice. 
 
 4. Citrates, malates, tartrates and lactates of potash, used 
 in food or drink. 
 
 5. Pure air, exercise and cleanliness. 
 
 6. Tincture of chloride of iron, taken daily, or infusion 
 of hemlock leaves. 
 
 7. Raw potatoes and fresh raw meat. 
 
 Malaria should be promptly checked. Quinine in suffici- 
 ent doses is the remedy. A halt to the leeward of a marsh 
 or swamp should be avoided. A camp on low ground is 
 often less affected by malaria than the low hills that over- 
 look it. Violent exertion, resulting in exhaustion and 
 perspiration often averts an attack, and any simple aperient 
 is likewise good. 
 
50 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Diarrhoea may be treated with an ounce of castor oil and 
 fifteen drops of laudanum suspended in water. The patient 
 should eat neither bread nor meat, but confine his diet to a 
 little rice broth, thickened milk and the like. If it is ac- 
 companied by severe cramps, apply hot rocks or pans to the 
 feet and hot fomentations to the stomach. 
 
 Poisoned persons must be treated with the greatest 
 caution, inasmuch as it is necessary to deal with dangerous 
 remedies. Some poisons are best ejected by vomiting, and 
 an emetic should be promptly given ; in others, the action 
 on the stomach may be diminished by oily and mucilaginous 
 drinks, such as magnesia, milk and oil, barley water, flour 
 and water and raw eggs. 
 
 For poisonous acids, such as nitric, oxalic, muriatic or 
 sulphuric acid, avoid emetics. For nitrate of silver, give 
 plenty of salt water, followed by barley water or gruel. 
 
 For strychnine, narcotic poisons, opium, mushrooms, 
 belladonna, etc., give strong emetics at once, pour cold 
 water on the head, neck and shoulders, place mustard poul- 
 tices on the feet and keep the person moving about, giving 
 strong coffee as a stimulant. 
 
 Water should always accompany the emetic, to make the 
 vomiting easy, and great effort made to prevent the patient 
 from becoming drowsy and stupid. A charge of gunpowder 
 swallowed in water, mustard in hot water, or warm soap- 
 suds are prompt emetics. 
 
 In the absence of all these a careful tickling of the throat 
 often does the work. 
 
 The following are good poultices : Mustard poultice 
 two ounces powdered mustard, two ounces linseed meal, 
 eight ounces boiling water ; Charcoal poultice one-third 
 ounce charcoal, two ounces bread, one ounce linseed meal, 
 eight ounces boiling water. 
 
 For suffocation by gases, etc., remove the patient to pure 
 air, apply cold water to the face and chest, rub the body 
 
Medical and Surgic-al Hints. 51 
 
 lively, give hot coffee or spirits, and endeavor to induce 
 artificial respiration. 
 
 To revive an apparently drowned man, proceed as set 
 forth in the Appendix. 
 
 For sore and blistered feet, strong whisky and melted 
 tallow rubbed on the foot, which is afterwards covered with 
 a sock, act well. Great relief is found in tepid bathing, a 
 small quantity of alum or salt being dissolved in the water. 
 The feet should be washed daily, while on the inarch, and 
 both the feet and inside of the stockings should be well 
 soaped. In severe cases of soreness, a raw egg broken in 
 the boot before putting it on is a splendid antidote. Blis- 
 ters of the feet should not be opened, but a thread should 
 be drawn through them and the liquid allowed to run off. 
 If the foot soreness is simply owing to bad boots or socks, 
 relief may be often found by changing the boots and socks 
 from one foot to the other, and turning the stockings inside 
 out. 
 
 Chafing is remedied by keeping the parts clean and pow- 
 dering with fuller's earth. Sprains are relieved by hot 
 fomentations and by rags kept saturated with cold water 
 and bound round the parts. 
 
 Burns and scalds are treated by keeping them from ex- 
 posure to the air and applying carron oil (a mixture of equal 
 parts of oil and lime water), flour, or scraped potatoes. 
 
 Snow blindness is an affection to be met with in all 
 mountainous localities where there are glaring sheets of 
 snow. Some persons are simply blind, others experience 
 great pain, the lips chapping and the face and exposed parts 
 severely blistering. 
 
 A person having once experienced snow blindness, is 
 subject to frequent attacks. 
 
 Green or blue glasses and a green lined broad brimmed 
 hat give the eye protection. In the absence of glasses, wet 
 powder and grease, or charcoal, smeared on the nose and 
 nhvit the eves, will afford much relief 
 
5 2 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 A few drops of opium, in tincture, placed within the eye- 
 lids will also afford relief 
 
 Water and weak brandy is an excellent eye-wash. 
 
 For sunstroke, remove the collar and stock, loosen the 
 shirt and coat, and continue to throw cold water on the head 
 and spine until consciousness returns. 
 
 For wasp and scorpion stings, etc., extract the sting, if it 
 remains in the wound, and rub acetic acid, the nicotine from 
 a pipe or chewed tobacco, upon the wound. 
 
 Rattlesnakes and venomous reptiles are met with on nearly 
 every mountain trail. Rattlesnakes seldom bite (except in 
 August, when they are blind and snap at anything), yet it is 
 well to know the antidotes. 
 
 The Western mountaineers place great dependence on 
 strong whisky. The action of the poison seems to counter- 
 act the effects of the whisky, and a very large quantity may 
 be taken without causing intoxication. No time should be 
 lost in administering the spirits. 
 
 Hartshorn applied externally and taken internally, in 
 small doses, is a good remedy. 
 
 Plantain leaves finely chewed and applied to the wound, 
 after sucking out the poison, are also good. 
 
 Pulverized indigo made into a soft poultice will draw out 
 the poison when applied to the wound. The poison turns 
 the indigo white. When the indigo ceases to change color 
 it is a sign that the poison has been withdrawn. 
 
 In the absence of antidotes, tie a ligature as firmly as pos- 
 sible above the wounded part, suck the wound, if the mouth 
 and lips be free from sores, and caustic it. If no caustic be 
 at hand, explode gunpowder into the wound, or burn it out 
 with the end of a bayonet or ramrod heated to a white heat, 
 avoiding the arteries. 
 
 Use every effort to prevent the patient from falling into 
 the lethargy and drowsiness that always follow. 
 
 The following cruel course is taken by the Indians of the 
 

 Medical and Surgical Hints. 53 
 
 Northwest in treating a poisonous bite : a bird or animal 
 with a quick circulation of the blood is secured, an incision 
 is made into the flesh of the creature and placed in contact 
 with the wound. The bird or animal soon dies. This is 
 repeated several times until the contact produces no effect, 
 when the victim is considered out of all danger. A ban- 
 dage is generally placed between the wound and the heart 
 to prevent the return of venous blood. 
 
 A few years since an Indian scout was riding with me, 
 several miles in advance of the command. While crossing 
 a timbered ridge we came upon a number of 'fool-hens.' 
 Not wishing to fire shots, we secured long poles and began 
 to knock them off the logs and trees. As the unfortunate 
 Indian stooped to pick up his first bird, not dead, but merely 
 stunned, an immense rattlesnake struck him on the back of 
 the left hand. Without hesitation he made an incision in 
 the breast of the fool-hen and applied it to the wound. At 
 his request I secured four other birds, which he used in like 
 manner. Three died from the poison ; the fourth one 
 was not affected by it, but was subsequently killed and 
 eaten. The Indian continued in good health, and never ex- 
 perienced any suffering or inconvenience from the bite. 
 Indians have been known to sacrifice their dogs and even 
 horses in this manner, when no bird or other animal could 
 be secured. , 
 
 On taking the field, provision should always be made for 
 transport for the sick and wounded, in case there be any. 
 If wagons are to accompany the command, one or more 
 should be so fitted up as to be easily converted into ambu- 
 lances in cases of emergency. 
 
 The drawing represents such a contrivance. The two 
 stretchers shown are detachable, and may be placed inside 
 the wagon when moving over level roads, or may be removed 
 and transported by men when moving over rough and rocky 
 country, or when it becomes necessary to take the wagons 
 
54 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 apart in order to get them up or down very steep places. 
 
 The stretchers are so constructed with hinges and hooks as 
 to be folded into a very small space when not needed, and 
 to permit the supports to be used as handles. 
 
 Being frequently detached from all transportation, an of- 
 ficer in command might be called upon, in case of accident, 
 to resort to numerous expedients to relieve the sick and 
 succor the wounded. He should know how to make 
 stretchers and how to transport them. 
 
 Avoid carrying the stretcher on the shoulders. The front 
 and rear bearers of the stretcher should be 'out of step,' 
 and men of equal height, strength and length of step, so far 
 as is practicable, should be selected. The sick or wounded 
 man should be carried with his face toward the direction in 
 which he is moving. In crossing ditches, dikes, hollows, 
 fences, etc., the stretcher should be kept horizontal. 
 
 The following stretchers may be readily extemporized : 
 
 i. A blanket is held by four men, one at each corner, and 
 is then doubled so that the two loops shall be brought to- 
 gether at each end ; one pole (or t f ,vo rifles lashed together) 
 passes through the four loops, while another passes within 
 the double of the blanket on the other side. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 55 
 
 2. Roll a small stone into each corner of the blanket, 
 and thus form projections which will prevent the slipping 
 of the strings or thongs with which it is made fast to a frame 
 of poles (or rifles lashed together), as shown in the drawing. 
 
 Strips of the blanket may be used for strings. 
 
 This stretcher may be still further simplified and less ma- 
 terial required when two corners of the blanket are fastened 
 to a short cross-piece at the head, while the other end is 
 gathered up and tied altogether to the main pole. 
 
 The pressure of the pole on the shoulder (most readily 
 borne on the shoulder) when bearing the stretcher, may be 
 diminished by a short pole or gun held lever-wise over the 
 other shoulder, so as to take a portion of its weight. 
 
 3. Four rifles and two coats, in a great emergency, may 
 be made into a stretcher. The sleeves of one coat are turn- 
 
 ed into the inside. The rifles are then passed through the 
 sleeves (muzzle to muzzle) and firmly lashed together, when 
 each coat is buttoned throughout the front. 
 
 For a man who can sit up, one rifle through the sleeves of 
 a coat, and the coat tail lashed to another rifle, will form a 
 
5 6 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 good stretcher. The sick man may bear against one of the 
 bearers and let his legs hang down 
 
 4. A stretcher may be made by suspending an ox, mule 
 or horse hide between two poles, or by interlacing the belts 
 and gun-straps. Even the knapsack may be fastened be- 
 tween the poles or rifles so as to form a good transport. 
 
 5. If it is possible to transport a wagon, a stretcher made 
 of belts, ropes, etc., may be hung from its sides within, or 
 the bottom of the body of the wagon may be filled with 
 blankets, small branches covered with straw, hay, ferns, 
 rushes or any soft material. 
 
 A man who is unable to walk, but who can sit and prac- 
 tically support himself, may be transported by two men, 
 who either support him 6n a short pole held between them, 
 with his arms upon their shoulders, or join their hands and 
 arms so as to make a comfortable seat for him. 
 
 6. Three cross pieces are lashed to two elastic poles, 
 eight or ten feet long. This frame-work is then supported 
 over the wounded man as he lies on his blanket or canvas 
 and the latter is securely fastened to the frame. One cross- 
 
 piece is in front of the feet, another behind the head, and the 
 third one being over the man, will steady him in the trans- 
 
Medical and Surgical- Hints 57 
 
 port. Small twigs may form a framework, which, covered 
 with a blanket or coat, will protect the sick man from the 
 sun, wind or rain. 
 
 After a fight the Indians carry their wounded wonderful 
 distances, palanquin fashion. 
 
 If horses can be spared they may transport the litter in- 
 stead of men. In this event the poles should be very elas- 
 tic, about eighteen feet long, united by cross-pieces three- 
 and-a-half feet long, the ends being firmly secured to the 
 sides of the animals by strong fastenings. The Indians of- 
 ten use one horse with this litter, allowing one end to trail 
 on the ground. When only one animal can be spared, 
 great caution must be exercised in passing over broken and 
 rocky ground. 
 
 In case of a ^reat emergency, after knotting together the 
 ends of a blanket, two men could be laid in the bights and 
 transported, one on each side of the horse, the central part 
 of the blanket being laid across the horse's back and se- 
 cured. The Indians frequently transport their children in 
 this manner. 
 
 The foregoing are some of the numerous contrivances 
 for transport, depending upon the nature of the material 
 available and the officer's ingenuity. 
 
 * Bed sores,' a form of gangrene from pressure, appear on 
 the sacrum, elbows, shoulders, back of head and trochanters, 
 when the patient is constrained to lie for a long time in one 
 position. For treatment, remove pressure as far as possible, 
 wash and remove sloughs if they exist, and apply a soft 
 poultice. Myrrh, resin, iodine and other warm astringent 
 applications are good. 
 
 If possible, visit a dentist and see that your teeth are in 
 good order before going into the field. 
 
 This chapter would hardly be complete without a few 
 hints and directions as to the treatment of the stock, in the 
 absence of a qualified veterinary surgeon. 
 
58 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Sore mouth is caused by the cutting and tearing of the 
 bit at the corners of the mouth. To cure it wash the mouth 
 clean and sprinkle common salt on the sores or apply 
 tincture of myrrh. 
 
 Cut tongue is caused by severe jerks of the bit, and is 
 often very serious. Salt water, alum water, saltpetre and 
 tincture of myrrh are good remedies. 
 
 Sore back should never occur in a well-regulated expedi- 
 tion. The slightest tendency to gall should be promptly 
 looked after ; and, if necessary, the rider should walk until 
 the back is perfectly sound. Hot water and poultices make 
 the best early treatment. Leather, burned to a crisp and 
 finely powdered, when spread over the wound, causes it to 
 heal very promptly. There is no excuse for the frightful 
 wounds on the backs of mules and horses due to improper 
 saddling. 
 
 Diarrhoea, often caused by exposure, over-exertion and 
 an excess of spring water, is best treated by giving a mix- 
 ture of tincture catechu, prepared chalk and tincture of 
 opium (in the proportion of one, two and four parts) fol- 
 lowed by gruel and hay. 
 
 Colic is one of the most frequent ailments of the horse. 
 The water, grain and grass of many districts cause severe 
 attacks. As remedies, mix a tablespoonful of laudanum 
 and twice as much whisky in a cupful of water, or dissolve 
 some chloride of lime (about a tablespoonful) in a cup of 
 water, and pour down the horse's throat. 
 
 If there be much constipation give dissolved aloes (four 
 drachms), apply hot fomentations and bleed, taking about 
 one gallon of blood. 
 
 To bleed the horse rub the neck on the near side, near the 
 throat, until the vein rises, tie a bandage around the neck 
 about its middle and strike the flearn into the vein ; when it 
 is full, hold the horse's head well up and pry open his jaws 
 until the blood flows sufficiently. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints. 59 
 
 Megrims or vertigo a sudden rush of blood to the head 
 of the horse, generally when ascending a hill, may be re- 
 lieved by prompt bleeding, followed by the 'cathartic ball.' 
 A horse so affected suddenly stops, shakes his head and 
 often falls unconscious. 
 
 Cramps, colds, spasmodic coughs, etc., are often caused by 
 applying cold water to the heated back or by drinking 
 cold water when overheated. To cure, blister the throat, if 
 sore, and give a little nitre or aloes ; or, give a mixture of 
 one ounce Jamaica ginger, one cup of rum and two cups of 
 water in moderate doses. 
 
 Corns, or the bruising of the sensitive parts of the foot by 
 the contraction of the hoof, if neglected, will produce se- 
 vere lameness or even quitter. They are indicated by the 
 horse's placing one foot in advance of the other and resting 
 upon the toe. For treatment, cut away the hoof so as to 
 relieve the pressure, cut out and cauterize the corn. 
 
 Apply flaxseed poultices and hoof 
 ointment, and shoe carefully when the 
 foot will permit it. 
 
 The illustration shows a convenient 
 form of boot to be used while the foot 
 is undergoing treatment. 
 
 For ikrush, a deceased action of the 
 sensible frog, secreting pus instead of 
 horn, wash the feet with soap and 
 water and apply ointment (equal parts 
 of tar and lard melted). If neglected 
 it will run into canker. 
 
 Sand-crack, a disposition in the hoof 
 to crack, often occasioned by poor 
 shoeing, may be abated by frequent applications of linseed 
 meal poultices, after washing with soap, water and pow- 
 dered charcoal. Cautery is necessary in severe cases. 
 
 Quarter-crack is caused by pressure and contraction, most 
 
6d Mountain Scouting. 
 
 frequently the result of fitting the shoe too tightly on the 
 inner quarter, in order to prevent interfering. 
 
 It is treated by making a groove (with a rasp) under and 
 parallel with the cornet, to the extent of about one-half 
 inch on each side of the crack. A few small notches are 
 then cut on each side of the groove, and the edges of the 
 crack cut away. Finally the crack is cauterized and dressed 
 with tar every morning for several weeks. In the course 
 of time the incision works its way down to the bottom of 
 the hoof, followed by a sound foot covering. 
 
 For punctured feet, extract the cause of injury and poul- 
 tice until the pain subsides ; then apply tar and tincture of 
 myrrh, keeping the foot in the boot. 
 
 For 'grease,' remove the hair, apply finely-powdered char- 
 coal and poultices; give 'cathartic ball' and feed green 
 food, if possible. 
 
 When ticks are abundant, oil or fat smeared around the 
 fetlock or pastern is a protection against them. 
 
 For epizootic, influenza, distemper, etc., give an ounce of 
 spirits of nitre in a bucket of water three times daily. Feed 
 little grass or hay, but give oatmeal gruel frequently, and 
 blister the parts if there be much soreness. 
 
 Certain flies often deposit their eggs in wounds, and 
 even in the 'sheaths' of well animals, which soon develop 
 into a living mass of carnivorous larvae. The remedy is to 
 thoroughly cleanse the parts and blow calomel into the 
 wounds. 
 
 Animals are frequently poisoned by drinking alkaline 
 water. For treatment, rake the animal and pour grease or 
 mild acid down his throat, or dose him with flour and 
 water. 
 
 Wounds and contusions should, if possible, be cured by 
 the continued application of hot fomentations, poultices and 
 cold water ; still, an escharotic is often necessary, and blis- 
 tering is good in severe cases of sprains. 
 
Medical and Surgical Hints, 61 
 
 The drawing will give an idea of the osteology of the 
 horse 
 
 1. The seven bones of the neck. 
 
 2. Breast bone. 
 
 3. Shoulder blade. 
 
 4. 5 and 6. Humerus, radius and ulna. 
 7, 8. Cartilages and ribs. 
 
 9, 10. Carpus and meta-carpal bones. 
 
 n, 12, 13, 23, 24, 25. Upper and lower pasterns and coffin 
 bones of the fore and hind feet. 
 
 14. The eighteen bones of the spine. 
 
 15. The six bones of the loins. 
 
 16. The haunch. 
 
 17. 18, 19, 20. The femur, knee-cap, tibia and fibula. 
 21, 22. The hock and meta-tarsal bones. 
 
 26. Caudal vertebree. 
 
 A knowledge of the functions and location of these bones 
 will often assist greatly in treating fractures and disloca- 
 tions. 
 
62 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION IN POST AND FIELD. 
 
 SHOULD the substance of the following items become im- 
 pressed upon the memory of the soldier, I feel sure that he will 
 find some of the hints useful when in positions of responsibility 
 and having few or no facilities. I have numbered the para- 
 graphs for the convenience of future reference. 
 
 1. When the boots or shoes become water-soaked, it is a 
 splendid plan to fill them full of oats or barley, if at hand. 
 The grain rapidly absorbs the moisture and, in expanding, 
 prevents the boot or shoe from shrinking. 
 
 2. The efficiency of the following method of picketing horses 
 or of even securing the ropes of a tent in a dry and sandy soil, 
 where the pickets or pins will n A hold, is wonderful. 
 
 Simply tie to the end of the rope some article with a longi- 
 tudinal dimension of at least four inches; anything will do a 
 stick, some twigs, a stone or tent peg. Plant this from one to 
 three feet in the sand. If it be buried one foot deep in ordi- 
 nary dry and sandy soil, it will require a strain of about 25 
 pounds to draw it up; if it be buried two feet deep, it will re- 
 quire a force of more than 80 pounds to draw it up, and it will 
 require more than 500 pounds if buried three feet deep. 
 
 Theoretically this is obvious for, supposing the earth to 
 consist of smooth, spherical grains of one size, and granting 
 that these grains cannot move horizontally at the moment of 
 drawing, and that they must move vertically upwards, it is plain 
 that the substance attached to the rope when moved upwards 
 must start before it an inverted pile of grains. Take the most 
 unfavorable case, supposing it to be a triangular pile, then the 
 
Use fid Information in Post and Field. 63 
 
 n (n 4- i) ( n + 2), 
 
 number of grains to be started varies as 
 
 I. 2- 3. 
 
 or in a ratio greater than n* (n being the number of layers of 
 sand above.) 
 
 A rope attached to several of these planted ropes, and rest- 
 ing on the ground, will form a good picket line. 
 
 3. When cavalry and infantry are advancing rapidly together, 
 the infantry are greatly assisted when permitted to lay hold of 
 the stirrup-straps of the horsemen. 
 
 4. To calculate the weight of a stack of hay, measure the 
 length and breadth of the stack, also its height from the ground 
 to the eaves, and from the eaves to the top. 
 
 Find the continued product of the length, breadth and 
 height from the ground to the eaves, augmented by i the 
 height from the eaves to the top, and multiply the result by 
 fourteen-thirds. The product will be the weight of old hay in 
 pounds. 
 
 New hay weighs, in bulk, f as much as old hay. 
 
 For example, suppose a stack of old hay to measure sixty 
 feet in length, twenty-four feet in breadth, nine feet from the 
 ground to the eaves, and six feet from the eaves to the top; 
 
64 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 then, 60 X 24 x (9 -f |) X = 73,920 Ibs. The same sized 
 stack of new hay would weigh 49,280 Ibs. 
 
 5. To render canvas, duck or even calico waterproof, prepare 
 a mixture of melted wax and spirits of turpentine in the pro- 
 portion of one ounce wax to one pint of spirits. After having 
 stirred the mixture well, "dip the material into it and hang it 
 in a current of dry air. 
 
 To make tarpaulins, soak the canvas in salt water and apply 
 the dressing; as the water evaporates the tar enters the fabric. 
 
 Boiled linseed oil, when soaked into cloth or linen, will cause 
 it to resist the action of water. 
 
 6. Frequently of necessity, the camp is made on a sandy 
 beach where there is no sign of fresh water. In such a case, 
 the mules, if permitted, will paw and dig up the sand near the 
 water's edge, and slowly satisfy their thirst by drinking the 
 fresh water as it trickles through the sand in small quantities 
 but this process is very slow. 
 
 To distil salt water in an emergency, take a camp kettle full, 
 cover the top and insert a gun barrel at the top inclining down- 
 ward. Keep the barrel cool by means of water, and cause the 
 water in the kettle to boil. The condensed steam may be 
 caught at the lower end of the barrel and consumed. 
 
 If there be no conveniences at hand, find a hollow in the 
 rocks, or make a hole in the earth and fill with salt water. 
 Drop hot stones into it until the water hisses and gives out 
 large clouds of vapor, which may be caught by a cloth suspended 
 above, and then be wrung from it or sucked out. One drop a 
 second would make about a gallon in one day. 
 
 Muddy water may be purified by filtering sand, charcoal, 
 sponge, grass, moss, stone and cloths being good filters. 
 
 The illustration represents a convenient apparatus for puri- 
 fying muddy and impure waters. It is so constructed as to fit 
 into the mouth of a canteen or bottle, and permits the water 
 to be sucked out after passing through the filtering substances, 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 65 
 
 and being freed from the ova and larvae of many water insects 
 
 and other impurities suspended in it. In its absence, suck 
 the impure water through the handkerchief or a handful of 
 grass or rushes held close together, or even through snow. 
 
 A small piece of alum placed in muddy water will purify it 
 wonderfully well, the alum and mud forming a clayey deposit. 
 
 Putrid water should be boiled with charcoal before drinking 
 it. The Indians purify all waters by plunging hot irons and 
 rocks into them. 
 
 When very thirsty, and only a very small amount of water is 
 at hand, drink it with a spoon, or through a small hole in the 
 cork of the canteen. It will do as much good as when taken 
 in large mouthfuls. 
 
 7. The following is a table of the dangeious spaces, in yards, 
 of the Springfield . rifle and carbine, calculated under the 
 assumption that the gun, when fired, is 56 inches above the 
 ground, and aimed at the middle points of infantry and cavalry 
 soldiers, 34 and 48 inches above the horizontal, respectively. 
 
 The dangerous space will be increased by the fir^r lying 
 down or aiming at his adversary's feet. 
 
 For the rifle, the range corresponding to the maximum 
 dangerous space is 262 yards for infantry and 291 yards for 
 
66 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 cavalry; and for the carbine, 204 yards for infantry and 230 
 yards for cavalry. 
 
 K1FLE. 
 
 Agst. Infantry. 
 
 Agst. Cavalry. 
 
 
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 Q 
 
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 trajectory. 
 
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 JL 
 
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 100 
 
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 60 
 
 77 ; 40 
 
 60 
 
 130 ; 
 
 200 
 
 90 
 
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 110 
 
 103 
 
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 34 
 
 700 
 
 12 
 
 23 
 
 21 13 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 800 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 18 ! 10 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 900 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 15 8 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 1,000 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 12 7 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 1,100 5 11 7 6 16 
 
 8 
 
 t/AXUflJNJ].. 
 
 Agst. Infantry. 
 
 Agst. Cavalry. 
 
 ! 
 
 Falling 
 branch of 
 
 | 
 
 Falling 
 bianch of 
 
 8 
 
 trajectory. 
 
 8 
 
 trajectory. 
 
 '5" 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 JA 
 O 
 
 fi 
 
 +j 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 i g, 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 t3 
 
 X 
 
 
 "a 
 | 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 ; 40 
 
 60 
 
 59 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 99 
 
 HO- 
 
 120 
 
 53 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 80 
 
 ST 
 
 60 
 
 42 
 
 29 
 
 84 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 11 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 21 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8. When detached without canvas for a long period of time, 
 it is better to spend the spare time in making a temporary 
 house than in idleness. 
 
 A good hut may be readily constructed on suitable ground 
 or a hillside by excavating and covering with a roof; but if 
 timber is convenient, it is better to build a log hut, covering 
 with bark, skins, bushes, reed mats, sea weeds or any suitable 
 material procurable. 
 
 In building the hut four poles are planted in the ground 
 where the corners are to rest. 
 
 The logs are then piled one above another against these 
 poles, as shown in the drawing, being notched where they cross 
 so as to bring their sides together. 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 67 
 
 Aiter the walls are completed the doors and windows are 
 
 rut. a hole chopped through the logs, including that on the 
 gr ,-_iiid, for a fire-place (a chimney and fire back may be formed 
 of clay, turf, stones, etc.,) and the roof put on. 
 
 A roof of split logs gouged out in the center, like a long 
 curved gutter, is good. A layer is placed side by side, with 
 the hollow side up, and a second layer is put on them, with 
 the hollow side down. 
 
 Bark taken in long strips makes good roofing or sides. 
 
 The roof should have a pitch of not less than 45 to keep 
 out the rain. All the cracks should be carefully filled with, 
 moss, grass, mud, clay, etc. 
 
 Good substitutes for window panes are waxed or oiled paper 
 or thin white cloth. 
 
 The huts of Indians and all savages are generally round or 
 approximate to the circular form, probably because of the 
 maximum house for a minimum cover. 
 
 It might be well to remember that logs split better from the 
 crown or small end toward the butt. 
 
 9. When destitute of all tools, to fell a tree; light a small 
 fire about the root, prevent the same from flaming upwards by 
 applying leaves, etc. After the fire has burned out a portion 
 of the tree, move it aside and knock away the charred wood, 
 thus exposing a fresh surface for the action of the fire. One 
 man can attend to the burning of many trees at once, if 
 desirable. 
 
68 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 After the trees fall, the tops and branches may be burned off 
 as they lie on the ground. 
 
 10. The following weights and estimates are often valuable 
 when purchasing supplies in the field: One bushel of wheat 
 weighs sixty pounds; of rye, fifty-eight pounds; of barley 
 fifty-four pounds; of oats, forty-two pounds; of beans, sixty- 
 two pounds; of peas and maize, sixty-six pounds; of potatoes, 
 sixty pounds; of onions, fifty-six pounds. About fifty pounds 
 of wheat and thirty pounds of oats go to the cubic foot. One 
 cubic yard of well-pressed hay weighs 225 pounds; one cubic 
 yard of straw weighs 145 pounds; one cubic yard of grain will 
 average twenty bushels. The following numbers of bushels 
 will safely go to the acre; wheat, rye and beans, 25; oats, 45; 
 barley, 37!; peas, 25; maize, 30; potatoes, 250. 
 
 n. To properly pitch the ordinary wall tent, after selecting 
 
 H 
 
 L 
 
 a suitable spot, place the ridge pole, A B, upon the ground, 
 approximately beneath its place when in position. Drive pins 
 at A and B. From A and B continue A B to C and Z>, by 
 stepping one pace from each end. From C and D make four 
 paces at right angles with C D on each side, and determine the 
 points E, F, G y H. At these points drive the corner tent pegs. 
 By following these directions the tent may be promptly pitched 
 and will make a beautiful appearance, every portion of canvas 
 being in proper position and free from wrinkles. 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 
 
 69 
 
 The drawing shows the form ot the tent when properly 
 pitched. 
 
 12. The cubical contents of a trench equals J h (db -f cd 
 + ad + % be) in which and b are the length and breadth 
 of the top of the ditch, c and d are the length and breadth of 
 the bottom and h the depth. 
 
 ( 
 
 13. The mean velocity of water in rivers equals 
 
 when v is the surface velocity expressed in inches. 
 
 The surface velocity may be determined by carefully noting 
 the time required for a chip or any small substance to float a 
 measured distance. 
 
 The following are the usual expressions applied to river 
 velocities: 
 
 Sluggish, about 1| ft. per sec. , or 1 mile per hr. 
 
 Ordinary, 
 
 Rapid, 
 
 Very Rapid," 
 
 Torrent, 
 
 3 
 5 
 8 
 9 or more 
 
 14. When using hand spikes, avoid placing more than two 
 men at one spike. See that the fulcrum is stable before bear- 
 ing down, or time will be lost. Do not allow men to put their 
 shoulders under a lever while lifting, or their chins and heads 
 over it when bearing down. 
 
70 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 In raising a heavy gun on skidding, do not allow its axis to 
 slope more than 3, or the gun may rush to the front or rear. 
 
 15. In uncoiling a new coil of rope, pass the end at the core 
 to the opposite side and draw it out; the turns of* the rope will 
 then run out without kinking. 
 
 16. When using the howitzer or any gun on wheels, in the 
 mountains, great care should be taken to have the wheels on 
 the same horizontal while firing. 
 
 The deflection caused by one wheel being higher than the 
 other = R tan. a. tan. , in which R = range, = elevation 
 and ^ = the angle of the trunnions with the horizon. 
 
 17. The following table shows the weights of certain woods. 
 
 Willow weighs about 25 Ibs. per cubic ft. 
 
 Poplar " 24 
 
 Fir " 32 
 
 Elm 36 
 
 Sycamore 37 
 
 Pine " 40 
 
 Beech 43 
 
 Ash " 47 
 
 Oak 54 
 
 When green, the weight is about one-fourth more. 
 To find the weight of a tree, calculate its contents in cubic 
 feet, and multiply the result by the weight of one cubic foot of 
 the wood. 
 
 1 8. Opera glasses are invaluable as night glasses. With 
 most persons they nearly double the limit of vision, and enable 
 their eyesight to compare fayprably with that of the night- 
 roving animals. 
 
 19. The glittering of the sun upon the arms of distant troops 
 indicates the direction of their march. If the rays seem per- 
 pendicular, and constant, they are moving toward ycu; if 
 slanting to the right and downwards, they are moving to 
 your right; if the rays are varied and intermittent, they are 
 moving away from you. 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field- 71 
 
 Dust raised by infantry forms a dense low cloud, while that 
 raised by cavalry forms a higher and lighter one. 
 
 20. All soldiers should practice making the simple and im- 
 portant knots; a knowledge of their uses and being able to 
 make them are essential in nearly all makeshift appliances. 
 
 The most elementary ones are the timber hitch, the bowline 
 and the clove hitch. 
 
 tit* 
 
 The drawing shows these knots, also a simple 
 form of tourniquet. A single or double band 
 encloses the two pieces it is desired to lash to- 
 gether. A stick is then placed in the band and 
 forcibly twisted around. 
 For a more complete description of knots, see page 114. 
 
 21. By means of the clove hitch, clothes or other articles are 
 tied to tent poles when jointed, notched or at all uneven. 
 
 The illustration shows the method. The clothing, bags, 
 etc., are hung upon the button at the end of the rope. 
 
 22. The following seems a good disposition of the rifle at 
 night, when wishing to avoid its misplacement and prevent 
 sneaking savages from stealing it. 
 
 ' When getting sleepy you return your rifle between your 
 legs, roll over and go to sleep. Some people may think this a 
 
7 2 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position 
 of all others where utility and comfort are most combined. 
 The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; 
 the muzzle points between the knees and the arms encircle the. 
 lock and breech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are al- 
 ways prepared to start up armed at a moment's notice.' 
 (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia.') The stock may be raised up and 
 supported, if desired, to avoid any unpleasant pressure on the 
 arm. The longer the gun the better. 
 
 23. It is very important to have all Government horses dis- 
 tinctly branded *U. S.' immediately upon purchase. Many 
 frontier horse thieves acquire considerable skill in changing 
 these letters, by means of additions, so as to conform to certain 
 legal brands. 
 
 A clear wood or charcoal fire is best for heating the 
 branding iron, and it should be heated hot enough to thor- 
 oughly singe the skin without burning it. To effectually 
 brand, the roots of the hair should be destroyed by burning. 
 
 It is readily seen how, by additions, etc., the U. S. may be 
 converted into J. S., O. S., etc. 
 
 24. When you wisli to roll up your shirt sleeves, do not 
 turn the cuffs inside out, but turn them inward and roll up the 
 sleeves, inward to the arm. By following this plan the sleeves 
 will remain tucked up, without being touched, while if they be 
 rolled outward they become loose every few minutes. 
 
 25. To determine the time of march (T) of a column: 
 
 Let D = the distance (infect) to be passed over; L = the 
 length of the column in feet; D l = the distance (in feet) passed 
 over in one minute by the column, including halts, and T 1 = 
 the time of delay (in minutes) due to the elongation of the col- 
 umn in passing defiles, the physical condition of the command 
 
 L 
 and the irregularities of the route; then, = the time (in 
 
 D 1 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 73 
 
 minutes) for the column to pass over a distance equal to its 
 length, and T (in minutes) = 
 
 L D D 1 T l + L + D 
 
 T+ 1 = 
 
 D 1 D 1 D 1 
 
 Thus, for a column of troops 860 feet in depth, moving at 
 the rate of 100 yards per minute (including halts) and delayed 
 eleven minutes, to pass over six miles, 
 300 x ii + 860 4- 31680 
 
 T= = 119^ m. = i h. 59.47 m. 
 
 300 
 
 26. To facilitate the climbing of a large tree with rough 
 bark, unite the feet by dampened handkerchiefs, towels, or 
 raveled ropes tied together (avoiding a round rope) so that 
 their distance apart shall be about f of the diameter of the 
 tree. Every time that the body and arms are raised in climb- 
 ing, press the connecting rope or substance against the bark 
 with the feet. The roughness of the bark and the oblique 
 pressure against the trunk of the tree will prevent the rope 
 from slipping down. 
 
 27. To calculate the distance of an enemy's gun, count the 
 beats of the pulse (the average pulse beats at the rate of sev- 
 enty-five in a minute) between the moment of the flash and the 
 sound of the report by 300 the result will be the distance in 
 yards. If a watch be handy, the same distance, nearly, may be 
 determined by multiplying the number of seconds between the 
 flash and report by 365. 
 
 The numbers 300 and 365 are taken because easily memo- 
 rized and giving results sufficiently correct for practical pur- 
 poses. 
 
 28. In the following drawing is represented the Malay hitch. 
 I would urge that all soldiers and travelers become familiar 
 with it, and learn how, by its means, to attach together wisps 
 of grass, straw, reeds, poles, laths, planks, etc., and form flexi- 
 
74 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 l)lc mattings. Innumerable articles, from a boat-sail to the 
 roof uf a house, may be thus constructed. 
 
 The great advantage of the Malay hitch is that when no 
 longer required, the structure may be shaken to pieces, leaving 
 neither holes or imperfections in the material nor kinks or 
 knots in the rope. 
 
 29. To dig for water without spade or shovel, proceed as 
 follows in a soil free from rocks: 
 
 Take a bamboo or pole from six to fifteen feet long and two 
 or three inches in diameter, and split the larger and lower end 
 into ten or twelve pieces. Tear away the grass and work the 
 pole up and down vertically. The soil soon works its way up 
 into the splits of the pole, which is then withdrawn. After 
 shaking the earth out, it is again introduced into the soil and 
 used as before. Small holes eight or ten feet deep may be 
 made in this way. 
 
 30. To procure water for the stock when it is inaccessible 
 by reason of precipices, etc.: 
 
 If in a forest where poles are at hand, and the water is not 
 to be raised more than fifteen feet, take a long pole and cause 
 it to act as a lever over a rock or limb, a bucket being attached 
 to the long arm so as to reach the water, and a heavy stone or 
 rock to the short one. 
 
 If the water is to be raised many feet, take a long rope, or 
 connect the lariats, and fasten the bucket to one end; make 
 the other end of the rope fast to a horse, after passing it over 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 75 
 
 a smooth log or rock, and have the horse driven over a certain 
 calculated distance. 
 
 I have procured water, in this way, from the Salmon river 
 when it was ninety-five feet below the camp. 
 
 31. If without matches, a spark may be obtained as follows: 
 ist. Take out the object glass of a telescope, if there be one, 
 
 and use it as a burning glass. The inside of a highly polished 
 watch case might answer. 
 
 2d. Try the Indian method of producing fire by the friction 
 of two pieces of wood, called the drill stick and the fire-block. 
 Any hard and dry stick will do for the former, but the latter 
 must be an inflammable wood, with a medium softness and little 
 grain. A walnut gun stock is excellent. The drill stick is 
 roundly pointed at the end and brought to bear upon the fire- 
 block with pressure, while it is rapidly revolved by means of the 
 Hands or a string passing around it. 
 
 A little powdered charcoal sprinkled on the fire-block (which 
 may be scraped off the trees in most any section where forest 
 fires have raged) will greatly assist in the production of the 
 spark. 
 
 3d. By means of a flint and steel. The flint may be replaced 
 by silicious stones quartz, agate, jaspar, etc., or even by 
 granite. Crockery wil 1 often make a good spark. If there be 
 no steel at hand, a link of chain, a piece of a bit or horse shoe 
 may be case-hardened and used. Pyrites is frequently em- 
 ployed. 
 
 32. When it is necessary to use feed bags on the stock in 
 consequence of mud, sand, water, etc., it is all important to 
 provide some means of ventilation. I have seen horses suffer 
 intensely when their noses were confined in a close feed bag, 
 so that the jaws could not be opened without compressing the 
 nostrils so as to prevent the ingress of sufficient air, and this 
 for nearly an hour. 
 
J6 Mountain Scouting* 
 
 The drawing represents Boyle's ventilated nose bag, which 
 in every respect is excellent. 
 
 33. When traveling with a wagon train and attacked by In- 
 dians, if practicable, make the following plan of defense: 
 Hasten to the nearest water and place one wagon, containing 
 the sick and the ammunition, near it. With this as a center, 
 form, as nearly as possible, the other wagons in a circle about 
 it, so that each inner fore wheel shall nearly touch the outer 
 hind wheel of the wagon preceding, the poles extending out- 
 ward. Place the men and stock inside the circle, lock the 
 wagons by means of drag or other chains, and throw up 
 earth, rocks, logs or bushes under them. When desirable, by 
 moving a single wagon slightly forward, the stock may be led 
 out and hitched without confusion. 
 
 34. To secure a prisoner with the minimum amount of string, 
 bring his hands behind him, back to back, and tightly tie the 
 thumbs together, also the little fingers. In the absence of 
 strings, a strip torn from the linen will suffice. 
 
 In darkness, or when the prisoner might escape by running, 
 it is well to pass his arms around a standing tree or tent pole 
 before tying his hands. 
 
 Several prisoners are made fast to a pole or rope, behind one 
 another. 
 
 If the prisoner is to be mounted, see that he is made fast to 
 the saddle or girth on the horse ridden by the guard (the off 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 77 
 
 stirrup may be used in absence of any other fastening), and 
 that his ankles are strapped together under the horse's belly. 
 
 35. To trace a right angle on the ground, take a rope twelve 
 feet long and mark distances of three and four feet from the 
 ends, respectively. Peg the central section of five feet to the 
 ground and bring the two ends of the rope to a point on the 
 ground, and thus form a right angle. Any multiple of twelve 
 feet may be used for convenience, since any triangle whose sides 
 are in the proportion of three, four and five, is right angled. 
 
 36. A scale of equal parts may be made by folding a slip of 
 paper in half, then folding each part in half, and so on. 
 
 The diagonal fold of a sheet of paper with a square corner 
 makes an angle of 45, or four points of the compass. This 
 again diagonally folded will give 22!, or two points of the com- 
 pass, and so on. 
 
 37. The meridian may be determined at night by passing a 
 plane through a plumb-line and the north star. 
 
 ......... * ....... * ..... _ 
 
 *- ^ 
 
 i rjrande Ourse 
 
 1 * 
 
 I 
 \ i- 
 
 fjole arctiyucf 
 
 T N 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 poiaire 
 
 i 
 
 
 ,/ 
 
 The trace of this plane on a horizontal plane will be the pro- 
 jection of the meridian sought, the north star being only ii 
 from the true pole. 
 
78 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 It is easy to recognize the north star it is the seventh star 
 of the little bear and is found precisely in the prolongation of 
 the two first stars of the great bear (grande ourse), a const; Na- 
 tion disposed in symmetrical order as in the drawing. (Aide 
 Memoir e d ' Etat Major. ) 
 
 To practically determine the variation of the compass, erec u 
 a pole, and at a distance of 200 yards set up another, so that 
 the two are in a line with the true north; the variation of the 
 compass may be ascertained the next morning by taking the 
 bearing of one pole from the other. 
 
 n(n 4- i) (04- 2) 
 
 38. In a triangular pile of spherical shot, S = 
 
 n(n 4- i) (2n 4- i) 1.2.3 
 
 in a square pile, S= ; in a rectangular pile, 
 
 1.2.3 
 n (n 4- i) (2n 4- yn + i) 
 
 S = ; where S = number of shots, n = 
 
 1.2.3 
 
 number of courses, and m = difference between the number 
 in the length and the number in the breadth of the base course. 
 
 The triangular and square piles terminate each in a single 
 ball. 
 
 The number of balls in a triangular face is found by multi- 
 plying half the number in the breadth at the base by the num- 
 ber in the breadth at the base plus one. 
 
 In all piles, the breadth at the bottom is equal to the number 
 of courses. 
 
 In an oblong pile, the top row is one more than the differ- 
 ence between the length and breadth of the bottom. 
 
 In the case of Armstrong shot or shell, 
 m r 
 
 S = (20 4- r i) ; where n = the number in the length 
 
 2 
 
 of the top course, r = the number of courses, and m = the 
 number in the breadth. 
 
 39. Ink, in an emergency, may be made by rubbing charcoal, 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 
 
 79 
 
 gunpowder or soot into a little milk or warm water, to which is 
 added a small quantity of gum or glue. Very strong coffee 
 will make a fair ink that will not rub. 
 
 40. The working loads of hemp ropes are about as follows: 
 
 Circumference of 
 rope in inclies. 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 V'orki 
 
 If' 
 4 
 
 n 
 4 
 
 11 
 16 
 1 
 8* 
 
 16 
 
 44- 
 
 ng load. 
 
 CWt. 
 < ( 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2i 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 3* . 
 
 1 ton and 
 
 4 
 
 1 " 
 
 44- 
 
 1 " 
 
 5 . 
 
 ..2 " " 
 
 The breaking weight (in tons) of hemp rope is C*X8, and 
 
 C 2 
 
 its weight (per fathom) is , C being the circumference of the 
 
 4 
 
 rope expressed in inches. 
 
 The working loads of ordinary chains are as follows: 
 
 Diameter 
 of link. 
 
 Weight per Working 
 
 fathom. load. 
 
 Ibs... . 0.7 tons. 
 
 8 
 
 ..10 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 . 2 8 
 
 32 
 
 4.0 
 
 43 
 
 5.5 
 
 . 56 
 
 . 7.0 
 
 Chains are heavier than ropes, for a given strength, in the 
 proportion of seven to two. 
 
 A stay across the link of a chain increases its strength about 
 one-sixth. 
 
 41. The following are good make-shift candlesticks: A bay- 
 onet stuck into the ground; an empty bottle; a hollow bone; 
 a nail driven through a board and projecting upward; a hole 
 cut into the ground, or into a potato, slice of bread, etc. 
 
 42. The formula for finding the weight of animals, in pounds, 
 
8o 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 is (G x .08) L X 42; in which, G is the girth in feet, taken close 
 behind the shoulder, and L is the distance in feet from the 
 fore part of the shoulder blade to the bone of the tail. 
 
 For cattle, fifty per cent, should be allowed for skin, offab 
 head, etc.; about forty-five per cent, for sheep; and twenty- 
 five per cent, for swine. 
 
 43. In the case of beams supporting weights over ditches, 
 ravines, etc.; if the depth of the beam be doubled, other things 
 equal, its strength will be increased four times; if its breadth 
 be doubled, other things equal, its strength will be doubled. 
 
 By increasing the distance between the supports, the strength 
 of the beam is decreased in the same ratio. Half the distance 
 between the supports will enable the beam to bear twice the load. 
 
 Place a prop or skid under the center of the beam, when 
 possible. If instead of concentrating the load at the center of 
 the beam, it be equally distributed over it, the beam will bear 
 twice the load. 
 
 The effect of the load on a beam will decrease in the *-atio 
 of its proximity to the support. A beam fixed at one end and 
 loaded at the other will bear one-half the weight of the same 
 when supported at each end. 
 
 The strength of round timber is about one-half of chat of 
 square timber, whose side = the diameter of the round timber. 
 
 44. To measure the breadth of a river without instruments 
 and without crossing it: 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 81 
 
 ist. Assume dc in any direction, and make be = bd (ab 
 being as nearly perpendicular to the banks as practicable); then, 
 locating e on ac produced, make bf=be\ join / and d and 
 prolong /# to ab at g; then bg = ab. 
 
 2d. Produce be until the angle ^0 = 45; then, be = ab. 
 
 3d. Without reference to figure, the following methods may 
 be used according to the location of the distance to be meas- 
 ured with respect to the surrounding country. 
 
 a. Let AB = the distance to be measured. Produce AB to 
 any point, D, and bisect BD in C. Through D, draw Da, 
 making any angle with DA, and take ~Dc and D=DC and 
 DB, respectively. Join B<r, Cb and Kb. Through E, the* 
 intersection of *Bc and Cb, draw DEF, meeting Kb in F. Join 
 BF, which being produced will meet Da in a\ then # = AB. 
 
 b. From any point, C, draw any line cC and bisect it in D; 
 take any point, E, in the prolongation of AC and draw the line 
 E<?, making De = DE. In like manner take any point, F, in 
 the prolongation of BC, and make D/= DF. Produce AD 
 and ec till they meet in b\ then Kb = AB. 
 
 c. At any point, E, in AB drop a perpendicular and on it 
 make E = 50 feet, and EF = 60 feet. Trace a line through 
 F perpendicular to EF. Then plant pickets at M and N, so 
 that M, G and B will be in the same right line; as also the 
 points N, G and A. Measure the distance (d) between M and 
 N, then the distance required equals 5 d. 
 
 4th. An impassable distance may be determined by firing a 
 bullet at a well defined mark at the further end of the distance, 
 with the sight adjusted to the estimated distance, and noticing 
 whether the bullet falls short or passes beyond the mark. 
 
 It might also be well to remember that sound travels one 
 statute mile in about 4! seconds, and one geographical mile in 
 about 5* seconds. 
 
 5th. To measure AB, prolong it any distance to D; from D, 
 in any direction, take equal distances, DC and G/, and produce 
 
Mountain Scouting. 
 
 BC to b, making Cb = CB; join db and pro- 
 duce it to a, where AC produced intersects it; 
 then, ab AB. 
 
 Or proceed as follows: Lay off any con- 
 venient distance, BC, perpendicular to AB; 
 make CD perpendicular to AC, and note 
 the point D, where it intersects AB produced; 
 
 BC 2 
 
 measure BD; then, AB = 
 
 BD 
 
 45. To determine the height of a tree: 
 i st. By means of its shadow. Plant a ver- 
 tical measured staff (L) and measure the length 
 of its shadow (S) upon a horizontal ground; 
 measure also the length (/) of the shadow of 
 the object whose height is to be determined; 
 a then, 
 
 L X / 
 
 height of the object = 
 
 S 
 
 2d. Plant a vertical staff (equal in length to the height of the 
 observer's eye) at such distance from- the foot of the required 
 height that the observer, lying upon his back with his feet 
 against the bottom of the staff, is in the same line. Then, the 
 height of the object = the distance from the eye to its base. 
 
 3d. Plant two vertical staves L and L 1 feet in length, on the 
 horizontal plane through the base of the object, so that their 
 tops and the top of the object, whose height is required, are 
 in the same right line. Measure the distances D and D 1 be- 
 tween the staves and between L and the base of the object. 
 L x D 1 x (L 1 L) 
 
 Then, the height = 
 
 D 
 
 4th. If you have a looking-glass, place it upon the ground 
 and level it by placing a cup full of water upon it; retire until 
 the top of the object is seen reflected in it. Then, the height 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 33 
 
 >f the object equals the height of the eye above the mirror, 
 multiplied by the distance of mirror from the object divided by 
 the distance of mirror from the observer. 
 
 These methods apply only to such objects as trees, walls, 
 precipices, etc., where the highest point is vertically above 
 the accessible base. Still, when the base is not accessible, its 
 distance may be readily calculated, as shown in paragraph 44. 
 To determine the height of a mountain by means of a ther- 
 mometer: Let T = the temperature of boiling water at any 
 station, deducted from 212; and H = the height, in feet, of 
 the station above the sea. Boil some water and ascertain T by 
 leans of the thermometer; then, H = 52oT + T 2 . 
 To determine its height by means of a barometer and ther- 
 lometer: Observe the altitudes A and A 1 of the mercurial 
 :olumn in inches and fractions of an inch, at the base and 
 summit of the mountain. Also, note the mean of the readings 
 >f the thermometer (Fahrenheit) at the times of the baromet- 
 ical observations. Then, height of mountain (in feet) = 
 
 A A 1 
 
 55,000 X 
 
 AA 1 
 
 For a mean temperature of 55 Fahrenheit, augment or 
 diminish this result by its ^ part taken as many times as there 
 is a difference (in degrees) between the mean readings noted 
 and 55. The determined height, when not greater than 2,000 
 feet, will be very accurate. 
 
 46. The " Toe and Side Weights " shown in the drawing are 
 
 excellent for all horses that knee-knock, hitch, click, interfere, 
 
84 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 or single foot. They are entirely metallic, without straps or 
 buckles, and are held on the foot by small steel screws, which 
 pass through the shoe and into the spurs on the weights. A 
 few should be taken on every journey with stock. 
 
 47. The weight (in pounds) of an iron shot = the diameter 
 cubed X^T; the weight (in pounds) of a leaden shot = the di- 
 ameter cubed x A; the diameter (in inches) of an iron shot = 
 (the cube root of the weight) x 1.923; the diameter (in inches) 
 of a leaden shot = the cube root of 4* times the weight. 
 
 The weight (in pounds) of an iron shell = A x (the difference 
 of the cubes of the external and internal diameters). 
 
 The weight of powder (in pounds) contained in a shell equals 
 the cube (in inches) of the interior diameter 
 
 ^57-3 
 
 The weight of powder (in pounds) required to fill a box 
 equals the continued product 
 
 of the inches in the length, breadth and depth 
 
 30 
 
 If the powder is not shaken, divide by 31.4182 instead of 30. 
 The weight of powder (in pounds) to fill a cylinder equals 
 the length (in inches) x square of the diameter 
 
 The diameter, in inches, of a shell to contain a weight of 
 powder = (the cube root of the number of pounds) X 57.3. 
 
 The length of the bore of a gun (in inches) filled by n 
 pounds of powder equals 
 
 72x38.2 
 
 square of the diameter of bore 
 
 48. It is important to learn how to use the lasso. It consists 
 of a very strong thin plaited rope made of raw hide. One end 
 is attached to the saddle, the other end forms a noose. When 
 going to use it, the rider keeps a small coil in his bridle hand, 
 and in the other holds the running noose, ^having a diameter 
 
Useful Information in Post and Field. 85 
 
 from 3 to 8 feet; this he whirls around his head, and by a dex- 
 terous movement of the wrist keeps the noose open; then, 
 throwing it, he causes it to fall over the head of the animal. 
 
 49. At 30 yards, a person with ordinary sight can distinguish 
 the white of the eye; at 80 yards, the eyes can be seen; at 100 
 yards, the body and movements of same can be seen and the 
 buttons counted; at 200 yards, the buttons look like faint 
 stripes; at 300 yards, the features of the face are distinguish- 
 able; at 400 yards, the face appears like a dot, and the move- 
 ;nts of the legs and arms are distinct; at 500 yards, the head is 
 ible; at 600 yards, individual movements are observed, but 
 tails disappear; at 700 yards, the movements of the legs and 
 ns become indistinct; at 800 yards, individual movements 
 cannot be observed; at 900 yards, the head appears like a dot; 
 at 1,000 yards, a line of men appear like a broad ragged line; 
 2,000 yards, infantry presents a thick line with a bright one 
 bove it, cavalry a thicker one with an uneven top and a single 
 an or horse looks like a dot. 
 
 The sun on your back, or looking over a light surf ice, such 
 water or snow, tends to make objects look near; while with 
 he sun in your face, or looking ->ver a lark jackground or un- 
 ulating surface, has the contrary effect. 
 
 50. To prevent a mule from braying, when silence is neces- 
 ry in a hostile country, tie a heavy rock to his tail. A mule 
 
 invariably elevates his tail when he wishes to bray, and if this 
 heavily weighted down, an end is put to one of the greatest 
 f nuisances. 
 
 The Indians cruelly avoid such noises by so placing a needle 
 hat it will prick the mule whenever he endeavors to open his 
 jaws. 
 
 51. The Block House is a useful defense against Indians in 
 a mountainous country, where the surrounding heights cannot 
 be held. 
 
 They are usually placed at the two diagonal corners of a 
 picket work. Its plan should have re-entering angles, or be m 
 
 
86 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 the form of a cross, so that the faces may be defended by flank 
 fires. When used against Indians, without artillery, square 
 logs, laid on each other, replace the usual double row of piles. 
 
 A 
 
 The height of each story should be about ten feet, the upper 
 one projecting all around and serving as a machicoulis. The 
 roof should have a layer of earth or sand upon it, as a guard 
 against fire, and escapes should be provided in it for the smoke. 
 All trees an'd bushes, within range, that would afford cover, 
 should be removed, if possible. 
 
 52. All travelers should endeavor to be 'weather wise,' and 
 a small aneroid barometer should be carried and frequently 
 observed. 
 
 A change of the moon greatly influences the weather. A 
 halo around the moon indicates approaching wet weather; the 
 greater the circle the nearer the rain. It is generally believed 
 that * the third day before the new moon regulates the weather 
 on each quarter-day of that lunation, and also characterizes the 
 

 Vseful Information in Post and Field. 
 
 general aspect of the whole period. Thus, if the new moon 
 happened on the 26th of May the term day was the 24th; the 
 weather of that day was to be that of the 26th and the 3d, nth 
 and ipth of June, the quarter-days, respectively.' 
 
 Fine weather may be expected when swallows fly high; but 
 when they or any birds of long flight hang about home or fly 
 p and down or low, rain and wind may be expected. When 
 the stock seek sheltered places and do not cover their usual 
 range, when smoke does not ascend readily during a calm, an 
 unfavorable change must be expected. 
 
 Dew and fog are indications of fine weather neither occurs 
 under an overcast sky, or when the wind is blowing. 
 
 A constant study of the heavenly phenomena will enable any- 
 ne to know what sort of sky precedes a storm or fair weather. 
 
88 Mountain Scouting, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 EQUIPAGE AND SUPPLIES. 
 
 When a regular command is ordered into the field, the 
 commanding officer should use his own discretion in desig- 
 nating the equipage, supplies and individual outfits to be 
 taken. The following observations may, however, be use- 
 ful, when with a view to comfort and efficiency, certain de- 
 viations from the general regulations are permitted. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 The importance of flannel (or cotton in its absence,) next 
 to the skin cannot be overrated. Both shirt and drawers 
 should be made of well shrunken material of good quality 
 and unobtrusive color. The shirts should be supplied with 
 turn-down collars and breast pockets, which are very con- 
 venient for holding a variety of small articles when no 
 waistcoat is worn. Long woolen stockings, to-be worn 
 with shoes and over the bottoms of the pants should also 
 be taken. The Government woolen sock is excellent, but 
 in a locality where the ground is very hot, I prefer some- 
 thing still thicker. For the coat and waistcoat, nothing 
 can surpass the Goodyear garments. A waterproof or can- 
 vas blouse, cut sufficiently short to clear the saddle and pro- 
 vided with numerous convenient pockets, will be useful and 
 handy on all occasions. 
 
 The drawings show the outside and inside finish of a con- 
 venient pattern. 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 
 
 89 
 
 The waistcoat, generally worn without the coat, should 
 be cut rather long, have several pockets and, by means of 
 bands tacked on it, be made to carry, like a cartridge belt, 
 about twenty cartridges. 
 
 The pants should be constructed of thick woolen material, 
 reinforced on the inside where they touch the saddle, with 
 soft buckskin or leather. They may be greatly protected 
 by wearing a light pair of overalls. There should be no 
 hem at the bottoms of the legs, as the dampness is thus re- 
 tained for a long time. 
 
 In the selection of all outer clothing some attention should 
 be paid to color. Gray, buff, or neutral tints not only ab- 
 sorb but little heat in very warm weather, but are the least 
 conspicuous. 
 
 A soft and dark felt hat, with a moderately wide brim, is 
 the best headdress. A pair of warm mittens and a pair of 
 stout driving gloves, with buckskin put in between the fing- 
 ers, will suffice for the hand covering. A few silk or cotton 
 handkerchiefs for neckwear are indispensable. 
 
 As a general thing, when on^a rugged trail, boots rapid- 
 ly impair the soundness of the feet, and are most judici- 
 ously replaced by flexible low-cut shoes, covered with buck- 
 skin leggings, of the style represented, or worn with long 
 
90 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 woolen stockings containing the bottoms of the pants, so 
 as to protect from the sun, dust, snake bites, etc. 
 
 If boots must be worn, considering comfort and econo 
 my, I know no pattern preferable to the Government B. S. 
 boots. They should be selected about one size too large 
 and so as to come well up to the knee and fit the leg com- 
 pactly, after admitting the bottoms of the pants. They 
 should have broad soles and low heels, and be sufficiently 
 flexible to allow the wearer to walk with freedom. 
 
 When traveling through snows, light moccasins covering 
 two pairs of woolen socks, are excellent. The Indians wear 
 the lightest possible moccasin on all occasions, probably be- 
 cause of comfort and the custom of creeping up on game 
 without any noise. 
 
 I have often found comfort in a dressing gown while in 
 the field. Such a garment is a relief when put on after 
 making camp, or when around the campfire, and serves as a 
 warm extra dress in which to sleep. A pair of old slippers 
 is another luxury in the camp. 
 
 THE TOILET. 
 
 It is a well known fact that dirt and grease protect the 
 skin against inclement weather. An Indian will seldom 
 wash unless he can grease himself afterwards and with 
 him, in many instances, grease takes the place of clothing. 
 
 We can readily see the necessity of an equality of the ac- 
 tivity of the skin and the calls upon it, and why, when ex 
 posure is very great, the pores should be defended. 
 
 No very extensive preparation is necessary in this part of 
 the outfit, but the traveler should see that he has his tooth 
 brush, comb and brush, a few towels, both large and small, 
 and soap, all placed in a water-proof wrapper or traveling- 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 91 
 
 case made for the occasion. This part of the outfit should 
 be transported upon the saddle, in the saddle bags or in the 
 clothing bag in order tnat the articles may be convenient 
 for use upon arriving in camp. The soap may be nicely 
 kept and preserved in a suitable tin box. 
 
 1 do not think it well, in rough travel, to wash in the early 
 i art of a dark wintry morning. The best time is after the 
 morning's ride or march, or after making an early camp. 
 
 BEDDING. 
 
 It is absurd for a soldier to take a mattress in the field, 
 even on a short journey. A buffalo robe and three blank- 
 ets ; or even the blankets, poncho and the allowance of can- 
 vas, will, if properly placed, make a most inviting bed. 
 
 I have used with great satisfaction what is known as the 
 
 ter bed. It is made of strong, light rubber. When not in 
 Use, it may be wrapped about the clothing bag, inside the 
 on Her canvas covering, and will form a waterproof protec- 
 tion for its contents. When required for use, it is filled with 
 water and placed upon the ground or bed. 
 
 Elie water pillow is another invaluable article of similar 
 and construction. When being transported this may 
 be wrapt about official papers and will prove a good protec- 
 tion for them in case the pack should, by accident, go under 
 the water. 
 
 When preparing the pillow for use, it is easily filled with 
 
92 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 air exhaled from the body and is made to assume any de- 
 
 gree of softness by varying its contents of air. 
 
 In many camps water is a scarce article, and in order to 
 be on the safe side, I would recommend an air bed and pil- 
 low, and for convenience would have them combined in one. 
 
 In addition to the clothing and bedding, it is a good plan 
 to have a small satchel or sort of 'ditty bag' accompany the 
 personal outfit. It should contain thread, needles, wax, a 
 roll of tape, a ball of twine, a few buttons of all sorts, a pa- 
 per of pins, a bodkin, a thimble, a pair of scissors, a few shoe- 
 strings, a small awl or sail needle and some buckskin. 
 
 The provision of a suitable quantity of reading matter 
 and writing materials should never be neglected. 
 
 The drawing shows an ingenious contrivance for fasten- 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 93 
 
 tg on buttons which is of great use in the field. A few of 
 ese fasteners may be carried in the vest or hip pocket, and 
 a button lost while on the march may be easily replaced. 
 
 Before leaving the settlements, each man should provide 
 some means of exactly measuring feet and inches. It is 
 well to mark a scale of inches on something sure to be at 
 hand, for instance on the gun-stock or inside the belt. I 
 would recommend that every man know his height, the full 
 stretch of his extended arms, the exact height of his eye 
 above the ground when standing and when kneeling, his 
 cubit, the length of his foot, the width of his fingers and 
 the exact amount contained in his cup or canteen. Some 
 of these will daily prove a convenient unit of measurement. 
 
 The small combination mirror, pin cushion and tape 
 leasure here represented is very useful, may easily be trans- 
 ported in the pocket and will be called into frequent requi- 
 sition. 
 
 The clothing, bedding and personal effects are usually 
 rolled tightly and tied up in the tent or canvas when pre- 
 pared for transportation. Most frequently a modification 
 
94 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 of the Tente d' Abri of the French, is furnished our scout- 
 ing columns in the field and is well suited for such work; 
 but, when there is left any choice or selection in the matter 
 of canvas, it may be very much improved upon. 
 
 In selecting the tent, one should consider its lightness, its 
 capability of being quickly pitched (and in different ways 
 depending upon the climate and the facilities for securing 
 poles,) its ventilation, its capability of neatly enclosing the 
 bundle and serving as a waterproof covering for the bed 
 when not pitched, but merely wrapped about it 
 
 It is believed that the author's Combination Shelter, 
 Storm and Common Tent better meets the requirements of 
 the tentage, to be used in all climates and independently 
 of the transportation, than any other that has been tested. 
 
 The tent may be made on a large scale and will well re- 
 
 place the present form of Hospital Tent, affording a max- 
 imum available sheltered space for the minimum amount 
 of canvas and will admit of being combined so as to form 
 a single shelter for any number of men, standing either high 
 or low. This combination tent (service size) and its capa- 
 bilities will be noticed at length in the chapter 'Forced 
 Marches.' 
 
 The French Officers' Tent, here represented, is a very sat- 
 isfactory one so far as room and lightness are concerned, 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 95 
 
 >ut it possesses the disadvantages of numerous pegs and guy 
 ropes and not being suitable for wrapping about the bundle. 
 
 Every man, on going into the field should take an extra 
 lariat, as one will generally wear out during a long journey, 
 and besides, they will be found very useful in making the 
 bundles secure and in crossing deep streams, etc. If the 
 transportation will admit of it, a coil of half-inch rope should 
 also be taken. 
 
 A few extra locks, screws, springs, tumblers, etc., should 
 be taken along, in order to keep the arms in thorough re- 
 pair. 
 
 A sufficient number of spades and axes (a few hatchets 
 never come amiss) should be packed with the equipage. A 
 small hand saw, a rasp, a few gimlets, brad-awls, saddler's 
 awls, nails, screws and coils of wire packed closely in a 
 small chest or canvas roll will be found well worth the 
 transportation and frequently useful. 
 
 A good hunting knife is indispensable, and I know noth- 
 ing more valuable in this connection than the trowel bayo- 
 net of Colonel Rice (one edge kept sharp.) While invaluable 
 as an intrenching tool, the soldier soon learns to use it as a 
 knife, a hatchet, a spade and chopping axe. 
 
 A proper supply of horse and mule shoes and nails should 
 be carefully provided. They should be transported in sev- 
 eral small leather or canvas sacks, each furnished with a 
 hammer, rasp and pincers, which will become very handy 
 in case the command is divided into detachments. 
 
9 6 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 The value and importance of a portaole forge cannot be 
 overestimated. The drawing represents a convenient form. 
 
 It is very simple in its construction, gives a strong and 
 steady blast, with but little labor, and its dimensions are 
 such that it may be easily packed in a cracker box and form 
 a very handy side or top pack for the pack mule. This forge 
 is twelve inches by seventeen inches and fifteen inches in 
 height, has a seven inch fan, and weighs a little less than fif- 
 ty pounds. In case there be no forge or no facilities for shoe- 
 ing the animals, it will be well to provide a few sandals like 
 represented in the _g^tfl drawing, to be used 
 
 in case a horse loses his shoe and cannot 
 
 Sufficient has been W|i ^jjir already said in con- 
 nection with the ^JH^r horse equipment; 
 but make sure that the saddle is sufficiently roomy, well 
 padded and without hem or edging. 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 
 
 97 
 
 A pair of light saddle bags should al- 
 ways accompany the saddle. The draw- 
 ing represents a very suitable style, manu- 
 factured especially for scouting purposes, 
 and furnished with a small assortment of 
 instruments and necessities for the march. 
 
 The smaller the spurs the better, un- 
 less the animal is very lazy; then, a pair 
 of substantial Mexican spurs, with wide 
 straps, will be found the most satisfacto- 
 ry kind of 'persuader.' 
 
 U 9 
 
 It is a good rule to leave behind all notions of snaffles 
 and double reins, and to ride with nothing but an easy curb. 
 A temporary but not desirable substitute for the curb may be 
 made by noosing a string, and putting the noose around 
 the horse's lower jaw. 
 
 Have no more buckles in the equipment than are abso- 
 lutely needed. Nothing tends to weaken a bridle or strap 
 so much during exposure as the rusting out of buckles and 
 the pulling through of their tongues. Both are sources of 
 endless annoyance. 
 
 The ration, as established for the U. S. Army, is composed 
 of twelve ounces of pork or bacon, or one pound and four 
 ounces of salt or fresh beef ; one pound and two ounces of 
 soft bread or flour, or one pound of hard bread, or one pound 
 and four ounces of corn meal. To every one hundred 
 
98 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 rations, fifteen pounds of beans or peas, or ten pounds of 
 rice or hominy; ten pounds of green coffee or eight pounds 
 of roasted (or roasted and ground) coffee, or one pound and 
 eight ounces of tea; fifteen pounds of sugar; four quarts of 
 vinegar; one pound and four ounces of adamantine or star 
 candles; four pounds of soap; three pounds and twelve 
 ounces of salt; four ounces of pepper; thirty pounds of po- 
 tatoes (when practicable) and one quart of molasses. 
 
 Citric Acid may be easily transported, and when mixed 
 with sugar and water, makes a very refreshing drink and an 
 excellent antiscorputic. A small supply should always ac- 
 company the rations. 
 
 Beans, peas, salt and potatoes (fresh) are to be purchased 
 by weight sixty pounds to the bushel. Desiccated com- 
 pressed vegetables may be substituted for beans, peas y rice, 
 hominy or fresh potatoes at the rate of one ounce to the ra- 
 tion. 
 
 One ration, consisting of ^ pork, ^ salt beef, % bacon; 
 Y>2, flour, YZ bread, in boxes; beans or peas; rice or hom- 
 iny ; 24 roasted and ground coffee, ^ tea ; sugar, vin- 
 egar, adamantine candles, soap, salt, pepper, molasses and 
 potatoes, weighs 3.0311 pounds net. 
 
 One ration, consisting of )^ pork, ^ salt beef, ^ bacon ; 
 bread in boxes, beans or peas ; rice or hominy ; ^ roasted 
 and ground coffee, ^ tea, sugar, vinegar, adamantine cand- 
 les, soap, salt, pepper and molasses, weighs 2.5436 pounds 
 net. 
 
 It is not advisable to transport pork on pack mules, as it 
 soon becomes dried by the sun, and much of the fat is 
 melted out. A succulent fifty pound pack, after a few weeks' 
 transportation, will dwindle away to a hard chunk of fif- 
 teen or twenty pounds. 
 
 The number of rations to be carried will depend upon the 
 size of the party, the extent of the journey, the possibility of 
 procuring rations, and the amount of game that can be se- 
 
Equipage and Supplies. 
 
 99 
 
 cured by the hunting detachment. It is a golden rule to set 
 out with the mules lightly loaded, and an excellent plan to 
 discreetly cache a portion of the supplies when there is a cer- 
 tainty of at least a part of the command retracing the 'trail.' 
 In connection with packing and transportation, it will be 
 useful to remember the following measurements and capa- 
 cities: 
 
 A box 4 in. by 4 in. by 3.6 in. will hold about i qt. 
 
 " 5 in. by 5 in. by 5 in. " 2 qts. 
 
 " 8 in. by 8.4 in. by 8 in. " i pk. 
 
 " 24 in. by 16 in. by 28 in. " i bbl. 
 
 The messing outfit will be noticed in the chapter 'The 
 Mess;' but make sure that the cooking implements and table 
 necessaries are so selected as to nest compactly. The camp 
 kettles may enclose the dishpans, and these the skillets and 
 smaller articles. It is best with a view to packing to have 
 the skillets, fryingpans, etc., so constructed that a spoon 
 
 may be applied as a handle, and removed when not in use 
 or when packed. The drawing shows the idea. 
 
 The buckets should be made of rubber or canvas, and 
 
 should be constructed with folding frames, as shown in the 
 drawing. Such buckets will sustain great pressure without 
 giving, and when folded for transportation will occupy an 
 exceedingly small space. 
 
ico Mountain Scouting. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MOUNTAIN TRAVEL. 
 
 A good mountaineer is usually guided by the same instinct 
 that carries the bee to its hive. By day he uses the sun and 
 the prominent landmarks ; while in his night marches, the 
 stars may serve to give the direction. Polaris and Ursa Ma- 
 jor, or the Southern Cross, give the north and south bear- 
 ing, while the Zodiacal stars indicate the east and west 
 points. It is seldom that the ordinary traveler, even when 
 provided with compass, sextant and chronometer and after 
 careful practice and cultivation, becomes skilled in moun- 
 tain craft. 
 
 In a mountainous country, where the routes of possible 
 travel are few, a guide with a good local knowledge is very 
 desirable ; for the compass is by no means sure when in the 
 vicinity of granitic rocks (rich in hornblende and other iron 
 bearing ores). Unless possessing a local knowledge of the 
 country, guides are only useful when water and camping pla- 
 ces are scarce and must be hunted and when messengers 
 may be needed. 
 
 Before going into the mountains, if possible, a map should 
 be secured, correctly showing the large streams, their 
 general directions and important tributaries, and the 
 line of march and probable location of the camp should 
 be noted on the map daily. It will not do to trust too 
 much to the 'bump of locality,' but every 'sign' indicating 
 direction should be carefully considered. In some lati- 
 tudes the moss grows much thicker and stronger on the 
 north side of the firs and pines, which fact may enable the 
 traveler to direct his course through the forest in the ab- 
 sence of all other guides. Again, the ripples in the snow on 
 the mountain tops often run in fixed directions, in conse- 
 quence of constant winds, and these may serve as a gu.ide. 
 
Mountain Tuwl. 
 
 101 
 
 In order to successfully travel the, m,o,iintains, it is neces- 
 sary to understand their complete /m^kfe , up' ; und :n know 
 how to skillfully follow the divides. When the divide A E B 
 
 separates the waters of two streams not uniting with each 
 other, as C and D in the drawing, it is known as a principal 
 divide, and always affords the best route of travel. 
 
 The sides of canyons and ravines are frequently so pre- 
 cipitous that it is neither advisable nor possible to cross 
 them ; and although it is sometimes easy traveling along 
 the bottoms (the level land enclosed between the sides,) 
 when not too narrow and rocky, the best route will, consid- 
 ing all things, be found along the divides. Such a route -is 
 frequently long and crooked, but it is a ^ >od one. 
 
 Suppose it be required to pass from the stream C to the 
 stream Z>, parallel to it, but separated from it by very high 
 and broken mountains. 
 
 To accomplish this most expeditiously, follow up the 
 stream to C, where we will suppose a tributary of the stream 
 puts in. Now if there be a good route, apparently, over the 
 divide above this tributary, turn to the right and follow it, 
 until the principal divide is reached at E, The route, if 
 
IO2 AJoiint-iin Scouting. 
 
 practicable, may be taken aiowg the bottom, should water 
 be desicab-.e, ac far as necessary and then the divide C E may 
 be taken. Having reached the principal divide, pass over it 
 and descend by any suitable and practical divide as E D, 
 leading from the principal divide, to the other stream. It 
 will be found that all the divides lead to the principal di- 
 vide,' and hence there will be no doubt as to finding the 
 principal divide; but it will often require good judgment in 
 selecting the most practicable divide leading to it. It will be 
 still more difficult to select the practicable divide in descend- 
 ing, as all appear more or less practicable from the summit. 
 The innumerable cul de sacs, met within descending, can on- 
 ly be avoided by exercising great caution. In every case 
 the divide selected should separate tributary ravines of two 
 important tributaries of the stream. It is seen in the draw- 
 ing how these ravines frequently overlap each other and ren- 
 der the route very sinuous. 
 
 It is recommended to follow game trails, when discovered, 
 in passing from one stream to another. They usually fol- 
 low the most direct and practicable route over a fair divide. 
 When arriving at the steep edge of a ridge, and where dif- 
 ficulty in finding a good trail is anticipated, it is a safe 
 rule to descend first, on foot, and seek a trail for the com- 
 mand or train as you climb back again. It is much easier 
 to make this selection while ascending than while descend- 
 ing ; for when at the bottom of a hill, its bluffs and preci- 
 pices face you, so that they may be readily avoided, but 
 when at the top of the hill these parts are overlooked and 
 not seen, until closely approached. 
 
 The investigation of ravines is the exact reverse of that of 
 the divides; but localities are much more readily lost when 
 the ravines proceed thence in various directions. On cross- 
 ing a divide and coming upon a system of ravines leading 
 to a different principal ravine, the traveler should make very 
 sure of his course and frequently take the bearings of the 
 most prominent landmarks. 
 
Mountain Travel. 103 
 
 A person may be readily lost in the mountains, and it is 
 never safe to stray off from the camp or command when 
 alone. Should necessity demand it, however, it will prove 
 an excellent rule to take along the rifle and a good supply 
 of ammunition and matches. 
 
 Observation goes to show that the horse and other ani- 
 mals, when running on an open ground, will gradually turn 
 their courses to the left. The same is true of man, when 
 lost on the prairies and cut off from all guiding marks or 
 objects and it is still more the case, when he is lost in the 
 mountains, the irregularities of the route of travel seeming 
 to confuse his ideas of direction and locality. This turning 
 to the left is so rapid with the average lost man, that he will 
 frequently travel in a circle and will, in the course of the 
 day, arrive at the point left in the morning. It should be 
 remembered that, when lost, it is best not to increase the 
 perplexity of the matter by wandering still farther, but set 
 to work to find the way back to known localities. Leave a 
 broad trail for the relieving party to follow and make a 
 great smoke, if possible. 
 
 The sense of desolation attending most lost persons is suf- 
 ficiently overpowering to cause them to lose their presence 
 of mind, to wander widely about and rapidly exhaust their 
 vital powers. 
 
 Colonel Dodge relates the following remarkable account: 
 
 "When serving in Texas, a soldier of my company be- 
 came lost while returning to the post from a small village 
 two miles off. A party was sent out to search for him, and 
 on the second or third day came upon him almost naked 
 in a little thicket. As soon as he discovered the party, he 
 bounded off like a deer and was pursued. After an exciting 
 chase he climbed a tree, from which he was taken by force, 
 and with the greatest difficulty struggling, striking and 
 biting like a wild animal. He was brought back to the post 
 perfectly wild and crazy ; confined, watched and attended 
 
104 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 with the greatest care for over a month before he recovered 
 his mind. He was an excellent man, more than usually in- 
 telligent, but I doubt if he ever fully recovered from the 
 shock. He recollected nothing but going a little distance 
 off the road and getting turned around and realizing that 
 he was lost." 
 
 When lost beyond all hope, when there are reasons to be- 
 lieve that a search will not be made, and when it is possible 
 to keep alive for a few days, I believe it a good plan to 
 make for the nearest large water course and follow it down 
 by shore or raft, until the settlements are finally reached. 
 But, before proceeding, to this final course be sure that you 
 have well endeavored to answer the following questions, viz.: 
 
 A. What is the least distance within which the lost trail 
 lies? 
 
 By remaining cool, this may be quite accurately deter- 
 mined by the careful traveler. He knows how long he has 
 been traveling on foot or on horseback, and the average 
 rate of his travel, and he can usually make a fine allowance 
 for loitering, stoppages and remembered zigzags. The 
 lost man may always console himself with the fact that he 
 is nearer the lost trail than he imagines. 
 
 B. What is the general direction of the trail ? 
 
 The traveler should at all times keep in mind the gener- 
 al bearing of prominent landmarks, and the general courses 
 of important streams and ridges. During sunshine, the 
 shadows of trees, etc., will give east and west points. In 
 tropical countries, Orion and Antares give excellent east 
 and west points, and are easily sighted. An almanac, show- 
 ing the times and bearings of sun rise, sun set, moon rise 
 and moon set for various latitudes, is invaluable to the 
 mountain traveler. 
 
 C. On leaving the trail, was the travel to the right or to 
 the left of it ? 
 
 This question must be answered from memory or the 
 
Mountain Travel. 105 
 
 note book, and it is very important that the traveler be 
 able to answer it with proper assurance. 
 
 Suppose the traveler is at i when he decides that he is 
 lost, and suppose that the trail certainly lies within the dis- 
 tance i 7 ; then the circle 7 3 9 5 cuts the trail some- 
 where. The traveler starting from i, may first go to 7, and 
 then, in the extreme case, make the entire circuit 7 3 9 
 5 7, or travel a distance 7.28 times i 7 before exhausting 
 his search. Now, suppose that both questions A and Bean 
 be answered and that the trail lies within the directions 
 i 15 and i 13; then, the trail somewhere cuts the arc 15 
 9 13, or possibly the arc n 7 17. 
 
 Produce 7 i 9 until it cuts the tangents to the circle 
 7 3 9 5 , which are perpendicular to i 15 and i 13. 
 Call this distance x. Now this line must cut every trail 
 within and parallel to i 15 or i 13 that cuts the circle, 
 and it is furthermore obvious that it must cut every trail 
 that is within and parallel to an intermediate direction 
 113 i9 
 
 Since x = = ; when 15 i 13 
 
 cos 13 19 cos y z 15 113* 
 
io6 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 =60, * = 
 
 =90 
 
 i 9 
 
 cos 30' 
 i 9 
 
 r = 
 
 cos 45 
 i 9 
 
 I20 V , X = 
 
 cos 60' 
 
 nearly; when 15 i 13 
 
 (i 9) i^, nearly; when 15 i 13= 
 
 (i 9) 2; when 15 i 13 = 140, A*= 
 
 i 9 
 
 = (i 9) 3, nearly; etc. 
 
 cos 7<D V 
 
 Now, if the traveler is unable to answer question C, he 
 must be prepared to travel from i towards 9, a distance 
 equal to x, then back through i towards 7, a distance of 
 2x, or a distance of $x altogether. If, however, he can an- 
 swer C, he has no return journey to fear and at worst has 
 to travel towards 9 or 7, a distance equal to x. From this, 
 may be seen the great advantage in being able to answer 
 questions A, B and C conjointly, and how very important 
 it is to know the answer to question B, since x changes so 
 rapidly with the angle 15-1-13. 
 
 Before sending out scouts or detachments, certain ele- 
 mentary signals should be agreed upon. For instance, let 
 
 a wave with one hand designate ' hurry,' 'come on/ etc. 
 let both arms raised designate 'yes,' 'all right,' etc. let both 
 arms lowered designate ' no/ ' wrong/ etc. and let both 
 arms extended latterly and horizontally designate ' halt/ 
 ' go back/ etc. Such a precaution will frequently do away 
 
Mountain Travel. 107 
 
 with the necessity of messengers making difficult and dan- 
 gerous journeys. A distant scout might signal by walking 
 or riding from right to left or from left to right, etc. 
 
 During the " Sheep Eater " Indian campaign in the Sal- 
 mon river mountains, in 1879, Colonel Bernard, of the cav- 
 alry, came to the conclusion that signal rockets were inval- 
 uable in such a country, where the commands were of ne- 
 cessity separated by rocky and almost impassable ridges, 
 and urgently recommended their use. The idea is an ex- 
 cellent one; for, besides their value as signals, they terrify 
 the savages and produce a wholesome effect upon their 
 superstitious natures. I believe a few rockets, kept for 
 emergencies and judiciously sent up, might frequently avert 
 the intended attacks or stampedes of Indians. 
 
 I have found, by experiment, that it is a splendid plan, 
 when going into the mountains, or over very rough trails, 
 and there is a probability of messengers being needed, to 
 collect a few dogs on leaving the last settlement. They 
 may be picked up or purchased for almost nothing, and the 
 guard may lead them along with the command without 
 any great trouble. Whenever it is necessary to send back a 
 message, advantage may be taken of the dog's restlessness. 
 Having made the message fast to his neck, let him go 
 with a kick; it will be but a short time before he finds his 
 way back to the settlement, having served as messenger. 
 
 In order that the pack animals may keep well up on a long 
 mountain journey, continually going up and down steep 
 hills, it is necessary to load them as lightly as possible. So 
 far as is practicable, articles of food should be selected with 
 a view to easy transportation, when a rough journey is an- 
 ticipated. 
 
 Chollet's preserved vegetables are excellent on the score 
 of bulk and light weight. One ration weighs less than an 
 ounce, and a cubic foot contains about 600 rations. 
 
 The prepared meat biscuit used by the French and Prus- 
 
io8 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 sian armies is a very portable form of food, and of great 
 dietetic value. 
 
 Cold flour, made by pounding parched corn to the con- 
 sistency of coarse meal, and adding a little sugar and cin- 
 namon, is another portable article of subsistence, and is muQh 
 used by the Indians when they expect to make long journ- 
 eys with little transportation. 
 
 A small quantity of the flour is mixed with water and 
 taken when the traveler feels thirsty and hungry. 
 
 All these prepared articles have excellent anti-scorbutic 
 properties. 
 
 The prepared 'horsecake,' originally brought into use by 
 the Germans, would be excellent to take into the moun- 
 tains, on pack animals, with mounted troops, and would 
 certainly favor a great economy. 
 
 The loads are frequently rendered very heavy, in conse- 
 quence of getting under water while crossing the moun- 
 tain streams. The greatest care should be exercised in hunt- 
 ing suitable fords for the loaded animals. Old Indian trails 
 nnd often the game trails lead to the most practicable fords. 
 
 The wear and tear of mountain traval is enormous. From 
 the first, the most exposed parts of the clothing should be 
 protected, and too great pains cannot be taken to properly 
 protect the feet and limbs of the animals. 
 
 Chaparejos, made of buffalo, elk or bearskin, are invalu- 
 ible in very cold climates and are most excellent for pre- 
 serving the trowsers, when exposed to rough and long con- 
 tinued wear. They may be easily made, while on the jour- 
 ney, by utilizing the skins of the animals brought in by the 
 hunting party. 
 
 The feet and lower limbs of the animals need the most 
 constant care and attention, subjected as they are to rocks, 
 crags, bramble, etc. All boots should be well made and 
 never chafe or gall, in any way, the animal that wears them 
 a horse is more injured by wearing poorly and improperly 
 made boots than by his interfering habits. 
 
Mountain Travel, 109 
 
 The drawing shows a simple but excellent combination 
 
 i i I 
 
 knee, shin "and ankle boot. A few of these should always 
 be taken along, as they are simply invaluable when follow- 
 ing very rough mountain trails. Even alight stocking, im- 
 provised on the march, is good for strengthening the mus- 
 cles, tendons, cords, etc. If practicable, it should be made 
 
 of shirred, elastic material, and should fit closely around 
 the leg, at the points marked i, 2, and 3, in the drawing. 
 
 Such a stocking very effectually prevents sprains or other 
 accidents to the legs of the horses, and is very good for 
 those with swollen veins, sprained or weak joints, etc. 
 
 Where the animals are continually going up and down 
 hill, the motion of the cinch will occasion galling if not 
 
lie Mountain Scouting. 
 
 carefully watched. The cinch should be made of soft hair 
 and corded down the center; the edges will then give suffi- 
 
 ciently to prevent rubbing, when the cinch is drawn very 
 tight. 
 
 Lieutenant S. C. Robertson, First Cavalry, who was with 
 me during my reconnaissance of the Clearwater and Salmon 
 rivers, Idaho Territory, in 1880, has contrived a rawhide 
 shoe, which appears to be valuable, inasmuch as it may be 
 readily constructed while in the field, and when ordinary 
 shoeing is impossible. I have never tested Lieutenant Rob- 
 ertson's shoe, to my own satisfaction, but I have no doubt 
 as to its being excellent in some respects. 
 
 Speaking of the shoe, Lieutenant Robertson says: "I have 
 experimented this summer with a horse-shoe which, so far 
 as I know, is my own idea, and which was suggested to me 
 by the sufferings of our horses over the rugged country of 
 our last year's scout. It is made of rawhide two thick- 
 nesses, subjected while 'green' to pressure, and secured to 
 the foot by T-shaped nails, with the heads flat and broad 
 enough to cover the whole width of shoe. In dry weather, 
 it works well and I am convinced that such a shoe (with, 
 say, a thickness of felt added next to the foot) would be a 
 boon to footsore horses, over such mountains of rock as we 
 traveled last summer. It has the disadvantage of non du- 
 rability in prolonged wet weather; but, its lightness, elasti- 
 city, toughness and thorough protection of the foot, for a 
 limited period, undoubtedly make it both adaptable and 
 beneficial for temporary use of such horses traveling over 
 rocks and painful trails." 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PACK MULES AND PACKING. 
 
 Pack animals travel with ease through sections of country 
 which are impassable for wheeled carriages of all descrip- 
 tions. Horses, ponies, mules, oxen, elephants, camels, goats 
 and dogs are more or less used as pack animals in different 
 countries, and the variety of packing gear is very great. 
 The nature of the country to be traversed and of the load to 
 be transported will in a great measure determine the form 
 and adjustment of the gear. 
 
 The mule is the favorite pack animal in the United States, 
 but I believe the ox is far superior and would be in great 
 demand, were it only fashionable to use him as a pack and 
 saddle animal. Oxen hold out much better than mules over 
 long marches, are much cheaper, are less liable to be stam- 
 peded by Indians, are easily caught when needed, and in 
 case of emergency may be used for beef. 
 
 The mule is the offspring of the male ass and the mare. 
 As in other hybrid animals, the males are the more numer- 
 ous. There is no instance on record of offspring produced 
 by two mules. The hinny is far inferior to the mule in 
 size, strength and beauty. 
 
 Pack mules should not be too large or high on their legs. 
 The Spanish-Mexican mules, for endurance, are superior to 
 all others. These mules are small, but can stand a great 
 amount of abuse and starvation and will suffer but little 
 from the effects of a hard drive. Being smaller than the 
 American mules, they can fill up in a much less time, and it 
 
ii2 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 will be found ohat in three hours on thin grass they will fill up 
 and recuperate better than American mules on the same 
 pasture in six hours. This, I believe, is the secret of small 
 mules outlasting the large ones in the mountains and on 
 the prairies. The time spent in camp is not sufficiently 
 long, when the grass is scarce, to allow a large one to find 
 enough to eat. The small mule finds sufficient in a short 
 while and has some time left for rest and recuperation. 
 
 Experience shows, moreover, that strength, activity and 
 endurance do not increase in the ratio of the size, and that 
 the smaller of two mules surpasses in these qualities ; 
 white, dappled or spotted mules, known as calico mules, are 
 not near so hardy as those of dark and uniform colors and 
 should be avoided. Mares are to be preferred to horse 
 mules, being more tractable and following the bell mare 
 (madrina) better on the trail. A white or grey animal 
 should be selected for the madrina if possible. Usually "she 
 is an old steady mare with a little bell round her neck, and 
 wherever she goes, the mules, like good children, follow 
 her. If several large troops are turned into one field to 
 graze, in the morning the muleteer has only to lead the 
 madrinas a little apart, and tinkle their bells, and, although 
 there may be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately 
 knows its own bell, and separates itself from the rest. The 
 affection of these animals for their madrina saves infinite 
 trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose an old mule ; for, if 
 detained several hours by force, she will, by the power of 
 smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the 
 madrina ; for, according to the muleteer, she is the chief ob- 
 ject of affection. The feeling, however, is not of an indi 
 vidual nature ; for I believe I am right in saying that any 
 animal with a bell will serve as madrina." 
 
 When in the vicinity of hostile Indians or horse thieves, 
 the mules are easily secured at ni2fht by being herded, teth- 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 113 
 
 erecl, hobbled, haltered or driven into some enclosure. The 
 dangers apprehended and the nature of the country deter- 
 mine the manner. When hobbles are used, the fetlock 
 straps should be made of thick leather, the inside smooth 
 
 and soft, and the sewn 
 edges uppermost, when on 
 the animal's legs. Messrs. 
 Main & Winchester, 216 
 Battery street, San Fran- 
 cisco, California, make a 
 specialty of packing gear, 
 and all articles pertaining 
 to field outfits. Their illus- 
 trated catalogue will be 
 valuable to those prepar- 
 ing for the field. When 
 the animal is tethered and 
 the rope is long enough to permit walking and feeding in a 
 large circle, it should be provided with a wooden swivel, 
 readily made as represented in the drawing, in order to pre- 
 vent twisting and entanglement. Mules 
 are dangerously skillful in the use of their 
 heels, and one cannot be over careful, at 
 all times, in guarding against the results of this skill. 
 
 The Indians instinctively fear their heels and will seldom 
 lend a hand in packing them. 
 
 Mules work best when between three and six 3 ears 
 old and are from twelve to thirteen hands high. In 
 fitting out a train, as few different kinds of animals 
 should be taken as possible, or they will run in 
 different herds and require much more attention; and 
 in the selection of mules, care should be taken to see 
 that the dentition of the upper jaw is free from de 
 formity. Mules are often overhung or parrot beaked, that 
 
Mountain Scouting. 
 
 is, the upper row of front teeth projects so far beyond the 
 lower that it is impossible for the mule to bring them to- 
 gether. This defect soon occasions a loss of condition and 
 weakness, as such mules are able to gather but little food. 
 Care should be taken that the tongue is also perfect. 
 
 Horses and ponies, for packing purposes, should be of 
 cobby and short-legged breed. 
 
 Experience and practice in the handling of rope are essen- 
 tial in lashing, cross-lashing and interlacing, so as to make 
 fast in proper shape the hetereogeneous objects of an ordi- 
 nary cargo. In this connec- 
 tion it might be well to prac- 
 tice making the common and 
 important knots. Referring 
 to the diagram, the manner 
 of forming them is readily 
 understood. 
 
 Figure 1, shows two half 
 hitches, useful for making a rope fast to a spar, but should 
 not be used for hois,ting a spar. A single half hitch is 
 formed by passing the end of a rope around the standing 
 part and bringing it up through the bight. 
 Fig. 2, is a clove hitch made on a spar. 
 Fig. 3, is a clove hitch to pass over the end of a spar. It 
 binds with excessive force and by means of it, a weight may 
 be hung to a smooth vertical pole. When used in lashing, 
 the end should be twisted rouhd the standing part. 
 
 Fig. 4, is a reef or square knot, useful for securing all 
 lashings where the ends of a rope meet. To undo it, take 
 the end of the rope and its standing part, and pull them in 
 opposite directions. 
 
 Fig. 5, is a draw knot, for small rope, same use as reef 
 knot, but the ends are doubled back and afford greater fa- 
 cility in untying it. 
 
Pack Mules and Packing.. 115 
 
 Fig. 6, is a single sheet bend. This does not jam, and is 
 useful in joining two ropes. 
 
 Fig. 7, is a fisherman's bend, for fastening ropes to rings, 
 etc. 
 
 Fig. 8. is a timber hitch, useful for lifting spars, dragging 
 material from place to place and hauling carriages, etc., out 
 of ditches, when drag ropes are not at hand. It will not 
 give as long as the strain is kept up, but when the strain is 
 removed, it is cast loose at once. 
 
 Fig. 9, is a bowline. It is difficult to undo ; with it the 
 two ends of a rope are tied together, or a loop made at the 
 end of a rope. For slip-nooses, use the bowline to make 
 the draw loop. 
 
 Fig. 10, is a running bowline. 
 
 Fig. 11, is a slip or hangman's knot. 
 
 Fig. 12, is a carrickbend, useful for joining two ropes and 
 for making the guys for the head of a spar. 
 
 Fig. 13, is a sheep shank knot, and is used to shorten a 
 rope temporarily without cutting it or unfastening the ends. 
 
 Figs. 14 and 15, are handy barrel slings. 
 
 Figs. 16 and 17, are simple forms of slip knots, destroyed 
 by freeing the loops and drawing on the free ends. 
 
 To make a short splice, unlay the strands for a convenient 
 distance, take an end in each hand, place them one within the 
 other and draw them close together. Hold the 
 end of one rope and the strands which come 
 from the other, in the left hand take the mid- 
 dle strand, pass it over the strand next to it, 
 under the second and out between the second 
 and third, and haul it tight. Pass in a similar manner each 
 of the six strands, first those of one end, then those of the 
 other. To taper the splice, untwist each strand, divide, the 
 yarns, pass one-half as described above and cut off the other 
 half. 
 
n6 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 To make an eye splice, unlay the end of a rope for a short 
 distance, lay the three strands upon the standing part, form- 
 ing an eye. Put the first end through the strand next to it, 
 the second end over that strund and through the second, and 
 the remaining end through the third strand on the other 
 side of the rope. The ends are tapered as in the short 
 splice, by dividing the strands and again passing them. 
 Many of the pack saddles in use at this time are mere in 
 strum ents of torture and laceration. 
 
 The cross-tree saddle and gear, represented in the draw 
 ing, is used to a great extent by the Indians and traders in 
 
 the Northwest. This 
 description of saddle 
 is very well adapted 
 for smooth roads and 
 evenly formed packs, 
 but for scouting trains 
 or the professional 
 packer, where objects 
 of every imaginable 
 shape and various 
 weights are to be 
 transported, nothing has yet been invented so suitable as 
 the aparejo, composed entirely of hide. 
 
 It is a strong leather sack, about two feet wide and from 
 55 to 60 inches long, according to the girth of the mule. It 
 is used as a pad to protect the mule's back while packing. 
 A seam running from the front to the rear of the aparejo 
 divides it into two equal parts, each of which is composed 
 of a double layer of hide, with sufficient space between 
 to introduce a suitable stuffing of hay, grass, moss, fibre, 
 etc. These side flaps, when fastened together at the top, 
 form a ridge within which the back bone of the mule rests 
 free from friction or pressure. On the inside of each flap is 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 117 
 
 left a circular hole through which the stuffing material 
 can at any time be reached. The careful packer should 
 keep the stuffing evenly distributed, or so as to vary 
 with the conformation of the back of the particular mule, 
 as portions of it are constantly shifting and working up 
 into lumps, in consequence of the travel. To set up the 
 
 aparejo, or to give it evennes 
 and stiffness, small ash, rose or 
 willow sprouts from \ to J of 
 an inch in diameter, and as 
 
 BBI 
 
 I 
 
 Jill 
 
 mil! 
 
 long as possible without spring- 
 
 ing (any tough and elastic wood 
 will answer), are placed inside 
 of it and at equal distances 
 apart about "2 inches. On the 
 inside cf these and towards the 
 mule, coarse grass or hay (such 
 I as is light and tough and will 
 
 HIHiHHHHHHIl not break up) is placed layer 
 
 after layer until the sides are 
 
 ;:s full as possible. The corners should be stuffed as 
 hard as possible, by means of a sharp stick. Serious 
 trouble is often experienced on long and toilsome marches, 
 from loss of flesh, causing the aparejo to fit badly and 
 cause a sore-back. Great care must be taken to make good 
 all deficiencies in the stuffing, and when the aparejo is too 
 large to be adapted to a thin mule, by stuffing, a portion 
 should be cut out of the centre. Straw pads are useful for 
 protecting the hips and withers, when placed under the 
 cinches of those animals carrying rough loads. When the 
 aparejo is placed on the mule's back, it is covered with a 
 piece of canvas or matting, made to fit it, called the Ham 
 mer Cloth. Two pieces of hard wood, about 1 inch thick, 2 
 in. wide, round on the outside and beveled to an edge at the 
 
n8 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 ends , are placed about 6 in. from the ends of the cloth. 
 
 Leather caps are stitched over the ends of the wood. To 
 
 secure the 
 h a m m e r 
 cloth, apar- 
 ejo and the 
 blankets be- 
 neath it to 
 mules,a wide 
 girth called 
 a cincha(usu- 
 ally called 
 c i ii c h ) is 
 used. It is 
 made of hide 
 for strong 
 canvas, about 
 six feet long 
 (a little too 
 short to go 
 around the 
 mule's body 
 
 over the aparejo), from 15 to 20 inches wide and so folded 
 
 as to bring the edges and stitching in the centre. A semi 
 
 circular piece of leather, provided with holes or a ring, is 
 stitched on one end, and two loops of strong leather and a 
 slider of hard wood on the other. The cinch is tightened 
 

 Pack Mules and Packing. 
 
 119 
 
 by drawing the two ends together, by means of what is 
 known as the latigo strap made of strong bridle leather 
 about six feet long, an inch and one half wide at one end 
 and tapering to one-half inch at the other. When the strap 
 is sufficiently drawn, a loop is formed in the free end and 
 the bow is pulled under the front and back lashings of the 
 strap. To relax the cinch and set all free, it is only ne- 
 cessary to pull on the free end of the strap. For very small 
 animals a short cinch (one end furnished with a ring and the 
 
 other with a stick, bent into the shape of a hook), attached 
 to a rope at the ring may be used. 
 
 Next to the skin of the animal is placed a piece of clean 
 cloth, or an ordinary woolen blanket neatly folded ; over 
 this is placed the saddle cloth, called by the packers 
 Corona. This is made of woolen cloth, with worked 
 ornamental borders. It consists of two or three folds 
 of cloth stitched together. The letter or name of the 
 mule to which it belongs is generally stiched upon it in 
 colored cloth. In taking the corona off, grasp it in the 
 centre, front and back, let the sides come together and 
 place it across the aparejo, back to the rear. The sad- 
 
I2O Mountain Scouting. 
 
 die blanket proper (an ordinary U. 8. blanket) goes on top 
 of the corona, and may be used as bedding in camp. The 
 tendency of the aparejo to work forward is overcome by a 
 wide crupper (the dock rest being of soft and round leather 
 
 attached to its out 
 side and passing 
 back over the hips 
 It should be care- 
 fully adjusted and 
 always kept clean. 
 Knots of any description should not be tied in the straps 
 or ropes of the packing gear with a view to shortening 
 them. It is proper to make more holes if buckles are used, 
 or to cut to the proper length. Knots 
 and galls go together. The sling-rope 
 (of hand-laid manila rope) should be about 
 15 feet long and one-half or three-quarters 
 ef an inch in diameter. .The packs are 
 made fast and retained on the mule's 
 back by means of a cinch and lash rope. 
 The cinch is made of strong canvas, 
 about eleven inches wide and one yard 
 long, doubled so that the edges are in the 
 middle. Strong pieces of leather are 
 firmly stitched on both ends and on both 
 sides, with the canvas cinch between, as 
 shown in the drawing. A three-inch 
 iron ring is made fast at one end, and a 
 hook of hard wood at the other. Natural 
 shapes are usually selected for the hooks. 
 The lash rope is of 1J inch hemp rope or raw hide, about 
 35 feet long, with one end spliced to the cinch ring. 
 The following are evident advantages of the aparejo : 
 Its shape enables all loads to be balanced. One hundred 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 
 
 121 
 
 pouccls on one side may be made to ride with 50 Ibs. on the 
 otiicr, without straining the mule. It presents much more 
 surface for pressure to the mule than any other form of 
 pack saddle does. The lower corners secure the lash rope 
 and prevent its slipping when on the road. By removing 
 the hay or stuffing from the sides, a sore back may be easily 
 remedied, and by properly adjusting the filling, the 
 aparejo may be made to perfectly fit a badly shaped back. 
 
 The pack cover or manta should be about 5 feet square 
 and made of water proof canvas. 
 
 The blind or " tapajo," made of leather with strings and 
 loop, should be invariably used while packing or adjusting 
 a disarranged pack. When not on the mule's head, the 
 blind may be used as a whip. 
 
 Before proceeding to the packing drill, the knot formed 
 by the lash rope, on the top of the pack, should be carefully 
 
 studied. A knowledge of its con- 
 struction will make the packing 
 process very simple. 
 
 It requires two men to properly 
 pack a mule. No. 1 is habitually 
 on the near or left side, and No. 2 
 on the off or right side of the 
 mule. To teach the art of pack- 
 ing, the instructor commands : 
 
 1. Prepare. 2. To PACK. 
 
 At this command, No. 2 places 
 
 the hackamore upon the mule, leads him on the off side of 
 and near the rigging, places the blind and assumes his posi- 
 tion on the off side of the mule. No. 1, assisted by No. 2, 
 on the off side, places and carefully adjusts the saddle 
 blanket and corona. (Two). No. 1 seizes the aparejo, the 
 left-hand near the centre of its front, the right hand near 
 
122 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 the off and rear corner, and places it well to the rear on the 
 back of the mule, when No. 2 immediately adjusts the crup- 
 per, and assists No. 1 in moving the aparejo as far forward 
 as possible. (Three). No. 1 passes the aparejo cinch to the 
 off side, till the slider end reaches directly under the mule, 
 and assisted by No. 2, passes the latigo strap downwards 
 over the slider and inwards through the ring, and again 
 over the slider. While No. 1 is drawing the latigo strap 
 moderately tight, No. 2 reaches over the mule in front of 
 the aparejo, seizes its front corners and draws them upward 
 and forward, placing the aparejo squarely over the mule. 
 This being done and the aparejo set. No. 1 places his left 
 knee against the aparejo, and seizes the latigo strap as far 
 down as possible, the left hand in advance. (Four). The 
 latigo strap is drawn until the cinch is sufficiently tight; 
 when, No. 1 doubles it and passes it through the loop on 
 the cinch, drawing it tight. 
 
 No. 2 removes the blind, and ties the mule at or near his 
 cargo. 
 
 If No. 1 is not sufficiently strong, No. 2 passes around to 
 the near side, faces No. 1 and assists him in drawing the 
 latigo strap. 
 
 1. Slinq. 2. THE PACK. 
 
 At this command, No. 2 unties the mule, places the blind 
 and takes his position near the cargo. No. 1 seizes the 
 sling rope, doubles it and throws the loop well over on the 
 off side. (Two). No. 2 quietly raises his side of the pack 
 high up on the aparejo, and holding it there with his left 
 hand passes, with his right hand, the loop of the sling rope 
 over the cargo on his side, to No. 1, who passes the ends of 
 the sling rope through the loop, drawing them tight. (Three .) 
 No. 1 quickly places his side of the pack on the aparejo 
 against that of No. 2, holds it there with his left hand, and 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 123 
 
 passes one end of the sling rope to No. 2, who passes it 
 under a branch of the sling rope already on his side, and 
 back to No. 1. 
 
 No. 1, resting his left arm against the pack, quickly brings 
 the ends of the sling rope together and ties them, in a 
 square knot, after drawing tight. (Four). Nos. 1 and 2 
 seize the pack at the lower and inner edges, settle it to the 
 full extent of the sling rope, and carefully balance it ; No 2 
 removing the blind, and gently leading the mule a few steps 
 forward, while No. 1 observes the pack from the rear. No. 
 1, then places the pack cover, and is assisted by No. 2 in 
 adjusting it. When the mantas are not in use, they are 
 folded and carried on the aparejos under the cinches. 
 
 1. Lash. 2. THE PACK. 
 
 At this command, No. 1 takes the lash rope and holding it 
 coiled in his right, seizes it with his left hand near the cinch, 
 and throws it to its full extent to the right ; whereupon 
 he passes the cinch, hook from him, under 
 the mule, and holding it steady, he places 
 the rope lengthwise on the centre of the 
 pack (fig. 1). (Two.) No. 1 now moves for- 
 ward to the mule's shoulder, draws the lash 
 rope forwards two-thirds of its length, seizes 
 it 5 or 6 feetTrom the cinch, find passes it doubled to No. 2 
 (fig. ?,), who takes the double in his right hand, and the 
 hook of the cinch in Hs left. No. 2 then moves his hands, 
 until he feels the rope tight, when he passes 
 the rear branch of the rope from above into 
 the hook and the slack back to No. 1, who 
 draws it tight with his left hand. He then 
 passes his right haud under his left, seizes 
 the rope in front of the pack and passes it to 
 the rear (fig. 3). (Three.) No. 1 passes the rope in his left 
 
124 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 hand under the standing branch from tear to front, pulls it 
 well up on the pack (fig. 4) and forces the 
 bight thus formed below the aparejo. In the 
 meanwhile, No. 2 grasps the end of the rope, 
 passes it under the front standing branch on 
 his side (from front to rear or from rear to 
 front), pushes it to the top of the pack and 
 throws the end in front of the ^ack on the side of No. 1 ; 
 No. 2 then seizes the front standing branch with both 
 hands, well down, and places his left knee 
 against the aparejo. No. 1 seizes the front 
 branch on his side, placing his left shoulder 
 against the pack. No. 2 pulls while No. 1 
 takes in the slack. When all is sufficiently 
 tight, No, 1 says "good," and seeing the pack 
 well balanced passes to the rear and tightly pulls the branch 
 under the aparejo. (Fig. 5). (Four.) No. 2 goes to the 
 rear, pulls the branch on his right and passes it forward 
 under the points of the aparejo. No. 1 moves forward, on 
 his own side, takes the end of the rope, tight- 
 ens it, passes it down under the points of the 
 aparejo, back to the centre of the pack and 
 there fastens it by drawing it under the stand- 
 ing branches (fig. 6). If the lash rope is very 
 long, No. 1 passes the end to No. 2 who makes 
 it fast as stated. All set, No. 2, removes the blind, ties up 
 the hackamore strap and drives off the mule. 
 
 1. Unsling. 2. THE PACK. 
 
 At this command, No. 2 loosens the end of the lash rope, 
 goes to the mule's shoulder and pulls out the branch on his 
 side. (Two.) No. 1 slackens the rear and front branches 
 on his side in succession,passes the front branch under 
 the standing branch from front to rear, withdraws it and 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 125 
 
 passes the slack to No. 2, who unhooks it, whereupon Nos 
 1 and 2 throw the lash rope to the rear. (Three.) No. 1 
 unties the sling rope quickly. (Four.) Nos. 1 and 2 tako 
 down the portions of the pack on their sides. 
 
 The aparejo is taken off in the inverse 
 order in which it is put on. 
 
 This being done, No. 1 arranges the car- 
 goes while ^No. 2 collects and assorts the rig- 
 ging, placing the aparejos in a line, resting 
 on the lower ends of the pads 
 The drawing shows the position of the different parts 
 when the mule is properly packed. As the train moves out 
 
 of camp,each mule should 
 be carefully noticed as he 
 passes. Eaising the hips 
 and twitching the mouth 
 or nose indicates galling r , 
 and should lead to imme- 
 diate examination. The 
 hackamores should fit 
 very loosely. Nothing is 
 so liable to irritate a mule 
 and give him "fits of 
 fury" as sore ears. If 
 possible, the cargo should be made into two packages of 
 equal weight and bulk, of about 100 or 125 pounds, and the 
 highest loads should be the bulkiest and most valuable 
 stores. All rattling pans, camp kettles, buckets, etc., should 
 be closely packed in sacks and securely lashed on top be- 
 tween the side packs. If carelessly packed and allowed tc 
 rattle, the mules will frequently become alarmed and a* 
 frequently succeed in dropping their packs. 
 
 Strong panniers with lids to hinge and lock are useful foi 
 
126 Mountain Scuuting. 
 
 transporting ammunition, food for the day, change of cloth 
 
 ing and other articles for immediate use. 
 
 Narrow flat battens of stout wood or bundles of twigs 
 
 will be found handy and useful for placing between the packs 
 
 and lash ropes. In the case of sacks and the like, were it 
 not for some interposing medium, the strained 
 ropes would soon cut through and occasion more 
 
 r r 
 
 1/fflJr or l ess m ischief. After a march the aparejos, 
 with the latigos loosened, should be left on the mules for an 
 hour or so, in order that their backs may cool gradually. 
 
 Packed mules should not be permitted to lie down, as 
 they are liable to strain themselves in attempting to rise 
 again. Over difficult and long continued journeys, with pas- 
 tures seldom good, the net weight of the packs should not 
 exceed the half of those readily transported over a level 
 country, furnishing a sufficiency of grain and camps at regu- 
 lar intervals. The question how must the mule be loaded 
 and urged in order to obtain the maximum work or useful 
 effect, is an important one. If he transports a light weight, 
 he may make a long day's journey; if he transports an ex 
 cessive weight, he may soon come to a stand-still, and in 
 either case the u useful effect " is little or nothing. 
 
 Let D=the distance a mule could travel daily if unloaded. 
 
 W the weight under which he could not travel at all. 
 
 W 1 some weight less than W, under which he could 
 
 travel D 1 miles per day. Then, there obtains 
 
 Wi D 2 = W(D D 1 ) 2 . 
 
 Now the work or " useful effect " will be a maximum when 
 W 1 D 1 is a maximum, or when W 1 = 4-9 W, and D 1 = 1-3 D, 
 or in other words, the mule will accomplish the most work 
 when he transports 4-9ths of the load under which he would 
 stagger, and he will travel just 1-3 the distance he could if 
 he carried no load at all. For example : Suppose a mule 
 jis able to travel 20 miles per day bearing a load of 200 Ibs.. 
 

 Pack Mules and Packing. 
 
 127 
 
 and 45 miles per day, when he carries nothing; then from 
 the equation W ' D 2 =W (D D 1 ) 2 , we find W == 20oX20 ^5 
 
 ' 625 
 = 648 Ibs., the load under which he would be brought to a 
 
 standstill; and from W 1 = 4-9 W, and D J = 1-3 D, we find 
 the best load to be 288 Ibs., carried 15 miles per day. 
 
 This chapter would hardly be complete without a descrip- 
 tion of the Madigan Field Ammunition Box (adapted also for 
 use as Medicine or Mess Chest), to be packed in pairs on 
 either an aparejo or a pack saddle. This box meets all the 
 jquirements of active service and by means of it, tror ps 
 in line of battle or skirmishing may be quickly supplied and 
 ire not obliged to lose valuable moments of time, while un- 
 :king, unscrewing covers, etc. 
 
 The drawing shows the boxes packed and the manner of 
 using them. Their construction is such that all or any j>art 
 of the contents may be removed, whenever desired for im- 
 mediate use, without unloading the 'cargo,' slacking .the 
 lash rope, or even halting the animal carrying them. These 
 are certainly important advantages in case of a surprise or 
 sudden attack upon the train, or the unexpected discovery 
 of the enemy; or, if used for medicine or subsistence stores, 
 in case, of sudden illness, or the necessity of eating a meal 
 under circumstances forbidding a halt. Many instances 
 will doubtless recur to every officer of experience in field ser- 
 
128 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 vice, where disasters have resulted from not having been 
 able to quickly replenish the supply of ammunition. 
 
 The devices by which this box is made available for sud- 
 den emergencies, are essentially three in number, viz: 
 
 FIRST, and most important: The angle castings or corner 
 bands in the center of each side of the top of the box, each 
 of which has a diagonal circular opening, or socket, for the 
 lash rope. 
 
 SECOND: The center partition, ife inches thick, on the 
 top of which is screwed a center strip, 2^2 inches in width, 
 with two lids hinged thereto, opening from the ends. 
 
 THIRD: The sub-division of the interior of the box, by 
 adjustable partitions, into compartments, adapted in num- 
 ber and arrangement, to the nature of the contents, and 
 shape and size of the packages. 
 
 These compartments prevent the shaking or damaging of 
 the packages by the motion of the animal, which would oc- 
 cur with an ordinary box after being partially emptied; 
 and permit the load to be kept practically balanced by tak 
 ing out- of each box, alternately, all or part of the contents 
 of one or more compartments, thus obviating any neces- 
 sity for unloading, or touching a rope during the march 
 other than the usual adjustment of the lash rope. By fill 
 ing only a portion of the compartments, when the packages 
 are unusually heavy, or when the animal is not in good 
 condition, the weight of the load may be adapted to the 
 circumstances of the case, without danger of rattling, shak- 
 ing or breaking the packages; for hard bread or other 
 stores of light weight, the boxes may be made larger, if 
 desired; or if necessary, four boxes of the usual size can be 
 packed on one animal. 
 
 No special fittings or attachments, to the ordinary aparejo 
 or pack-saddle, are required; the boxes are complete in 
 themselves and in case of emergency they may be packed 
 with very little in the way of outfit a few old sacks filled 
 
Pack Mules and Packing. 129 
 
 with hay or straw, a couple of cinches and a piece of rope 
 will answer. 
 
 The ammunition boxes now supplied by the Ordnance De- 
 partment are very unsuitable for 'packing;' two being too 
 light for an economical load, while three are awkward to han- 
 dle, very difficult to lash so as to be kept in place on an 
 aparejo or pack-saddle, and are liable to chafe and strain 
 the animal's back. 
 
 Mr. Madigan has lately invented a Tripod and Packing 
 Box for the Gatling Gun and an Improi'ed Pack-saddle for 
 Transporting the Hotchkiss Gun, both of which are highly 
 endorsed by officers serving in New Mexico and other 
 mountainous countries. 
 
13 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 V CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 jf 
 
 MARCHING. 
 
 A GOOD commander will so conduct the march as to pre- 
 sent his men in fighting order at any moment. With this 
 in view, it will be necessary to observe the following points: 
 
 1. All things to be arranged in the column of march in 
 the same order in which they are likely to be required. 
 
 2. The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men to be se- 
 cured, carefully considering the proper indulgences, the 
 weather, the physical features of the country and import- 
 ant hygienic principles. 
 
 3. The animals to be herded, loaded, driven and guarded 
 with the greatest care. 
 
 When distant from the enemy, or when in broken or 
 dusty country, certain considerations of the first order may 
 very properly give way to ease and comfort, but, as a gen- 
 eral rule, the transportation (kept well closed up) should 
 follow closely in rear of the mam command. 
 
 A few mounted men should constitute the advance guard 
 while marching through the hostile country. They should 
 keep a vigilant lookout in all directions and carefully recon- 
 noitre every place where the enemy might lie in ambush. 
 
 When marching without a guide who knows the country, 
 and when the requisites for a camp are scarce, an addi- 
 tional armed party should be sent in advance to hunt the 
 camps. They should make a careful search on both sides of 
 the trail and be sufficiently far advanced to return to the 
 command, in case of failure to locate a suitable camp 
 
Marching. 131 
 
 within the distance of a reasonable day's march. Thirty- 
 five miles might be considered the limit of search. It is 
 safe to assume that a camp with the necessary requisites, 
 (wood, water and grass), after a march of thirty-five miles, is 
 many times better in the long run than a camp without wa- 
 ter and grass even after a small march of ten or fifteen miles. 
 
 Numerous circumstances of the march will determine the 
 strength of the rear guard. It should, at all times, be kept 
 close to the transportation, for its protection incase of sur- 
 prise. 
 
 The question of equipment is an important one, when an 
 engagement may be expected at any moment. 
 
 The difficult problem of drawing the proper line between 
 the number of articles that should be in hand, when the en- 
 gagement ensues, and the weight that should be transported 
 on the person has received much attention of late. The ex- 
 cellent campaign equipment, devised by J. E. Bloom, Esq., 
 late of the Artillery, is the nearest approach to perfection, 
 as yet. By this device, the center of gravity of the soldier 
 remains nearly normal, and the strain falls upon those por- 
 tions of the body which can best bear them. 
 
 It seems that the principal objection to the 'roll' as worn 
 during the late war, was that the weight fell upon one side 
 of the body, thus heating it, etc. In Mr. Bloom's system 
 of equipment this objection is entirely overcome, and the 
 soldier is enabled to transport the following with great fa- 
 cility: One hundred cartridges, (cal. 45), one blanket, one 
 shelter tent, one overcoat, one pair pants, one pair drawers, 
 one undershirt, one woolen shirt, one pair socks, one pair 
 shoes, towel, soap, etc., in addition to his rifle. 
 
 The equipment consists in a system of supporting straps, 
 by means of which the weight to be carried is directly trans- 
 ferred to and supported equally by the shoulders, without 
 producing any horizontal pressure upon the chest. This.ob- 
 
132 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 ject is accomplished by means of a yoke, composed of two 
 leather straps A A, passing over the shoulders and joined by 
 the same rivets at their ends front and rear, (opposite to 
 the extremity of the sternum bone) both to plates or stirrups 
 
 B B, and also to a double blanket strap C C, for securing 
 the blankets and articles rolled therein. The blanket roll is 
 adjusted so as to fully clear, by an inch, the shoulder over 
 whfch it passes, being thus suspended from a central point 
 
Marching. 133 
 
 front and rear, upon a line passing through the center of 
 gravity of the body thus causing such a disposition of 
 these articles as not to disturb the equilibrium of the body. 
 
 The weight of the cartridge belt, of any variety, is sup- 
 ported from stirrups, both at front and back, by means of 
 hooks, or hook-plates I I. which are connected with the belt 
 through the adjustable straps and snap-hooks J J. The ha- 
 versack, canteen, gamebags, etc., are likewise suspended 
 "from side slots in the stirrups by means of straps M M. The 
 blanket roll, when firmly made and adjusted, exerts more 
 than sufficient outward thrust to counteract all inward strains, 
 (which would otherwise fall upon the chest,) due to the 
 weight of the 'roll, ammunition belt, etc. This should be 
 passed over the left shoulder, when the soldier is right 
 handed or fires from the right shoulder, and vice versa. 
 
 The following advantages of such an equipment are ap- 
 parent; 
 
 1. Lightness and simplicity; and, being practically in one 
 piece, there are no parts to be lost by the most careless. 
 
 2. Facility and quickness of slinging and unslinging. 
 
 3. It does not interfere with the action of the soldier, or 
 the natural equilibrium of his body. 
 
 4. It does not heat the soldier ; but allows him to sleep 
 with all accoutrements upon the person the upper part of 
 the 'roll' forming a pillow for the head. 
 
 The European soldier, on going into action, is allowed the 
 following ammunition: France, 92; Germany, try; Russia, 
 120; England, 100; Austria, 119. The equipment described 
 will enable him to carry 100 rounds, in addition to his kit, 
 etc., with ease and safety. 
 
 The cheerfulness and efficiency of the men will depend 
 very much upon their being properly supplied and having 
 a sufficiency of time in which to cook and look after their 
 comfort. 
 
 Sufficient has already been said regarding tne clothing 
 
134 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 and foot gear. The drawing shows a form of boot very 
 suitable for long marches over rough and broken ground, and 
 up and down hill, should it be impracticable to wear single 
 soled and laced shoes with leggings. The leg proper is at- 
 
 tached to the lower part, about the instep, by means of 
 some strong and elastic material. With this description of 
 boot a long march may be made over rough and rocky 
 ground without wearying or injuring the foot. 
 
 With an easy fitting shoe or boot, a march over the most 
 rugged mountain, where the mind is kept busy with a con- 
 stant change of scenery and the muscles rested by a variety 
 of action, is far easier than the same march over a level 
 plain, where there is little or no stimulant to greater exer- 
 tion. 
 
 Even with the most careful management and preparation 
 for the march, it will not do to expect too much the first 
 few days, as it requires some little time for persons and 
 
Marching. 135 
 
 things to settle into the new condition of matters. Suffi- 
 cient allowance must be made for the reluctant co-opera- 
 tion of individuals, inasmuch as they have a much less in- 
 terest in the success of the expedition than the command- 
 ing officer. It is a frequent question with them, why should 
 we tax our energies and risk our lives in an enterprise for which 
 we receive so little remuneration and about which we are indiffer- 
 ent? This is most frequently the case with recruits, and it 
 is a good rule to march all such near the head of the col- 
 umn, as they experience less fatigue than when following 
 in rear, and are more inclined to exertion, knowing that 
 they are watched by older men, and that they will be sup- 
 ported by them in the moments of danger. 
 
 When long journeys are to be made, the daily marches 
 should be short: for, if too long, rapid or ill-regulated, 
 sickness is sure to result. 
 
 Brief halts should also be made, their frequency depend- 
 ing upon the condition of the ' trail ' and weather. It is a 
 fair rule to march three miles (one hour) and then rest ten 
 minutes. Places having a free circulation of air, well 
 shaded and near running water should be selected for halts, 
 when possible. Considering all things, it is best to start 
 on the march with the early dawn, ' noon ' a few hours dur- 
 ing the heat of the day (near grass and water), and con- 
 tinue the march in the afternoon. In this manner twenty 
 miles per day would be but a fair average march over the 
 mountains. The march on exceedingly hot and rainy days 
 should be completed before noon when possible. 
 
 It should be made an invariable rule to serve the coffee 
 before marching, without regard to the hour. 
 
 The frequent use of water on the march is a matter of 
 habit; some drink at every spring or stream and as often as 
 twenty-five or thirty times in a day, while others will be 
 satisfied with two drinkings during the same time. Thirst 
 may be prevented, to some extent, by drinking a large quan- 
 
136 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 tity of water before breakfast, or by chewing a green leaf 
 or twig, when thirsty. Water from stagnant pools should 
 be purified before using, or fevers and dysenteries will fol- 
 low. When drinking from a muddy pool or stream, place 
 the shirt sleeve or handkerchief over the mouth ancj thus 
 avoid the particles of dirt. When marching through poor- 
 ly watered sections of country, I have found it an excellent 
 plan to fill the canteen, before leaving camp, with a mixture 
 of water and unsweetened tea or coffee. This when taken 
 cold on the march, allays the thirst and is an excellent bev- 
 erage. 
 
 There is nothing more hurtful to a command than to be 
 compelled to make long or forced marches while fasting. 
 To prevent such, a lunch should be taken when possible. 
 
 The drawing shows a handy air-tight and elastic lunch- 
 pouch. It may be attached to the belt or carried in the 
 pocket, and will preserve a small quantity of food in good 
 condition. When not in use, it may be so folded as to oc- 
 cupy a very limited space, and may be made to serve a 
 number of useful purposes while in camp. 
 
 I would recommend that the monotony of travel be re- 
 lieved by what might be termed 'noted days,' having an 
 extra good meal, a larger issue of sugar, tobacco, etc., than 
 usual, and a shorter march if expedient. Sucn anticipated 
 rewards for extra services, especially with Indian scouts, ac- 
 complish much good. 
 
Marching. 137 
 
 The formation of all cliques, whether on the march or in 
 the camp, should be prohibited; but, anything in reason 
 should be done to promote the merriment of all. 
 
 When the animals have been recently taken from grain, 
 it is necessary to make very short and easy drives for the 
 first few days ; and sufficient time should be allowed for 
 drinking, at suitable periods, while on the march. When 
 making night marches over an unwatered section of coun 
 try, if there be any dew upon the grass, the stock should 
 be allowed to halt and graze every hour. 
 
 Alkaline springs are of frequent occurrence in mountain 
 valleys, and may be detected by the yellow color of the 
 grass growing around them. The animals should not be 
 allowed to graze near them or drink the water, which is ex- 
 ceedingly poisonous. 
 
 It will seldom injure the animals to vary their hours of 
 rest and labor ; and when the day bids fair to being very 
 warm, it is often well to start them on the march hungry, 
 make an early drive and go into camp before the heat of 
 the day. 
 
 During the first days of the march, it can be ascertained 
 what animals are wild and likely to lead off the herd 
 or cause other mischief ; all such should be carefully led, 
 the others being permitted to run loose, in order that they 
 may pick up grass along the 'trail' while moving. The 
 stock should not travel faster than at a walk, nor be taken 
 off for hunting purposes, unless necessary. 
 
 In going up or down rugged mountains, all packs should 
 be firmly lashed, in order that the animals may better sup- 
 port their burdens. On first starting out they will appear 
 to be hardly able to move under the loads, but soon the 
 packs will settle, the lashings loosen and they will exper- 
 ience no trouble. The packers should be vigilant and see 
 that the packs do not work loose and that the animals do 
 not scatter along the trail. The train should not be stopped 
 
138 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 to adjust a cargo only the mule in question should be 
 halted, the others being compelled to move on. Theapare- 
 jos should not be removed while on the march, nor while 
 'nooning/ for less than an hour. 
 
 There is much truth in the saying that the best packers 
 are those who make the least use of the whip and the most 
 use of their tongues. 
 
 The Mexican or California saddles are extensively used 
 
Ma re king. \ 3 9 
 
 throughout the Western country; and, in proportion to their 
 excessive cost, are considered by the traders and Indians 
 far superior to any other saddles manufactured. They are 
 usually furnished with wool-lined bastos, llama skin anque- 
 ras, sudaderos, tapaderos and stirrup leathers handsome- 
 ly cut-stamped. When made of good material, in addition 
 to giving perfect satisfaction, they will last a century and 
 then command a fair price. 
 
 These are usually accompanied by 'Cantanas' of goat, seal 
 or llama skin, which are invaluable when traveling with- 
 out pack animals or wagons. 
 
 These are frequently so constructed as to admit of being 
 taken off the saddle and borne on the person. 
 
 There is some diversity of opinion as to the best mode of 
 slinging the rifle while on horseback. 
 
 With a short rifle or carbine there is no better way than 
 to suspend it over the left shoulder, by means of a broad 
 strap made fast to the piece near the guard, the muzzle pas- 
 sing through a loop attached to the stirrup strap. 
 
140 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 A very handy way of carrying the rifle, especially a long 
 one, is to allow it to rest horizontally against the pommel 
 of the saddle, in front of the body and above the legs. It 
 may be steadied by passing it through a loop of wide leath- 
 er, slipped over the pommel, and by an occasional appli- 
 ance of the hand. The rifle, if loaded, should be invariably 
 carried at a half cock ; but, indeed it would be far better to 
 transport it unloaded, unless a sudden attack or surprise 
 might be expected. 
 
 I think it much better to carry the revolver at the side 
 than to piace it in a holster attached to the saddle, as in 
 the latter case it is often useless, when dismounted. 
 
 It is quite important to frequently take the bearing, when 
 facing towards the starting point, as this will materially 
 aid, should the return march be made over a different route. 
 
 It will be surprising to ascertain how few persons are ca- 
 pable of retracing their steps without a guide or compass, 
 for any very great distance. Men of noted intelligence and 
 soldierly qualities, but without a cultivation of the sense of 
 locality, have been known to wander about in a circle for 
 several days, being within 500 yards of the 'trail' or object- 
 ive point all the while, yet absolutely lost. 
 
 Before starting on the march a strong lariat, not less than 
 fifteen feet in length, should be secured. The best are made 
 of rawhide plaited. When coiled and provided with snap 
 pers they may be made fast to the front of the saddle, and 
 carried without any interference. They may be used for 
 lash ropes and in innumerable emergencies arising during 
 the march. 
 
Forced Marches. 141 
 
 CHAPTER IX. % 
 
 FORCED MARCHES. 
 
 FORCED marches, both offensive and defensive, are frequent 
 ly necessary ; and, in either case, the important considerations 
 are to travel rapidly without encumbrance and to have at 
 hand all things necessary for the comfort and safety of the 
 command. 
 
 The matter of proper equipment for the forced march is 
 frequently a difficult one, when the element time is an uncer- 
 tain factor, and the character of the country to be traveled 
 over is unknown. Assuming that, in case of necessity, the 
 country will afford the necessary supplies, the question 6f 
 most proper equipment may be easily disposed of in particu- 
 lar cases. Whether the troops are mounted or not, the equi- 
 page should be selected so as to avoid all strains and unequal 
 pressures ; and, with a constant view to comfort and conveni- 
 ence, the useful points should be most numerous and the 
 weight in toto a minimum. 
 
 Of course, the time will never come when regular troops 
 will scout or campaign without tents ; but there is no doubt 
 as to the bivouac, a temporary make-shift, being far prefer- 
 able to tenting in a dangerous or rugged mountainous coun- 
 try. Bivouacking is not only healthier, in consequence of the 
 soldier inhaling purer air, but he is enabled to better see and 
 hear, and does not indicate to sneaking hostiles the exact 
 spot where he is lying and enable them to move accordingly. 
 
 A mound of sand or earth, covered by a cloth or blanket, 
 will make an excellent pillow ; whilst a blanket judiciously 
 pitched over a little turned-up earth or accumulation of twigs, 
 
142 Mountain Scouting., 
 
 leaves or grass, serving as a comfortable bed, will give a shel- 
 ter surprisingly complete so far as protection from cold winds 
 or drifting rains is concerned. 
 
 This plan of flying camps could be very advantageously 
 carried out by transporting extra combination blankets, so 
 made as to admit of being worn as aprons when moving 
 through wet bushes or during rainy weather, and to be packed 
 when not in use, singly or in great numbers (as horse 
 blankets) upon any loose stock that may accompany the com- 
 mand. The blankets will prove invaluable for many pur- 
 poses, after the march is completed, even if it is not desirable 
 to adjust them as shelters. The Indians of the Northwest, 
 when traveling rapidly, invariably transport their extra 
 blankets on the lead-horses, and make such uses of them as 
 the nature of the weather necessitates. 
 
 When without cover of any description, a shelter may be 
 frequently made by selecting several small trees or bushes, 
 cutting away the lower branches and drawing together and 
 interlacing the upper ones. Others, if needed, may be added 
 loose grass and twigs being thrown over all. 
 
 A still more substantial shelter may be made, if the material 
 is at hand, by sinking two forked uprights, placing a horizon- 
 tal pole across them, inclining a number of shorter poles and 
 closely interlacing small twigs, grasses or reeds. ' 
 
 A very simple shelter may be formed by placing several 
 poles in a semi-circle, and binding the small ends together 
 with a rope or thong and covering this frame with canvas, 
 
Forced Marches. 
 
 '43 
 
 blankets, hides or brush. It is preferable to the foregoing, 
 having its sides covered. 
 
 The time has now come when our camp equipage needs re- 
 construction. As a help in this direction, the author's POR- 
 TABLE COMBINATION SHELTER, STORM AND COMMON TENT has 
 
 been perfected, and criticism has been invited from various 
 sources at home and abroad. Many prominent officers of the 
 army and the National Guard have expressed their approba- 
 tion of the same, and thus far not an adverse criticism has 
 been received. 
 
 The tent consists of a peculiarly shaped sheet of light 
 canvas or other suitable material, having a strong cord and 
 flaps (several inches wide) about its edges and furnished with 
 hooks and rings or tapes at suitable intervals. The shape of 
 
 the tent is described as follows : A B D C is a rectangle; 
 B F = y 2 F D; A E = % E C; B F D and A E C are right 
 angles. For regular troops C D = 6 feet, and for the officer's 
 tent C D = 7 feet. 
 
 The shape of the canvas is such as to permit its being 
 secured about the kit so as to thoroughly protect it the 
 triangular end flaps being folded over before rolling; also, 
 
144 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 when folded over from both sides along lines parallel to A C 
 and B D, and at distances from them a little less than 
 one-fourth of C D, as shown in the accompanying drawing, 
 to form an excellent bed covering for a single sleeper. When 
 spread upon the ground, the blankets are placed upon the 
 central portion of the rectangle A B D C. The canvas is 
 
 in this manner, a double layer of canvas covers all of 
 the sleeper (his feet resting along the line A B) except his 
 head, which appears at the triangular opening D H C. 
 
 When used as a shelter tent, the edges E C, C D and D F, 
 rest upon the ground. When pitched in this manner, the 
 
 tent covers a maximum available space for a minimum can- 
 vas, with the following advantages: 
 
 i st. Quickly, easily and securely pitched. 
 
 2d. The tent is composed of but one piece of canvas the allow- 
 ance of one man. 
 
 3d. Three of its faces are covered, two of which may be 
 raised for the purposes of ventilation. 
 
 4th. By attaching a blanket, extra piece of canvas or a second 
 tent along the upper edge, the fourth face may be closed ; or, by 
 varying its inclination, more or less shade may be secured. 
 

 Forced Marches. 
 
 Two of these tents may be so combined as to form a tent 
 having a laige base and a small altitude, that will withstand 
 a wind storm ( a component less than one-half of the force of 
 
 the wind tending to overturn it). In consequence of the 
 gradually sloping walls, there is much available space for the 
 purposes of shelter and sleeping. By subjecting the canvas 
 to the Neptunite process, it will shed the water, during a rain 
 storm, when pitched in this manner, and will not become 
 heavy by wetting. If concealment be desirable, this form of 
 tent is particularly valuable. 
 
 The drawing shows how two shelters may be combined so 
 as to form the common or * A ' tent. Here the canvas is 
 reversed. The edge C D is at the ridge, and the edges E A, 
 
 A B and B F rest upon the ground. 
 
 The poles used for the shelters are joined two and two, and 
 form the long poles required for the common tent. This 
 form of tent is particularly desirable during rain storms, and 
 is well suited for officers and others, living two in a tent, who 
 are liable to become separated at any time. It moreover fur- 
 nishes a covering for the kit of each, and the individual will 
 at all times have his proper allowance of canvas with his own 
 bedding, or in case of forced marches, etc., he may carry it 
 on his person or behind the saddle. 
 
146 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 The poles are made of strong and light wood, with plain fer- 
 rule joints and projecting screws, which serve to strengthen 
 the joints and hold the corners of the canvas in place, being 
 run through a worked hole or ring arranged for the purpose. 
 
 The shelter tent may be neatly pitched, without poles, 
 whenever it is possible to suspend the ridge rope (formed by 
 uniting the guy-ropes) between trees or their branches, piles 
 of stores, saddles, aparajoes, rocks, etc.; or, it may be pitched 
 against a fence, fallen tree, etc. When without poles or any 
 facilities on the open prairie, either the carbine or ramrod 
 will make a good substitute. 
 
 The following is an extract from the proceedings of a Board 
 of Officers, convened at West Point, N. Y., per Special Orders 
 No. 123, Headquarters Department of West Point, to examine 
 and report upon the merits of this tent : 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF OFFICER'S TENT PITCHED. 
 
 First as a shelter tent. Base 7 feet square; 3^2 feet high. 
 
 Second as a storm tent, combining two shelter tents, omit- 
 ting the poles of one. Base 7 feet by 14 feet ; 3^ 
 feet high. 
 
 Third as a common or * A' tent. Base 7 feet square; 7 feet 
 2 inches high. Weight, including poles, 3 Ibs. 2 ozs. 
 
 The following are some of the advantages of the tent : 
 
 1. Capable of sub-division. 
 
 2. Maximum available space for minimum canvas. 
 
 3. Same poles for each form of tent. 
 
 4. The tent is expeditiously pitched. 
 
 5. As a shelter tent it is far more secure and roomy than 
 the one now used. 
 
 6. Three faces of the tent are covered, and the fourth 
 may be covered by a blanket or odd piece of canvas. 
 
 7. No ridge pole is required. 
 
 8. The only ropes required may be used to tie up the 
 bundle. 
 
 9. It is a superior wrapper for the bundle. 
 

 Forced Marches. 147 
 
 10. When not pitched it serves, on account of its peculiar 
 form, as an excellent bed covering. 
 
 11. It is the only practicable storm tent, and to this point 
 the Board particularly invite attention. 
 
 12. It forms a roomy and convenient 'A' or common tent, 
 and as it can be opened at both ends, it can be rendered more 
 comfortable in warm weather than the old tent. 
 
 13. Thirty-four (34) tents (officer's) or forty (40) tents 
 (men's), with poles in suitably constructed bags, form a 
 handy pack for a mule. The common tent is here referred 
 to. 
 
 14. If transportation is abandoned, the tent is easily borne 
 on the person. 
 
 15. It is readily adapted to a wind or rain storm. 
 
 1 6. The shelter tents are easily put together to form a se- 
 cure storm or common tent. 
 
 In conclusion, the Board is of the opinion that if " Far- 
 row's Portable Combination Shelter, Storm and Common 
 Tent" is adopted, it will prove a valuable addition to the 
 camp equipage now issued. * * * * 
 
 (Signed) C. T. ALEXANDER, 
 
 MAJOR AND SURGEON, PRESIDENT. 
 (Signed) EZRA B. FULLER, 
 
 IST LIEUT., SEVENTH CAVALRY, 
 (Signed) E. J. McCLERNAND, 
 
 TST LIEUT., 2d CAVALRY, RECORDER. 
 
 By furnishing a light and useful canvas, like the one above 
 noticed, in connection with the system of ' campaign equip- 
 ment' described in the last chapter, the soldier will be pos- 
 sessed of a field equipment, formed upon scientific principles 
 and capable of practical use in every way satisfactory. The 
 ' rolls' admit of being packed handily on pack mules, twenty 
 on a mule. Before going into an engagement or becoming 
 detached from the train, the mules may be readily unpacked 
 and the men shoulder their 'rolls.' Ordinarily the 'roll' 
 should contain the shelter tent and one blanket only ; the 
 other articles (one blanket and change of clothing) may be 
 put in at the discretion of the commanding officer. 
 
i-,8 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 The following advantages of such an equipment are evi- 
 dent : 
 
 1. Each of the ' rolls ' contains sufficient to make a com- 
 plete shelter tent, a warm bed, and to afford each man a 
 change of clothes. 
 
 2. The weight is comparatively little, being only ten 
 pounds. 
 
 3. The weight is actually uniformly distributed over the 
 body, and the shape and bulk of the combination are uch as 
 to permit its being worn without inconveniencing the soldier. 
 
 4. In the first moments of the skirmish, it furnishes a ready 
 cover (by slipping it to the front and over the head), which 
 will protect the soldier to some extent until the trowel bayo- 
 net has been employed. Two or three ' rolls' placed together 
 will afford an excellent cover for two or three men. 
 
 When not engaged in forced marches, and when not com- 
 pelled to leave the means of transportation, the men should 
 bear only their rifles, ammunition, intrenching tools and, at 
 times, canteens. The haversack and contents are useless and 
 burdensome. It is not needed during an ordinary march, 
 and is certainly in the way about the time of an engagement. 
 A few pieces of hard bread placed in the hip pocket of the 
 soldier do not incommode him and are always attainable ; 
 whereas, the haversack is often lost and oftener abandoned 
 before the soldier has had an opportunity to appease his 
 hunger. 
 
 In the engagement of the troops under Captain Evan 
 Miles, near Umatilla agency, Oregon, July 13, 1878, eighty- 
 nine of the men wore haversacks, thirty-one of whicn were 
 lost and abandoned during the fight, and were missing on 
 arrival into camp the same evening. In my opinion, there is 
 no necessity for a haversack at any time. 
 
 As forced marches are frequently made at night, a suitable 
 contrivance for giving light, when it is difficult to follow the 
 

 Forced Marches. 
 
 trail, is very desirable. The Ferguson Patent Lamps are excel- 
 lent for all outdoor work. 
 
 FRONT. BACK. 
 
 The drawing shows a combination head or staff jack, belt, 
 dash, camp or hunting lamp and dark lantern, which I con- 
 sider invaluable for night travel and camping purposes. Its 
 weight is one pound, its dimensions &%, 3^6 and 2^ inches. 
 Its parts are regulated from the outside, and it is constructed 
 so as to burn sperm, lard, signal or other mixed oils, without 
 a chimney. 
 
 The flame cannot be extinguished by wind, rain or jolting, 
 and is reliable in any weather. The cap or cover is used for 
 obscuring the light when necessary, also for protecting the 
 glass face in transportation, and may be taken off, if desired, 
 by simply drawing out the hinge pin. 
 
 It has folding handles at the back and a metal loop, by 
 which it may be hung in any desired position. By passing a 
 strap or cord through an opening at the back, just above the 
 handles, it may be attached to the waist. It is very useful 
 about a camp, for the purposes of tent lights and for starting 
 the camp fires in rainy weather; or, for night travel and hunt- 
 ing. There is almost no end to the uses to which it may be 
 applied in the course of an extensive journey. The light is 
 
15 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 sufficiently strong to enable a person to see at least eight rods 
 ahead, and is reflected 250 feet or more. 
 
 By means of a socket attachment, the lamp maybe adjusted 
 to a stick or pole and properly placed for reading and writing 
 at night. A person using this lamp is enabled to see very 
 clearly in three or four feet of water, by adjusting a reflector 
 to the face of the lamp, so as to catch the rays of light and 
 reflect them downward. 
 
 The head attachment is made to fit perfectly any kind or 
 size of hat, and so adjusted as to throw the light full on the 
 object viewed. In night firing, it brings the light very close 
 to the rifle. 
 
 The dash attachment not only holds the lamp in an upright 
 position on a straight or curved dash; but the lamp may be 
 attached to either the right or left side, or to the top of the 
 dash, by simply reversing the arm. 
 
 The bracket attachment may be used for attaching the lamp 
 to a wooden dash or pillar, and is adjustable to either an up- 
 right or horizontal position, and may be used either right or 
 left hand. 
 
 Frequently, in consequence of the loss of pack animals and 
 when it is necessary to reduce the loads in view of forced and 
 rapid marches, articles must be left behind. They should be 
 hid away or ' cached,' with the expectation of again taking 
 them up. The articles are frequently ' cached ' in caves, in 
 rocks, or in the earth; sometimes, in the tops of trees with 
 thick boughs, so that they cannot be seen from below. A 
 

 Forced Marches. 151 
 
 spruce tree will give excellent cover to anything placed in its 
 branches. Care should be taken to remove all tracks or signs 
 that would lead to the ' caches,' so as to evade the keen 
 scrutiny of hostiles, and make them safe from animals that 
 might destroy them. A small ' cache ' may be made, in 
 safety, by bending down a young tree, tying the bundle to the 
 top and allowing it to spring up again. 
 
 As a general rule, the 'caches' should be made at a dis- 
 tance from all trails and points where hostiles or others are 
 likely to pass, and should be secured by rocks too heavy for 
 any animal to remove. The direction and distance of the 
 ' cache ' from some prominent mark, such as a rock, tree or 
 the place of the fire (which will exist for years) should be re- 
 corded by the commanding officer. 
 
 Indians are very shrewd in finding whatever is left at or 
 near a former camp or trail, and it is seldom that the inex- 
 perienced succeed in hiding anything away from them. A 
 ruse frequently resorted to in order to- cover up all sign of 
 the 'cache,' is to pitch a tent over it and occupy the tent 
 until all signs are effaced. By making a fire or picketing the 
 horses over it, the same purpose is attained. 
 
 It is a very good plan to make two 'caches,' one contain- 
 ing a few things of little value and concealed with little care, 
 the other containing the articles of value and made .with all 
 possible care. 
 
 After the first has been discovered, all further search in 
 nine cases out of ten will be abandoned. 
 
 One of the best ruses, in this connection, that I ever prac- 
 ticed, was to make the ' cache ' look like a grave, placing a 
 stone or head-board appropriately marked. The ruse is gen- 
 erally successful with hostiles and is particularly sure with 
 renegade white men. 
 
 When making ' caches,' it should be remembered that a 
 heavy rain will cause the ground lately disturbed to sink. 
 
152 ' Mountain Scouting. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CROSSING RIVERS. 
 
 THE principal delays and difficulties encountered by a 
 marching column in a mountainous country attend the 
 crossing of numerous streams and rivers. The make-up of 
 the column, and the nature of the stream and its approaches 
 will, in general, decide the most proper mode of crossing. 
 
 Dismounted men may often save time and labor by leap- 
 ing over deep and narrow streams or ravines, although it 
 may be necessary to drive the stock many miles up or down 
 stream before finding a suitable crossing. 
 
 If a pole eight or ten feet long can be secured, by a union 
 of leaping and vaulting a wonderfully great distance may 
 be passed over. 
 
 The planting of the pole and the spring 
 should take place at the same instant, in 
 order that the swing may be perfect and the 
 upper and lower members act in unison. If 
 the left hand is below, the leaper should 
 spring with the left foot, and vice versa. 
 During the swing upward the leaper should 
 turn his body, so that when he begins the 
 descent his face shall be directed to the place where the 
 leap was begun. The descent must take place upon the 
 balls of the toes, and with a sinking of the knees. 
 
Crossing Rivers. 
 
 'S3 
 
 The leap may be made longer by forcing the 
 body up very high, by pressure of the hands, 
 (one of which is on or near the end of the pole) 
 so that the leaper can swing over the top of the 
 pole and allow it to pass between the legs while 
 descending. 
 
 To transport the packs over such a deep and 
 narrow stream or ravine, find, if possible, a tall, 
 overhanging tree, unite the lariats or lash ropes and pass 
 the rope over the fork of a high and projecting branch. 
 
 One end of the rope, after passing over the branch, is 
 made fast to a limb or rock near the ground, while the 
 packs are attached to the other end and swung across, being 
 guided by ropes fastened to the swing rope and held by 
 men on both sides. 
 
 After the swing rope has been once adjusted, it may be 
 used for the purpose of swinging the men across. 
 
 A fallen tree or beam, across a 
 stream or ravine, will often afford a 
 good footway without an expendi- 
 ture of labor. 
 
 After a little practice, the men 
 will be enabled to travel the beam or even a suspended rope 
 with much ease and rapidity. The surest positions are, while 
 traveling, in the rest sideways (keeping the body in an up- 
 right position), and riding over the beam sitting astride 
 (forward, sideward or backward). 
 
 In case of giddiness, it is well to lean forward, clasp the 
 beam with the arms and move along in a lying position. 
 
 The suspended rope may be easily traveled in the balance 
 rest, crossways and sideward, or forward and backward 
 hanging by the hands and legs, the latter either locked or 
 moving in unison with the hands. 
 
 When the stream is too wide to be spanned by a single 
 tree, a good footway may be secured by felling several trees, 
 
154 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 judiciously selected on each bank. The tops of the trees 
 should point well up stream. Thus, the trees b and c, se- 
 lected so as to cover the most sluggish portions of the cur- 
 rent, have their tops closely interlacing up stream, in con- 
 sequence of the current at d. 
 
 The additional trees like a, are selected so as to strengthen 
 the work, being made fast to the banks further up stream. 
 In this manner, the foundation for a temporary bridge over 
 a wide and deep stream may be quickly and readily made. 
 
 The quickest and most convenient mode of crossing such 
 rivers as will permit it, is to ford them; and the selection of 
 the safest place for fording is a matter of some practical 
 importance. The depth of the ford should not exceed 
 three feet for infantry, nor four feet for cavalry, and its 
 bottom should be firm and even. For a small party, one of 
 hard sand or gravel is the safest ; but a sandy bottom is 
 very bad for a large number of men or animals, as the sand 
 is stirred up and carried away by the current and thus ren- 
 ders the ford impracticable for the hindmost. 
 
 In hunting a suitable ford, follow the windings up stream 
 rather than down, where tributaries are continually putting 
 in and increasing the volume of water. As a rule, a stream 
 presents few fordable places in the winding portions of its 
 course, except in the case of double bends. It usually runs 
 deep along hollow curves and beneath steep and overhang- 
 

 Crossing Rivers. 155 
 
 ing banks, while all projecting points (except jutting rocks) 
 have shoals extending from them, with frequent return cur- 
 rents on the upper side. A road or ' trail ' starting from 
 each of the opposite banks, will generally indicate the ex- 
 istence of a ford ; but a ' trail,' on one side only, often in- 
 dicates merely a watering place of animals. 
 
 The best ford seldom leads directly across a stream, but 
 must be selected at a point where the width of the stream 
 is greater than usual with the point of egress some distance 
 down stream, in order that those crossing may secure the 
 advantage of the current. In certain cases, however, owing 
 to the formation of the river banks, it is necessary to ford 
 obliquely up the stream. This is always attended with 
 much labor and difficulty, and frequently in the struggle 
 with the current the footings of men and animals are lost. 
 In such cases, it will accomplish much if mounted men are 
 placed at suitable points, to urge forward with whips any 
 animals that do not work properly. To insure reaching 
 the proper point of egress, some of the animals will need 
 frequent assistance by means of attached lariat ropes. 
 When the river is deep and rapid, in consequence of the 
 body's buoyancy diminishing its power to resist the action 
 of the current, it might be well to place a heavy rock in the 
 arms before entering the ford. 
 
 When the different arms cross a ford separately, the in- 
 fantry should precede the cavalry and artillery; otherwise 
 they would destroy the bottom and render the crossing for 
 the infantry difficult or impossible. While fording, it is 
 important to direct the eyes to some fixed point upon the 
 shore and not look at the water, and particularly when the 
 water-course is broad or the current rapid. 
 
 It is imprudent to trust too much to fords in brooks and 
 rivers in mountainous countries where they are subject to 
 sudden variations. 
 
 When the snow begins to melt in the spring, the moun- 
 
 
T 56 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 tain streams rise rapidly, and on sandy bottoms the torrents 
 of water are continually cutting new channels many feet in 
 depth. Where there is a bar in the morning, there may be 
 ten feet of water at noon and a bar again at night. 
 
 The currents set in all directions relative to the course 
 of the stream, and cut innumerable channels with very 
 steep sides. It is extremely dangerous to attempt the 
 crossing of such streams one moment stepping in water a 
 few inches deep ; the next, being in swimming water and 
 struggling for a footing on the bar but a short distance 
 beyond. 
 
 Many of the Western streams flow over large beds of 
 quicksand and must be approached and crossed with the 
 greatest caution. There are several varieties of quicksand: 
 the less dangerous classes appear to have no bottom, there 
 being an absence of everything except sand and water 
 while the more dangerous are those which catch and tena- 
 ciously hold the victim, allowing him to slowly sink out of 
 sight and cutting him off from everything except external 
 assistance. These sands, however, generally have a firm 
 surface and will give sufficient time for warning to any one 
 on the alert. On arrival upon the bank of such a river, the 
 best track for the ford should be carefully selected by men 
 on foot. The footmen, if any, should cross before the ani- 
 mals, thus making the ford more secure by packing the 
 sand. The stock should be watered before entering upon 
 the ford, and under no circumstances permitted to stop 
 in the stream. 
 
 Most animals, and particularly mules, on feeling their feet 
 sink in the sand, become alarmed with fear, loose all control 
 of their power, and sooner or later lie down and make no 
 effort to get on their feet again. 
 
 Beaver dams are generally found in muddy places, and 
 it is a good rule to be on the lookout for mire in their vi- 
 cinity. 
 

 Crossing Rivers. 157 
 
 Unfordable streams may be readily crossed by means of 
 flying bridges or rafts, when there is sufficient current and 
 when ropes and timber are handy. 
 
 The flying bridge or raft may be successfully navigated 
 by attaching it to a swinging cable made fast up stream; or, 
 by making it fast to a traveler running on a cable stretched 
 across the stream. In the first case, the lower end of the 
 cable should terminate in a bridle. On leaving the shore, 
 the end of the bridle farthest from it is gathered in, while 
 the other one is slackened, and the raft shoots across the 
 stream. To re-cross, the end of the bridle farthest from 
 the shore is hauled in and the other again slackened. 
 
 The same may be effected by means of rudders, the cable 
 
 being made fast to the raft about one-third of its length 
 from the bow, while it is kept headed obliquely up stream. 
 The principle of action in this case is the same as that of 
 a kite in the air. 
 
 In the second case, the cable stretched across the stream 
 must be carefully secured when the current is great. The 
 maximum pull of the raft will be S V 2 , in which S is the 
 area of the immersed side of the raft in square feet, and V 
 the velocity of the current in feet per second. To insure 
 proper progress, the velocity of the current should not be 
 less than two miles per hour. 
 
 Referring to the following drawing, the component of 
 the force of the current which tends to force the raft di- 
 rectly across the stream may be readily traced. 
 
 If the raft is kept on the course M N, and the current is 
 running in the direction A X, it is plainly seen how such a 
 
158 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 force, A B, is divided into two components, A C and A D, 
 acting parallel and perpendicularly to M N. 
 
 -'B 
 
 CM 
 
 -X A 
 
 The component A D is again sub-divided into two com- 
 ponents, A E and A F, acting parallel and perpendicularly 
 to A X. 
 
 D E = A F is the component of the power of the current 
 tending to force the raft across the stream. 
 
 To produce the best effect, the side of the raft should be 
 kept at an angle of 55 with the direction of the current, or 
 BAC = 55 . 
 
 The cable may be taken across the stream by a swimmer, 
 or by means of a lobstick made by splitting a stick, in- 
 serting a rock or pebble and lashing the stick with twine. 
 A small line is first made fast to the cable, the end of which 
 is sent across; whereupon, the end of the cable is drawn 
 over. Under certain circumstances, the small line may be 
 sent over by means of an arrow, rocket or kite. 
 
 The mountain streams, during the seasons of high water, 
 remain above the fording stage for several weeks, and often 
 render it necessary, when time is an important element, to 
 cross them by swimming or ferrying rudely constructed 
 boats or rafts. 
 
 Timber rafts may be quickly constructed in a wooded 
 country. The size and description of the timber must de- 
 termine the number of layers there should be.* The tim- 
 
 * The cubic contents, in feet, of round timber = Z (G 2 X. 07958), in 
 which L = length of the log in feet, and G is the mean between the girths 
 at both ends in feet. 
 
 The floating power of any log may be readily calculated when the 
 specific gravity of the wood is known. 
 
Crossing Rivers. 159 
 
 ber for rafts should be floated, if possible, to the place re- 
 quired and put together in the water. 
 
 The Indians use ' bull-boats ' for crossing deep rivers. 
 The frame-work is made of willows, cotton-woods, or any 
 small trees that grow along the banks of the streams, firmly 
 lashed into the shape of half an egg. The frame is covered 
 with a green or soaked hide and left to dry. Several hides 
 may be sewn together so as to cover quite a large frame. A 
 boat constructed of three hides will transport 1,000 pounds 
 with perfect safety. The Indians of the Northwest often 
 
 use dug-out canoes and logs lashed together ; also canoes 
 made of bundles of reeds and cedar bark, with projecting 
 prows, very much resembling some of the iron-clad rams. 
 
 Colonel R. C. Buchanan, of our service, invented a por- 
 table boat, made in sections, which was used to good advan- 
 tage in several expeditions in Oregon and Washington Ter- 
 ritory. A single boat, with all its appurtenances, capable 
 of sustaining ten men, could be easily packed on a single 
 mule. 
 
 Frequently the supplies, in part, are transported in casks; 
 if so, it is a simple matter to construct a cask raft, which 
 will do remarkably good service. If the number of gallons 
 that a cask will hold is known, its buoyancy may be easily 
 ascertained by multiplying that number by ten (the num- 
 ber of pounds weight in a gallon of water). Casks are so 
 useful for packing puposes, so easily and safely transported, 
 and form such admirable rafts, it is difficult to conceive, 
 where transport is a serious matter, of a more economical 
 preparation for crossing unknown rivers on wild expedi- 
 
 
160 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 tions. The larger the casks (consistently with ease of pack- 
 ing) the better, as the weight will be smaller in proportion 
 to the buoyancy. 
 
 To make the raft, the casks are placed in a row, side by 
 side, with the bungs up ; two rails or saplings called gun- 
 
 nels are laid along them about four inches from each end. 
 Slings of strong rope are passed under the casks, from end 
 to end of the gunnels. The ends of the sling should be 
 made fast to the gunnel, by means of the bowline and fish- 
 erman's bend. Between the casks there are brace lashings, 
 as shown in the drawing. In the absence of sufficient rope 
 the gunnels must be nailed or spiked to the casks; but the 
 use of nails or spikes in rafts or floating bridges is to be 
 avoided when possible, as they admit of insufficient play. 
 
 To determine the number of casks required to construct 
 a raft that will support N pounds, find the solid contents of 
 one cask in cubic inches and multiply it by the specific grav- 
 ity of water. From the product subtract the weight of the 
 cask, the remainder will be the weight it will support with- 
 out sinking. Take a sufficient number of casks to bring 
 this weight up to N pounds. 
 
 In emergencies, the tents and paulins, when securely lashed 
 over suitable frames of boxes, aparejos, etc., will form very 
 good ferrying rafts. 
 
 See Appendix for the analysis of Rowing. 
 
 When there is no time or material for building a raft, 
 the supplies should be wrapped as nearly water-tight as 
 possible in the canvas and rubber blankets of the command. 
 and towed across by the swimmers. 
 
Crossing Rivers. 161 
 
 By resting the body on a log of light wood, if obtainable, 
 it will be well supported and the crossing rendered much 
 easier. If the part of a tree near the roots be selected, the 
 stumps of the roots will form pegs on which to hang the 
 clothes, supplies, etc. 
 
 All soldiers should know how to swim, in order to be ef- 
 fective and perform various important services. A com- 
 mand consisting of troops who cannot swim, may be re- 
 tarded by an insignificant stream, if not completely para- 
 lyzed in its operations. The emergencies requiring a 
 knowledge of the art are of daily occurrence. Time and 
 again have insignificant streams swollen into plunging tor- 
 rents, without any warning whatever. Numerous lives have 
 been lost by the sudden appearance of sweeping streams of 
 water, where a few moments before nothing but dry earth 
 could be found. Whole commands have been carried away 
 by sudden raises during the night, although the camps 
 were made upon the banks many feet above the usual 
 water-level. 
 
 The following extract from the report of a commanding 
 officer, who experienced such a washing out, although en- 
 camped where, the day before, there was no sign of water, 
 will serve to illustrate : 
 
 " The only thing that prevented total destruction was the 
 fact that my camp was surrounded by a belt of timber on 
 three sides, and as the men were carried off by the current, 
 they were enabled to save themselves by catching the limbs 
 of trees. When day broke, it showed almost all the men of 
 my company on the tops of the trees, without any covering 
 except remnants of underclothes, and beneath them the tor- 
 rent still raging. After the lapse of a few hours, the water 
 began to fall, and a few men who could swim got to the 
 hills. Afterward the others, myself among the number, 
 were got off with life lines and various other means. Up 
 to this time nothing was to be seen of what had been my 
 
162 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 camp, except the top of an army wagon, which had stuck to 
 a log on the ground, and on this wagon were collected 
 eleven men, who were thus saved from a watery grave. Six 
 men of my company were drowned and twenty-six horses 
 lost." 
 
 A complete SYSTEM OF LAND-TAUGHT SWIMMING, originally 
 prepared by the author for the instruction of the Cadets at 
 the United States Military Academy, is inserted in the Ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 Great care must be exercised when swimming the stock. 
 Suitable points of ingress and egress (the latter at least a 
 distance equal to the width of the stream below the former, 
 if possible) are first selected. 
 
 At the point of ingress, the bed of the stream must be 
 firm, or else made so by throwing in brush, timber or rocks, 
 in order to prevent bogging or miring. The -point of egress 
 must furnish a point of support upon which the animal can 
 place his hind feet, just before springing upon the bank. 
 
 If the soldier can swim, he should drive his horse into the 
 water, seize his tail and guide him to the point of egress 
 splashing water in his face, should the animal endeavor to 
 turn his head or change his course. If the soldier cannot 
 swim, he should make himself fast to the saddle, lay hold 
 upon the mane, ride into the river and give his horse a loose 
 rein. 
 
 The plan of having each horseman carry a footman mount- 
 ed behind will often prove successful. It was in this manner 
 that the Necker was crossed by Marshals Turenne and Gra- 
 mont in 1645. 
 
 When there is danger of the horses drowning, should they 
 land beyond the point of egress, the following plan, pro- 
 vided the current is not too strong, should be adopted : 
 
 Let a few of the swimmers cross the river, taking with 
 them one end of a rope (made by uniting the lariats or lash 
 ropes), the other end being retained at the point of ingress 
 

 Crossing Rivers. 163 
 
 and made fast to the neck of a quiet and easy swimming 
 horse. 
 
 The horses are then brought up in succession, and each 
 made fast to the tail of the horse preceding, by means of 
 lariats, until they are all tied together. 
 
 When all is ready, the first horse is carefully led into the 
 water (followed by the others) and started on a line for the 
 point of egress the men on the opposite shore pulling in 
 the rope and helping him to stem the current. As soon as 
 this horse strikes bottom, by pulling those behind him, he 
 assists them in landing. The men who cannot swim at all 
 should be tied upon the best swimming horses and sent over. 
 
 When the current is not very strong, I believe it is safer 
 and more satisfactory to swim along with the horse, on the 
 down stream side, and only very poor swimmers should re- 
 main in the saddle, as the animal is very apt to lose his equi- 
 librium and roll over. 
 
 Mules are splendid swimmers, unless by accident they get 
 water in their ears. When this happens they cease to move 
 and drop their ears, and unless gotten out of the water at 
 once will drown. They should be permitted to enter the 
 water slowly and without crowding, or they will probably 
 submerge their heads. If the&?// mare be first taken across, 
 the mules will follow without much urging. 
 
 When the animals are tied together, as above described,, 
 great care must be taken to keep them all straight on the 
 course across the stream, or a serious accident may result. 
 If some swing out of the course an entanglement may sooner 
 or later follow, or the animals may rapidly travel down 
 stream, swimming round and round in circles. When such 
 happens, good swimmers must hasten to the rescue and cut 
 the ropes at close intervals. 
 
164 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE CAMP. 
 
 A locality well sheltered and secured, and affording fuel, 
 grass and fresh water, should be selected for the camp. 
 
 If it is expected to remain in the camp for any great 
 length of time, its sanitary condition must be carefully ob- 
 served. All ponds, swamps, lands recently stripped of their 
 timber, and muddy rivers must be kept at a distance. In a 
 malarious district, it is well to habitually sleep between two 
 fires. 
 
 The flood level of the nearest water should also be care- 
 fully noticed weeds and stray bits of drift-wood washed 
 into the branches of adjacent trees or bushes will serve as 
 a guide. Many streams are subject to sudden and terrific- 
 rises, and frequently without any apparent cause. 
 
 When camping for the night on a fordable stream, with 
 the indention of crossing, make it an invariable rule to cross 
 it before going into camp. A sudden rise or appearance of 
 the enemy might seriously interfere with the crossing next 
 morning. 
 
 Wind storms are a common annoyance in the camp. 
 When there is time to prepare for their coming, the tent 
 pegs should be secured and sufficient guy-ropes attached to 
 the tent. If the soil is loose and sandy, rocks or other hard 
 material should be placed under the tent poles to prevent 
 their working into the soil, and leaving the tent slack and 
 unsteady the pegs should also be inclined toward the tent 
 
The Camp. 165 
 
 and driven in the direction of the prolongation of the tent 
 cords (if they are inclined from the tent, they will soon be 
 jerked loose). When the pegs will not hold at all, fasten the 
 tent cords to brush or rocks buried in the soil. 
 
 A few trees add very much to the comfort of a camp, and 
 when they are so situated as to permit the guy or ridge 
 
 ropes to be made fast to them or their branches, the wind 
 storm need not be dreaded. 
 
 So far as may be prudent, the camp should be protected 
 by bluffs and thickets, and the backs of the tents should be 
 placed towards the wind. It is not wise to camp beneath 
 certain trees, whose branches are liable to suddenly fall off. 
 
 In a hostile country, the security of the command will 
 depend very much upon the judicious selection of a 
 camp as regards its capability of defense. If on the bank 
 of a stream, a concave bend, where the water isMeep, should 
 be selected. In such a position the defending party can 
 cross his fire in case of an attack from the other bank, or 
 can herd the stock in the concavity of the bend in order to 
 avoid a stampede. When the camp is remote from a stream 
 or river, a portion of it should rest on the highest hill or 
 bluff within range. As a rule, the tents should be pitched on 
 that side of the camp most exposed to attack. When the 
 packs and aparejos are removed, in camp, they should be 
 arranged so as to form a fortification in case of need. 
 
1 66 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Skunks and rattlesnakes frequently visit camp. 
 
 The skunk, when hungry, is quite fearless and will not 
 hesitate to enter a tent in search of food, or to attempt to 
 devour the face or hand of a sleeping person. Instances are 
 not rare in which their bites have resulted in a most fatal 
 and horrible hydrophobia. 
 
 At first frost, rattlesnakes commence a pilgrimaged/2 masse, 
 across rivers and lakes, up and down mountains, to their 
 winter rendezvous (some inapproachable cavern) where hun- 
 dreds assemble and remain in the torpid state during the 
 winter. The male and female go out in company upon 
 their summer's peregrinations. The two are never found 
 together, but are within hearing of each other's rattle and 
 display a wonderful instinct in tracking each other. The 
 Indians take advantage of this and ingeniously trap them, 
 before they reach their blankets. Having prepared an old 
 log by removing its central portion, so as to leave an open- 
 
 ing sufficiently large to permit the snake to crawl through, 
 but not to turn around after having once entered, the dead 
 snake is dragged along -the ground up to the log and then 
 through it. The further end of the log is then closed by 
 means of nails or wooden pegs. It is not long before the 
 companion snake trails the dead snake, and enters the log; 
 where, being unable to crawl through, turn around or back 
 out (in consequence of the backward inclination of his 
 scales), he is retained in a helpless condition for any length 
 of time. The snake usually strikes after the warning of the 
 rattle a peculiarly hollow death-like sound from an ele- 
 vation of about one-third his length, after coiling up the 
 
The Camp. 167 
 
 body. He is very susceptible of cold and, at night, will 
 
 crawl into a tent or shanty and coil up near the fire or in 
 the bedding. 
 
 As a usual thing, venomous snakes congregate close to 
 the water. If holes are discovered in the ground, in the 
 vicinity of the beds, it will be well to stamp the earth and 
 rocks into them, as they are frequently the burrows of va- 
 rious reptiles. 
 
 When hostile Indians are supposed to be about, the place 
 selected for camp should be carefully examined on all sides, 
 in order to discover any tracks or Indian signs, before re- 
 moving the packs or unsaddling. It is a favorite trick of 
 the Indians to stampede the animals upon first arrival in 
 camp, when the attention of every one is preoccupied and 
 more or less confusion reigns. They seldom attempt a 
 stampede at night, preferring the day-light for such work, 
 and invariably select the early dawn of day or some mo- 
 ment when the command is in a probable state of confusion. 
 
 A stampede is one of the most dreaded disasters that can 
 happen. Frequently, the animals are not only widely scat- 
 tered, but irretrievably lost; and much damage follows the 
 rush of the infuriated herd through the camp, frequently 
 trampling the men and tents, and killing themselves by com- 
 ing in contact with trees and projecting rocks. 
 
1 68 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 When attempting a stampede, a few Indians will some- 
 times steal into camp, go to the bell mare, remove the bell, 
 place it on one of their fleetest animals and ride out of 
 camp (before noticed) followed by the entire herd. Again, 
 they sneakingly approach as near the herd as possible, and 
 dash into it, with their horses at full speed, at the same time 
 terrifying them by the most hideous yells, and succeed in 
 driving off the stock before any effectual resistance can be 
 made. It is often effected by starting an Indian pony into 
 the herd or camp, with a buffalo robe dangling at his heels. 
 The alarm is soon communicated to all the animals. When 
 the herd is once started, it is pushed forward as rapidly as 
 possible for a few days, so as to make distance between it 
 and the pursuing party, while many Indians pass to the 
 rear to offer resistance to the pursuers, if close at hand. 
 
 Horses, and especially mules, that have been once stam- 
 peded, cannot be trusted beyond the control of the herders. 
 They will, at very unreasonable moments, stampede in the 
 most frantic manner without any apparent good reason. 
 Even the passage of a deer, wolf, strange horse or herder 
 among them will cause them to take alarm and scatter all 
 over the country. The herders cannot be too diligent; they 
 should at all times be ready for any emergency, and whe 
 the animals take fright they should hasten with the b 
 mare in advance of them and gradually turn them in i\^ 
 direction of camp. 
 
 The stock should not be tied up to a picket line unless an 
 attack is anticipated; for, when unable to forage at night, 
 they soon become weak and unserviceable. They should 
 be so herded during the day time, as to leave a sufficiency 
 of good grass near the camp for night grazing. When how- 
 ever, it becomes necessary to picket the animals, they should 
 be placed upon the best grass and their places changed 
 every two hours. The picket rope should not be less than 
 10 or 12 yards long, and should not be made fast to a tree, 
 
The Camp. 169 
 
 or it will twist and wind about it, as the animal feeds around 
 it. The rope should be so attached to the animal's neck as 
 not to slip and choke him. For wild horses, the ordinary 
 hobble (page 1 13) is more satisfactory. The side hobble (made 
 by buckling a strap around the fore and hind leg, on the 
 same side) affords a still more effective anchorage, as the 
 animal can not well move faster than at a walk. 
 
 Immediately upon going into camp, pickets should be 
 posted in strong positions, and sufficiently close to the camp, 
 to give timely alarm in case of the enemy's approach. The 
 picket should be posted, during daylight, on some eminence 
 near the camp, where he can keep a lookout in all directions. 
 During the night, he should be posted several hundred yards 
 farther in advance of the point subject to attack and on 
 low ground, in order that he may be screened from observa- 
 tion, and at the same time see to the best advantage, as low 
 objects will then appear high and stand in bold relief against 
 the sky; moreover, in timber, it is easy to see a great dis- 
 tance between the trunks of the trees, while their tops and 
 branches hide all objects beyond. If the picket diseovers 
 the enemy and is not seen himself, he should quickly with- 
 draw and report the facts in order that no time be lost in 
 preparing for action. But, if the picket is discovered by the 
 enemy, he should first discharge his piece and then retreat. 
 To save time and avoid all false alarms, a well defined sys- 
 tem of night and day signals should be devised before go- 
 ing into the Indian country, and thoroughly understood by 
 every picket. In this way, they could very readily commu- 
 nicate their discoveries to the camp. 
 
 In consequence of his very acute senses of hearing and 
 smelling, a mule will discover the approach of any one, 
 much sooner than a man. I consider it a good plan, in many 
 cases, to send a mule out with each picket, having taken the 
 precaution to prevent his braying; he will not only act as a 
 good sentinel, but will serve to carry the picket into camp 
 with the alarm. 
 
170 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 On a very dark night, it might be a good plan to set an 
 alarm gun (for ways of setting it, see page 210.) Even the 
 click of the hammer might serve to call attention. 
 
 A spot should be selected for the stock at night, close to 
 which there are no unguarded clumps of brush or thickets, 
 as the Indians often take advantage of such cover to shoot 
 or steal the animals, before their presence can be observed. 
 
 So far as is practicable, the fires should be placed to the 
 leeward of the camp and grazing ground, to avoid accidents 
 and the frequent attempts of Indians to set fire to the grass, 
 in the vicinity of a camp, when it is too strong to be attack- 
 ed. The fires should be so placed with respect to the tents 
 
 that the smoke may be carried away by the wind and cause 
 no discomfort. It will not do to be fastidious in making 
 the camp fire. It should be so constructed as not to smoke 
 in the face or tent, not to be seen from the distance, to be 
 quickly extinguished, to admit of many gathering around 
 it, and at the same time economize fuel. An Indian builds 
 a small fire and sits near it when warming his body; a white 
 man usually builds a large fire and can not get near it. As 
 a rule, if warmth is desired, see that the fire is kept close to 
 the ground; if light is wanted, elevate it i^ or 2 feet above 
 the ground. To cause large logs to burn brightly, air 
 should reach them on all sides. 
 

 The Camp. 171 
 
 In wet weather, sufficient dry fuel to start a fire may be 
 found, in most cases, under logs, rocks or leaning trees. 
 When no dry place can be found, the fire should be started 
 in a pan or kettle and then transferred to the ground. 
 
 Fuel is scarce in many localities and particularly at the 
 lower ends of canyons, where the bottoms widen out and 
 where there is but little protection from the wind. 'Sage- 
 brush' and ' 'Grease-wood 1 are frequent substitutes. ' 'Buffa- 
 lo chips,' when dry, burn well and are easily lighted. ''Sea 
 weed? makes a very hot, but not a cheerful fire. An excel- 
 lent substitute for fire-wood is 'bones,' even those of an ani- 
 mal freshly killed. The bones of cooked meat give a fire of 
 great intensity, with a flame depending on the fat in them, 
 and an odor no worse than that of charred meat. 
 
 Every precaution should be taken against setting the 
 grass on fire, and places sufficiently large for the fires should 
 be cleared away. When the grass is dry, it will burn like 
 tinder; and if the wind be blowing, the flame will rapidly 
 spread and sweep every thing before it. It is a frequent 
 misfortune to have the supplies and equipage destroyed in 
 this manner, besides stampeding the animals, destroying 
 their food and announcing the position of the camp to any 
 enemy on the alert for smoke, etc. If by accident, the fire 
 starts, the men should lose no time in fighting it with 
 brush or blankets (wet if possible) and throwing sand upon 
 it, if at hand. It is often necessary to start counter fires 
 and burn around supplies and other places in order to save 
 them from the flames. The fires are extremely dangerous 
 in canyons and other places where vegetation is abundant 
 and the grass very high. 
 
 Good grass is one of the most necessary elements of the 
 camp. All graminivorous animals, except the elk and deer, 
 prefer the 'buffalo and 'bunch grass' to that of the lowland. 
 * Buffalo grass' is very short, but nutritious it becomes 
 thoroughly cured during the summer and is a favorite in 
 
1 7 2 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 all seasons. ' Gramma grass, found upon the mountain 
 sides, and growing to the height of one or two feet, is an ex- 
 cellent variety of ' Buffalo grass.' 
 
 By scraping a hollow in the ground, about where the 
 hip bones would otherwise press, and covering with several 
 thicknesses of this grass, a most luxurious bed may be 
 formed. If time will permit the construction of a frame, 
 lashed with thongs, ropes or raw hides, as shown in the 
 
 drawing, and it is well covered with grass, the perfection 
 of camp beds will have been attained. The grass secured 
 for the bed, will serve as an extra meal for the horse, while 
 preparing to move the camp. 
 
 The stock will willingly eat the bark and branches of 
 cotton-wood trees, when the snow is too deep to get at grass. 
 
 Water is generally found in abundance in most moun- 
 tainous districts either in the beds of streams, in springs 
 or in openings in the rocks. In sandy countries, the beds 
 of the apparently dried up water-courses should be care- 
 fully explored for water near their sources. Water is fre- 
 quently found under stones in the deepest parts of the bed. 
 Tracts of low land, on which green grass, reeds, water- 
 plants, cotton-wood or willow trees are found, should be 
 carefully examined. In the partly dried up water-courses, 
 the most water will be found at the points where the tribu- 
 taries put into the main water-course. In a country where 
 deer and fowl abound, water may be generally located by 
 observing the points to -which the trails seem to converge 
 and toward which the wild fowl direct their movements 
 just before evening. 
 
The Camp. 
 
 173 
 
 Horses, mules and dogs exhibit a wonderful instinct in 
 finding pools of water where it would scarcely be expected 
 to exist. 
 
 Trees and water generally go together in sections of 
 country where timber is very scarce. 
 
 Water may be secured in large quantities during a rain 
 shower, by catching the drippings of the tents, and by sus- 
 pending pieces of canvas and blankets by the corners and 
 placing small weights on their centers. It may also be col- 
 lected by dragging the blankets over grass, wet with dew, 
 and then wringing out the water that has accumulated. 
 This should be resorted to only in cases of necessity; and 
 as a rule, the stock should not graze on grass covered with 
 dew. 
 
 It is not well to drink water that is putrid or charged 
 with salts, as they do not quench the thirst, but increase it 
 and produce fevers and dysenteries; in such localities, the 
 best remedy is to bathe in the water. 
 
 The tents usually used in field service or hasty marches 
 are the shelter tents already described and the 'A' or com- 
 
 mon tents. The drawing shows the ordinary 'A* tent com- 
 posed of a single piece of canvas, which in consequence of 
 its weight is not so well suited for light travel as the au- 
 thor's combination 'A' tent described on page 145. 
 
 I have received from Gilbert Thompson, Esq., the designs 
 of a tent that offers many advantages over the heavy tents 
 
174 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 that are, at present, used. With a weight of 24 pounds of 
 canvas (10 oz. duck), it covers over 100 square feet of 
 ground, and is so constructed that one man may easily put 
 it up and take it down. It affords ample accommodation 
 
 for 6 men (within the space 1245), with end spaces (165 and 
 234) sufficiently large to receive a small stove and valuable 
 boxes. It is without annoying guy-ropes, and possesses 
 many advantages of ventilation, when any of the sides B, 
 A, or & are raised; and may be so pitched as to expose one 
 of the angular faces 6 R, or 3 R* to the wind. Another 
 great advantage over the 'A' tent is that it affords a greater 
 available space, for the same weight of canvas. 
 
 The ground plan and the dimensions, also a perspective 
 view of the tent when pitched, are shown in the drawing. 
 
 The tent, and especially during the summer months, is 
 not the most important article of equipage. It is seldom 
 that injury results from simple wetting, if the body is free- 
 ly exposed to the open air. 
 
 It is absurd to take chairs and tables in the field a 'dig 
 out' in the tent will serve to make a table and seats, the feet 
 and legs of the person being placed in the trench. 
 
The Camp. 175 
 
 If possible, a level spot snould be selected for the tent or 
 bed, and when the wind is high, it should not be placed 
 near a single tree, as this is apt to create a violent eddy. 
 This may be frequently observed in a corn-field after a wind 
 storm, the stalks being knocked down in circles around 
 isolated trees, while elsewhere they remain standing. 
 
 Sleeping in hollows and slight canyons during quiet wea- 
 ther is not wholesome, as cold air pours down into these 
 from the higher ground. Horses are frequently noticed to 
 draw up to the surrounding plain, where the frosts are less 
 severely felt as the night sets in. If compelled to sleep on 
 the snow, it should be piled upon each side, and if possible 
 the face and ears should be smeared with oil or grease. 
 
 Remembering that the favorite times for an Indian at- 
 tack are at sunrise or sunset, or when coming out of or 
 going into camp, it appears most proper to have reveille 
 about 4 A. M., so as to have the column in motion by the 
 dawn of day. 
 
 There is nothing more annoying about the time of break- 
 ing camp than the difficulty experienced in bridling wild 
 stock, or the delay occasioned by the loss of such animals 
 as are prone to stray off from camp. A good way to catch 
 a refractory animal is to have two men stretch a long rope 
 about the height of his neck, and while other men drive 
 the animal against it, let one of them, with the rope, run 
 round behind the animal, and quickly make a turn about 
 his neck. In turning the wild stock out to graze, it is a 
 good plan to leave the lariat ropes upon them, the ends 
 trailing on the ground. 
 
 If time be an object, it will be better to leave lost mules 
 behind (when their services can be spared), for they will, 
 in consequence of their very acute power of smell, trail the 
 stock and follow to camp. A bell mare of quiet and regular 
 habits is indispensable in the camp serving to keep the 
 herd together and close in hand. 
 
176 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE MESS. 
 
 GOOD powder is no more a munition of war than good 
 food. 
 
 One of the principal elements of success in cooking is 
 the proper provision of the few most indispensable articles 
 of kitchen and table furniture. For every six persons, there 
 should be supplied one camp-kettle (the kettles being of 
 such sizes as to admit of packing one within the other, and 
 the smallest one large enough for making soup or coffee); 
 a heavy tin coffee-pot ; ten tin cups, with revolving handles ; 
 ten strong tin plates ; one wrought-iron frying-pan ; one 
 wrought-iron bake-oven ; one heavy tin mess-pan ; one 
 strong water bucket (wooden buckets to be avoided); one 
 extra small camp-kettle ; ten knives, forks and spoons, with 
 iron handles. One spade, axe, hatchet and chopping-knife 
 should accompany each mess kit. 
 
 The mess boxes must be prepared with a view to their 
 being transported on pack mules, if necessary ; and when 
 taken two together, should form a handy pack. The boxes 
 may be readily constructed so as to form convenient tables, 
 when the lids are thrown open. 
 
 Matches should never be transported in the mess boxes, 
 unless they are placed in tin boxes or tightly-corked bottles. 
 
 The frying-pan is the most invaluable of all cooking 
 utensils. It may be made to serve a host of purposes 
 fish and game may be cooked in it, stews prepared, flapjacks 
 made, coffee roasted, etc. The handle should be detach- 
 able, or have a ' parasol joint ' made close to the pan, so 
 that it may be folded across it. 
 
 I consider a handy camp stove a great luxury in the field, 
 
The Mess. 
 
 177 
 
 and I know of no good objections urged against them, 
 whether the party be large or small. Dunklee's Camping 
 Stoves are excellent in every respect. 
 
 The drawing shows a very desirable stove for officers' 
 mess, cooking for two or four persons. 
 
 When packed for transportation, all the apparatus is 
 inside. The total weight is 22 pounds. 
 
 The ' CENTURION 'Field Stove, Baker and Mess Kit 
 complete invented by Captain Clifford, of the Infantry, is 
 well recommended by all who have used it. It is 30 X 20 X 13 
 when packed for transportation, and will cook and bake 
 for 100 persons. 
 
 Below is represented an excellent stove for a detachment 
 of ten or twelve men. 
 
 Dimensions, Packed, 
 12X 12X21 
 
178 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 While very durable, and especially adapted to camp- 
 ing purposes, its weight is only 35 pounds, and its dimen- 
 sions are such as to permit it to be enclosed in an ordinary 
 hard-bread box. 
 
 The ware is so constructed that it nests and packs in 
 the oven, which has a capacity sufficient for roasting 20 
 pounds of beef. The oven packs inside the stove, and 
 leaves sufficient room for packing the plates, knives, forks, 
 spoons and drinking cups. This stove boils, bakes or 
 broils; and when fuel is scarce, its excellence is very appar- 
 ent, as it requires so little. In cold weather, it may be 
 placed inside the tent, where it is a great luxury and saves 
 much trouble. 
 
 When without a stove, and it is necessary to cook for a 
 large party, using but little fuel, prepare a narrow trench, 
 with one end open to the wind, building a small chimney 
 arrangement at the other. After making the fire in the 
 trench, place the pots and kettles in a row over it. 
 
 There is a great deal of art in kindling a spark into a 
 flame, and it should be remembered that " small sticks kindle 
 a flame but large ones put it out." The surest plan, when 
 starting a fire, is to place three logs with 
 their ends crossing each other, so that 
 each may support the combustion of the 
 others. As the ends burn away, the logs 
 should be pushed closer together. 
 
 The fire may be frequently encouraged 
 
 by introducing the saltpeter existing in great quantities 
 in the ashes of many plants, such as dill, sunflower, etc. 
 
 To insure success in cooking, accurate measurement, 
 proper mixing and preciseness in the preparation of in- 
 gredients are very important. 
 
 The following are approximate weights and measures : 
 
 Three teaspoonfuls __ - = One tablespoonful. 
 
 Four tablespoonfuls One wine glass. 
 
The Mess. 179 
 
 Two wine glasses = One gill. 
 
 Two gills == One cup. 
 
 Two cupfuls = One pint. 
 
 One quart sifted flour = One pound. 
 
 One quart powdered sugar = One pound, seven ozs. 
 
 One quart granulated sugar = One pound, nine ozs. 
 
 Seven tablespoonfuls of same One-half pint. 
 
 One pint closely packed butter. = One pound 
 
 One tablespoonful salt = One ounce. 
 
 Ten eggs = One pound. 
 
 The drawing shows a convenient form of scales for the 
 
 use of cooks. These scales may be readily transported in 
 the pocket, -and will do away with all guessing at propor- 
 tions, the practice of so many indifferent cooks. 
 
 Those desiring a more complete chapter on this subject 
 are referred to the " Manual for Army Cooks," from which 
 much of what follows is taken : 
 
 METHODS OF COOKING. 
 
 Roasting is that process by which a substance is acted 
 upon by the heat of a fire, without interposition of uten- 
 sils, and generally in the open air. 
 
 Baking is that process by which a substance is acted 
 upon by heat in an oven. The temperature of the oven is 
 usually about 400 Fah. 
 
 Stewing is that process of cooking by which the sub- 
 stance to be cooked is placed in a small portion of fluid 
 and cooked slowly by simmering. 
 
 To simmer is to boil slowly, and is accomplished by re- 
 moving the liquid so far from the fire as to keep it up to a 
 very slow-boiling point. 
 
i8o Mountain Scouting. 
 
 At high altitudes the boiling point is so low that it is 
 difficult to cook vegetables, with pure water, at all. 
 
 Rapid boiling should be carefully avoided, as no addi- 
 tional heat is developed by it and much of the aroma of the 
 immersed body is lost. On boiling such articles as beans 
 and pease, it is very desirable to use soft water. 
 
 Broiling is that process by which the substance to be 
 cooked is acted upon by the direct heat of the fire, with 
 only the interposition of a gridiron or some similar appa- 
 ratus. The fire should be clear and free from smoke. 
 
 It is much better to broil before a fire than over it, as in 
 the former process the juices of the meat can be caught in 
 a dripping-pan, and used as a dressing. 
 
 The article should be turned frequently, so as to have 
 both sides cooked alike. 
 
 Frying is that process by which the article to be cooked 
 is immersed in hot fat. 
 
 Fat raised to 400 Fah., is sufficiently hot for frying pur- 
 poses ; and such is the case when small jets of smoke are 
 observed to issue from the top of the fat. 
 
 Sauteing is that process of frying by which a substance 
 is cooked in a frying-pan or skillet, with just sufficient 
 grease to cover the bottom of the pan. The grease should 
 be frying hot for the purpose. Salt and pepper should 
 always be used sparingly until after the food is prepared. 
 
 SOUP. 
 
 The principal nourishment of meat soup comes from the 
 raw meat. Failure in making soup is generally owing to 
 rapid boiling and neglecting to skim the pot. The pot 
 should be kept covered while the soup is cooking, except 
 when it is necessary to skim and add the necessary ingre- 
 dients. If cooked meat is to be used, it should be added 
 after the soup has cooked nearly an hour. 
 
 When vegetables are used, they should be added about 
 one hour and a half before it is cooked or only in time to 
 become thoroughly done. 
 
The Mess. 181 
 
 Potatoes are an exception ; they should be put in one- 
 half hour before the soup is cooked. 
 
 -Beef, Elk or Deer Soup : Time, three hours. 
 
 Fifteen pounds of meat cut into small pieces ; about two 
 cans of vegetables or three pounds of fresh vegetables ; 
 six tablespoonfuls of salt and one-third as much sugar ; one 
 pound of rice ; two pounds of hard bread ; two and one-half 
 gallons of water. Let it simmer gently and remove the 
 fat. 
 
 In all soups, the vegetables may be varied according 
 to season and opportunity, using onions, potatoes, carrots, 
 turnips, parsnips, cabbage, green or canned corn, fresh or 
 canned tomatoes, celery or celery seed, cauliflowers, okra, 
 rice, pumpkins, squash, green pease, string beans, &c. 
 
 Tomato Soup : Time, one hour. 
 
 Three pints of cold water ; three pounds of fresh or 
 canned tomatoes ; one onion, chopped fine ; one large 
 spoonful of sifted flour ; a piece of butter the size of an 
 egg ; pepper and salt. 
 
 Prepare the tomatoes and mix the flour and butter into 
 a smooth paste.- Place these together with the onion and a 
 teaspoonful of salt into a kettle with the water, and stir 
 frequently to dissolve the tomatoes and to prevent them 
 from scorching. One pint of boiled milk, if procurable, 
 will benefit the soup very much. 
 
 Rice Soup : Time, six hours. 
 
 Four pounds of fresh lean beef; two pounds of soup- 
 bone ; one gallon of cold water ; one onion, sliced ; three- 
 quarters of a pound of rice ; pepper and salt. 
 
 Put the meat and bones into a pot with water, one table- 
 spoonful of salt and the sliced onion, and cook. Three- 
 quarters of an hour before the soup is cooked strain it 
 through a colander, return it with the good meat to the 
 pot. Stir the rice into the strained soup thirty minutes 
 
1 82 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 before it is cooked ; stir frequently to prevent it from 
 scorching or sticking to the bottom of the kettle. 
 
 Bean Soup : Time, three hours. 
 
 Two quarts of beans ; one pound of salt pork ; six quarts 
 of cold water ; one teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda ; pep- 
 per. 
 
 Pick over the beans, wash and soak them over night in 
 cold water, and cut the pork into thin slices. Place the 
 beans, with the allowance of cold water and bicarbonate of 
 soda, into the kettle, cover it, heat gradually and boil for 
 thirty minutes ; remove the scum as it rises. Turn off the 
 water and replenish with six quarts of fresh boiling water. 
 Cover again and boil gently for one and a half hours, stir- 
 ring the beans frequently; then put in the sliced pork. As 
 soon as the beans become tender and crack, take out the 
 pork and mash the beans into a paste. Remove the skins of 
 the beans, replace the pork into the kettle and complete the 
 boiling. 
 
 This soup is much richer when a half pound of lean beef, 
 for every quart of water, is added. If bicarbonate of soda 
 is not used, it will require a much longer time to make 
 the soup. Frequent stirring is necessary to prevent burn- 
 ing. 
 
 Venison Broth : Time, four hours. 
 
 Five pounds of lean venison ; one and one-fourth gallons 
 of cold water ; two onions, sliced ; one full cup of rice ; 
 pepper and salt. 
 
 Cut the venison into small slices and put them into the 
 kettle with the water and salt. Put in the onions one hour 
 before the soup is cooked, and the rice thirty minutes later. 
 Fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to great advan- 
 tage, and frequent stirring is necessary to prevent scorch- 
 ing or sticking to the bottom of the kettle. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Fresh fish are best as soon as taken from the water. 
 

 
 
 The Mess. 183 
 
 They should not be soaked unless they have been frozen 
 or have inhabited muddy streams. 
 
 Boiled Fish : A fish, or part of a fish, weighing less than 
 three pounds (except rock-fish) is too small for boiling. 
 The time required for boiling depends upon the size and 
 variety. Salmon requires about 25 minutes, while six min- 
 utes per pound is sufficient for most kinds. As a rule, 
 fish with white flesh require less time for boiling than 
 fish with dark flesh. Care must be taken that the fish is 
 neither underdone, boiled too much nor allowed to remain 
 in the water after it is cooked. The fish is done when the 
 meat separates easily from the back bone. Place the fish 
 into enough boiling water to cover it about an inch, with 
 two tablespoonfuls of salt and four tablespoonfuls of vin- 
 egar to a piece of fish of about five pounds weight, and 
 cause it to boil steadily until done, 
 
 Fried Fish : Large fish should be cut up before frying. 
 Wipe the fish dry, rub it over with sifted flour, or sprinkle 
 it with grated bread crumbs or rolled crackers. Put into a 
 frying pan enough lard to well cover the fish. As soon as 
 this is hot put in the fish, fry briskly until a clear golden 
 brown appears. Then turn and fry the other side to the 
 same color. Just as the fish is turning brown, sprinkle it 
 lightly with pepper and salt. 
 
 Baked Fish : Baked fish should be sufficiently large to 
 admit of being stuffed, and will require from thirty to fifty 
 minutes to bake. 
 
 Prepare a stuffing of bread crumbs, with sufficient 
 butter, lard or beef dripping to make the mixture moist, 
 and season with pepper and salt ; also, a little thyme or 
 sage, if obtainable. Scorching is prevented by placing a 
 well-greased paper over the fish. 
 
 Baked fish are excellent when eaten cold. 
 
 Fish Chowder : One-half pound of salt pork; four onions; 
 six potatoes; three pounds of fish; one-half pound of hard- 
 bread. 
 
184 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Cleanse and cut the pork into thin slices, also slice the 
 onions. Put the pork and onions together into a pot and 
 fry them brown; then season lightly with salt and plenty 
 of pepper. Slice the potatoes and lay them in cold water 
 until wanted. Wash the fish, cut it into small pieces and 
 soak the hard-bread in water until tender. When the pork 
 and onions have browned and been seasoned, add a layer of 
 fish; on the fish a layer of potatoes; on the potatoes a layer 
 of crackers, and repeat the process until the kettle is nearly 
 full. Set it over a gentle fire, let it heat gradually, and 
 simmer until done. 
 
 Fish Sauce : One pint of boiling water; two tablespoon- 
 fulsof butter; same amount of sifted flour; pepper and salt. 
 Mix the butter and flour into a smooth paste, in a sauce- 
 pan on the fire, and pour over the boiling water, stirring 
 it in well. The addition of a little vinegar will impart an 
 acid taste. 
 
 MEAT. 
 
 Good fresh beef presents the following characteristics : 
 The lean, when freshly cut, is of a bright red color, easily 
 compressed and elastic, the grain fine and interspersed 
 with fat, of a yellowish white color. The suet should be 
 firm and perfectly white. In good mutton the fat is white 
 also. 
 
 All frozen meats, game and fish should be put into 
 cold water to thaw before they are cooked. Meat should 
 not be placed in contact with ice, nor wrapped in anything 
 that may impart a flavor. It becomes more tender and 
 digestive by keeping it a while. 
 
 Baked Beef : Time, from fifteen to twenty minutes to 
 the pound, depending on the oven, the quality of the 
 meat, size and shape of the joint and the time it has been 
 killed ; freshly-killed meat requires a longer time to cook. 
 
 Cleanse the meat; place it in the pan with the fat side up; 
 put the pan into a hot oven, and when the heat has started 
 
The Mess. 
 
 
 enough of the oil of the fat, commence to baste, which 
 should be performed quickly and frequently, closing the 
 oven door as soon as basting is done. When nearly done, 
 sprinkle with salt and pepper. 
 
 If the beef is not sufficiently fat and juicy to furnish 
 materials for basting, a tablespoonful or more of gravy 
 or beef dripping should be put into the pan ; the practice 
 of putting water into the pan to baste with is improper. 
 
 Broiled Beefsteak, Venison and Porksteak : A steak should 
 not be less than three-quarters of an inch nor more than 
 an inch and a-quarter thick. If beating is necessary, 
 beat on both sides, but not enough to tear the beef and 
 allow the juices to escape. 
 
 Prepare a bed of live coals (wood coals are the best) ; 
 wipe the gridiron clean and put it over the bed of coals ; 
 as soon as heated, put the steak on it and broil ; turn 
 once or twice. If the fire smokes or blazes from the 
 dripping fat, withdraw the gridiron for a moment. It 
 should cook in fifteen minutes. After it is dished, season 
 with pepper and salt. 
 
 The frying-pan serves splendidly as a broiler. The 
 Indians use their fish-spears (something like shown in the 
 drawing) for gridirons. They also frequently plant them 
 
 in the ground, near the fire, and insert their spits in the 
 hollow handles. 
 
 Boiled Beef or Venison : Time, fifteen minutes to the pound, 
 or longer, depending upon the shape and quality of the 
 piece. 
 
1 86 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Cleanse the meat. Put it into a kettle of boiling water, 
 rather more than enough to cover it. Cover and bring 
 the kettle to a boil quickly, and let it boil for ten or fif- 
 teen minutes ; then let it simmer until the meat is cooked. 
 Remove the scum as it rises. While boiling, turn the beef 
 several times. If the water needs replenishing, use boil- 
 ing water. A short time before the meat is done, put into 
 the kettle one teaspoonful of salt for every five pounds of 
 meat. 
 
 Put carrots and turnips (quartered) in the kettle, one 
 and a half hours and potatoes twenty or thirty minutes, 
 before the meat is cooked. 
 
 Fresh Beef, Elk or Deer Stew : Time, from two to three 
 hours. 
 
 Cut ten pounds of meat into small strips. Put into a 
 large mess-pan with four tablespoonfuls of salt, half, as 
 much sugar, a little pepper and about three pounds of po- 
 tatoes and onions, or any other vegetables procurable. 
 Keep on the fire and stir until a thick gravy is formed, ad- 
 ding a little flour and about three and one-half gallons 
 of water. Let it simmer until the meat is tender. 
 
 Venison requires about 2^ hours; beef, about 2f hours; 
 and elk, about 3 hours. 
 
 Beef, Pork, Elk or Venison Pie : Fresh meat, potatoes, 
 onions, tomatoes, pieces of butter or meat dripping the size 
 of a hazel nut ; pepper and salt on every layer. 
 
 Cut the meat into two-inch pieces, removing the bone 
 and any superabundance of fat. Cut the potatoes into 
 slices a quarter of an inch thick, rinse in cold water and 
 parboil them. Chop the onions fine. Slice the tomatoes. 
 Roll the pieces of butter in sifted flour. Put the pieces 
 of meat and bone into a kettle of cold water, just enough to 
 cover the meat. Cover closely; remove the scum as it 
 rises. Let it simmer steadily until half done. Remove 
 it from the fire. Take up the meat and strain the gravy; 
 
ta 
 
 E 
 
 The Mess. 187 
 
 keep both warm. Line a mess-pan with a paste, first greas- 
 ing the sides and bottom. Put in a layer of the semi- 
 stewed meat, on the meat a layer of chopped onion, on the 
 onion a layer of sliced tomato, on the tomato a half 
 dozen or more pieces of floured butter, on these a layer of 
 potato, on the potato a layer of meat, and so on in succes- 
 sive layers. 
 
 Pour over the strained gravy, put on the top crust, place 
 in the oven and bake from one to one and one-half hour3 
 with a moderate heat. 
 
 Fried Liver : Liver to be good should be fresh; uniform 
 n appearance on the surface ; firm ; of a bright red color 
 hen cut, and free from nodules. It must be thoroughly 
 one to be palatable. 
 
 Cut the liver into slices a quarter of an inch thick, and 
 k it one hour in cold, salt water ; rinse well with warm 
 ater, and dip each slice into flour seasoned with pepper 
 nd salt ; put into a frying pan enough meat dripping, or 
 con fat, to just cover the bottom of the pan when melted; 
 while this is hot, put in the liver and fry a deep brown; turn 
 nd fry the other side the same color ; then dish, pouring 
 e grease remaining in the pan over the liver. 
 Beef, Elk or Venison Hash : The meats may be used singly 
 r together. Four pounds of meat (without bone) ; two 
 ions ; two pounds of boiled potato ; the meat cut into 
 alf-inch pieces ; the onion parboiled and minced ; the po- 
 tato chopped into very small pieces. Mix all together and 
 ason with pepper and salt. Put the mixture into a kettle ; 
 tir into it about a quart of gravy, meat dripping, or 
 ater. Stir well together and cover ; let it simmer for 
 thirty minutes, or until the meat is quite tender, frequently 
 stirring it. When the hash is done pour it into a dish over 
 toasted or fried hard-bread. 
 
 Baked Pork and Beans : Time, from six to eight hours. 
 Two quarts of beans ; three pounds of salt pork ; one 
 teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda. 
 
 
1 88 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Prepare the beans and soak them over night in cold water; 
 soft water is preferable. Parboil the pork and cut it into 
 thin slices. Drain the soaked beans ; put them into a kettle 
 with enough fresh cold water to cover them ; put in the 
 bicarbonate of soda. Cover; boil for fifteen or twenty 
 minutes ; remove the scum as it rises; pour off the water; 
 replace with boiling water ; cover ; boil steadily until ten- 
 der ; drain and season with pepper. Put one-half of the 
 b cans in a deep mess-pan ; lay over them the sliced pork, 
 then cover the pork with the other half of the beans. Pour 
 over from a half-pint to a pint of boiling water ; put the 
 pan into the oven and bake with a uniform heat. Every 
 hour add a little boiling water. 
 
 When cooked, the beans should be comparatively dry. 
 
 GAME. 
 
 The viscera should be taken out as soon as the game is 
 killed. If the meat is not to be cooked at once hang it up 
 in a cool dry place. Birds should be kept in their feathers 
 and animals in their skins. 
 
 Bear and buffalo meats are better baked than cooked in 
 any other way. Prepare, cook, and serve bear and buffalo 
 meats like fresh pork or fresh beef. 
 
 At least twelve hours should elapse between the time of 
 killing and cooking birds ; but they should be drawn as 
 soon as possible. If the bird is young, the lower part of 
 its legs are soft, and the lower mandible will not sustain 
 its weight. 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 If possible, summer vegetables should be cooked on the 
 same day they are gathered. 
 
 Boiled Potatoes : Time, twenty to thirty minutes. 
 
 Wash the potatoes ; cut off a piece of the skin at the 
 eyed end ; put them into a kettle of boiling salt water, 
 enough to cover them ; cover : boil steadily until a fork 
 

 The Mess. 189 
 
 will easily pierce the largest. If cooked too much they 
 become watery. As a rule, the smaller the eye the better 
 the potato. 
 
 Peeling them before boiling is wasteful, and should 
 only be resorted to late in the spring, when the potatoes 
 have commenced to sprout. 
 
 They should be of a uniform size, that they may be 
 cooked in the same time. If they are of unequal size, cut 
 the large ones. 
 
 Baked Potatoes : Time, thirty minutes. 
 
 Prepare the potatoes and cut off a piece of the skin 
 at the eyed end, and put them into the oven without their 
 touching one another. Turn them frequently and bake in 
 a uniform heat. 
 
 They should be peeled if baked with meat ; or, if 
 boiled in their skins, they may be peeled and placed in 
 the baking pan with the meat about half an hour before it 
 is done. Potatoes roasted or baked in their skins, in hot 
 ashes, are excellent. 
 
 Fried Potatoes : Prepare the potatoes and slice them into 
 thin pieces. Put into a frying-pan fat or meat dripping 
 to just cover the bottom of the pan when melted. When 
 this becomes hot put in the potatoes and season with pep- 
 per and salt. Fry gently, stirring them frequently, and 
 until they become light brown. 
 
 Fried Onions : Peel, slice and fry the onions brown in hot 
 butter, beef dripping or lard ; season with pepper and salt. 
 Stir them constantly to avoid burning. 
 
 Boiled Onions : Peel the onions (as uniform in size as 
 possible) and lay them in cold salt water for fifteen 
 minutes; put them into a kettle of boiling salt water; 
 cover and boil gently ; when cooked so that a straw can 
 pierce them, drain and season with butter, pepper and salt. 
 The strength of the onions may be reduced by boiling 
 them in two or more waters. 
 
190 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Fried Parsnips : Boil the parsnips until tender; scrape 
 off the skin and cut them lengthwise into slices a quarter 
 of an inch thick ; dip each slice into flour ; put into a fry- 
 ing-pan enough lard or meat dripping to just cover the 
 bottom of the pan when melted ; when this becomes hot 
 put in the parsnips, fry brown, turn and fry the other side 
 the same color ; when cooked, drain off the grease and 
 season with pepper. 
 
 Stewed Parsnips : Boil and cut the parsnips into thin 
 slices ; put them into a kettle, with enough liquor from 
 boiled fresh meat to about half cover them ; season with 
 pepper, salt and grated nutmeg. Cover and stew gently for 
 fifteen minutes, stirring frequently. 
 
 Boiled Cabbage : If the cabbage is large, quarter it ; if 
 small, cut it into halves ; remove the outer and all bad 
 leaves ; examine carefully for insects ; wash, and lay it in 
 cold water for half an hour. 
 
 Put it into a kettle of boiling salt water, and cover. 
 When cooked (so that the stalk is tender), drain off the 
 water and season with butter, pepper and salt. 
 
 The odor from boiling cabbage may be lessened by put- 
 ting pieces of charcoal into the kettle. 
 
 Stewed Tomatoes: Peel (by scalding) and cut up the 
 tomatoes, rejecting the unripe and hard portions ; put them 
 into a kettle, season with butter, pepper and salt, and, if 
 the tomatoes are very acid, a little sugar. Cover, and 
 stew gently for three-quarters of an hour, frequently stir- 
 ring. The stew can be thickened with hard-bread crumbs. 
 Minced onion cooked with the tomatoes improves the flavor 
 of the stew. A mixture of equal quantities of tomatoes 
 and young corn, cut from the cobb, may be cooked as 
 above. 
 
 Fried Mushrooms : Select mushrooms of uniform size ; 
 peel them and cut off the lower part of the stem. Heat in 
 a frying-pan enough butter to thinly cover the bottom ; 
 
Tht Mess. 191 
 
 put in the mushrooms and fry both sides to a golden 
 brown. 
 
 Edible mushrooms are found in open sunny fields and 
 elevated ground where the air is fresh. They spring up 
 after low-lying fogs, heavy dews, or rains. They first 
 appear very small and of a round form on a little stalk ; the 
 upper part and stalk being white. As the size increases, 
 the under part gradually opens and assumes a delicate 
 salmon color, which in the course of a day changes to a 
 dark brown, The odor is agreeable, flesh solid and brittle 
 and skin easily peeled. The spores are white and usually 
 of an oval shape. 
 
 Boiled Rice : Time, thirty minutes. 
 
 One pound of rice ; one gallon of boiling water ; four 
 teaspoonfuls of salt. Wash -and drain the rice and place 
 it into the kettle of boiling water, adding the salt. Cover 
 and boil steadily for fifteen minutes, then thoroughly drain 
 off the water. Place the rice (in the covered kettle) into a 
 larger kettle of boiling water and steam it for ten minutes; 
 and, finally, uncover the rice and steam a few minutes 
 longer. Rice is frequently spoiled in boiling, by being re- 
 duced to a watery mass, 
 
 Rice Pudding : One quart of clean rice ; six quarts of 
 sweet milk (or an equivalent of condensed milk); one 
 pound sugar; two teaspoonfuls salt ; enough grated nut- 
 meg and ground cinnamon to flavor. 
 
 Cover the rice with a portion of the milk and let it soak 
 two hours ; then add the remainder of the milk, and stir 
 into this the sugar, salt, and spices. 
 
 Put into a well-greased dish-pan and bake two and a 
 half hours in a slow oven. Serve either hot or cold. 
 
 Frequently, owing to a scarcity of water and forage, the 
 camp will be made near a dwelling house or ranch, when 
 
192 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 advantage may be taken of stoves, fireplaces and all con- 
 veniences for cooking. 
 
 If it is suspected that the enemy is in the neighborhood, 
 prompt and proper attention must be given to the fortifica- 
 tions, and every precaution taken to make the place as 
 strong as possible, in case of a sudden attack. Often, in the 
 
 absence of rock and timber, strong mud or clay fortifica- 
 tions may be quickly thrown up, so as to form a safe point 
 of retreat in case of danger. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 Coffee should be quickly and evenly roasted to a light 
 brown color. A few burned grains will impart a disagree- 
 able flavor to it when made. Only a sufficiency for four 
 or five days should be roasted at one time, and it should 
 never be ground until required for use. 
 
 The following is an excellent method of making coffee 
 both in barracks and in the field. It is the favorite receipt 
 at Delmonico's : 
 
 Heat the grounds hot in a mess-pan, one tablespoonful to 
 each person and one for the pot or kettle ; then pour on 
 boiling water, one cupful for each spoonful of coffee. Cover 
 tight and stand where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 15 or 
 20 minutes. Then strain into the cups. The coffee should 
 

 
 The Mess. 193 
 
 never be boiled. "Coffee boiled is coffee spoiled " should 
 be remembered. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 The making of tea should be so timed that it may be 
 served as soon as drawn, and the water used should be 
 fresh from the well or spring. Bring the water to a boil as 
 soon as possible ; fill the heated pot or kettle with boiling 
 water, put into it one teaspoonful of tea for every cup of 
 tea that is to be drawn, and set the covered kettle on the 
 stove or near the fire to draw, but not to boil. It should 
 not draw long enough to dissolve the tannin, which gives 
 the tea an astringent taste. The time for drawing varies 
 with the different teas, and is about as follows : Green tea, 
 five minutes ; Oolong tea, eight minutes ; English break- 
 fast, fifteen minutes. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. 
 
 Six tablespoonfuls of scraped or grated chocolate to each 
 pint of water; add as much milk (if procurable) as water, 
 and sweeten to taste. Put on the water and bring it to 
 a boil ; rub the chocolate smooth in a little cold water, and 
 stir into the boiling water. Boil twent minutes ; add 
 the milk and boil ten minutes more, stirring frequently. 
 Sweeten upon the fire or in the cups. 
 
 Numerous fancy and palatable dishes may be prepared, 
 from the simple articles of the army ration, by the careful 
 and skillful cook. 
 
Mountain Scouting 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 IT is frequently the case that supplies are taken by the 
 enemy, destroyed by fire, lost in transportation or while 
 crossing rivers and streams; and under such possible con- 
 tingencies, with a view to securing food, it might be well 
 to understand the habits of the birds and animals found in 
 the country, about the line of march, and the properties of 
 its various wild productions. Many varieties of wild ber- 
 ries and innumerable roots (such as camas, resembling the 
 sweet potato in taste and nutritive properties) are found in 
 nearly all localities and constitute excellent articles of food. 
 Even the most barren trails will yield abundantly when 
 properly laid under contribution. 
 
 Tobacco may be replaced by either the sumach leaf or 
 
 .red-willow (shongsasha) bark, found along the mountain 
 
 streams. The bark is roasted and pulverized, when it is 
 
 found to possess most of the narcotic properties of tobacco. 
 
 Equal portions of tobacco and yellow willow bark, when 
 mixed, will afford a double quantity of excellent smoking 
 . material. 
 
 Coffee may be very satisfactorilv replaced by a decoc- 
 ' tion of horse mint; and a little gun powder, sprinkled on the 
 slightly burnt meat, will impart the taste of a rich salt and 
 pepper seasoning. 
 
 Whenever it is prudent, hunting parties, consisting of 
 .three or four men, should be sent out daily. They will not 
 
Living Off the Country. 195 
 
 only supply the camp with a variety of game, but will at 
 the same time perform the valuable duties of scouts and 
 flankers. In order that they may be successful, they must 
 carefully note the habits of the different game and the 
 points to be observed in hunting it. I will here submit a 
 few notes on the game most frequently met with in the. 
 Northwest. 
 
 Among the animals of the genus cervus, the elks are the 
 largest and most sought after by the Indians and hunters. 
 Their flesh resembles beef, though 
 less highly flavored, and the skin 
 is variously used in articles of cloth- 
 ing, etc. The average weight is 
 about 500 pounds. Their habits 
 vary with the locality and season \ 
 of the year. They usually travel 
 at night and in single file, leaving 
 a well-defined trail, and seldom re- 
 main longer than one day in any particular neighborhood. 
 Unless shot in the proper place (through the shoulder 
 blades a few inches beneath the withers), they will con- 
 tinue to run for many miles, and their speed in flight is so 
 great (unless forced to break the trot) that they mock the 
 chase. When passing through timber the antlers are 
 thrown back on each side of the body. If permitted to 
 trot, they will advance twenty miles or more without tir- 
 ing or stopping. They possess the faculty of doubling 
 and hiding with great facility, and their senses are so keen 
 in apprehension, that great caution is necessary in order to 
 approach them. 
 
 Elk or other fresh meat may be cured or 'jerked' by; 
 cutting it into very thin strips and drying it in the sun ; or, , 
 by placing the strips on a frame-work of poles and running 
 a slow fire beneath it. Salt should not be used; it is only 
 necessary to keep the meat dry to avoid putrifaction. 
 
196 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 There are four species of deer; the common American, 
 the red, the black-tailed and the long-tailed deer. Like 
 those in the Eastern States, they are of a mild, innocent, 
 timid aspect; beautifully formed, with slender and nervous 
 
 limbs; but, the flesh is more lean and less inviting, in con- 
 sequence of their having less opportunity for browsing 
 upon shrubbery of the sacchariferous kinds. 
 
 They generally use their noses in the direction of the 
 wind, and their eyes in the opposite one, and can only be 
 approached across the wind. 
 
 The proper time to stalk them is early in the morning or 
 just before dark, when they are feeding and less on the 
 alert. ' Salt licks,' or saline incrustations, have great at- 
 tractions for them, and they will frequently travel long dis- 
 tances at night in order to visit them. The slightest move- 
 ment of an object will attract their'attention, and they usu- 
 ally show alarm by throwing up the head and suddenly 
 jerking the tail. 
 
Living Off the Country. 197 
 
 Should a fawn be discovered, it is a sure sign that there 
 is a doe secreted within calling distance, and she may be 
 captured if sufficient caution be exercised. The Indians 
 produce a noise by means of the mouth, very much like 
 the bleating of a young fawn, and thus call the doe 
 within range. 
 
 Red deer are found in all latitudes. They are not migra- 
 tory, but remain throughout the year near their chosen 
 haunts, generally the cover of the thick clumps of willows, 
 or cotton-woods. They are most abundant about the 
 head-waters of the Salmon and Clearwater rivers. During 
 the summer they live on the mountain grass, but descend 
 into the warm valleys in winter, when they are easily taken. 
 They have less vitality than the other large animals, but 
 are seldom dropped unless the back be broken. 
 
 Black-tailed deer are slightly larger, but much darker than 
 the red deer. The tail for about three inches is tipped 
 with short, black hair. They are extremely fleet and use 
 all four legs at once in making the spring. They are sel- 
 dom seen away from the mountains, except in August and 
 September, when they make excursions of many hundreds 
 of miles. They seem to possess much curiosity : for a few 
 moments they will bound off with great celerity, then stop 
 and investigate the cause of alarm. This is the moment 
 for the hunter to fire. They prefer the dense cover of pine 
 or cedar thickets, and generally hide in cations where they 
 can observe all going on lower down, and get timely notice 
 of anything approaching from above. They feed during 
 the night and in the early morning, and are very similar to 
 the elk in all their habits. They are very tenacious of life 
 and will generally run off after being shot. 
 
 The long-tailed deer are found very high up in the Rocky 
 Mountains, and are distinguished by their very long tails 
 their bodies are also much longer than those of the other 
 species. They are exceedingly scarry and must be most 
 
198 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 cautiously approached. Their flesh is very tender and of 
 a most pleasant flavor. The sharpness of the hoof and the 
 precision with which it is used render it a very dangerous 
 weapon. 
 
 Antelopes are found on nearly all the elevated prairies, 
 but they seldom go into the timbered sections. During 
 the winter they penetrate the mountain valleys wherever 
 they can find good shelter and pasturage. 
 
 The prong-horn (horns curvated at 
 the ends) is the species found in West- 
 ern North America. They are gen- 
 erally red and average about fifty 
 pounds when dressed. The meat is 
 sweeter and more tender than that of 
 deer. 
 
 Curiosity is their besetting fault. A 
 handkerchief fastened to the ram-rod, 
 planted in the ground, will so attract them that they will 
 approach it until within easy range of the hunter secreted 
 in the grass or hills near by. 
 
 They have exceedingly acute senses of hearing and 
 vision, but seldom associate sound and danger. By firing 
 so that the bullet will knock up the earth in front of them, 
 they will generally retreat from that point toward the firer. 
 They possess the faculty of finding water in desert local- 
 ities. 
 
 In September and October they move in large herds, 
 following and imitating their leader in all his motions. 
 
 They possess great courage and vitality, and unless prop- 
 erty hit, will carry off several bullets. 
 
 Their tracks are much shorter than those of the deer, are 
 sharp at the toes and broad and round at the heels. 
 
 The buffaloes, of the bovine genus, are the largest and 
 most important, for food and covering, of any of the ani- 
 mals of the North American prairies and mountains. They 
 
Living Off the Country. 199 
 
 are generally about the size of our 
 domestic neat cattle, with a long, 
 shaggy, woolly hair covering their 
 head, neck and shoulders, which 
 gives them the formidable appear- 
 ance of a lion, when at a distance. 
 They are cloven-footed, chew the 
 cud, and select the same kind of food as our horned 
 cattle. Their flesh is much superior to beef, in flavor, 
 and is remarkably easy of digestion. When running, they 
 lean alternately from one side to the other and carry 
 their heads very low ; and although clumsy in appearance, 
 they will run for a long time without slackening their 
 speed, up and down very steep hills. Their legs and feet 
 are small and trim, the forelegs being covered with the 
 long hair of the shoulders as low down as the knee. 
 
 When feeding they scatter over a large space, but when 
 fleeing from danger, they collect into herds, composed pro- 
 miscuously of bulls and cows; and having once laid their 
 course are not easily diverted from it. They possess the 
 faculty of selecting the best route over the roughest 
 country. 
 
 The limits of their range are becoming more and more 
 circumscribed; and, if they continue to diminish as hereto- 
 fore, they will soon become extinct. They are frequently 
 taken by still-hunting, but oftener by pursuing them on 
 horseback, when the former is impracticable. 
 
 Their power of scent is great, and they perceive the 
 hunter at a great distance, when he is on the windward side. 
 They do not become alarmed at the report of the rifle; 
 and, so long as the hunter is not seen or scented, they will 
 stand and gaze about while those near by are being shot 
 down. 
 
 To produce the best effect, the shot should be delivered 
 
soo Mountain Scouting. 
 
 about the center of the body and eight or nine inches be- 
 hind the fore-shoulder. 
 
 The tongue, hump and marrow-bones are the most de- 
 sirable parts of the buffalo. The tongue is best taken out 
 by severing the skin between the prongs of the lower jaw- 
 bone, and drawing it through the orifice. The hump is 
 removed by skinning down on each side of the shoulders 
 and cutting loose the meat. 
 
 The movements of the immense herds regulate the loca- 
 tion of many Plain's Indians; and constituting, as they do, 
 their commissariat, frequently govern their ability for war. 
 
 The Indians and trappers of the Northwest prepare a 
 food known as ' pemmican ' as follows : The buffalo flesh 
 is cut into convenient flat steaks or slices, and hung in the 
 sun or over a slow fire until dry. The dried meat is ground 
 between two rocks until very fine, and is then pressed into 
 a bag made of hide. This is securely stitched and the pem- 
 mican allowed to cool and harden. When required for use, 
 it is cut from the hard mass and either eaten cold, or is 
 mixed with flour forming a porridge called * robiboo.' 
 
 A smaller species than the Plains buffalo is said to in- 
 habit the Rocky Mountains in various localities. I am in- 
 clined to think it an error, however, and that the mountain 
 buffaloes are really visitors from the Plains, appearing 
 smaller because generally seen at a great distance, occupy- 
 ing as they do the very precipitous and inaccessible sides of 
 the mountains. 
 
 Antelopes are always found in the vicinity of a buffalo 
 herd. 
 
 There are four varieties of bears the grizzly, cinnamon, 
 brown and black. 
 
 All the bear family, in their habits, are quite alike 
 hybernating in winter, possessing little or no courage unless 
 cornered, having a keen sense of smell and at times exhibit- 
 ing great intelligence. 
 

 Living Off the Country. 201 
 
 So far as physical strength goes, the grizzly has no equal, 
 and frequently weighs six or eight hundred pounds. He 
 depends more upon his strength than speed for taking his 
 prey, and generally lurks in willows or. thickets, so as to 
 suddenly seize upon any animal passing near him. He 
 apparently eats very little (mostly ants, insects, roots and 
 wild fruits), but keeps quite fat. The shades of color vary 
 from light gray to dark brown; and the hair is finer, longer 
 and more abundant than that of any other species. 
 
 The cinnamon bear resembles the grizzly in all respects 
 except size, but is not a variety of the latter as is frequently 
 supposed. 
 
 The brown bear is more solitary in his habits, less ferocious, 
 and is but little esteemed either for food or for his skin. 
 
 The black bear possesses a very valu- 
 able pure black, well-coated skin. He 
 lives more upon vegetable food and 
 furnishes from 200 to 300 pounds of 
 very excellent meat. If cornered, he 
 will make a good fight; but if pursued, 
 he will run with great speed and will head for the nearest 
 tree, rocks, or jungle. It is seldom, indeed, that he does 
 not get the wind of the hunter in time to make off. 
 
 The cougar (California lion) is very shy and only prowls 
 at night. When hungry he will approach the camp, and is 
 best secured by means of the spring gun. When pursued^ 
 he soon becomes tired and either ascends a leaning tree or 
 takes refuge in the branches of fallen trees; and, unless shot 
 through the brain, will endanger the life of the approaching 
 hunter. 
 
 Brown wolverines are inhabitants of the Salmon River 
 mountains and differ in several particulars from those of 
 other localities. They are, when full grown, about two feet in 
 length, with comparatively small bodies. They have short 
 legs and necks and very small eyes and ears. They live in 
 
2O2 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 caves and under rocks, and are seldom bagged, being ex- 
 tremely far-scented and always remaining near their hiding 
 places. They are easily captured, however, when overtaken, 
 and furnish good meat and a skin covered with fine fur more 
 than an inch long. 
 
 Mountain sheep, very much resembling the chamois of 
 Europe in their habits, are found on the most inaccessible 
 peaks and plateaux of the Rocky Mountains. They climb 
 over steep and rugged cliffs and skim the almost vertical 
 si opes and fearful precipices of smooth granite with won- 
 derful daring and swiftness. Frequently they leap from 
 great heights, landing on their horns, probably in conse- 
 quence of their great weight. 
 
 Their feet are very soft and spongy and enable them to 
 cling to projections so as to ease up during a descent. 
 
 Although gregarious, they seldom exceed six or eight in 
 one flock. They seem to be a combination of animals the 
 body is that of the deer, but much larger ; while the head is 
 that of the domestic sheep, except the horns, which vary 
 from fifteen to twenty inches in circumference at their junc- 
 ture with the head. 
 
 The least unusual noise or appearance fills them with 
 dread alarm, and they will most curiously disappear with- 
 out leaving any sign or passing again in view. The Sheep- 
 Eater Indians, captured by my command in 1879, near tne 
 Middle Fork of the Salmon River, in Idaho, are so called 
 from the fact that they subsist principally upon the flesh of 
 mountain sheep, and make their articles of clothing of their 
 skins, which are covered with a peculiar hair resembling 
 wool, which serves to keep the body very warm in the win- 
 ter. These Indians would usually capture them by sur- 
 rounding the mountain on which they were grazing or 
 reposing and cautiously closing in upon them. Their flesh 
 is fat and delicious, when in best season, during the months 
 of September and October. 
 
Living Off the Country. 
 
 203 
 
 Their heads and horns frequently weigh as much as 
 seventy pounds. 
 
 The Indians say that mountain sheep and deer (especially 
 black tailed deer) are never found together, and that when- 
 ever the deer suddenly come down to the river bottoms it is 
 a sure sign that the sheep are on the mountains, and they 
 hunt them accordingly. 
 
 There are five different species of wolves in the Western 
 mountains. 
 
 The common gray wolf has the appearance and habits of 
 those found in the East. 
 
 The blue wolf is rarely seen, is very sneaky and roguish in 
 his disposition, and usually prowls at 
 night. He is very angular, has long 
 hair, freely interspersed with white, and 
 always has the appearance of being 
 nearly starved. He is the most cow- 
 ardly of all the species. 
 
 The white wolf resembles the blue 
 
 wolf in everything except color. They are very seldom seen. 
 Many of the mountain Indians regard the capture of a 
 white wolf as the grandest accomplishment of the chase, and 
 hold their skins in very high estimation. 
 
 The black wolf is larger than any of the other species and 
 
204 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 more noble in his appearance. He is the strongest of the 
 wolf kind, is very daring and will not run unless the odds 
 are very much against him. He resembles the fox very 
 much in general appearance, but is several times larger. 
 
 The coyote is scarcely larger than the fox and is very uni- 
 form in size, color and habits. Like the other species, he is 
 always prowling and cowardly. His hair is of a dull red- 
 dish gray, very long and blended with brown fur at the 
 roots. He exhibits a great deal of curiosity; and, when it is 
 safe to do so, will follow parties or caravans, like a dog. 
 
 They frequently congregate about the camp at night and 
 howl fearfully, and will often cause annoyance by skulking 
 into camp and seizing articles of supplies. They are 
 usually found where all other game is scarce, and are only 
 good for food in the total absence of all other varieties. 
 
 The fox is found in three different kinds : the red, gray 
 and silver. They do not differ from those found east of 
 the mountains. The skin of the silver fox ranks high among 
 the furs of commerce. 
 
 Martins are found in the woody mountains of the Salmon, 
 but are more abundant and of better quality farther north. 
 
 Of the feline kind, there are the panther, the wild cat and 
 the lynx. 
 
 The panther is much like the cougar, but smaller. He is 
 an excellent climber, very ferocious, but never makes fight 
 with man. 
 
 The wildcat is widely diffused throughout the mountains, 
 and a species known as the 'long tail' are much larger than 
 the Eastern specimens. They are of a dull reddish color, 
 run rapidly and possess much endurance. They live in 
 rocks, hollow trees and dense thickets, and feed principally 
 upon birds and prairie dogs. 
 
 Lynx are very abundant in the lower wooded mountains, 
 but seldom come under observation. 
 
 The beaver (castor Americanus), a variety of the Euro- 
 
Living Off the Country. 205 
 
 pean species, is abundantly found 
 throughout the mountain streams; 
 and, besides its valuable fur, it 
 furnishes the hunter an excellent 
 flesh for food. I never saw any 
 evidence of the truth of the as- 
 sertion that while the flesh of the hind parts is like fish in 
 smell and taste, its fore parts are of the quality of land 
 animals. 
 
 They are of very social habits, and may be frequently 
 taken when about their villages ; but they are generally on 
 the alert and require the hunter to approach with great 
 caution. 
 
 The land otter is also found along the mountain streams 
 and furnishes a very good skin and food. It varies in color 
 from a light to a dark brown ; and, in formation, is adapted 
 to both land and water. It is generally taken while sliding 
 down steep snow drifts or grassy banks, an amusement for 
 which it manifests a great love. 
 
 The badger, marmot, mink and musk-rat are found in nearly 
 every Western locality and do not differ materially from those 
 on the eastern part of the continent. 
 * The woodchuck (Arctomys monax) is 
 the most numerous of all burrowing 
 species, and in the absence of other 
 food, makes a very tempting dish. 
 The prairie-dog (Arctomys, ludovicianus) is a smaller 
 species of marmot found on all the prairies west of the Mis- 
 sissippi. They are cautious, provident and phlegmatic 
 are very fond of society and seem to have regular hours for 
 visiting. 
 
 They burrow in dry and arid ground, digging their holes 
 in close vicinity, and live on grass, roots and other vegetable 
 substances 
 
 In their villages, which often extend over miles, they 
 live like law-abiding citizens. 
 
206 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Their sentinels are regularly posted and are quick to g /e 
 the alarm upon the approach of any unknown or dangerous 
 object. 
 
 Being susceptible of .atmospheric influences, they will 
 -serve as excellent barometers. Just before a storm they 
 are very demonstrative, and rush up to one another and 
 from burrow to burrow as though they were exchanging 
 thoughts. 
 
 Their flesh is very good as food, and nearly all the carniv- 
 ora in their neighborhoods prey upon them. The rattle- 
 snake and burrowing owl are their frequent, but I believe 
 unwelcome, guests. 
 
 They are so called, not from their appearance, but from 
 their barking, which is like that of a small dog. 
 
 There are two varieties of squirrels found west of the 
 Rocky Mountains that I have never heard described. One 
 is a handsome gray, about one-third larger than those found 
 in the East; while the other is a beautiful variety of striped 
 .squirrel, about one-half as large. 
 
 The inoffensive hare and rabbit are found in three varie- 
 ties. 
 
 The common hare has the same characteristics as in other 
 regions. 
 
 The jack rabbit strictly belongs to the Plains, but is always 
 
 ;^ ; 
 
Living off the Country. 
 
 207 
 
 
 
 found in the sage-brush bottoms throughout the moun- 
 tains. It runs with great ease and swiftness, and its 
 motions are an alternate running and leaping at almost 
 incredible distances. Its flesh, when used for food, is 
 rather tender and of a pleasant flavor. 
 
 The rock rabbit is very small, being only five or six inches 
 long and has pointed ears. They live in the rocks and sel- 
 dom go very far from their holes. The Indians consider 
 their flesh a great luxury. 
 
 The largest part of the feathered race of the West are 
 migratory. Among these are several spe- 
 cies of grouse (including the ruffed grouse, . 
 improperly called partridge and pheasant), . 
 several varieties of eagles and hawks and 
 the common Eastern quail. 
 The gray or sage grouse, the pinnated or prairie grouse, the 
 willow or sharp-tailed grouse and the mountain or blue grouse 
 are all more or less abundant in the mountains, although, 
 they properly belong in lower altitudes. 
 
 Near the head-waters of the Salmon,. 
 I have noticed a species of quail, much 
 smaller than the ortyx virginianus^ 
 lighter colored and better spotted, 
 and having a beautifully striped neck. 
 Its habits are gregarious and it is 
 remarkably tame. 
 
 As the Autumn advances, the variety and number of 
 
 geese, cranes, swans and ducks 
 multiply. 
 
 Nearly all the year round, a 
 peculiar variety of wild goose, 
 possessing many of the features 
 and characteristics of the sand- 
 hill crane, is found about the 
 
208 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 most elevated mountain lakes. The Indians associate their 
 presence with deer, and will travel many miles when hunt- 
 ing deer in order to take in such lakes as are known to be 
 patronized by these birds. 
 
 The loon (colymbus glacialis), or northern diver, is very 
 plentiful about the Columbia river 
 and its tributaries, and is occasionally 
 found at the extreme head-waters near 
 the summit of the Rockies. 
 
 It is seldom seeti, but frequently 
 utters its horrible cries, which once 
 heard are never forgotten. Many of 
 the mountain Indians regard its cry 
 as an indication of the presence of the 
 evil spirit, and are exceedingly restless while in its vi- 
 cinity. 
 
 Spring, with its rising vegetation, brings its many genera 
 and still more numerous species of feathered tribes, which 
 remain for different periods of time, so that the skillful 
 huntsman may always be repaid with a variety of ornitho- 
 logical treasures. 
 
 The curlew (scolopax borealis) is found very abundant and 
 in a wild state on the high grounds 
 (probably nesting), many hundreds of 
 miles from the sea-shore, where it be- 
 longs. It requires very hard hitting to 
 kill it, and the hunter must possess 
 skill and patience. Its plaintive cry 
 is well expressed in its name. 
 When one is wounded, it will attract all of its companions, 
 within sight or hearing, to the spot. 
 
 Vast numbers of locusts, grasshoppers and crickets are 
 continually passing over the mountains; and, in the absence 
 of other food, are greedily eaten by the savages. 
 
Living Off the Coimtry. 209 
 
 Crickets, something on the order of genus gryllus, but about 
 one-half size larger, make a favorite 
 dish on occasions of ceremony. The 
 Indians lay in large stores, merely 
 srnoke-dried, which they afterward 
 serve up with roots and underground productions. 
 
 It will be well to observe, at all times while hunting, the 
 following suggestions : 
 
 \st. Advance across or against the wind. 
 
 2d. Keep out of sight while approaching the game that has been 
 located. 
 
 $d. Cautiously approach the top of every ridge, so as to be able 
 to see any game, before exposing the body to view. 
 
 4t/i. Never fire when seized with the ' 'buck fever ,' but wait 
 until perfectly cool; and then take a rest for the rifle, if possible. 
 
 $th. Underestimate rather than overestimate the distance of the 
 game, and thus secure the advantage of ricochet shots. 
 
 6th. Reload immediately after firing; and should the wounded 
 game run off, hunt in some other direction than that taken by it. 
 
 1th. Never hunt alone, unless within sight or hearing of the 
 camp. 
 
 %th. While preparing the game, should there be no tree or 
 brush to which to make the horse fast, either hobble him or tie 
 him to the animal's horns or body. 
 
 qth. When game falls in deep water, take a long, light string 
 and tie a stick on the end of it ; throw the stick beyond the floating 
 game and gradually draw it in. 
 
 The Remington combination (40-50) breech-loading rifle 
 and shot-gun is excellent for hunting purposes, and a single 
 one judiciously handled will furnish a large command a 
 good daily allowance of game in great variety. A few shot- 
 guns should accompany every command in the field. 
 
 The hunters should be selected with a view to the par- 
 ticular game sought after, as they seldom have the same 
 success with all game. I seldom miss an elk, deer, or bear; 
 
2IO 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 As a rule, good target shots 
 
 but could never hit a coyote, 
 are poor hunters. 
 
 When game is abundant and its habits are well under- 
 stood, it may be readily secured without any great exertion 
 by means of spring guns. 
 
 O 
 
 The drawings show two simple modes of 
 setting the guns. When the game passes 
 along the trail in front of the muzzle and comes 
 in contact with the cord (<r), acting on the trig- 
 ger, the gun is discharged. The gun and cord 
 are so placed that the load may be discharged 
 into the most vital parts of the game. 
 
 When setting a gun trap, warn the camp, 
 make sure the gun is cocked the last thing, 
 and never cross in front of it. 
 
 A bow and arrow trap may be successfully 
 used when it is desirable to save ammunition 
 or avoid the noise of the discharge. A large 
 and strong bow, charged with a number of 
 arrows, is set with a line stretched across the 
 trail of the animals, so that a set of trigger 
 sticks may be acted upon when the game comes 
 in contact with the line. 
 
 Nearly all the mountain streams contain an 
 abundance of excellent fish ; among others, many varieties 
 of trout and salmon. 
 
Living Off the Country. 
 
 211 
 
 A magnificent and interesting species, known as the red 
 fish, inhabit the waters of the Payette and Wallowa Lakes. 
 
 The salmon is by far the most numerous and valuable 
 fish found west of the mountains, and is of excellent flavor. 
 There are many different species, but all are endowed with 
 great muscular power, which enables them to press their 
 way upward beyond falls and rapids into the small branches 
 of the rivers, near their very sources. They are found in the 
 head-waters of the Salmon as late as October and November, 
 when they perish. The Indians boil their salmon in birch 
 bark, by the aid of hot stones, when they have no kettles. 
 
 The rudest substitutes for braided silk lines and split bamboo 
 or lance-wood rods will serve to capture the handsomest 
 specimens of the mountain beauties. 
 
 Any anomalous-looking contrivance of feathers or colored 
 fur, resembling flies of the rudest type, are often as effective 
 as the most carefully prepared baits.* 
 
 When fishing unknown waters, it is generally well to use 
 such baits as may be secured about their immediate shores. 
 Grasshoppers, locusts, beetles, mantis, grubs, and many 
 specimens of larvae found in decayed logs may be readily 
 secured. 
 
 The drawing shows the manner of properlv baiting, so as 
 
 to cause the exposed parts of the hook to appear as a part 
 of the fly or bait. 
 
212 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Salmon roe or hard-bread dust cast into the 'water and 
 permitted to sink gradually will attract the fish in great 
 numbers. 
 
 A good substitute for a fish hook may be made by scrap- 
 ing a strip of whale bone, or tough wood, round 
 and fine, and binding on another finely pointed 
 piece, at an acute angle (a) ; or, an ordinary sail 
 needle may be made to serve as a hook by making 
 it fast to the line as shown(^). Even a horse-shoe 
 nail may be converted into a hook. 
 
 Very good lines may be made from most any of the vege- 
 table fibres obtained by soaking the stems of plants and the 
 inner barks of trees ; also, from the hair of animals, particu- 
 larly that of horses. 
 
 To cook fish without cooking utensils : 
 
 Dig a hole in the ground sufficiently large to contain the 
 fish ; build a fire in it and let it burn. Remove the coals, 
 leaving the hot ashes at the bottom, and put a thick layer 
 of green grass over them ; place the fish on top of this and 
 cover with more gracs ; then rake back the coals and loose 
 earth and continue a small fire on top. At the end of 40 or 
 50 minutes the fish will be nicely cooked, retaining all the 
 juice ; and the skin will peel off, leaving the flesh perfectly 
 clean and free from ashes. 
 
Indian Character. 213 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 INDIAN CHARACTER. 
 
 IN studying the Indian's character, we will find much to 
 incite admiration, while many of his traits and customs 
 can only serve to shock and disgust. While he is of a much 
 higher standard than those who live near him would have 
 us believe, he nevertheless falls short of the popular Eastern 
 idea of his goodness and greatness. 
 
 Two centuries ago, the number of Indians in the United 
 States exceeded 2,000,000 ; to-day they fall short of 300,000, 
 being distributed as follows : 
 
 In California, Oregon and Washington Territory 50,000 
 
 In Arizona and New Mexico - 50,000 
 
 In Utah, Nevada and Colorado 35,000 
 
 In Idaho, Dakotah, Wyoming and Montana 70,000 
 
 In Indian Territory (partly civilized) 70,000 
 
 The numerous wandering tribes 25,000 
 
 The record of every tribe tells the same story a constant 
 and rapid decrease, the result of wars, intemperance and 
 contagious diseases. 
 
 There are about 50 tribes in Oregon, Idaho and Wash- 
 ington Territory, all speaking a strange patois, known as 
 'Chinook Jargon,' the same word frequently appearing as 
 a noun or verb, according to the context. Some of these 
 tribes are at constant war with each other, and make fre- 
 quent invasions for the purpose of stealing stock and taking 
 prisoners, and it is seldom that they return from an un- 
 successful foray. 
 
 The various tribes have different customs and propensi- 
 ties, each having its particular style of dress and dances, 
 
214 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 and its own manner of constructing camps, lodges and fires. 
 
 The men of each tribe are divided into ' the old men who 
 stay at home with the squaws' and ' the young men who go to 
 war' The latter are known as warriors and braves. A brave 
 becomes a warrior as soon as he has met the enemy and has 
 taken a scalp, and until this is the case he cannot take a seat 
 in council. The greater the number of scalps taken, the 
 greater the honor due, and hence the great number of in- 
 discriminate massacres. 
 
 All the tribes have their own traditions and fables, many 
 of which resemble those of ^Esop. 
 
 It is singular that the word "&sop" in Comanche^ means 
 'to lie.' 
 
 According to the traditions of some tribes, their ancestors 
 came from a distant country in the West, where they ex- 
 pect to go after death. The beliefs and traditions of many 
 strongly resemble those of the old Testament, feasts being 
 observed and sacrifices frequently made. In most of their 
 traditions animals speak and act, and men are changed 
 into animals and vice versa. 
 
 The following is the tradition of the Nez Perce Indians, 
 as related, by Chief Joseph, and may be regarded as a fair 
 sample: 
 
 Thousands of years ago there existed an animal of im- 
 mense size, way off to the southwest of the country now 
 occupied by the Nez Perces. It was the largest of all the 
 animal creation, and was known as the l llls-wau-tsih' This 
 animal's greatest propensity was the devouring of every 
 living thing he came across. His voraciousness was so 
 great that lizards and reptiles of all kinds and sizes, bears, 
 wolves, and animals of every description, at one gulp, would 
 disappear in the depths of his capacious maw. At the same 
 time existed the Coyote, or " Little Wolf," noted for his 
 cunning, and recognized as the chief among and by the 
 other animals, thty looking upon him as destined, at some 
 future time, to work out for them a great deliverance. 
 
Indian Character. 215 
 
 Little Wolf had heard of the ' Ills-wau-tsih' and his 
 slaughter, and determined to put a stop to it. To this end 
 he girded on his armor, which consisted of two ropes made 
 of wild hemp, a quiver made of bear skin, some tinder, and 
 knives of flint all of which he concealed nnder his fore-leg, 
 and, being fully equipped, he started out on his perilous 
 mission. 
 
 After traveling for many days, and over a great stretch 
 of country, Little Wolf descried the ' Ills-wau-tsih ' in the 
 distance, and immediately prepared for the conflict. 
 Taking the two ropes, which were miles in length, he fas- 
 tened them to a cord of sinew, which was about his body 
 and made their other ends fast to two trees, a long distance 
 from each other. 
 
 By this time the ' Ills-wau-tsih ' was within hearing of 
 Little Wolf, when he howls out, " Come on, old ' Ills-wau- 
 tsih,' and prepare to die, for I am going to slay you !" The 
 latter came, and the battle raged with considerable violence 
 for some time. Little Wolf made some very good strokes 
 now and then, but was finally compelled to abandon an ac- 
 tive offensive fight and resort to cunning and operate 
 on the defensive. The * Ills-wau-tsih ' had, however, 
 swallowed Little Wolf, having him part way down 
 when the ropes and sinew girth prevented his going 
 down entirely. The old fellow stamped about and howled 
 fearfully, and declared, "I will swallow Little Wolf." 
 Taking a long breath, he made a huge effort the girth was 
 broken and down went poor Little Wolf. 
 
 After resting a short time, he made a tour of the belly of 
 the monster, and found all kinds of animals and reptiles 
 therein, which had been carrying on a kind of inteinal war 
 among themselves. Feeling somewhat hungry, Little Wolf 
 takes one of his knives and cuts a piece of fat from the 
 heart of the beast, and warming it with ignited tinder, de- 
 vours it ; at the same time counseling obedience among the 
 other inhabitants, and promising a speedy deliverance from 
 
216 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 their prison. He then cooks a meal for his fellow prison- 
 ers and taking a piece of fat from the heart of the beast 
 and rubbing their wounds and sores, says, " You are my sub- 
 jects, and it is now time to get out of here. In taking the 
 fat from around the heart, I have struck him a death 
 blow." Proceeding with his work, he caused him to howl 
 tremendously. He writhed and kicked and tried to throw 
 up his * supper/ but could not dislodge Little Wolf, who 
 did not propose to leave until his mission was accom- 
 plished. The old fellow declared he would eject him, but, 
 failing in the attempt, rolled over and 'gave up the ghost.' 
 Little Wolf then walked out and took the meat from the 
 bones and had a right Hearty meal. The bones were scat- 
 tered to the uttermost parts of the earth, and an allotment 
 of land was made to each of the delivered ones, which they 
 were to take as their country; while it was promised that a 
 race of people would spring up from the bones of the beast 
 in all respects like unto them. 
 
 " But," said the Fox, " you have reserved nothing for 
 yourself." Little Wolf called for water, his paws yet drip- 
 ping with the blood of the beast. Then dipping them in 
 the water he scattered the blood and water all over the 
 country occupied by the Nes Perces, saying, " From this 
 shall spring a people to inhabit this land with me." 
 
 Little Wolf was then transformed into a chief and a tribe 
 sprang up around him. 
 
 The Nez Perces claim that what they lack in stature they 
 more than make up in cunning and intelligence, taking 
 after their illustrious progenitor, kittle Wolf. It seems re- 
 markable that such an intelligent people should continue 
 to nourish this tradition. 
 
 There is a Medicine Man, in each tribe, who conducts the 
 exercises on every occasion of 'making medicine,' and 
 frequently performs the duties of priest, surgeon and phy- 
 sician. 
 
Indian Character. 
 
 217 
 
 Most tribes recognize two Gods, a good one and a 
 bad one, and it is a solemn occasion when they ' make 
 medicine/ to determine which is with them at any partic- 
 ular time. 
 
 The surgery of the 'Medicine Men' is quite deficient. 
 When the wound is external, they rely principally upon 
 charms and incantations. When the sickness is internal, it 
 is beyond their comprehension, and the remedy is the 
 ''sweat bath' or ' counter irritant.'' In the latter case, when 
 
 the pain is internal, the first act of the ' Medicine Man ' 
 is to apply a red hot iron to the back ; and as soon as the 
 pain is transferred to the latter wound, he proceeds to 
 treat it. Sickness is frequently attributed to evil spirits, 
 and horrible wounds are inflicted upon the sick in order to 
 dislodge them. 
 
2i8 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 They are possessed of almost innumerable superstitions. 
 
 They believe that all Indians, except those who are 
 scalped, will go to the * Happy Hunting Ground ' after 
 death, and thus it is that they will risk many lives to pre- 
 vent the body of any one of their number from falling 
 into the hands of an enemy. 
 
 They entertain similar ideas in connecticn with ' hang- 
 ing,' and would rather suffer a death of torture than sub- 
 mit to it. 
 
 Upon reaching the * Happy Hunting Ground,' they be-' 
 lieve that they will need everything required in this life, 
 and such articles as they cannot make themselves must be 
 buried with them. Their favorite horses are killed at the 
 graves, and every endeavor is made to give the dead a com- 
 plete outfit in the 'Happy Hunting Ground/ Indians will 
 go hungry and do without game rather than disturb a rifle 
 placed on a grave near by. 
 
 The superstition that if killed in the dark, they will be 
 blind in the next world, is very generally entertained, and 
 thus it is that Indians will seldom or never make a night 
 attack. 
 
 Upon going into camp, after taking scalps, they will in- 
 variably fire a few volleys over them, believing that such 
 demonstration will frighten off the spirits of those scalped. 
 
 When they claim a lineal descent from bears, wolves, etc., 
 they generally select such an animal as their totem, and 
 never kill or eat it; but, on the contrary, regard it as their 
 protector and address it in prayer. 
 
 When calamities are threatening, as an atonement to 
 propitiate the great spirit, they will sacrifice their dogs or 
 ponies and will even give away their children. 
 
 Indians have no family names. Generally, the warriors 
 give themselves names expressive of some well known suc- 
 cesses, or of the characteristics and appearances of certain 
 animals. The others take names suggestive of certain 
 
Indian Character. 
 
 219 
 
 shortcomings or accomplishments, or those of white men 
 with whom they come in contact. The women are usually 
 named after their personal charms or defects ; all are 
 prone to change their names frequently. 
 
 Cousins are generally called brothers and sisters, and 
 aunts are called mothers. 
 
 The boy becomes a man at 15, and goes out in search of 
 fame, perfectly satisfied with his condition, even when hun- 
 gry and poorly clad. From childhood, he is taught to re- 
 gard killing and scalping as the highest of virtues, and 
 daily hears the warriors recite their deeds of pillage and 
 murder as most precious things. 
 
 The clothing of the men usually consists of blankets, 
 * breech-clouts ' and moccasins ; while the women wear 
 sleeveless and rudely made buckskin gowns. The men, and 
 especially the warriors, often wear immense earrings. 
 Their ideas of adornment are such as to render them, when 
 in full dress and properly marked with paint and grease, 
 hideous monstrosities rather than objects of attraction. 
 
 A blow is the greatest injury that can be inflicted upon 
 an Indian, and only blood can make the ample reparation. 
 His thirst for revenge is forever cherished, and he finds a 
 special delight in the most hellish and ingenious tortures. 
 
 When a tribe wishes to go to war, messengers are sent to 
 numerous other tribes asking for warriors for the expedi- 
 
 tion. The council pipe (sacred and public property) goes 
 with the mission. The whole subject is thoroughly dis- 
 cussed in council, and such tribes as grant the request, 
 accept the pipe and smoke. 
 
22O Mountain Scouting. 
 
 I 
 When an accepting chief wishes to organize his war 
 
 party, he mounts his horse, both in full war paint, raises a 
 pole to which is attached a bunch of feathers and a small 
 red blanket and rides about the village singing the war 
 song. Those wishing to go, mount their ponies and follow 
 the chief. This is continued several days, until there is a 
 sufficiency of volunteers for the work. 
 
 During the absence of the war parties, the people at 
 home become very anxious, and all the conversation is cen- 
 tered on the absent party and its probable time of return. 
 When it is announced that the warriors are returning vic- 
 torious, there is a great excitement throughout the village. 
 The women chant songs of victory, while the old men nar- 
 rate the deeds of their forefathers and themselves to excite 
 the emulation of the young. The * Medicine Men ' gallop 
 through the camp beating their drums and shouting 
 encouragement, while the warriors painted black, with 
 their horses in full war paint, perform the scalp dance. 
 
 If the expedition turns out to be a failure and some of 
 the party are killed, the relatives of the killed cut off their 
 own hair and the tails and manes of the favorite horses of 
 the deceased, and cry without cessation for days, weeks, 
 and even months. When any are slain in battle, it is the 
 important duty of those left to retaliate by killing some of 
 the slayer's tribe, regardless of age or sex. 
 
 Among themselves, murder is punished by. a friend or 
 relative of the deceased killing the murderer. They make 
 no distinction between murder and justifiable homicide, 
 and seldom make allowance for accidental killing. All 
 other crimes have their prices fixed in ponies. 
 
 A murder is not considered satisfactory, by any means 
 unless the perpetrator is enabled to sound the ' war- 
 whoop ' and 'scalp' his victim. The war-whoop a 
 shrill, piercing note on the highest key of the voice, with 
 a rapid vibration, made by striking the hand or fingers 
 
Indian Character. 221 
 
 
 
 against the lips is sounded just as the final dash is made 
 
 or as the weapon is raised for the deed. Scalping is ac- 
 complished by grasping the hair above the top of the head, 
 raising it with the skin to which it is attached, and quickly 
 cutting the latter loose. Scalping alone is not fatal. 
 
 Many tribes seem to fear and respect those who commit 
 suicide, and will leave their arms and clothing untouched. 
 
 The Indian's idea of excellence centers on war and the 
 chase, and most of his time is devoted to breeding horses, 
 making weapons, saddles, bridles, lariats and necessary 
 things. They are in the saddle from infancy to old age, 
 and excellency of equitatipn is the principal feature of 
 their education. Many have no fixed homes, but are con- 
 tinually in the saddle, moving about with the game and 
 the seasons. 
 
 Their wealth consists principally in ponies, and these 
 constitute the medium of exchange in all transactions. The 
 Indian and his pony live together, and there seems to be 
 a mutual affection, although the master is unmercifully 
 cruel. He will ride his horse up and down hill until he 
 falls, then force him up and ride again, and when he falls 
 to rise no more, will complacently sit upon him. He can 
 ride any horse twice as far as a white man or Mexican, and 
 can sit gracefully on horseback when he is so drunk that 
 he cannot stand up. 
 
 An Indian always mounts on or dismounts from the right 
 side. When mounted, his seat and carriage are particularly 
 ungraceful, with his stirrups very short and his heels never 
 ceasing to drum on his horse's ribs with a nervous but 
 uniform motion. He scarcely moves his head or body and, 
 when most watchful and inquisitive, appears utterly indif- 
 ferent and phlegmatic. 
 
 He carries his rifle across the pommel, holds the reins in 
 his left hand, while in the right he carries a short stick, to 
 which is attached a thong of raw hide, a light blow of 
 
222 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 which marks every step of his pony. With* his horse at 
 full speed, he will perform the most incredible feats of 
 horsemanship. 
 
 The ponies enable the savages to transport their families 
 and villages wherever their nomadic instincts may prompt, 
 and the same food which subsists the countless herds of 
 buffaloes answers well their purposes. 
 
 Indians are much more susceptible to cold than white 
 men ; this, together with the fact that in winter the ponies 
 are too weak and poor to carry them, renders them at 
 such time noticeably helpless. 
 
 It is an interesting sight to observe an Indian family 
 moving. While preparing for the move the men saunter 
 about, apparently evincing no interest in the matter, and 
 the overburdened women hasten to and fro, take down 
 the lodge-poles, wrap the bundles, load the ponies, and 
 finally take their places upon the most dilapidated and in- 
 significant specimens. The small children are packed in 
 sacks and hung upon the saddles. Two poles are attached 
 to the shoulders of a pony, one end of each dragging upon 
 the ground. Frequently the poles are grouped together 
 
 and dragged, and are so arranged as to transport a hetero- 
 geneous mass of plunder, the sick and helpless. 
 
Indian Character. 223 
 
 The number and utility of the Indian dogs are astonish- 
 ing ; as pack animals, they are called into frequent requisi- 
 tion. One will moodily jog along, carrying a frying-pan 
 on one side and a howling child on the other, while an- 
 other sulks along with her whining puppies and a quarter 
 of deer on her back 
 
 " The Indian dog has erect, triangular-shaped ears, a sharp 
 muzzle, coarse hair, a bushy tail and a wiry frame. He 
 never looks you in the face, nor wags his tail in an honest 
 manner, but sneaks away and eyes you askance. Being 
 half wolf, he is an arrant robber and expert thief, endowed 
 with a very keen nose and great endurance. 
 
 Time and space are not considered by the Indians, and 
 wherever they pitch their lodges there is their home. In 
 the arrangement of their villages, the lodge of the chief is 
 placed in the center and those of the warriors around it, 
 according to rank. The entrances to the lodges always 
 face the rising sun. The number in a lodge varies from 
 six to fifteen persons and half as many dogs. Two fight- 
 ing men for each lodge or teepee is a fair average. The 
 leading events and achievements of their lives are recorded 
 on their lodges by a rude system of hieroglyphics. 
 
 Should the bad God visit them, in the form of the small- 
 pox, cholera, etc., they will desert their village, and nothing 
 can induce them to return to the place. The frame-work 
 of the lodges, left standing for years after, will furnish the 
 historical account of the unfortunate tribe that once camped 
 there. 
 
 At home or abroad the domestic drudgery falls on the 
 women, the men having their full share of labor in the 
 chase and war. 
 
 The men are usually tall and well proportioned, while 
 the women are of low stature and frequently bent with the 
 enormous weight of their burdens. 
 
 While the warriors have boasting spirits with little or no 
 moral restraint imposed upon them, and a fiendish thirst 
 
224 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 for blood; the women will frequently show devotion and 
 tenderness, and discourage all cruel and warlike exploits. 
 The sooner the boys throw off the restraint of their parents 
 and openly rebel against the fathers, the better the indica- 
 tion that they will become great warriors. 
 
 In their villages they give much thought to amusement. 
 Racing is a frequent pastime whole tribes will wager 
 against tribes, in the midst of great excitement. , Story- 
 telling is quite an art with them, the stories usually per- 
 petuating some actual achievement and inspiring tribal 
 pride. They frequently exaggerate and tell of impossible 
 things with an air of earnest simplicity. 
 
 Gambling is their greatest vice. They are at it day and 
 night, and soon become great cheats and shrewd players. 
 The stakes are frequently high, even wives and children. 
 
 They manifest a strong desire for whisky and will bar- 
 ter anything in their possession for it. 
 
 With few exceptions, they are inveterate beggars. Their 
 main endeavor is to get a great deal for little or next 
 to nothing, and frequently they display much ingenuity 
 in making a single article serve numerous ends. For in- 
 stance, in making a tomahawk, the handle is formed of 
 
 young ash, the pith of which is easily burned out with a 
 heated wire ; which, after the necessary ornamentation, 
 forms a most satisfactory pipe. 
 
 The food of Indians varies with the location, and well do 
 they fulfill the declaration, " Every creature of God is good, 
 and nothing to be refused" there being but a few animals re- 
 jected in consequence of their superstition. 
 
 When food is plentiful they are choice in their selection ; 
 but when hungry, they will eat anything, even snakes and 
 carrion birds. 
 
Indian Character. 225 
 
 Dogs are not only articles of diet in emergencies, but on 
 occasions of ceremony will form the favorite roasts of the 
 savage gourmands. 
 
 Indians have no regular times for their meals, but eat 
 whenever hungry, if they have food. The men, women 
 and children seldom eat together. They never refuse to 
 share their food with hungry visitors, and have contempt 
 for anyone who eats alone or saves anything for the mor- 
 row. 
 
 Skewers of green sticks, serve for cooking purposes, while 
 their roasting is done by embalming the meat in a coating 
 of clay or mud. 
 
 Very few Indians are cannibals, and these eat their ene- 
 mies only in order to justify their savage revenge. 
 
 Among the Indians, marriage is simple and has no re- 
 sponsibility except that inspired by terror. Ponies are given 
 to the bride's father, who gives other presents in return. 
 Captured squaws are always sold in marriage. The women 
 are permitted to marry when 12 years of age or older 
 the men whenever they are able to support their wives. 
 
 There is no visible love-making, and love in man is fre- 
 quently regarded as the greatest of weaknesses. The great 
 desire of the faithful wife is to do all the work and have her 
 husband do nothing. 
 
 Polygamy is common among them, and the women fre- 
 quently elope. When this is the case, the injured husband 
 is always paid a few ponies. 
 
 The favorite burying place of many Indians is in a tree. 
 The selection of the tree, when a chief or noted warrior 
 dies, is an occasion of great ceremony. The tree must be 
 sound, in a well sheltered locality and out of the way of 
 animals. If practicable, the body is left in a sitting pos- 
 ture, with everything likely to be needed in the * Happy 
 Hunting Ground ' placed within easy reach. All scalps, 
 taken by the dead man, are hung about the body. 
 
226 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Fierce yells and whoops, half nasal and guttural sounds, 
 patting the feet, unseemly contortions of the body and ex- 
 aggerated performances in imaginary struggles with the bad 
 God, are the fitting ceremonies of the occasion. 
 
 After the burial, no farther attention is paid to the body 
 or the grave. 
 
 In many tribes, upon the death of a mother, the infant is 
 also interred, rather than suffer its incumbrance in the vil- 
 lage. I have recently read the following account ; 
 The mother suddenly died; whereupon, the infant child was 
 placed in the arms of its dead mother, wrapped in a buffalo 
 robe and placed in the tree selected for the grave. Its cries 
 were heard for several days, then grew fainter and were 
 finally hushed in the embrace of death, with the cold wind 
 sounding its requiem and hungry wolves howling round 
 about a fitting dirge for so sad a fate. 
 
 A thorough understanding of Indian nature is essential 
 in order to elicit from him any valuable information. 
 Above all things he must not be hurried. When he be- 
 comes overburdened with a succession of ideas and his 
 train of thought is disturbed, he will invariably lie in order 
 to free himself of the confusion. 
 
Indian Character. 227 
 
 He must be permitted to minutely and tedious y tell his 
 story how many ' suns' he traveled, how long he waited 
 when the ' sun was so ' whether he traveled this or that 
 'way -hut' (trail), where he had his ' muck-a-muck ' (food), 
 how he crossed the ' hyas-chuck ' (river), etc. When possi- 
 ble, let him trace the map on the ground. It is frequently 
 necessary to put the questions in an indirect manner, in 
 order to avoid his usual reply, 'wake cum-tux (don't know). 
 
 In dealing with Indians, it will be well to observe the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 Do not trouble about dignity; humor them as you would 
 children ; and be patient, neither displaying temper nor 
 noticing insults. 
 
 Never promise nor threaten to do a thing without doing it. 
 
 They are safe neighbors while you assume a bold and 
 self-confident bearing. Symptoms of timidity or indecis- 
 ion convert them into insidious and dangerous enemies. 
 
 Never appear to be afraid of anything; they soon notice 
 fear or weakness, and as soon lose all respect. They resort 
 to all kinds of tricks in order to test bravery. 
 
 Endeavor to accomplish every thing by presents and per- 
 suasion, never by force. For conciliatory purposes, make 
 the presents to the head people and always take their 
 wants into consideration. 
 
 Give them food whenever they desire it, if it can be spared. 
 
 An Indian is seldom satisfied with the bargain agreed 
 upon, and it will be well to strike it low, with a view to- 
 raising afterward. 
 
 You can frequently trust to the honor of Indians, but 
 seldom to their honesty. 
 
 Nothing pleases them more than to have those among 
 them follow their customs. 
 
228 Mountain Scouting 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE TRAIL, SIGNS AND SIGNALS. 
 
 THE difficult art of trailing or tracking is of great import- 
 ance in Indian warfare. 
 
 While it is impossible for most white men to acquire this 
 faculty, the constant exercise of the bump of locality through 
 successive generations and the thorough investigation of 
 every ' sign/ have rendered all savages sure guides over 
 boundless prairies and through pathless forests. 
 
 A ' trail ' is made up of various 'signs' or evidences 
 that something has been present. All marks left on the 
 ground, rocks, grass, trees or brush the form, size, stride 
 and directions of footprints and the firmness of impres- 
 sion, should be carefully noted. It should be made an in- 
 variable rule, when halting or camping, to make a recon- 
 naissance of the ground in the neighborhood, with a view to 
 ascertaining if any living thing is near or has lately passed. 
 
 The footprints of animals, their gait and direction, 
 whether slowly walking (as in the act of feeding) or run- 
 ning (as when frightened), are all significant ' signs.' 
 
 Much valuable information may be obtained by carefully 
 observing 'signs'; but to follow a trail successfully, one 
 must not only possess a thorough understanding of all 
 'signs,' but also a knowledge of the character and habits 
 of the thing trailed, the general features of the country 
 round about, and the powers of the eye and ear must be 
 cultivated to a great degree of acuteness. 
 
The Trail, Signs and Signals. 229 
 
 The Indian well knows that the ' trail ' is his principal 
 weakness, and is never at a loss to resort to some ruse tc 
 complicate it, such as traveling over rocks and along the 
 channels, of streams, etc. He seldom thinks of danger 
 ahead, but always keeps a proper rear guard in position, 
 and strongly fortifies his camp toward the rear. 
 
 When closely pursued, a party of Indians will scatter and 
 travel singly or in small detachments; and usually when the 
 pursuers follow a single detachment, it will travel over the 
 roughest and almost impracticable country, and make a de- 
 tour of many miles. 
 
 When the * trail ' is leading toward some pass, saddle or 
 low ridge or well defined landmark and suddenly becomes 
 indistinct, it is generally safe not to expend time in hunting 
 it; but to push rapidly on to the pass, etc., where the ' trail ' 
 will in all probability be found again. Before scattering, a 
 point for concentrating is generally agreed upon. 
 
 When traveling over an unknown country, the Indian is 
 guided by his nomadic instinct and the information re- 
 ceived from those who have visited the section before. This 
 fund of knowledge is very great. One of my Indian scouts 
 (Chuck) in 1880, became quite noted for the accuracy with 
 which he could designate suitable camps and various phys- 
 ical features of the country, relying entirely upon the in- 
 formation received from his father, who hunted in the same 
 localities many years ago. 
 
 Traveling Indians usually set up mounds of stones to in- 
 dicate the route and various other items of information, to 
 those who may follow. In a timbered country, where the 
 * trail ' is frequently covered with snow, the stones are 
 placed in the forks and branches of the trees; or, the trees 
 are blazed so that the notches face the traveler and at least 
 two of them may be in sight at once. 
 
 The Indian seldom refers to the sun, moon or stars foi 
 his direction when traveling ; but places his confidence ii 
 
230 Mountain Scouting, 
 
 something nearer at hand, which he believes to remain in 
 the same place and which he thoroughly comprehends. 
 
 The trailer should not allow anything deviating from the 
 common i. rder of things to escape a rigid investigation. A 
 close scrutiny will generally reveal both the plan and pur- 
 pose of every active living creature. While keenly alive to 
 all sounds, he should be able to unmistakably recognize the 
 most ordinary, such as the croaking of frogs, the barking 
 of coyotes, the hooting of owls, the cry of panthers or wolv- 
 erines, the screaming of hawks and eagles the creaking of 
 limbs, etc. 
 
 When trailing Indians, it is often important to know the 
 especial customs of the various tribes. With this knowl- 
 edge, the examination of the deserted camps, halting and 
 resting places will invariably reveal the identity of the 
 tribe once there ; the fashion of fire-making, the style, cut 
 and finish of the moccasin, the form of lodge, etc., are all 
 unmistakable evidences. 
 
 This information is very useful when hostile and friendly 
 Indians occupy the same country, and it is necessary to be 
 able to distinguish between their trails. 
 
 Various circumstances connected with the ' trail ' will 
 afford important imformation. 
 
 Indians, when walking, point the toes inward, whether 
 in moccasins or other gear. Many white men, in the Indian 
 country, wear moccasins, but they leave a track with the 
 toes turned outward. The various patterns of boots and 
 shoes leave their distinctive tracks, and the particular way 
 in which a boot or shoe has been pegged or repaired will 
 enable an astute trailer to follow its print among hundreds 
 of others. A careful notice of the form and depth of the 
 impressions will generally indicate whether the person car- 
 ried a burden or not ; whether traveling at will or in 
 haste ; whether sober or intoxicated. 
 
 The age of the track may be determined in various ways. 
 
The Trail, Signs and Signals. 231 
 
 If rain has fallen, it may be seen whether the tracks were 
 made before, during or after it, by carefully noticing the 
 grass, etc., trodden down, and observing whether or not 
 sand or anything adheres to it. The morning or evening 
 dew updn the 'trail' will also furnish a test of time. 
 
 The position of the grass, the sand, dust etc., drifted 
 from or upon the track will serve to determine its age 
 relative to the blowing of the wind, or its sudden change of 
 direction. 
 
 Should there be several tracks, and the time when one 
 was made be known, the ages of the others may be deter- 
 mined by noticing where they cross and observing which 
 overlies the others. 
 
 When the ' trail ' becomes lost in an unfavorable locality, it 
 is best not to consume time in hunting it, but to proceed in 
 the probable direction until a favorable ground is found, 
 and then hunt it. 
 
 In a grassy locality, or on plains of coarse sand or shin- 
 gle, the ' trail ' is seldom visible at short distance, but may 
 be noticed by looking out well ahead. 
 
 In a rocky country, or where the ground is very hard, 
 when it is desirable to ascertain the track of a prowling 
 enemy or animal, the Indians usually sprinkle sand (if ob- 
 tainable) over the trails in suitable places. This is an old 
 trick, for it is said in the Apocrypha that the prophet 
 Daniel did this when he wished to ascertain who it was that 
 nightly consumed the meat which was placed before the 
 idol of Bel. 
 
 While encamped near the Payette river, in a point of 
 rocks, it was observed that night-prowling animals visited 
 my camp, much to the annoyance of the men, and at the 
 expense of unguarded supplies. One of the Indians se- 
 cured a quantity of sand from the river bottom, dried it, 
 and judiciously placed it around the camp. The unmis- 
 takable tracks of a bear, two coyotes, a weasel and several 
 skunks were observed the next morning. 
 
232 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 Frequently, when the ground is very hard or rocky, a 
 close examination will reveal 'sign,' in the shape of stones 
 or pebbles turned so as to lie with that side up, which has 
 formerly rested on the ground. In such places, flakes of 
 foam, fragments dropped from the animal's mouth, or 
 minute blood specks (when trailing the wounded) are great 
 helps. A bare-footed person, when passing over hard rocks, 
 will leave a * sign,' in the shape of fine dust caked by 
 perspiration. 
 
 If there be marks of lodge poles upon an Indian trail, 
 they may be regarded as a peaceful indication, and showing 
 that the Indians passed with their families, lodge material 
 and effects : if there be no such traces on the trail, it is an 
 equally good sign that a war or hunting party passed, as 
 they always leave such impedimenta in a place of safety. 
 
 It might be desirable to ascertain whether or not some 
 members of an escaping party of Indians are women : this 
 may be frequently determined by following the trail 
 until a place is found where they have stopped to rest and 
 smoke. The men sit cross-legged, and when sitting down 
 cross their feet (locked closely together) and slowly lower 
 their bodies to the sitting posture. The women sit with 
 both feet and lower legs turned under, either to the right 
 or left. 
 
 Horse or pony tracks may be followed over any ( trail'; 
 but it is often difficult to follow them over rocks or very 
 hard ground. When they pass over grass without trodding 
 it down, the * trail' is shown by the grass assuming a differ- 
 ent shade of color from that about it. 
 
 The appearance of horse or pon}^ tracks is very different 
 at a walk, trot and gallop. The Indian pony is seldom or 
 
The Trail, Signs and Signals. 233 
 
 never shod, and the distance between his tracks (walking) is 
 about 2 feet and 10 inches. The track may be readily dis- 
 tinguished from that of the American horse (larger and 
 generally shod), or that of the mule (about the same size, 
 but narrower and more angular). 
 
 When the pony trots, the tracks are from 6 to 7^ feet 
 
 6_'j2.,_T 0.7/2. FT. 
 
 apart, the impressions less distinct and more irregular. 
 In the gallop, they are from 8 to 9 feet apart, and unless 
 
 8 TO 9..FT. 
 
 
 the ground is very hard, there are no distinct impressions, 
 but a mere disturbance of the earth. 
 
 A careful study of the impression left on the ground will 
 serve to determine the pace at which the animal was mov- 
 ing. A walking or feeding horse should leave a well marked 
 track, and a sudden scattering of earth, sand or gravel 
 would indicate fright and an increased pace. 
 
 A knowledge of the movements of the pony, will fre- 
 quently give valuable information regarding the rider 
 whether he is moving leisurely and is subject to surprise, 
 or whether he has discovered his pursuers and is moving 
 rapidly on in order to avoid a conflict. 
 
 To determine whether the horses have riders or are run- 
 ning loose, follow the trail until ordure is found : when 
 scattered along the ' trail,' it is a sure sign that the animal 
 was ridden and not permitted to stop. An equally good 
 test, is to follow the ' trail ' into a woods and observe 
 
234 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 
 
 whether or not it lies under any branches of the trees too 
 low to permit the easy passage of a mounted man beneath 
 them. 
 
 An Indian rider always mounts on and dismounts from 
 the right side, and by noticing the places where the mounts 
 and dismounts are made, it may be ascertained whether the 
 rider is an Indian or a white man. 
 
 The moisture where the earth is removed and the drop- 
 pings along the ' trail ' are good indications of the age of 
 the tracks. Where water has been crossed, the ground will, 
 for some distance beyond, be wet, and show where drops of 
 water have fallen from the animal's body or legs or where 
 it has been splashed while in the act of crossing. 
 
 Tracks on snow may be followed with great rapidity, but 
 it is frequently difficult to distinguish between those left 
 by different animals. 
 
 The mode of shoeing, any defects in the hoofs or shoes, 
 and whether shod all around, on the fore feet only, or not 
 at all, should be carefully noted, as such items are sure to 
 furnish valuable information at some time or another. 
 
 Much may be learned of the Indian's condition by care- 
 fully observing the nature of his * trail ' and camping 
 places. Should abandoned property or comparatively 
 valueless articles be left along the ' trail,' and should 
 there be indications of disorder generally, it is evident 
 that he has experienced demoralization. 
 
 To show to what skill a trailer may attain by constant 
 and careful practice, I will briefly mention a few of the ex- 
 ploits of my chief of Umatilla scouts Shaplish. 
 
 Being once in rapid pursuit of a few Indians who had 
 murdered the owner of a ranch, on the south fork of the 
 Salmon, in Idaho, and having followed them about forty 
 miles, apparently gaining all the while, Shaplish suddenly 
 informed me, " No catch him hiyu run no sun /", meaning 
 that we were discovered, and that the Indians were travel- 
 

 The Trail, Signs and Signals. 235 
 
 ing at night. He pointed out to me where they had gone 
 under low branches of trees, which might have been readily 
 avoided, and also where they had crossed rocks and ravines 
 at bad places, when good crossings might have been se- 
 lected very close by, if there had been sufficient light for 
 the purpose of picking the trail. 
 
 Onre, while hunting on the upper Clearwater river and 
 ignorant of the location of the renegade Bannock Indians, 
 Shaplish became very much exercised, fearing that a hostile 
 war party might find his ' trail' and attack in the rear. 
 After a brief consultation with the other members of his 
 party, he dismounted, cut open his shoes; and, putting 
 them on with the heels foremost, walked, thus equipped, 
 in the rear of all, a distance of eight or ten miles. The 
 ruse was a perfect success, for that very day a hunting party 
 came close in rear ; but, seeing the track of what they sup- 
 posed a single man going away from the party, they put 
 their ponies about and at full speed started off, hoping to 
 overtake him, preferring to make a sure success of captur- 
 ing one rather than risk an attack upon the entire party. 
 
 Wishing to scout in two directions, I once sent out two 
 detachments of ten men each. 
 
 They started from camp together, followed the same 
 ' trail ' for about 2\ miles, and then separated one party 
 going to the right, the other to the left. Having occasion 
 to communicate with the commander of one detachment, I 
 started Shaplish after him. It was plain sailing until he 
 came to the diverging ' trails.' For a while he was puzzled 
 to tell which detachment had gone to the right. 
 
 He soon selected the -tracks on each 'trail' made by the 
 men in advance (presumably those of the commanders); 
 and, with a positive assurance, informed me that the route 
 on the left had been taken by the party wanted. 
 
 When I asked his reason for so thinking, he showed me 
 that- the distance between the impressions on the left 
 
236 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 1 trail ' was wide, and the deepest parts of the tracks were 
 formed by the toes all of which denoted the elasticity of 
 youth, for which the man in question was much noted, in 
 comparison with the commander of the other detachment. 
 
 Shaplish followed his selected * trail ' about ten miles, 
 when his figuring proved correct. 
 
 Many other instances might be cited to show to what 
 perfection the art of trailing may be carried. 
 
 By closely observing the movements and actions of an- 
 imals a great deal of valuable information may be obtained. 
 Should wild ducks be observed to swim down stream toward 
 you, it is a sure sign that some form of man is approaching 
 and has already been observed by the ducks. 
 
 If there be a mule with the party, it will be well worth 
 the while to carefully watch his actions. If he stubbornly 
 seeks a certain direction, with his head high and ears 
 thrown forward, and seems much engaged, something is 
 surely approaching ; it may only be a bear or some smaller 
 animal, but it will be well to be on the alert until the cause 
 of the trouble is known. 
 
 All the Indians understand the sign language, consisting 
 of some words of French and Spanish extraction, a few 
 English words, such as ' how ' (how do) and ' by ' (good- 
 bye), and a complete pantomimic vocabulary. 
 
 It is a custom with most Indians to run their ponies when 
 approaching either friends or enemies, and unless their 
 status is known they should be halted in due time. This 
 is done by raising the right hand back, to the rear, and 
 waving it forward and backward. 
 
 ' Who are you ? ' is signalled by waving the right hand to 
 the right and left several times in quick succession; ' We are 
 friends,' by raising both hands and grasping the left with the 
 right, as in shaking hands ; ' We are enemies? by closing the 
 right hand and placing it against the forehead, or by waving 
 a blanket (usually red) in the air. To say by signs 'that 
 
The Trail, Signs and Signals. 237 
 
 after a certain journey a good u.mp will be found, and that game 
 may be found along the road' first indicate the course of the 
 sim, from its rising to the point at which it will appear on 
 reaching the camp; then straddle one finger of the left 
 hand with two fingers of the right, trotting them in imita- 
 tion of the motions of pony and rider ; then act as though 
 halting, dismounting and firing; then remount and proceed 
 on the way ; finally stop, bow the head, rest it on the hand 
 and close the eyes in imitation of sleep. 
 
 To intimate that 'such a one is dead? place one hand over 
 the other and then quickly slip it beneath (gone under) ; 
 that ''such ones are husband and wife J point to each and place 
 the forefingers in contact throughout (meaning one) ; that 
 ' such ones are brothers and sisters} point to each and place 
 two fingers in the mouth (meaning nourished at the same 
 breast) ; that ' such ones are good friends,' point them out and 
 fold the arms over the breast, etc. 
 
 The various tribes are indicated by making the represen- 
 tation of some totem peculiar to each. 
 
 The Comanches, or ' Snakes,' by a gliding motion, like a 
 crawling snake. 
 
 The Crows, by imitating the flapping of wings 
 
 The Sioux, or * Cut-throats,' by drawing the hand across 
 the throat. 
 
 The Kiowas, or * Prairie Men,' by imitating the drinking 
 of water. 
 
 The Pawnees, or * Wolves,' by placing the hands at the 
 sides of the head, like the ears of a wolf. 
 
 The Arapahocs, or ' Smellers,' by laying hold of the nose. 
 
 The Utes, or ' Dwellers Among the Mountain Tops,' by 
 pointing upward. 
 
 The Cheyennes, or 'Cut Arms,' by drawing the hand 
 across the arm, etc. 
 
 The Indians have a system of signaling by means of 
 smokes during the day, and fires at night. The color 
 
238 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 (light or heavy), the volume (thin or dense), and the vary- 
 ing brilliancy of flame, are all significant signals. Every 
 tribe jealously guards the secrets of its code of signals. 
 
 Smokes may be raised several hundred feet in a vertical 
 column by making a fire without much blaze and piling on 
 green boughs, grass and weeds. By confining the smoke 
 and permitting it to escape at intervals, puffs may be sent 
 up at will. 
 
 Owing to the very clear mountain air, the elevated 
 * buttes ' and mountain ridges may be seen at a great dis- 
 tance, and may serve the purpose of signal stations. 
 
 The Indian alphabet is very similar to ours, being made 
 up of long and short lines. By spreading a blanket over 
 the column of smoke and quickly displacing it, the length 
 or shortness of the columns, as well as their frequency, may 
 be regulated. 
 
 This system of telegraphing, so successfully pursued by 
 the Indians when separated and preparing for a flight or 
 defense, might be used to good advantage by co-operating 
 columns of troops, the commanding officers having previ- 
 ously fixed upon some simple system of signals, such as the 
 combination of the numbers of smokes and the intervals (in 
 time) between them. 
 
Skirmishing* 239 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 SKIRMISHING. 
 
 STRATEGY loses its advantages against an enemy who 
 accepts few or none of the conventionalities of civilized war- 
 fare. The Indian is present one day and when next heard 
 from is marauding in another state or territory; and oft- 
 ener still, when supposed to be many miles distant, he is 
 in ambush almost within range. He is like the flea, e put 
 your finger on him and he is not there.' Living off the 
 country, without impediments of any description, and with 
 no lines of retreat to cover, he is enabled to withhold him- 
 self from combat, unless he finds himself very superior in 
 number and position. 
 
 That portion of our little army scattered over the vast 
 Western Frontier is unable to strike such an enemy an of- 
 fensive blow, and the prudence and efficiency of our com- 
 manding officers are frequently taxed to the extreme, when 
 endeavoring to preserve the morale of the troops by acting 
 even on the defensive. 
 
 While success is sure and good fortune is with the Indian, 
 foremost in the attack is the post of fame; but when he fails 
 in battle, or when fortune turns against him, rather than 
 pay the forfeit of indiscretion he will abandon an attack or 
 pursuit, and trust to the speed of his pony for escape; or, as 
 a last resort, will abandon his horse and baggage and take 
 to the rocks or timber on foot. Promptest action is then 
 the only safeguard against his escape. 
 
240 Mcuntain Scouting. 
 
 He exhibits marvelous abilities in horsemanship. When 
 fighting upon an open prairie he will frequently cast him- 
 self on the opposite side of his pony, until a foot on the 
 back and a face under the neck of the pony are all that can 
 be seen, and will fire with great accuracy either above or 
 under him while at full speed. Any obstacle to the pony is 
 a serious obstacle to the warrior. 
 
 When advancing to the attack, he invariably annoys the 
 flanks; and when on the most unfavorable ground will man- 
 age in some manner to perform a flank movement, seeming 
 to thoroughly understand the moral effect consequent on 
 having the flanks even slightly pressed. 
 
 He is very quick to secure the nearest commanding cov- 
 ered position, and in a lesser time will have made himself 
 well acquainted with the ground its contour, its relief, its 
 peculiarities of slope and its successive rises. Having the 
 heights, he well understands the necessity of taking posi- 
 tion very near the military crest; and, by placing himself 
 close to the ground, will, while unobserved, watch every 
 movement of the enemy, and at the most opportune mo- 
 ment will open a deadly fire. 
 
 The drawing shows how the defender (who, while stand- 
 
 ing near the military crest, uncovers only his shoulders and 
 
Skirmishing. 241 
 
 observes the whole body of the assailant as he climbs the 
 ascent) will, on receding from the crest, place himself be- 
 low the prolongation of the slope and lose sight of his 
 climbing adversary. At the same time, he will receive the 
 enemy's grazing fire as the latter ascends to the crest. 
 
 It is an excellent rule " to make haste slowly " in surpris- 
 ing or attacking Indians. A stampeded Indian cannot 
 fight, but it is next to impossible to surprise or stampede 
 him. When he makes a stand and has not the advantages 
 of position and number, it is only in order that he may 
 practice his favorite ruse de guerre, displaying a feeble, 
 venturesome force in the expectation of tempting pursuit; 
 and, after having drawn the pursuers well away from 
 the main force, surrounding and destroying them with over- 
 whelming numbers, previously concealed in ambush. 
 
 Whenever he is surprised, his first impulse is to run, but 
 he never fails to take his arms with him and make for the 
 nearest cover, timber, rocks or holes in the ground. When 
 once repulsed, a quick and vigorous pursuit will lead to 
 success. 
 
 When pursued, he evinces a reckless desire to save him- 
 self, without consideration of friends or property, and 
 every instinct but that of fear seems lost. Frequently, 
 when flight is impeded, old men are abandoned and the 
 mothers will even abandon their infants. 
 
 While pursued, they adopt various measures to mislead 
 those following, frequently breaking into as many detach- 
 ments as there are lodges in the tribe, each party taking a 
 different direction, having fixed upon the general direction 
 and the place of reuniting. 
 
 At no time are Indians so helpless to make resistance as 
 while moving their families and camps. At the first alarm, 
 the squaws and old men will desert their charges and the 
 whole movement terminate in a very disorderly stampede. 
 
 When following fleeing Indians, trusty scouts should re- 
 
242 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 connoitre the trail some distance in advance, and carefully 
 examine all rocks, woods and undulations of the ground. 
 Every precaution should be taken to avoid being surprised 
 by the Indian rearguard, usually concealed from view, but 
 watching, with a keen vigilance, the most favorable oppor- 
 tunity to strike the pursuers a telling blow. 
 
 Above all things, a surprise is to be avoided; for experi- 
 ence shows that soldiers once surprised or stampeded by 
 Indians are no longer suitable for work in the Indian 
 country. 
 
 When the trail is very * warm ' and the country is un- 
 known, the best and safest plan is to make night marches 
 and daybreak surprises. The Indian is least prepared to 
 resist an attack made during that uncertain period between 
 darkness and daylight. * 
 
 When endeavoring to make a surprise, and near the 
 enemy, every effort must be made to avoid all noise. All 
 communicating should be done by means of signals; and 
 should a sentinel or picket be discovered, he must, if pos- 
 r,ible, be captured or shot. 
 
 If the surprise should prove a failure, a careful retreat 
 must be made to the nearest cover ; it is a fatal mistake to 
 run away, as the Indians are thereby emboldened, and the 
 running men are easily stampeded and caused to lose their 
 presence of mind. 
 
 An untenable position is best abandoned during the 
 night, as the Indian is, through superstition, very timid in 
 darkness. 
 
 The commanding officer, in a hostile country, should 
 always notice the good positions, and should he be surprised 
 or repulsed when there are none in sight, he might frequent- 
 ly retreat to that last seen, with all well in hand. 
 
 In the absence of rocks, timber and high ground, even 
 the slightest irregularities in the ground will often afford 
 good cover. As a last resort, the mules and horses may 
 
Skirmishing. 
 
 243 
 
 be thrown to the ground, with their legs tied together, or 
 may be shot and used as a breastwork when there is but 
 little time for preparation. An Indian dislikes, above all 
 things, to attack a foe holding a defensive position of any 
 kind, and is very cautious, and even cowardly, in his 
 advances. 
 
 While of a very inferior order as regards discipline, and 
 the courage that necessarily goes with it, he is at the 
 same time very superior to all his foes in cunning and 
 patience. 
 
 When the ground is undulating, rocky or woody, it is 
 easy to avoid the enemy's sight and fire ; but, when it is 
 bare and level, the art of constructing cover is of first im- 
 portance. The history of all battles of late years has 
 shown the expediency of making use of natural shelter or 
 constructing field intrenchments. Not only is such arti- 
 ficial shelter necessary in action, but it is frequently inval- 
 uable for the purpose of concealing the troops before the 
 fire has opened. 
 
 IN THE OPEN. 
 
244 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 All soldiers, and especially recruits, should be frequently 
 exercised in throwing up shelter-pits and shelter-trendies, on 
 grounds of variable contours, and where there is no natural 
 cover. 
 
 A very slight parapet of newly excavated earth is suffi- 
 cient to protect men from the effects of rifle balls. Ex- 
 periment shows that the penetration of the ball (service 
 rifle) at a range of 10 yards is 20 inches, and only 10 
 inches at 200 yards. 
 
 After a little practice, each soldier will ascertain the form 
 of pit that best suits and protects him. The depth need 
 
 e id - 
 
 SHELTER-PIT FOB SKIRMISHERS. 
 
Skirmishing* 245 
 
 not be uniform, but should be at least ten inches where the 
 body rests, and six inches elsewhere. With a view to less- 
 ening the effect of the enemy's fire, the soldier should lie 
 down well under and behind the cover. 
 
 The diagram shows the dimensions of pit and parapet 
 that seem most desirable in practice. 
 
 The soldier should never be separated from an intrench- 
 ing tool of some description. Many are the instances 
 recorded where it was impossible to forward the intrench- 
 ing tools to the front until after the exigency for their use 
 had passed, and the men were compelled to use tin plates, 
 tin cans, fragments of canteens, knives, sticks, etc., in order 
 to get temporary shelter from the enemy's most galling 
 fire. 
 
 I am an advocate of Colonel Rice's trowel bayonet, 
 after several practical tests of its merits. It has already 
 been noticed on page 95. There is no doubt as to its ex- 
 cellence.* General Miles indorses its usefulness as follows : 
 
 / am fully satisfied that its utility and value are as well estab- 
 lished as that of any article carried by the soldier; that it would 
 increase the efficiency of any army / and that it should be univer- 
 sally adopted by the entire army. If the opinion of ^officers com- 
 
 *The author's " Combination Knife-trowel and Tent-peg" is no improvement on 
 Colonel Rice's bayonet, so far as the trowel is concerned, but it handily combines 
 the intrenching tool and a great many other necessary articles for field equipment. 
 ' The scabbard (one edge sharp) is of the same shape and size as the blade of 
 the trowel bayonet. A knife (rasp, saw or any other article required by the par- 
 ticular man who uses it), enters the scabbard and is retained in position by means 
 of a small but strong spring. The back edge of the scabbard is prepared so as to 
 form a convenient wrench, screw-driver, shell-extractor, etc. ; while to the upper 
 and outer edge is attached a small neck and ring, so as to convert it into a suitable 
 tent-peg or picket-pin, when driven into the ground. While on the march the 
 scabbard, with knife encased, is hooked to the belt and worn at the side. For in- 
 trenching and chopping purposes, the whole is unhooked and used. To use the 
 knife it is simply drawn from the scabbard ; and after arrival into camp, the scab- 
 bard (with or without the knife) is driven into the ground wherever needed. 
 
 Each soldier might be provided with a knife-trowel, to be worn on the body; 
 and each cavalry-man, packer, etc., might have attached to his saddle an addi- 
 tional trowel, containing a rasp, saw, etc. 
 
246 
 
 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 manding troops in the field is considered of value, / believe that 
 opinion is decidedly in favor of its adoption. 
 
 The drawing shows the manner of forming.s'/W/Vv -trenches. 
 
 Having arrived on the line (not necessarily straight, but 
 determined by the features of the ground, so as to secure 
 all natural cover), the men either stack or ground arms, and 
 begin to throw the earth to the front (using both hands if 
 necessary) so as to form a parapet from 16 to 20 inches 
 high. All available turf, logs or rocks should be used as a 
 revetment to the interior slope of the parapet. 
 
 The main object of these trenches is to afford cover from 
 the fire of the enemy until the proper moment for advancing 
 against him. 
 
 When the trench has been made 2 feet wide and 15 inches 
 
 ONE RANK KNEELING IN TRENCH, AND FILE-CLOSERS LYING DOWN IN REAK. 
 
 deep, it will afford excellent cover for one rank kneeling in 
 it, and file-closers lying down in rear. If the trench be 
 made 4^ feet wide, it will afford cover for two ranks kneel- 
 ing inside of it ; if it be 7 feet wide, it will allow the men to 
 lie down in it. 
 
 The greatest prudence must be observed when charging 
 Indians, as it is their favorite ruse to scatter before the pur- 
 suers, and then close again in bands and attack the rear and 
 
Skirmishing. 247 
 
 flanks of the charge, well scattered while pursuing indi- 
 viduals. It is very seldom that they either make or meet a 
 charge. 
 
 When they scatter it is a good plan (if the ground be 
 suitable) to push in between their detachments, and while 
 guarding one side, make a vigorous attack on the other. 
 
 A small command should be kept together, and never 
 divided into detachments if it can be avoided. 
 
 The force and proximity of Indians cannot be determined 
 by usual appearances. Frequently, when there is no visible 
 'sign,' the entire war party may be waiting in ambush, a 
 few hundred yards distant ; or, while many miles away, 
 they may convey the impression that they are near and on 
 the alert, by erecting and leaving piles of rock, etc., on the 
 surrounding hills, which at a distance appear like sentinels. 
 
 A great deal has been said about the superior arms pos- 
 sessed by the Indians. In fact, their arms are vastly in- 
 ferior to the rifle now in the hands of the infantry arm of 
 our service, except that they are more accurately sighted 
 and easily triggered. The skillful attainments of the In- 
 dians, however, do give them a vast superiority in using 
 them. 
 
 Three-fourths of the regular troops, armed with breech- 
 loaders (and especially repeating rifles) are found to 
 possess the inexcusable fault of firing too soon. 
 
 While the fall of a few men will drive an Indian party in 
 retreat, the harmless whizzing of bullets will only cause 
 them to take confidence. 
 
 The Indian never fires with great rapidity, but more than 
 makes it good by his increased accuracy of fire. 
 
 Most Indians are skilled in archery and frequently use 
 the bow, when they wish to save their ammunition. The 
 smaller Indian boys are always armed with bows and ar- 
 rows. The bows are made of very tough and elastic wood, 
 from 3 to 4 feet long, and strengthened with sinews 
 
248 Mountain Scouting. 
 
 wrapped .around them. The arrows are usually made of 
 wild cherry, about 18 or 20 inches long, and have flint or 
 iron points at one end and guiding crow or turkey feathers 
 at the other. 
 
 Most Indians regard as profound secrets the modes by 
 which the flints are broken into the desired shapes and how 
 their arrows are poisoned. 
 
 It is an excellent maxim in Indian warfare to do that which 
 the Indian neither expects nor desires you to do. 
 
 Sudden dashes into the Indian country, in the midst of 
 hardship and suffering, are always successful. 
 
 When the grass is covered by snow, or when it loses its 
 nutritious properties, the Indian pony becomes too weak 
 to travel, and in consequence, the Indian is obliged to sus- 
 pend all warlike operations. Then is the time to strike the 
 blow, and the commander who is able to effect a perfect co- 
 operation of his different columns, in spite of cold winds, 
 rain or snow, is surely a good Indian fighter. 
 
 When snow is on the ground, the Indians will generally 
 locate themselves on some point of a stream where the 
 cotton-wood trees are in abundance. In the absence of better 
 forage, their ponies subsist on the young bark of the cotton- 
 wood ; in fact, when the bark is fresh, the stock will fre- 
 quently select it in preference to hay or grain. 
 
 When hunting Indians without any ' sign ' whatever, I 
 believe it is a good plan to proceed in the direction of some 
 locality where the cotton-wood is known to be abundant. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 1. SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 2. ROWING 
 
 3. CHINOOK JARGON. 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES, 
 
 i. Swimming, as a useful and gymnastic exercise, is worthy of 
 \he careful attention of all. 
 
 Constant practice in the different modes of using the body and 
 limbs, will give the swimmer great confidence, and develop all the 
 muscles. It is worthy of remark that fear alone never prevents a 
 man swimming, but is often an obstacle to the learning. 
 
 i. The practice should usually take place in the bathing hall 
 (and invariably when raining), but may from time to time be 
 transferred to running waters, if practicable, when various feats in 
 sportive swimming may be practiced. 
 
 As far as possible, the swimmer should make sure of the 
 bottom, which is best when of gravel or small stones, and free 
 from mud, holes, snags or weeds. When bathing in the hall, 
 the instructor will enforce all the bathing regulations, regarding 
 the use of apparatus, the allotment of space, etc. 
 
 3. Suitable hours (preferably in the morning before breakfast) 
 during the months of June, July and August, will be appointed 
 for the bathing parades. Coryza is frequently the consequence 
 of evening bathing, when the hair is not perfectly dry before 
 sleeping. 
 
 In all practice, when exposed to the heat of the sun, the head 
 should be kept cool by wetting the hair, or in case of its thinness, 
 by applying a frequently wetted handkerchief 
 
 Practice should never take place before digestion is finished, nor 
 when the body is in a perspiration. Those of plethoric tempera- 
 ment should bathe at such times only as the surgeon directs. 
 
 A. The bathing cosunne should consist of short drawers 
 and canvas slippers; but the sections should be occasionally re- 
 
4 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 quired to swim in jackets and trowsers, or in the regular 
 riding clothes. 
 
 5. On entering the water, the head should be wetted either by 
 plunging head foremost, or by pouring water on it, in order to 
 prevent the blood from accumulating in it, causing headache. 
 
 The learner should then advance on a clear, gradually shelving 
 bottom, until the water reaches his breast, turn towards the place 
 of entrance, draw in a full breath, close the lips and rest upon the 
 water, suffering it to rise to his chin. 
 
 This is repeated, gradually immersing more and more of the 
 head. 
 
 6. The swimmer should be taught from the first to dispense 
 with all aids in floating corks, bladders and lifting machines are 
 to be avoided. When necessary, instructing as to attitude and 
 action, the instructor may place one hand, as a support, under 
 the learner. When the human body is immersed, one-eleventh 
 of its weight remains above the surface in fresh water, and about 
 one-tenth in salt water. 
 
 If the swimmer places himself upon the back and throws the. 
 head well back, so that the face is turned upwards, the water will 
 not come over the mouth, although the face rises and sinks one 
 inch at every inspiration and expiration. 
 
 The learner must satisfy himself as to the truth of this and learn, 
 by practice, to confide in the power of the water to support him. 
 
 The ignorant unfortunately stretch out the arms to seize any- 
 thing or nothing, and thus keep the head under the water, inas- 
 much as the head and arms greatly exceed one-tenth of the weight 
 of the body. 
 
 7. After the learner has assured himself that he can float and 
 has overcome his natural fear of the water, to become a 
 graceful and powerful swimmer, it is only necessary for him to 
 be drilled in the correct 1 attitude of the body and movements of 
 the limbs. It is proposed that these principles be taught and ac- 
 quired out of the water. 
 
 Attitude. 
 
 8. No matter how perfect the learner may become in the ac- 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 tion, if he neglects to attain the right attitude, he 
 will never be a good swimmer, Swimming be- 
 comes easy and delightful when the proper 
 attention is given to the position of the head and 
 breast and the posture of the body. The head 
 should be thrown back, the chin elevated (lips 
 closed), the breast set well forward, and the back 
 hollowed and kept steady. It is important to guard 
 against any action in the back. Many persons are addicted to 
 raising the back when drawing in the legs, and of necessity swim 
 with the feet too near the surface of the water. 
 
 Action of the hands and arms. 
 
 9. In the proper position of the hands, the- fingers 
 must be kept close together, the thumbs by the edge 
 of the fore fingers, and that the fingers may properly 
 adhere, the hands should be made a little concave 
 on the inside. Care must be taken not to hollow 
 the hands sufficiently to very much diminish their size; 
 if so, they lose some of their power in the water. The 
 hands thus formed are placed before the breast, the wrist 
 touching it and the fingers pointing forward, prepara- 
 tory to a stroke. 
 
 10. The elevations of the hands must be taught next. 
 The first elevation is formed by raising the fingers 
 higher than the thick part of the hand by 3 or \ 
 
 inches. The second by raising the outer edge of the 
 hand (little-finger side) 2 or 3 inches higher than the inner edge. 
 , This elevation is slightly increased as the outer stroke 
 
 is performed. 
 
 The first part of the stroke is made by projecting 
 the hands forward to their utmost extent, carefully em- 
 ploying the first elevation, in order to produce buoy- 
 ancy. Care must be taken in this part of the stroke 
 that the fingers do not break the surface of the 
 water. 
 
SWIMMIXi I KX KRCISES. 
 
 ii. In the outer stroke, the second elevation must 
 be employed, the first elevation being avoided, and 
 the hands allowed to decline. 
 
 In the second elevation the hands must descend 
 until they are as low as the hips. 
 
 12. Care must be taken that the hands fall to the 
 level of the hips at a considerable distance from them 
 both laterally and anteriorly. 
 
 The bearing of the hands in the water, and their peculiar pow- 
 er is owing to thtir proper position. 
 
 The stroke being made, the hands are raised to 
 the breast by a turn of the wrist, causing them to 
 hang down, while the arms raise them up. 
 
 The action of the arms throughout should be 
 gentle and easy. 
 
 These directions should be accurately reduced 
 to practice and the learner should exercise one arm at a time, 
 until each is accustomed to the action. 
 
 Action of the feet and legs. 
 
 13. Inasmuch as the legs are larger and stronger 
 than the arms, the greater part of the power in swim- 
 ming is derived from them. In practicing their ac- 
 tion, one hand may rest on the top of a chair, while 
 the opposite leg is exercised. When each arm and 
 leg is separately accustomed to the action, the 
 arm and leg of the same side may be exercised 
 together. 
 
 The first action of the legs is to draw them in as high as possi- 
 ble, the knees inclining inward, and by a turn of the ankle, the 
 soles of the feet inclining outward. 
 
 14. The feet are now to be thrown out to the full extent of the 
 legs, and as widely from each other as possible. 
 
SWIMMINC; EXERCISES. 
 
 It is evident that in drawing in the legs there 
 was a loss of power, while in throwing them 
 out there was a gain of power equal to that 
 loss, and hence no advantage has been de- 
 rived. 
 
 A gain of power must be sought by bringing 
 down the legs briskly, until they come close 
 together. 
 
 15. The legs and arms should perform their action alternately : 
 the arms descending while the legs are rising, and vice versa. 
 
 Thus the body is kept in one continued pro- 
 gressive motion, and the action of leg and arm 
 unceasingly interchanged. The instructor may 
 at first allow the legs and arms to move together, 
 and gradually proceed to the alternate movement 
 of the limbs. 
 
 1 6. The proper position of the nands, their elevations and the 
 correct modes of striking both with the arms and legs, must be 
 
 practiced until performed with ease and accuracy. 
 Strict attention must be paid to the simultaneous 
 movements of hands and feet. For instance, re- 
 member when bringing down the left foot, to raise 
 the left hand, by a turn of the wrist causing it to 
 hang down, while the arm raises it. 
 
 Attitude and Action in the Water. 
 
 1 7. The requirements of paragraph 8 must be 'observed through- 
 out when in the water. Having acquired the correct attitude, 
 
 the limbs should be exercised calmly and 
 without hurry and trepidation. A long and 
 steady stroke sends the body well forward 
 in the water and is not very tiresome. A 
 learner who could swim 100 yards by long 
 and steady strokes, and without any great fatigue, would labor 
 hard to accomplish 2 5 yards by quick strokes. It is an excellen t 
 
8 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 plan, at first, to execute all the motions of the hands and feet in 
 a steady common time. 
 
 The learner should bear in mind that it is the function of the 
 hands to support the head above the water rather than to propel 
 the body through it ; and to get the full benefit of the stroke 
 when the feet are kicked out in the rear, the hands, when at full 
 stretch in front, should not be parted immediately, but a delay of 
 at least one second should be allowed in order that the head may 
 approach the point where the hands part. By thus dwelling on 
 each stroke and keeping good time, the swimmer will advance 
 about ten times as far each stroke, as when he parts his hands 
 quickly and makes rapid strokes. 
 
 The breath should be drawn in at the moment when the body 
 is elevated by the hands descending towards the hips, otherwise 
 the mouth will probably become filled with water. The breath 
 should be expired while the body is sent forward by the action of 
 the legs. The head is the principal regulator of the movements 
 in water ; its slightest inclination to either side operates on the 
 body, and, if not corrected, throws the body into a horizontal 
 posture. Any disturbance of equilibrium may be restored by a 
 cautious movement of the head alone. The use of the legs and 
 arms for balancing the body in the water, should be frequently 
 practiced. 
 
 Treading Water. 
 
 1 8. Here the position is upright, and progression is obtained by 
 the action of the legs alone. The arms should be folded below 
 the breast or pressed against the hips, and the legs are employed as 
 in front swimming, except as to time and 
 space. They should perform their action in 
 half the usual time ; because, acting perpen- 
 dicularly, each stroke would otherwise raise 
 the swimmer too much out of the water, and 
 he would sink too low in the interval between 
 the strokes, were they not quickly to follow 
 each other. The space of their action should also be about two- 
 
I 
 
 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 9 
 
 thirds of the usual space, preserving the upper (stronger) and 
 omitting the lower part of the stroke. 
 
 There is another mode of treading water, in which the thighs 
 are separated, and the legs slightly bent, as in a half-sittting pos- 
 ture ; here the legs are contracted alternately, and while one re- 
 mains contracted, the other, less so, describes a circle. This 
 method of swimming is particularly adapted to relieving drown- 
 ing persons. 
 
 Swimming on the Back. 
 
 1 9. When swimming on the back, the body should rest at full 
 length and not assume a sitting posture. Though little calcula- 
 ted for progression, this is the easiest of all 
 
 . methods, because, much of the head and 
 neck being immersed, there is little or no 
 power of action required for support. The proper position is at- 
 tained and preserved by lying down gently upon the water, the 
 body extended ; the head kept in a true line with it, so that the 
 back part of the head may be immersed ; the hands laid on the 
 thighs, and care taken that the knees do not rise out of the water ; . 
 the head and breast being unagitated by the action of the legs. 
 
 20. -After learning to swim on the back without using the 
 
 hands, the instructor should show how they 
 (working inwards) may assist the feet in 
 propelling the body forward. While em- 
 ploying the legs as in front swimming, care being taken that the 
 knees do not rise out of the water, the arms may be used in va- 
 rious ways, describing large or small circles. 
 
 21. In performing what is called "winging," the arms are ex- 
 tended until in line with each other ; they are then struck down 
 to the thighs, with the palms turned in that direction, the thumbs 
 
 inclined downward to increase the buoyancy; 
 ~ tne P a ^ ms are tnen move d edgeways and the 
 arms elevated as before. The legs throughout 
 make one stroke as the arms come down and an- 
 other as they rise. 
 
 22. "Finning" differs from winging in making the stroke of 
 
10 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 the arms much shorter and in the same time as the stroke of the 
 legs. The turn of the hands is the same in both methods. The 
 act of passing from front to back swimming, or 
 the reverse, must be performed immediately 
 after throwing out the feet. To turn from the 
 front to back, the legs are raised forward and 
 the head thrown backward, until the body approaches an upright 
 position. To turn from the back to breast, the legs are dropped 
 and the body thrown forward on the breast. 
 
 23. Many advocate an upright position in both front and back 
 swimming, because of its conformity to the accustomed move- 
 ment of the limbs, the freedom it gives to the 
 hands and arms, vision all around, and a much 
 greater facility of breathing. The speed, accord- 
 ing to this method, is no doubt diminished, but the 
 mode of advancing conforming so closely to what 
 is habitual on shore, the swimmer is better enabled 
 
 to effect a continued exercise of it, while husbanding the strength 
 and rendering the power of recruiting it easy. 
 
 Floating. 
 
 24. Floating is a transition from swimming on the back. To 
 perform it, stretch out the arms as far as possible beyond the head, 
 
 while the legs are gently exercising, being careful 
 that they do not rise above the surface ; immerse 
 the crown of the head rather deeply and elevate 
 the chin above the forehead ; inflate the chest 
 while taking this position ; cease the action of the 
 legs and place the feet together. The hands may be crossed upon 
 the breast, or may be placed a foot or more asunder, equi-distant 
 from the head, to preserve an equipoise and prevent rolling over. 
 By observing these directions, the swimmer will be able to float, 
 rising a little with every inspiration, and falling with every expir- 
 ation. Should the feet descend, the loins may be hollowed, or 
 the hands raised a little out of the water, to counterbalance the 
 feet, the breast being the centre of buoyancy. 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 1 1 
 
 Side Swimming. 
 
 25. Side swimming is well suited for passing over a short dis- 
 tance with rapidity. It presents to the water a smaller surface than 
 
 front swimming, but is much more fatiguing. 
 
 The body may be turned either upon the right 
 
 or left side, and the feet perform their usual 
 
 motions. 
 
 When on the left side, the swimmer should strike forward with 
 the left hand, and sideways with the right (back to the front in- 
 stead of upward). The thumb side of the hand downward serves 
 as an oar. When swimming on either side, the lower arm 
 stretches itself out quickly, while the feet are striking ; and the 
 upper arm strikes while the feet are impelling, the hand beginning 
 its stroke on a level with the head. While this hand is again 
 brought forward and the feet contracted, the lower hand is drawn 
 towards the breast, rather to sustain than to impel. When chang- 
 ing from one side to the other, both attitude and action are 
 
 reversed. 
 
 Quadruped Swimming. 
 
 26. The human limbs are not formed so as to act advantage- 
 ously in this method, and hence very little progress can be made. 
 
 The method is very good for a change in 
 ~ swimming a long distance. Each hand and 
 foot is used alternately. The hands are drawn 
 toward the chin in a compressed form, expanded and hollowed 
 with the fingers close together. As they strike the water the feet 
 are drawn, towards the stomach and then sent backward with a 
 kick. The head should be set back and the breast forward. 
 Overhand Swimming. 
 
 27. This method is practiced by the Indians and overcomes 
 several grave objections found in the old method, such as the ex- 
 posure of a large resisting surface to the 
 
 ^ water, and the establishment of dead 
 points, when neither of the extremities 
 are moving. The overhand movement corresponds exactly with 
 the amble of the horse. 
 
12 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 The body is thrown more or less on its side at each stroke, and 
 caused to twist and roll in the direction of its length, thus greatly 
 reducing the friction experienced in forward motion. By the 
 overhand movement, the swimmer is enabled to throw himselt 
 forward on the water, and to move his legs and arms in a plane 
 nearly vertical (instead of horizontal), thereby increasing the 
 1 ength of the effective stroke, both of the legs and arms, to nearly 
 half an ellipse. The advancing of the right and left sides of the 
 body alternately, in a right line, contributes very much to con- 
 tinuity of motion. The method, although the most expeditious 
 known, is fatiguing and can only be indulged in for short dis- 
 tances. 
 
 Plunging. 
 
 28. Theptunge may be made either with the feet or the head 
 foremost. In the leap, the legs should be kept together, and the 
 
 arms close. When the plunge 
 \sm?idLQ feet foremost, they should 
 be kept together, and the body 
 inclined backwards. With the 
 head foremost, there are various methods. In the deep plunge, 
 the swimmer has his arms outstretched, knees bent and body 
 leant forwards until the head descends nearly to the feet, when 
 the knees and spine are extended (Fig. i). On rising to the 
 surface, the mouth must not be opened before repelling the water. 
 In the flat plunge, made only from a small height, the swimmer 
 .should fling himself forwards in order to extend the line of the 
 plunge as much as possible under the surface of the water. Upon 
 .touching it, he should keep his head up, back hollow, and hands 
 .stretched forward, flat and inclined upward (Fig. 2). 
 
 Diving. 
 
 29. The swimmer should prepare for diving, by taking a full 
 and slow inspiration. The attitude for diving is the reverse of 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 that for swimming; instead of 
 holding back the head, setting 
 forward the breast, etc. , the head 
 should be bent forward, so that 
 the chin may rest upon the breast; 
 the back should be made round, 
 and the legs thrown out with 
 great vigor ; and the arms and 
 hands, instead of being struck forward, must move rather back- 
 ward, coming out lower, and passing more behind (Fig. i). 
 The eyes should be kept open, if the water is clear, to enable the 
 diver to ascertain its depth, and observe whatever lies at the bottom. 
 To move forward, he must raise the head and slightly straighten 
 the back (Fig. 2). If the diver approaches too near the surface 
 of the water, he must press the palms upwards. 
 
 To ascend, the hands should be struck out high and brought 
 briskly down, the chin held up and the back made concave 
 
 (Fig. 3). 
 
 Feats in Swimming. 
 
 30. When the sections are well practiced in the usual modes 
 of swimming the instructor should teach one-arm swimming. Here 
 
 the instructor will see 
 that the swimmers are 
 more erect in the water 
 and hold their heads 
 further backwards than 
 usual. The arm, at its 
 full extent, must be 
 struck out across the 
 body and brought down 
 before and the breast be 
 kept inflated. This mode of swimming should be practiced to qualify 
 for conveying anything out of the water, as well as for lending assist- 
 ance in case of distress. It is readily seen how, by means of one-arm 
 swimming or treading water, a person may transport his clothing 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 above water, or when under a blind, might sketch the position of 
 the enemy's guns. 
 
 31. The sections should also be practiced in carrying weights 
 
 while swimming. 
 The practice should 
 continue until each 
 member may be able 
 to readily swim with 
 his rifle and ammu- 
 nition. The drawing 
 
 shows a manner of attaching the rifle by means of a spring in the 
 crown of the helmet or hat, so that a man swimming high may 
 transport it in a dry condition. Only expert swimmers can per- 
 form this feat. 
 
 32. Frequent practice should also take place in connection with 
 
 the swimming of stock. 
 After fairly starting the 
 animal, the swimmer 
 will seize him by the 
 tail and allow him to 
 tow him. If the ani- 
 mal turns his head or 
 endeavors to change 
 his course, the swim- 
 mer should prevent it 
 by splashing water in 
 his face with the right or left hand, as the case may be. 
 
 33. If the current is not very strong, it will be found much 
 
 more satisfactory to 
 swim along with the 
 horse, on the down 
 stream side, holding 
 on by the halter strap, 
 the mane or stirrup 
 leather. It is not a 
 good plan to remain 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 1 5 
 
 in the saddle, as the animal is very apt to lose his equilibrum 
 and roll over. This is invariably the case with the ordinary 
 mule, and moreover should a drop of water, by accident, go 
 into his ear, his main endeavor seems to be to sink himself. 
 
 Treatment of the apparently drowned. 
 
 34. In assisting drowning persons, great care should be taken to 
 avoid being caught hold of by them. They should be approach- 
 ed from behind, and should be kept distant from the swimmer 
 by the intervention of any thing at hand, and as a last resort by 
 means of their own hair. If possible, they should be kept on 
 their backs, and should they attempt to seize the swimmer, must 
 be cast loose at once. 
 
 Two swimmers treading water may assist a drowning person, 
 by seizing him, one under each arm, and carrying him along 
 with his limbs motionless. 
 
 The following directions for the restoration of the apparently 
 dead from drowning, are in substance those practiced by the 
 Royal National Life-Boat Institution. 
 
 a. Send immediately for medical assistance, blankets and dry 
 clothing, and proceed to treat the Patient instantly in the open 
 air, with the face downward, whether on shore or afloat ; expose 
 the face, neck, and chest to the air, and remove all tight clothing 
 from the neck and chest. 
 
 The points to be aimed at are first, the restoration of breath- 
 ing ; and secondly, after breathing is restored, the promotion of 
 warmth and circulation. 
 
 The efforts to restore breathing must be commenced immediate- 
 ly and energetically, and persevered in for one or two hours, if 
 necessary. Efforts to promote warmth and circulation, beyond re- 
 moving the wet clothes and drying the skin, must not be made 
 until the first appearance of natural breathing ; for if circulation 
 of the blood be induced before breathing has recommenced, the 
 restoration to life will be endangered. 
 
 To Restore Breathing. 
 b. To CLEAR THE THROAT. Place the patient on the floor or 
 
1 6 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 ground with the face downwards, and one of the arms under the 
 forehead, in which position all fluids will more readily escape by 
 the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall forward, leaving the en- 
 trance into the windpipe free. Assist this operation by wiping 
 and cleaning the mouth. 
 
 If there be only slight breathing, no breathing, or if the breath- 
 ing fail, then 
 
 To EXCITE BREATHING. Instantly turn the patient on the side, 
 supporting the head, and excite the nostrils with snuff, hartshorn 
 or smelling salts, or tickle the throat with a feather, &c. , if at 
 hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and ' dash cold water and 
 hot water alternately, on them. If there be no success instantly 
 endeavor 
 
 To IMITATE BREATHING. Replace the patient on the face, rais- 
 ing and supporting the chest well, on a folded coat or other article 
 of dress. 
 
 Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and 
 then briskly on the face, back again, repeating these measures 
 cautiously, efficiently, and perseveringly, about 15 times in the 
 minute, or once every four or five seconds, occasionally varying the 
 side. 
 
 [By placing the patient on the chest, the weight of the body 
 forces the air out ; when turned on the side, this pressure is re- 
 moved, and air enters the chest. ] 
 
 On each occasion that the body is replaced on the face, make 
 uniform but efficient pressure with brisk movement, on the back 
 between and below the shoulder-blades or bones on each side, re- 
 moving the pressure immediately before turning the body on the 
 side. 
 
 During the whole of the operations let one person attend solely 
 to the movements of the head and 'of the arm placed under it. 
 
 [The first measure increases the expiration the second com- 
 mences inspiration.] 
 
 The result is respiration or natural breathing ; and, if not too 
 late, Life. 
 
 Whilst the above operations are being proceeded with, dry the 
 
SWIMMING EXERCISES. 1 7 
 
 hands and feet, and as soon as dry clothing or blankets can be 
 procured, strip the body, and cover or gradually reclothe it, but 
 taking care not to interfere with the efforts to restore breathing. 
 These efforts will generally prove successful in less than five min- 
 utes ; if not, proceed as follows : 
 
 c. To IMMITATE THE MOVEMENTS OF BREATHING. Stand at the 
 patient's head, grasp the arms just above the elbows, and draw 
 the arms gently and steadily upwards above the head, and keep 
 them stretched upwards for two seconds. (By this means air is 
 drawn into the lungs. ) Then turn down the patient's arms, and 
 press them gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of 
 the chest. (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs. ) 
 
 Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and persever- 
 ingly, about fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort 
 to respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease to imitate 
 the movements of breathing, and proceed to induce circulation 
 and warmth. 
 
 d. To PROMOTE WARMTH AND CIRCULATION. Commence rub- 
 bing the limbs upwards, with firm grasping pressure and energy, 
 using handkerchiefs, flannels, &c. [By this measure the blood is 
 propelled along the veins towards the heart. ] 
 
 The friction must be continued under the blanket or over the 
 dry clothing. 
 
 Promote the warmth of the body by the application of hot 
 flannels, bottles of hot water, heated bricks, &c. , to the pit of the 
 stomach, the arm-pits, and to the soles of the feet. 
 
 If the patient has been carried to a house after respiration has 
 been restored, be careful to let the air play freely about the room. 
 
 On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water should 
 be given ; and then, if the power of swallowing has returned, 
 small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or coffee 
 should be administered. The patient should be kept in bed, 
 and a disposition to sleep encouraged. This treatment should be 
 persevered in for some hours until recovery is made. The fol- 
 lowing cautions are necessary : * 
 
1 8 SWIMMING EXERCISES. 
 
 Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons round the body, 
 especially if in an apartment. 
 
 Avoid rough usage, and do not allow the body to remain 
 on the back unless the tongue is secured. 
 
 Under no circumstances hold the body up by the feet. 
 
 On no account place in a warm bath, unless under medical 
 direction, and even then it should be employed as a momen- 
 tary excitant. 
 
 Treatment of the apparently dead from intense cold. 
 
 35. Rub the body with snow, ice, or cold water. Restore 
 warmth gradually ; and after some time, if necessary, em- 
 ploy the means recommended for the drowned. In these 
 accidents it is very dangerous to apply heat too early. 
 
 In order to restore the natural warmth of the body, move 
 a heated warming pan over the back and spine, and rub the 
 body briskly with the hands. 
 
 To restore breathing, place the pipe of a common bellows 
 (when procurable) into one nostril, carefully closing the 
 other and the mouth ; at the same time push gently down- 
 wards and backwards the upper part of the windpipe, so 
 as to allow a freer admission of air ; blow the bellows 
 gently to inflate the lungs, until the breast be slightly 
 raised ; the mouth and nostrils should then be set free, 
 and a moderate pressure with the hand brought to bear 
 upon the chest. Repeat this process until life appears. 
 
 Any of the following may be useful helps : 
 
 1. The application of sal-volatile or hartshorn to the nos- 
 trils. 
 
 2. The early employment of electricity by a skillful per- 
 son. 
 
 3. The injection of half a pint of warm brandy and water, 
 or wine and water, into the stomach. 
 
Rowing. 
 
 ROWING. 
 
 Nearly all the mountain streams and rivers of importance 
 have too much depth and current to permit either poling or 
 paddling, and the inexperienced are frequently called upon 
 to use the sculls. An observance of the following remarks 
 maj prove useful: 
 
 THE SEAT. 
 
 The rower should sit ' amidships ' on the seat of the boat, 
 in order to prevent heeling to either side and the conse- 
 quent loss of his labor. He should sit without constraint, 
 with his legs sufficiently extended to permit a slight sinking 
 of the knees, as he rows. 
 
 BEGINNING OF THE PULL. 
 
 At the beginning of the pull, the rower should bend his 
 body until his head is directly over his knees, and carry his 
 arms as far aft as possible, in order that 
 the blades of the sculls may be thrown 
 far forward (without jamming in the row- 
 locks). If a long distance is to be rowed, 
 
 _ _ ^ == _ it is less fatiguing to keep the back 
 
 straight. As soon as the blades of the 
 sculls have been carried as far forward as convenient, the 
 rower should quickly dip them into the water and pull 
 towards him, bending the arms and body simultaneously. 
 Care must be taken not to dip the sculls too deep, especially 
 in calm weather. 
 
2O Rowing. 
 
 MIDDLE OF THE PULL. 
 
 In the middle of the pull, the blades should be covered 
 by the water, and the position of the rower should be that 
 represented. In pulling a pair of sculls, it 
 is frequently difficult to keep the hands clear 
 of each other, and the inexperienced suffer 
 more from their knocking and rubbing 
 against each other than from the friction of 
 the handles of the sculls in the hands. This 
 is generally the case when the sculls are too long, and may 
 be obviated by the rower seating himself in the center of 
 the thwart, with the feet close together against the center 
 of the stretcher, and moving his body three or four inches 
 to the right. This will throw the right shoulder slightly 
 forward and consequently the right hand, thus permitting 
 the hands to work clear of each other. As the right hand 
 is generally stronger than the left it will go above. 
 
 END OF THE PULL. 
 
 The pull must be continued until the body is thrown well 
 back, and the elbows approach the tops of the hips. Care 
 must be taken that the hands are not 
 brought too near the chest, as such would 
 occasion a loss of power. There is also 
 danger of throwing the body too far back. 
 It should rest in such a position that it may 
 quickly and easily return to the first position 
 in time for the next stroke. 
 
 To feather the sculls, sink the elbows, bend the wrists 
 upward and turn up the backs of the hands toward the 
 fore-arms just as the sculls are delivering the water. 
 
 RETURN OF THE SCULLS. 
 
 The hands should remain turned up until the sculls are 
 
Rowing. 
 
 21 
 
 returned to the water. Throughout the return of the 
 sculls, the tips should be two or three inches 
 above the surface of the water. In rough 
 weather they should be sufficiently high to 
 clear it. In the middle of the return, one of 
 the hands is very likely to go higher than 
 the other. 
 The head should be moveable throughout, but generally 
 
 turned toward the shore when pulling against the tide or 
 
 current. 
 
 TO TURN. 
 
 Back water with the scull on the side to which you wish 
 to turn, by putting it into the water (filling towards the 
 body) and pushing against it ; and at the same time make 
 a lively pull with the other skull, repeating it, if necessary, 
 until the boat is properly headed. 
 
22 Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 CHINOOK JARGON. 
 
 The number of words constituting the JARGON proper 
 does not exceed six hundred, and many of these are already 
 obsolete or confined to certain limited localities. Not 
 more than two hundred words of the CHINOOK language 
 proper are used in the jargon, the balance coming from the 
 Cree, Chehalis, Yakima, Klickitat and various other Indian 
 languages. 
 
 In the Chinook jargon, the same word is frequently used 
 as a noun, verb, etc., and generally has different meanings, 
 according to the context; as, lo-lo (meaning whole, to earn, 
 earnings, to carry and to conquer). Besides the words 
 purely Indian, there are many derived from the Canadian 
 French, and the following English words of easy pronun- 
 ciation : Comb, haul, hook, house, lazy, man, musket, nose, sail, 
 salt, ship, shoes, shot, sick, skin, smoke, soap, spoon, stick, stone, 
 Sunday, tea and wind. 
 
 The following are very common expressions : Ab-ba, well 
 then ; Al-ah, expressing surprise ; Au-ah, expressing pain ; 
 Kweesh, an obstinate refusal. 
 
 The Chinook jargon is thoroughly understood by all In- 
 dians of the Northwest, and it is believed that a study of 
 the following vocabulary will enable any one to converse 
 with any of the tribes. A great deal will depend upon the 
 expression and gestures of the speaker, and experience 
 only can teach him to intelligently say the imst, while 
 using the fewest words. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 JARGON VOCABULARY. 
 
 ENGLISH CHINOOK. 
 
 Above, sah-a-le. 
 
 Absolve, mam-ook stoh. 
 
 Acorns, kah-na-way. 
 
 Across, in-a-ti. 
 
 Afraid, kwash. 
 
 After, kim-tah. 
 
 Again (also, more), weght. 
 
 Ague, cole-sick. 
 
 Ah ! (admiration) wan. 
 
 Ah (in pain), a-nah. 
 
 Alike, cock qua. 
 
 All, kon-away. 
 
 Almost, wake-siah. 
 
 Alms (to give), mam-ook 
 
 kla-how-i-am. 
 Alone, copet-ict. 
 Although, kegh-ti-chie. 
 Always, kwa-ne-sum. 
 American, Boston man. 
 Amusement, hee-hee. 
 
 And (then, besides, or) pee. 
 
 Angel, ta-man-a-wis. 
 
 Angry, sollux. 
 
 Another, hul-o-ima. 
 
 Apple, le pome. 
 
 Apron, ki-see. 
 
 Arbutus, lahb. 
 
 Arm, le mah. 
 
 Arrive at, ko. 
 
 Arrow, kah-li-tan. 
 
 As, kock-wa. 
 
 As if, kah-kwa spose. 
 
 Ascend, clat-a-wa sah-a-le. 
 
 Ash Tree, is-ick-stick. 
 
 Ask (to), wa-wa. 
 
 At, ko-pa. 
 
 Aunt, kwalh. 
 
 Autumn, ten-as cole ilia-he. 
 
 Awl, shoes keep-wot. 
 
 Axe, la hash. 
 
 Back, kimp-ta. 
 
 Bad, me-sa-chie. 
 
 Bad odor, humm. 
 
 Bad Spirit, ma-sa-chi taman- 
 
 a-wis. 
 
 Bag, le-sak. 
 Ball, col-li-ton. 
 Bargain, ma-kook. 
 Bark, stick-skin. 
 Barrel, ta-mo-litsh. 
 Basket, 6-pe-kwan. 
 Be still, cul-tas mit-lite. 
 Beads, ka-mo-suck. 
 
 Bear (to), chet-woot. 
 Bear, its-hoot. 
 Beard, cha-pootch-us. 
 Beat (to), kok-shet. 
 Beaver, ee-naa. 
 Because, keh-wa. 
 Become (to), cha-ko 
 Before, e-lip. 
 Behind, kim-ta. 
 Bell, tin-tin. 
 Belly, ya-kwah-tin. 
 Below, kee-kwil-lie. 
 Belt, la san-jel. 
 
Jurgon Vocabulary. 
 
 Berries, o-lil-lie. 
 
 Best, e-lip klosh. 
 
 Beyond, ten-as si-ah. 
 
 Big, hy-as. 
 
 Bird, kal-lak-a-la. 
 
 Biscuit, la bis-ke. 
 
 Bitter, klihl. 
 
 Black, klale. 
 
 Blackberries, klik-a-muks. 
 
 Blanket, pa-see-sie. 
 
 Blind, ha-lo see-a-host. 
 
 Blood, pil-pil. 
 
 Blow, puk-puk. 
 
 Blow out, mam-ook-poh. 
 
 Blue (light shade), spo-oh. 
 
 Blue (dark shade), klale. 
 
 Blunder (to), tsee-pie. 
 
 Board, la plash. 
 
 Bob-tailed, sis-ki-you. 
 
 Boil (to), lip-lip. 
 
 Bone, stone. 
 
 Boots, stick shoes. 
 
 Bore a hole (to), mam-ook 
 
 thla whop. 
 
 Borrow (to), a-yah-whul. 
 Both, kon-a-moxt. 
 Bottle, la-boo-ti. 
 Bow (of a boat), nose. 
 Bow (to shoot with), stick 
 
 musket. 
 
 Bow, o-pitl-kegh. 
 Bowl, oos-kan. 
 Box, la ca-sett. 
 
 Boy, ten-as man. 
 
 Bracelet, klik-wal-lie. 
 
 Brass, pel chick-a-min. 
 
 Brave, skoo-kum turn-turn. 
 
 Bread, pia sa-pa-lil (san-de- 
 lia). 
 
 Break, kok-shet. 
 
 Breast, to-toosh'. 
 
 Bridle, la bleed. 
 
 Bright, te-wagh. 
 
 Bring (to), rmirn-ook cha-co. 
 
 Broad, kluk-ulh'. 
 
 Broken, cha-cluck. 
 
 Brother, kap-ho, if older than 
 the speaker ; ow, if young- 
 er. 
 
 Brother-in-law, ek-keh. 
 
 Brook, ten-as chuck. 
 
 Broom, bloom. 
 
 Bucket, ta-mo-litsh. 
 
 Buffalo, moos-moos. 
 
 Bullet, le bal, or ke-li-li-tan. 
 
 Bundle, kow. 
 
 Burn (to), mam-ook pia. 
 
 Biscuit, la-bisque. 
 
 But, pee. 
 
 Butter, to-toosh-la-klees'. 
 
 Button, chil-chil. 
 
 Buttons, tsil-tsil. 
 
 Buy (to), mah-kook. 
 
 By, co-pa. 
 
 By-and-By, win-a-pie. 
 
 Cabbage, cabbage. 
 Call (to), wa wa. 
 Calf, ten-as moos-moos. 
 Calm (a), ha-lo wind. 
 Candle, la shan-del. 
 Canoe, ca-mm. 
 Cap, se-ah-pult. 
 
 Capsize, kil-a-pie. 
 Carrot, la-ca-lat. 
 Carry (to), lo-lo. 
 Cart, tsik-a-tsik. 
 Cascade, tum-wa-ter. 
 Cask, ta-mo-litch. 
 Cat, puss-puss. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Cataract, turn wa-ter. 
 
 Cattle, moos-moos. 
 
 Cedar, la med-cine stick. 
 
 Cellar, ket-wil-la. 
 
 Certainly, na-wit-ka. 
 
 Chain, chick-a-min lope. 
 
 Chair, la shase. 
 
 Change (to), huy-huy. 
 
 Cheat (to),la-lah. 
 
 Chicken, la pool. 
 
 Chief, ty-ee. 
 
 Child, ten-as man. 
 
 Chilly, ten-as cole. 
 
 Chimney, la-shum-ma-na. 
 
 Circle, que-u-que-u. 
 
 Clams, 6-na (emet-oks). 
 
 Clear, klah. 
 
 Clock, hy-as watch. 
 
 Cloth, sail. 
 
 Cloth (dark), its-hoot 
 
 Clouds, smoek. 
 
 Coat, ca-po. 
 
 Coffee, kau-py. 
 
 Cold, cole. 
 
 Color, 'tsum. 
 
 Come on, hy-ak. 
 
 Come (to), cha-co. 
 
 Come here, cha-co yockwa 
 
 (ne-whah). 
 Command (to), wa-wa. 
 
 Conceal, ipsoot. 
 
 Conjuring, ta-ma-na-wis. 
 
 Conquer (to), lo-lo. 
 
 Cook, mam-ook muck-a- 
 muck. 
 
 Cool (to), mam-ook cole. 
 
 Copper, pil chick-a-min. 
 
 Cord, ten-as lo-pe. 
 
 Corn, ye-salth. 
 
 Corral, kul-lagh. 
 
 Cotton goods, sail. 
 
 Cough, hoh-hoh. 
 
 Count (to), mam-ook kwun- 
 nun. 
 
 Cow, clooch-man, moos- 
 moos. 
 
 Country, il-la-he. 
 
 Coyote, tal-a-pus. 
 
 Crab-apple, pow-itsh. 
 
 Cranberry, so-le-mie. 
 
 Crazy, pelton. 
 
 Cream-colored, la clem. 
 
 Crooked, ky-wa. 
 
 Cross, la clo-a. 
 
 Crow, caw-caw. 
 
 Cry (to), cly. 
 
 Cup, oos-kan. 
 
 Curly, hunl-kih. 
 
 Cut (to), tl-ko-pe. 
 
 Dance, tanse. 
 Dark, polak-lie. 
 Daughter, ni-ka ten-as 
 
 clooch-man. 
 Day (this), o-kook sun. 
 Daybreak, ten-as sun. 
 Dead, mem-a-loos. 
 Deaf, ik-pooie kwil-lan. 
 Dear, hy-as ma-kook. 
 Deep, klip. 
 
 
 Deer, mow-itsh. 
 
 Demon, skoo-kum. 
 
 Desert (to sneak off), swal- 
 
 la clat-a-wa cap. 
 Devil, deaub. 
 Different, kull. 
 Dig (to), mam-ook il-1. 
 Dime, bit. 
 
 Dirty, pot-tie il-la-he. 
 Dish, os-cun (plural la pla). 
 
26 
 
 Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Dive (in water), clat-a-wa 
 
 keg-willy chuck. 
 Do (to), mam-ook. 
 Doctor, doc-tin. 
 Dogs, kam-ooks. 
 Dollar, dol-la. 
 Door, la po-te. 
 Down stream, mi-mie. 
 
 Drink, mam-ook chuck. 
 Drive (to), kish-kish. 
 Drunk, pot-tie lum. 
 Dry, sun, (dly). 
 Duck, kul-lak-a-la. 
 Duck (Mallard), haht-huht. 
 Dust, po-lal-lie. 
 
 Eagle, chak chak. 
 Ear, kwo-lann 
 Early, ten-as sun. 
 Earn, lo-lo. 
 Earth, il-la-he. 
 Eat (to), muck-a-muck. 
 Egg, la sap. 
 Elk, moo-luck. 
 Embrace, ba-ba. 
 Empty, ha-lo mit-lite. 
 Enclosure, kul-lagh. 
 End, o-boot. 
 
 Enemies, me-sa-chie til-la- 
 
 cums. 
 Englishman, King Gawge 
 
 man. 
 
 Enlarge, hy-as mam-ook. 
 Enough, hy-u, or co-pet. 
 Entrails, ki-yah. 
 Evening, ten-as polak-lie. 
 Every, kon-a-wa. 
 Exchange, huy-huy. 
 Extinguish, mam-ook mem- 
 
 a-loos, (poh). 
 Eyes, see-a-host. 
 
 Face, see-a-host. 
 
 Fade (to), cha-co spo-ak. 
 
 Faded, spo-oh. 
 
 Falsehood, klim in-a-whit. 
 
 Falsify (to), cla-man-a-whit. 
 
 Far, si-ah. 
 
 Far off, sy-ah. 
 
 Fast (quick), hy-ak. 
 
 Fast (tight), kwutl. 
 
 Fasten (to)^ kow. 
 
 Fat, glease. 
 
 Fat (to), hy-as gleece. 
 
 Father, pa-pa. 
 
 Fathom, it-Ian (eth-low). 
 
 Fear, kwass. 
 
 Feet, la pe-a. 
 
 Fell (to), mam -ook-whim. 
 
 Fence, kul-lagh. 
 
 Fetch, mam-ook cha-ko. 
 
 Fever, waum sick. 
 
 Few, ten-as. 
 
 Field, klosh il-la-he. 
 
 Fight (to), mam-ook sol-lux. 
 
 Fight (with fists), mam-ook 
 
 puk-puk. 
 Figured, tzum. 
 File, la-leem. 
 Fill (to), mam-ook pahtl. 
 Find (to), klap. 
 Finished, co-pet. 
 Fingers, le doo. 
 Fire, pi-a. 
 First, e-lip. 
 Fish, pish (sa-mon). 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 27 
 
 Fish-hook, ik-kik. 
 Flag, Sun-day. 
 Flea, en-e-poo. 
 Flesh, il-wil-lie. 
 Flies, le moose. 
 Flint, kil-it sut. 
 Flour, sap-o-lil. 
 Flowers, klosh tip-so. 
 Fly (to), ka-wak. 
 Fog, smoke. 
 Food, muck-a-muck. 
 Foot, le-pee. 
 For what, pe-co-tu. 
 
 Forever, kwah-ne-sum. 
 Forenoon, clip sit-cum sun. 
 Forget, copet cum-tux (mah- 
 
 lie). 
 
 Fork, la poo-shet. 
 Formerly, an-kot-tie. 
 Fox, ta-la-pos. 
 Frenchman, pa-si-ooks 
 Friend, six. 
 Frog, swah-kuk. 
 Fry (to), mam-ook la po-el. 
 Frying-pan, Id po-el. 
 Full, pahtl. 
 
 Gallop (to), kwa-lal kwa-lal. 
 Gamble (to), ith-el-coom. 
 Gather (to), ko-ku-mulh. 
 Get (to), is-kum. 
 Get out, mash. 
 Get up, ket-op. 
 Ghost, skoo-kum. 
 Gift, cultus pot-lotch. 
 Girl, ten-as clooch-man. 
 Give (to), pot-latch. 
 Glad, kwarm. 
 Glass, she-lockum. 
 Go, clat-a-wa. 
 
 Go to bed, clat-a-wa moo- 
 sum. 
 
 God, sa-ha-lie ty-ee. 
 Gold, pil chick-a-min. 
 
 Good, klosh. 
 Good-bye, kla-how-i-am. 
 Goods, ic-tas. 
 Goose, kal-ak-a-lah. 
 Grandfather, chope. 
 Grandmother, chitz. 
 Grass, tip-so. 
 Grease, gleese. 
 Great, hy-as. 
 Great many, hy-u. 
 Green, pe-chugh. 
 Grey, le-gley. 
 Grizzly bear, se-am. 
 Ground, il-la-he. 
 Gum-wood, la goom-stick. 
 Gun, suk-wal-lal. 
 
 
 Hail, cole-snass. 
 
 Hair, yak-so. 
 
 Half, sit-cum. 
 
 Hallo, nah. 
 
 Hammer, le-mah-to. 
 
 Hand, le-mah. 
 
 Hand (game of), it'lo-cum. 
 
 Handkerchief, kak.-at-chum 
 Handsome, hy-as klo^h. 
 Hard, kull. 
 Hare, kwit-shad-ie. 
 Harrow (to), mam-ook comb 
 
 il-la-he. 
 Hat, se-ah-po. 
 
28 
 
 Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Hazel nuts, tuk-wil-la. 
 
 He (she, it, his, etc.), yak-ka. 
 
 Head, la tet. 
 
 Heart, turn-turn. 
 
 Heaven, sa-ha-lie il-la-he. 
 
 Heavy, till. 
 
 Help (to), mam-ook e-lan. 
 
 Hell, ket wit-la pia-hy-as 
 
 Hen, la pool. 
 
 Here, yock-wa. 
 
 Hide, skin. 
 
 Hide (to), ip-soot. 
 
 High, sa-ha-lie. 
 
 Hit (to), kwulh. 
 
 Hoe, la-pe osh. 
 Hog, co-sho. 
 Hole, kla-whop. 
 Holiday, Sunday. 
 Horn, stone. 
 Horse, cu-i-tan. 
 How, kah-tah. 
 How large ? kon-si-ah. 
 How many ? kon-se-a. 
 Hundred, tuk-a-mo-nuk. 
 Hungry, o-lo. 
 Hurry, hy-ak. 
 Husband, man. 
 
 I (me, my or mine), ni-ka. 
 
 Ice, cole chuck. 
 
 If (suppose), spose. 
 
 In, ko-pa. 
 
 Indian, si-wash. 
 
 Indian corn, e-salth. 
 In shore, maht-wil-lie. 
 Iron, chick-a-min. 
 Island, ten-as il-la-he. 
 It (this, that), o-cook. 
 
 Jealous, sick turn-turn. 
 Joke (to), mam-ook lah-lah. 
 
 Joy, u-a-tle. 
 
 Jump (to), so-pe-na. 
 
 K 
 
 Kamass root, la ka-mas. 
 Keep off (to), maht-lin-nie. 
 Kettle, ket-ling. 
 Key, la kley. 
 Kick (to), chuck-kin. 
 Kill (to), mam-ook mim-a- 
 loos. 
 
 Kiss, be-be. 
 Knife, 6-pit-sah. 
 Knock (to), ko-ko. 
 Knotty, hunl-kih. 
 Know (to), cum-tux. 
 Know (not to), wake cum- 
 tux. 
 
 Lad, ten-as man. 
 Lame, klook te-ha wit. 
 Lamprey eel, skwak-wal. 
 Land, il-la-he. 
 Land otter, in-a-mooks. 
 Language, la lang. 
 Large, hyas. 
 
 Last (hindermost), kimpta. 
 Lately, ten-as an-cot-ta. 
 Laughter, hee-hee. 
 Leap (to), so-pe-na. 
 Leaf, tip so. 
 Lean (to), lagh. 
 Leave (to), mahsh. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 29 
 
 Leave off (to), ko-pet. 
 
 Leg, te-ah-wit. 
 
 Leggings, mi-tas (sa-kol- 
 
 eks). 
 
 Lend (to), a-yah-whul. 
 Length, youtl-kut. 
 Lick (to), kla-wun. 
 Lie (to), kla-man-a-wit. 
 Lift (to), mam-ook sa-ha-le. 
 Light (not heavy), wake-till. 
 Light (daylight), sun or twa, 
 
 (not dark), na wa. 
 Lightning, sa-ha-le pi-a. 
 Like, ka-kwa. 
 Like (to), tik-egh. 
 
 Listen (to), ne-wha. 
 
 Little, ten-as. 
 
 Live (to), mit-lite. 
 
 Liquor, lum. 
 
 Long while ago, la-lee. 
 
 Long, youtl-kut. 
 
 Long ago, an-cot-tie. 
 
 Look, nan-itch. 
 
 Looking glass, she lockum. 
 
 Loose, stoh. 
 
 Lose the way (to), tso-lo. 
 
 Lost, mash. 
 
 Love (to), tick-egh. 
 
 Lower, mam-ook-keg-wil-le. 
 
 M 
 
 Mad, sol-lux. 
 
 Magic, ta ma-na-was. 
 
 Make (to), mam-ook. 
 
 Many, hy-u. 
 
 Mark, tsum. 
 
 Mark (to), mam-ook tsum. 
 
 Marry (to), ma-li-egh. 
 
 Mass (ceremony of) la mess. 
 
 Mast, ship stick. 
 
 Mat, klis-kwis. 
 
 Mattock, la peosh. 
 
 Measure (to), ta nim. 
 
 Meat, itl-wil-lie. 
 
 Medicine, la med-sin. 
 
 Men, til-li-cums. 
 
 Mend (to), mam-ook tip-. 
 
 shin. 
 
 Metal, chick-a-min. 
 Middle (the), kat-sik. 
 Mid-day, sitcum sun. 
 Midnight, sit-cum pol-ak-lie. 
 Milk, to-toosh. 
 
 Mill, moo-la. 
 Mind (the), turn-turn. 
 Mire, weght. 
 Miss (to), see-pie. 
 Mixed, tzum. 
 Moccasins, skin-shoes. 
 Molasses, me-las. 
 Money, chick-a-min. 
 Month, moon. 
 Mosquito, mel-a-Kwa. 
 Mother, ma-ma. 
 Mountain, la monti. 
 Mountain, hy-as il-la-he. 
 Mouse, hool-hool. 
 Mouth, la boss. 
 Much, hy-u. 
 Mud, cle-min il-la-he. 
 Mule, la mel. 
 Music, tin-tin. 
 Mussels, to-luks. 
 Muskrat, cul-tus e-nah. 
 My (mine), ni-ka. 
 
 N 
 
 Nails, le clou. 
 
 Name, yah-hul, (nem), 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Near, wake si-ah. 
 Neck, le cou. 
 Needle, ca-pu-ut. 
 New, chee. 
 
 Never, wake con-se-ah. 
 Night, polak-lie. 
 No (not), wake. 
 Nobody, wake clax-to. 
 Noise, la tlah. 
 
 None, ha-lo. 
 
 Nonsense, cul-tus wa-wa. 
 
 Noon, sit-cum sun. 
 
 Not yet, wake al-ta. 
 
 Nothing, wake ic-ta. 
 
 Notwithstanding,kegh-tchie. 
 
 Now, al-ta. 
 
 Nuts, til-wil-la. 
 
 Oak, kull stick. 
 
 Oar, la lahm. 
 
 Oats, la wen. 
 
 Obtain, is-kum. 
 
 Ocean, salt-chuck. 
 
 Off, klak. 
 
 Off shore, mahtl-in-nie. 
 
 Oil, gleece (la-kles). 
 
 Old man, ole-man. 
 
 Old woman, lam-mi-eh. 
 
 On, co-pa. 
 
 One eyed, ict see-a-host. 
 
 Only, co-pet, ok-kook. 
 
 Open, hah-lakl. 
 
 Open (to), he-luck. 
 
 Opposite, in-a-ti. 
 
 Or, pe. 
 
 Order (to), mash turn-turn. 
 
 Other, hul-o-i-ma. 
 
 Otter, e-mam-ooks. 
 
 Our (we, us), ne-si-ka. 
 
 Out doors (outside), klagh- 
 
 a-nie. 
 
 Over (above), sah-ha-le. 
 Over (other side), en-a-ti. 
 Overcoat, ka po. 
 Ox, moos-moos. 
 Oysters, chet-lo. 
 
 Paddle, is-ick. 
 
 Paddle (to), mam-ook is-ick. 
 
 Paint, pent. 
 
 Paint (to), mam-ook pent. 
 
 Pants, se-ca-luk. 
 
 Path, o-e-hut. 
 
 Paper, pe-pah. 
 
 Peas, le pwan. 
 
 People, til-li cums. 
 
 Perhaps, klo-nas. 
 
 Petticoat, kal-a-kwah-tie. 
 
 Piebald, le kye. 
 
 Pin, kwek-wi-eus (keep-wot). 
 
 Pipe, la peep. 
 
 Pitch, la goom. 
 
 Plate, la se-et. 
 
 Pleased, youtl. 
 
 Plough (to), klugh il-la-he. 
 
 Pole, le pehsh. 
 
 Poor, ha-lo ic-ta (kla-how- 
 
 yam). 
 
 Pork, co-sho. 
 Porpoise, qui-see-o. 
 Potato, wap-pa-to. 
 Pour (to), wagh. 
 Powder, po-lal-lie. 
 Prairie wolf, tul-a-pus. 
 Present (a), cul-tus pot-latch. 
 Presently, al-kie (win-a-pie). 
 Pretty, tb-ke-ti. 
 
Jargon V.ocabulary. 
 
 Priest, le plet. 
 Proud, youti (kwelth). 
 Provided that, spose. 
 
 Pull, haul. 
 Push, Kwult. 
 
 Quarter, ten-as sit-cum. Quick, hy-ak. 
 
 iuarter (of a dollar), kwah- j Quills, te-peh. 
 ta. 
 
 Rabbit, kwit-shad-ie. 
 
 Rain, snass. 
 
 Rat, hole hole. 
 
 Rattle, shugh. 
 
 Rattlesnake, shugh-6-poots. 
 
 Razor fish, 6-na. 
 
 Reach, ko. 
 
 Red, pil. 
 
 Relate (to), yi-em. 
 
 Report (of a gun), poo. 
 
 Return, cha-co kil a-pie. 
 
 Ribbon, le lo-ba. 
 
 Rice, mit-whit. 
 
 Rifle, ca-li-peen. 
 
 Ring (a), kweo-kweo. 
 
 Ripe, pi-ah. 
 
 River, hy-as chuck. 
 Road, way-hut (o-chut). 
 Roan-colored, san-de-lie. 
 Roast, mam-ook la pellah. 
 Rock, stone. 
 Rooster, la cock. 
 Root, ka-mass. 
 Rope, lope. 
 Rotten, poo-lie. 
 Round, lo-lo. 
 
 Row (to), mam-ook le-lam. 
 Rudder, boat-o-poots. 
 Rum, lum. 
 Run, coo-ry. 
 
 Run away, cap-swal-la clat- 
 a-wa. 
 
 S 
 
 Sack, le sak. 
 Saddle, la sell. 
 Saddle-housing, le-pish-e-mo. 
 Sailor, ship-man. 
 Salmon, sa-mon. 
 Sand, po-lal-lie. 
 Sandwich Islander, Oyee. 
 Sash, la saw-jel. 
 Saw, la see (la gwin). 
 Say (to), wa-wa. 
 Scarce, quass. 
 Scissors, le see-zo. 
 Sea, salt chuck. 
 Seal, ol-hi-yu si-wash co-sho 
 (ol-hy-in). 
 
 See (to), nan-itch. 
 Sell (to), man-cook. 
 Send (to), clat-a-wa. 
 Sew (to), mam-ook tip-shin. 
 Shake, hul-hul. 
 Shake (to), to-to. 
 Shame, shem. 
 Sharp, pah-kis-ilth. 
 Sharpen (to), mam-ook tsish. 
 She, ya-ka. 
 Sheep, le moo-to. 
 Shell money (small), coop- 
 coop. 
 
 Shell money (large) ai-qua. 
 Shingle, le bah-do. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Shining, to-wagh. 
 
 Shirt, shut. 
 
 Shoot (to), mam-ook poo. 
 
 Short, yutes-kut. 
 
 Shot-pouch, ki-li-tan le-sac. 
 
 Shout (to), hy-as wa-wa. 
 
 Shovel, la-pell. 
 
 Shut (to), ik-poo-ie. 
 
 Sift (to), to-to. 
 
 Silk, la-sway. 
 
 Silver, t-kope chik-a-min. 
 
 Similar, kah-kwa. 
 
 Since, kim ta. 
 
 Sing (to), shan-ti. 
 
 Sink, cli-a. 
 
 Sister (elder), lik-po. 
 
 Sister (younger), ats. 
 
 Sit (to), mit-lite. 
 
 Skunk, hum-o-poots (saub- 
 
 boo). 
 
 Sky, koo-sah. 
 
 Slave, e-li-te (mist-chi-mas). 
 Sleep, moo-sum. 
 Slowly, kla-wa. 
 Small, ten-as. 
 Smell, hum. 
 Snake, o-luk. 
 Snare, la pe-age. 
 Snow, cole-snass. 
 Soft, cla-min. 
 Sometimes, ict-ict. 
 Soon, wake'le-ly. 
 Sorrell (color), le-blau. 
 Sorry, sick turn-turn. 
 Sour, kwates. 
 Spade, la pell. 
 Speak (to), wa-wa. 
 Spill (to), wagh. 
 
 Spirit (guardian), to man- 
 
 no-us. 
 
 Spirits, lum. 
 Split, tsugh. 
 
 Split (to), mam-ook tsugh. 
 Spectacles, dal-la see-a-host. 
 Spit (to), mam-ook toh. 
 Spotted, le-kye. 
 Spurs, la see-bio. 
 Squirrel, kwis-kwis. 
 Stab (to), klem-a-rmm. 
 Stag, man-mow-a-itch. 
 Stand, mit-whit. 
 Stars (buttons), tsil-tsil. 
 Stay (to), mit-lite. 
 Steal, cap-swalla. 
 Steam, smoke. 
 Steamer, ship (pia-ship). 
 Stirrup, sit-lay. 
 Stockings, kush-is. 
 Stop, ko pet. 
 Store, ma-cook house. 
 Story, eh-kah-nam. 
 Straight, si-pah (de-late). 
 Strawberries, a-mo te. 
 Strike (to), cock-shet. 
 Strong, skoo-kum. 
 Sturgeon, stutch-un. 
 Subdue, quan. 
 Sugar, le sook. 
 Summer, waum il-la-he. 
 Sun, Ota-lagh. 
 Sunset, elip-sun. 
 Suppose, spose. 
 Swan, kah-loke. 
 Sweep (to), mam-ook bloom. 
 Sweet, tsee. 
 Swim, sit-shum. 
 
 T 
 
 Table, la tahb. 
 Tail, o-poots. 
 
 Take (to), is-kum. 
 
 Take care, klosh nan-itch. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 33 
 
 Take off, mam-ook klak. 
 
 Tale, yi-em. 
 
 Talk, wa-wa. 
 
 Tame, kwass. 
 
 Tattle (to), ya-yim. 
 
 Teach (to), mam-ook-cum- 
 
 tux. 
 
 Tear (to), klugh. 
 Teeth, le tah. 
 Tell (to), wa-wa. 
 Thank you, mah-sie. 
 That, o-cook. 
 That way (there, beyond), 
 
 yah-wa. 
 They, klas-ka. 
 Thick, pit-lilh. 
 Thin, pe-what-tie. 
 Thing, ic-ta. 
 Thirsty, o-lo chuck. 
 This, o-cook. 
 This way, yak-wa. 
 Thou (thy, thine), mi-ka. 
 Thread, kla-pite. 
 Throw (to), mash. 
 Throw away, mahsh. 
 Tide, chuck. 
 Tie (to), kow. 
 
 Tight, kwutl. 
 Tinware, ma-lah. 
 Tip (to), lagh. 
 Tired, till. 
 
 To (towards), ko-pa. 
 Tobacco, ki-noos. 
 To-day, o-cook sun. 
 To-morrow, to ma-la. 
 Tongue, la lang. 
 Trade (to) hoe-hoe. 
 Trail, way-hut. 
 Trap, la piege. 
 Tree, stick. 
 
 Tree (fallen), whim stick. 
 Tremble, hul-hul. 
 Trot (to), teh-teh. 
 Trouble, mam-ook till. 
 Trowsers, so-kol-eks. 
 True, de-late. 
 Truth, de-late wa-wa. 
 Tub, ta-mo-litsh. 
 Turn (to), howh. 
 Turn over (to), kil-a-pie. 
 Twice, moxt. 
 Twilight, twah. 
 Twine, ten-as lope. 
 
 Uncle, tot. 
 
 Under, kee-kwil-lie. . 
 Understand (to), cum-tux. 
 Unhappy, sick tum-tum. 
 United States, Boston il-la- 
 
 he. 
 Untamed, le mo-lo. 
 
 Untie (to), mam-ook stoh. 
 Up (above, heavenward) sa- 
 
 ha-lie. 
 
 Upset (to), kil-a-pi. 
 Us, ne-si-ka. 
 Useless, cul-tus. 
 
 Vancouver, kits-oat-qua. 
 Venison, mow-itch. 
 Very, hyas. 
 Very small, hy-as ten-as. 
 
 Vessel, ship. 
 Vest, la west. 
 Vomit (to), wagh. 
 
34 
 
 Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Wagon, chik-chik. 
 
 Wander (to), ts-o-lo. 
 
 Warm, waum. 
 
 Wash (to), mam-ook wash. 
 
 Watch, tik-tik. 
 
 Watch (to), nan-itch. 
 
 Water, chuck. 
 
 Waterfall, turn-water. 
 
 We, ne si-ka. 
 
 Week (one), ict Sunday. 
 
 Weigh (to), mam-ook til. 
 
 Wet, pahtl-chuck 
 
 Whale, eh-ko-lie. 
 
 What, ic-ta. 
 
 What color ? ka-ta tsum, 
 
 Wheat, sap-o-lil. 
 
 Wheel, chik-chik. 
 
 When, kan-sih. 
 
 Where, kah. 
 
 Whip, la whet. 
 
 White, t-kope. 
 
 Who, klax-ta. 
 
 Whole, lo-lo, kwa-nice. 
 
 Why, kah-tah. 
 
 Wicked, me-sa-chie. 
 Wide, kluk-ulh. 
 Wild, le mo-lo. 
 Will (the), turn-turn. 
 Willow, ee-na stick. 
 Win (to), to-lo. 
 Winter, cole il-la-he. 
 Wipe (to), klak-wun. 
 Wire, chik-a-min lope. 
 Wire (brass), klik-wal-la. 
 Wish (to), tick-ey. 
 With, co-pa. 
 Without, ha-lo. 
 Wolf, le-loo. 
 Woman, clootch-man. 
 Woman, (old) lam-mi-eh. 
 Wood, sticK. 
 Work (to), mam-ook. 
 Worn out, ol-e-man. 
 Worthless, cul-tus. 
 Wound (to), klem-a-hum. 
 Write (to), mam-ook tsum. 
 Writing, tsum. 
 
 Year (a), ict cole. 
 Yellow, kaw-ka-wak. 
 Yes, ah-ha. 
 Yes indeed, na-wit-ka. 
 
 Yesterday, tahl-kie sun. 
 Young, ten-as. 
 You, mi-ka. 
 Yours, me-sika. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 One, ict. 
 Two, moxt. 
 Three, klone. 
 Four, lak-it. 
 
 Five, kuin-num. 
 Six, tagh-hum. 
 Seven, sin-a-moxt. 
 Eight, sto-te-kin. 
 
Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 35 
 
 [ine, kweest, 
 Ten, tah-tel-lum. 
 Twenty, moxt tah-tel-lum.* 
 Thirty, klone tah-tel-lum. 
 
 One hundred, ict ta-ka-mo- 
 
 nuk. 
 One thousand, tah-tel-lum 
 
 ta-ka-mo-nuk. 
 
 A 
 
 EXAMPLES OF CHINOOK CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Good morning (Good-evening ! Good-day ! How are you, 
 
 etc.) ! friend ? Kla-how-iam, six ? 
 Are you sick ? Sick, nah mi-ka ? 
 A severe ague. Hy-as cole-sick. 
 Are you thirsty ? Nah ? ol-o chuck mi-ka ? 
 Yes, indeed ! Na-wit-ka ! 
 
 Here is something to eat. Yock-wa mit-lite mi-ka muck-a- 
 muck. 
 Thank you ! Bring me some water. Mah-sie. Clat-a w 
 
 is-cum chuck. 
 In what ? Ko-pa kah ? 
 In that bucket. Ko-pa o-cook ta-mo-litsh. 
 Are you able to carry it ? Nah skoo-kum mi-ka lo-lo o- 
 
 cook. 
 
 No ; it is too heavy. Wake. Hyas til o-cook. 
 Where is the bottle ? Kah la-boo-ti ? 
 I don't know. No ; there it is. Wake cum-tux. Wake, ya- 
 
 wa. 
 
 Come here, boy ? Cha-co yock-wa ten-as man. 
 What do you want ? Ic-ta mi-ka tick-ey ? 
 Carry this man to the river. Lo-lo o-cook man ko-pa hv- 
 
 as chuck. 
 
 Is he tired ? Til nah yak-ka ? 
 Will you work for me ? Mi-ka nah tickey mam ook ten-as 
 
 icta? 
 t what? Icta ? 
 
 ^Greater numbers are expressed by a conjunction of the words expressing the 
 numbers to be added, thus : Sin-a-moxt tah-tel-lum (seven times ten) express 
 seventy. 
 
 
36 Jargon Vocabulary. 
 
 Come to-morrow, and carry this box to the steamboat. 
 Chaco to-ma-la, pee lo-lo o-cook la-ca-sett ko-pa pia-ship. 
 What will you give me ? Ic-ta mi-ka pot-latch ? 
 One quarter, or two bits. let quarter, pe moxt bit. 
 No ; give half a dollar. Wake ; pot-latch sit-cum dol-la. 
 Very well, I'll give you half a dollar. Close ca-qua, ni-ka 
 
 pot-latch sit-cum dolla. 
 To which steamboat ? Clax-ta. 
 That large one ? O-cook hy-as pia-ship ? 
 How far ? Kou-se-a si-ah ? 
 Not very far (a short distance). Wake si-ah. 
 Make a fire, boil the water, and wash the dishes to-day. 
 
 Mam-ook pi-a, mam-ook lip-lip chuck, wash o'cook la- 
 
 pla o-cook sun. 
 
 THE LORD'S PRAYER IN JARGON. 
 
 Our father who stayeth in the above, good in oui 
 Ne-si-ka Papa klax-ta mit-lite ko-pa sa-ha-lie, kiosk ko-pa ne 
 hearts (be) thy name ; good thou chief among al 
 si-ka turn-turn mi-ka nem ; kiosk mi-ka ty-ee ko-pa kon-a-waj 
 people ; good thy will on earth as in the 
 til-li-cum j klosh mi-ka turn-turn ko-pa il-la-he kah-kwa ko-pc 
 above ; give every day our food ; If we 
 
 sa-ha-lie; pot-latch kon-a-way sun ne-si-ka muck-a-muck ; SpoS( 
 do ill, (be) not thou very angry, and if anyone evi 
 ne-si-ka mam-ook me-sa-chie wake mi-ka hy-as sollux, pee sposi 
 towards us, not we angry towards them ; senc 
 klax-ta me-sa-chie ko-pa ne-si-ka, wake ne-si-ka sollux ko-pc 
 away far from us all evil. 
 klaxta ; mahsh si-ah ko-pa ne-si-ka kon-a-way me-sa-chie. 
 
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 IMPORTERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
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 No. <3> Fulton Street, IVe^v York. 
 
 , SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. 
 
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 HUNTING REPEATING RIFLES. 
 
 SEND FOB CATALOGUE AND PRICE LIST. 
 
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 199, 201, 203 FULTON ST., NEW YORK. 
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 C. M. MOSEMAN & BRO., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND IMPORTERS OF 
 
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 128 CHAMBERS ST., NEW YORK. 
 
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 These Instruments have been before the Public for nearly Fifty 
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 112 Fifth Avenue, New York. 
 
 PACH, 
 g 
 
 '* 3 
 
 NEW YORK. g 
 
 g fc 
 
 a 841 Broadway, Cor. xsthSt. Opposite Wallack's 
 
 Theatre. 
 
 BRANCH ESTABLISHMENTS: g 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., 
 
 New Haven, Conn., 
 % Long Branch and 
 
 g Ocean Grove, N. J. 
 
 Photographer to the Classes of U. S. M. A., W. P., of '75, 
 76, '77, '78, '79, '80, '81, '82. 
 
Howard Manufacturing Co. 
 
 NEW YORK, 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 NOVELTIES 
 
 Required by Hunters, Travelers and all 
 Practical Persons. 
 
 SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. 
 
 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 
 
 3OOO Engravings, 184O Pages. Quarto. 
 
 A WHOLE LIBRARY IN ITSELF. 
 Best in Definitions Best in Etymology. Published by 
 
 O. & . JtlJKRKlAIVl, 
 
 Springfield, Ma. 
 
 Some of the cuts in Chapter XIII. are taken from this work. 
 
 Goodyear Rubber Company, 
 
 488, 49O, 492 Broadway, N. Y. 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 RUBBER GOODS 
 
 OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Campaign and Field Outfits a Specialty. 
 
 SEND FOR CATALOGUE. 
 
ROBERT L. BURNETT, 
 
 FORMERLY 
 
 Captain 12th and 21st V. S. In. 
 and Bet. Major U. 8. A. 
 
 HENR Y E. SMITH, 
 
 FORMERLY 
 
 Captain 12th and 21st U. S. Inf. 
 and Bvt. Major U. S. A. 
 
 58 Broadway, 
 
 TRANSACT ALL CLASSES 
 
 OF FINANCIAL BUSINESS FOR 
 
 ARMY OFFICERS. 
 
 York. 
 
 Baltimore, Light and German Streets, Baltimore, Maryland. 
 
 The LARGEST, LATEST BUILT and MOST CONVENIENT HOTEL 
 IN THE CITY Rates, $ 3 . O and $ 2 . 5 O per day, according to location of Rooms. 
 Permanent Board by the Month at $40. OO and upwards. Special arrangements witt 
 always be made satisfactory for families, vr for parties by telegraph. Dinner tickets $8 
 per dozen. Officers of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps may always rely upon the best 
 of accommodations at 20 per cent, discount on advertised transient rates, and the under- 
 signed talces the liberty of referring to his personal record in the Army, as evidence the best 
 that Army and Navy patronage is especially solicited, and will be properly cared for. ^ 
 
 F. W. COLEMAN, Manager. 
 
WORKS BY 
 
 GEN. 0. 0. HOWARD, U. S. ARMY- 
 
 COUNT AGENOR DE GASPARIN By THOMAS BOREL. Trans- 
 lated from the French by GEN. O. O. HOWARD. Octavo. Cloth $1. 
 A faithful record of a noble life, a life deserving the special ap- 
 preciation of patriotic Americans. Published and for sale by 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 
 
 27 & 29 West 23d St., New York. 
 
 DON ALPS SCHOOL DAYS. 
 
 A story of New England school life. An excellent book for 
 boys. Fully illustrated. $1.25. 
 
 NEZ PERCE JOSEPH. 
 
 An account of his ancestors, his lands, his confederates, his ene- 
 mies, his murders, his war, his pursuit and capture. By OLIVER 
 O. HOWARD, Brig. Gen. U. S. A., and Superintendent West 
 Point. With maps and portraits, $2.50. 
 
 For these books send orders to the Publishers, LEE & SHEPARD, 
 Boston, or to GEN. HOWARD, West Point, N. Y. 
 
 TARGET AIR GUNS. 
 
 Especially adapted for target practice. Equally suited for 
 touching up trespassing cats and dogs, killing rats and small game. 
 Our guns are extremely simple in construction, well made and hand- 
 somely finished; easily operated, and shoot with force and accuracy, 
 and not liable to get out of order. All first-class gun dealers sell them. 
 Illustrated circular sent on application. Address the manufacturer, 
 H. M. QUACKENBUSH, Herkimer, N. Y. Prices, $9, $10, and $12. 
 
 [See page 38 of this work.] 
 
 ELECTROTYPES OF ANY CUTS APPEARING IN THIS WORK, OR IN ANY 
 of our publications, will be furnished on application. Address 
 
 METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING CO,, 
 
 252 Broadway, N Tf 
 
WORKS BY THE AUTHOR OF 
 
 MOUNTAIN SCOUTING. 
 
 FARROW'S PACK MULES AND PACKING. 
 
 With description of the Packing Gear and full instructions for 
 Packing. Fully Illustrated. 
 
 24 mo, paper $ 50 
 
 34 mo, cloth 100 
 
 FARROW'S NOTES ON THE SALMON RIVER MOUNTAINS OF 
 
 IDAHO. 
 
 With maps, fully setting forth practicable routes over the ROCKY 
 MOUNTAINS; ana copious remarKS upon the mineral resources of that 
 section. 
 
 24 mo, paper $ 50 
 
 24 mo, cloth 100 
 
 FARROW'S WEST POINT AND THE MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 With Requirements for Entering, System of Training, Regulations, 
 Instructions, Text Books, etc., etc. 
 
 12 mo, paper $1 00 
 
 12 mo, cloth 1 50 
 
 FARROW'S MILITARY SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 A complete course of Gymnastics and a system of Swimming. Pre- 
 pared for the use of the Cadets at West Point, and other Military Col- 
 leges. Fully Illustrated. 
 
 16 mo, paper $100 
 
 16 mo, cloth 1 50 
 
 "Having given FARROW'S MILITARY SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS the examination it 
 deserves, I have great pleasure in expressing my unqualified approval. The exercises 
 recommended are excellent, and. their progressive arrangement is admirably adapted 
 to proper physical development. Haying been 26 years in the profession, and part of 
 the time Instructor of Gymnastics, in the British Army, I can fully appreciate the 
 fidelity with which the author has executed his work." J. R. JUDD. 
 
 Adopted at West Point and many of the Military Colleges in the 
 United States. 
 
 SENT POST PAID BY 
 
 METROPOLITAN PUBLISHING COMPANY. 
 252 BROADWAY, N. Y. 
 
THE IMPROVED PARKER 
 
 BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN 
 
 SIMPLE, 
 
 DURABLE, 
 
 EFFECTIVE 
 
 THE 
 
 HIGHEST AWARD 
 
 The Parker Won the 
 
 FIRST PREMIUM, 
 
 GRAND MEDAL, 
 
 AND 
 
 DIPLOMA 
 
 Over All Competitors, 
 
 All Hard Rubber Locks with 
 Checked Stocks and Pat- 
 ent Snap Forend. 
 
 Barrels, 
 
 $75 to $300. 
 
 Damascus or Lami'i BWs, 
 
 $50 to $70 
 
 Send Stamp for Illustra- 
 ted Catalogue. 
 
 PARKER BROS., 
 
 OOJVIV. 
 
 Show Rooms, 97 Chambers Street, New York. 
 
FOX'S PATENT 
 
 Breech Loading Shot Gun. 
 
 WONDEKFULLY SIMPLE. 
 
 WOKDEKFULLY STRONG. 
 
 Prices range from $45 to $150. 
 
 SEND FOR CIRCULAR TO AMERICAN ARMS COM- 
 PANY, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 We would respectfully refer to the following testimonial which 
 explains itself: 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 It gives me great pleasure to accede to your request for a few words 
 respecting the behavior of the " Fox Gun," which I used during a season 
 in Arizona. It is proper to state that no severer test could be given a gun 
 than the service it necessarily undergoes in the rough campaign life of a 
 Government exploring party. It must not only stand exposure to the vicis- 
 situdes of the weather, especially the prolonged wet season, but when in use 
 on the dry plains, where the air is often filled with flying sand, it is next to 
 impossible to prevent the gritty particles from lodging between the barrels 
 and the stock. This, as every sportsman knows, is a fruitful source of an- 
 noyance, and often of positive injury to the weapon. < During the season, at 
 a low estimate, not less than fifteen hundred shots were fired. Again, as all 
 travelling was performed on horseback, the gun was constantly carried in a 
 sling before the saddle ; this alone being no light trial, and one particularly 
 liable to render the gun shaky. And now, at the end of its six month's 
 service, I can say that the gun is practically in as good condition as when 
 taken from the shop ; a statement to be appreciated when it is understood 
 that three other breech-loaders, from makers of first-class reputation, with 
 less service, were either partially or wholly disabled ere leaving the field. 
 
 H. W. HENSHAW, of Wheeler's U.S. Exploring Expedition. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 NOV 101946 
 
 
 
 Ap R 21 1942 Jl 
 
 
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 . 
 
 
 3JAN'56PLC 
 
 
 
 
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GENERAL LIBRARY - U.C. BERKELEY 
 
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