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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 241-288 July 30, 1914 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL 
 OF 1913 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARK W. HETHERINGTON 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS 
 BERKELEY 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 241-288 July 30, 1914 
 
 THE DEMONSTRATION PLAY SCHOOL 
 OF 1913* 
 
 BY 
 
 CLAEK W. HETHEEINGTON 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Theory of the Organization of the Play School 243 
 
 A. The Idea Summarized with Comments 243 
 
 B. Divisions of the Report 245 
 
 C. Influences Determining the Organization of the Elementary 
 
 School 246 
 
 1. Child Life and the Educational Process 246 
 
 (a) The Child's Spontaneity and Play 246 
 
 (b) Relation of Play and Work in Education 248 
 
 (c) Perfecting Nature through Leadership 253 
 
 2. Social Progress and the School Organization 258 
 
 (fl) Industrialism, the Home, and the Play and 
 
 School Center 260 
 
 (b) New Educational Movements and the Play 
 
 School Idea 261 
 
 3. The Play School a Reinterpreted School 267 
 
 D. The Problem and Analysis of Activities 267 
 
 1. The Problem in the Organization of Activities 269 
 
 2. Viewpoints in Considering Activities — The Leader's 
 
 and Teacher's Problem 269 
 
 * A report to Professor Charles H. Rieber, Dean of the Summer Session 
 of the University of California, on the Demonstration Play School con- 
 ducted during the Summer Session of 1913. The part of the report 
 explaining the theory of the play school and describing its activities is 
 an amplification of the brief outline submitted to Dean Rieber in the 
 winter of 1912. The first draft of this report was submitted to several 
 educators for criticism, and the author is especially indebted to Dr. E. C. 
 Elliott, of the University of Wisconsin, President E. C. Stanford, of Clark 
 College, and Dr. C. E. Rugh, of the University of California, Professor M. V. 
 O'Shea, University of Wisconsin. 
 
 305051 
 
242 University of California Publications in Education. ['Vol. 5 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3. Activities Classified for Administration 269 
 
 4. Description of the Activities 269 
 
 (a) Big Muscle Activities 270 
 
 (ft) Manual Activities 271 
 
 (c) Environmental and Nature Activities 272 
 
 (1) Trips, Excursions 272 
 
 (a) For Nature Observation 272 
 
 (b) Eor Social Observation 272 
 
 (2) Nature Experimentations 272 
 
 (a) With Physical Nature 273 
 
 (&) With Animal Nature 273 
 
 (c) With Plant Nature 273 
 
 (d) Dramatic Activities 274 
 
 (e) Ehythmic and Musical Activities 274 
 
 (f) Social Activities 275 
 
 (g) Vocal and Linguistic Activities 276 
 
 (h) Economic Activities 277 
 
 5. Summary 278 
 
 II. The Demonstration 279 
 
 1. Conditions and Success .* 279 
 
 2. The Emphasis for the Summer 279 
 
 3. Place and Equipment 279 
 
 4. Enrollment and Organization of Children 280 
 
 5. The Leaders 280 
 
 6. The Organization of Activities 282 
 
 7. Eesults and Criticisms 285 
 
 8. Recommendations 288 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 
 
 I 
 
 THEORY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE 
 PLAY SCHOOL 
 
 A. The Idea Summarized With Comments 
 
 ( ' The play school is a school organization with its programme 
 of activities and methods, based on the central idea of uniting 
 the spontaneous play-life of the child, who needs and desires 
 leadership, with society's demand that he be instructed. It is 
 V an effort to solve the problems of elementary education by har- 
 monizing the child's extra-home educational experiences through 
 combining, in one institution, the functions of the play-center 
 and the functions of the school ; hence the term ' ' Play School. ' ' 
 
 Further, the plan correlates, through a simple administrable 
 grouping of the child's natural activities, and through an ex- 
 pansion of the idea of leadership, many of the apparently diver- 
 gent ideals and methods in modem education which began with 
 Rousseau and, stimulated by recent profound social changes, 
 have resulted in great educational restlessness and experimen- 
 tation. 
 
 For the little children, the plan absorbs naturally what is 
 sound in the results of educational experience since Froebel's 
 time and extends the process to the tender years of infancy. 
 For the larger children, it brings together in a practical school 
 scheme, and extends down the scale of years, the valuable results 
 and the ideals that initiated them in many recent educational 
 efforts, namely, the "outdoor school," the vacation school, gar- 
 dening, manual training, organized excursions, camps, activities 
 of the Boy Scouts and Campfire Girls, "training for citizenship," 
 intensive individual development, etc. 
 
 The plan correlates and gives a balanced relationship between 
 physical education, moral education and cultural education. It 
 lays the real foundation for vocational training and guidance. 
 Above all, it establishes in school practice one of the more recent 
 educational discoveries : the necessity of leadership in play from 
 
V 
 
 244 University of California Publications in Education. V^^^- 5 
 
 infancy to maturity and the educational superiority of leader- 
 ship in pla}^ to instruction in work. It bridges the gap between 
 play and work. 
 
 Therefore the Play School may be defined as an outdoor 
 \J I school and play-center combined, where the te acher's interest is 
 centered in the children and their activities, not merely in sub- 
 jects of study, where the educational efforts, including the moral 
 and social, are put on a basis of practical living experience 
 radiating into the whole environment, and where children are 
 considered both as free active agents and as immature social 
 creatures requiring aid, social control and disciplined Instead 
 of teaching subjects, it organizes activities out of which subjects 
 develop, as they have in racial history.^ The activities organized 
 are the natural, more or less distinct phases of the child's com- 
 plete life. The usual school subjects develop as phases of these 
 activities. 
 
 In spite of the inclusiveness of this ideal, the Play School 
 plan as presented is not considered an invulnerable or perfected 
 solution of the elementary school problem. No school scheme 
 can be perfect so long as something is to be learned about child 
 nature, or so long as society progresses, and no individual can 
 present a perfect solution. That is a race problem. But the 
 plan seems to meet in general the fundamental test of flexibility 
 for progress with every advance in knowledge of child nature, 
 education, or social need. Again, the plan is not presented in 
 a spirit of antagonism toward the public school, but just the 
 V/ reverse. /The widespread discontent with the public school is 
 recognized / and my idea of the cause of this discontent is ex- 
 pressed. The plan proposes a step in organization and method 
 that will make modern ideals and tendencies consistent and 
 efficient in educational results and that will command the sym- 
 pathy and support of the more progressive and intelligent parents 
 and teachers. This sympathy and support are essential if the 
 public school is to fulfill its functions. 
 
 The Play School is not even presented as something entirely 
 new. The scheme of organization and interpretation of activities 
 are new, at least in form; and the extent of application of the 
 idea of leadership and the degree of fusion of the functions of 
 
1914] Hetkerington.—The Play School of 1913. 245 
 
 the child's play-center and the school are new in emphasis. Yet 
 the educational efficiency of the activities has been demonstrated 
 in numeroas schools, in modern playgrounds and in boys' and 
 girls' organization. The whole idea has been approximated in 
 many private efforts and in a few public schools. The conver- 
 gence towards a fusion of the school and play-center is seen, 
 on the one hand, in the tendency of the school to organize the 
 play-life of the child, well illustrated at Gary, Indiana, and, 
 on the other hand, in the tendency of the best year-round play- 
 grounds to organize activities that are usually considered school 
 functions. 
 
 My own ideas^ have been the product, first of reform-school 
 work and then of intimate contact with the educational results 
 of the lower schools through years of college teaching and ex- 
 perience in organizing play and recreation. 
 
 While the essential elements in the theory of the Play School, 
 namely, the identification of play with spontaneous living, and 
 education with the process of living — both controlled by social 
 conditions and depending in results on leadership — are as sound 
 for the organization of secondary and higher education and even 
 the molding of adult sentiments and customs, as for the organ- 
 ization of the education of infants and children, yet this report 
 is confined to the latter problem, because it is fundamental to 
 the rest and because the problems of organizing activities and 
 leadership are quite different after the capacity to work has 
 been established. 
 
 B. Divisions of the Report 
 
 An interpretation of the general theory of the Play School, 
 a descripition and explanation of its activities are given in divi- 
 sions C and D, and conclusions concerning the demonstration of 
 the summer of 1913 are given in part two of this report. 
 
 1 1 first formulated the Play School scheme as a school for subnormal 
 children after two years' work in a juvenile reformatory and presented 
 it in 1899 while a Fellow in Clark University to G. Stanley Hall. Dr. 
 Hall urged at that time the organization of such a school in Boston, but 
 it could not be financed. Later I used the term "Play School" in my 
 university extension of physical education and play in Missouri, especially 
 in the campaign for the organization of playgrounds under the school 
 boards of rural towns with the hope of fusing the functions "of the play- 
 center with the school. I left the University of Missouri before any part 
 ef the larger idea was realized. 
 
246 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 C. Influences Determining the Organization of the 
 Elementary School 
 
 The school as a social institution and the school process, 
 typified by the curriculum, require a perpetual reinterpret ation 
 and reorganization corresponding to advancing knowledge of 
 \j child nature on the one hand, arid the demands of social progress 
 on the other. Since the play school is a reinterpretation, it must 
 be treated from both these standpoints. 
 
 1. Child Life and the Educational Process 
 
 A larger interpretation of the child's nature, especially in 
 his play-life, must be based on the fact that he is not merely a 
 reflex mechanism responding to external stimuli, but a sponta- 
 neously active creature, driven by internal needs and hungers 
 that are fundamental springs of conduct. Hungering for activ- 
 ity, experience and expression, he develops his organic, nervous, 
 emotional and intellectual powers in the process of gaining ad- 
 justment. 
 
 Spontaneously curious about his own activities and those of 
 nature, animals and man, he imitates them all until he masters 
 their emotional and ideational content. He is spontaneously a 
 manipulator of things, a juggler of impressions, and he con- 
 structs with things and ideas. He is spontaneously linguistic 
 and "talks" until he can express what he observes, thinks and 
 feels. He is spontaneously social and enters into social relation- 
 ships and organizations. He is spontaneously suggestible and 
 educable ; he is a follower, an imitator, a hero-worshiper^ craving 
 leadership and instruction in ways of acting that will satisfy his 
 hungers and give him adjustment. 
 
 This spontaneous expression of energy under the stimulus of 
 hungers, controlled by instincts and modified by experience and 
 social tradition and susceptible to leadership, is play. Play is 
 not the popular "just play" nor the schoolman's "mere play." 
 It is identical with the child's spontaneous living. Its relation 
 to work will be considered later. 
 
 If time permitted, it would be possible to show that play 
 began to evolve with the capacity to use experience and choose 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Plmj ScJiool of 1913. 247 
 
 ways of acting, i.e., with the beginning of the evolution of intel- 
 lect. It is jiLst as deep in meaning as either the intellect or the 
 will. Its function is to develop the latent plastic powers of 
 rational man and keep him flexible through adult life. Play is 
 the central element in the scheme of human nature that makes 
 volition possible. 
 
 Infancy, biologically speaking, is a period for parental care 
 during which time systems of nervous connections, feelings and 
 ideas are developed together through play in order that the nerve 
 paths may be controlled in volitional or rational conduct.- With- 
 out play man is inconceivable; play makes volition and rational 
 living possible. There is no meaning to the phrase "mere play," 
 for play is the most important activity in life. 
 
 Play is nature's method of education. Why? Because edu- 
 cation, in its broadest sense, is identical with the process of 
 living. More specifically, it is learning how to live through, 
 experience. But experience comes only as the result of activity, 
 and play is the fundamental form of all developmental activity. 
 It is spontaneous living. Out of the various reactions upon the 
 environment that we call experience comes the development of 
 the instincts and emotions and the experience that makes for 
 Ivuowledge, character and adjustment. 
 
 Schools, books, libraries, laboratories and museums are only 
 devices to give opportunities for activity. All these are worth- 
 less and the teacher is impotent without the activity of the 
 individual to be educated. And play, as has been said, is the 
 primary form of this activity. * 
 
 So striking is the child's expression of his energies, so broad 
 his curiosity and so intense his delight in his activities, that the 
 most conspicuous thing about him is his struggle to gain an 
 education. And his struggle is rational. He is as much "inter- 
 ested" in activities that develop his organic, nervous and char- 
 acter powers as he is in getting information, and vice versa. 
 
 The^ child w^ants a real education; and he wants to get it in 
 the only satisfactory way — just as the race got it, through ex- 
 perience. For years educators have been going to the child witb 
 
 .^i 
 
 2 These theoretical interpretations are drawn from a forthcoming volume 
 on the Nature and Function of Play. 
 
^ 
 
 248 University of California Puhlications in Education, [^ol. 5 
 
 their "priceless products of racial experience," and the child 
 has said (by his reactions) : "Go to, I don't want your canned 
 goods. I want the fresh, juicy fruit of experience gained through 
 my own activities" — and he gets it, though frequently it is of 
 indifferent quality and often positively bad. 
 
 In his play, which is his real life, the child educates himself, 
 even without instruction or aid. The result, however, depends 
 always upon the character of the activities, and this is deter- 
 mined partly by the individual child's temperament, partly by 
 his opportunities and largely by the example and leadership 
 supplied in his environment. Through these forces come devel- 
 opment, and character and ideals are formed. It is the duty of 
 education as a social effort to feed the spontaneous life-hungers 
 of the child with the wisdom of the race.. Co-operation must 
 be given that the play-life may be broad, rich and wholesome. 
 Hence, individual leadership is essential. 
 
 Leadership means study, suggestion, direction. It may mean 
 control in which discipline in work and duty have a place; it 
 never means mere domination. This co-operation and leadership 
 in the child 's struggle for activity, experience and self-expression, 
 the Play School proposes to give completely. 
 
 < 
 
 Relation of Play hii,d Work — Education 
 Disagreement concerning these principles may arise through 
 old misinterpretations and confused notions about the relation 
 between play and work. _ The fact that the child must learn to 
 work cannot be over-emphasized, for he has needs, supplied dur- 
 ing the .early years by the home, that later he must satisfy through 
 work. Moreover, if he is to become an efficient social being, he 
 must learn to perform duties that frequently are not pleasant 
 and his adjustment will be flexible and complete in proportion 
 as he masters the essential culture of the race. Born into a 
 complex social order that is the product of long ages of social 
 evolution, he must not only learn to work but acquire the capacity 
 to work according to the conditions of modern society. 
 
 The ability to satisfy needs, to perforni onerous duties and 
 to acquire culture demands the capacity for long-sustained voli- 
 tional effort under the control of an idea of need or duty. This 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 249 
 
 is work in its developed form. This capacity to work is not 
 achieved suddenly. It is an acquired trait. The infant has no 
 capacity to work : the capacity is acquired, in the normally devel- 
 oped individual, during the period between birth and maturity.^ 
 It appears in late infancy and we exploit it in school by the 
 sixth year. It develops very gradually up to the age of seven, 
 more rapidly from seven to twelve, and increasingly fast during 
 adolescence. 
 
 The rise of the capacity for work is associated Avith and 
 directly dependent upon a correlated and parallel development 
 of (1) the power for volitional action in the plastic nervous 
 system through the developmental stimulus of activity in play; 
 (2) the development of the capacity for volitional attention 
 through the exercise of reflex attention in the instinctively con- 
 trolled activities of play; (3) the development of the capacity 
 for sustained enthusiastic effort through the exercise of the 
 emotion of expectancy which holds attention in the emotion- 
 suffused activities of play; and, finally, (4) the development of 
 a moral sense of purpose or responsibility or ambition, which 
 comes with a maturing of the social self. 
 
 The growth of all these nervous and mental powers that 
 make work possible begins in the simple and instinctive activities 
 of the infant which every one recognizes as play. The young 
 child can be educated in no other way. But later the develop- 
 ment may be continued either through play or work as above 
 defined, and it is just here that the confusion arises concerning 
 the relationships of play and work in education. To anticipate 
 my conclusions, play, because of its emotional accompaniment, 
 is a more efficient developer of all the fundamental powers used 
 in work than work itself. 
 
 The child's activities develop progressively (1) in the mus- 
 cular strength used, (2) in the variety, complexity, duration and 
 co-ordination of movements, (3) in the number of instincts and 
 
 3 The roots of both play and work are present from the beginning. 
 The struggle to satisfy physical needs or escape discomforts expressed 
 by vocal, facial and general bodily movements may be called the roots 
 of work. The struggle to satisfy sense, nervous and mental needs or the 
 spontaneous actions and reactions of adjustment may be called the roots 
 of play. It is in these latter activities primarily that all the higher 
 powers for work and play are developed. 
 
\/ 
 
 250 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 desires and the form and intensity of their expression, (4) in 
 the breadth of the associative processes used, and (5) in the 
 span of sustained effort in the accomplishing of a desired end. 
 
 Now, the activities exhibiting this progressive development 
 may frequently he considered either play or work according to 
 the point of view. From the standpoint of the child, there are 
 only two classes of activity : internally impelled activity, or play, 
 and externally impelled activity, or work. Any activity from 
 the child's standpoint, no matter what the powers used, the energy 
 expended, or the duration of the effort, is play if it is internally 
 impelled and satisfies the developing life-hungers and instincts of 
 the age period. 
 
 From the standpoint of the adult, or objectively considered, 
 the activities of the child that are sustained and have a purpose 
 or future aim are apt to be called Avork; but, obviously, this is 
 an interpretation of child-life in adult terms. The adult, if he 
 is an efficient social being, must work and he must recreate. No 
 such situation exists normally in child-life. The child gains his 
 economic adjustment through the home. His play is both recre- 
 ation and work and it is neither recreation or work: it is life. 
 Before maturity his play activities are differentiated into the 
 capacity for work and the need for recreation. The child's play 
 is not recreation as usually understood and we cannot insist on 
 that too strenuously. Play is the child's chief business in life. 
 In these internally impelled activities he lives and learns how 
 to live. In them he should gain his primary development and 
 life adjustment. 
 
 Play is as broad as the child's developing life. The activities 
 frequently take forms that are not efficient from the adult or 
 educational standpoint; but to identify the child's play with 
 "fooling" or "futility" only, shows a twisted understanding of 
 child nature that is a very subtle survival of medievalism in 
 modern educational thought. This is exhibited in the shrinking 
 from the idea of play as an educational force. 
 
 There need be no quibbling about the fact that a high capacity 
 for work can be developed, has been developed generally in the 
 past through work, though the efficiency of the majority of indi- 
 viduals developed by this method alone can be questioned. But 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Plaxj ScJiool of 1913. 251 
 
 the essential point to be recognized is that, all through childhood, 
 play is superior to work as a developer of the nervous and mental 
 powers used in work because of its emotional content. Moreover, 
 the degree of development of the power for work depends upon 
 the breadth and richness of the play experience. 
 
 Play is more intense, varied and of greater duration because 
 of the sustaining power of enthusiasm which postpones the onset 
 of fatigue and reduces the consciousness of effort which charac- 
 terizes the volitional attention of work." Therefore, as power 
 is a product of activit}^ play is a better developer of nervous 
 energy and volitional attention than work. It is essentially the 
 developer of enthusiasm, which is the very essence of play. 
 
 Enthusiasm is expectancy: the emotional side of the instinct 
 of attention, long drawn-out or combined with the idea of an 
 activity that will satisfy a hunger or developed desire. It is 
 developed like any other capacity — through exercise in activities 
 that feed the nervous and mental hungers and exercise the im- 
 pulses characteristic of age periods. Enthusiasm is the spirit 
 of healthy childhood. It carries the burden of sustained voli- 
 tional effort until the capacity for sustained effort is established 
 as a habit. 
 
 Play, therefore, is a better developer than work of the whole 
 work mechanism. It develops organic vitality, nervous energy 
 and skill, interests, volitional attention and enthusiasm together, 
 as a unified and efficient working whole. Work is less effective 
 because it disassociates the development of the capacity for enthu- 
 siasm from the development of the capacity for volitional effort 
 and attention in realizing aims. 
 
 The capacity to work, therefore, as a part of the capacity to 
 live, is best developed in the child's natural life or play. It is 
 developed only in a negative way when the child sits still and 
 does things foreign to its nature in obedience to the commands 
 of adults. Such lack of activity depresses vitality and inhibits 
 the development of the nervous system, volitional enthusiasm, 
 and experience. It is one of the several factors that have caused 
 children to "forget how to play." 
 
 The capacity to work from its simplest to its highest form 
 is acquired most efficiently by living out in activity, broadly and 
 
252 University of California Publications in Education, [^ol. 5 
 
 intensely, the hungers and instincts characteristic of each age 
 period ; living them out in a social environment that supplies not 
 only progressively greater opportunities for activity, experience 
 and self-expression, but progressively greater opportunities for 
 accomplishment under a leader who molds ideals, and under 
 social contacts charged with emulation. By realizing a progres- 
 sive series of aims in play, the child learns how to work and to 
 achieve life through work. This is the law of child progress. 
 
 If the capacity to work does not come out of these inspir- 
 ations to live and work, nothing this side of a new ancestry can 
 give it, and the individual is a subject for an institution for the 
 socially dependent. 
 
 The developing work mechanism will be used in fulfilling 
 social duties and obligations, when the social spirit in the child's 
 instinctive loyalty, co-operation, self -subordination and capacity 
 for leadership is converted gradually into a consciousness of 
 social relationships, interdependence and obligations. This can 
 be accomplished through the socializing influence of a progressive 
 social experience under a leader who has in the background of 
 his consciousness a social aim. 
 
 Again, the work mechanism will be used in acquiring racial 
 culture and a higher adjustment through the use of books when 
 social experience and leadership bring a consciousness of their 
 worth. This will come early in some, later in others, probably 
 not at all in many, but until books are attached to the central 
 and developing enthusiasms in life, as aids in living, they will 
 not be used extensively by the masses. 
 
 Vocational training and guidance are but a phase of this 
 work-play programme and not the first or most important one, 
 since a vocation is but one form of adult adjustment, arising 
 out of the child's progressive adjustment. A vocation is an 
 individual matter realized through living, and in this living the 
 individual should develop an enthusiasm for life and work; 
 should discover, under leadership, his individual capacities and 
 attach the enthusiasm and the capacity to that specialized social 
 thing, an occupation. 
 
 Better educational results in general and a broader and 
 higher capacity to work are secured by organizing the child's 
 
1914] Hetherington.—TJie Play School of 1913. 253 
 
 natural self-sustaining activities than by forcing upon him those 
 foreign to his nature. To lay the foundation during childhood 
 for efficient citizens and workers, the hunger for life, the power 
 for sustained activity, the enthusiasm in doing and ideals in 
 living must evolve together. 
 
 This natural method of developing workers will produce, has 
 always produced, citizens to whom work is "play" because it 
 carries the enthusiasm of play. 
 
 The difficulty in appreciating the law of learning how to 
 work is the universal, thought-warping tendency of adults to 
 interpret child-life in adult terms. The attitudes towards play 
 and work need to be restated: (a) From an adult standpoint, 
 play is a form of activity set over against the effort required by 
 the driving necessities of adult needs ; f 6 ) from the child 's stand- 
 point, play is living; work is effort that has no connection with 
 instinctive or emotional tendencies; (c) from an educational 
 standpoint, play is a developer of all the fundamental powers of 
 the plastic growing organism: work is an educational aim that 
 is to be realized through living out interests characteristic of the 
 several stages of child development until the work mechanism 
 is established. 
 
 The law, then, of the relations of play and work in education 
 may be stated as follows: Play, as internally impelled activity 
 is practically the only method of education during infancy; is 
 the most efficient method all through childhood; retains a con- 
 spicuous place during youth and even in adult life, as indicated 
 by the modern attitude towards Jeisure time. Work, as externally 
 impelled activity, has little place in the life of the infant, a 
 subordinate though gradually developing place in the life of the 
 child, but an increasingly important place during youth. 
 
 Perfecting Nature through Leadership 
 In many fields of human effort, notably in engineering and 
 the production of domestic animals and plant forms, man has 
 progressed by learning nature's laws and co-operating with 
 nature or controlling and perfecting her processes. In education, 
 man has neglected, even fought nature. 
 
254 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 This is shown most conspicuously in the traditional attitude 
 I /towards play and the neglect of its physical, intellectual and 
 moral meaning. Considered without traditional bias, education 
 holds no antagonism between play as the living out of hungers 
 and instincts, and work as a developing capacity for efficient 
 living in a highly complex, specialized civilization. Such antag- 
 onism is medieval and frequently carries with it a survival of 
 asceticism. The traditional school evolved its organization for 
 the convenience of the teacher in transmitting information to 
 a physically passive child. Play frequently interfered with the 
 teacher's programme, hence was interpreted as a product of the 
 imps. Does not this attitude still survive? 
 
 Because play has been despised, the programmes for moral 
 education are weak and bloodless. Morals and character in child- 
 life come out of living under influences that mold associated 
 ideals and instinctive ways of acting ; not out of drill in abstract 
 precepts or in thinking about conduct disassociated from real 
 conduct, however valuable the latter may be when supplementary 
 to the laboratory method, which is directed play. Ethical in- 
 struction, to be dynamic, must be built on a broad foundation 
 of instincts trained in play, under a leader who has the ethical 
 aims and who will fix the ethical ideal. This is a practical pro- 
 gramme for the masses. 
 
 In the unnatural conflict between the mental and the physical, 
 this bias in educational thought is even more apparent. The 
 traditional school has dealt with one narrow phase of child 
 nature. It still recognizes organic and nervous education with 
 begrudging stinginess and is attempting to bolster the traditional 
 programme with a "school hygiene" that, as a substitute, is 
 utterly futile. This superficial and unscientific attitude is car- 
 ried over from a phase of philosophical speculation that has no 
 place in education. P hysicj l_ educ ation is discussed as though 
 it were a subject of study in the curriculum, instead of one atti- 
 tude in considering the whole educational process, of which it 
 is the basic part. Physical education, as a special field of edu- 
 cational effort, arose because of the twist in educational thought 
 created by the rise of asceticism. It persists because of a sur- 
 vival of asceticism. Because of this bias, the programmes for 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play ScJiool of 1913. 255 
 
 physical education in most schools are pathetically superficial 
 and the children show it. Vigorous, big muscle play is nature's 
 method of physical education and bulks large in the efficient 
 programme. 
 
 So obsessed is our consciousness with the idea that education 
 is something w^hich comes from books, and so dominant has been 
 the intellectual or cultural idea, that the masses of children are 
 prevented from getting an educational experience. We insist 
 that they shall master the tools of learning before they get any 
 experience and then that they shall take it second-hand. At one 
 extreme there develops a group of individuals having the capac- 
 ity to acquire large masses of book-learning with a small fovm- 
 dation in practical experience; and at the other, a group who 
 may or may not have had real experience, but who have a con- 
 tempt for books and no realization of their value as essential 
 aids in living or as sources of inspiration for a higher adjustment. 
 Modern literature on teaching is strewn with the word "moti- 
 vation." Every effort to find a "motive" for an activity or a 
 subject of study is a search for its basis in a hunger or instinct 
 which underlies the child's spontaneous life. This search repre- 
 sents generally the attitude of the adult, with an adult's interest, 
 trying to find some way of attaching that interest to the child's 
 native tendencies. It illustrates the breadth of the psychic gap 
 
 j between the teacher and the child and the dominance of the 
 
 'attitude of teaching, rather than leading. 
 
 Why not shift the problem from the organization of "sub- 
 jects of study ' ' that are selfected products of racial achievement, 
 to the organization of the child's own spontaneous active life; 
 from the attitude of teaching primarily to that of leading (which 
 includes teaching) ? Why not abandon our indifference towards 
 the child's play and recognize it as complete living, from his 
 viewpoint, as well as the dominant source of all educational 
 values ? Why not put our aims and our specialized adult, inter 
 ests in the background of our consciousness and enter into the 
 child's life from his point of view, meeting his hunger for life 
 and his desire for leadership with the resources of the adult? 
 In this way we can make his activities a source of inspiration 
 to him and perfect their results from an educational standpoint. 
 
 iX 
 
256 University of California Publications in Education. ['V^ol- 5 
 
 Does not this attitude complete modern tendencies in educa- 
 tional thought? Will it not make public education efficient for 
 the masses? 
 
 In this larger conception of education, leadership is the prime 
 essential. Teaching is but a part of the leadership for which 
 the child's hunger is as conspicuous as his hunger for education. 
 He craves life intensely, but his imagination outruns his skill 
 and judgment. His resources are limited; his attention is fleet- 
 ing; his enthusiasm breaks down. He must have leadership if 
 his activities are to he satisfying or educationally efficient. 
 Though he rebels at domination, he constantly appeals for help 
 in finding something to do and in achieving his desires; and, 
 when leadership is given and accepted, he will submit to endless 
 direction, and, as age advances, to increasingly severe discipline. 
 This is proven daily on the play field and in boys' and girls' 
 clubs. 
 
 By entering into the child's life, it is a simple matter to lead 
 him so as to loop the cultural material of the race to his hungers 
 and thus achieve results not possible under the sub ject-of -study 
 teaching programme. That process is inverted. It must be rec- 
 ognized, however, that there are enormous variations in children 's 
 capacities for progress in various activities and in their suscepti- 
 bility to suggestion. 
 
 Here appears a danger. A vast difference exists between 
 learning nature's laws in the development of child-life and co- 
 operating with her or perfecting her processes through the child's 
 susceptibility to leadership, and the skillful exploitation of that 
 susceptibility to satisfy the vanity of parents or teachers whose 
 minds are cataleptic under the obsession of some educational 
 fetish. We are in some danger of entering into an age of child 
 prodigies. 
 
 Objections are raised that education is inefficient because it 
 is made too easy. Signs of a reaction have appeared. Now, 
 whatever of justice there may be in criticisms of "teaching 
 through play" no justice exists in criticisms of the leadership of 
 play. This leadership has its biological roots in the evolution 
 of the inter-relationships between parent and child, and play is 
 not "easy" in the sense of being devoid of effort or hardship. 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 257 
 
 Both the intensity and the duration of extreme effort in many 
 forms of play activities are so striking that few adult activities 
 can be compared with them. 
 
 Play is interesting, but to interpret education as something 
 uninteresting strikes the very nervous system of education with 
 a palsy; and to say that because anything is interesting it is 
 educationally undesirable is surely a survival of asceticism. We 
 have failed in education because we have ignored play and 
 divorced education from life. 
 
 The dominance in education of the play motive, or real living 
 in obedience to real present needs during child-life, does not 
 mean that there shall be no discipline. Living is discipline. 
 The child, like his ancestors from the beginning, is driven by 
 hungers and controlled by instincts that are non-specific. His 
 conduct is largely the product of experimental experience, which 
 frequently causes pain as well as pleasure. So was the conduct 
 of his ancestors. As a result of racial experimentation, the child 
 is born into a complex network of ways of acting, both good and 
 bad. Lacking judgment and perspective, he is apt to imitate 
 the bad examples in his social environment as well as the good, 
 thus forming habits, ideals and character that are bad for him 
 and for society. To mold the ideals developing in the child's 
 experience is the function of the parent and society's represent- 
 ative of the parent, the leader or teacher. Discipline by adults, 
 like leadership, has its roots in the biological relationships of 
 parent and child. 
 
 Practically all the bad habits known to childhood and youth / 
 are the product of our neglect of this function of leadership. 
 Vices develop in play. This is the negative argument for put- 
 ting moral education on a laboratory basis of directed play. The 
 danger here is that, with the prevalent notion about "teaching," 
 the tendency will be to control the experimentations too strictly 
 and to control ideals before there has been experience. 
 
 To summarize, it would seem, therefore, that education will \ 
 be efficient when we bring the resources of adults to aid the child / 
 in his struggle for activity, experience and self-expression and^ 
 when adult leaders meet the child's hunger for guidance with 
 the spirit of a superior playfellow and with the discipline of" ) 
 leadership. This the Play School proposes to do. ^"""^ 
 
 / 
 
 >r 
 
\ 
 
 \ 
 
 258 University of California Publications in Education, i'^oi. 5 
 
 2. Social Progress and the School Organization 
 
 While the Play School is primarily a prodviet of child-study, 
 it is also demanded by the new educational conditions attendant 
 upon social progress. No phenomenon of our civilization is more 
 striking than the rise of modern industrialism, no force more 
 potent in its influence on the home and child-life. 
 
 In the past, the home was the center of life and experience. 
 The majority of homes were not only the centers of family life, 
 but they were industrial and social centers, furnishing large 
 opportunity for the child to see and participate in all the essen- 
 tial human activities. The factory took from the home both the 
 industrial occupation and the machinery of manufacture, with 
 .all their stimulus and opportunity for child activity. Hence, 
 the function and the size of the home have contracted and with 
 the contraction the function of the home as a social center has 
 declined. Entertainments are sought outside in commercial 
 amusement centers, with a further contraction of educational 
 stimulus in the home. Moreover, the size of the family has de- 
 creased, leaving children not only without generous opportunities 
 for activity, but without even the stimulus of an adequate char- 
 acter-building companionship. [ In a word, modern industrialism 
 has squeezed the educational juice out of the home. 
 
 And, if we are to believe social workers, the squeezing process 
 will continue. Criticism that places on parents the blame for 
 their failure to supply educational needs which the home sup- 
 plied a generation ago, misses the mark. Speaking broadly, par- 
 ents are helpless. Even the most earnest frequently find them- 
 selves at their wits' end in trying to meet the life needs of their 
 children. The masses have neither training for the problem, 
 educational resources in the home, nor the financial ability to 
 meet the need at home or in private enterprises. 
 
 With the continued domination of industry over our social 
 life, the home will probably be less and less able to fill the educa- 
 tional needs of the child and a greater gap between parental life 
 and child life will develop. Adults must be specialists in order 
 to be efficient and they must struggle for leisure in order to have 
 any degree of completeness in life. Both these conditions and 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play ScJiool of 1913. 259 
 
 the habits of adult life flowinsr out of them are foreign to child 
 nature and life. So, if the influence of industrialism continues, 
 the gap between the child and adult is bound to widen. Like 
 all differentiations in the organic world, the greater the unlike- 
 ness the greater will be the interdependence. The child is de- 
 pendent upon adult resources and organizing skill in order that 
 he may have life; and the adult, who is to be the product of 
 this child-life, is dependent upon the child's living his complete 
 life. The failure to supply that complete life gives us adults 
 who are mere cogs in the wheel of a complex machine. This is 
 the social educational situation even now. 
 
 Instead of the home and its immediate environment supplying 
 practically all the opportunities for the child's activities, exper- 
 iences and expression, these functions are now divided among 
 three institutions — the home, the school, and the play-center. 
 
 The home is still the center of domestic life, though even in 
 the best homes it is greatly narrowed in its educational possi- 
 bilities. Many homes are merely places in which to sleep and 
 eat. Though they still have great educational influence, their 
 educational resources are practically nil. 
 
 The school has absorbed an increasing amount of the child's 
 time, but it has not, except in a few cases and in a limited way, 
 even attempted to supply what has been eliminated from child- 
 life by modern social changes. As a prominent educator puts 
 it : a generation ago, a boy had three months ' schooling and nine 
 months in which to get an education; now he has nine months' 
 schooling and three months in which to gain an education. Ac- 
 tually, the situation is even worse ; since during the three months 
 he has few opportunities for activities that educate. 
 
 The public playground is coming to fill the need for educa- 
 tional activity and experience otherwise limited by a physical 
 environment that is unnatural, and a social one that is complex 
 and specialized. At present, most playgrounds are inefficient, 
 because of public ignorance as to their functions and the preva- 
 lence of poorly trained directors. 
 
 The public playground is a child's community social center 
 and it should supply and does now supply, under expert play 
 directors, not only the space, equipment and companionship 
 
260 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 which are beyond the economic and social resources of the home, 
 but the adult leadership that is essential. 
 
 Experience has shown that leadership is the first essential of 
 a successful playground, for three groups of reasons : 
 
 1. The playground is a democratic institution open to all 
 children ; hence, unless directed, apt to be dominated by the bully 
 or the tough gang. It concentrates the bad manners, antagon- 
 isms and vices of children ; hence it is apt to be a breeding place 
 for evil unless in charge of a director who is trained to convert 
 these very tendencies into sources of moral discipline. 
 
 2. The playground brings together a large miscellaneous 
 group of children of different ages, temperaments, social train- 
 ing, and habits of play. This makes the play organization com- 
 plex and beyond the democratic organizing power or self-control 
 of children. The play breaks down without the superior skill 
 and control of the adult leader who may, by bridging the diffi- 
 culties of organization^ make the playground the most efficient 
 agency in existince for training in democratic citizenship. 
 
 3. The playground is an institutional center for child-life; 
 a substitute for certain educational functions of the home, which 
 the home can no longer perform adequately. The supervision 
 formerly supplied by the parents in activities in which they 
 were experts can no longer be supplied in the new activities. 
 Few parents can be experts in child nature or the technique of 
 a vast variety of activities that satisfy the progressive educa- 
 tional needs of children. This function must be taken over in 
 its large and difficult phases by the professionally trained leader. 
 His influence should radiate from his center of business into the 
 surrounding community, the home, and the school. Since the 
 playground is a laboratory of conduct and its activities are the 
 foundation for a modern democratic system of moral education, 
 the director becomes the main influence for efficiency in this 
 highest phase of education. 
 
 As the home approaches the apartment type and the family 
 the one-child type, under the pressure of modern social conditions, 
 the relative importance of the play-center and school increases. 
 
 In this social situation child welfare requires a new spirit 
 and a new organization of the school and playground. Both 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 261 
 
 are extra-home institutional centers of child-life and both exhibit 
 the inefficiency of an incomplete organization 
 
 As the playground is a center of life and education organ- 
 ized from the child's standpoint, and the school is a center of 
 child experience and education organized from society's stand- 
 point, the two institutions should be combined to unite the two 
 points of view, and unify the child's educational experience. It 
 is not sufficient that a playground space be added to the school 
 or that a group of manual or other activities be added to the 
 games of the playground. The play center and the school center 
 must become one in spirit, aim and organization. 
 
 A triangular division of child-life under three classes of 
 institutions and the dual organization of extra-home activities 
 are inefficient, not only educationally, but administratively. Ex- 
 perience has shown that children in cities will not or cannot go 
 more than one-quarter or one-half mile to a play-center. There- 
 fore, the provision of adequate playgrounds within reach of every 
 city child, and the organization of a staff of leaders, under some 
 municipal administrative body apart from the Board of Edu- 
 cation, puts a double burden upon the taxpayers. 
 
 So far as the small town and country are concerned, few 
 would suggest, after the recent campaign for a wider use of the 
 . school plant, that a play-center should be located anywhere except 
 at the school ; still, where they have been so located, the functions 
 of the play-center and the functions of the school have not been 
 identified. 
 
 The public school is the institution concerned with the edu- 
 cation of the child; it must provide all his extra-home educational 
 activities if its functions are to be efficiently realized. As indi- 
 cated before, this is a different problem from the recreation of 
 the adult. 
 
 New Educational Movements and the Play School Idea 
 
 Social progress has changed not onlj- the relationships be- 
 tween the home and the play center and the school, but it has 
 brought a new social conscience concerning education. We are 
 in a period of educational discontent, restlessness and experi- 
 mentation — a part of the general social discontent. Every man 
 
262 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 who thinks and who is sensitive to the spirit of the time reacts 
 upon the educational situation and usually has some "new" 
 idea or variation of the educational programme. Several new 
 types of school and a generous number of new educational efforts, 
 both without and within the public school system, have been 
 organized and promoted sufficiently to attract public notice. 
 
 Of the new types of school one or two are significant. First, 
 there is the vacation school, which is successful from the stand- 
 point of child welfare and child interest. But it is simply a 
 recognition of the fact that the child's education is going on 
 three hundred and sixty-five days in the year and that the school 
 must replace the home and community in supplying opportunity 
 for experience. 
 
 Then there are the open-air schools, which have proved that 
 our ''model" ventilating schemes are delusions and that the most 
 rational way to ventilate a school is to do away with most of the 
 school walls. Now we are about to see the time-worn school idea 
 run its vicious circle again. "Adequate provision" is to be made 
 for children "needing" the fresh-air school. So (according to 
 the programme) masses of children will be kept indoors to be 
 devitalized and subjected to a string of diseases with their train 
 of adult weaknesses, while the tubercular and the anaemic will 
 have the privilege (until they get well) of the only type of school 
 any child ought to have. 
 
 Ayers says that the open-air school wnll take its place in the 
 history of education as marking one long step toward that school 
 system of the future in which the child will not have to be either 
 feeble-minded or delinquent or truant or tubercular in order to 
 enjoy the best and fullest sorts of educational opportunity. Even 
 in the colder sections of the country and during the severest 
 winters, children can be made comfortable in the open air most 
 of the day and for most of their activities. Until this common- 
 sense standard is realized, school hygiene will progress with one 
 leg paralyzed. 
 
 Significant for the future of the open-air school is the wide- 
 spread rebellion among parents against putting their children 
 in the public schools because they "will be shut indoors" or be- 
 cause they are "never well." Naturally, a large number of 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Plaij School of 1913. 263 
 
 private outdoor schools are catering to this sentiment. Closely 
 associated is the organization of country day schools, such as 
 exist in Buffalo and Minneapolis, indicating that well-to-do par- 
 ents are willing to pay high rates of tuition to have their boys 
 go to the country each day. 
 
 Several new movements are strikingly significant of the trend 
 in educational organization. Most of these are focused on the 
 adolescent, yet the principles involved and their solution extend 
 into the pre-adolescent period. Conspicuous among these move- 
 ments is that of the Boy Scouts, with its highly elaborated pro- 
 gramme of activites and honors for achievements. This organiz- 
 ation and that of the Campfire Girls are phases of the great 
 movement for directed play and leisure time. They have arisen 
 and attracted public attention because of the widespread feeling 
 that masses of children are growing up incapable, resourceless, 
 and irresponsible. Hence the new devotion to a programme for 
 achievement as a means of character development. 
 
 The Junior Eepublic, boys' cities, civic activities and respons- 
 ibilities for boys, all indicate the rising social consciousness that 
 children have their own sense of values and responsibility. This 
 sense is just beginning to be organized for educational purposes. 
 Increasingly as the years progress, the imagination is stirred by 
 the relationship between approaching adulthood and the adult's 
 activities. Since the results depend upon leadership, we have a 
 host of social problems rising out of our past neglect. 
 
 Some of the "new schools," however, in which "real work" 
 is the central idea of the programme, have failed to achieve their 
 ideals because the programmes are based on ignorance of child 
 nature or on the old notions of play or "work" that is a mere 
 imitation of specialized adult occupations. Where these efforts 
 have succeeded, especially for the younger children, leaders have 
 organized "play" instead of "work," without knowing it. 
 
 The gardening movement, geography excursions, and the shift 
 in nature study from that of plucked and dissected symbols to 
 a study of nature in action — changing, growing, eating, repro- 
 ducing, struggling nature with all its vital human relationships — 
 all these activities emphasize the fact that "learning" must be 
 a part of life and built on vitalizing, mind-filling experience. 
 
264 University of California Publications in Education, [^ol. 5 
 
 The focal point of thought in these movements drifts toward 
 the organization of the child's whole life-experience on a con- 
 crete laboratory basis. It involves a recognition of child capac- 
 ities and needs previously furnished in natural contacts with a ' 
 simple adult life now passed away. 
 
 Vocational training and guidance are receiving their empha- 
 sis. Adjustment for the masses is the aim, but vocational ad- 
 justment is only one phase of life — the adjustment of the adult. 
 Avocational or recreational adjustment, social adjustment, citi- 
 zenship adjustment and domestic adjustment are co-ordinate, 
 and they all depend upon the developmental or educational ad- 
 justment during the years of growth. Obviously shallow is a 
 vocational training and guidance that is not based on educational 
 provisions that allow the child all his early years for enthusiastic 
 living and achieving until the work mechanism is established 
 and talents, interests, or capacities are developed; and until 
 expert leaders who are guiding this living process may discover 
 individual tendencies and adaptabilities. Furthermore, a voca- 
 tional training that is not based on organic, nervous, intellectual 
 and moral development and that is not co-ordinated with a social 
 and recreative adjustment and a preparation for citizenship and 
 domestic life adjustment, is bound to produce workers that are 
 but inflexible cogs in the wheel of a gigantic machine which will 
 inhibit both individual and social progress. 
 
 The new efforts for backward and exceptional children reveal 
 the recognition of the fact that our wonderful school mechanism 
 has failed in results for great masses of children. The conscious- 
 ness is growing that the universal "child" when differentiated 
 into individuals is as variable as the number of children and 
 that each must be educated in a variable and adaptable pro- 
 gramme. This is perfectly practical when activities rather than 
 subjects of study are organized. 
 
 The campaign for school hygiene has become almost hysterical. 
 Accumulating evidence has shown the physical, mental and moral 
 effects of long hours, confinement and over-pressure in mental 
 work. Nevertheless, there is a demand for a broader manual 
 training, a larger nature-study, a fuller "physical education" 
 and an efficient moral education — all interpreted as "subjects of 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 265 
 
 study" and added to the old subjects; together with new phases 
 of the arts, sciences and literature pushed by a variety of indi- 
 viduals from the viewpoint of their own adult specialized in- 
 terests. 
 
 Consequently, school hygiene will come out of the same door 
 wherein it entered, so far as its larger functions are concerned, 
 unless child-life is put squarely on its two hygienic legs in school 
 organization: the one, an open-air life; and the other, a pro- 
 gramme of activities instead of subjects of study. 
 
 Our educational fetish, the three R's, blocks the way. Cer- 
 tainly children must acquire the tools of a cultural adjustment; 
 but is the learning to read and write and count at an early age 
 more sacred than the health of our children and an enthusiasm 
 in life that gives capacity to live and work efficiently ? At pres\ 
 ent, the danger is that the fetish will be imposed at five or even \ ^ 
 
 four years of age and some few children are able to learp. to \ [y^ 
 read and write during these tender years, for the edification oi/ 
 ambitious teachers and vain parents. The point is not what 
 some children can do, nor that they should not learn these essen- 
 tials of a cultural adjustment during childhood. It is that to 
 make reading and writing a requirement to which all other 
 activities are subordinated, say up to the child's ninth year, is 
 insupportable from a broad educational standpoint. 
 
 The time has come when men are beginning to realize that 
 the stifling of the child's developing enthusiasms in life through 
 a back-warping, chest-cramping, nerve-breaking, mind-deadening 
 desk and schoolroom programme of "studies" is as cruel as the 
 Spanish Inquisition. 
 
 The tendencies noted point to the solution. All the vital 
 special desires in education can be met — ^the overcrowding elimi- 
 nated, the programme increased to eight, ten, or twelve hours a 
 day and through three hundred and sixty-five days in the year, . 
 the present injury to health replaced by a positive construction ; 
 of vital and nervous powers of which health is an index, moral ^ 
 education placed squarely on a laboratory basis, with each child 
 treated as an individual as well as a creature to be socialized, and 
 the "learning" increased both in quantity and quality — by rein- 
 terpreting the school as an open-air, educationally fused play 
 
266 University of Calif ornia Publications in Education. [Vol.5 
 
 and school center; and by shifting the emphasis in the school 
 programme from subjects of study to the organization of activ- 
 ities which evolve with the aid of leadership into specialized, 
 adult interests. 
 
 This solution, as indicated by the effect of recent social 
 changes on educational practice, is also demanded by the social 
 changes to come. Society has reached the age of Human Engi- 
 neering, with child education as its foundation. The knowledge 
 and skill are at hand. In the past, man's human engineering 
 efforts were confined to correction and cure; medicine was the 
 dominant human engineering science. In recent years we have 
 learned how to prevent many individual and social ills. The 
 sciences of prevention are now dominant and "hygiene" is in 
 the air. But a new thought is already here — constructive effort. 
 Social correction and medicine are still advancing, prevention 
 is commanding public opinion, but both are more or less futile 
 without a foundation of constructive engineering. And educa- 
 tion is the core of all constructive engineering which deals with 
 the individual. 
 
 Education is now the dominant science, the source of appeal 
 in all social effort, as well as in the efficient adjustment of the 
 j individual. Of the three forces determining what any individual 
 shall be at maturity — heredity, activity, and environment — with 
 the three corresponding sciences — eugenics, education, and social 
 economy — activity alone is the source of power in the individual 
 after birth. The environment sets conditions for activity, there- 
 fore influences result; but activity itself is the developer of all 
 power, and education the science of constructive effort with the 
 individual. Old, neglected, despised Education has become the 
 new inspiration in Human Engineering. 
 
 Even the universities feel the new responsibility of education, 
 and schools of education are arising, still dominated by the old 
 narrow ideas of education as an intellectual process, but destined 
 to fulfill their real function : producing engineers of child-life 
 and child adjustment to meet the requirements of an advancing 
 civilization. This is the hope for democracy and civilization. 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play ScJiool of 1913. 267 
 
 3. The Play School a Reinterpreted School 
 The Play School is proposed as the next step in the evolution 
 of the elementary school. (1) It is suggested as the extra-home 
 institutional center of child-life in which the school and the play- 
 ground are educationally fused and their aims identified; and 
 where the child's whole daily active life, not supervised by the 7 
 parents, shall be spent, through the entire year from early in- 
 fancy until the capacity to work consciously for adjustment has 
 been established. (2) It is proposed as a center in which chil- 
 dren shall learn to live and to work with enthusiasm, by living 
 completely in their activities which include the whole physical 
 and social environment and are organized to satisfy fully the 
 child's hungers for experience and self expression. (3) It is 
 proposed as a center for complete leadership, where the interest 
 is centered in the child, not in subjects of study. 
 
 The aims of the Play School may be summarized as follows : 
 
 1. To organize the opportunity for a complete play-life in 
 order that the child may develop his powers, learn the meaning 
 of his environment and discover himself. 
 
 2. To furnish leadership for the fundamental activities in 
 order that organic, nervous and volitional powers for activity 
 with enthusiasm and the capacity for work may be established. 
 
 3. To connect the play tendencies and interests with materials 
 for activity that will feed and develop stable interests ; and then 
 connect these interests with the resources of socid^, especially 
 literature. 
 
 4. To secure close observation, clear thinking, skilled exe- 
 cution and free linguistic expression in connection with all 
 activities. 
 
 5. To mold the instinctive and emotional reactions in all 
 activities in order that sound moral habits, moral judgment and 
 social ideals may be established and come to control all developing 
 powers for complete adult adjustment. 
 
 D. The Problem and Analysis of Activities 
 The proposal to organize activities instead of subjects of study 
 shifts the practical problem in education to the study of activities 
 and the educational leadership of these activities. 
 
/ 
 
 268 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 Educators have been devoted to the investigation of methods 
 of teaching special subjects of study. They have spent relatively 
 little time in studying the nature or the function of the child's 
 spontaneous life activities and the relation of these activities to 
 his development — organic, nervous, intellectual and moral — or 
 to his adjustment. Leadership in the organization of activities 
 requires a knowledge and skill that makes the organized activities 
 as natural as the unorganized, hut more certain of educational 
 results. 
 
 The child's activities may be studied from many standpoints, 
 of which the following are examples : 
 
 1. From the standj)oiiit of the motor-mechanism used — 
 
 The locomotor, or big-muscle mechanism, 
 The manual, or small-muscle mechanism. 
 The vocal and linguistic mechanism, 
 The sense-attention mechanism, etc. 
 
 2. Prom the standpoint of the regulating process involved — 
 
 The instinctive and emotional processes, 
 The intellectual processes. 
 
 3. From the standpoint of the initial sources of the activities — 
 
 (a) The hungers; organic hungers and needs for food, and the 
 psycho-motor hungers for activity, experience, and ex- 
 pression, or 
 
 (ft) The stimuli of sense situations. 
 
 4. From the standpoint of the genesis of the form of activities with 
 
 interests, motives, beliefs, habits — 
 The hungers, 
 The instincts, 
 
 Experience as a result of reactions upon environmental situations. 
 Imitation, 
 Conscious judgment. 
 
 5. From the standpoint of the educational results or values of the 
 
 activities — 
 
 (a) For the development of the organism — 
 
 Organic development with a system of habits, 
 Nervous development with a system of habits, 
 Intinctive and emotional development with a system of 
 
 habits. 
 Intellectual development with a system of habits and 
 
 ideas, and 
 
1914] Hetherington.—TJie Plaij School of 1913. 269 
 
 (&) For the adjustment of the organism to phases of racial 
 activity and culture — 
 Economic, or vocational adjustment, 
 Recreative, or avocational adjustment. 
 Fellowship adjustment. 
 Citizenship adjustment, 
 Domestic adjustment. 
 
 6. From the standpoint of a practical educational leadership of the activ- 
 ities for complete child living. 
 
 All these points of view are important in the investigation of 
 activity and in the training of the leader or teacher, but for the 
 practical problems of educational leadership the last point of 
 view is essential and may include all others. It is distinctly the 
 leader's or teacher's viewpoint. It demands a classification of 
 the child's activities that gives the more or less distinct but 
 natural phases of his complete active life; and that makes it 
 possible to administer his complete living. This classification is 
 essential further as a basis for the organization of a progressive 
 educational "curriculum" of activities: 
 
 1st. That will use all the mechanisms and regulating pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 2nd. That will feed all the hungers, provide for reactions 
 upon the whole environment and give opportunity for full ex- 
 pression of all valuable budding interests. 
 
 3rd. That will hold true all through childhood, tending to 
 evolve naturally into the racial forms of activity, and 
 
 4th. That will give all the educational values. 
 
 All those demands seem to be realized tentatively in the fol- 
 lowing classification: (a) Big-muscle activities; (6) manipulat- 
 ing and manual activities; (c) environmental and nature activ- 
 ity; (d) dramatic activities; (e) rhythmic and musical activities; 
 (/) social activities; (g) vocal and linguistic activities; and (h) 
 economic activities. 
 
 Description of the Activities 
 A description of each of these groups of activities will make 
 its educational meaning and the whole classification clear. No 
 
270 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 significance, except one of convenience in description, is attached 
 to the order of the groups as given. 
 
 It will be observed that the activities in each group begin 
 early and continue through childhood; that they arise out of 
 some hunger, instinct or innate capacity in human nature; that 
 these same traits have given rise to some phase of racial life or 
 culture ; and that each group has some special value in the devel- 
 opment and adjustment of the child. 
 
 The Big-Muscle activities are fundamental to all the activ- 
 ities. They arise out of the primary hungers for activity ; begin 
 in the random movements of the infant; develop through the 
 various stages of locomotion and diverge during childhood under 
 the influence of special instincts into stich special forms as gym- 
 nastics, games, dancing and athletics. 
 
 1. Gymnastic Plays arise from the self -testing impulse. They 
 are personal motor achievement plays and express the enthusiasm 
 for self-realization. 
 
 2. The Dancing activities add pleasure in rhythm. They 
 begin in spontaneous forms and take on traditional forms through 
 imitation, developing the sense of rhythm as well as the capacity 
 for artistic expression in body movements. They also have deep 
 social meanings and influences, especially during the adolescent 
 years. 
 
 3. Games and Athletics arise from the hunting and self- 
 protecting instincts and from the gregarious, egoistic and fight- 
 ing instincts which find expression in rivalry, and which have 
 been such powerful forces in the rise of civilization. These 
 instincts develop progressively in games of fleeing, chasing, 
 hiding, seeking, capturing and escaping, and later, team games 
 of conquest. 
 
 These big-muscle activities are the developers of the organic 
 powers and the fundamental nervous powers; i.e., they are the 
 ediicational source of vigor, resistance to disease and general 
 nervoiLS vitality and skill. They lay the foundation in the adult 
 for the capacity to labor. They establish wholesome forms of 
 recreation. While regarded usually as mere muscular exercises 
 or "pastimes," these activities, especially the games, carry the 
 discipline of the racially old instincts at the foundation of char- 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 271 
 
 acter, and are therefore primarily instinct educators and funda- 
 mental in their influence on character development. They carry 
 the "social spirit" and discipline the social instincts, emotions, 
 and enthusiasm. Hence in the education of children they must 
 be given a large place and be guided carefully as the most 
 important laboratory activities in the moral phase of education. 
 
 The Manipulating and Manual Activities arise out of the 
 manipulating impulse which satisfies the himgers for activity and 
 sense experience. Gradually, under the influence of the "con- 
 structive" impulse, imitation and self-expreasion, the various 
 manual activities arise. These tendencies in human nature, cou- 
 pled with needs for food, protection and expression, have devel- 
 oped the industrial enterprises and graphic arts of man. In 
 the child they begin in general manipulation, expanding along 
 the lines of construction with blocks and miscellaneous materials ; 
 modeling, scribbling, drawing, coloring; and then construction 
 with tools in paper, wood, stone and iron, and in plastic materials, 
 textiles, foods, etc. When the child expresses esthetic feelings 
 and ideas in these activities the manual arts appear. This manip- 
 ulating impulse, combined with the social, gives a large number 
 of plays and games. Each of these tendencies is represented in 
 the complex occupations, crafts, arts, modes of expression and 
 recreations of the adult. They give the spontaneous beginnings 
 of activities which, when developed, include a large part of 
 applied science. 
 
 Under leadership the values of these activities in the develop- 
 ment of nervous powers for manvial skill, in the ability to think 
 in mechanical terms and to design and execute, in the expression 
 of esthetic ideas and the development of esthetic feelings and in 
 the discipline of elemental traits of character, are well recognized. 
 As Dewey showed, they may be organized to unite the individual's 
 social feelings and thoughts with the industrial problems of the 
 race. For the masses they underlie economic adjustment and 
 industrial adaptability. They are important for the nervous, 
 moral and esthetic stability of the non-industrial classes. y^ 
 
 Leadership in these activities is needed from infancy to v y 
 maturit}^, first for cultural education, then for vocational and 
 recreative results. In this leadership, the ages between seven 
 
272 University of California Publications in Education, l^^l. 5 
 
 and ten — the critical, yet most neglected years — when impulse 
 and skill are furthest apart, need special attention. 
 
 Environmental and Nature Activities fall into two related 
 classes: (1) excursions and (2) nature experimentations. The 
 V instincts that have led to the world's exploration and to the 
 \ development of the natural and physical sciences are here ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 (1) The excursions arise from the exploring, foraging and 
 migratory instincts and arouse great enthusiasm. They begin 
 with the creeping of the infant and continue all through environ- 
 mental activities of later years. These excursions give some of 
 "^" the organic and nervous values of big-muscle activities; they 
 develop the self-preserving instincts and powers; they give the 
 opportunities for observation, the collection of information, and 
 the satisfaction of curiosity concerning nature and civics. Lead- 
 ership easily perfects the educational values in the spontaneous 
 tendencies to these activities, as indicated in the following sug- 
 gestions which grade naturally by age periods. 
 
 For the little children, short trips give opportunities for 
 broader "free play" activities in the environment, for a larger 
 sense experience, for collections, for learning the names of nat- 
 ural objects, for simple observational games and for instruction 
 concerning things which catch the attention. 
 
 For the larger children excursions cover the three ideas of 
 adventure, nature observation and civic observation as follows: 
 (a) half-day "hikes" or week-end camping trips, including out- 
 ing or "scouting" arts; (&) trips to the fields, woods, and bodies 
 of water, or to farms, or to plant or animal experimental stations 
 with observations on the geographical features, on plants and 
 animals and their breeding processes with collections, maps, etc. ; 
 (c) trips to industrial and commercial institutions, to historic 
 places, to civic institutions and centers, to public-service centers, 
 etc., each with investigations. From these natural activities the 
 larger geography expands. 
 V (2) The second half of the environmental and Nature activ- 
 ities, nature experimentations, arise from curiosity about nature 
 and the experimental manipulation of natural forces. They fall 
 into three groups : 
 
1914] Hetheringtmi.—TJie Play School of 1913. 273 
 
 (a) There is playing and experimenting with physical 
 nature:* namely, playing with water, air, heat, mechanical de- 
 vices, sound, light and electricity. These activities begin in the 
 same manipulating tendencies that are the foundation of the 
 manual activities, but diverge under the control of different 
 instincts. They grade naturally by age periods and through 
 leadership develop problems in physics. 
 
 (&) There is playing and experimenting with animals; 
 namely, playing with pets; feeding and caring for animals; 
 training them, capturing, raising and taming wild animals; 
 breeding animals, etc. 
 
 (c) There is playing and experimenting with plant nature; 
 namely, planting, raising and earing for plants and flowers; 
 experimental gardening to find out what nature will do and also 
 for the economic value of the produce. 
 
 These two latter groups of nature activities with the field 
 observation and collections give all the essential elements in the 
 relations of plants and animals to the life of man, and give, 
 through leadership, the natural basis and enthusiastic interest 
 in the problem of nature study and "civic biology." 
 
 * The content of these physical experimental plays will be better 
 illustrated by the following outline: 
 
 Water — Playing with water, pouring, wading, splashing, watching 
 objects in water, throwing objects into water, building dams and water 
 wheels, watching the action of water on land, "erosion models," etc., 
 which develop problems in fluids. 
 
 Air — Playing with air, sail-boats, kites, windmills, aeroplanes, which 
 develop problems in air pressure, air currents, wind, temperature, humid- 
 ity, rainfall, etc. 
 
 Heat — Watching fire, making fires, observing friction and heat, play- 
 ing with toy steam engines, thermometers, which develop problems in 
 heat, combustion, expansion and contraction and other effects of heat. 
 
 Mechanical Devices — Playing with hoops, tops, pulleys, wheels, toy 
 machines, gyroscopes, pendulums, levers, watching thrown objects, balanc- 
 ing objects, etc., which develop problems in motor dynamics. 
 
 Sound — Vocalization, beating and drumming, blowing on toy instru- 
 ments, "listening to shells," speaking-tubes and telephones, experiment- 
 ing with conduction through air, water and timbers, with vibrating bodies, 
 echoes, etc., which develop problems in vibration, noises, tones, music, etc. 
 
 Light — Playing with reflectors, mirrors, prisms, lenses, water refrac- 
 tion, glasses, telescopes, which develop problems in light, color, optics, 
 time, etc. 
 
 Electricity — Experimenting and playing with magnets, batteries, induc- 
 ^n coils, telephones, telegraph instruments, dynamos, electric motors, 
 electric lights, etc., which present problems in electrodynamics. 
 
274 University of California Publications in Education. [^o\. 5 
 
 The specialized sciences have no place in child life. These 
 nature activities give what is natural to child life and interest, 
 and lay the foundation for a more advanced study later. 
 
 Dramatic Activities arise out of the imitative and dramatic 
 tendencies and the hungers to experience the form and content 
 of conduct and express environmental situations. In the adult 
 these tendencies and hungers have developed the dramatic arts. 
 In the little child dramatization intensifies ideas and bears the 
 same relationship to an appreciation of conduct that manipula- 
 tion bears to knowledge of physical nature. The child interprets 
 conduct through his own motor activities and later expresses an 
 ideal. In all classes of children these activities grip the imagi- 
 nation. They correlate and give added zest to other phases of 
 activity. Under leadership they plant rich associations that give 
 immediate educational values and help develop the capacity for 
 some of the higher recreative arts in the adult. 
 
 Leadership for the little children should supply opportunities 
 for a broad range of imitative dramatization of single, social, 
 and environmental situations. For the larger children, leader- 
 ship should be given in the dramatization of social situations, 
 in the construction of plots from stories and history, in the use 
 and adaptation of plays and in the development of simple page- 
 ants. These latter forms of dramatization will lead towards the 
 celebration of holidays. 
 
 Rhythmic and Musical Activities arise out of vocal and man- 
 ual experimentations and the pleasures derived from rhythm, 
 tone, and melody. These pleasures with their emotional relation- 
 ships have created the musical arts of man. In the child, rhyth- 
 mic and musical activities begin in crude vocalization, bodily 
 movements, and drummings and develop through various stages 
 of complexity. There are (1) bodily rhythms, as running, stamp- 
 ing, marching, skipping, etc., up to dancing; (2) vocal rhythms 
 and tones, as counting, repeating sounds and tones, up to poetry 
 and singing; (3) drummings and beatings with sticks, fingers 
 or cans, picking sounds on strings and blowing sounds on bottles 
 or shells, up to the use of drums, cymbals and string or wind 
 instruments. 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 275 
 
 These are all music activities to the child, but the music of 
 the race is highly evolved, and it has a complex written language. 
 It is a simple matter to organize the musical activities charac- 
 teristic of each age period, but the transition to the musical activ- 
 ities of the racial type or to an appreciation of these is achieved 
 for the masses only through a broad association or skilled leader- 
 ship. Individuals differ enormously in musical capacities. All 
 children should have their musical impulses developed to the 
 point of adjustment in the community social recreative life. 
 
 In the transition three methods of leadership or instruction 
 are possible: (1) The natural musical activities of the child may 
 be organized and led into the racial type; (2) the gap may be 
 bridged through play methods of instruction; or (3) music may 
 be interpreted as a formal subject of study that can be taught 
 only by formal methods under the discipline of instruction. The 
 last is the traditional method and essential for any advanced 
 skill. The second method secures results especially with the 
 little children. The first method is used frequently in boys ' clubs 
 and in the organization of children's orchestras.^ It has been 
 highly refined on one side for training in rhythm by Dalcroze.® 
 This method has back of it the power of instinct, it opens the 
 channels of natural development to leadership, it can be supple- 
 mented by all other methods as desired. 
 
 Social Activities arise out of the social instincts and hungers. 
 These instincts have amalgamated all human instincts for the 
 development of society. Their expression in the child gives social 
 experience and they frequently take the form of experimentation 
 with human nature. 
 
 The play school is a child's social center. In addition to the 
 social life involved in each group of activities, there is a general 
 social life and spirit. All the social relationships of the special 
 activities are looped up in this larger social unity. It involves 
 all human relationships in the school and it radiates into the 
 social environment and the home. In these social activities are 
 expressed all the impulses of developing human nature in social 
 relationships. Social attitudes, habits of speech and manner of 
 
 5 See Dykema, in Chubb, Festivals and Plays in School and Elsewhere. 
 
 6 Sadler, M. E., The Eurhythmies of Balcroze. 
 
276 University of California Puhlications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 address are developed which contain many inconsistencies and 
 conflicts and which change in emphasis and importance by age 
 periods, but fuse gradually into a system of ways of acting that 
 determines the adult's social adjustment. In addition, there are 
 I the developing ideas and habits in the relationship of boys and 
 I girls that differentiate during the adolescent years into sex habits 
 I and ideals and lay the foundation for adult domestic adjustment. 
 I Therefore in the general social life of the Play School and in 
 ' the social life connected with each special group of activity con- 
 duct must be guided by each leader according to accepted social 
 standards of individual and group fair-play, good humor, cour- 
 tesy, justice and common sense, yet ideal social relationships. 
 The foundation for social and citizenship adjustment, sex hygiene 
 y^ and domestic adjustment must be established in this leadership. 
 A special social hour should be organized to co-ordinate the 
 social side of the activities and to give the opportunity for 
 establishing democratic ideals. From this the leadership should 
 extend to the spontaneous group organizations in and out of the 
 Play School. 
 
 Vocal and Linguistic Activities arise from the vocalizing and 
 communicative instincts. These instincts are the primary ele- 
 ments in the evolution of the languages and the literatures of 
 the world. In the child, these activities begin in vocalization 
 and develop through imitation and the need for communication 
 into the vernacular. 
 
 Linguistic activities are associated with each group of activ- 
 ities. The child tends to vocalize his thoughts and feelings. He 
 is the great questioner. Conversations arise. Thus he develops 
 language as a tool and elaborates a system of ideas. Both these 
 tendencies should be perfected through leadership. Language 
 is the tool of knowledge and rational adjustment. Conversation 
 consciously developed through sympathy or elicited and directed 
 is the method that gives progress in language power, thought 
 and systematic information, and carries with it the living motive. 
 In the activities interests develop that, under leadership, are 
 expressed in narratives and discussions, and these are the oppor- 
 tunities for mind "fertilization," as well as the elevation of ex- 
 periences to the level of general ideas and conscious understand- 
 
1914] Hetherington.—TJie Play School of 1913. 277 
 
 ings. These conversations are also distinctly language lessons 
 and should be guided carefully as such. 
 
 With the development of the activities and interest under 
 leadership, the need arises for a written language and it should 
 be taught at this time. When gained as a tool, it should he used, 
 not in reading unrelated stuff, hut in connection with the activ- 
 ities as a source of information, and as a real phase of living. 
 
 For the little children, story-telling of a rational kind should 
 have a prominent place and later this function should become 
 supplementary in helping the individual select stories to read 
 that are adapted to his needs. It has been demonstrated that 
 leadership will bring children to the realization that there is a 
 literature to cover each interest and satisfy each desire in life. 
 
 Number, for the child, is a linguistic activity. It should be 
 developed in connection with his games and later manual and 
 environmental activities. 
 
 The absorption of a foreign tongue, naturally by its use in 
 play, is another phase of these linguistic activities, and when the 
 environment makes it desirable can be easily brought about. 
 
 Economic Activities arise out of organic hungers, the acquis- 
 itive impulse and economic needs and desires. The child is de- 
 pendent and gains his economic adjustment through the family, 
 but the necessity of labor to produce wealth and of paying others 
 for wealth desired is ever present, and frequently arouses eco- 
 nomic activities which need guidance. So leadership should be 
 given in earning money by service or effort that produces eco- 
 nomic values. The organization of vacant-lot gardens and leader- 
 ship in marketing produce is important. The opportunities for 
 house and yard repairs at home and in the neighborhood need 
 leadership. Taking contracts, with the figuring of materials, cost 
 and profits, are frequently possible even among children. Bank- 
 ing, the use of the United States postal savings depositories, and 
 personal bookkeeping are phases of these activities. The drama- 
 tization of store and house with buying and selling familiarizes 
 the child with the social forms of exchange. 
 
278 TJniversiUj of California Publications in Education. ["Vol. 5 
 
 Summary 
 
 If the analysis of the several classes of activities as given is 
 practically correct, then we have a natural grouping of child 
 activities susceptible of practical organization and administration 
 for efficient educational results when considered from any stand- 
 point of educational theory or practice. Criticism and continued 
 experience will doubtless dictate some changes, but the classi- 
 fication shows at least the possibility of organizing several groups 
 of activities: 
 
 (1) That include all the spontaneous and traditional tenden- 
 cies in child life; 
 
 (2) That express, in child form, the human tendencies that 
 have created civilization; 
 
 (3) That retain in natural and related forms the germs and 
 expanding lines of every subject of interest that has arisen with 
 adult civilization; 
 
 (4) That give the opportunity for so directing the child's 
 living forces that he will expand naturally according to his 
 capacities into an inheritance of some part of the race achieve- 
 ments ; 
 
 (5) That meet the demands of every aim of education 
 whether of development or adjustment, and therefore that relate 
 the claims of physical, moral, vocational and cultural education. 
 
 (6) That simplify the problem of co-operation between the 
 play-school center and the home; 
 
 (7) That present the basis for a school programme which will 
 not devitalize children who are subjected to three or four hours 
 of it, and may be extended to the whole waking life for three 
 hundred and sixty-five days in the year, making every child 
 physically, intellectually, and morally stronger. 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 279 
 
 II 
 
 THE SUMMER DEMONSTRATION 
 
 The summer demonstration of the Play School was held in 
 the eucalyptus grove west of the cinder track on the campus of 
 the University of California. Opening June 23 and closing 
 August 2, it lasted six weeks corresponding to the summer session 
 of the University. The daily session was confined to the morning 
 hours in order that the school might not conflict with the work 
 of the model playground organized for all the children of Berke- 
 ley, as a practice center for students. 
 
 The fact that the Play School lasted but three hours a day 
 for six weeks in contrast to the theoretical all-day, 365-days-in- 
 the-year programme, and that some of the leaders could give 
 only part time, put limitations on the demonstration that must 
 be constantly kept in mind. 
 
 Nevertheless, a conservative judgment, based on the attitude 
 and comments of children, parents, Play School leaders, edu- 
 cators and social workers, would pronounce it a success. 
 
 The plan adopted for the summer Play School emphasized 
 those elements that are fundamentally important in the child's 
 education and susceptible of demonstration during a brief period, 
 i.e., the effective organization and leadership of activities, perfect 
 freedom yet perfect discipline, and the insinuation of a social 
 spirit and ethical ideal into every activity. 
 
 The eucalyptus grove, converted from a university wood and 
 trash pile into a place of beauty, had many advantageous points 
 for a Play School. Contrasted with the ordinary schoolroom 
 and yard, it was a source of inspiration to those interested in 
 education and child welfare. The only inconvenience experi- 
 enced from the elements was due to the influence of the wind 
 in those activities requiring the handling of paper, but this could 
 be easily remedied by a few adjustable canvas walls. 
 
 Because of uncertainty as to enrollment and conservatism 
 in expenditures, the equipment in the several activities was re- 
 
280 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol. 5 
 
 duced to the minimum, which fact caused many administrative 
 complications. The cost was greatly reduced by the co-operation 
 of the agricultural, manual arts and zoological departments. 
 
 Though the general equipment was very simple, the material 
 environment can be made ideal for a Play School with little 
 additional expense, and it will then serve as a model for the 
 summer months in other communities. For the winter, addi- 
 tional protection from the rain and wind would be needed. 
 
 Applications for admission were so numerous that the enroll- 
 ment had to be limited almost from the start and a long waiting 
 list accumulated. The total enrollment was 207 ; the waiting list 
 99; the average daily attendance 147; maximum attendance on 
 one day 207. Totals by groups were: Four- to five-year-old 
 group, 56 ; seven to eight, 43 ; nine to ten, 45 ; over ten, girls 34, 
 boys 29. The many applications for the admission of children 
 above and below the age limits do not appear in these figures. 
 
 Though applications were made by parents for younger chil- 
 dren, the enrollment was limited to those between the ages of 
 four and twelve. However, three adolescent girls and two adoles- 
 cent boys were enrolled because of their personal insistence and 
 willingness "to do anything to get in." 
 
 Because of the necessity for accompanying their parents on 
 vacation trips, some pupils dropped out and a few were substi- 
 tuted. This fact caused the daily attendance to fluctuate, though 
 the pupils who remained in town were faithful. It was the 
 unanimous feeling of the staff that the enrollment of another 
 year should be confined to those who could attend regularly. 
 
 For convenience, the children enrolled were divided into four 
 groups: those four and five years old; six and seven; eight and 
 nine; and ten to thirteen. In the older groups, the boys and 
 girls were separated. This classification worked very satisfac- 
 torily this year for the purposes of the demonstration, both from 
 the standpoint of the children and that of the organization of 
 activities. But, under all-year conditions, it would have to be 
 more detailed and flexible. 
 
 Through the efforts of several University officials, a staff 
 of leaders or teachers was organized, which was willing to meet 
 the demands of a brief summer demonstration. Such a staff 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 281 
 
 was necessarily quite different from that required for the regular 
 school, and included a supervisor, a group of expert leaders and 
 assistants drawn from the summer session students. The super- 
 visor was responsible for the classification of children, the organ- 
 ization and leadership of the activities, the physical and moral 
 conditions and the social spirit of the whole school. 
 
 The activities of the children between four and six years of \X 
 age were organized under one leader, with assistants. Children 
 above six were organized departmentally under experts in the 
 several activities. Though departmental organization for the 
 younger children may be inadvisable under usual conditions, it 
 seemed essential under summer conditions to give a clear demon- 
 stration. 
 
 It was planned to have a summer session student in charge 
 of each group of children to look after their general welfare 
 and assist the leaders, but only one full-time assistant could be 
 secured, and she was placed in charge of the six- and seven-year- 
 old group. 
 
 Departmental leaders were appointed for the various activ- 
 ities — the big-muscle, manual, environmental and nature, musical 
 and linguistic (with which the dramatic were combined). The 
 supervisor gave special attention to the social activities. 
 
 As two of the leaders could give only part time on account 
 of lecture courses and as student assistants could be secured only 
 for irregular hours, the number involved in the work was large 
 and was no criterion of the staff necessary for a play school 
 under normal all-year conditions." The large number of visitors 
 aLso made necessary an assistant to the supervisor and a gate- 
 
 7 Those involved in the summer demonstration were as follows: 
 
 Beach, Dr. E. C, Director Department Physical Education and Play, 
 Summer Session. 
 
 Hetherington, Clark W., Director of Play School. 
 
 Hetherington, Mrs. D. Alford, Supervisor of Play School. 
 
 Shafer, Miss J. F., Assistant to Supervisor. 
 
 Hunt, Miss, student, attendant at gate (part time). 
 
 Leader of four- and five-year-old group, Miss Eose Sheehan, supervisor 
 kindergarten department, Sacramento; assisted by the Misses Mizpah 
 Jackson and Helen Hoskins and Miss Vera F. Holland, who cared for the 
 physical needs of the children, and part time by Miss Theresa Summerfield. 
 
 Student assistant in charge of the six- and seven-year-old group, Miss 
 Anna Lang. 
 
 Leader of big-muscle activities, Mrs. Irma H. Hutchinson, supervisor 
 of physical training, elementary schools, Los Angeles; assisted by Miss 
 
282 University of California Publications in Education, [^o^- ^ 
 
 keeper. This situation, however, did not effect the attitude or 
 interest of the children. 
 
 The departmental leaders were secured from among public 
 school teachers of subjects most closely related to our classified 
 activities. None of them were trained to handle all the phases 
 of the group activity for all the age periods. Some problems 
 developed because of this fact. "While there was a slight ten- 
 dency for the spirit of the teacher to appear instead of that of 
 the leader, this was to be expected, especially in a demonstration 
 of such short duration. As the ideal of the Play School became 
 clearer to the staff, its already earnest efforts were in most cases 
 intensified by enthusiasm and self-sacrificing devotion; and it 
 was to this fact that the success of the demonstration was largely 
 due. 
 
 This enthusiasm may shed some light on the problem of 
 securing Play School leaders. The question of securing instruc- 
 tors for a comparatively new field is always replete with diffi-- 
 culties, but teachers are alert, anxious to gain help on every hand 
 and many are already using methods, wherever possible under 
 their cramped conditions, which tend to relieve the worst features 
 of our schoolroom work. They will rapidly accept every better 
 way of doing things, when our practical school organizers give 
 them an opportunity. 
 
 In spite of the brevity of the demonstration, the several 
 groups of activities were organized and conducted through the 
 session with the exceptions of the physical nature experimenta- 
 tions, for which we had no equipment, and the economic activities. 
 
 Mable Ish and part time by the Misses P. Eeed, Edna Farley and Lelia 
 Grasscock. 
 
 Leader of manual activities, Mr. Phillip S. Hasty, instructor of manual 
 training, Oakland Intermediate School; assisted part time by Mr. Geo. H. 
 Jenson and Miss Lulu West. 
 
 Leader of environmental and nature activities, John E. Imrie, princi- 
 pal of the LeConte School, Berkeley; assisted by Miss D. Fish (resigned) 
 and then by Miss Jean Cunningham of Berkeley, and part time by Mr. 
 J. E. Cuddeback and Mr. Wade Thomas. Mr. H. J. Snooks was appointed 
 caretaker of the animals and equipment borrowed from the zoological 
 department. 
 
 Leader of story-telling and dramatic activities, Miss Alice O. Hunt, 
 teacher of grade schools, Alameda. 
 
 Leader of rythmic and musical activities, Miss Olive Wilson, teacher 
 of music, San Francisco; assisted by Mrs. Ida E. Varney and Miss Harriet 
 Thompson. 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Play School of 1913. 283 
 
 The dramatic activities were combined with story-telling and only 
 partially developed. 
 
 Story-telling was emphasized, but, apart from the conversa- 
 tions connected with the several activities, no general attempt 
 was made to organize the more specialized or developed linguistic 
 activities or to attach interest to book sources except as this 
 could be done incidentally. Such effort during the brief time 
 at our disposal would have distracted attention from what we 
 considered the fundamental part of the demonstration. Another 
 summer it will be possible to organize the book resources con- 
 nected with the activities. 
 
 The programme of three hours daily made it impossible to 
 organize apart from the assembly period a special social hour. 
 Particular attention, however, was given to the general social 
 life of the children, with most satisfactory results. 
 
 We had no apparatus to develop the gymnastic plays, but 
 the games and dancing demonstrated again the dominant value 
 of big-muscle activities. Though our programme does not make 
 it entirely clear, we wished to show that the big-muscle, the man- 
 ual and the environmental and nature activities should, under 
 leadership skilled in the conversational and social elements, oc- 
 cupy the greater part of the child's time.* 
 
 The excursions had to be confined to Saturday mornings, and 
 the unusual hour caused some difficulty at first, but they grew 
 in popularity. One over-night trip to Eedwood Caiion, made 
 possible by the summer school instructors in physical education, 
 was a source of great satisfaction and pleasant associations to the 
 older boys. A similar trip for the girls was prevented by rain. 
 
 A very earnest effort to demonstrate the development of mus- 
 ical power by play methods secured valuable results with the little 
 children, but failed with the larger children. 
 
 The questions of choice of activity by the children and the 
 time for the activities, two problems of broad educational signifi- 
 cance, had to be settled more or less arbitrarily. The question 
 of whether or not the children should be allowed to choose one 
 or more activities from the classified list and neglect the rest, 
 or should be organized according to the full programme, was 
 settled in favor of the latter alternative for four reasons : First, 
 
284 University of California Publications in Education. [Vol- 5 
 
 we wished to test the soundness of our classification. If sound, 
 all children will enter all activities, but with wide individual 
 variations. This is a problem to be met by leadership. Second, 
 under present social conditions, the choice of children is untrust- 
 worthy until they are organized in activities in which latent 
 hungers and instincts are expressed. Third, the form of the 
 activity is controlled largely by imitation. Fourth, we have no 
 data as to the distribution of time in the different classes of 
 activities at the several age periods necessary to develop efficiency 
 in adult life. For these reasons we organized practically all the 
 children in all the classes of activities. 
 
 Daily Schedule by Groups and Periods 
 
 4 to 5 
 Group 
 
 6 to 7 
 Group 
 
 8 to 9 
 Group 
 
 10 to 13 Group 
 Girls Boys 
 
 9:00 
 
 to 
 
 10:00 
 
 10:00 
 
 to 
 11:00 
 
 11:00 
 
 to 
 12:00 
 
 Opening Assembly Social Period: Music, Announcements, etc. 
 
 Linguistic activities 
 
 1:30 
 
 to 
 5:30 
 
 This 
 grouj) 
 having 
 
 a 
 special 
 leader 
 required 
 no 
 pro- 
 gramme 
 adjust- 
 ments 
 
 Big-muscle 
 activities 
 
 Linguistic 
 activities 
 
 Manual 
 activities 
 
 Ehythmic 
 
 musical 
 
 activities 
 
 Nature 
 activities 
 
 Big-muscle 
 
 activities 
 
 Manual 
 activities 
 
 Linguistic 
 activities 
 
 Big-muscle 
 activities 
 
 Ehythmic 
 
 musical 
 
 activities 
 
 Nature 
 activities 
 
 Ehythmic 
 
 musical 
 
 activities 
 
 Big-muscle 
 activities 
 
 Nature or 
 
 manual 
 
 activities 
 
 Manual 
 activities 
 
 Big-muscle 
 activities 
 
 Ehythmic 
 
 musical 
 
 activities 
 
 Nature or 
 
 manual 
 
 activities 
 
 Manual 
 activities 
 
 Activities on model playground and excursions 
 Saturday mornings: Excursions. Over-night excursions for older group 
 
 Instead of allowing each child to enter into an activity only 
 when the impulse prompted, we had a definite time for each 
 activity. Our reasons for this decision were : First, the former 
 plan required the leader to be on hand at all times and some of 
 
1914] Hetherington.—The Platj School of 1913. 285 
 
 our leaders could give only part time; second, the first plan 
 mixes the age groups and this complicates the problem of the 
 leaders; third, in the spontaneous life of children, the impulse 
 of the individual yields to the will of the group ; fourth, it has 
 been demonstrated on some of the best playgrounds that chil- 
 dren prefer a schedule of activities : a definite time for an activ- 
 ity; fifth, the daily and mental physical rhythms, the fluctua- 
 tions in susceptibilities to enthusiasms at different hours and 
 the transitions of interests must still be worked out. Therefore, 
 each activity was scheduled at a specific time, as shown in the 
 foregoing schedule. 
 
 Results and Criticisms 
 
 Health. The health of the children was excellent. Even a 
 casual observer could see the improvement during the six weeks. 
 Although contagious diseases existed in the city, none were con- 
 tracted in the Play School. Three children had to be sent home 
 on account of pediculosis, but later returned in satisfactory con- 
 dition. The physical freedom, the pure air, the opportunity for 
 social contact (the three factors so lacking in the regular school- 
 room and so vitally necessary to the development of efficient 
 human beings) were most conspicuously present. At the close 
 of the daily session, the children were as fresh physically and 
 mentally as at the beginning. 
 
 The result with the children. The children were exceedingly 
 happy, free, alert, and concentrated. A backward boy in the 
 public school said: *'I don't know why, but somehow I like to 
 go to this here school." On the final day several children cried 
 because school was closing and many more expressed earnest 
 regrets. Discipline, as the word is ordinarily understood, was 
 practically nil. A look or a word and, two or three times, a brief 
 discussion was all that was necessary. A suggestion that a child 
 was discourteous or should go home was considered the extreme 
 punishment. 
 
 The children were free within the limits of staying with their 
 groups. Naturally, there was noise. Habitually the little chil- 
 dren passed from one activity to another on the run and with 
 
286 University of California PuhUcations in Education, i^ol. 5 
 
 a whoop. But there was law and order in it all, and frequently 
 a quiet that was surprising. 
 
 Concentration was generally marked. The children were 
 indifferent to outside attractions. One day when two hundred 
 visitors were present "the absorption of the children in their 
 work" was observed as a striking characteristic of the school. 
 Where teaching developed in the activities, attention was as easily 
 held as within four walls. The only place where "holding at- 
 tention" appeared as a problem was in the more formal side of 
 the musical activities, and even here it was in process of practical 
 solution when the school closed. 
 
 The courtesy in the leadership soon developed the spirit of 
 courtesy and co-operation among the children. An older "diffi- 
 cult boy" a "leader in trouble" soon found himself a leader in 
 courtesy and co-operation. 
 
 Instead of the "teacher" driving the children, one might 
 almost say that the children came to the point in several activities 
 of driving the leaders through their eagerness. Frequently, 
 though not generally, the attitude approached the ideal: one of 
 eager and intense effort, with the idea of the leader as an aid 
 in satisfying hungers and as a source of appeal in case of diffi- 
 culty. The spirit and attitude of the children during the summer 
 demonstration seems to indicate just what has been revealed 
 many times before: that it is possible through leadership to 
 have perfect freedom combined with perfect control. This is 
 the ideal. 
 
 The attitude of the parents. Many parents visited the school. 
 Some came with their children and spent the morning watching 
 the children and leaders in their activites. Some brought their 
 home habits and frequently "nagged" their children, but they 
 saw quite a diffierent method of dealing with children demon- 
 strated. 
 
 This visiting by parents is suggestive in fulfilling the theory 
 concerning the relationship betwen the home and the school. 
 If the Play School is to become the community center of the 
 child's active life, it must also become a social center for parents 
 where they may see their children in that life and learn how 
 to co-operate in it. Several parents volunteered the information 
 
 y" 
 
1914] Hethermgton.—The Play School of 1913. 287 
 
 that they would forego a vacation next year in order that their 
 children might be in the play school. 
 
 Attitude of visitors. Generous, indeed, was the attitude of 
 visitors. The staff assumed the policy that visitors had a right 
 to see and learn to the limit of actual interference with the 
 activites and if the visitors were met with courtesy they would 
 respond in a like spirit. 
 
 Visitors were numerous, interest exceedingly keen, but harsh 
 criticism entirely lacking. Criticism was expected, but less was 
 received than might easily have been given by educators. The 
 desire for information was evinced by the many questions. All 
 through, the attitude seemed to be one of generous inquiry. The 
 majority of inquiries covered the relation of the scheme to the 
 public school system, the problem of cost, the place of the formal 
 subjects of study in the programme of activities, and the source 
 of "competent teachers." 
 
 Expressions of approbation were numerous. A Boston edu- 
 cational woman said: "I have seen many educational experi- 
 ments in the United States, but this is the finest. ' ' Such phrases 
 as "this is perfect" or "ideal," or "this seems like a dream." 
 or "you are on the right track — keep up the good work," were 
 frequent. One mother voiced a sentiment broadly held, ' ' I should 
 consider it a great privilege if I could keep my children in such 
 a school all the year." More substantial was the declaration of 
 a leading commissioner of recreation from Oakland, that another 
 year the Play School administration might have two or three of 
 Oakland's expert playground directors for their full time while' 
 paid by the commission, in order that they might catch the spirit 
 of the Play School. 
 
 Following a paper on the Play School in the Pacific Coast 
 Conference and a question by an auditor as to whether the Play 
 School would be "absorbed" by the public school, Professor 
 Kugh of the University of California declared that in his opinion 
 the Play School would absorb the public school, as a part of the 
 whole. An elderly teacher passed in this interesting statement 
 headed "An Observer's Comments on the Play School": (1) 
 This is the beginning of the end of war; (2) courtesy is wonder- 
 fully developed here; (3) democracy is the keynote of the play. 
 
288 University of California Puhlications in Education, [^ol. 5 
 
 Recommendations 
 
 1. As the theory of the Play School covers the ages from 
 early infancy to the time approximately of adolescence, arrange- 
 ments should be made another year for handling younger and, 
 if possible, older children. A nursery for infants between the 
 ages of one and four years, having sleeping and feeding accom- 
 modations with a professional nurse and a special leader of 
 infants in charge, should be established where mothers may bring 
 and check or stay with their infants and where both mothers 
 and teachers may see the physical care and educational leader- 
 ship of infants demonstrated. To handle the older childrer^ 
 more comprehensive arrangements for manual activities, such as 
 cooking and for the leadership of excursions, will have to be 
 made, and the leaders must be appointed early that they may 
 have sufficient time to prepare themselves for the work. 
 
 2. Opportunities should be afforded the summer session 
 students having the required ability to gain experience and to 
 secure credit either as group leaders or as assistants to the depart- 
 ment leaders. This would also solve the problem of assistants. 
 
 3. Though not essential, it would be of great value to have 
 some stationary gymnastic apparatus installed. Very few teach- 
 ers or school authorities appreciate the function of apparatus in 
 the spontaneous play -life of the child. 
 
UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS- (Continued) 
 
 \ Vol. 11. 1. Elements of the Kato Language, by Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp 1-176 
 
 plates 1-45. October, 1912 ' 2 00 
 
 2. Phonetic Elements of the Diegueno Language, by A. L. Kroeber and 
 
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 CLASSICAL PHILOLOGY.— Edward B. Clapp, WUUam A. MerriU, Herbert C. Nutting 
 Editors. Cited as Univ. Calif. Publ. Class. Phil. 
 
 Volumes now completed: 
 
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 3. The Whence and Whither of the Modem Science of Language, by 
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 1908 30 
 
 Cicero's Knowledge of Lucretius's Poems, by William A. Merrill. 
 
 Pp. 35-42. September, 1909 10 
 
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 January, 1910 '. 10 
 
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 Pp. 57-79. February, 1910 25 
 
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 Pp. 173-226. June, 1912 50 
 
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 MODERN PHILOLOGY.— Charles M. Gayley, H. K. Schilling, Rudolph Schevill, Editors. 
 Cited as Univ. Calif. Publ. Mod. Phil. 
 Volumes now completed: 
 
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