IRLF
omestie Economy
PAU L
DAL
O/7
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
(COMPLETE)
ADAPTED FOB USE IN TRAINING COLLEGES, SCHOOLS
AND NURSING INSTITUTIONS, AND AS A
DOMESTIC BOOK OF HEALTH
BY
F. T. PAUL, F.E.C.S.
Surgeon to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, Professor in Medical Jurisprudence
Victoria University, and Lecturer in Domestic Economy at the
Edge Hill Training College, Liverpool
WITH 175 ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST 16* STREET
1894
All rights reserved
PBEFACE
THE general scope and arrangement of the instruction
contained in this text-book on Domestic Economy are
founded upon experience gained by the author in deliver-
ing annually a course of lectures on the subject at the
Edge Hill Training College, Liverpool, the outline of
which was originally suggested by Mr. Samuel Greg
Kathbone, for many years the Chairman of the Liverpool
School Board. It is hoped that the book may prove
useful to other Training Colleges, as well as to High
Schools, Elementary Schools, Nursing Institutions, and
to. house wives generally.
The section on Physiology, with which the subject is
introduced, pretends only to give a very short and
elementary sketch, the object being rather to convey a
general conception of the structure and working of the
human body, than to teach the details of any part of it.
The next sections on Food and Clothing are more
complete ; but none of the available space has been taken
418543
iv PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
up with work which can only be properly taught in
practical classes, such as the practical details of cooking,
dressmaking, and laundry work.
Kegarding Health as the first principle of Domestic
Economy, somewhat more attention than is usual in a
work of this class has been devoted to the teaching of
subjects specially concerned with it,. Thus Domestic
Sanitation has been fully treated of under the headings
The Home, Air, Ventilation, Heating, Lighting, Water
Supply, and Eemoval of Waste Matters, and much space
has been occupied with a popular consideration of the
Causes and Prevention of Disease, Home Nursing, and
First Aid in Emergencies.
For much help in preparing the chapters on Thrift,
1 am indebted to Miss Dewhurst, the teacher in this
subject at the Edge Hill Training College.
The book is illustrated with a hundred and seventy-
five engravings, of which fifty-one have been specially
drawn for it. The remainder have been liberally supplied
by Messrs. LONGMANS, GREEN, & Co. from various of their
illustrated publications, chiefly QUAIN'S ' Anatomy,'
FURNEAUX' * Animal Physiology,' WILSON'S * Health
Science,' and CORFIELD'S ' Laws of Health.'
F. T. PAUL.
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL.
CONTENTS
PART I
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Introductory 1
II. The human body Its relation to other things Features
characteristic of animal life . r . . . . . 5
III. Human work The body a living machine The parts for
working and the parts for supplying power ... 7
IV. Food the source of human power Food as fuel Parts of
the body systematically arranged in groups . . 9
V. The digestive system Its various parts The mouth The
tongue, teeth, and salivary glands 12
VI. Digestive system (continued) The gullet Stomach Small
intestine Large intestine Liver Sweetbread . . 18
VII. The digestion of food The digestive processes The food
principles 23
VIII. Digestion of food (continued) The digestive juices Their
action on food Summary of digestion . . . . 25
IX. The circulation of the blood Blood Situation Character
Corpuscles Uses 27
X. Circulation of the blood Heart, arteries, and veins . . 30
XI. Respiration Kespiratory organs Changes between the
blood and air The chest Inspiration and expiration . 37
XII. The removal of waste matters Source of waste matters
Skin Kidneys . 41
XIII. The skeleton The skeleton of various animals The uses
ot the skeleton The structure and characters of the
bones 47
VI
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTKU
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
Joints Immovable, elastic, and gliding The move-
ments and essential parts of gliding joints . .
The muscles Muscles the cause of movements
voluntary and involuntary muscles muscular ac-
tion
The nervous system The parts of the nervous system
Nerve force like electricity Dependence of one
part upon another
The sense organs The eye and ear .
The sense organs (continued) The organs of scent,
taste, and touch
The nervous centres The brain and spij al marrow .
The nerves
Food The four alimentary principles .
The food stuffs Classification of foods . . . .
Flesh meat, its qualities, composition, and digestion
Bones, heart, liver, kidneys, and sweetbread .
Beef Veal Mutton Lamb Pork Bacon and Sau-
PAGB
53
59
62
07
72
75
7S
81
83
rtO
XXV. Poultry Game -Fish Shellfish .... MO
XXVI. Milk Its composition i2
XXVII. Milk Its characters Buttermilk- Sour milk Curds
and whey Koumiss 04
XXVIII. Butter- Cheese Eggs 07
XXIX. Vegetable foods General characters Varieties . . 99
XXX. The cereals Wheat Wheaten flour Its constituents
and digestibility 101
XXXI. Oats Barley Eye Maize Eice Arrowroot Tapi-
oca Sago 105
XXXII. The legumes Peas Beans Lentils . . . . 110
XXXIII. Fresh vegetables Their composition Potato Turnip
Carrot Cabbage Cauliflower Celery Onion
and others 113
XXXIV. Fresh vegetables Lettuce Cress Mushroom Vege-
table fruits Tomato Vegetable marrow Cucum-
ber Rhubarb Fruits 117
XXXV. Fruit Eaw Cooked Dried Preserves Beverages
made from fruit 119
XXXVI. Cooking General principles of roasting, boiling,
stewing, frying, and grilling Soups and beef-
tea 123
CONTENTS
vn
CHAPTER PAGE
XXXVII. Cooking Fish Milk Eggs Vegetables Bread-
making Fruit 126
XXXVIII. The preservation of foods Meat -Frozen meat . . 130
XXXIX. Preservation of foods Meat (continued) Fish Milk
Eggs Vegetables Fruit 132
XL. Unwholesome foods From decomposition The pre-
sence of infectious diseases 136
XLL Beverages Alcoholic and non-alcoholic Water Tea 140
XLII. Other non-alcoholic beverages Coffee -Chicory
Cocoa Aerated waters 143
XLIII. Alcoholic beverages Action of alcohol Varieties of
alcoholic drinks ........ 147
XLIV. Alcoholic beverages (continued) Ale Stout Light
wines Fortified wines Spirits Beverages suit-
able to various conditions of life . . . . 149
XLV. Diets : Animal, vegetable, and mixed diets . . . 153
XLVI. Diets Average daily amount of food Excess of food
Too little food Times for eating . . . 155
XL VII. Diets for infants, children, adults, and the old -For
climate and sickness 158
XL VIII. Clothing Bodily heat : the means by which it is regu-
lated The uses of clothing for protection and
ornament 162
XLIX. Dress materials Leather Furs Hair . . . . 166
L. Dress materials Feathers Wool Mohair Alpaca
Cashmere Camel hair Silk Cotton Flax
Jute Hemp Coir Straw and grass . . . 109
LI. Dress materials Microscopic characters Properties
Warmth 174
LII. Properties of clothing Power of absorbing moisture
Porosity Waterproof properties Inflammability . 179
LIII. Dress Principles of construction Natural clothing
Faults Constriction of the head, neck, arms, hands,
and waist 183
LIV. Dress Constriction of the legs and feet Impediments
Unnatural support Excessive weight Improper
material Good taste 190
LV. Garments Features of healthy garments Sanitary
clothing Sanitary boots ...... 194
LVI. Gloves Hats Outdoor wraps Night-clothes
Clothes for infants and children .... 199
Vlll
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
C HAPTKR PAOI
LVII. Personal cleanliness Dirt Different kinds of dirt The
skin 202
LVIII. Care of the person Daily washing The bath, warm, cold,
and shower 206
LIX. Personal cleanliness Sea bathing Turkish bath Va-
pour bath Medicated baths Public baths Care of
the teeth and hair 209
LX. Work and rest The effect of muscular and mental work
upon the body 213
LXI. Work and rest Physical exercise Gymnastics Recrea-
tion-Sleep 217
PART II
LXII. The home Requirements for a modern house Situa-
tion Aspect -Elevation Subsoil .... 221
LXIII. Construction Walls, roof, windows, and floors . . 226
LXIV. Construction Fireplaces and chimneys Arrangement
of rooms Gas and water supply Bath room
Waste pipes 230
LXV. Material and treatment of the floors . . . . 233
LXVI. Treatment of the walls Paint, varnish, whitewash,
distemper, wall papers, paper hanging . . . 236
LXVII. Treatment of the windows The bedroom Size-
Ventilation Cleanliness Furniture . . . . 240
LXVIII. Air Characters, weight, currents, composition . . 245
LXIX. Oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid 248
LXX. Ammonia Law of diffusion of gases Ozone Mois-
ture 251
LXXI. Coarse dust Fine dust Living germs . . .' . 254
LXXII. Ventilation Importance of pure air Test for im-
puritiesMode of calculating amount of fresh air
required by each person 257
LXXIII. Ventilation Methods Principles Natural ventila-
tion Special apparatus Inlets 261
LXXIV, Ventilation Special outlets 267
LXXV. Heating : Association with ventilation Natural sources
of heat -Indoor temperature Artificial sources cf
heat , . 273
CONTENTS ix
rllAI'TFK TAQH
LXXVI. Fuels : Coal -Coke- Peat -Wood -Charcoal Coal
gas and mineral oil 275
LXXVII. Smoke Communication of heat Heating apparatus
Open grates The kitchen range . . . . 278
LXXVIII. Heating apparatus : American stoves Slow combus-
tion stoves Gas stoves Hot pipes Hot air . 283
LXXIX. Lighting Candles Fats and waxes Colza and
mineral oils Gas Coal tar 289
LXXX. Coal gas Composition Illuminating quality
Yield Storage and distribution Gas poisoning
Explosions 293
LXXXI. Lamps and burners Paraffin lamps Gas lamps
Electric light -Arc lamps Incandescent lamps . 297
LXXXII. Water supply Natural sources of water Characters
of water suitable for drinking and other domestic
purposes 302
LXXXIII. Storage and distribution of water Cisterns Distri-
bution pipes Diseases due to impure water . . 306
LXXXIV. Purification of water Filtration Boiling Disin-
fection Distillation Softening of hard water . 310
LXXXV. Hot-water apparatus A dangerous apparatus The
worm boiler apparatus The reservoir apparatus 313
LXXXVI. Waste matters Their removal in the country and
in town The conservancy and water-carriage
systems 318
LXXXVII. Conservancy system Ash-pits, cesspools, earth
closets Water-carriage system Ventilation and
trapping of drains 321
LXXXVIII. The house drain : sink waste Bath waste Rain-
water pipes Yard gullies . . . . 326
LXXXIX. The lavatory : situation Apparatus Water supply
Connection with the drain 330
XC. The disposal of sewage: pollution of rivers Dis-
charged into the sea Purification of sewage-
Sewage farms 335
XCI. Income and expenditure : Money . . . . 338
XCII. Expenditure Regulation of In town and country
- Rules . . . .- . . . . 340
XCIII. Thrift -Object of saving -How to save The
savings banks Penny banks ..... 344
x PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER PACK
XCIV. Post-office annuities and insurance Co-operation
Benefit and friendly societies Provident dispen-
saries 347
XCV. Building societies Co-operative stores Clothing
clubs Trade unions 351
XCVI. The cause and prevention of disease How to be of
service to sick people The relation of disease to
population and civilisation ..... 354
XCVII. Causes of illness : the prevention of chronic diseases
of the internal organs 357
XCVIII. Causes and prevention of chronic diseases (con-
tinued) 35'.)
XCIX. Infectious diseases Germs Alcoholic fermentation
Decomposition - Infection 362
C. Conditions of germ life Effect of isolation and
cleanliness Germs carried in air, water, and
food Conditions influencing infection . . 366
CI. The diseases caused by germs 3I5 1 .)
OIL The prevention of infectious diseases : personal pre-
cautions 373
CHI. Prevention of infectious diseases (continued) : In-
oculation Vaccination 376
CIV. Public precautions against infection Notification
isolation 380
CV. Prevention of infectious diseases by disinfection
Drains Typhoid, choleraic, and other discharges
The skin and mouth Wounds and sores . . 3*4
CVI. Disinfection of the sick room during and after in
fection Of infected linen, bedding, and clothing 387
CVII. Disinfectants : sulphurous acid gas, chlorine, car-
bolic acid, Condy's fluid, sanitas, eucalyptus oil,
camphor, thymol, boracic acid, iodoform, and
salts of zinc, iron, and mercury . . . . 390
CVIII. Home nursing The duties of a nurse- The sick
room Observation of the patient . . . 394
CIX. Attendance on the patieut Washing - Bed-sores
Administration of food 397
CX. Medicine The bed Changing sheets Hot and cold
applications 400
CXI. Food for invalids 405
CONTENTS
XI
CHAPTKK
CXII.
CXIII.
CXIV.
cxv.
CXVI.
CXVII.
CXVIII.
CXIX.
The St. John's Ambulance Association Value of first
aid Bleeding: varieties Treatment of internal
and external bleeding 410
Bleeding from wounds of the extremities Fractures :
symptoms, varieties, causes, treatment . . . 414
Special fractures of the arm, leg, ribs, spine, skull,
and face 418
Sprains, strains, and bruises Burns and scalds . . 423
Faiutin^ Apoplexy Epilepsy 426
Drowning Suffocation Choking 430
Foreign bodies in the alimentary canal In the nose,
ear, and eye Bites and stings Poisons . . 434
Bandaging Application of the triangular and roller
bandages .439
INDEX .447
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
PART I
CHAPTEE I
INTRODUCTORY
The meaning of ' domestic economy.' The title t Do-
mestic Economy ' is derived from the Latin word domus,
a house or home, and the Greek words oikos, a house,
and iioiiios, law.
The word ' economy ' by itself means the regulation
and management of a, house or home ; but it is gene-
rally used in the sense of care and prudence in the
expenditure of money. On this account, when we use
it in any other sense it has become necessary to put
before the noun a distinguishing adjective, as in political
economy, animal economy, and domestic economy.
Health should receive the first care in home manage-
ment. The management of the household expenses and
the details of cooking used to be regarded as the most
important branches of our subject. Now, however, we
believe that the guiding principles in the management
of the home should be founded upon the laws of health.
Comfort and prosperity will largely depend upon a good
and wise use of the money provided for the support of
the family ; but neither can be enjoyed without health.
Let health, then, be the first consideration.
ECONOMY
ed' for a healthy home. Health,
happiness, and contentment generally go together, and
for the very good reason that the conditions which make
a home really pleasant and comfortable are much the
same as those which make it healthy. Let us see what
these conditions are. First, the house must be bright,
sunny, airy, and clean ; it must be warmed, ventilated,
and drained in such a way as to be neither stuffy,
draughty, nor given to bad smells. Second, the food
must be wholesome and nourishing, sufficient, but not
too much. Third, the water must be pure and the
supply free. Fourth, the people must be clean and
well clothed, their work must be suitable to their
strength, and their rest sufficient. These are the chief
things needed for health, and do we not seek them also
for our pleasure and comfort ?
Domestic economy teaches how to make the home
healthy, happy, and contented. The knowledge which
enables a woman to make her home healthy, happy, and
contented is the real domestic economy, the true house-
hold science. If you know what is wanted for your
home, and how to perform your household duties, you
will need to spend less money than many of your less
fortunate neighbours, while you will be sure to get more
comfort. It is ignorance that is wasteful. Through
ignorance we buy the wrong sort of food, or w r e spoil
good food by bad cooking, or good clothes by bad wash-
ing, and do a hundred other things which end in bring-
ing poverty, discomfort, ill-temper, and ill-health into
the home.
The requirements of health are not expensive. The
conditions required for a healthy home are not expen-
sive ; they cost no more than you will pay for a home
without these conditions, and they are all within the
HEALTH 3
limits of the wages of any steady working man. Sun-
shine, fresh air, pure water, and cleanly habits are
fortunately not a question of money ; they are free to
rich and poor alike.
Food of some kinds is very dear, of others very
cheap ; but price bears very little relation to the nutri-
tive value of the food. The poor man's wife, if she
understands the use of the various food-stuffs, can buy
for her family for about ten shillings a week food as
valuable for the purposes of nutrition as the rich man's
wife will pay ten times that amount for. Not only will
the cheaper food, if properly chosen, yield as much
nourishment, but it will probably be more wholesome ;
for the body keeps in the best health and does the best
work on the simplest fare.
The same is true of clothing. If we understand the
necessary and useful purposes served by clothing, we
shall know that they are best fulfilled by the simplest
garments.
Even a bright, cheerful, healthy house to live in,
with proper conveniences and safe drainage, is more
often a matter of knowledge than rent. She who knows
the conditions which make a house healthy will find
one having these wholesome characters quite as cheap
as many others without them.
Subjects to be studied in domestic economy. The actual
things to be studied in domestic economy are the daily
necessaries of life. First and most important is food
its varieties, digestion, preparation, and uses. Then
there are other personal matters, such as clothing,
cleanliness, work, and rest. Next comes the house its
site, aspect, ventilation, warming, lighting, water-supply,
and drainage ; then its furnishing and cleaning. Lastly
must be considered sickness, accidents, and nursing.
B 2
4 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Under each of these heads there is much to learn, yet it
will be neither difficult nor irksome, because it deals
with the common facts of everyday life.
There is also one other subject which has not yet
been mentioned, a subject which, until recently, has
only been taught to doctors and other students of science,
a thing that some people still think it is better to know
nothing about, and that even most clever, well-educated
people do know nothing about. This subject is ourselves,
our actual bodies.
Have you ever seen some fine piece of modern
machinery at work ? Say, a newspaper printing machine.
At one end a tremendous roll of blank paper is rapidly
unwinding and passing into the machine ; at the other
end, newspapers, printed, folded, and quite ready for
use, are being turned out in vast numbers every minute.
Is it not wonderful ? How interesting to watch it ; to
have every part of the process explained, and to under-
stand this marvellous feat of printing whole newspapers
with such extraordinary rapidity from one set of type !
Yes, this is indeed wonderful ; but in the body of the
humblest animal is machinery more delicate and won-
derful than can be reached by the highest invention of
man's genius. Most marvellous and beautiful of all is
the machinery of the human, body, and though it is not
easy to understand, the pleasure of knowing something
of the most perfect work of the Creation well repays the
study. Thus, first of all, before learning how man's
wants should be supplied, let us try to learn something
of the human body this living machine which needs so
much care in food, clothes, and house.
THE HUMAN BODY 5
CHAPTEE II
THE HUMAN BODY ITS RELATION TO OTHER THINGS
FEATURES CHARACTERISTIC OF ANIMAL LIFE
Man's body is like that of the higher animals. The
human body is composed of the same materials, and is
formed upon the same plan as the bodies of the higher
animals. Beneath our skin, as in a sheep or an ox, is the
flesh or muscles which clothe the bones. In the abdomen
we have stomach, bowels, liver, sweetbread, kidneys, and
other parts like an animal, and intended to serve the
same general purposes. In the chest are the heart and
lungs, and in the head the brain. Indeed, man forms
the highest species of the animal kingdom.
The three kingdoms, Everything in the world belongs
to one of the three great kingdoms. They are called
the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal kingdom.
The mineral kingdom. The mineral kingdom in-
cludes all things which have no life, and which have
not been derived from living things, such as minerals,
rocks, water, and air.
All things which have life are either plants or animals.
The vegetable kingdom. The vegetable kingdom in-
cludes all those living things which are able to draw
their nourishment from the mineral kingdom. Plants
can by the influence of sunlight alter mineral substances
in such a manner as to change them into the living or
organic matter forming their stems, leaves, and fruits.
Thus the mineral kingdom is the food of the vegetable
kingdom.
The animal kingdom. The animal kingdom com-
prises the rest of the living or organic world. Animals
cannot nourish their bodies with mineral or inorganic
6 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
matter as plants do. Directly or indirectly they draw
their nourishment from the vegetable kingdom. That is
to say, all animals are either vegetable feeders or they feed
on animals whose bodies have been formed and sustained
by vegetable food. Sheep and oxen are examples of
vegetable feeders. A tiger is a flesh-eating animal. It
cannot eat grass itself, so it nourishes its body with the
flesh of animals like sheep, whose bodies have been
formed from grass.
Order in the appearance of plants and animals on the
earth. This teaches us that the mineral kingdom must
have been formed first, the vegetable kingdom next, and
the animal kingdom last ; for animals could not live
until after plants came upon the surface of the earth for
them to feed on, whilst plants feeding upon earth, air,
and water could exist in the presence of sunlight and
minerals alone. Of animals the vegetable feeders must
of course have existed before the flesh feeders ; whilst
man being formed last, as the highest type of creation,
naturally draws his food from both kingdoms, his proper
diet being a mixture of animal and vegetable food.
Nutrition in plants and animals. We also learn that
the first great distinction between animal and plant life
is the way in which nutrition is carried on in each.
In a plant certain parts or organs in its roots are
capable of sucking up moisture and mineral substances
from the earth. Other organs in the leaves absorb
gases from the air. Together these organs form the sap,
which runs through the plant and nourishes it.
An animal has a stomach in which its food is digested
before it passes into the substance of the animal. The
blood-vessels suck up the digested food which is contained
in the stomach and bowels after a meal. It then circu-
lates with the blood throughout the body and nourishes
CHARACTERS OF ANIMAL LIFE 7
every part of it. Thus the digestion of food is one of the
special features of animal life.
No living thing can exist without nourishment, there-
fore nutrition is common to both animal and plant life,
though, as we have just learnt, animal nutrition is quite
different from plant nutrition
Motion and sensation in animals, Other features which
are special to and characteristic of animal life are motion
and sensation. Motion is due to the action of the muscles
or flesh of animals. Plants have no muscles. Sensation
is situated in the brain and nerves, which, again, occur
only in animals. Nutrition, motion, and sensation
are the three great features or problems of animal life,
which we are going to study as they occur in our own
bodies.
CHAPTER III
HUMAN WORK THE BODY A LIVING MACHINE THE PARTS
FOR WORKING AND THE PARTS FOR SUPPLYING POWER
Work of the body. Having learnt in the last chapter
some of the general features of animal life, and the
relation of man to other things in the world, let us now
look at the way in which man's work is done.
Two kinds of human work. Human work is of two
kinds muscular and intellectual. A machine can be
made to copy man's muscular work ; but only an intelli-
gent animal can give infinite variety to the work which
it is able to perform. An ordinary animal or a stupid
man works very much like a machine, doing the same
kind of muscular work over and over again. A girl who
is only capable of sewing together prepared work may
be said to work like a mere machine ; but one who can
cut out and make articles of clothing, or design and
make fancy work, is using brain as well as muscles, and
8 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
is working with the intelligence characteristic of what
may be called the human machine.
The body a living machine, If we allow for the great
difference which there must he between a machine con-
structed of brass and iron and one of flesh and blood, it
is more easy to understand the working of the human
body as a living machine than as a thing by itself and
unlike anything else. Moreover, it really is a living
machine, working on the same general principle as other
machines.
The parts of a machine. If we examine any kind of
machine we shall see that its works may be regarded as
belonging to two distinct parts. One of these is intended
to execute the work, the other to supply it with power.
The water-mill. In a water-mill there is the great
wheel and its shaft to gather the force of the falling
water and convey it to the other part which does the
work, such as grinding corn, sawing wood, or whatever it
may be.
Steam-engine. In a factory there is the driving
engine, with its furnace and boiler, to gather force from
the burning coal and the steam, and there is the
machinery for spinning and weaving.
Plough. In a plough there is the horse to draw, and
the plough to till the soil.
Sewing-machine. In a sewing-machine there is the
human hand or foot to turn the wheel, and the parts
connected with the needle for sewing.
In every machine it is the same : one part supplies
the power, and the other does the special work. The
working part is motionless and useless without the
power. Supply the power, and it will convert it into
useful work.
Human work and human power. The work which the
THE BODY A LIVING MACHINE 9
human machine does is, as has been stated, of two kinds,
muscular and intellectual ; therefore the parts of the
body required for human work are those concerned with
motion and sensation. For motion : the muscles, with
the bones and joints ; for sensation : the brain, the spinal
marrow, the nerves, and the organs of special sense. But
the brain and muscles would be dead and useless if they
were not supplied with life and power. This is the duty
of the other part of the human machine that which
digests the food and causes the blood to circulate ; for
the blood carries life and power with it.
The lesson which this chapter teaches is that human
work is performed by the parts of the body concerned
with motion and sensation, and that human power is
supplied to the muscles and brain by those parts con-
cerned with nutrition.
CHAPTEE IV
FOOD THE SOURCE OF HUMAN POWER FOOD AS FUEL PARTS
OF THE BODY SYSTEMATICALLY ARRANGED IN GROUPS
The source of human power, Whence comes the force
or energy which enables us to work with mind and
body ? We learnt in the last chapter that no machine
can work without a supply of power. Our bodies are
like other machines in this respect. If we are not con-
stantly supplied with the material from which power
can be obtained, our strength fails and we die. Some
machines get their power from falling water, some from
electricity, some from horse or human power ; but mostly
it is obtained as in the steam-engine, from fuel. Any-
thing that will burn gives heat, and heat gives power ;
for heat can be changed into motion, and motion is the
form of power or energy which works the machine.
io PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Food is fuel. Food is the fuel of the human machine,
and the source of human power. Most kinds of food
are only a variety of fuel, and will burn readily. Fat,
sugar, flour, and all farinaceous foods burn easily ; so
do all vegetables when dried, and even meat burns,
though less readily.
Combustion of food. It may seem strange at lirst to
be told that vital heat and force are derived from the
burning or combustion of food in our bodies, yet such is
the case. Human work is quite as dependent upon the
combustion of food as the work of the engine is dependent
upon the combustion of coal. Now, it must not be
supposed that a great heat is produced in any one part
of the body by this combustion. The difference between
us and the engine in this matter is that in the engine
all the coal is burnt at one place in the furnace, causing
a great heat, much of which is wasted ; whilst in us the
food is carried by the blood to the actual spot where the
force is wanted, and nothing is wasted. If we only
move a finger it requires some force, and that force is
supplied by a little food which the blood gives to the
muscle working the finger at the time that it moves.
When we take a quick run a good deal of food is rapidly
burnt in the muscles, and we presently begin to feel
both hot and exhausted. We see now the important
relation that food bears to the work and life of our
bodies, and we know now why it is that we cannot live
for more than a short time without food.
Parts of the body for obtaining force and heat from
food. As the engine has furnace, chimney, boiler,
cylinder, valves, wheels, and other parts which are
requisite to collect the energy from the burning coals, so
the body has many parts for obtaining energy from
burning food. These parts are those already referred to
FOOD THE SOURCE OF POWER 11
as concerned with nutrition. They may be arranged in
four groups :
(1) The digestive system. The mouth, stomach, and
hovels, where the food is dissolved and added to the
blood.
(2) The circulatory system. The heart and blood-
vessels, which carry the digested food in the blood over
the body.
(3) The respiratory system. The windpipe and lungs,
which supply air for the combustion of food.
(4) The waste-removing system. The skin and kid-
neys, and partly the lungs and bowels, which remove the
various waste products derived from food and from the
wear and tear of the body.
Parts of the entire body arranged in groups. We are
now in a position to group together the parts of the
whole body in their proper order.
Isfc. The internal parts concerned with nutrition :
the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and waste-remov-
ing systems just mentioned.
2nd. Those concerned with motion, and called the
locomotive system: the muscles, bones, and joints.
3rd. Those concerned with sensation, and called the
nervous system : the brain, spinal marrow, nerves, and
the organs of special sense for sight, hearing, smell,
taste, and touch.
The work of each group. Let us recall here that
the locomotive and nervous systems are the machinery
which performs human work. All capacity to think,
study, talk, write, walk, dance, swim, play music, or
work in any way is done by these parts. Also that the
digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and waste-removing
systems are the parts which supply the others with
power ; and that the power is obtained from food.
12 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER V
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ITS VARIOUS PARTS THE MOUTH
THE TONGUE, TEETH, AND SALIVARY GLANDS
Common knowledge about digestion. We begin the de-
scription of the structure of the body with those parts
concerned in the digestion of food. This is a process
about which we all know something, though not perhaps
very much. We know, for instance, that (1) we first
of all chew the food, breaking it up with our teeth into
small fragments ; (2) we swallow it, and it goes down
into the stomach ; (3) we feel that some of it passes
into our blood and strengthens us.
Deductions from the above. This knowledge is not in
itself very great, but it leads on to more. Thus, if food
passes through us, there must be a pipe or canal for it to
travel along. Again, if food enters the blood, as it does,
it must be completely dissolved, for of course bread and
meat could not circulate as such in the blood. Now, the
digestive system is a tube or canal which passes through
the body, and it is often called the digestive canal. And
the process of digestion is a process of dissolving food so
as to render it fit to enter the blood. Thus, by making
use of the little knowledge we all possess we get a good
general idea of the subject to start with. The idea is :
(1) The digestive system is a tube or canal, beginning at
the mouth and passing through the body, and (2) the
digestion of food is its solution in the juices of the diges-
tive canal.
Alimentary canal. The digestive canal, or, as it is
more commonly called, the alimentary canal (L. al<>, to
feed), is a long complicated tube in some places wide and
in others narrow, in some straight and in others coiled up.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Its various parts. The
various parts are shown in
the diagram (h'g. 1). They are
called : The mouth ; the gul-
let or swallow ; the stomach ;
the small intestine ; the large
intestine ; the liver, and the
sweetbread. The last two are
solid and flesh- like ; they make
digestive juices which are
poured into the small intestine.
Changes food undergoes in
the mouth. The
mouth. Food is
submitted to three
processes in the
mouth. It is tasted,
chewed, and mixed
with saliva. Thus
the tongue, teeth,
and the glands
which make the
saliva are the most
important struc-
tures in connection
with it.
The tongue.
The tongue is a
muscular organ,
capable of moving
very freely in every
direction. The
under side is soft
and smooth, but
1. The Pylorus, or valve
between the stomach and
intestine. 2. Opening of
the common duct of the
liver and sweetbread. 3.
Valve between the small
and large intestine.
FIG. 1. Alimentary Canal.
'4
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the top is covered with small rough points which have
hardened tips to protect it from friction with the food
(%. 2).
Its papillae. It is these points, called papilla, which
become furred in illness,
and which are so much
rougher in the tongues
of some animals, as, for
instance, the cat. The
larger spots, especially
those arranged in a
V-shape at the back, are
endowed with the special
senseof taste.
Its uses. The uses of
the tongue are : (1) For
taste; (2) to move the
food about in the mouth
for chewing and swallow-
ing ; and (3) for forming
some of the sounds in
speaking.
Teeth. The teeth are
of three kinds (fig. 3).
Incisors. The front,
or incisor, teeth are four
in number in each jaw.
They have a cutting edge
shaped like a chisel, and are intended to bite or cut otf
mouthfuls of food.
Canines. Next come the dog or canine teeth, one on
each side of the incisors, making two in each jaw. They
are strong, pointed teeth, and are always present in flesh-
eating animals.
FIG. 2. The Upper Surface of the
Human Tongue.
THE TEETH 15
Molars. Behind the canines are the grinders or
molars; teeth with an irregular flat surface, intended
for crushing food into small fragments (fig. 4). These
teeth, when the grinding surface is large, are charac-
teristic of vegetable feeders.
Number of teeth. In young children there are only
two molars behind each canine, making eight in the two
Incisors
Bicuspids ^ y f Jncuors
Canine
FIG. 3. The Permanent Teeth removed from the Jaws.
jaws. In adults there are two small and three large
molars, making twenty in all. Thus children have alto-
gether only twenty teeth : eight incisors, four canines,
and eight molars, whilst adults have thirty-two: eight
incisors, four canines, and twenty molars.
Temporary set. A new-born baby has no teeth. The
first are cut when it is about seven months old, and the
others from that time up to two or two and a half years
old. This is called the temporary set of teeth (fig. 5).
Permanent set. At the age of seven years the front
i6
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
teeth begin to drop out, and are replaced by the per-
manent incisors. Later on all the temporary set are
similarly replaced by permanent teeth, whilst the larger
FIG. 4. Longitudinal Section
a Molar Tooth (magnified).
fc, crown ; //, neck ; /, fangs ; e, enamel
FIG. 5. Section of the Jaws of a
Child of 6^ years, showing the Milk
or Deciduous Teeth ; also the Per-
manent Teeth in Process of Forma-
tion.
4, the permanent bi-
cuspids : ml, the first permanent molars,
which have already made their appear-
ance; w2 and i 3, the second and third
permanent molars.
molars come up behind the first set as the jaws increase
in size. The last or wisdom teeth do not conie into
place until full growth has been attained, at about twenty-
one years of age.
SALIVARY GLANDS 17
Salivary glands. The salivary glands are soft pieces
of flesh like sweetbread to look at. They are six in
number, three on each side of the face (fig. 6).
FIG. 6. The Salivary Glands.
One side of the lower jaw has been removed, and the face dissected, in order
to show the salivary glands of the right side.
Use of a gland. A gland is a piece of flesh which
manufactures from the blood some particular kind of
juice or fluid required for purposes like digestion. The
liver, for example, makes the bile, and the salivary
glands make the saliva.
i8 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Position of salivary glands. One gland is placed in front
of and below the ear. A tube or duct passes from it across
the cheek and enters the back part of the mouth, to carry
the saliva from the gland to the mouth. This is the
gland which becomes hard and painful in the disease
called mumps. The second gland is placed under the
edge of the jaw, and the third under the tongue.
Uses of saliva. The use of saliva is to moisten
dry food, and bind it into a bolus so that it can be
swallowed, and to digest some part of the starchy
substances.
CHAPTEK VI
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (cont.) THE GULLET STOMACH SMALL
INTESTINE LARGE INTESTINE LIVER SWEETBREAD
The Gullet: Swallowing. The food is swallowed
down a long tube which k-ads from the mouth to the
stomach (fig. 1). It is called the gullet. The wall
of the tube is composed of muscle, and it is by the
action of this muscle that food or drink is pushed down
the tube. Muscle is the flesh of the body which has
the power to cause movements. There are two kinds of
muscle, one like that in the arms and legs which only
moves when we make it, and another which moves of its
own accord.
The muscular coat of the gullet. The top of the
gullet is made of the muscle over which we have control,
the lower part of that which acts without the will. We
can please ourselves whether we begin to swallow or not ;
but once commence the act, and we cannot stop half-
way. All the rest of the digestive tube is surrounded by
the kind of muscle over which we have no control, so
that when once food is fairly in the gullet, it passes
slowly along the rest of the tube of its own accord.
STOMACH i y
The Stomach (fig. 7) is a bag-like enlargement of the
digestive tube into which the chewed food is received
from the gullet. Here it remains until it is reduced to
a soup-like fluid.
Coats of the stomach. The stomach has three coats,
an outside slippery one to enable it to move easily, a
middle layer of muscle (fig. 8), and an inside coat of
soft membrane. The latter is full of little glands called
Fm. 7. The Stomach and the Intestine, laid open to show
the Lining Membrane.
1, gullet ; 2, lining membrane of the stomach : 3, pylorus ; 4, intestine ; 5, the
ducts which convey the bile fi-om the liver ; 6, gall- bladder ; 7, common bile
duct ; 8, the sweetbread duct.
the peptic glands (figs. 9 and 10), which make the gastric
juice to dissolve the food.
Valve of the stomach. The stomach leads on into the
intestine, but between the two is a valve, the pylorus (figs.
1 and 7). The valve is closed during digestion, but when
that is completed it opens, and the soup-like contents of
the stomach are squeezed out by the muscular coat.
The small intestine, The small intestine is a narrow
c2
20
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
tube about twenty feet long, down which the food passes
after leaving the stomach. It is gathered up into folds
FIG. 8. Muscular Coat of the Stomach
6 " ^ Pro. lO.-Peptic Gland from the
FIG. 9. A Section through the Walls of the Mucous Membrane of
Stomach (magnified 15 diameters).
1, surface of the lining membrane, showing the
openings of the peptic glands ; 2, the glands ; 3, sub-
glandular tissue : 4, transverse muscular fibres ; 5,
longitudinal muscular fibres ; 6, outside coat.
Stomach (highly magnified).
or coils, and ends by opening into the large intestine
through a valve (fig. 1).
Ducts of liver and sweetbread. The ducts from the
INTESTINES
21
liver and sweetbread open into the small intestine near
its commencement (fig. 7). These ducts convey the juices
formed by these parts, to be mixed with the food as soon
as it leaves the stomach.
Coats of the intestine. The intestine, like the stomach,
has three coats : an outside slippery one, a middle
muscular coat to move the food slowly along, and a
FIG. 11. Two Intestinal Villi
(magnified 100 diameters).
a, b, and c, lacteals for absorbing fat ;
d, blood vessels.
FIG. 12.- The Ileo-cpeeal Valve.
lining membrane. The last, however, does not make a
digestive fluid, but is covered with a velvety fringe of
small points called villi (figs. 11 and 14), the object of
which is to absorb the digested food into the blood.
The large intestine. The large intestine (fig. 1) is
only four feet long. It is the last part of the digestive
tube. It is about two or three times as wide as the small
intestine, which it otherwise resembles except that it has
no villi.
22
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The valve. It commences at the valve leading from
the small intestine, which allows the contents to pass in
an onward direction only (fig. 12). It is not coiled up
like the latter, but is arranged in a single fold around it.
The liver (fig. 13) is a large gland.
Bile. It makes the bile, which is poured into the
small intestine near the stomach, and helps to continue
FK;. 13.- The Stomach, Intestine, Liver, Spleen, and Sweetbread.
1, stomach; 2, pylorus: 3, intestine: 4, liver (under surface): 5. ^all-bladder :
6, sweetbread; 7, bile duct; 8, sweetbread duct: '.'. spleen 10 11 12 and 13
blood vessels.
the digestion of the food. The liver has some other
duties of greater importance, which will be referred to
later on.
The sweetbread, The sweetbread (fig. 13) also makes
a digestive fluid, which is poured into the intestine at
the same place as the bile. This fluid is one of the
most important aids to digestion, and the only duty
which the sweetbread performs is to supply it.
DIGESTION 23
Summary. The digestive tube or alimentary canal
consists of five parts : 1. The mouth. 2. The gullet.
3. The stomach. 4. The small in-
testine. 5. The large intestine.
In the mouth the food is chewed
and mixed with the saliva.
It is next swallowed down the
gullet.
It remains in the stomach until
it is reduced to the consistence of T
FIG. 14. A small portion
pea SOUp. of the Lining Membrane
In this liquid state the food es- f the Small Intestine
, , , , , . , . (magnified 12 diameters
capes through the valve of the to show the vnii).
stomach into the small intestine.
There it is mixed with the juices of the liver and
sweetbread, and when completely digested is absorbed
by the villi.
The remains pass on through the valve into the large
intestine.
CHAPTEK VII
THE DIGESTION OF FOOD THE DIGESTIVE PROCESSES THE
FOOD PRINCIPLES
Digestion a complicated process. From what has been
learnt in the two previous lessons, it will be under-
stood that the process of digestion can be by no
means a simple one. The digestive tube is long, and
consists of many parts ; and the digestion of food in
it is a proportionally prolonged and complicated process.
Chief parts used for digestion. Of the parts that have
been described, the teeth, salivary glands, stomach, and
sweetbread are the most important for digestion.
Chewing or mastication. The teeth perform the first
process, which is chewing or mastication of the food,
24 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
This is very important, as the stomach is not formed to
digest solid mouthfuls of food. When food is swallowed
without being properly chewed, too much work is thrown
upon the stomach, wilich sooner or later suffers in
consequence from indigestion. Chewing is not only
necessary for the purpose of grinding up the food, but
also to mix it with the saliva, which digests certain parts
of it.
Action of the digestive juices upon food. Saliva acts
upon one kind of food substance, namely starch; it
digests starch by converting it into sugar. The stomach
with its gastric juice acts only upon another kind of food
substance, and therefore before these processes can be
explained, it is necessary to know the different kinds of
food substances.
Kinds of food. Foods are classified in two ways : first,
into substances as we eat them, such as bread, meat,
potatoes, and so forth ; and secondly, into the so-called
principles of which they consist. For example, meat
consists of fat and lean. Bread consists of starch, and
a flesh-like substance called gluten. Potatoes consist
almost entirely of starch. It is this second kind of classifi-
cation of food which we must know to be able to under-
stand digestion.
The food principles. There are three kinds of food
principles. 1. Flesh-like substances ; 2. Fat and oil of
all kinds ; 3. Starch and sugar.
The flesh-like substances are contained more or less
in all our foods, especially in lean meat, eggs, and milk ;
and to a less extent in wheat, oats, barley, rye, and
vegetables.
Fat is derived chiefly from fat meat, butter, cream,
and yolk of eggs, and to a less extent from some
vegetable substances. Starch is almost pure in arrow-
FOOD PRINCIPLES 25
root, and is the chief constituent of bread, oatmeal,
cornflour, rice, sago, and potatoes.
Digestion of the three food principles. By digestion we
mean that these substances are converted into a thin
fluid which can be taken into the blood for nutrition.
Flesh-like substances are dissolved to form a kind of
meat juice. Fat and oil are made into a cream, and
starch, as has been said, is changed to sugar. Thus the
result of digestion is to convert food substances of all
kinds into meat-juice, cream, or sugar, in which condi-
tion they are added to the blood for nutrition.
CHAPTER VIII
DIGESTION OF FOOD (continued) THE DIGESTIVE JUICES
THEIR ACTION ON FOOD SUMMARY OF DIGESTION
Four digestive juices. There are four digestive juices
poured into different parts of the digestive tube : the
saliva, the gastric juice, the bile (liver juice), and the
sweetbread juice.
Saliva acts on starch. The saliva is formed at the
time of eating by the salivary glands already described.
It is mixed with the food as the latter is chewed,
and begins at once to act on the starch contained in
each mouthful. If a piece of . bread, which is about
one-half starch, is chewed for a long time, a sweetish
taste is observed. This is due to the action of the saliva
in digesting the starch by converting it into sugar.
Gastric juice acts on flesh-like substances. The gastric
juice is made by the lining membrane of the stomach.
It is only poured out when fresh food is swallowed. It
is of a sour nature, and as it soaks into the mouthfuls
of food, it stops the action of the saliva. Gastric juice
dissolves all flesh-like substances, such as lean meat,
20 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECOXOMY
the meshes of fat meat, but not the oil, eggs, the curd
of milk, and the flesh-like substance contained in small
quantity in bread and all vegetable foods. Food is kept
in the stomach by the valve for from one to four hours,
according to the digestible nature of it. Fluids like
water, tea, or beer are absorbed by the blood vessels of
the stomach and, with them, that part of the food which
has been digested.
Changes in the food in the stomach. By the time that
stomach digestion is finished the following changes have
occurred in the food: 1. Some starch has been con-
verted into sugar by the saliva. 2. Some flesh-like
substances have been dissolved by the gastric juice.
3. These, together with any fluid swallowed with the food,
have been absorbed, or taken into the blood, by the blood
vessels of the stomach.
Then (1) the rest of the starch and vegetable matter
escapes through the valve into the intestine.
(2) The rest of the flesh -like substances, softened
and very much broken up, does the same.
(3) The fat, released from its meshes, passes into the
intestine as globules of oil.
Bile removes the sourness of the gastric juice. As the
sour soup-like contents of the stomach escape into the
small intestine, they cause a flow of bile and sweetbread
juice, which mixes with them. These juices, like the
saliva, are the opposite of sour, so they, especially the
bile, correct the acidity of the gastric juice. The chief
use of the bile is to kill the acid of the gastric juice, so
that the sweetbread juice may act, for it cannot act while
any sourness remains.
Sweetbread juice digests all food substances. The
sweetbread juice is the most perfect digestive fluid of
the four. It digests all the food principles. It converts
THE DIGESTIVE JUICES 2?
starch into sugar. It dissolves flesh-like substances ;
and it, with the help of the bile, turns fat into a cream.
The sweetbread juice continues to act slowly while the
food passes along the whole length of the small intestine.
As the substances are digested they are absorbed by the
villi ; the sugar and meat juice by the blood vessels, and
cream or fat emulsion by the lacteals.
Summary of digestion. Food is digested by being first
ground up by the teeth, and then dissolved in the
digestive juices. There are four digestive juices:
1. saliva ; 2. gastric juice ; 3. bile ; 4. sweetbread juice.
The saliva acts on starch, converting it into sugar.
The action of the saliva is stopped by the sourness
of the gastric juice.
The gastric juice acts on flesh -like substances, con-
verting them into a kind of meat juice.
Food remains in the stomach from one to four hours.
The bile kills the acid of the gastric juice, and stops
its action in the intestines.
The sweetbread juice converts starch into sugar,
flesh-like substances into meat juice, and fat into cream.
Fluids and substance completely digested in the
stomach are absorbed by its blood vessels.
But most of the digested food is absorbed by the
villi of the small intestine.
CHAPTER IX
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD BLOOD SITUATION-
CHARACTER CORPUSCLES USES
Blood penetrates every part of the body. If we happen
to cut or prick any part of the body, it always bleeds.
This shows that the blood vessels penetrate everywhere.
They are so small and so close together that even a pin
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
cannot enter the flesh without wounding some of them,
and permitting the blood to escape.
The blood is in tubes or vessels.
The blood vessels begin as one
main vessel, like the trunk of a
tree (figs. 15 and 21). It comes
from the left side of the heart,
and divides again and again into
thousands and even millions of
branches, which run between all
the fibres of the body. The
blood is never loose in the tissues;
it always keeps inside the little
tubes or vessels ; but their walls
are so thin that through them
the muscles, brain, and glands
can, as it were, suck the nou-
rishment out of the blood as it
passes along them.
Coagulation of the blood. If
you prick your finger and let the
drop of blood which escapes re-
main at rest for a minute or two,
it will set into a jelly. This is
FIG. 15. This diagram shows called the clotting or coagulation
the great artery called the f t-i i i *
aorta separated from the of the blood '
heart. Uses of coagulation. It is due
i is the part of tiie artery that to this natural change that the
i? fastened to the left side of the
hem, when- aii the pure biood is wounded vessels become plugged
helii : "2 and '_' are the arteries , ., . , , .
which carry the pure blood iiito lip, aild the bleedlllg CCaSCS.
the arms ; 3 and 8, those that carry -r TT1 . , .,
the blood 4nto the head : 4, artery When a Watei'plpe blU'Sts, the
water goes on running till the
hole is soldered up. The same
thing happens in bleeding : when
THE BLOOD
29
a vessel is wounded it bleeds until the blood clots and
stops the hole. If the blood did not clot, the person
would gradually bleed to death, from even so small a
wound as a cut in the finger.
Nature of blood. Blood, as we all know, is a rather
thick red fluid. When a drop of it is magnified under
the microscope (fig. 16),
the red colour is seen to
be due to a number of
minute red particles in
it, the fluid itself being
really like thin white of
egg-
Blood corpuscles.
The particles are called
the blood corpuscles :
amongst the red ones
are a few white ones,
so they are called the
red corpuscles and the
white corpuscles. Blood,
then, consists of a fluid
like thin white of egg,
in which are myriads of
red corpuscles and a less
number of white ones.
The reason why it looks
like a red fluid to the naked eye is that the corpuscles
are too small to be distinguished, except when magni-
fied.
Size of the corpuscles. The red ones are so small that
it takes 3,500 placed side by side to make an inch, and
as they are shaped like coins, it takes more than 10,000,
one on the top of another, to make a pile an inch high.
FIG. 16. Blood Corpuscles, as seen
under a powerful microscope.
r, red corpuscles lying flat; r', red cor-
pnscles on edge and viewed in profile ; r", red
corpuscles arranged in rouleaux ; p and g,
colourless corpuscles.
30 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The white ones are a little larger, and are globular like
peas, or of various irregular shapes.
Uses of the blood. The uses of these different parts
of the blood are as follows :
(1) The egg-like fluid nourishes the tissues of the
body, and carries the digested sugar and fat to the brain
and muscles for their work.
(2) The red corpuscles carry fresh air from the lungs
to the tissues, and foul air back from the tissues to the
lungs. They are the air carriers.
(3) The white corpuscles heal up all injuries such as
cuts, ulcers, and broken bones. They destroy disease
germs, and are the general agents of repair.
CHAPTEK X
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD HEART, ARTERIES, AND VEINS
The heart keeps the blood in constant motion. The
blood is always in a state of motion in the blood vessels.
It does not rest for a single moment. The heart (figs,
17, 18, 19) is the cause of its moving on or circulating
in the vessels. At each beat the blood is forced along for
a certain distance, and as the heart beats sixty or seventy
times a minute it makes the blood flow on rapidly.
The blood flows in a circle. The reason why the
current of blood is called circulation is that it flows
in a circle. It is pumped out of the heart through one
pipe or blood vessel, and comes back to the heart by
another. This is repeated over and over again, and
thus the blood is always circulating round and round,
from the heart, through the tissues of the body, and
back to the heart again.
Object of the circulation of the blood. The chief ob-
ject of the circulation of the blood is to supply all parts
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD
3<
of the body with food and fresh air. To do this it goes
from the heart charged with nutrition and fresh air ;
but it returns impoverished and charged with foul air
instead. Now, before the blood is fit to go round again
FIG. 17. The Human Heart and its Vessels, viewed from before.
1, right side ; 2, left side ; 3, root of artery to the lungs cut short ; 4, 4', and
4", the aorta ; 7, veins which unite from the upper half of the body ; 8, veins
from lower half of the body.
it must take up a fresh supply of food from the digestive
system, and change the foul air for fresh in the lungs.
Herein is the difficult part of the circulation, for it is
easy to understand the blood being pumped from the
3 2
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
heart to the tissues and supplying them with all they
need, but it is not so easy, without the help of a diagram,
FIG. 18. Eight Side of the Heart dissected, showing its Valves.
1, main vein from upper half of body : '2. main v^in from lower half of lio.ly :
. 6, pulmonary artery supplying the lungs; 8, aorta, or main artery, supplying
the body.
to follow the circulation as the blood picks up fresh food
and fresh air.
The circulation of the blood. Figure 20 is in-
tended to represent the principle of the circulation only,
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD 33
for of course it would be impossible to draw all the
actual vessels.
The heart. The heart is a double pumping organ with
valves. The left side pumps the blood into the main
vessel going to the body shown at the arrow (1) fig. 20.
Circulation through body, It passes through this
vessel into all the minute branches supplying every tissue
of the body (2). Then back by the main vein (3) s returii-
FIG. 19. The Base or Upper End of the Heart, showing all
the Valves.
5 and 7, valves of the right side ; 6 and 8, valves of the left side.
ing to the right side of the heart (5). On its way it is
joined by the vein (4), bringing fresh nutrition from
the digestive system through the liver.
Circulation through lungs. From the right side of the
heart the blood is driven into the main vessel (6), going
to the lungs (7). Lastly, back by the main vein from
the lungs (8) to the left side of the heart again (9).
Rate of circulation. This course of double circulation
through body and lungs is always going on, and it is
D
34
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
FIG. 20. Scheme of Circulation.
Arteries red, veins blue. For reference to
numbei-s see text.
estimated that the whole
blood in the body com-
pletes the double round
twice a minute.
The arteries. The
chief force of the heart
is expended in the main
vessel and its branches,
going from the heart
(iig. 21). These are
called the arteries, and
they pulsate at each beat
of the heart. The pulse
at the wrist is one of the
smaller arteries which
supplies the hand with
blood.
The veins. The re-
turning vessels do not
pulsate, they are thin-
walled and soft, and
are called veins. They
usually run side by side
with the arteries (fig.
21). The blue-looking
veins can be seen and felt
on the back of the hand,
and on the arm.
Arterial and venous
blood. The blood in the
arteries is of a bright red
colour, being charged
with pure air, and
bounds along at a rapid
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD
35
pace. That in the veins is dark and impure, and flows
more slowly.
Summary of circulation. The circulation is main-
tained by the heart,
which is a double
pumping organ with
valves.
The object of the
circulation is to
carry food and air
to the tissues.
The left side of
the heart pumps
pure blood to all
parts of the body.
The blood re-
turns to the right
side impure, picking
up a fresh supply of
digested food on the
way.
The right side of
the heart pumps
the impure blood
through the lungs,
and it returns pure
again to the left side.
This double circula-
tion is completed by
FIG. 21. Diagram of Main Arteries
(red) and Veins (blue).
3 and 6, aorta, or main artery of the body ; 2 and 8,
main veins of the upper and lower halves of the
body ; 1, vessels of the head and neck ; 4, of the
lungs ; 5, of the arm ; 7, of the kidney ; 9, of the leg ;
10, the radial artery or pulse; 11, artery of inner
side of the arm.
all the blood in the
body twice a minute.
The arteries are
the vessels carrying the blood from the heart to the
tissues. They contain bright red blood, and pulsate with
D 2
36 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
each beat of the heart, 60 to 80 times a minute. The
veins are the vessels returning the blood to the heart,
and the blood which they contain is dark and impure.
FIG. 22. The Mouth, Nose, Windpipe, and Gullet seen in Section.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
37
CHAPTER XI
RESPIRATION RESPIRATORY ORGANS CHANGES BETWEEN
THE BLOOD AND AIR THE CHEST INSPIRATION AND
EXPIRATION
Respiratory organs. The parts of the body used for
breathing are : (1) the nose ; (2) the windpipe; (3) the
lungs; (4) the chest.
The nose (fig.
22) is the proper
channel for breath-
ing, not the mouth.
Most animals
breathe constantly
through the nose,
as for example the
horse. One advan-
tage of breathing
through the nose is
that the air be-
comes warmed and
is less liable to
cause cold on the
chest. Another is
that dust adheres
to the inside of the
nose, instead of
being carried down
into the lungs,
where it acts as an irritant and may cause disease.
Windpipe. The windpipe (fig. 23) is the air tube
passing from the back of the mouth to the lungs. It
is a large hard tube which is easily felt in the neck,
where it is placed in front of the gullet (fig. 22). The
FIG. 23. Front View of the Windpipe
and Lungs.
1, larynx ; 2, trachea (windpipe) ; 3, lungs.
38 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
most prominent part is sometimes called Adam's apple ;
this is the larynx where the vocal cords are placed, which
cause the voice. The hardness of the windpipe is due
to rings of gristle in its wall, which are intended to keep
it open as the spiral wire keeps open a rubber gas tube.
If the windpipe did not keep open, of course we should
die at once for want of breath.
FIG. 24. The Air or Bronchial
Tubes of the Lungs.
FIG. 25. Air Cells of the
Lungs (magnified).
Lungs. The lungs (fig. 23) are two spongy organs
which with the heart between them fill the chest. Air
enters the lungs through the windpipe and bronchial
tubes (fig. 24), and it is in these organs that it is brought
into contact with the blood.
Changes between air and blood in the lungs. The
changes which take place in the air cells of the lungs
(fig. 25) between the blood and the air are: (1) Oxygen
FIG. 26. The Organs of the Chest.
I to X, ribs ; 1 to 10, rib cartilages on the left ; a, breast bone ; &, collar bone
(the muscles are left out in order to show the organs inside the chest) ; c, wind-
pipe ; d, right lung ; e, left lung ; /, apex of the heart ; g, base of the heart ;
ft, upper surface of the diaphragm ; i, liver ; X-, stomach ; Z, intestine. The last
three organs are beneath the diaphragm, and therefore belong to the abdomen.
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
(pure gas of the air) is taken into the blood ; (2) car-
bonic acid gas (foul gas of combustion), warmth, and
moisture pass out from the blood. So the blood loses
foul gas, warmth, and moisture with the air breathed
out, and takes up pure gas from the air breathed in.
Chest.-- The
chest (fig. 26) is a
box-like part of the
body shaped like
a cone. The sides
are formed by the
ribs, and the skin
and muscles over
them. The bottom
is closed by the
midriff or dia-
phragm (fig. 27), a
flat leaf of muscle
between the chest
and abdomen. The
windpipe enters at
the top, and the
lungs expand and
fill the inside.
Respiration.
Breathing in, in-
spiration, is a mus-
cular act. It is due to the muscles of the chest causing it
to enlarge, and thus making the lungs expand. The chest
is enlarged in two ways (fig. 28) . One is by the muscles
of the ribs raising them, and thus deepening the chest
from before backwards. The other is by the midriff,
which is arched upwards, being flattened, and thus
deepening the chest from above downward. When the
FIG. 27. The Diaphragm or Midriff.
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
41
chest is enlarged in this way, air rushes in to fill the
lungs. Breathing out, ex-
piration, is an elastic recoil.
The lungs are elastic and
the ribs are elastic, so when
the muscles used for inspira-
tion relax, the air is at once
squeezed out again.
Summary. The nose,
windpipe, lungs, and chest
are the parts used for respira-
tion.
The changes which take
place between the blood and
air in the lungs are, that the
blood gains oxygen, and loses
carbonic acid gas, warmth,
and moisture.
Inspiration is a muscular
act, causing enlargement of
the chest and expansion of
the lungs. The chest is en-
larged by the ribs being raised,
and the midriff lowered.
Expiration is an elastic
recoil of the ribs and the lungs.
The dotted line shows effect of
CHAPTER XII
THE REMOVAL OF WASTE MATTERS SOURCE OF WASTE
MATTERS SKIN - KIDNEYS
Work causes waste products. Wherever work is going
on there must be some destruction of matter.
Two sources of waste matters, This usually occurs in
42 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
two ways : (1) the substance from which the power is
obtained is changed to refuse ; and (2) the machinery
FIG. 29. Vertical Section of the Skin (highly magnified).
more or less quickly wears away, causing waste particles,
which would clog its action if not removed.
Waste in the engine, In the steam engine, what we
may call its food leaves on the one hand a large refuse of
WASTE MATTERS
43
cinders, dust, smoke, foul gases, and waste steam to be
got rid of ; and, on the other, there is a small quantity of
worn brass and iron from the friction of its machinery.
Human waste
matters. In the
human body also
the food causes the
larger amount of
refuse, and the
wear and tear the
smaller.
The refuse mat-
ters may be stated
as follows : (1) the
FIG. 30. Magnified
View of the Sur-
face of the Skin,
showing the Pores.
FIG. 31. The Kidneys, Bladder, and their
Vessels (viewed from behind).
A, Ar, arteries ; Ve, Vr, veins ; U, ureter : K, right
kidney ; Vu, bladder ; Ua, neck of the bladder.
indigestible parts of food (chiefly vegetable) : (2) the ex-
cess of water, removed by the kidneys, skin, and lungs ;
(3) the foul gas of combustion, removed by the lungs;
(4) urea, a chemical substance due (a) to excess of flesh-
44
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
like foods, and (b) to wear and tear of tissues, removed
by the kidneys ; (5) saline substances, removed by the
kidneys.
It is not necessary to add anything here in
reference to the waste matters of the digestive and
respiratory systems, as the work of these parts has
already been explained; but we have yet to learn about
the action of the skin and
kidneys.
Structure of the skin.
The skin (fig. 29) is the
protecting tissue which
covers all the more delicate
parts beneath. It is formed
in two layers. The outside
one has a somewhat horny
nature, whilst the under
layer is tough and fibrous.
In the skin are numerous
glands ; some of these, the
sweat glands, make the
fluid of the perspiration,
and open on the surface
through the pores (fig. 30),
which can be seen with a
magnifying glass. Others, the sebaceous glands, make
an oily fluid, and open beside the hair roots. They keep
the surface soft and supple,
Uses of the skin. The skin has three duties to per-
form, all more or less necessary to life : (1) Protection
of the body. (2) The sense of feeling. (3) Kegulation
of the bodily heat. The chief substance removed from
the body by the skin is water. In this work the skin
and kidneys act together. When water is removed in
FIG. 32. Longitudinal Section of
the Human Kidney (one-half
the natural size).
WASTE MATTERS
45
the form of perspiration, it has a great cooling effect on
the body. Thus in hot weather the skin acts freely,
whilst in cold weather nearly all the water is removed
by the kidneys. The skin also helps the lungs to purify
the blood to some extent.
The kidneys. The kidneys (figs. 81, 32) are two well-
known fleshy bodies, one placed in each loin. Each is
connected by means of a pipe, called the ureter, with
the urinary bladder.
Urine. Urine consists of water, saline substances,
such as common salt, and the poisonous substance called
urea. This is one of the most important waste products
of the body, and it is the chief duty of the kidneys to
remove it.
Urea a poison. If they ceased to act, urea would collect
in the blood and cause death like a poison.
Secretion of Urine. The kidneys separate the urine
continuously, drop by drop, night and day. As it is
produced it trickles down the pipe to the bladder, where
it collects in quantity.
Summary. There are two sources of waste products :
(1) from the food or fuel ; (2) from wear and tear of the
machinery. The direct waste products from food are :
(1) undigested food ; (2) water removed by skin, kidneys,
and lungs ; (3) salines removed by kidneys.
Indirect products are : (1) foul air, the result of com-
bustion, removed by the lungs ; and (2) urea, from excess
of flesh-like foods. Urea also results from wear and tear
of tissues. It is removed by the kidneys.
The duties of the skin are : (1) protection ; (2) sense
of feeling ; (3) regulation of heat ; (4) purification of
the blood. The duties of the kidneys are : the removal of
(1) excess of water ; (2) salines ; and (3) urea.
FIG. 33. The Human Skeleton.
1, the backbone: 2, ribs; 3, collar-bone: 4, shoulder-blade; 5, hip-hones,
forming the pelvis : 6, skull : 7, upper arm ; 8, forearm ; 9, wrist and hand :
10, thigh ; 11, leg ; 12, ankle and foot.
THE SKELETON
CHAPTEK XIII
47
THE SKELETON THE SKELETON OF VARIOUS ANIMALS
THE USES OF THE SKELETON THE STRUCTURE AND
CHARACTERS OF THE BONES
The skeleton, The body of any animal may be
roughly divided into hard parts and soft parts. The
FIG. 34 Side View of the Skull.
hard parts are the skeleton, and serve to support and
protect tho soft parts.
Varieties of skeleton in lower animals. In us the
skeleton is composed of bones ; but in lower animals it
is often quite different. In insects the skeleton is horny,
and entirely on the outside of the body. In crabs,
lobsters, and ail shell-fish, it is also on the outside of the
FIG. 36. The Bony Framework
of the Chest, viewed from the
right side.
1, backbone ; 2, ribs ; 3, breast-bone.
FIG. 35. Part of the skull and
backbone has been cut away
to show the position of the
Brain and Spinal Marrow.
FIG. 37. The Head rocking on
the Spine, illustrating the
First Order of Levers.
USES OF THE SKELETON
49
body, and is composed of shell. In many fish it consists
of gristle. Whatever kind of skeleton an animal has,
whether outside or inside, bone, shell, or gristle, it is
intended for the same purposes.
Uses of the skeleton. These are : (1) to support the
soft parts ; (2) to protect important organs ; and (3) to
act as levers by which the animal moves.
The skeleton supports the soft parts, The shape of the
body is maintained by the bones. If a bone is broken
the limb appears misshapen ; and in ani-
mals like jellyfish, in which the frame-
work is soft, the shape can only be main-
tained when supported by watei . One use
of the skeleton, then, is to support the soft
parts and maintain the shape of the body.
The skeleton protects the soft parts. In
those animals whose skeleton is on the
outside, like the crab, all
the soft parts are protected.
But in the higher, quicker,
and more intelligent ani-
mals, which are able to take
greater care of themselves,
the more important soft
parts only are protected by bones. The brain is the most
important, and is encased in the skull (figs. 34, 35).
The spinal marrow is protected in a long canal in the
backbone (fig. 35). The heart and lungs are guarded
by the ribs (figs. 26, 36). And the other internal organs
are all more or less protected by bones.
Bones act as levers. Nearly all the bones singly or
combined act as levers ; but the most characteristic are
the long bones of the limbs. These are connected by
freely moving joints, and numerous muscles are attached
B
FIG. 38. Kaising the Body on the
Toe.
5 o PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
to them. The muscles, under the direction of the will,
pull on the bones like strong pieces of elastic, causing
them to move, and when the bone moves of course the
limb moves with it.
Levers of first order. The bones act as levers of all
kinds. An example of the first order is a simple move-
ment, like throwing the head backwards or forwards
(tig. 37). Here the fulcrum is the top of the spine under
the middle of the head.
Levers of second order, To raise the body on the
toes (fig. 38) is an example of the second order, when
F
FIG. 39. -Raising the Forearm.
the weight of the body is in the middle at the ankle-
joints.
Levers of third order. To raise the forearm (fig. 39)
is an example of the third order, as the power here is
between the weight of the hand and the fulcrum at the
elbow-joint.
All the movements of the limbs and trunk are actions
of this kind ; but each bone has so many muscles
attached to it on all sides, that it can act one moment as
a lever of the first order, and the next as a lever of the
second or third order. Suppose, instead of raising the
LONG, SHORT, AND FLAT BONES
body on the toe, the toe is made to tap the ground, then
the same hones represent a lever
of the first instead of the second
order. The weight is the front
part of the foot, the power is at-
tached to the heel, and the fulcrum
is between them at the ankle-joint
(fig. 40).
Long, short, and flat bones. The
bones differ very much in shape.
Those of the limbs are called long
bones ; those of the ankle, wrist,
and back, short bones ; and those
of the skull, shoulder-blades, and
hips, flat bones.
A long bone.
A long bone (fig.
41) is enlarged at
each end, and
covered with a
smooth layer of
gristle (fig. 45).
This is to give
plenty of room
for the attach-
IG. 41. Longitudinal Sec-
tion of the Thigh-bone,
showing the Compact and
Cancellous Tissues, and
the Cavity in the Shaft
for the Marrow.
FIG. 40. Tapping the Toe on the
Ground.
ment of the muscles to move the bone, and to form a
strong, smoothly working joint. The shaft of the bone
E 2
52 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
is hollow, like the iron pillars which support bridges,
this being much stronger than a solid rod of the same
weight. In a fresh bone the hollow is tilled with fat,
which is called marrow, and the outside is covered with
a membrane in which are the blood vessels to nourish
the bone.
Short and flat bones, The short and flat bones, and
the expanded ends of
the long bones, are
not hollow. They
consist of an outer
shell of compact
bone, enclosing a
bony trellis - work
called cancellous tis-
sue, the spaces of
which are filled with
marrow (fig. 42).
FIG. 42. Section through part of the Spine, rrUp rypnpval an
showing the Cancellous Structure of Short
Bones. pearance and posi-
tion of the bones of
the entire human skeleton are shown in fig. 33.
Summary. The uses of the skeleton are to support
the soft parts, to protect delicate organs, and to act as
levers.
The entire skeleton is used for support.
The skull, spine, ribs, breast-bone, and hip-bones
protect the internal organs.
The bones act as levers of the first, second, and third
orders for muscular movements.
The long bones consist chiefly of compact tissue, the
short bones of cancellous tissue.
JOINTS
CHAPTEE XIV
JOINTS IMMOVABLE, ELASTIC, AND GLIDING THE MOVE-
MENTS AND ESSENTIAL PARTS OF GLIDING JOINTS
Three kinds of joints. The joints by which the bones
of the skeleton are attached to each other are of three
kinds : (1) immovable joints ; (2) joints allowing slight
elastic movement ; (3) joints
allowing gliding movement.
Immovable joints, The
first kind of joint is best
seen in the bones of the
skull (fig. 43), which are
dovetailed together in such
a manner as to form a
strong-box for the brain.
Elastic joints. The se-
cond kind is observed in the
joints between the different
pieces of the backbone
(fig. 44). Here a thick
piece of elastic gristle joins
one short bone with another,
allowing an elastic bending
of the whole spine in any direction, though only a very
slight movement of one bone upon its neighbour.
Gliding joints. The third, or gliding, kind of joint is
that which unites all the lever-like bones of the limbs.
Most of these joints have only a hinge movement, like the
elbow, wrist, knee, ankle, fingers, and toes. The hip and
shoulder have a ball-and-socket movement ; and a few,
like the head on the top of the spine, rotate on a pivot.
The parts of a gliding joint. In all gliding joints the
ends of the bones are covered with gristle, and they are
FIG. 43. Top View of the Skull,
showing the Immovable Joints
by which the Bones are dove-
tailed together.
54
PAULS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
lubricated with a \vhite-of-egg-iike fluid, commonly called
the joint oil. This
enables them to
move very smoothly
one upon the other.
The bones, outside
the smooth, gristle-
covered part, are
firmly bound to-
gether by strong
fibrous ligaments to
prevent the joint
from becoming acci-
FIG. 44. Section through part of Spine,
showing the Elastic Joint which unites the
numerous Bones of which the whole Spine
is composed.
dentally displaced,
or, as it is called,
dislocated.
FIG. 45. The Ball-ami- Socket Hip- Joint.
8, the capsular ligament of the right hip-joint : 9, the left hip-joint, with the
ligaiueut removed to show the smooth head of the bone.
JOINTS 55
Summary. The joints are of three kinds : (1) im-
movable ; (2) elastic ; and (3) gliding.
The gliding joints have three movements : (1) hinge ;
(2) ball-and-socket ; (3) pivot.
There are three essential parts in all gliding joints :
(1) smooth gristle covering the ends of the bones ;
(2) the lubricating fluid ; (3) the uniting ligaments.
CHAPTEE XV
THE MUSCLES MUSCLES THE CAUSE OF MOVEMENTS
VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES MUSCULAR
ACTION
Muscles are the cause of movements. Muscles are the
active cause of all movements. They are of two kinds,
as was explained in the lesson on the digestive system :
(1) voluntary muscle ; (2) involuntary muscle.
Voluntary and involuntary muscles, The voluntary
muscle is what is generally known as the red flesh of
animals, and forms .the bulk of the body (fig. 46). It
acts under the influence of the will. The involuntary
muscle is that which surrounds the stomach and in-
testines, and causes the food to move along the digestive
canal. It is not under the influence of the will, but
keeps up gentle and continuous movements without our
knowledge.
Flesh consists of muscles, Flesh, when carefully
examined, is found to consist of distinct separate pieces
(fig. 47), which pass from one bone to another. These
pieces are called the muscles. They are usually thick
and fleshy in the middle, and thin and fibrous at either
end, where they are attached to the bones.
Leaders. These fibrous parts are called the leaders,
or tendons.
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMV
FIG. 46. The Superficial Muscles of the Body, viewed from before.
MUSCLES
The use of muscles. -- Each
fleshy or muscular part of the
body has a great many separate
muscles of various shapes and sizes.
Their object is to pull on the bones,
and so move the part or limb in
any direction required by the will.
Some small muscles are attached
to soft parts instead of bone, such
as the muscles of the Umgue, the
eyes, and the muscles of expression.
The latter are attached to the skin
of the face, and cause expression
by moving the skin in various ways.
Muscular action. When a
muscle acts it becomes shorter and
thicker, and that is how it pulls
upon the bone or skin to which
it is attached (fig. 48).
Action due to nerve-force of will.
A muscle can be thrown into action
at any moment by the nerve-force
of the will, or by the electric force
of a galvanic battery. When
stimulated in this way, food is
burnt in the muscle, and this is how
the muscular power is obtained.
Muscular power due to combus-
tion of food. The combustion of
food in the muscle as the source
of its power is proved by analysing
FIG. 47. The Muscles and Tendons of
the Forearm, viewed from before.
1 to 5, muscles ; 1' to 5', their respective tendons.
57
5S PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the blood going into and coming out of a muscle in ac-
tion. (1) The blood going in contains carbonaceous food
(sugar and fat) and fresh air. (2) The blood coming out
has lost some carbonaceous food, and the fresh air is
replaced by carbonic acid gas, the product of combustion.
(3) Heat and force are developed in the muscle.
When we see the smoke and steam coming out of an
engine at work, we know that its fire is burning without
looking into the furnace ; so
when we see a muscle develop-
ing heat and force, using up
carbonaceous food, and giving
off carbonic acid gas, we know
the food is being burnt without
seeing it in the act of burning.
We must remember that the
heat accompanying the combus-
tion of food in the body is very
much less than that caused by
FIG. 48. A Single Muscle, the Biceps, raising the Forearm.
1, collar-hour ; 2, shoulder-blade ; 3, arm-bone ; 4 and 5, bones of forearm ;
6, the biceps.
the burning of coal ; but the result in the production
of force is the same.
Summary. Muscles are the cause of movements.
There are two kinds of muscle, voluntary and involun-
tary. The muscles are pieces of flesh attached to the
bones by leaders. When they act they become shorter,
and by pulling on the bones, move them. Their action
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 59
is caused by the stimulating force of the will. Muscular
power is obtained by the combustion of food.
CHAPTEE XVI
THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM THE PARTS OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM
NEEVE FOECE LIKE ELECTEICITY DEPENDENCE OF
ONE PAET UPON ANOTHEE.
Three parts of the nervous system, By the nervous
system are meant all the parts of the body concerned in
sensation. These may be divided into three groups :
Sense organs. (1) The parts or organs affected by
outside impressions ; such as sensations of light, sound,
scent, taste, and touch. These are the eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin.
Brain and spinal marrow. (2) The central parts
where such impressions are received, understood, and
acted upon. These are the brain and spinal marrow.
Nerves. (3) The communicating fibres which carry
the impressions from one part to another. . These are
the nerves which connect the sense organs with the
brain on the one hand, and the brain with the muscles
on the other.
The action of the nervous system. Nerve force is very
much like electricity, and the working of the nervous
system may be explained by comparing it with the more
easily understood process of transmitting an ordinary
telegraphic message. As an example, suppose you
telegraph to town for something from a shop. You hand
the message in at the local office where you live. It is
telegraphed to the central office in town. Here the
message is read, understood, and acted upon. A
messenger is sent with it to the shop, and your order is
executed.
6o
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Again, suppose when out walking you see a shilling on
the ground. Naturally you at once stoop and pick it up.
Here the eye sees
5? the shilling ; it is the
local office where the
message or impres-
sion is handed in.
The nerves carry the
w picture of the shilling
to the central office,
| or brain. In the
^l brain the picture is
|s received, understood,
^jjj and acted upon ; for
J 3 the brain causes the
muscles to make the
body stoop and the
hand to pick the
shilling up.
In this way all
the combined actions
of the nervous and
muscular systems
may be explained.
First, an impression
from outside. Second,
the reception of this
impression by the
centre. Third, the
responsive muscular
action caused by the
brain or spinal mar-
row.
Thus in describing the nervous system we have first
II
II
11
I
I
I
a
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 61
to describe the sense organs : the local offices where all
outside impressions are handed in.
Next, the brain and spinal marrow, where the im-
pressions affecting the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and
skin are received, understood, and acted upon, and
lastly the nerves, which carry the impressions from the
sense organs to the centres, and the orders from them
to the muscles.
Dependence of one part of the nervous system upon
another, These three parts of the nervous system
are entirely dependent upon each other. If we had no
sense organs the brain and nerves would be useless, as
the former would have no means of communication with
the outside world. Under such circumstances the brain
could form no conception as to what anything was like,
and we should occupy no higher or more intelligent
position than a plant. The brain and sense organs
would be equally useless if the communicating nerves
were severed ; and without a brain of course the func-
tions of life would be impossible.
If therefore sight is lost, not only are the eyes
useless, but the nerves which connect them with the
brain, and that part of the latter concerned with the
sense of sight. Moreover, muscular actions in response
to sight would become impossible.
Sight may be lost in the eyes, nerves, or brain. Sight
may be lost by destruction of the eyes ; or of the nerves
between the eyes and the brain ; or of that part of the
brain designed to receive impressions of sight. And
the same is true of each of the other sense organs and
their connection with the nerve centres.
Summary. The parts of the nervous system may be
divided into three groups : the sense organs, the nervous
centres, and the nerves.
62 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The sense organs receive impressions from outside,
and the nerves carry them to the centres where they are
appreciated and acted upon.
The three parts are dependent upon each other, so
much so that if one part fails the whole is useless.
A sense may he lost by the destruction of the sense
organ, or of its nerves, or of the part of the brain con-
nected with it.
CHAPTER XVII
THE SENSE ORGANS THE EYE AND EAR
The eye is like a camera. An eye is a piece of optical
apparatus constructed on the same principle as a photo-
graphic camera. It produces a perfectly focussed image
of anything looked at on a delicate nerve spread out
over the back part of it, just as the camera forms the
picture on the sensitive plate at the back.
Mechanical parts of the eye. The mechanical parts
of the eye and of the camera are the same (fig. 50).
Each has a focussing lens in front to form the picture ;
a diaphragm, called the iris in the eye, to sharpen the
image, and regulate the amount of light ; and a sensitive
plate or nerve in a dark chamber on which the focussed
image is received.
Sight. Thus sight is due to the clear glassy lens
forming a small but bright picture of what is looked
at on the delicate nerve spread out over the back of
the eye. This layer of nerve matter is called the retina,
and whatever is focussed on the retina is carried at once
to the brain by a large nerve, the optic nerve, connecting
it with the brain (fig. 51).
Summary. The chief parts of the eye are (1) the
crystalline lens, (2) the diaphragm (iris), (3) the dark
THE SENSE ORGANS 63
chamber (globe of the eye),
and (4) the nerve screen
(retina). Things seen are
pictured on the retina, and
carried to the brain by a
nerve.
The ear. The ear is a
mechanical contrivance for
bringing the vibrations of
sound into contact with the
nerves.
Sound vibrations. By
vibrations is meant a wave-
like shaking of any sub-
stance. Sound produces
vibrations in air, or fluid
or solid. Thus air, water,
and solid substances all
conduct sound ; but water
and solids conduct it better
than air. To try a solid
substance, tap a table with
your finger. You hear the
sound well conducted to
your ear by the air. Now
put your ear on the table
and tap again, you hear it
twice as loud, because the
sound is conducted better
by the solid table than it
was by the air. To try
water, when you are in a
bath, tap the side, first with
your ear above and then
64 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
under water. You will hear the sound much better when
the ear is under water, because water conducts sound
better than air.
The vibrations or shaking of the air produced by
FIG. 51. View of the Human Eye, divided horizontally through
the middle.
2, the clear part, and 3, the opaque part, of the outside coat of the globe:
5, the black lining : IS, the central clear jelly ; 7, the iris ; 11, the lens ; 17, the
optic nerve ; 4, its sheath.
sound are communicated to other substances, especially
to tense membranes like a drum-head, or tight strings
HEARING 65
as in a harp or piano. If you shout into a piano, the
wires vibrate and give out a musical sound. If a cannon
is fired near a house, the windows are broken by the
vibrations of the air.
To understand the ear we must know : (1) that
sound causes vibrations; (2) that a tense membrane
FIG. 52. Front View of the Left Ear. A portion of the bone
has been detached.
1, external ear ; 2, the auditory canal ; 2', drum ; 3, air chamber ; 5, auditory nerve ;
(>, fluid chamber.
vibrates when the air vibrates ; (3) that water and solids
are good conductors of vibrations.
The ear. The ear consists of two parts: (1) the
external ear ; (2) the internal ear (fig. 52).
External ear. The external ear is the well-known
outside part which collects the sound vibrations, and
F
66
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
carries them down to a tense membrane called the
drum of the ear.
Fio. 53. Diagram illustrating Mechanical Construction of Ear.
FIG. 54. Parts of Internal Ear to compare with preceding diagram.
Internal ear. The internal ear consists first of an air
chamber, and secondly of a water chamber (figs. 53, 54).
HEARING 67
The air chamber commences on the other side of the
drum, and it contains a chain of little bones placed
across it from the drum to the water chamber. When
the drum vibrates the little bones are made to shake,
and they shake the fluid in the water chamber.
Nerves of the ear. In this fluid the nerves end in
delicate hair-like fibres, which feel the slightest vibration
of the fluid, and conduct this sensation to the brain.
Hearing. Thus the delicate nerves for hearing are
securely and deeply placed in the bones of the head.
Sound is brought to them through the vibration of the
drum, the little bones, and the fluid in which they end.
Summary. The ear consists of (1) an external part
to collect sound vibrations, (2) a drum, (3) an air
chamber with a chain of little bones across it, which take
the vibrations from the drum to the fluid ; (4) a fluid
chamber in which the nerves end in hair-like fibres ; and
(5) the nerve which carries the sound to the brain.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE SENSE ORGANS (continued) THE ORGANS OF
SCENT, TASTE, AND TOUCH
Structure of the nose, The nose is the organ for the
sense of smell. It is of much simpler construction than
the eye or ear. The nose is divided by a partition down
the middle into two nostrils, and each nostril is partly
subdivided into a lower channel for breathing, and an
upper chamber for smelling (tig. 55). When we want
to smell anything, we sniff the air into this upper
chamber to bring it to the nerves of smell, which are
placed in the membrane lining the chamber (fig. 56).
The smell chamber is only partly cut off from the
breathing channel, so that we naturally smell the air
F 2
68 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
breathed, and are thus guided as to its purity. It also
communicates with the back of the mouth (fig. 22), so
that we smell the food as we are eating it, and what we
call the sense of taste is largely the sense of smell.
Smell in the dog. In many animals like the dog, the
sense of smell is much more acute than in man. In
them the nostrils are filled with layer upon layer of
membrane containing nerves of smell.
FIG. 55. Section of the Nasal Cavities, seen from behind, showing
the Bones (6) which partly divide them into Upper and Lo\v< r
Chambers, and the Central Partition or Septum (7).
Summary. Smell is due to special nerves situated in
the membrane lining the smell chamber. The smell
chambers are placed at the top of the nostrils, and com-
municate with the breathing channel below, and the
mouth behind.
Taste a compound of smell, touch, and taste. Taste, as
we speak of it, is really a compound sense. It includes
smell and touch as well as taste.
SMELL
69
When suffering from a cold in the nose we say that
we lose our taste ; or, if we hold the nose whilst swallow-
ing medicine, we don't taste it so much. The savoury
part of our food is that which we like best ; but savouri-
ness is observed by the sense of smell rather than by
FIG. 57. The Upper Surface of the
Human Tongue, showing the Taste
Papilla?.
FIG. 56. Nerves of the Outer Wall
of the Left Nasal Cavity.
The network of nerves at the upper part are
the special nerves for the sense of smell.
true taste. Thus, when we have a cold and cannot
smell, we care less for our food. Scent enters the
nostrils from the opening before referred to at the back
of the mouth.
If we bite chalk or sand, it appears to have a gritty
taste ; or if the meat is hard, we say that it tastes tough.
70
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Chalk and sand have no real taste at all. They, like the
toughness of the meat, are detected by touch. Thus
touch also enters into what is called taste.
True taste. True taste is situated in the tongue and
some other parts of the mouth. It is particularly met
with in some peculiar little papillae arranged in a V-shape
at the back of the tongue (fig. 57).
For a substance to be tasted, it must be dissolved,
or capable of being dissolved in water, as the taste nerves
or taste buds as they are called open into a little
ditch of fluid sur-
rounding the papilla.
Taste papillae. A
magnified view (fig.
58) shows the papilla
in the middle, a ditch
of fluid round it, and
a wall round that.
FIG. 58. Section of a Papilla, showing
its Nerve-fibres ending in Taste Buds
on each side.
On tlie left side is th<- iliu-t of a Lrlaml opciiiu.- into
the bottom of the ditch surrounding the papilla.
Opening into the bot-
tom of the ditch are
the ducts of one or
two glands to keep it
full of fluid whilst eating. Bound the sides of the papilla,
and communicating with the fluid in the ditch, are the
mouths of the taste buds. Sugar, salt, and all soluble
foods dissolve in the fluid, and are thus brought
in direct contact with the taste buds. Taste is carried
from the buds to the brain by the nerves. A cold in
the head, or holding the nose, will not prevent us from
tasting sugar or salt, as these are appreciated by the true
sense of taste.
Summary. Taste is a compound of smell, touch, and
taste. True taste is only affected by soluble substances.
Soluble substances are brought into direct contact with
TOUCfT
the taste buds of the papillae, and the sensation is carried
from them to the brain by nerves.
Touch due to nerves of skin. Touch is the sense of
feeling due to the nerves of the skin. It is much more
acute in some parts than others. If the points of a
compass are opened about one- eighth of an inch and
touched on the tip of the tongue, lips, or tips of the
fingers, they are felt as two
distinct points. Here sensation
is very acute. But on the limbs
and back the points will have
to be opened from two to three
inches before they can be dis-
tinguished as two.
Touch corpuscles. Wher-
ever the sense of touch is acute,
the microscope shows that the
nerves of the skin end in small
bodies called touch corpuscles
(fig. 59). These are affected by
the sense of touch, which is
conveyed to the brain by the
nerves.
The sense of touch, like
the sense of taste, is a com-
pound one, and includes sensa-
tions of heat and pain. As a
cold in the head excludes smell
from the ordinary sense of
taste, so some nerve diseases
may exclude one or other of the sensibilities of the skin ;
for example, the sense of heat may remain when the sense
of pain is lost, and a patient who cannot feel the prick of
a needle may readily distinguish between heat and cold.
FIG. 59. Section of a Papilla
of the Skin, showing a Touch
Corpuscle (highly magni-
fied).
t, tactile or touch corpuscle ; d, nerve-
fibres passing up to it.
72 FAULTS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Summary. The seat of touch is in the nerves of the
skin. It is most acute in the lips, tongue, and tips of
the fingers, where touch corpuscles abound ; least so in
the back, thighs, and arms. Touch is a compound sense,
including sensations of touch, pain, and temperature.
CHAPTER XIX
THE NERVOUS CENTRES THE BRAIN AND SPINAL MARROW
Central nervous system. The brain is the central,
overruling organ of the nervous system, and of the
whole body. It is connected with every part of the body
by means of the nerves.
Parts of the brain. It consists of the chief brain,
the little brain, and the spinal marrow. The two former
are contained in the skull, which protects them from
injury. The latter is only a continuation of the brain,
extending down a hollow in the backbone (fig. 35).
Spinal marrow presides over vital processes. The spinal
marrow (fig. 60) is a long cord of nervous matter, thick
above where it forms the base or under part of the brain,
and narrow below where it is contained in the backbone.
It presides over all the organs which are concerned in
carrying on life the digestive, circulatory, and respira-
tory organs. Thus it is this part of the nervous system
which regulates the beating of the heart, respiration,
the movement of the food along the digestive canal, the
digestion of food, and all such vital processes. These
are not the work of the intellectual part of the brain,
they are under the control of the spinal marrow.
Little brain presides over muscular movements. The
little brain (figs. 61 and 62) is placed at the back and lower
part of the head. Its duties are not yet thoroughly under-
stood, but when it is injured or diseased the power of main-
THE NERVOUS CENTRES
73
FIG. 60. The Spinal
Marrow.
taining the equilibrium of the body
and of properly associating the
muscles in their action is lost.
Thus we know that the little brain
is connected with the muscular
system, and is especially concerned
in maintaining the equilibrium of
the body.
Chief brain the seat of intelli-
gence. The chief brain is the seat
of intelligence. It is connected by
nerves with the sense organs, the
little brain, the spinal marrow, the
muscles, and all parts of the body
It is the general overruling organ
FIG. 61. The Human Brain.
A, chief brain ; B, little brain ; C and D, spinal marrow.
The structures on each The parts are represented as separated from one another
side are the nerves entering somewhat more than is natural, so as to show their rela-
and learing it. tion better.
74
PAWS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
of the system. The spinal marrow and the little brain
each have their duties to perform, but they, like the rest
of the body, are under the control of the chief brain.
In very low animals the chief, or intellectual, part of
the brain is so small as to be scarcely noticeable, while
FIG. 62. The Under Surface of the Brain, showing the Nerves
attached to it.
A, chief bruin ; 13, little brain ; C and D, spinal marrow.
the little brain and spinal marrow are as large in pro-
portion as in us. As we ascend the scale of animal life,
the chief brain gets larger and larger. In the human
brain it is so much larger than in animals that it makes
the whole brain weigh more than those of animals ten
BRAIN AND SPINAL MARROW 75
times our size. It is this intellectual part of our brains
which places us at the head of the creation.
The chief brain, then, presides over the whole body,
over the sense organs, over the vital functions, and over
muscular movement. It is the organ of intelligence,
and of the emotions, and will.
Summary. The central nervous system consists of
the chief brain, the little brain, and the spinal marrow.
The central nervous system receives nerves coming from
all the sense organs the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and
skin and distributes nerves to all the muscles. The
chief brain is the seat of intelligence, arid is the over-
ruling organ of the body. The little brain presides over
muscular movements, especially those concerned in
maintaining the bodily equilibrium. The spinal marrow
presides over the vital processes.
CHAPTEE XX
THE NERVES
Sensory and motor nerves. The nerves (fig. 63) are
white cords or fibres which usually accompany the blood-
vessels in their distribution over the body. They are
divided into two sets (1) the sensory nerves, which
pass from the sense organs to the brain, and carry sensa-
tions from one to the other ; and (2) the motor nerves,
which pass from the brain to the muscles, and convey
nerve-force derived from the brain to make the muscles
act as required.
Structure of nerves. A nerve when magnified is
found to consist of a number of fibres bound together
into a bundle (fig. 65). Each fibre is a single nerve.
The nerve fibre is constructed like the wire of a battery.
Kunning through the centre is an axis which conducts
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
FIG. 63. The Brain, Spinal Marrow, and Nerves.
THE NERVES
77
the nerve- force (fig. 64) ; outside this is a layer of fatty
matter enclosed in a fibrous sheath, which prevents the
nerve-force from escaping on its way to
the muscle. In the battery wire we have
a central axis of copper to conduct the
electricity, and round this a gutta-
percha sheath to prevent it from escap-
ing. In either case the central axis is
insulated, or cut off from surrounding
structures, by a non-conducting sheath,
so that the nerve-force or electricity tra-
vels along it without escaping, as water
travels along a pipe. In this way any
number of nerves or wires may be
bound together into a bundle, and each
will still carry its message quite inde-
pendently of the others.
The reason why telegraph wires are
usually suspended separately is that this
is cheaper and more convenient for re-
pairs than ensheathing the wires with
PIG. 64. Two por-
tions of Nerve-
fibres (highly
magnified), show-
ing the axis-
cylinder and
the surrounding
sheath.
FIG. 65. Part of a Section of one of the Nerve-bundles of the
Sciatic Nerve of Man, highly magnified.
The central dots are the axis cylinders of the nerves as seen when cut across.
gutta-percha and combining them into a rope, though
the latter plan is sometimes adopted.
78 PAULS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Summary. Nerves are white cords connecting the
brain with all parts of the body. They are usually dis-
tributed alongside the blood vessels. Nerves are of two
kinds : (1) Sensory coming to the brain and carrying
sensations of light, sound, scent, taste, or touch ; and
(2) Motor going from the brain to the muscles and
carrying nerve-force for muscular action. Nerve-fibres are
constructor! like the conducting wires of a battery.
CHAPTER XXI
FOOD THE FOUR ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES
The two chief uses of food.- -There are two great pur-
poses for which food is necessary to us and to all kinds
of animal life. It is best to state these at the very
beginning of the subject, for they should be kept con-
stantly in mind whilst we study it. Not only must wo
remember them, but we must clearly understand that
they are of quite distinct and opposite uses, and are not
derived from the same kind of food. They are: (1) to
make the substance of our bodies ; and (2) to give us
heat and vital force.
One use is to give heat and vital force. If we compare
the food of an animal with the fuel or food of an engine,
the comparison is fair so far as the production of heat
and power is concerned. Thus the engine is fed with
coal, a vegetable carbonaceous material, which produces
heat and energy, or force, by combustion. The human
body is likewise fed with carbonaceous food, which pro-
duces heat and vital force by combustion.
The other use is to supply material for growth and
repair. The body, however, requires food for quite
another purpose. It grows, and its structure is main-
tained out of the food eaten ; whilst the engine is con-
FOOD 79
structed at once and for all out of metal. Thus we eat
one kind of food for the growth and repair of our bodies,
and another kind for the carrying on of vital actions.
The two kinds are as different as are the metal and coal
for the engine. We know how impossible it would be to
make an engine out of coal. It would be just as absurd
to think that a body could be made out of the car-
bonaceous or combustible foods. The engine of course
must be made of metal, and the body, equally of course,
must be made of flesh or flesh- like foods.
Division of food into two classes, These facts explain
the first division of food into two classes : (1) the flesh-
like substances, and (2) the combustible substances.
The body is constructed from the former, and life is
sustained by the latter.
Flesh-like foods. The flesh-like substances, when exa-
mined or analysed by chemical processes, are found to
consist of four things, called nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. No other food contains nitrogen. This
is therefore the characteristic element of the flesh-like
substances, and explains the name, nitrogenous food, by
which they are known.
Lean meat is the chief source of nitrogenous food
for human beings, but nitrogen is contained more or
less in nearly all the food stuffs ordinarily eaten : in milk
and eggs ; in all kinds of corn ; in peas and beans ; and
to a less extent in fresh vegetables. Thus nitrogenous
or flesh-like food can be obtained from vegetable food as
well as from meat, though its most pure and digestible
form is the latter.
Combustible foods, The combustible substances consist
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen only. They are of
two kinds, the starches and the fats.
Carbo-hydrates, The former include all substances of
So PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the nature of starch and sugar. They are called carbo-
hydrates.
Hydro-carbons. The latter include all kinds of fat,
such as meat fat, cream, butter, and the oil contained in
seeds and kernels. These are called hydro-carbons.
The fats are distinguished from the starchy substances
by the larger proportion of carbon they contain, and
by yielding consequently a greater amount of heat and
vital force.
These three classes of substances embrace all the
true food materials ; that is, all those which undergo
digestion and chemical change in the body.
The mineral foods. There is, however, a fourth class
of substance included with them, the mineral foods.
These are water and certain salines, such as common
salt, phosphate of lime, and some other salts. All living
tissues require water and salines for their construction
and work. Water is necessary for the digestive juices,
for the blood, and for keeping all parts moist and
supple. The salines are used in the blood, muscles, and
all soft parts to a slight extent ; but especially in the
bones and teeth, the hardness of which depends upon
the presence of lime salts.
There are, then, in all the various food stuffs only
four principles upon which their nutritive value depends.
They are called the alimentary principles.
The alimentary principles. These alimentary principles
are : (1) Xitr<>us substances. The flesh-like foods
used for the growth and repair of the body. (2) Starchy
substances, combustible food, used for heat and vital
force. (3) Fats, also combustible, and more valuable for
heat and vital force. (4) Mineral substances. Water and
salines, used mechanically in the construction and work
of the body.
THE FOOD STUFFS 81
CHAPTEE XXII
THE FOOD STUFFS CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS
Food stuffs, We do not eat food in the form of
alimentary principles. That would, indeed, not be
possible, for in nature they are always combined two,
three, or all four together, in various proportions. We
call the foods that we eat, and with which we are all
familiar, food stuffs. These are the different kinds of
animal and vegetable food, such as beef and mutton,
flour and rice, potatoes and carrots.
Food stuffs are composed of alimentary principles. The
food stuffs are composed of the principles, much in the
same way as dress materials are composed of the
original fibres of cotton or wool. A dress material may
be made by weaving two or three kinds of fibres together,
and a food stuff may consist of two or three food
principles combined together.
Food classified like clothing, Food and clothing are-
each arranged under three heads, having very similar
relations to each other. The three heads for clothing
are : (1) The original fibres ; such as cotton, linen,
wool, and silk. (2) The dress materials, such as calico,
cloth, merino, and velvet. (3) Garments, or made-up
materials, such as jackets and dresses.
The three heads for food are : (1) The original
constituents or principles; the nitrogenous substances,
starches, fats, and minerals ; (2) the food stuffs, such
as meat, fish, and potatoes; (3) dishes or prepared
foods, such as cottage pie and rice pudding.
The fibres are the original constituents of the dress
material, and the principles are the original constituents
of the food stuffs. We do not dress ourselves in the
82 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
simple fibres of cotton or silk, and we do not eat the
alimentary principles. We weave the fibres into cloth,
and we make the cloth into a dress for wearing ; as
nature combines the principles into food stuffs, which
we cook and prepare for eating.
Nutritive value of food stuffs depends upon the alimen-
tary principles they contain, The alimentary principles
then must not be confounded with the food stuffs. The
object of learning the alimentary principles is to know
the nutritive value of food stuffs. Thus a carrot is a
food stuff. We cannot subsist on carrots alone. Why ?
Because they are composed of water, woody fibre (which
is indigestible), a little starch, and a little sugar.
That is to say, carrots yield only a small proportion
of starchy substance, which is the poorest kind of
digestible food. Meat, on the other hand, is a very sus-
taining food. Why ? Because the lean is the strongest
form of nitrogenous food, and the fat is the strongest
kind of combustible food.
Division of food stuffs into animal and vegetable. The
food stuffs are subdivided into the animal and vegetable
foods.
The animal foods arc : (1) flesh meat, such as beef,
mutton, pork, veal, and lamb ; (2) poultry and game,
such as chickens, ducks, turkeys, geese, and rabbits ;
(3) fish of all kinds; (4) shell-fish, such as oysters,
shrimps, and crabs ; (5) milk, including cheese, butter,
and cream ; and (6) eggs.
The vegetable foods are : (1) the cereals, or varieties
of corn, including all foods prepared from wheat, oats,
barley, rye, rice, and maize ; (2) the legumes, including
the foods made from peas, beans, and lentils ; (3) fresh
vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, and cabbages ; and
(4) fruits.
MEAT 83
CHAPTEE XXIII
FLESH MEAT, ITS QUALITIES, COMPOSITION, AND DIGESTION-
BONES, HEART, LIVER, KIDNEYS, AND SWEETBREAD
Class of animals used for food, The animals used for
human food, with the exception of birds and fish, belong
to the order Mammalia, and are invariably vegetable
feeders. The flesh of carnivorous animals has a strong
and disagreeable flavour. In England the flesh of the
ox, sheep, and pig is alone generally eaten, though
* horse beef ' is undoubtedly often sold as ox flesh in
the lower districts of our large cities. On the Continent
goat's flesh is also eaten, and in some distant countries
the horse, reindeer, seal, walrus, and many other ani-
mals are staple articles of food.
Qualities of meat as a food, Meat has many qualities
which render it especially suitable for food. The chief
of these are : (1) It has the same composition as the
body which it is to nourish ; (2) fat and lean together
supply all the requirements of the body ; that is, re-
pair, heat, and vital force ; (3) it is one of the most easily
digested foods ; (4) it is the most sustaining of all foods.
The parts of animals used for food, All parts of an
animal are good for food, and all except the stomach,
entrails, skin, bones, and blood are ordinarily eaten ;
even these under certain circumstances are also used,
and are wholesome. Tripe is prepared from the stomach
of the calf. Sausages are enclosed in the entrails of the
pig. Black puddings are made by stirring oatmeal with
pepper and salt into the fresh blood of the pig. Bones
are used for making broth and soup ; and skin, as the
crackling of roast pork, or as in calf 's head, is reckoned
a delicacy
G 2
84 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Composition of meat. Flesh consists of nitrogenous
matter, fat, salines, and water. The following is the
composition of an average joint of cooked meat :
Parts
Nitrogenous matter 28
Fat 15
Salines 3
Water . _54
100
The nitrogenous matter. The nitrogenous matter of
flesh is of two varieties : (1) substances of the nature of
albumen ; (2) gelatine. The former are derived from
the red flesh, the latter from the fibrous parts of the
meat. Albumen is much more nourishing than gelatine.
Both are. digested by the gastric and sweetbread juices,
and supply the blood with nourishment for the repair of
our tissues.
The fat. Fat is contained in fibrous meshes which
are dissolved by the gastric juice. This liberates the
oily part which is digested by the bile and sweetbread
juice. Fat is stored in the fat parts of our bodies, and
is used for heat and force.
The salines and water. The salines and water arc
not digested, but are absorbed, and the former helps to
keep the blood healthy.
Bones. Bones consist of earthy matter, nitrogenous
matter, and fat. The earthy matter is almost entirely
composed of salts of lime, chiefly phosphate of lime. It
is quite insoluble in boiling water, but dissolves in the
gastric juice ; so when a dog eats bones they are com-
pletely digested. The nitrogenous matter is gelatine ;
thus broths and soups made from bones set into a firm
jelly when cold. Fat is contained in the marrow. It is
very delicate and free from fibres.
01?
Percentage of bone. The
tains as much as 20 per cent, of bone, and
good joints have 8 or 10 per cent. Bone is, of course,
much less valuable as a food than flesh, therefore the
less a joint contains the more economical it is.
Flesh of young animals, The flesh of young animals,
though more tender, is less digestible and less nutritious
than that of full-grown animals. The lean parts are
more watery, and contain more gelatine and less albu-
men. The fat parts are usually richer.
Rigor mortis. A few hours after the death of an
animal flesh undergoes a change, in which the muscles
set hard and rigid. This is called rigor mortis. It
lasts in hot weather only two or three days, but in cold
weather ten days or a fortnight. Meat cooked when
this rigid condition is present is hard and tough. Thus
it should be cooked before this change comes on, which
ia usually inconvenient ; or after it has passed off, which
means that it must be hung a few days in summer and
several days in winter.
The Viscera. The solid viscera, or internal parts, are
all good for food, though not so wholesome as the flesh.
The heart is almost the same as flesh, but somewhat
harder, and a little less digestible. The liver is nourishing,
but rich ; it is strong-flavoured except in young animals.
Kidneys, if not very carefully cooked, are tough and
indigestible. Those of the sheep are most esteemed.
Sweetbread, especially of the calf, is much esteemed,
and when simply cooked is a suitable and delicate
dish for an invalid.
86 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER XXIV
BEEF VEAL MUTTON LAMB PORK BACON AND
SAUSAGES
Beef. Beef is considered the finest meat, both on
account of its flavour and its stimualting and sustaining
qualities. The flesh of a well-fed four-year-old ox is the
best. Older meat becomes more tough and difficult of
digestion ; younger meat more watery and less stimu-
lating. The fat of the ox is a strong heating but
easily digested animal fat.
Joints of beef. The joints of beef vary much in
quality and in the amount of bone they contain. The
best roasting joints are the sirloin, ribs, and part of the
rump ; but all are extravagant on account of the large
amount of bone and the higher price. Part of the
round is much more economical, and of good flavour ;
but not so tender. It is free from bone. The best
parts for boiling, after having been salted, are the
silver-side of the round and the brisket. The best
steaks are cut from that part of the rump called the
steak-piece, those of second quality from the round.
Stewing beef is best from the round or shoulder; in-
ferior from the sticking-piece, or flank. The shins are
most suitable for soups.
Veal. Veal, as has been said, is less stimulating, less
strengthening, and less digestible than beef ; though not
to a marked degree. The more it has been bled, the
whiter the meat, and the less nutritious. It is deficient
in fat, and is consequently usually eaten with bacon.
The meat is tender, and prized for its delicate flavour.
Veal tea is more easily taken by many invalids than
beef tea, and is an excellent substitute for chicken broth.
MUTTON'
Mutton. Mutton is closely allied in its stimulating
and nourishing properties to beef. Its fibre is shorter
and finer, which makes it somewhat more tender. The
lean is probably more
digestible than beef;
but the fat is harder
and less so. The lean
of well-boiled mutton
is certainly more easy
of digestion than any
form of beef, and is for
this reason frequently
ordered for invalids.
Joints of mutton.
The sheep does not
cut into nearly so
many joints as the ox.
The leg is the best, as
it has very little bone,
and not too much fat.
The loin has an excess
both of bone and fat,
and is thus extrava-
gant. The shoulder
has also a good deal
of bone. The neck,
though very bony, is
usually an economical
joint, since it is very
suitable for cooking
with vegetables in the form of Irish stew, Scotch broth,
scouse, or hot-pot. All parts are suitable for boiling,
but the 'leg, loin, and shoulder are the favourite joints
for roasting. The best chops are cut from the loin.
FIG. 66. Joints of Beef.
88
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Lamb. Lamb is chiefly eaten as a delicacy. It is
richer and less nutritious than mutton. It is a much
fatter meat than veal.
Pork. Pork is a meat which varies more than any
other in price, estimation, and digestibility, in accord-
ance with the way in which
it is prepared.
Salt pork. The plain rolled
and salted pork is but little
esteemed by the wealthy,
nevertheless it is the staple
meat food of the hardy outdoor
labourer. When boiled, the
fat of pork is well digested,
especially if eaten, as it should
be, with plenty of vegetable
food or bread. Salt pork is
cheap, and, from the large
amount of fat, yields much
heat and vital force. The pro-
portion of nitrogenous matter
is only about half that of beef
or mutton for the whole pig ;
that is, about 14 per cent., and
is much less than this in the
sides. Thus the use of beans,
which contain over 20 per cent,
of nitrogenous matter, with
pork, is a wise and wholesome custom.
Roast pork. Roast pork is very rich, and one of the
most difficult of all meats of digestion. It is especially
savoury and rich when stuffed with sage and onions.
Hams and Bacon. Bacon and hams are the highest
prized and most expensive kinds of pork, and often cost
Fio. 67. Joints of Mutton.
BA CONSA USA GES 89
as much as the best beef steaks ; though inferior bacon
is quite cheap. Good bacon is by common consent the
most popular breakfast dish amongst all classes, and is
certainly easily digestible, as it is eaten by the most
delicate and fastidious.
Sausages, Sausages are made by mincing and season-
ing pork, and then forcing it into the pig's entrails after
thorough washing. The meat is sometimes mixed with
bread-crumbs or tomatoes, which makes it less rich.
CHAPTER XXV
POULTRY GAME FISH SHELLFISH
White and dark fleshed poultry and fish, Poultry and
game considered as food may be divided into two classes,
according as to whether the flesh is white or dark. The
white-fleshed are delicate in flavour, tender, free from
fat, and very easy of digestion. The dark-fleshed have
a stronger flavour, are mostly much richer and more
difficult of digestion. The chicken may be taken as an
example of one kind, and the duck of the other.
The same observation is true of fish. Whiting and
sole have a white, delicate flesh, free from fat, and are
the most easily digested food of this class when boiled.
Salmon and herring, on the other hand, are rich and
oily. They are more sustaining, but require a stronger
digestion.
Poultry a valuable food for invalids, Poultry and
game are always expensive. They are a luxury to the
strong and hearty, but sometimes a necessity to the sick.
An invalid when allowed meat food is usually placed first
on whiting or sole, and then on chicken, before being
ordered flesh meat. Thus chicken as a food is of so
much importance that, notwithstanding the cost, many
90 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
young fowls are used daily for the sick in all our large
hospitals, including even workhouse and prison in-
firmaries.
Chicken. Chicken has the most delicate and tender
flesh of all poultry. Boiling is the simplest method of
cooking it. Boasted, it is a little richer and more tasty,
and if served with bacon or sausages to supply the
deficiency in fat, it is a sustaining but expensive dish
for the strong.
Turkey. Turkey is much like chicken, but the fibre
of the flesh is coarser and a little less delicate.
Game, Pheasant and partridge have a compact and
nutritious flesh of highly esteemed flavour. If not too
much hung, they are very delicate and digestible ; but
they are more expensive and not quite so suitable as
chicken for invalids.
Ducks and geese. Ducks and geese have a strong
dark flesh mixed with fat, and are of rich flavour.
They resemble roast pork in their richness and difficulty
of digestion.
Hares and rabbits. Hares and rabbits when young
are tender and delicate. If simply cooked they are
easily digested, and a boiled } T oung rabbit may sometimes
be given as a substitute for chicken. They are deficient
in fat, and should be served with bacon for those in
health.
White-fleshed fish, Fish is a less stimulating and
sustaining food than meat. It requires to be eaten in
larger quantities and at more frequent intervals if used
in place of the latter.
Whiting and sole are the most delicate and digestible
of all kinds.
Plaice are digestible, but inferior in quality.
Turbot and brill are firmer-fleshed, richer, and some-
what more sustaining.
FISH AND SHELLFISH 91
Cod and haddock have a coarser flesh, but are quite
free from richness.
Skate have a hard and coarse flesh, which is improved
by keeping a day or two before cooking. They are
decidedly nutritious.
Dark-fleshed fish. Trout and salmon are richer, but
very delicate in flavour, especially the former.
Mackerel and herring are strong-flavoured and rich.
The latter are especially popular, on account of their
plenty, low price, and characteristic flavour. Their oily
flesh is very suitable for the various curing processes of
drying, smoking, and salting.
Eels are very rich fish, but at the same time very
nutritious.
All processes of curing render fish less digestible.
Kippered herring, haddock, cod, and salmon, though
much relished and quite suitable for healthy people, are
certainly not easy of digestion.
Shellfish. Shellfish are of two kinds. One is repre-
sented by lobsters, crabs, and shrimps ; the other by
oysters and mussels.
Crabs and lobsters. Lobsters are much relished, but
their flesh is hard and tough. Crabs are not only
indigestible but rich, and most people find them unwhole-
some. Shrimps, on the other hand, usually agree very
well, and as an adjunct to plenty of bread and butter
are a wholesome food.
Oysters. Oysters are far the most valuable of the
shellfish as a food. The soft part eaten raw is easy of
digestion and nutritious. They have a piquant flavour
much relished by those who feel no objection to eating
an animal food in the raw state, and are thus especially
useful in some chronic illnesses in which loss of appetite
is a marked feature, when cooked oysters are much less
digestible.
92 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Mussels are a food of the same class as oysters, but
much inferior. Sometimes they disagree so violently as
to cause fatal poisoning, which deters most people from
eating them.
CHAPTEK XXYI
MILK ITS COMPOSITION
Milk a complete food. Milk is the natural food upon
which all the higher animals are reared. A healthy
child fed upon milk alone will weigh three times as much
at the end of the first year of its life as it did at birth.
Milk supplies everything that is required of food growth,
repair, heat, and vital force. It is called a complete, food,
because it contains all the food principles in their proper
proportions.
Composition of milk. Milk contains: 1. Nitrogen-
ous matter, casein ; 2. Fat, cream ; 3. Sugar of milk ;
4. Salines and water.
Casein. Casein is the name given to the nitrogenous
matter. It is a flesh -like substance dissolved in milk ;
but it can easily be separated in the form of curd by
adding rennet or lemon juice, or by allowing the milk to
become sour. The curds consist of casein. In the
stomach the gastric juice first curdles the milk, and then
dissolves or digests the curds just as it would meat. The
digested casein supplies the material for the growth and
repair of the child's body.
Cream. Cream is the fat of milk. The white colour
of milk is entirely due to the presence of minute particles
or globules of fat dispersed through it. These globules
are seen when a drop of milk is magnified under the micro-
scope (fig. 68). They are lighter in weight than the rest
of the milk, and gradually rise to the surface as cream.
MILK
93
When milk or cream is beaten about in a churn the
particles of fat run together, and then form butter.
Cream requires no digestion, though it often disagrees
owing to its richness.
Sugar of milk. Sugar of milk is contained in the
whey which remains when casein has been separated
from milk in the form of curds. It is not so sweet as
cane sugar. It be-
longs to the starchy
class of food, and
is in the condition
of digested starch ;
therefore, like
cream, it requires
no further diges-
tion. Cream and
sugar are the car-
bonaceous or heat
and force produc-
ing substances in
milk.
Salines, -- The
salines of milk are
such as the tissues
of a young growing body require. There is an especial
abundance of phosphate of lime for the bones and teeth.
Water. The water is sufficient for the purposes of
the body, and is in larger proportion to the solids than
would be required by adults. Young children need more
water than grown-up people in comparison with their
size.
Milk of animals. The milk of all animals contains
the same substances, but not in the same quantities.
This is important to know, because, if a mother has no
FIG. 68. Milk under the Microscope, show-
ing the Globules of Fat.
94 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
milk for her child, that which is substituted should be
made as nearly like human milk as possible. The follow-
ing table gives the analysis of human milk and cow's
milk :
Cow
Water 86
Casein 4
Butter 4
Sugar of Milk 5
Salts 1
100
The table shows cow's milk to be too rich for infants,
so the baby's bottle is filled with milk and water, or
barley-water, to which a little sugar is generally added.
CHAPTER XXVII
MILK ITS CHARACTERS BUTTER MILK SOUR MILK
CURDS AND WHEY KOUMISS
Characters of fresh milk, Fresh milk has an opaque
white or slightly buff colour, a sweet agreeable taste, and
has no flocculent particles in it. A little added to tea
gives it a rich creamy look, and when it is set aside
cream slowly rises to the surface.
The creamometer. The purity of milk may be tested
by accurately observing the amount of cream which
rises to the top in a given time. For this purpose a
tall cylindrical glass is used which is graduated from
to 100 as in fig. 69. The glass is filled with milk up to
the top mark, and is left to stand for 24 hours, when for
a good average specimen the glass ought to indicate 8
parts of cream. This is the simplest test which can be
applied to milk, and may be relied on, as milk which
shows a good percentage of cream cannot have been
MILK 95
skimmed, and is not likely to have been adulterated with
water.
Characters of skim milk, Skim milk has a bluish-
white colour, a less soft and rich taste, and has little
flocculent particles of cream on the surface. It makes
the tea look watery and poor, and when set aside scarcely
any cream rises to the surface.
Buttermilk, -- Buttermilk
is a thick fluid quite unlike
new milk. It has a rather
harsh sour taste, but is nutri-
tious and digestible. It con-
tains all the ingredients of
milk except fat. The water
and salines are unaltered.
The sugar of milk has under-
gone an acid change, and the
casein is in small curds. The
curdling of the casein is
brought about by the acid
change in the sugar of milk.
The cream has been con-
verted into butter, and re-
moved by the process of
churning.
Buttermilk thus contains
all the nitrogenous matter of FIG. 69. Creamometer, or Gra-
milk, . and is a very suitable
addition to a farinaceous
diet. The poor in Ireland, who would starve on
potatoes, can thrive on potatoes and buttermilk ; the
reason being that potatoes do not contain enough
nitrogenous matter for growth and repair. Owing to the
small size of the particles of curd, smaller than those pro-
9 6 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
duced by the gastric juice in the stomach, some people
digest buttermilk more easily than fresh milk.
Acid fermentation of milk. Sour milk. Milk changes
perhaps more rapidly than any other article of diet ; but it
does not actually decompose sooner than meat would do.
The change is a fermentation by which the sugar of
milk is converted into lactic acid. Though sour milk is
not bad in the sense of eggs or meat being bad, it is still
so altered in taste and appearance as to be useless as a
food. Hence we have to be more careful in the storage
of milk than any other kind of food.
Curds and whey. Curds and whey are made by the
addition of rennet or lemon-juice to milk. The fresh curd
is collected in a shape, and allowed to set. It is light and
digestible, and consists of casein mixed with some of the
fat globules of the milk. Eaten with cream it forms
the well-known Devonshire junket. Whey consists
chiefly of the water, salines, and sugar of milk, with a
little uncurdled casein and fat globules. It is pleasant
to drink, and requires hardly any digestion. For this
reason it is a valuable food in diseases of the stomach
and fevers.
Alcoholic fermentation of milk. Koumiss is an
effervescing fermented drink made by adding yeast to
milk and bottling it. By this process of fermentation,
alcohol is formed instead of lactic acid. Koumiss was
introduced from Eastern countries, where the only milk
obtainable is that of mares. Mares' milk contains much
more sugar than cows' milk, hence it ferments more
easily. When making koumiss in this country, it is usual
to add sugar to the cows' milk employed. This drink
has a reputation for curing consumption.
BUTTER AND CHEESE 97
CHAPTEK XXVIII
BUTTER CHEESE EGGS
Butter making. Butter is the solidified fat of milk.
It is made either by allowing the milk to become a little
sour and churning it in bulk, or by collecting and churn-
ing the cream alone. The fat obtained is well kneaded
and washed with cold water to free it from all traces of
buttermilk, which would cause it to speedily go bad.
The more perfectly this is done the longer the butter
will keep. Salt butter will keep much longer still. It
is made by adding salt at the time of kneading.
Butter as a food, Butter is a very important food.
It and meat are the only two considerable sources of fat
in an ordinary diet, and fat, as has been explained, is
the most valuable heat and force producing food, espe-
cially for cold climates. Butter, moreover, is the most
pleasant flavoured and easily digested of fats. When,
however, it has become rancid, or has been changed by
cooking, it is not so easily tolerated by the stomach.
Margarine, A few years ago butter was largely
adulterated with cheaper fats. This substance was sold
under the name of butterine, though it contained very
little real butter. The Government now only allow it to
be called margarine, in order that it may not be con-
founded with butter. The flavour of margarine is good,
and it is perfectly wholesome. It is more heat and
force producing, but less delicate and digestible, than
fresh butter. It is much better than stale or rancid
butter. The best margarine is made from purified beef
fat flavoured with milk or mixed with butter.
Cheese : manufacture. Cheese consists of casein mixed
with more or less of the fat of milk. It is made by
H
98 PAUL-S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
curdling the milk usually with rennet, a little salt being
added. The curds, which entangle most of the fat
globules, are pressed in moulds. In course of time all
the whey drains away, and a solid mass or cheese is left
in the mould. Cheeses may be eaten either fresh or
ripe, and in each case may be made either of milk alone,
or milk and cream.
Varieties. Fresh milk cheese is drained without
pressure, and consists chiefly of casein. It is light and
friable, and digests easily.
Fresh cream cheese contains a large proportion of
fat, and is in consequence much richer.
Ripe cheeses are subjected to prolonged pressure
in the mould, and are then stored for some time before
being sent to market. Ripe milk cheeses, such as
Cheshire, American, Dutch, and all the drier and less
rich kinds, consist chiefly of casein, and are nourishing
and meat-like in their character. With a good strong
digestion they may be freely partaken of, and supply
the place of meat. Rich cheeses, like Double Glo'ster,
Stilton, and the foreign Gorgonzola, are made of milk
mixed with cream. They consequently contain much
more fat, and should be eaten in smaller quantity.
Eggs a complete food: composition: compared with
milk. Eggs, like milk, are a complete food. The young
chick derives from the egg all the food necessary for its
development up to the time of hatching. Henceforth it
is able to pick and digest the same foods as the adult
fowl. An egg weighs about two ounces and consists of:
White : albumen and water. Yolk : albumen, fat, and
water. Shell : carbonate and phosphate of lime. Al-
bumen is a nitrogenous meat-like substance. The fat
forms thirty per cent, of the yolk. The water contains
some salines, but the chick obtains the lime salts for its
EGGS 99
bones from the inside of the shell. There is no starchy
matter in eggs : therefore, though complete in the sense
of containing all the substances necessary to support life,
they are a less perfect food than milk. Eggs are less
easily digested than milk, and, though very nutritious,
cannot be used as a substitute for it, especially in the
case of young children.
Eggs as food. The eggs of all birds are wholesome,
though few others have the delicate flavour of those of
the domestic fowl. Their digestibility varies greatly
with the mode of cooking. A light-boiled egg is more
easily digested than either a raw or a hard-boiled one ;
but in no form are they so indigestible as when fried in
fat. They cook well in puddings, causing milk to set as
in custard, and are an important ingredient in many
favourite dishes and cakes. In milk, tea, or clear soup,
or with wine or brandy, they are often a most suitable
form of fluid nourishment for invalids.
CHAPTEE XXIX
VEGETABLE FOODS GENEBAL CHARACTERS VARIETIES
Vegetable compared with animal food. Vegetable like
animal foods contain all the essential constituents or
principles required to support life and perform work.
They differ from the latter chiefly in the following im-
portant particulars : (1) They are less digestible ; (2) they
contain much less nitrogenous matters ; (3) the heat
and force producing substances are starch and sugar
in place of fat.
Vegetable-feeding animals eat much larger quantities
of food than flesh-eaters. An ox or a sheep feeds all
day, a tiger not more than once a day. The latter
gets as much nourishment out of one moderate meal as
H 2
ioo PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the former out of a day's continuous feeding. Vegetable
feeders have very powerful digestive organs, and a very
long alimentary canal, especially constructed to digest
raw vegetable food. Flesh-eating animals or human
beings would die if fed entirely on raw vegetable food.
Food value of vegetables, The indigestible nature of
vegetable substances is overcome in two ways : (1) by
carefully selecting those suitable for human food, and
(2) by thorough cooking. Grass, however prepared,
would always be indigestible to us ; whilst starch, as in
well-cooked rice, is one of the easiest things to digest.
The low proportion of nitrogenous matters is more
difficult to overcome. Only one class of vegetables con-
tain it in high degree, the pea and bean tribe, and they
are always difficult of digestion. Either an entirely
vegetable diet must be eaten in inordinate quantity, or
there must be some admixture of animal food. The
strictest vegetarians find it necessary to take milk, eggs,
cheese, or some other supply of nitrogenous food, as an
addition to their otherwise purely vegetable diet.
The substitution of starch for fat is certainly bene-
ficial in hot climates, though an absence of fat from the
diet is severely felt in cold countries.
Anatomical evidence in favour of a mixed diet. As a
matter of fact, the character of' the teeth, the digestive
juices, and the alimentary canal generally show that
man is specially fitted to digest both animal and vege-
table food. From this it seems only right to conclude
that he ought to eat both, and that, if he limits himself
to only one or the other, some functions of the body will
be neglected and suffer in consequence.
Varieties of vegetable food. Of vegetable foods one
class stands pre-eminent all over the world, and that is
the grain-producing plants or cereals, wheat, oats, barley,
VEGETABLE* FOODS'. '.? ibi
rye, Indian corn, rice, and millet. Of these wheat is the
most valuable, but they are all highly nutritious, and
can be cooked in various ways to render them palatable
and digestible. Their chief constituent is starch, but
they also contain a fair amount of nitrogenous matter.
Next to the cereals come a less important class of roots
and tubers, &c., yielding little else but starch, such as
arrowroot, tapioca, and sago. Next a very important class,
the legumes : peas, beans, and lentils, the special feature
of which is their high percentage of nitrogenous matter.
After these are the fresh vegetables and fruits eaten
cooked or raw. Their nutritive value is very low, but
they possess wholesome qualities, which render them an
important addition to our diet.
CHAPTER XXX
THE CEREALS WHEAT WHEATEN FLOUR ITS CONSTI-
TUENTS AND DIGESTIBILITY
Wheat : structure of a grain of wheat. Each grain of
wheat may be divided into three parts : (1) An outer
skin ; (2) an inner bark ; (3) a central kernel.
The outer skin (fig. 71, a) consists of scales of woody
fibre, which are quite indigestible, however cooked.
When removed they are called bran.
The inner bark (b) consists of more delicate scales,
which cannot be removed without tearing off the outer-
most layers of the kernel. These latter are the richest
part of the grain in gluten, or nitrogenous matter (c).
Hence, when the inner bark is removed, it consists of a
brown flour of a highly nutritious character. It is
called pollards or bran flour.
The kernel (d) grinds into a pure white flour, com-
posed of starch with about 10 per cent, of gluten.
1 02
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Flour. Wheaten flour is prepared by grinding the
grains. The product is passed through sieves of different
degrees of fineness. The finest, or ' firsts/ is a pure
white flour derived from the centre of the kernels, and
is chiefly used for pastry. The ' seconds ' is a coarser
and less purely white flour. It is used for household
bread, the whiteness of which is sometimes increased by
the addition of rice flour or potato starch. The next
Fm. 70. Varieties of Wheat. , ,
a, summer wheat, or spring wheat ; b, winter wheat ; r, Egyptian wheat ; d, turgid
wheat ; e, Polish wheat ; /, spelt wheat ; g, one-graiued wheat.
quality is the pollards, a coarse brown flour, rich in
gluten, and very nutritions. The refuse consists of bran.
Whole-meal. Whole-meal may either be made by
re-grinding the pollards and bran and mixing them with
the flour, or by decorticating the grain that is, remov-
ing the outermost layers of bran, and grinding all the
rest. The latter is sold as ' decorticated whole-wheat
meal.' Brown bread used to be made by mixing the
finest parts of the bran with white flour. Now, whole-
meal is generally preferred for this purpose.
WHEA T
103
Composition of wheat. Wheat consists of bran, starch,
gluten, mineral salts, and a very little fat.
Bran. Bran is composed of woody fibre, which is quite
indigestible to us, but not to horses or cows.
Starch. Starch forms the bulk of the kernel, about
70 per cent. It consists of little grains of different shape
or size, according to the plant from which it is derived
(fig. 72). Each starch grain has a delicate shell
or envelope of in-
digestible woody
fibre, within which
is the nutritious
starch flour. Cook-
ing breaks up the
shell, but raw
starch passes
through us undi-
gested.
Gluten. Gluten
is the nitrogenous
or flesh like ele-
ment in wheat ;
white flour contains
about 10 per cent.,
and pollards as much as 15 per cent. It may easily
be separated from flour by making the latter into dough,
and then washing and kneading it under the tap till the
water ceases to be milky. The substance remaining is
gluten, a tough, elastic material, so adhesive that when
pulled apart with the fingers it will stretch several
inches before snapping. Owing to this peculiar nature
of the gluten, dough made from wheaten flour can be
leavened ; whilst that made from the flour of other
cereals refuses to rise. Barm in each case produces
FIG. 71. A thin Section of Part of a Grain
of wheat, highly magnified,
a, the outer skin, or bran ; &,the inner skin ; c, gluten
cells; d, starch cells; B, starch grains, more highly
magnified.
104
PAULS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
bubbles of gas, which, in wheaten dough, become en-
tangled in the elastic adhesive gluten, and swell it up
like a sponge; whilst in the flour of other grains the
babbles escape, and the dough settles flat and heavy.
This is why light bread can only be made from wheaten
flour, and why
wheat is more valu-
able than any of the
other grains.
Salts. - - The
mineral salts exist
only in small quan-
tity, but they are
very useful for the
body.
Uses and digesti-
bility of wheaten
flour. - - Wheaten
flour is made in-
to bread, biscuits,
pastry, puddings,
cakes, and other
common articles of diet. The digestibility of these,
apart from the other ingredients they contain, depends
upon the ease with which they can be broken up by the
teeth and penetrated by the digestive juices. Thus, stale
bread, toast, and biscuit digest well ; new bread, boiled
bread (dumplings), muffins &c. not so well ; pie-crust,
heavy bread, hot buttered toast, or muffins, badly.
Macaroni and vermicelli. Macaroni and vermicelli
are made from hard Italian wheats, rich in gluten.
They are very nutritious when well cooked.
FIG. 72. Varieties of Starch Grains,
highly magnified.
1, wheat ; 2, maize ; 3, potato ; 4, rice.
OATS AND BARLEY
105
CHAPTEE XXXI
OATS BARLEY RYE MAIZE RICE ARROWROOT
TAPIOCA SAGO
Oat and barley meal nutritious, but cannot be made into
bread. Oats and barley are not unlike wheat in compo-
sition. They are quite as
nutritious, and the flavour
of each is pleasant. If oat-
meal and barley meal could
be made into a light and
porous bread, they would
probably be just as popular
as wheaten flour. How-
ever, owing to the soft
nature of their gluten, they
cannot be leavened in the
same way, and the uses to
which they are put are
therefore more limited. FlG . 73 ._ The Common Oa t.
FIG. 74. Section of Oat, highly magnified.
, outer skin ; b, inner skin ; c, gluten cells ; d, starch cells ; B, starch grains
adhering in oval masses, more highly magnified.
Oatmeal foods, Oatmeal supplies oatcake, porridge,
and gruel. The two former to a large extent take the
io6
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
place of bread in Scotland and the north of England
amongst the working classes, especially in country dis-
Fio. 75. Varieties of Barley.
a, spring barley ; b, winter barley ; c, comiuoii or long-eared barley ;
d, sprat or battledore.
tricts. They are very nourishing, more so even than
bread, and very wholesome, particularly
when the appetite is good and digestion
strong. Porridge is very digestible, and
cannot be spoken of too highly. Gruel is
a kind of fine porridge, very useful for in-
valids. The structure of a grain of oat is
very similar to that of wheat (see fig. 74).
Barley as food : Malt Barley freed from
the husk is used as pearl barley for broths
and barley water, but not to any great
extent. The meal is sometimes mixed with
flour and made into an inferior bread. The
great use, however, to which barley is put
in this country, is to make malt for beer
and whisky. Maltine is an extract of malted barley.
It is nutritious, and helps to digest all starchy foods.
BARLEY, RYE, AND MAIZE
107
Barley meal is a favourite food for pigs and fowls.
They fatten quickly on it, and the meat is well flavoured.
Eye bread. Bye meal, with or without flour, makes
a dark, heavy kind of
bread. It is not very
popular in England.
It is dark in colour
FIG. 77. Maize.
FIG. 78. An Ear of Maize,
a cross-section of the ear,
and a kernel of the full
and poor in flavour, but in the character of its gluten
it approaches more nearly to wheat than any other cereal.
Maize an inferior food. Maize, or Indian corn, is a
rich nutritious cereal, containing more fat than any of
io8
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the others except oats. In this country it is chiefly used
for feeding horses and fowls. Like oatmeal, it cannot
FIG. 79. Section of Maize, highly magnified.
a, outer skill ; 6, inner skin ; c, gluten cells ; th inch thick.
They are flat or ribbon-like, and are always twisted
(fig. 85). Linen fibres are not flat like cotton. They
somewhat resemble silk, but are irregular in size, being
mostly larger, and they always show a fibrous and jointed
structure which is absent in silk (fig. 86).
Thus anyone who is able to use the microscope can at
FIBRES MAGNIFIED
175
once recognise wool by its scales ; silk by its bright clear
thread ; cotton by
its flat twisted ap-
pearance ; and linen
by its fibrous struc-
ture and transverse
lines. However in-
geniously the fibres
may be blended and
woven together, or
altered in appear-
ance by dyeing or
skilful manufacture,
it is impossible to
evade detection by
this test. Under the
microscope each fibre
stands out clearly
identified.
Warmth an im-
portant property of
a dress material,
Warmth is un-
doubtedly a feature
of primary import-
ance in a dress
material. From
what has been said
about bodily heat in
Chapter XLVIII it
will be understood
that the warmth is
, . ,, , ,. FIG. 84. Silk, from a Silk Thread.
LOT) in tne ClOtmng, The fibres show the clear g i ass .]ike structure and
but ' in the body. uniform size typical of silk.
FIG. 83. Wool under the Microscope,
taken from white 1 flannel.
The fibres show the imbricated scales characteristic
of hair.
1 7 6
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
FIG. 85. Cotton, from Flannelette
The flat and twisted nature of the fibres is well seen.
The clothing which feels the warmest is merely that
which has the best
power of retaining
the heat.
Sensations of heat
and cold: conducting
power of different
materials. The sen-
sation of heat or cold
in an article touched
depends entirely
upon its power of
conducting heat to
or from the hand
touching it. If in
the same room we
walk with bare feet
upon stone, boards,
and carpet, they feel
as though they were
all at different tem-
peratures. The stone
feels very cold; the
boards less cold, and
the carpet compara-
tively warm. Yet all
are actually at ex-
actly the same tem-
perature ; namely,
that of the air of
the room. The reason
that the stone feels
so cold is, that it is
a good conductor of
IG> 86. Linen, from Table-cloth of Irish
Linen.
The fibres are irregular in size, round, and have
fibrous structure with cross markings.
MATERIALS: WARMTH 177
heat, and rapidly abstracts warmth from the feet. Wood
is a less good conductor, and absorbs less warmth;
whilst the woollen carpet is so slight a conductor that it
robs scarcely any heat from the feet, and consequently
causes no sensation of cold.
Another example. Another illustration of the sen-
sation of cold or warmth being produced by contact with
substances at the same temperature may be observed in
the case of bed-clothes. If on a winter's night we get in
between the blankets, they feel warm. If between rough
twill cotton sheets, it causes but a slight sensation of cold.
But if between fine linen sheets, it produces a distinct
chill. The meaning of this is, that the woollen blanket
is a very slight conductor of heat ; the rough cotton is
also a poor conductor, whilst the fine linen is a good
conductor. They are themselves all at exactly the same
temperature ; but the linen rapidly removes some of the
bodily heat, whilst the blanket abstracts scarcely any.
Conducting power affected by texture. Yet another
illustration shows how the same material differently
woven varies in its quality of warmth. On a cold night
a calico night-dress feels chilly, whilst a flannelette night-
dress feels comfortably warm. Both are made of cotton,
but the smooth surface of the calico abstracts the bodily
heat more rapidly than the loosely woven, woolly textured
flannelette.
Finally the warmth of a dress material also varies in
proportion to the number of layers in which it is dis-
posed on the body. This is the chief reason why we
wear so many garments.
Effect of colour. A different means of varying the
heat properties of a dress material is by colour ; but we
take advantage of this more for keeping the body cool
than warm. It is a well-known fact that white absorbs
N
i;S PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
only half as much heat as black. Consequently, if you
were out in the sun with a white dress on you would only
absorb one-half the amount of heat from its rays that
another person would wearing a black dress. As the
effect of colour upon the warmth of clothing is only
appreciable in open sunshine, it is not worth considering
except with the object of protecting the body from exces-
sive sun-heat. In winter there is so little sunshine that
the effect of dark colours in increasing the warmth of
winter clothing is too slight to be observed ; but in
summer, and especially in the tropics where heat is quite
as distressing as cold is with us, the difference between
white and black is so great that comfort and even health
may depend upon colour alone.
Thus the warmth of a given amount of clothing
depends upon the four following conditions : (1) material;
(2) texture ; (3) number of layers ; (4) colour.
Material. The heat-conducting power of wool, fur,
and feathers is the lowest ; silk stands next, then cotton,
and lastly linen is the best conductor. Consequently
wool, fur, and feathers are the warmest materials ; then
silk and cotton, whilst linen is the coolest.
Texture. The bodily heat robbed from us by a cool
dress material is passed on to the air, and the more
quickly it conducts heat the colder the dress feels.
When a material is woven of smooth threads it comes
into closer contact with the body, and rapidly abstracts
the .heat and carries it away to the air outside ; but if
the same material is loosely woven to resemble wool or
down, it only touches the body by little hairy points,
which greatly lessens its conducting power. Moreover,
a material of loose texture holds a considerable amount of
air between its fibres, thus constantly retaining a layer
of warm air next the body. These are the reasons why
DXESS MATERIALS: WARMTH 179
all soft, furry materials always feel warm, whether made
of cotton or wool.
Number of layers. Between each two garments is a
layer of air which acts as a non-conductor and becomes
warmed by the heat of the body. The greater the
number of garments, the more layers of air there will be
retained between them ; consequently the warmth of a
given amount of clothing of a certain material, texture,
and colour, will depend upon the number of layers in
which it is disposed' upon the body. This explains the
great additional warmth derived from a light under-vest.
The same amount of material added to the dress or coat
would have an inappreciable effect.
Colour. White has the least power of absorbing heat,
and is consequently the coolest colour ; then the others
come in the following order : yellow, red, green, blue,
and black. Colour in underclothing, so far as warmth
is concerned, has no effect whatever, the popular belief
in the extra warmth of red over white flannel being an
entire fallacy. The colour must be outside to be affected
by the sun's heat. It is unwise to wear brightly coloured
clothing next the skin, as it has sometimes been a cause
of skin disease, owing to the presence of poisonous dyes.
CHAPTEE LII
PROPERTIES OF CLOTHING POWER OF ABSORBING MOISTURE
POROSITY WATERPROOF PROPERTIES - INFLAMMABILITY
Cause of a chill : power of absorbing moisture possessed
by dress materials. Serious chills, such as give rise to
inflammation of the lungs, are most likely to occur when
over-heated. The reason for this is that under such
circumstances the skin is actively engaged in its duty
of cooling the body. It is full of blood and perspiring
N 2
i8o PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
freely. The underclothing becomes damp, and if at
such a time we are exposed to cold, what is called a chill
results. The skin which was warm and full of blood
suddenly becomes cold and pale, the blood being driven
from the surface into the internal organs, where it is
liable to set up inflammation. A change of underclothing
as the body cools removes this risk, for the chief danger
is owing to its damp state. The wetter the underclothing,
the more the danger. As it is usually impossible to
make such a change, it follows that the more water a
material can absorb without feeling damp, the better
that material must be for underclothing. The various
fibres already described have been tested with a view to
ascertaining their power of so absorbing water. The
result is that wool is found to take up twice as much
water as linen or cotton, and that silk occupies a position
between the two. Thus a woollen singlet will absorb an
amount of perspiration without showing it, which would
make a cotton singlet feel quite wet. The former would
under such circumstances remain warm and a protection
against cold, whilst the latter would feel cold and damp,
and encourage a chill. It is evident then that woollen
underclothing, which, bear in mind, is the natural cloth-
ing of animals, is as much better for this purpose as it
is for keeping out the cold.
Porosity: effect of impermeable clothing, Porosity
means having pores or spaces which allow air to pass
yirough clothing. Mackintosh is the least porous, and
knitted wool the most porous material used for gar-
ments.
Animals with moist skins like frogs breathe as much
through the skin as through the lungs. Those with dry
skins like ours use them much less for this purpose ; but
still the blood does become purified in its passage through
MATERIALS: POROSITY 181
the skin, and anything which interferes with the action
of the skin in variably affects the health. Everyone
knows that it is more fatiguing to walk in mackintosh
than in any other kind of clothing, and most people have
found out that if they try to increase the warmth of bed-
clothes by such devices as spreading a newspaper between
the blankets, by throwing on a piece of mackintosh, or
by using a too close-fitting down quilt, they obtain
temporary comfort at the expense of health. That is,
they may sleep warmly and soundly, but will probably
wake up with a headache. So important is the action of
the skin, that if an animal like a rabbit is coated over with
varnish, which effectually prevents its skin from acting,
the animal dies. This tells us that porosity is really an
essential feature of clothing, and though nobody would
be likely to dress in absolutely impermeable material like
mackintosh, very few know or consider the value of an
open texture. With porous clothing the vapour of the
perspiration escapes, and the air surrounding the body
is slowly changed and keeps pure. With impermeable
clothing the action of the skin is interfered with, and the
body feels hot and oppressed.
Of the various dress materials woollen fabrics are the
most porous ; so for this reason also wool comes before
any of the other fibres. Cotton, if suitably woven, comes
next, and silk as ordinarily woven comes last, if we ex-
cept fabrics which have been waterproofed.
Varieties of waterproof material. However bad it
may be to unnecessarily dress ourselves in impermeable
clothing, there can be no doubt that it is a great gain to
be able to throw over an ordinary dress something which
will for the time protect us from rain. For this purpose
mackintosh, waterproof cloth, and oilskin are the sub-
stances used, Mackintosh is made by coating thin cloth
i32 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
with a varnish of caoutchouc dissolved in naphtha, or by
applying it between two layers of cloth. Mackintosh
cloaks should always be ventilated ; that is, they should
have some open places in them where the hot air and
vapours of the body can escape. Ordinary cloth is made
waterproof by acting upon it with either soap and alum,
or size and an infusion of galls. Both of these processes
fill up the pores of the cloth and render it impermeable
to water. Oilskin is used by sailors. It consists of
canvas clothing dressed with boiled linseed oil, which
dries and makes the canvas perfectly waterproof. It is
the most durable of all waterproof materials.
Inflammability of dress materials. A common test
between cotton and wool is to draw out a thread from
the material under examination and set light to it.
Wool, being an animal fibre, only smoulders, giving out
a smell of burnt feathers, whilst cotton burns at once
with a flash. The one is very inflammable, the other
scarcely so at all. Of all the terrible burning accident^
which happen every year, hardly any would be possible
if woollen or silk clothing were worn. It is the vegetable
fibres that burn so readily, and the more loosely they
are woven the more rapidly they burn.
Cause of burns." Not long ago a number of children
were dressed in cotton wool at a bazaar. One acci-
dentally took fire, and although they were surrounded
with people trying to put them out, nearly all were so
severely burnt that they died. Muslin is almost as
dangerous as cotton wool. If a muslin dress or curtain
catches fire it burns almost as quickly as gunpowder.
Children often take fire owing to the draught up the
chimney drawing their thin cotton pinafores or night-
dresses against the bars.
To put out fire. When clothing is on fire, the burning
.WATE AVALS: INFLAMMABILITY 183
part should be bravely grasped in the hands, rolled up
and. squeezed tightly, and the person should be laid flat
on the ground. Many a life might so be saved with
promptness and courage. When this fails, or the flames
are already too extensive, the person on fire should be
wrapped and rolled about in a woollen rug, cloak, carpet,
or blanket, which, not being itself inflammable, will
smother the fire and put it out.
Anti-inflammable solution, Certain chemicals have
the power of making inflammable things incapable of
taking fire. Anti-inflammable solutions and paints are
sometimes applied to woodwork with this object, and the
hand-grenades used for putting out fires are filled with
a similar solution. An anti-inflammable starch has also
been prepared, and is sometimes used for muslin dresses.
The difficulty experienced in introducing this safeguard
is owing to the fact that the chemicals employed are
removed at each washing, and need to be re-applied.
People would no doubt prefer to buy non-inflammable
cotton stuffs if they could be rendered so by a permanent
process.
CHAPTER LIII
DRESS PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIONNATURAL CLOTHING
FAULTS CONSTRICTION OF THE HEAD. NECK, ARMS,
HANDS, AND WAIST
Principles of dress construction. The previous chapters
on the subject of clothing have dealt with the nature and
value of the materials used. The object of the present
lesson is to give some instruction in the principles upon
which the various articles of dress should be constructed,
to enable them to fulfil their proper purposes in accord-
ance with the laws of health.
What is required of dress has already been stated,
184 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
namely, warmth, and protection from wet, excessive heat,
and injury, combined with a due regard for appearance.
In affording this comfort and protection to the body,
clothing should be so made that (1) it does not unduly
constrict any part of the body ; (2) it does not impede
any natural movement ; (3) it does not afford any un-
natural support ; (4) it is not unnecessarily heavy ; (5)
it is made of the proper material ; (6) it is in reasonably
good taste.
Natural clothing. In the birds and beasts the most
beautiful colours and the most brilliant natural orna-
ments are combined with perfect conditions as regards
health. No tight bands, no impediments to free and
graceful movement, no fashionable deformities ; yet
warmth, lightness, porosity, and perfect beauty. We
rob them of their coats to make our clothing. We copy
their brilliant colours, their soft velvety fur, and their
feathery ornaments ; but we have yet to learn how to
wear the material we make as they wear their dress with
all its use, comfort, and beauty, and none of its draw-
backs. If we compare a suit of clothing with the sheep's
fleece from which it was originally made, what a dif'f i -
ence ! One light, soft, porous, and warm, offering no
impediment to movement or circulation; indeed, per-
fectly adapted both in use and appearance to its owner.
The other often heavy, stiff, and close ; impeding both
movement and circulation; adapted to the prevailing
laws of fashion, rather than to use or natural beauty.
The evils of unhealthy clothing. If we all knew when
we were young the harm that we may do ourselves by
wearing unhealthy clothing, many of us would have
tried to do better. The misfortune is that waists and
feet are often deformed, constitutions weakened, and
serious illnesses originated before we arrive at years of
CONSTRICTION BY CLOTHING 185
discretion. Perhaps we change then ; but it is often
too late. Those who study these chapters will have had
the best recognised evils pointed out to them, and if they
continue to transgress the laws of health for the sake of
fashion, they will do so with a knowledge of their own
folly, and of the harmful results which must be expected
to ensue.
Faults. We return now to a consideration of the
faults in clothing as commonly worn. They are, as
has been indicated, constriction, impediment, unnatural
support, unnecessary weight, and improper material.
Constriction. By this is meant the fastening of any
article of clothing so tightly round a part of the body as
to interfere with the circulation, or with its natural
shape. It is the most serious and at the same time one
of the most common faults of ordinary dress. Constric-
tion is produced in two ways. One is by tight bands
like belts, the other by the entire article fitting too
closely, as gloves and boots often do. The former kind
is the worst. The following are the common positions
for constriction by clothing.
The head : by hats, Hard hats, especially those worn
by men, fit too tightly round the head for comfort, and
interfere with the circulation of the scalp. This often
causes a sensation of discomfort and oppression, and
sometimes headache ; it perhaps also helps in the early
baldness so frequent in men.
The neck : by bands round the neck. Tight bands are
so uncomfortable in this position that they are not often
worn. Even in the army, where comfort is so much
sacrificed for appearance, the fault has been recognised
and modified. Constriction of the neck interferes with
the return of blood from the head. This is why it is
so harmful here, and why in fits and all conditions of
r86 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
insensibility the clothing round the neck should always
be unfastened.
The arms and hands : by tight sleeves : by gloves : chil-
blains. Tight sleeves, especially when tight in the arm-
pit, where the main blood vessels are, make the arms
cold instead of warm, and incline the lingers to be bluish
and enlarged at the ends. Tight-fitting gloves compress
the fingers, and it is a very common experience to notice
the coldness they cause. Anything which constricts the
arms, wrists, or hands, encourages chilblains, which are
merely due to bad circulation, in most instances the
result of improper clothing.
The body: by waist belts: by petticoat and other bands:
by tight lacing: organs affected by tight lacing. Tight
lacing, as it is called, is the most pernicious fault of
fashionable dress. Any kind of constriction of the waist
is especially bad, whether it is intended to affect the
shape of the body or merely to support the clothes. The
w r aist-belts sometimes used by men to fasten the trousers,
or by working-men to support them during great exer-
tion, are altogether wrong. In supporting one part tlu-y
throw a greater strain on others, and in this way en-
courage the formation of rupture. In women the prac-
tice of tying numerous articles of dress round the waist
frequently produces weakness and weariness of the limits,
and pains in the back. When the constriction is of the
nature of tight lacing, the expansion of the chest is in-
terfered with, and the abdominal organs are compressed
and displaced. The shape of the chest and the respiratory
movements are quite altered (figs. 87 and 88). The
upper part of the chest does more work, and the lower
part less work, than it ought to do. The lower parts of
the lungs cannot expand properly, and consequently are
less serviceable and more liable to disease. Even the
THE CHEST
187
action of the heart is impeded, making any tendency to
fainting and weak circulation more marked. The move-
ments of the stomach
and intestines are still
more obstructed, giv-
ing rise to indigestion
and other troubles.
Natural and arti-
ficial waist. The na-
tural waist is placed
just above the hips
(fig. 89), but the waist
of fashion is artifi-
cially produced by the
compression of the
corset over the lower
ribs. A line drawn
through the body at
this part would touch
the following impor-
tant organs : the
bottom of the lungs,
the apex of the heart,
and the top of the
liver (fig. 91) ; a little
lower down are the
stomach, spleen, and
kidneys. So that a
tight corset interferes
with the action of
nearly all the most
important organs of
the body. The size FIG. 88. -The Chest deformed by
of the natural waist tight lacing.
FIG. 87. The Natural Form of the Chest.
18?
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
FIG. 89. Section of a Natural Waist.
FIG. 90. Section of a tight-laced Waist, showing diminished space.
FIG. 91. Section of a Waist, showing displacement of organs.
This figure is drawn to a larger scale than fig. 90.
MORALITY OF TIGHT LACING 189
of a well-formed woman is twenty-six to twenty-seven
inches ; yet very many girls are positively ashamed of
nature's dimensions, and would sooner suffer torture
than possess a natural waist.
Morality of tight lacing. It is not claimed for con-
striction of the waist that it is adopted for any other
purpose than appearance. Therefore the production of
such a deformity for it is an anatomical deformity
is suggested by the same in-
stincts, and it is on the same
level of morality, as the practice
of deforming the feet of Chinese
ladies by compressing them
during childhood until they are
actually too small to walk with
(fig. 92); or of flattening the Fra<92 ._ Chinese Lady's Foot,
heads of infant negroes with that has befen pressed into
hnarrk to fnnfnrm to a Wai this strange shape by band-
OCal ages during early childhood.
standard of beauty ; or, indeed,
of cutting and tattooing the skin, wearing rings and bones
in the nose, lips, or ears, and other similar enormities.
If these latter are disgusting to our sense of fitness, they
are at least not so pernicious to health as compres-
sion and displacement of the most important internal
organs.
Figs. 87 to 91 show the position of the organs, and the
alteration in the shape of the lower part of the chest caused
by tight lacing. It is a mere matter of common sense
to understand that, though during the vigour of youth
no harm may be felt from this practice, sooner or later
its effects must become evident. Girls who have never
been taught better may be forgiven for following a cus-
tom which has been so common ; but no good woman to
whom the harm has been pointed out will continue it ;
190 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
much less, if ever she have the care of children, will she
permit them to grow up in the same fault.
CHAPTER LIV
DRESS CONSTRICTION OF THE LEGS AND FEET IMPEDI-
MENTS UNNATURAL SUPPORT EXCESSIVE WEIGHT
IMPROPER MATERIAL GOOD TASTE
The legs and feet : constriction by garters : by boots :
chilblains. The lower limbs are only subjected to con-
striction by two things, garters and boots. Garters are
a cause of what is called varicose veins ; that is, big
swollen veins in which the blood circulates very slowly.
Varicose veins give rise to aching pains, and often to
ulcers of the legs. Women are specially liable to them,
and should certainly wear nothing which tends to pro-
duce them. 'Boots have other and worse faults than
being too tight, which will be alluded to further on.
Tight boots interfere with the circulation, and cause cold
feet and chilblains. Blisters, corns, and bunions are
due to ill-fitting rather than to tight boots. The feet are
the favourite spot for chilblains because they are the
furthest part from the heart, and the circulation is
naturally more feeble in them than elsewhere. Any
undue tightness in boots is bad, but when the foot part
is tight and the ankle is constricted by elastic sides, they
are as bad as they well can be.
In ordinary clothing the fault of constriction is more
or less common in the following parts of the body : the
head, neck, arms, hands, waist, legs, and feet.
The causes of constriction are hats, collars and bands
round the throat, sleeves, gloves, corsets and waist-bands,
garters, and boots.
The worst form of constriction is due to tight lacing;
IMPEDED MOVEMENT 191
the next worst to improper boots and to garters. The
others are of less practical importance.
Impediment : restriction of movement by clothing : long
and tight skirts. It is, perhaps, impossible to make our
clothes in such a way as to offer as little impediment to
movements as do the feathery and furry coats of ani-
mals. Knitted woollen textures are the nearest approach,
and a child entirely clad, as it sometimes is, in this
material, has the greatest possible freedom of movement.
In women, however, this difficulty is frequently carried
to an absurd extent. Long and close-fitting skirts are
always objectionable, but especially so for young women,
who ought to be bright and active. Long skirts are
dirty, and a serious impediment to walking. Tight
skirts are still worse ; no sensible woman ought to sub-
mit to such an infliction. The divided skirt is often
recommended by dress reformers ; bat it is not really
necessary for either comfort or complete freedom of
movement.
Tight sleeves. In ordinary dress it is difficult to give
the arms their full amount of play, though they are often
unnecessarily hampered by tight sleeves.
Stays. Stays, of course, interfere with the proper
movements of the spine, which Nature has made lithe
and graceful, but which Fashion delights to render as stiff
as a board. These stays have scarcely a good point, and
so many thoroughly bad ones, that every physiologist is
forced to condemn them absolutely.
Hard boots. Hard and inflexible boots have a similar
effect in destroying the gracefulness of movement by
taking the natural spring out of the arch of the foot.
The arch of the foot was given us to render the tread
light and springy. An Indian in moccasined feet walks
with the softness and elasticity of a cat, whilst the civi-
192 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
lised labourer in his hob -nailed boots or clogs treads
more like an elephant.
Unnatural support: supported muscles waste: weak
ankles : weak backs. The human body has been formed
by Nature to require no support other than that fur-
nished by the muscles, bones, and ligaments. If for any
reason a limb has to be supported by a splint, its muscles
always waste and grow weak. In time they are not
sufficient support for the limb by themselves, and it is
quite a slow process after the splint is removed to re-
store them to their natural strength. The same thing
happens when we fix unnatural supports to any other
part of the body. Weak ankles supported by high
leather boots become weaker still when the support is
removed, and weak backs supported by stays in after
life are too weak to do without them. Girls are not
born with weak backs, but some of them are fortunately
born with sufficient moral courage to resist the attrac-
tions of this most unhealthy feature of women's dress.
Every girl who sets her face firmly against it, and
encourages others by precept and example to do the
same, is doing more for her sex than she can readily
conceive.
Heavy clothing unnecessary, Excessive weight is
avoided by making clothes of the right material, in
the right way, and wearing the proper number.
From what has been said regarding the qualities of
the different dress materials, there can be no doubt that
wool is the right one, as being the warmest and in every
way the best.
One combination garment is warmer than the two
which would be necessary to replace it, and is of course
lighter. Thus combination garments made of wool yield
the greatest amount of warmth for the least weight.
IMPROPER MATERIAL 193
Improper material : woollen underwear : woollen stock-
ings. Although wool is the best dress material, it does
not follow that it is equally necessary for every purpose.
The nearer the garment is to the skin the more impor-
tant it is that it should be made of wool. Some people
object to woollen underwear ; but the reason for this is
that such garments are frequently made too close-fitting,
coarse, and heavy. In winter flannel combinations are
very suitable underwear for those whose skin is not of
too delicate or irritable a nature. The slight irritation
of its hairy surface is generally considered to be stimulat-
ing to the circulation, and useful to the health of the
skin. For those who cannot comfortably wear flannel
next the skin there are now manufactured very soft
woollen goods of knitted texture, which will not cause
any irritation. Women, owing to a little vanity about
the size of the foot, object to woollen stockings. Yet no
part of the body requires wool more than the feet. The
circulation in them is the most distant and the weakest,
and they are generally clad in impermeable leather, so
that the perspiration cannot escape. Thus wool is
especially necessary for stockings. Vests or combina-
tions should be made with sleeves, so that the arms also
may be covered with wool.
The rest of the underwear is better made of wool ;
but it is of less importance than the first layer, and in
the case of the outer dress it is not at all necessary. In
winter, of course, a cloth dress is the best for warmth,
but any of the numerous mixtures, or plain cotton, may
be worn if the underwear is made of wool.
Good taste. We cannot pretend in a book like this to
teach the principles of good taste. Yet it should be
earnestly sought after by every girl, for good taste in
dress gives an air of refinement and respectability which
o
194 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
cannot be attained without it. Some people think that
good taste lies in the use of plain but costly garments.
Certainly common materials soon become shabby, but
costliness has as little to do with refinement as showiness.
Good taste is rather a subtle expression of good character.
It never admits of anything too showy, or which has a
suspicion of loudness ; yet it does not fail to make the
best use of the means at command. It is generally
simple, quiet, and plain, but considers the circumstances
of the individual, and the nature of her occupation and
surroundings. It goes hand in hand with neatness and
cleanliness, and is above all things honest. Indeed, good
taste in dress is the external evidence of a simple, honest,
and sincere character.
It is very important that any alterations which may
be suggested for the hygienic improvement of women's
dress should be designed as much with a view to their
appropriateness and appearance as for the more solid
value of health and comfort.
CHAPTER LV
GARMENTS FEATURES OF HEALTHY GARMENTS SANITARY
CLOTHING SANITARY BOOTS
Healthy garments. ^Ye now come to the important
question : What are the best garments for health ? It
is always much easier to criticise than to correct faults,
and in nothing is this more true than in regard to women's
clothing. Probably everyone who has taken the trouble
to think at all about the matter will agree to the four
following, general rules :
Four rules. (1) Garments requiring suspension
should be suspended directly or indirectly from the
shoulders. (2) No article of clothing should be so tight
SANITARY CLOTHING 195
as to interfere with the circulation, or so shaped as to
alter the natural appearance of any part of the body.
(3) No garment should impede or restrict any natural
movement. (4) No great excess of material over and
above what is actually necessary should be used for any
garment.
Special reasons for sanitary dress. These rules appeal
directly to common-sense. Their truth cannot be called
in question, and yet they condemn the clothing of the
great majority of women to-day. Hitherto, dressmakers
have worked almost independently of sanitary considera-
tions. Our forefathers could perhaps afford to neglect
precautions which we must be careful to observe. Over-
crowding and over-pressure increase year by year,
bringing with them various influences prejudicial to
health. What was good enough for our forefathers will
not suffice now. We must pay more attention than
they did to such matters, if we are to work hard and
maintain health when youth is gone ; not because the
race has degenerated, but because we work under different
circumstances.
Healthy garments may be made attractive, In full
accordance with the above rules an infinite variety of
garments might be constructed. It only needs the exercise
of womanly wit and ingenuity to render them in every
way as becoming as those at present in favour. Why
should not a well and decently clad woman have the
same free play for her limbs that a man has ? Why
should her clothes be a standing objection to her partici-
pation in healthy outdoor exercises and active games ?
Fortunately, the number of women wearing healthy
clothing is daily increasing, and is probably much in
excess of what would be supposed. This is, as it should
be, the direct outcome of the higher education of women.
o2
I 9 6 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The following is the style of clothing adopted by some of
these sensible women. It has proved not only healthy
and comfortable, but quite as attractive as the old style.
Sanitary under -garments, The first series of garments
should consist of woollen combinations and stockings.
The former should be made of fine wool, and are best con-
structed on the Jaeger pattern with long sleeves, double
over the chest, and to fasten on the shoulder. In summer
similar materials of lighter texture should be worn, though
the popular mixtures of wool and cotton sold as merino
answer very well for most people.
Second layer. The second series may consist of a
corset bodice with shoulder-straps, but without steels,
to which an extra petticoat and the suspenders for the
stockings can be fastened.
Third layer. The third layer should consist of a
neatly made and prettily coloured rlanuel petticoat,
bodice and skirt in one. Either this or the previous
layer may be dispensed with in summer ; or cotton may
be substituted for flannel.
Dress, Lastly, comes the dress. It may be made
of any suitable material, but must be designed on the
combination principle. It is in the dress that an excess
of material is so frequently employed. This should be
avoided.
In addition to the garments already referred to, there
are a few special articles calling for separate notice. These
are boots, gloves, outdoor garments, and night-clothes.
Boots. The foot needs better protection from injury
than any other part of the body. The conditions of our
lives require that we should be shod with a strong sub-
stance like leather. Stout leather is the least yielding
material used for clothing, consequently it has the
greatest power of moulding the part to which it is
SANITARY BOOTS 197
applied into any desired shape. It seems a strange
thing to say, but in this civilised land of ours it is quite
dn uncommon event to meet with a perfectly well- formed
foot, except in children. Women are the greatest
martyrs. Nearly all of them wear narrow boots with
small high heels and pointed toes, and in middle life their
feet are usually deformed, and often afflicted with corns
and bunions.
A cause of deformed feet, The shape of the natural
foot is shown in fig. 93. It alone should be the guide to
the outline of the sole of the boot. If boots shaped to
FIG. 93. -Showing the natural shape of the Sole of the Foot.
the natural outline of the foot were worn from childhood
upwards, the ball of the foot would remain broad and the
toes evenly spread out. This would mean much more
power in walking, and complete freedom from corns.
Character of a sanitary boot. The chief points in a
sanitary boot are : (1) It should be made of leather as
flexible as circumstances permit. (2) The great toe
should be in a straight line with the inside of the foot,
as it is in childhood. (3) The full length and breadth
of the foot should be allowed for in the sole. Its outline
for measurement should be taken when the weight of the
body is resting on the foot, as in walking. (4) The heel
should be broad and low. (5) The uppers should be soft,
flexible, and easy, but not elastic.
198 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The boot to fit the foot. Such a boot requires no
breaking in. It fits the foot comfortably from the
first. The breaking in, it must be remembered, affects
the foot as much as it does the hard, unyielding leather.
The fashionable shoemaker is engaged less in fitting his
customers, than in moulding their feet to a pattern
of his own; absolutely no regard being paid to the
anatomical structures and uses of the foot (fig. 94).
Surely in this working world the next generation ^syill
prove to be more reasonable.
Corns and bunions. Soft corns are due to crowding
the toes together, and the irritation of perspiration
Fio. 94. Showing the Foot compressed into an unnatural shape by
an ordinary fashionable boot.
collecting between them. They are often very painful.
Sufficiently wide boots, and stockings of the Jaeger
pattern, with separate toes, are the best cure; though
toes that have been crowded for years will never fully
expand again. Hard corns and bunions, which are
entirely due to ill-fitting boots, will sometimes, but not
always, disappear on wearing healthy boots ; at any rate,
they will become less painful.
Chilblains. Chilblains are brought about in people
with a naturally poor circulation by wearing tight boots
and thin cotton stockings. They may be prevented or
cured by wearing easy-fitting boots and warm woollen
stockings ; care at the same time being taken to avoid
SNOW-SHOES, GLOVES, AND HATS 199
standing or sitting about with cold, damp feet, and
healthy outdoor exercise being increased.
Snow-shoes. For going out in the damp and wet,
snow-shoes are much better than goloshes, as they keep
the feet not only dry but warm.
CHAPTEE LVI
GLOVES HATS OUTDOOR WRAPS NIGHT-CLOTHES
CLOTHES FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN
G-loves. When gloves are only used for appearance,
taste and fancy may be given free choice. When for
warmth, kid gloves must be avoided, as they check rather
than encourage the blood supply to the hands. Easy-
fitting leather gloves, knitted woollen gloves, or lined
gloves are the best for real use. In warm weather no
gloves at all are the best for busy fingers.
Hats. Hats should be light, soft, warm, and well
ventilated, with sufficient brim to shelter the face from
rain, and the eyes from too brilliant sunshine. In the
summer the hat needs to be cool rather than warm, and
for this purpose a light-coloured, well- ventilated material
is to be preferred. Women, on account of their abundant
hair and the practice of carrying sunshades, are more
independent in the matter of head-covering than men.
They certainly make a very free use of this independence,
and often substitute a mere ornament for the ugly but
weatherproof article worn by the opposite sex. Excellent
soft felt hats are made for women, which are very suit-
able for winter wear.
Outdoor wraps. The character and amount of the
additional clothing which should be worn out of doors
depends upon the nature of the exercise to be taken, and
the state of the weather,
2co PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Walking is the safest kind of outdoor exercise. The
exertion is neither too great nor too little, and we have
not to guard against being over-heated or chilled. Active
games like football and tennis should be undertaken in
light woollen clothing, extra wraps being used directly
the game is over. For driving and railway journeys in
cold weather we should, if possible, start warm and well
wrapped up.
East winds are the most dangerous kind of cold, and
extra wraps should always be worn during their pre-
valence. Those who are liable to sore throat will do \\vll
to use a scarf or muffler at such times. For wet, a long
light mackintosh, which can be easily carried on the arm,
is the best protection. It should be removed as soon as
the rain ceases. Wet feet are no great source of danger
if woollen stockings are worn, and changed at once on
returning home.
Night-clothes : the skin should rest at night. The cir-
cumstances affecting the variations of bodily temperature
are quite different at night. In bed, the skin should not
be called upon for special efforts to maintain an equal
temperature. There should be no occasion for being
either over-heated or chilled, so that the skin, like other
parts of the body, may have a period of comparative
rest.
Cotton for night-clothes. Cotton clothing is more
restful to the skin than woollen, and is the best for both
night-dress and sheets. In summer linen may be sub-
stituted, and in the cold months of winter flannelette
makes a very comfortable night-dress.
Bed-clothes. Good blankets are the best bed covering
for warmth. They are certainly much heavier thnn
down quilts, but they allow better ventilation, and their
very weight helps to guard against excess. Perfect rest
BED-CLO7'HES-INFANTS > CLOTHES 201
can only be enjoyed when the clothing is such as to
maintain a natural temperature, without effort on the
part of the body to considerably increase or reduce the
bodily heat.
Clothes for infants and children : rapid loss of heat in
children. The smaller the child the more rapidly in pro-
portion is heat lost, and therefore the more important
is its clothing. In the young, an unnecessary waste of
heat means a loss of food which would have been used
for growth and other forms of vital force. Babies and
young children, owing to the activity of their vital pro-
cesses, are able to use up all the food they can digest ;
therefore, if too much is spent upon one purpose, there
will be so much the less for the rest.
Infants' clothing. The underclothing of babies should
be made of fine wool, and should be so fashioned as to
be put off and on with the greatest ease, and the least
amount of turning about. The first article is the binder.
This should be made of knitted material. Unyielding
flannel interferes with the proper expansion of the chest
and abdomen. The binder is generally used with the
wrong notion of giving support. Its proper object is
warmth over the vital organs. Next to the binder comes
a soft, knitted, armless vest, covering the chest and
body ; the diapers round the hips and legs, and knitted
socks for the feet. Over these is a long gown of fine flannel
with sleeves, often called a barrow ; it is folded up and
pinned back over the legs, leaving them plenty of room
to kick about. Outside all is the long dress usually
made of linen, with its little bib attached. When out of
its cot the baby is usually wrapped in a soft shawl.
Babies are very easily chilled, and need constant watch-
ing and care.
Children's clothing. At the age of three months the
202 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
long clothes are changed for short ones. These should
be modelled on the same general principles as those that
have been recommended for older people. There is much
less to object to in children's clothing as at present worn
than in that of adults. Indeed, it is some of the sim-
plicity of the child's clothes which needs to be introduced
into the fashions of grown women. The chief faults are
that wool is not sufficiently used in the underclothing,
and that the body should be more equally covered. None
but robust children stand without harm bare arms and
legs in cold weather. If they have more power to resist
cold than we have, it is at the expense of material which
ought to be applied to the increase of their bodies.
CHAPTER LVII
PERSONAL CLEANLINESS DIRT DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIRT
THE SKIN
Personal cleanliness : the virtue of cleanliness. It is a
duty that we owe equally to ourselves and others that we
should be clean. The instinct of cleanliness is a virtue
nearly allied to goodness. Those who are dirty in person
are rarely clean in mind. At the same time, we must
not be too fastidious in our judgment of others. A dusty
trade may make a clean person look dirty ; whilst a
clean and smart exterior not rarely conceals a hidden
filth.
What is dirt ? It is not easy to give a definition for
dirt, although it is such a common article. "What is dirt
in one place may not be such in another. Thus food is
clean on the plate, but dirty when spilt on the table-
cloth. It has been said that dirt is matter in the wrong
place, and most varieties of matter are in the wrong place
when on our skin. At the same time, some kinds of matter
DIRT 203
are much worse than others, and it often happens that
the dirt which makes the most show is far from being
the most foul. If we are to understand the unhealthy
as well as the unsightly effects of dirt, we must examine
more closely into the substances to which the name is
ordinarily applied.
Dust of trades. (1) The dust of sand, earth, coal,
soot, and various dusty trades. These dusts in them-
selves are clean. They do not harbour germs and
become foul; but they are irritating to the skin, and
especially to the lungs. The skin, if kept reasonably
clean, would never suffer from them, though soot does,
when neglected, even produce cancer.
Dust of chemicals. (2) The dust and vapour resulting
from the manufacture of poisonous chemicals, such as
lead, mercury, phosphorus, copper, and some other
substances. Dirt of this kind is of course poisonous;
but when great care is taken to wash the hands before
meals, and the other directions which are given in all
such factories are thoroughly carried out, no harm
follows.
Organic dirt. (3) The dirt resulting from handling
animal and vegetable substances, especially when de-
composed or diseased. All those who are engaged in
handling flesh in any form should be particularly clean,
because the juices of meat which stain the fingers or
clothing are the natural food of germs. When such
stains are not carefully washed off, germs settle and
grow in them, making them foul, poisonous, and harmful
to us. If the substances which have to be handled are
already decomposed, as is the case with hides and with
much household refuse, especial care and scrupulous
cleanliness are necessary. The dirt from decomposed
and diseased substances is the worst of alL
204
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Dirt from secretions of the skin. (4) The dirt which
results from the accumulation of perspiration and other
secretions drying on the skin. This occurs in everyone,
and for purposes of health, comfort, and respectability
must be frequently removed by washing. Such dirt is
also of an animal nature, and the food of germs ; the
longer it remains, the more foul it becomes. As a
general rule, the healthier the body the less objection-
able are the substances given off by it. Consequently, a
vigorous, healthy workman, who is usually supposed to
require much more washing than
people in a higher grade of society,
really, if his trade is a clean one,
requires less. Those who are indo-
lent and over-fed need it more, as
their secretions are charged with
the products of indigestion and
unused food.
Varieties of dirt. Thus we may
regard the various kinds of dirt
as affecting us personally in very
different ways. First, there is the
most noticeable, but least harmful
kind of dirt, the ordinary dust of
trades. Second, the poisonous dust
of chemicals. Third, the foul stains
of animal and vegetable matter in which germs grow,
and which may be the source of innumerable diseases.
Fourth, the dirt which collects from the action of our own
skin, and which also becomes foul if not regularly removed.
The skin. In Chapter XII a short description of the
skin has already been given, but it will help us to under-
stand the value of cleanliness if we again refer to some
of its features.
Fro.95. Magnified View
of the Surface of the
Skin, showing the
Pores.
THE SKIN
205
Scarf skin, The surface of the skin consists of loose
cells called the scarf skin. These cells are frequently
shed, and if not removed, collect on the surface, clog the
Eila
FIG. 96. Vertical Section of the Skin (highly magnified)
pores, and interfere with the action of the glands. In a
Turkish bath, quantities of this worn -out scarf skin may
be rubbed off, leaving the surface beautifully fresh and
clean.
2c6 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Glands of the skin. The deep or true skin contains
two kinds of glands, which are always at work secreting
more or less fluid. One kind, the sebaceous glands,
secrete an oily fluid, which keeps the skin smooth and
supple. The other kind, the sweat glands, secrete the
perspiration to regulate the temperature of the body,
and to get rid of some of the foul products in the blood.
Both these secretions contain solid matters, which, when
allowed to dry on the skin, become equally unpleasant
and unhealthy.
Action of the skin. Another duty of the skin is that
it helps the lungs in their work of purifying the blood.
The cleaner the skin the better it can do this.
Lastly, the skin is the organ of common or tactile
sensation. It is full of sensory nerves. Thus the tone
and vigour of the body are much influenced by the con-
dition of the skin.
CHAPTER LVIII
CARE OF THE PERSON DAILY WASHING THE BATH, WARM,
COLD, AND SHOWER
Daily washing. For ordinary cleanliness it is neces-
sary to wash the face, neck, hands, and arms with soap
and water every morning. The hands should also be
washed before each meal, and especially so when the work
soils them with harmful products. Before the evening
meal, when the day's work is usually over, a more ex-
tensive wash is as refreshing and as enjoyable as it is
wholesome. Those who are strong, and can do so, should
take a cold bath every morning. Those who cannot
should take a warm bath twice if possible, and not less
than once a week at night. A good substitute for a cold
bath, when the real thing cannot be had, is a wet sponge
SOAPS THE BATH 207
followed by a good towelling. The friction is almost as
useful as the wetting. With short .hair, the head may be
washed frequently. With long hair, once a fortnight will
suffice, but it must be well brushed twice daily. The
teeth should be cleaned morning and evening.
Soaps. The best soap for washing the skin is white
unscented curd. Common yellow soap has too much
alkali, and all but the best scented soaps are. less pure
than a good curd. If you have to pay for appearance or
scent, you cannot expect as good quality for the money.
Moreover, the cheap scents are prepared from chemicals
which are not good for the skin. When the skin is very
delicate, as in the case of new-born infants, or people
subject to skin disease, a ' super-fatted ' soap should be
used. This is a soap in which there is no free soda.
Those who have to handle unwholesome or infectious
things should wash their hands with carbolic soap in
order that the impurity may be entirely removed.
Chapped skin. When the skin is rough or chapped
from cold or other cause, a little glycerine should be
applied after washing and before drying. The skin
should then be only partly dried, when sufficient glycerine
will remain to heal it after a few applications, without
causing an unpleasant sensation of stickiness.
The bath: action of the bath. Everyone knows the
refreshing effect of a good wash when one is hot and
tired. This is less due to the cleansing action of the
soap and water, than it is to its stimulating effect on the
nerves and blood vessels of the skin. The effect of a
complete bath is, of course, more decided than that of a
partial wash, and we have in the bath variously used,
not only a "cleanly and healthy habit, but also a means
of treating disease.
The warm bath, The warm bath is usually taken at
20& PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
a temperature of from 98 to 100. It opens the pores
of the skin, and renders cleansing with soap much more
easy and effectual. It encourages a free circulation, and
promotes a healthy action in the glands. It is soothing
to the nerves, but weakening if too hot or too pro-
longed. A deep bath is much more exhausting than a
shallow one ; consequently, hotter water may be used in
a shallow sponge bath than when the body is much im-
mersed. The warm bath should be taken just before
going to bed, as it predisposes to chill on exposure, but
encourages sleep. Ordinarily, it should not be used for
longer than from ten to fifteen minutes.
The hot bath. A still hotter bath may sometimes be
used, ranging to 104 for deep water, and even 110 for
shallow. This raises the bodily temperature, and should
be followed by free perspiration. It is used as a cure
for colds, and in pains and stiffness the result of rheu-
matic and other affections. The patient should dry
quickly and get at once into a warm bed well covered
with blankets, as more harm than good will result if
perspiration is not induced.
The cold bath, The cold bath is one of the healthiest
habits. It is tonic and refreshing to the system, and
keeps the skin in excellent order. The temperature of a
cold bath varies according to the season, from 70 down-
wards even to freezing-point, but only vigorous people
should take it 'below 50. That is, in winter the chill
should be taken off with a little hot water. Cold water
acts as a direct stimulant to the nerves of the skin. It
contracts the blood vessels and muscular fibres, making
the skin shrunken and pale. It should be taken directly
after getting out of bed in the morning whilst the body
is still warm, and should only be used for a few minutes,
then followed by a vigorous towelling, when the blood
THE BATH 209
should rush back to the skin with the feeling of a warm
and refreshing glow. Should the bath be followed by a
sensation of chilliness and fatigue instead, it is a sure
sign that the shock of cold water is depressing and un-
suitable. Such a person must either use tepid water, or
replace the morning tub by an occasional warm bath in
the evening.
The morning bath at most seasons of the year in
England requires a little effort, but that little effort, re-
peated daily, is an excellent moral exercise. It helps us
to face cheerfully throughout the day many things that
are a source of worry and trouble to those who too readily
yield to self-indulgence.
The shower bath. The shower bath may be taken
either hot or cold, but it is not usually supplied with hot
water in private houses. .The cold shower is a much
more powerful shock to the nerves than the sponge bath,
and should only be used by those who are in strong
health.
CHAPTEK LIX
PERSONAL CLEANLINESS SEA BATHING TURKISH BATH-
VAPOUR BATH MEDICATED BATHS PUBLIC BATHS
CARE OF THE TEETH AND HAIR
Sea bathing. In sea bathing we have, without doubt,
the most healthful kind of bath. It combines every
advantage : the bracing action of cold water increased
by the presence of salt, the inspiriting effect of sea air
combined with charming surroundings, and the associa-
tion with the bath of one of the best of athletic exercises,
namely, swimming. All these render sea bathing the
most delightful and invigorating of baths. Almost the
only drawback is the short time each year during which
we in England are able to enjoy it.
p
210 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Bathing places. In selecting a place for sea bathing,
a small town or village with a sandy shore is the best.
In large towns the sea is usually polluted with sewage,
and shallow water is not only safer but also warmer than
the deep water of steep, rocky shores. In the beautiful
but deep Scotch lochs the water, even in August, is very
cold, whilst on a sandy shore, heated during low tide by
the sun, it often feels quite warm.
Rules for sea bathing. When bathing in the open air,
certain rules should be observed. 1. It is unwise to bathe
either fasting or directly after a full meal. The best
time is about eleven o'clock in the morning, between
breakfast and dinner. 2. The body should be warm and
fresh when bathing. If chilled or exhausted, cramps or
faintness may occur. 3. The bath should be short, and
followed by a brisk walk to establish a warm reaction.
Unless the weather is very warm, five to ten minutes is
enough for children, ten to fifteen minutes for women, and
fifteen to twenty minutes for men. 4. Whilst bathing,
the body should be immersed. Nothing is so chilling as
standing about wet in a cold air or wind. Lastly, every
bather should learn to swim. Only the swimmer can
thoroughly enjoy and fully benefit from sea bathing.
The Turkish bath, The modern Turkish bath is the
offspring of the luxurious Eoman baths of old days. It
is a hot-air bath, and requires several rooms to give it
properly. First, there are the dressing-rooms. Second,
the hot-air rooms. Third, the shampooing and washing
rooms. Fourth, the cooling room. The bather, having
removed his clothes, enters the hot rooms wrapped in a
sheet. Here he reclines in a dry air, ranging in tem-
perature from 120 to 220 or even 240. In such a
temperature a copious perspiration is soon established,
and is usually allowed to continue for about an hour.
TURKISH AND VAPOUR BATHS 211
He is then shampooed, in which the skin is well rubbed,,
and all the loose scarf skin removed. Lastly, he is
washed down with soap and douches of hot and cold
water, and then rests in the cooling room until the skin
becomes quite cool and dry again. Notwithstanding the
temperature of the hot rooms, which is often above boil-
ing point (212), the bodily heat remains almost unaffected.
This is due to the cooling effect of free perspiration.
The Turkish bath is very cleansing, and for this
purpose may be taken by anyone, but, owing to its free
action on the skin, it is specially used as a cure for colds,
chronic rheumatism, and some other complaints.
Vapour baths are commonly used only in very cold
countries like Eussia, Norway, and other northern parts
of Europe. In these baths the hot room is filled with
vapour by throwing water on stones or bricks which
have previously been heated in a fire. The vapour bath
is much more oppressive than the Turkish bath, and
causes a still more copious perspiration. Instead of
shampooing, the custom is to switch the skin with fine
twigs, which acts as a stimulant to the nerves and cir-
culation. Finally, the pores are closed again by a douche
of cold water. In England the vapour bath is not much
used, and then only in a modified form for medicinal
purposes.
Medicated baths are baths in which some medicinal
substance has been dissolved, and are usually made to
resemble one of the natural mineral springs, or sea water.
The latter, made by adding sea-salt to fresh water, is the
only kind frequently used, except where mineral springs
naturally occur. It is good for weak joints.
Public baths.-^-Large towns are now always supplied
with public baths and washhouses, which they are al-
lowed by Act of Parliament to build out of the rates.
72
212 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
This enables the people to obtain hot, cold, or swimming
baths at a nominal cost.
Care of the teeth. The conditions present in the
mouth are such as to favour decomposition warmth,
moisture, germs, and food. The germs are inhaled with
every breath of air, and we cannot prevent their presence.
Small particles of food remain about the teeth after each
meal, and if we were to get rid of them there would be
nothing to decompose. When they are allowed to remain,
they undergo an acid kind of decay. The acid attacks
the enamel -of the teeth, and a small 'hole once produced
gradually increases until it has destroyed the tooth. In
a healthy person the teeth would rarely decay if they
were kept perfectly clean. We -ought, then, to make it
a rule to clean the teeth twice a day, morning and
evening, and people -who suffer from indigestion would
be wise if they were to clean them after each meal.
Children should .also be encouraged to clean their teeth
even when quite young. If the temporary set are lost
before the permanent set are ready to take their place,
the latter are usually overcrowded and irregular, and
decay early.
Tooth powder, There is no better tooth powder than
camphorated chalk. The camphor is purifying, and the
chalk kills any acid which may be about the teeth. As
a mouth wash, a weak solution of pure carbolic acid acts
very well. It should be about one part to a hundred of
water. It is a common ingredient in dentifrice waters.
Care of the hair: use of oil. Owing to the difficulty
of drying long hair, women get rather too much into the
habit of neglecting to wash the head. It is best to make
a definite rule to wash it once a fortnight with soap in
warm water, followed by two or three changes of fresh
water. In children the head should be washed oftener,
CARE OF THE HAIR 213
as in them it is especially liable to get dirty, and the
abode of troublesome insects. Short hair is best for all
children, girls as well as boys. As the girls approach
womanhood it should be allowed to grow. Girls cannot
be too strongly advised not to descend to the artifices of
dyeing, crimping, and other troublesome and deceptive
practices. They are harmful to the hair, untrue to
nature, and rarely attain the desired end. Oil or pomade
if used freely makes the head dirty, but a very little
rubbed into the roots of the hair is beneficial. It pre-
vents the skin from becoming dry and scurfy, and the
hair from falling out.
CHAPTEE LX
WORK AND REST THE EFFECT OF MUSCULAR AND MENTAL
WORK UPON THE BODY
Every action involves work. It has already been ex-
plained that vital force or energy is derived from food,
that it is, in fact, due to the combustion of food. Some
of this energy is necessary for every action of the body,
even the very least, and even though the action requires
no apparent effort. Every movement, every thought,
even the formation of a drop of digestive fluid, needs
energy, and is therefore accompanied by the combustion
of food with its resulting products, heat and carbonic
acid gas.
Work of the internal organs : of the brain and muscles :
effect of muscular work on the body : work and health.
The daily work of the body in carrying on the various
vital processes, circulation, respiration, digestion, and
excretion, involves a considerable amount of work, much
more than one would think ; but what we call human
work is the work of the voluntary muscular system and
214 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the brain. The former involves the use of the bulk of
the body, the latter of only a very small part of it.
Active muscular work produces at once an effect felt
throughout the body. When we run, for instance, the
blood begins to flow more rapidly, the breathing is
deeper and quicker, and the skin becomes hot and moist
with perspiration. Brain work is not accompanied by
any such effect upon other parts of the body. When we
study hard the circulation through the brain is increased,
but this organ is so small in bulk compared with the
muscles that an increased combustion of food in it does
not influence the general circulation. It is not, there-
fore, remarkable that health stands in closer relation to
the training of the muscles than of the brain.
Changes accompanying muscular action. When a
muscle is in action, the blood supply to it is increased ;
food and oxygen are used ; heat, which is the source of
its power, is developed in it ; and carbonic acid gas is pro-
duced. All these changes are regular and definite, and
in exact proportion to the amount of work done. Dr.
Edward Smith has shown that the amount of air
breathed under varying conditions of the muscular sys-
tem is as follows :
Lying ....
Sitting ....
Standing ....
Walking, one mile an hour
two miles
three
four
six
1-0
1-18
1-33
1-9
2-76
3-22
5-0
7-0
Thus with each increase of work done there is a
corresponding increase in the amount of air respired,
and it has also been shown that there is a similar
regular increase in the amount of carbonic acid gas
RELATION OF WORK TO 'HEALTH 215
breathed out. Other observers have estimated the
entire amount of oxygen used and carbonic acid gas
given off during a day of work and a day of rest respec-
tively. During the work-day a man is found to use
about 4,000 grains more oxygen, and to give off about
6,000 grains more carbonic acid gas. Increased work
requires more food, more breathing, more beating
of heart, and more action of the skin; and therefore
muscular work involves not only exercise of the muscles,
but also of all the important parts and organs concerned
with the above duties.
Effect of non-use on the muscles. When the muscular
system is insufficiently used the muscles waste and be-
come soft and fatty, their healthy tone and vigour is
lost, and even slight exertion is fatiguing. The blood is
charged with the excess of -digested food which ought to
be used by the muscles, the circulation is sluggish, the
aeration of the blood in the lungs is imperfect, and the
skin is inactive. Thus people who take no exercise are
usually pale and flabby, with a poor circulation and an
unhealthy skin. In some the unused food is deposited
as fat ; in others it acts purely as a waste product, and
the work of getting rid of it makes the body unnaturally
thin.
Effect of muscular exercise. When muscles in this state
are trained to regular action again the fat and waste pro-
ducts gradually disappear. The muscles become firm and
strong, and capable of sustained action without fatigue.
The circulation improves, the lungs expand better in
breathing, the blood is more nutritious and better aerated,
and consequently every part of the body is healthier and
more efficient.
Dependence of health on muscular exercise: of brain
power on health. It may be accepted as a fact that per-
2i6 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
feet bodily health is impossible without a reasonable
amount of bodily exercise. Now, the working power of
the brain is dependent upon the health of the body;
therefore, if the body is not healthy the mind cannot be
trained to its greatest perfection. The highest develop-
ment of the brain is impossible without health, and perfect
health is impossible without exercise ; therefore the pure
bookworm who altogether neglects muscular training
debars himself from reaching the highest standard of
his capacity.
Effect of neglecting to train the brain. On the other
hand, it is a still greater error to train only the muscular
system and entirely neglect the brain. In this way man
becomes a mere animal, possessed, perhaps, of splendid
health and great brute force, but unable to perform any
of the higher kinds of human work. Manual labour, cut
off from education and all intellectual pursuits, is the
lowest kind of work; fortunately, such a condition is
scarcely possible in a civilised country in the present
day. Skilled labour is one of the higher kinds of work,
for it involves the training of both brain and muscle,
and is often associated with fine bodily health and great
intellectual power. Book work alone leads to a deteriora-
tion of bodily health, and consequently to a deterioration
in the vigour and capacity of the brain.
Combined mental and physical training. To reach the
highest development of manhood, the muscular system
must be exercised for health, and the brain trained for
intelligence. Therefore, the best men and women are
derived from the muscular workers who combine intel-
lectual training with their trade, and from the students
who combine muscular training with their mental work.
PHYSICAL EXERCISE GYMNASTICS 217
CHAPTEK LXI
WORK AND BEST PHYSICAL EXERCISE GYMNASTICS
RECREATION SLEEP
Physical or muscular exercise. The healthiest mus-
cular exercise is that which is undertaken out of doors.
When the work of life is chiefly of a muscular character,
and is carried on in the open air, or in large well-
ventilated workrooms, all that is necessary in the way of
physical exercise is accomplished, and leisure may be
spent in intellectual pursuits. But when the daily work
is chiefly sedentary or studious, outdoor exercise is re-
quired for health, and should be taken with regularity
whenever the time can be afforded for it. The best 'out-
door exercises are walking, cycling, riding, swimming,
skating, and boating. They are equally suitable for
both sexes, and may be enjoyed at almost any period
of life.
Gymnastics. Gymnastics and calisthenics are health-
giving and very useful for training the muscles to prompt,
energetic, and well-regulated action, and for giving a
graceful carriage and movement to the body. They are
particularly useful for young people, and should be used
in all schools in conjunction with never in place of
outdoor exercises and games.
Recreation : games and sports. Eecreation is neither
a mere physical exercise nor a simple rest from work. It
is a change of condition by which a jaded body or mind is
invigorated and restored to healthy action. Its character
varies with the nature of the daily work, for perhaps the
most essential feature of a recreation is that it shall offer
a contrast to the routine work of life. The vigorous,
healthy, outdoor worker finds recreation in study, music,
218 .PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
painting, and various indoor occupations. The sedentary
town man, on the other hand, finds great delight in dig-
ging in his garden, or some other laborious outdoor pur-
suit. But for the mass of the people recreation involves
something more than a change of work ; it requires that
the change shall combine pleasure and excitement, which
stimulate the nerves, with a vigorous use of the muscles.
Such a combination is found to perfection in English
outdoor games, such as cricket, football, golf, tennis,
fives, baseball, athletic sports, &c.; and in English field
sports such as hunting, shooting, and fishing. These
recreations, used according to age, sex, and position of
life, have been one of the chief means of maintaining
the vigour, courage, and health of the English nation,
and it may be well hoped that they will long remain our
national pastimes.
Sleep :. condition of body during sleep. Sleep is the
physiological rest of the whole body. During sleep the
vital processes are reduced to the lowest activity consis-
tent with the maintenance of life and health. The work
of all the internal organs is lessened, as is evidenced by
the decrease in the oxygen consumed and the carbonic
acid gas exhaled ; the beats of the heart and the respira-
tions are reduced ; the digestive process is slow, and the
movements of the intestines are quieted ; above all, the
muscular and nervous systems rest.
Necessity of sleep. Sleep is absolutely necessary for
life. The loss of a single night's rest is fatiguing ; of
two or three nights serious ; whilst continued sleepless-
ness must end in madness or death.
Cause of sleep. The actual cause of sleep is not
known. It is associated with a decrease in the circulation
through the brain, but that may be either a cause or a
consequence. The conditions which encourage sleep are
SLEEP 219
moderate muscular fatigue, a warm skin, and an ab-
sence of anything tending to excite the brain or stimu-
late the sense organs. If the muscles are in want of
exercise, there is often a fidgety restlessness in place of
repose. If the skin is cold, the blood is not withdrawn
from the brain, and its activity continues. If the nerves
of the eye, or the ear, or the skin are stimulated by light,
sound, or an uncomfortable bed, the brain often will not
rest ; nor can we get to sleep if we go to bed whilst the
brain is still excited by recent study, pleasure, trouble,
or any other cause. But when the body is healthy and
the mind at ease, it very rarely happens that a good
day's work is not followed by a good night's rest.
Time for sleep. The length of time required for sleep
varies with age. A baby needs about sixteen hours
out of the twenty-four ; a child of two years, fourteen
hours ; four years, twelve hours ; eight years, eleven
.hours; twelve years, ten hours; sixteen years, nine
hours ; twenty-one years, eight hours ; and the same
during health through the remainder of life.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
PART II
CHAPTEE LXII
THE HOME REQUIREMENTS FOR A MODERN HOUSE
SITUATION ASPECT ELEVATION SUBSOIL
The home, A house is primarily intended as a shelter
from the inclemency of the weather ; but what we or-
dinarily mean by a house is much more than this. It
is a substantial building, fitted with all the modern
contrivances for comfort and convenience which the
tenant can afford. A simple shelter, such as a canvas
tent or a wooden shed, boasts of none of these con-
veniences ; but with the conveniences there are intro-
duced many concealed sources of danger to health, from
which the structure itself is perfectly free. Tents and
huts are only suitable for a mild climate and a hardy
people ; but those who live in them are not likely to
suffer from bad ventilation, poisoning by sewer gas, and
other insanitary conditions common in town houses.
A modern house. A modern house, in addition to its
furniture, is fitted with the necessary apparatus for the
following purposes : (1) ventilation ; (2) heating ; (3)
lighting ; (4) water supply ; (5) removal of waste matters.
This introduces a complication of pipes and other fittings,
Q
222 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
which, so long as they are all in good working order, are
quite free from danger, but which, if they break down
at any part, are at once a source of risk. The gas we
burn, the products of combustion, and the emanations
from the sewers are all deadly poisons. If the air of
the house is contaminated by them, health must suffer
accordingly, and thus we are more or less dependent for
our well-being upon the condition of the pipes, traps,
and ventilating apparatus of our houses.
Drains. At the present day, in every well-regulated
town, the sanitary authorities exercise a strict super-
vision over the way in which the builder makes the
drains connected with new houses. But, however perfect
at first, drains sooner or later are liable to get out
of order. Every housekeeper should therefore under-
stand enough about them to know when they are right,
so that an outbreak of serious illness may not be the
first thing to call attention to some fault, which, had it
been recognised earlier, would have been remedied before
the danger was incurred.
Sanitary influence of ventilation, water supply, heat,
and light. The management of ventilation, heating,
lighting and water supply is almost equally important,
though perhaps we do not trace disease so directly to
mismanagement in these -matters. Bad ventilation, for
instance, tells very slowly on the health. By reducing
the strength it makes us an easy prey to some disease,
such as consumption, which we should otherwise not
have contracted, and thus the real cause is unnoticed
and escapes blame. Far more diseases in the latter
half of life are brought about by influences acting slowly
on our health, than by sudden acute attacks. These
insidious causes are due, for the most part, to neglect
of the laws of health in matters like eating, drinking,
SITE AND ASPECT 223
clothing, cleanliness, work, worry, and insanitary
dwellings.
The choice of a house : situation, One may often hear
it said that certain people have a beautiful house, with
the most perfect sanitary appliances, and yet are never
healthy in it. This shows that to build, furnish, and fit
up a house on the most approved principles is not suffi-
cient. It is almost equally important to put it in the
right place. Conditions of air, sunshine, and subsoil or
ground vary considerably, and are by no means limited
to the wide choice between one district and another, but
even affect houses which are side by side in a town.
These conditions, as well as the sanitary matters already
referred to, must be taken into consideration in esta-
blishing a healthy home.
Aspect : value of sunlight, Sunshine is one of the
conditions essential to good health. Men and women
deprived of sunlight grow pale and sickly as plants do.
Children need it even more than grown people, and
should, if possible, have the sunniest rooms in the house.
Very frequently the nursery is a dark back room ; this
is a bad arrangement, and helps to make the children
delicate. 'A dark house is a sick house,' as Dr.
Kichardson, the health reformer, says ; so, when choosing
a house, let us always look out for one with a sunny
aspect. Sun bleaches the furniture, and we often draw
the blinds to keep it out on that account ; but it has the
opposite effect upon people, for it makes them ruddy
arid healthy. The more our occupation keeps us indoors,
the more need we have for sunshine in the house.
Conditions affecting amount of sunlight. When select-
ing a house never fail to notice and give due considera-
tion to its aspect in regard to sunshine. In fig. 97 a
common example is given to show how houses vary in
Q 2
224
PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
this respect. The houses in an ordinary town street are
built each with a wing projecting backwards, the wings
of two adjoining houses being placed back to back. In
house No. 2 the windows of the wing face north, and the
wing prevents the sun from shining into the back sitting-
room, except in summer when the sun is high enough
to top the houses behind. In No. 3 the windows of the
HOUSE -Top s IN FRONT.
N
HOUSE-TOPS BEHIND
w
Fin. 97. Diagram illustrating the Relation of Sunshine to Aspect in two
ordinary adjoining Town Houses during the Winter Months.
wing face south, and the wing of the next house to the
right No. 4 is too far off to keep the sun out of its
back sitting-room. During both winter and summer
No. 3 can get what sunshine there is, whilst No. 2 only
gets it in the summer during the early part of the
morning and the late part of the afternoon, and in the
winter not at all if the morning is thick, as it frequently
ELEVATION AND SUBSOIL 225
is in town. Other things being equal, No. 3 will be a
more healthy house than No. 2.
Elevation. Hills are healthier than valleys. On the
hills the air is crisp, dry, and bracing ; in valleys it is
heavy, damp, and stagnant. In cities the same condi-
tions are present on a smaller scale. The air in the
hollows is often damp and foggy what is called muggy
whilst at the higher parts of the town it is quite
bright.
Subsoil. The ground on which a house is built
should, if possible, be dry and porous. Sandstone and
gravel are excellent subsoils, as they are very porous, and
surface moisture, like rain, soon drains away through
them. Clay and marshy grounds are bad, as they are
always damp ; but what is called made ground is often
the most unhealthy of all. The latter is common in
towns where the hollows are filled up with rubbish. If
the refuse is carefully inspected the made ground is
all right ; but the contents of ashpits, and other animal
and vegetable refuse, are often thrown in, when diseases
like diphtheria are very likely to break out in the houses
built on the ground.
Various subsoils in the same town, In some towns
there are all three kinds of subsoil. For example, in
Liverpool large tracts of the city are built upon sand-
stone, and these houses are always dry. Other parts
are built on the boulder clay which rests in the hollows of
the sandstone rock ; these houses are damp unless special
precautions are taken to prevent it (see p. 226). Still
other parts are built on made ground, where the clay
has been dug out for bricks and the pits filled with
rubbish. Only harmless refuse, like earth, clinkers, and
building rubbish, is now allowed to be thrown into these
clay pits ; but in times past all sorts of filth were emptied
226 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
into them, and that was how we learnt that diseases
were produced in this way.
From what has been said regarding aspect, elevation,
and subsoil it will be seen that even though a man has
to live near his work, and in the heart of a great city,
he still has a choice in these matters, and will choose
well or ill according to his knowledge of them.
CHAPTER LXIII
CONSTRUCTION WALLS, ROOF, WINDOWS, AND FLOORS
Construction : parts to examine. The next considera-
tion to the situation of a house is its construction. If
we are satisfied as to its aspect, elevation, and subsoil,
we next look at the fabric itself. Has it been built in
such a way as to make it weather-proof, comfortable,
and convenient ? With this object in view we examine
the walls, roof, windows, floors, fireplaces and chimneys,
arrangement of rooms, gas and water supply, waste pipes,
bath-room, and lavatory.
Walls : thickness : porosity of bricks : damp course,
Substantial walls are useful not only on account of
strength, but because they are warmer in winter and
cooler in summer than thin walls. Ordinarily a house
wall varies in thickness according to its height, as it is
required by law to be of sufficient thickness for strength,
and only those who build for themselves are likely to
exceed the necessary thickness. On the outside the
walls should be smooth and the pointing good, otherwise
the rain soaks into the bricks and makes them damp.
Bricks are very porous and readily absorb water ; many
bricks will suck up nearly as much as a pint, holding it
like a sponge. For this reason, when a house is built
on damp soil, what is called a damp course is introduced
CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOUSE 227
just above the ground. The damp course usually con-
sists of a layer of glazed stoneware, or some simi-
lar material, through which water cannot pass. It
prevents the moisture of the ground rising up and
passing on from brick to brick, and so making the whole
wall damp.
Area : foundations : ventilation of floor spaces : cement
lining. When the rooms of the basement are below the
level of the ground, the soil should always be kept away
from the walls by an area. The foundations are the
portions of the walls which are beneath the ground.
They bear the weight of the whole structure, and are
usually much thicker than the parts above the ground.
Opposite the position of the floors there should be small
gratings or perforated bricks to admit air from the out-
side to the spaces under the floors. On the inside the
walls should be coated with a layer of good hard cement,
on which the paint, paper, or distemper is applied.
The harder it is the more damp proof it will be.
Points to notice about the walls, When looking at a
house with a view to taking it, the following are the
more important points to ascertain in reference to the
construction of the walls : (1) outside brickwork smooth
and well-pointed ; (2) no cracks in the walls or ceilings,
or displacement of fireplaces, window or door frames,
indicating 'jerry' building; (3) inside walls cemented
and free from damp marks.
Roof. Slates make the cleanest and best roofing.
In England the supply is good, and they are generally
used. Glazed tiles also answer very well, and are popu-
lar on account of their picturesque appearance. Thatch
makes the warmest roof in cold weather and the coolest
in summer owing to its non-conducting quality ; but it
is dangerously inflammable, and needs such constant
228 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
repair that it cannot be regarded as a serviceable roofing.
Slate and tile roofs are good conductors ; consequently
the rooms or attics beneath them are much affected by
the outside temperature, being very hot in summer and
very cold in winter. A leaking roof is a bad point in a
house, so always examine the ceilings for the damp
marks left by old leaks. Nothing is more disheartening
than to have a newly decorated room spoilt by the first
heavy shower.
Windows: for light and ventilation : varieties. Win-
dows are required for two purposes : light and ventila-
tion. Both are very important ; therefore a good house
should have plenty of windows to light well all the rooms,
passages, stairs, and hall. The usual window consists
of two sashes, which are opened by lowering the top or
raising the bottom one. Iron weights concealed in tlio
framework of the window are attached to the sashes by
cords, balancing them so that they are easily raised or
lowered. Sometimes French windows are used. These
reach to the ground and open like a door. In very
large rooms, where the windows are big, usually only a
part opens, and in public buildings, like churches and
hospitals, the movable part is generally so constructed
as to direct the air upwards, which prevents a draught
when they are opened. This is called a hopper window
(fig. 112). See that the windows of the house are sufficient
to light every part of it, and that they open, close, and
fasten properly.
Floors : rafters : floor-boards : and ceilings. When a
house is built, the foundation of the floors is laid as
the walls are raised. This consists of the rafters, which
are long wooden beams running from wall to wall. To
the top of the rafters the floor boards are nailed, and to
the bottom the laths, which, when covered with plaster,
WINDOWS AND FLOORS 229
make the ceiling of the room below. Thus the rafters,
which support all the weight in the room above, are
contained in a closed space between the ceiling and floor.
This promotes dry rot, and hence the importance of
ventilating the floors referred to under the head of walls.
Floor boards should fit quite close together, so that no
dirt can get down between them nor water when the
floor is scrubbed. They should be what a joiner calls
tongued and grooved (fig. 98), so as to be almost air-
tight.
Good woodwork. The woodwork of a new house is a
good test of its general character. Well-seasoned timber
FIG. 98. A Section through the Joint between two Floor Boards,
showing how they should be tongued and grooved.
is not employed in cheaply built houses. The jerry
builder uses green wood, which shrinks as it dries,
causing the floor boards to gape, and the windows, doors,
drawers, and other parts to fit badly, and very often to
crack.
In the basement and kitchen the floor is usually
made of tiles, stone, or concrete ; but such floors are
not healthy for living rooms unless covered with lino-
leum or matting.
230 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTEE LXIY
CONSTRUCTION FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS ARRANGEMENT
OF ROOMS GAS AND WATER SUPPLY BATH ROOM
WASTE PIPES
Fireplaces and chimneys : for warming and ventilation.
Every room in the house should possess a fireplace.
It is required sometimes for warming and always for
ventilation. The smaller the hedroom the more neces-
sary the fireplace to ventilate it. Each fireplace should
have its separate chimney carried up to the top of the
house, and there should be no near building higher than
the chimneys, or they are certain to smoke. The varie-
ties of grates and stoves, and the best kinds to use, will
be explained in a future chapter.
Arrangement of rooms : living and sleeping rooms.
The sitting-rooms should, if possible, be on the ground
floor, as this is the most convenient position, and is as
healthy as any part of the house. The sitting-room
which is to be most frequently used should be that
which is the sunniest. The basement, being below the
ground, is generally cold, damp, cheerless, and badly
lighted. When this is the case it is not suitable for
living rooms. The best sleeping rooms are those between
the attics and the ground floor. Rooms under the roof
are too much affected by the outside temperature, and
downstair rooms are too noisy in town. The bedroom
which we frequently meet with in the back wing of a
cottage house above the scullery, is a very cold place in
winter, owing to the thin outside walls. Houses which
occupy a little more ground, but have the kitchen and
sitting-rooms on the ground floor, and sufficient bed-
rooms without using the attics, are much better and
more easily worked than those high and narrow houses
GAS AND WATER SUPPLY 231
which, with the same number of rooms, involve the use
of underground kitchens and attic bedrooms.
Hall : corridors : cupboards. The hall should not be
unnecessarily large, or it will noed a stove in winter, and
it should be well lighted. In every house there is suffi-
cient room for a good window between the top of the
hall door and the ceiling. Long corridors or passages
should be avoided, especially if dark. They are only
necessary in houses in which the rooms have been
badly arranged, and are a cause of much trouble and
expense in cleaning and carpets. Cupboards and shelves
are indispensable conveniences for the accommodation of
cooking utensils, crockery, stores, clothing, and house-
hold linen. Their presence or absence should be taken
into consideration when selecting a house.
Gas and water supply. The town authorities are
responsible for the gas and water supply outside the
house, and the landlord or tenant inside. The gas
comes from the street main through an iron pipe to
the meter, an apparatus which measures the amount of
gas used. There is a tap in the main just before it enters
the meter. From the meter the supply is carried on
through the house by means of lead pipes, which are
mostly concealed in the walls, window frames, and floor
spaces. The landlord is responsible for the pipes, but the
tenant supplies the removable brackets and chandeliers.
The importance of gas pipes being sound and properly
laid is so great that there is not often any serious fault
in them.
The water supply is more complicated. The water
main usually enters from the street beside the gas main,
and there is a tap outside the house by which the supply
can be entirely cut off in case of a leak. The main pipe
IB continued up to the cistern at the top of the house.
232 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
frequently supplying the scullery and some other places
on the way. Then from the cistern a descending pipe
supplies the bath, housemaid's sink, wash basins, pantry,
and the hot-water apparc^us.
Points to notice about water supply. The chief points
to notice about the water supply are that the pipes are
placed well within the house where they are not likely to
burst with every frost, that there is a separate cistern for
the lavatory, that if the town supply is intermittent the
house cistern is large enough for the wants of the house, and
that the hot-water apparatus is a good one. All these
matters will be more fully explained in another chapter.
Water supply in country houses. In country houses
there is no gas supply, and the water is usually drawn
from a well. It is a matter of the utmost importance
to ascertain that the source of the water supply is quite
free from contamination by cesspools or other impurities,
as the water has often been the cause of fatal illnesses
in otherwise perfectly healthy country houses.
Bathroom. In years gone by a bathroom was an
almost unknown luxury in a small house. Now one is
placed as regularly as a kitchen in every 20/. house,
with its proper supply of hot and cold water. Never
think of taking a town house without a bathroom, and
see that its waste pipe opens mvr a //n/ ////// in the yard'
or area below.
Waste pipes. The waste pipes carry the liquid refuse
of the lavatory, bath, wash-basins, and sinks from the
house to the sewers. They are a great source of danger
if improper or out of order, and cannot be too carefully
inspected before taking a house. It is not a very diffi-
cult matter to learn how they ought to be placed, trapped,
and ventilated points which are fully described in
Chapters LXXXVI to LXXXIX.
TREATMENT OF THE FLOORS 233
CHAPTEE LXV
MATERIAL AND TREATMENT OF THE FLOORS
Material for floors : floors of rooms, hall, passages, and
kitchen. Wood being a poor conductor of heat is a good
substance for floors. Taking into consideration its
durability and cost it is the best material for the pur-
pose. The chief drawback to wood is its inflammability,
and for this reason the floors of public buildings are fre-
quently made of cement, on the top of which the wood
is laid. Stained and varnished or polished wood is the
best, as it can be so easily cleaned ; indeed, a polished
floor is more perfectly cleaned with a damp cloth than
ordinary boards are by a laborious scrubbing.
Wooden floors are almost universal in sitting and bed-
rooms. Stairs and passages are usually also floored with
wood, though sometimes the stairs are of stone and the
passages of concrete. The advantages of stone or con-
crete floors are that they are not inflammable, they are
silent to walk on when covered with carpet, and they
are easily cleaned. On the other hand, they are much
more expensive to lay down, and cost more in wear and
tear of carpets. The hall is often floored with tiles
or concrete with mosaic pattern, and the kitchen and
scullery are generally paved with stone or a cheaper
kind of glazed tile.
Floor coverings, In a general way carpet is the best
covering for wooden floors, and linoleum for stone floors.
In the hall a strip of linoleum or oilcloth is the cleanest
and best covering. It need not reach to the wall on
either side ; the exposed border of tiles, concrete, or
painted woodwork making a suitable margin. Some
people also like linoleum on the stairs. In a cottage
house, where there is often a good deal of traffic up and
234 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
down stairs, it is clean and quiet ; moreover, in cottages
the stairs are sometimes so made that stair-rods can-
not be used, and the covering has to be nailed to the
boards. When this is the case the clean, easily washed
linoleum is certainly better than carpet. The stair-
border is usually painted. In the passages strips of
hemp carpet or coir matting are cheap, neat, and ser-
viceable. If they do not reach to the wall the borders
should be stained or painted.
The kitchen floor should not be entirely covered,
unless it is with linoleum or oilcloth. These wash so
well that they may be laid permanently ; but strips of
matting which are often used should never be put in
places where they cannot be easily removed for cleaning.
Floorcloth wears out quickly on stone floors, especially
when irregular, so it is a common plan to spread saw-
dust underneath it. If the sawdust keeps dry and is
changed occasionally there can be no objection to it, as
it is of a decidedly purifying nature.
For sitting-room floors a central square or oblong
carpet is certainly the best covering, the border being
stained and varnished. The latter is easily accomplished
by anyone, as the combined stain and varnish is now
sold in tins ready for use. The brown or oak, and thu
black or ebony, are the favourite colours ; they both look
very well. The carpet should be large enough to extend
up to but not under any of the heavy furniture placed
against the wall, so that it can be taken up by simply
removing the chairs and table. If the floor is old and
irregular and there is much traffic on it, a cheap, thick
paper felt will save the carpet very much, and be soft
and pleasant to walk on. Old boards are sometimes too
bad for staining ; when this is the case an oilcloth or
linoleum border answers the purpose very well.
FLOOR COVERINGS 23 ^
Carpets : English and Foreign. Carpets may be had
in qualities varying in price from a few pence to many
shillings per square yard. The cheapest are made of
coarse jute printed after manufacture in bright patterns ;
but jute neither dyes well nor wears well, so these carpets
soon get shabby. The Kensington art squares are made
of good material and are reversible ; but they are too thin
for hard wear. Tapestry is the best kind of printed carpet,
the pattern being printed on the yarn before it is woven ;
but it is not so good as Brussels, in which the pattern is
woven from well- dyed yarn, each thread of which is of
the same colour throughout. Carpets having a velvet-
like pile resemble Brussels, only that the loops of woollen
yarn are cut where they come to the surface. The
Wilton and Axminster pile are amongst the best and
most expensive of carpets ; but the cheaper kinds of pile
carpet are not nearly as good as Brussels, which is
decidedly the best for general household purposes.
Yorkshire is the great seat of the carpet industry ;
but it is at Kidderminster in Worcestershire that Brussels
carpets are chiefly manufactured, and there - are several
other towns in both Scotland and England occupied in
the same class of trade. Turkey and Persian are the
best kinds of foreign carpet. Both are expensive. Bugs
of good pattern and quality are imported in large
numbers from India ; they wear well and cost less than
English rugs, though they have not quite the same
finish.
The bedroom floor. Carpets always collect dust, and
for this reason there is some objection to their use in the
bedroom. A bed is an article of furniture which is too
heavy to move out of the way, and too low to get under
for sweeping ; consequently the carpet under the bed is
generally in a bad state. The healthiest method of
236 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
treating the bedroom floor is of course the cleanest, and
the cleanest is to stain and polish it all over, as is done
in hospital wards. Rugs may be laid down just where
it is necessary to keep the feet from contact with the
bare floor. The saving in carpet compensates for the
cost of the varnish.
Floorcloth. Oilcloth and linoleum are the only kinds
in ordinary use, and of these linoleum is by far the
better. Oilcloth is made by applying several layers of
paint on a strong backing of canvas, the topmost layer
being printed in pattern. Linoleum is composed of
powdered cork mixed with oil, resin, and pigment. This
compound is pressed into canvas between heated rollers
to produce the well-known sheets of plain linoleum. The
figured kinds are printed in oils on the surface, as in the
case of oilcloth. Of course the pattern wears out long
before the substance is appreciably damaged, and on this
account a new process for producing a mosaic pattern
has recently been adopted. This consists in stamping
the tile-like pieces out of differently coloured plain sheets,
and cementing them together again in the form of a
pattern on a thin canvas backing. In this kind the
pattern goes quite through, and consequently does not
disappear until the material is entirely worn out.
CHAPTER LXYI
TREATMENT OF THE WALLS PAINT, VARNISH, WHITEWASH,
DISTEMPER, WALL PAPERS, PAPER HANGING
Treatment of the walls. -The internal walls of the
living rooms consist almost invariably of smooth plaster
or cement, the latter being the proper finish. Round
the floor there is a skirting of wood, and near the ceiling
usually a moulding or cornice of plaster. There is aiso
HOUSE PAINTING 237
the woodwork of the doors and cupboards. The hall
and passages are finished in the same way; but in
parts of the basement, the coal cellar, and outhouses, the
bricks are usually left bare. Woodwork should be painted
or varnished ; bare bricks coated with plain limewash or
distemper ; ceilings with whitewash, or sometimes with
paper or paint ; and smooth walls with distemper, paper,
or paint.
Paint : house painting. The paint used for houses
consists of a pigment or colour mixed with linseed oil
and turpentine. Linseed oil is selected for this purpose
on account of its property of drying. Mineral, olive,
and other oils which do not dry would be quite useless
for making paint. It is not necessary to grind the
colours and mix the paint when required, as it can be
obtained ready for use at any colour shop in large or
small quantities. House painting is not a very difficult
art, although it requires some practice to lay on a smooth
and regular coat. The chief points to observe are, first,
that the wall or woodwork is clean, smooth, and dry ;
that the brush is clean, and the paint well mixed. Second,
that it is laid on evenly, using the brush freely and the
paint sparingly. Thirdly, that one coat is allowed to dry
thoroughly before another is put on the top of it. Paint
makes a clean and healthy coating for walls, as it has no
tendency to catch dust, and stands washing better than
any other method of treating them. It has a colder
appearance than paper, and is more expensive, therefore
it is only usual to paint the walls of the hall, staircase, and
passages, as well as the woodwork throughout the house.
Varnish. Varnishes consist of gum-resins like copal,
mastic, shellac, and other similar substances dissolved in
boiled linseed oil and turpentine or spirit. Bright var-
nish is very suitable for nice woodwork like pitch pine,
B
238 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
as it dries bright and hard, and shows the grain of the
wood. Black varnish like Brunswick black, which con-
tains asphalt, is the best coating for the iron work about
the fire grate, &c. Varnish washes well and is easily
renewed, so it is a clean and healthy treatment for wood
or metal, as well as being an excellent preservative.
Whitewash and limewash. Whitening (chalk) and lime,
used as whitewash or limewash, are applied to ceilings
and walls. They are mixed with water to the consistence
of cream, and are then laid on with a broad brush.
When to be used on walls a little size (very thin glue)
or starch is often added, to prevent them rubbing off.
They are very cheap and easily put on, and as the lime-
wash is considered purifying it is commonly used for the
basement, cellars, yard, fowl houses, and similar places.
Distemper Distemper is a kind of limewash in which
pigments and size are used. It looks a good deal like
paint ; but is much cheaper and more quickly put on.
It may be used in any of the rooms, hall, or passages,
as it looks well and is cheap, clean, and healthy. A
neutral shade of colour is the best for the general coat,
\\hirli should be set oil with a bright dado, put on by
means of a stencil plate.
Wall paper : popularity : varieties : sanitary and var-
nished papers. Wall papers may be had in a great
variety of colour, design and quality. Notwithstanding
that they are considered somewhat less clean and healthy
than paint or distemper, they are certainly much more
popular, and very much more commonly used than both
put together. The reason no doubt is that they are
more decorative, and lack the cold and formal appearance
of the others. Wall papers may be arranged in three
classes : (1) The ordinary paper printed in water colour,
in qualities varying in price from a few pence to many
shillings per piece of twelve yards. (2) The sanitary
PAPER HANGING 239
wall paper, a smooth paper of good quality and moderate
cost, printed in oil colour. (3) Varnished wall papers ;
clean, durable, and good, but rather expensive. The
sanitary papers are especially suitable for bedrooms.
Their smooth surface tends to catch less dust than the
ordinary wall paper, the oil colour is less liable to fade,
and it bears cleaning better ; indeed, it is said to stand
washing. Varnished papers certainly may be cleaned with
a damp cloth. They are made to represent panels of wood,
and glazed tiles. The latter are so bright and clean look-
ing, that nothing but the real thing could be nicer for the
bath-room or dark passages. Of ordinary wall papers
those with a smooth surface are the best ; the rough, flock
surface papers being one of the worst kinds of wall deco-
ration. The very worst kind is a paper which has been
printed with arsenical colours, especially that known as
Scheele's green, as the arsenic is given off from the
paper and causes slow poisoning. However, this fact is
so well known nowadays, that manufacturers are more
careful in the selection of their pigments. Under no
circumstances should several layers of wall paper be put
one on the top of another ; such an accumulation of old
paste and paper being decidedly injurious to health.
Paper hanging, Paper hanging is more difficult than
painting ; but by no means beyond the reach of a skilful
amateur. Many a self-taught housewife can proudly
point to a neat and clean room which she has painted
and papered entirely with her own hands. The first
thing to do is to thoroughly wet the old paper and scrape
it off. Then whitewash the ceiling, and clean and paint
the woodwork. Next take the rolls of paper, cut off the
left-hand margin, and divide some of them into lengths
a little more than the height of the room, in each of
which the pattern must exactly correspond. Paste the
R 2
240 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
back of one of these pieces and put it on the wall, say on
the right-hand side of the window. Having loosely
attached it here, take the top and stick it in a true
line along the top of the wall. Then stand below it,
raise all the rest from the wall again and let it fall back
in a straight and true line along the margin of the win-
dow frame. Lastly gently press it with a soft cloth so
that it adheres smoothly throughout, and cut the lower
edge off level with the top of the skirting board.
The succeeding pieces are to be put on in the same
way, each one overlapping the right-hand margin of the
last in such a manner that the pattern is exactly con-
tinuous. When going round a corner the paper should
not be cut to extend beyond it in one piece, or it will be
certain to wrinkle or tear. Very thin and very thick
papers are the most difficult to manage, especially in
lofty rooms where long pieces have to be handled at
once. The sanitary are as easy as any, as their texture
is good and the oil colour does not readily smear.
CHAPTER LXYII
TREATMENT OF THE WINDOWS THE BEDROOM SIZE-
VENTILATION CLEANLINESS FURNITURE
The windows: treatment of the windows. Windows
are always furnished with blinds, and frequently with
curtains as well. The blinds are required to prevent
people outside from seeing in, especially when the rooms
are lighted up after dark ; and the curtains to keep out
draughts.
Blinds. Blinds are of many kinds. First there are
half blinds, intended to prevent people from looking into
the room during daylight. Either these or muslin
curtains are necessary in a street, as without them
CURTAINS AND BUNDS 241
anyone passing can usually see into the room. For
sitting-rooms half blinds are made of wire gauze, lattice-
work, cane, coloured glass, or art muslin. All answer
the purpose equally well, but the last is of course much
the cheapest. For bedrooms muslin in some form is
almost invariably used. A perfect model for full blinds
has not yet been invented ; the old style of plain roller
blind being as good as any. The various spring kinds
are very liable to get out of order, and those gathered
in folds, though very pretty, catch the dust too much.
Venetians are expensive, heavy, dirty, and in frequent
want of repair.
Curtains: as dust traps: material: half curtains.
Sanitarians always object to heavy curtains, as they are
such dust traps. In town houses, which are invariably
dusty, heavy curtains are not usually necessary ; but in
exposed situations in the country one can hardly do
without them, and fortunately there is much less dust
in country houses. Muslin curtains are quite free from
this objection, but then they are useless as screens
against draught. Good woollen tapestries make hand-
some heavy curtains for sitting-rooms, and last almost
a lifetime. Chenille velvet is particularly beautiful and
artistic. Plushette, a comparatively cheap material,
also makes rich-looking heavy curtains ; but all these
have the great fault of retaining the largest possible
amount of dust. The old-fashioned repp was a much
better material for the purpose. Cheap tapestries are
very poor materials, as they are composed largely of
jute, a fibre which dyes, cleans, and wears badly. The
cheap kinds of 'Oriental' curtain are also thin and poor;
art serge is better than either, and very inexpensive in
regard to its quality. For bedrooms cretonne is a very
pretty and clean material.
242 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Half curtains, that is curtains extending only to the
top of the bottom sash of the window, are sometimes
used. They are certainly cleaner, but are not in great
favour with the public, and, of course, are not very
serviceable as regards draught. The so-called half blinds
only cover the lower half of the bottom sash of an ordi-
nary sized sitting-room window ; so the two may be used
together.
The bedroom. Bedrooms are the most important
rooms in the house as regards health. During the day-
time we are out of doors, or moving about from room to
room ; but at night we pass the hours in an unconscious
condition of sleep all the time in the same room. About
eight hours out of every twenty-four, that is one-third
of our whole time, we spend in the bedroom, and yet
any little room is often considered good enough for this
purpose so Jong as there are nice rooms for visitors.
It would be better, however, if people would pay more
attention to the bedroom ; not in the matter of luxuries,
or even appearance, but in reference to the following
points : size, ventilation, cleanliness, and furniture.
Size. The cubic space required for each person is
1,000 feet ; that is, a bedroom intended for one person
should not measure less than 10 feet long, by 10 feet
broad, by 10 feet high. If two people sleep in the same
room, the space should not be equal to less than 2,000
cubic feet, and so on. This rule is very frequently
broken in the nursery, where three or four children and
the nurse often sleep in a room not properly large
enough for two people. Children, of course, require less
space than full-grown persons, but pure air is of more
importance to them.
Ventilation. If a person were shut up in an air-tight
space of 1,000 cubic feet, the air would gradually
THE BEDROOM 243
become so impure, owing to its being breathed over and
over again, that it would be fatal to breathe it any
longer. Ventilation means the changing of the air in a
room to prevent it from becoming thus deteriorated by
respiration or the combustion of gas ; it consists in the
constant and gradual substitution of fresh air for impure
air by the methods which will be explained in Chapter
LXXIII. In order that 1,000 cubic feet of air may remain
in a pure state through the night in a room inhabited by
one person, it requires to be changed three times an hour.
If the room is larger, the air needs less change ; if
smaller, more change. Now, long experience has shown
that the only way in which this change of air is likely to
take place in an ordinary bedroom is by means of the
chimney. Other methods let in draughts, or fail in
some way so that they are not used, therefore make it a
constant rule that every bedroom shall have a fireplace
in it. The smaller the room, the more necessary is this
means of ventilating it.
Cleanliness. Cleanliness is best secured by furnishing
the room in such a way as to make it as easy as possible
to keep clean. The walls, floors, and windows should
be treated in accordance with the advice already given,
and the other furniture should be limited to that which
is really necessary for use in the bedroom.
Furniture. Heavy cumbrous furniture takes up the
air space, and makes the room difficult to keep clean.
Moreover, it encourages the storage of quantities of
clothing in the room, which always produce a stuffy
condition of the air.
The bed is the most important article. It should
have a strong iron frame, with a good woven wire or
chain spring mattress. Those made in three pieces are
the best: a head piece, a foot piece, and an oblong
*R4
244
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
frame and spring mattress all in one (figs. 99 and 100).
On the bedstead there should be a hair or wool mattress,.
a bolster and a feather pillow. The bedclothes should
consist of an under blanket and one, two, or three upper
FIGS. 99, 100. Messrs. Billington's Spring Beds, hospital pattern.
(Fig. 100 shows the bed taken to pieces for removal.)
blankets, according to the weather ; a pair of cotton
sheets, a cotton or linen pillow-case, and a counterpane
or rug. A short cretonne valance not reaching to the
floor gives a nice appearance and does no harm, unless
THE ATMOSPHERE 245
it encourages that dirty and unwholesome practice of
hiding away all sorts of old boxes and rubbish under
the bed.
In addition to the bed, a combined dressing-table and
chest of drawers, a washing-table and toilet-service, and
some kind of wardrobe are necessary. The hanging
wardrobe is an excellent idea. It consists of a wooden
top to which a row of pegs and a curtain rod are
attached. The top is fastened to the wall, preferably in
a recess, and curtains of art muslin or cretonne are
suspended round it by the rod. It costs a mere nothing,
and, being airy, never contracts that stuffy odour so
common in a closet filled with worn clothing. A few
ornaments and pictures are of course permissible, but
decorations placed in the fire-grate must not be such as
to obstruct the free passage of air up the chimney.
The furniture of the sitting-rooms, kitchen, and hall,
apart from what has been said as to the treatment of
the floors, walls, and windows, may be left to the taste
and pocket of the owner. It has not a sufficient;
influence upon the health of the occupiers to make it
necessary to lay down definite rules regarding it.
CHAPTEK LXVIII
ATE CHARACTERS, WEIGHT, CURRENTS, COMPOSITION
The atmosphere: characters. Surrounding and en-
veloping the earth is a layer of air. It is in the form of
gas, and has neither colour, taste, nor smell. It is so
light, and is so easily displaced as we move about in it,
that we are only conscious of its presence when the wind
blows ; yet we know that there is something in it which
sustains life, for we could not continue to exist without
air to breathe.
246 PAUL''S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Weight of the air. The whole depth of the atmo-
sphere surrounding the earth is estimated to be about
fifty miles, and though in itself so light this great
thickness of air naturally presses with some considerable
force on the surface of the earth. We do not feel its
weight any more than fish feel the weight of the water
they swim in, because in each case the pressure is
equally distributed and balanced on every surface of the
body. We know that water has weight because we can
handle and weigh it. With proper scientific apparatus,
the weight of the air can be just as certainly determined,
and it is found to be equivalent to a pressure of fifteen
pounds on every square inch of surface at the sea level.
Air of hills lighter than in valleys. If you were to
take fifteen one-pound weights and place them like a
pile of coins one on the top of the other, they would
press on the surface on which they stood with a weight
of fifteen pounds ; but the first would only bear on the
second with a weight of one pound, and the second on
the third with a weight of two pounds, and so on. In
the same way, the higher we ascend the less is the
pressure of the atmosphere. Now, air is very elastic, so
weight means compression. Consequently, the nearer
we are to the sea level the heavier and denser is the air,
but the higher we ascend a mountain the more light and
rare does it become. This is one of the reasons why
mountain air is so light and invigorating.
Currents of air caused by heat. Air, like other sub-
stances, expands with heat and contracts with cold.
When it expands it becomes lighter, and when it
contracts it becomes heavier ; consequently, hot air
ascends, and cold air descends. Wherever air is being
heated the hot air is rising up, and the cold air on all
sides is rushing iu to take the place of that which is
ascending. On a large scale the sun heats the air at
COMPOSITION OF THE AIR 247
certain places, and the currents produced are called
wind. On a small scale the fires and lights in our
houses heat the air in them, causing currents which are
utilised for ventilation.
Air in water and earth, Air is contained in water in
which it is dissolved, and where it supplies fish with oxygen
for the combustion of their food ; it also penetrates to a con-
siderable depth into the ground ; thus both earth and water
are affected by the state and purity of the atmosphere.
Composition of the air. The air consists almost
entirely of a mixture of two gases called oxygen and
nitrogen. The other constituents are comparatively
infinitesimal in quantity, yet they are of vast import-
ance to the world. They are (1) other gases, namely,
carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and ozone; (2) .watery
vapour ; (3) solid particles, such as mineral and organic
dust, and living germs. The following is a complete
list of the constituents of the atmosphere :
(1) Oxygen (0), supports life and combustion; forms
one-fifth of the total bulk. (2) Nitrogen (N), dilutes the
oxygen ; not used by plants or animals ; forms nearly
four-fifths of the total bulk. (3) Carbonic add (C0 2 ), the
carbonaceous food of plants ; when excessive is poisonous
to animals ; only 4 parts in 10,000 of air. (4) Ammonia
(NH 3 ), a nitrogenous food of plants; excess indicates
bad air ; only 1 part in 1,000,000 of air. (5) Ozone, a
condensed form of oxygen ; indicates great purity ; exists
only in traces. (6) Moisture, the cause of clouds, rain,
mist, and dew ; exists to a variable extent in the air at
all times. (7) Mineral dust', dust caused by trades,
sand, &c.; injurious to the lungs. (8) Organic dust;
scales, hairs, seeds, and other particles of plants and
animals. (9) Living germs, the agents of decomposition
and infectious disease.
248 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER LXIX
OXYGEN, NITROGEN, CARBONIC ACID
Oxygen, Oxygen, for which the chemical symbol is
0, is the most important constituent of the earth. It
forms one-fifth of the bulk of the atmosphere, eight-
ninths of the weight of water, and about one-half of the
solid earth. In the air it is in a free state, being simply
mixed with nitrogen in the proportion of one volume
to four. In water it is chemically combined with the
lightest known substance hydrogen gas in the pro-
portion of one volume to two (H 2 0) note is sixteen
times as heavy as H. In the earth oxygen is also
chemically combined with the other elements : indeed,
almost every natural substance is partly composed of
oxygen.
Oxidation : combustion, So strong is the tendency of
oxygen to combine with many things that it is difficult
to prevent the union from taking place. For instance,
bright iron has a great tendency to rust, and rust is merely
iron combined with oxygen, or oxide of iron. It com-
bines with carbon with a much greater energy than
with iron ; or, indeed, most other substances, giving out
heat and resulting in a gas (C0 2 ), instead of a solid like
iron oxide. The oxide of carbon (C0 2 ) is called carbonic
acid gas, and on account of the heat given out by the
energetic union of oxygen with carbon the process is
called combustion.
Though carbon or coal undergoing oxidation or com-
bustion appears to burn up into nothing, it is really only
changed into this invisible gas, which escapes up the chim-
ney. Not a particle is lost, any more than a particle of iron
OXYGEN, NITROGEN AND CARBONIC ACID 249
is lost when iron is changed into iron rust. Every grain
of carbon which existed in the coal before it was burnt
exists afterwards in the C0 2 , and will again be converted
into carbon by the natural processes going on in the
world.
Use of oxygsn in the body. As oxygen, by combining
with coal in the steam engine, produces heat and power,
so by combining with the carbonaceous food in the body
it yields heat and vital force. The object of breathing
is to inhale the free oxygen of the air that it may cir-
culate in the blood and combine with food to keep us
warm and give us brain and muscular power.
When oxygen combines with carbon in food, coal,
wood, oil, candles, coal gas, or any other combustible
material, of course carbonic acid is always produced.
Therefore, wherever there is life or combustion, car-
bonic acid is being produced and turned into the
atmosphere.
Nitrogen. Nitrogen, of which the chemical symbol
is N, is not used by either plants or animals in the free
state in which it exists in the air, but is a very im-
portant element when combined with others, as in
nitrogenous food. In the atmosphere nitrogen appears
only to dilute the oxygen, forming four-fifths of its bulk.
It has not the same tendency to combine with other
substances, and is, of course, quite incapable of sup-
porting life or combustion.
Carbonic acid. Carbonic acid (C0 2 ) is a very heavy
gas, much heavier than the air. Although 4 parts in
10,000 seem very little, the amount contained in the
whole atmosphere is enormous, no less than three billions
of tons, or, in figures, 3,000,000,000,000 tons. It is a
common gas, frequently met with in the pure state, but
perhaps not recognised, for, like air, it has neither colour,
250 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
taste, nor smell. Carbonic acid is the gas used to
aerate bread, by whatever process it is made ; the gas
which is given off from soda water, beer, champagne,
and all effervescing drinks ; the gas of limekilns, coal
mines, and volcanoes, as well as being the gas derived
from combustion and exhaled in the breath of all animals.
There is a constant supply of carbonic acid, and yet the
percentage remains the same. The reason of this is that
there is an equally constant demand for its consumption.
Plants feed on it. Their leaves absorb and decompose
it in the presence of sunlight, the carbon being used for
the growth of the plant, and the pure oxygen being
returned to the air. Thus, on the one hand, animals
absorb oxygen and combine it with carbon to obtain
heat and energy ; whilst, on the other hand, plants
absorb carbonic acid, make the carbon into food or fuel,
and return the oxygen to the air. Animals are always
decreasing the oxygen and increasing the carbonic acid
in the air, whilst plants are always increasing the oxygen
and decreasing the carbonic acid. In this way the
natural balance is maintained.
Carbonic acid harmful to animal life. Carbonic acid
gas does not support life, and a lighted candle intro-
duced into it at once goes out. It is worse than useless
for respiration, it is harmful, its ill effects beginning to
be felt even so soon as the proportion rises to 8 or 10
parts in 10,000 of air. It is, therefore, very necessary
that in dwelling-houses, where there is a constant
production of carbonic acid going on, means should be
taken to keep the air in a pure state. These means will
be described under ventilation.
Use of carbonic acid in the world. Whilst we cannot
too carefully avoid carbonic acid gas in our immediate
neighbourhood, bearing in mind its harmful qualities
AMMONIA 251
towards us, we must not forget to recognise its im-
portance and usefulness in the world. Without it
plants would lose their chief food and. life become
impossible to them. Without plants animals also would
have no means of subsistence; hence carbonic acid,
though directly bad for us, is indirectly necessary for all
living things.
CHAPTER LXX
AMMONIA LAW OF DIFFUSION OF GASES OZONE MOISTURE
Ammonia, Ammonia (NH 3 ) is a compound of nitro-
gen and hydrogen. It is lighter than the air, and is
quite colourless, but it has a very pungent taste and
smell. It is the gas given off by smelling salts, and
when of full strength an attempt to breathe it would be
at once fatal.
Source of ammonia. Ammonia in nature is derived
from decaying animal and vegetable matter, and though
in much larger proportion than it naturally occurs in
the air namely, one part in a million it would be
quite harmless to us, its presence in excess is always
objected to as indicating an excess of decomposition in the
neighbourhood. In fact, inhaling the ammonia from
smelling salts is no more harmful than swallowing
carbonic acid in bread or beer. Where there is life
there must be death and decay; so, throughout the
world, ammonia in small quantity is constantly passing
into the air. But, as in the case of carbonic acid, it is
consumed as rapidly as it is produced, for NH 3 is a
form of nitrogenous food for plants. They absorb it,
and use it for the growth of their seeds and fruit, which
in turn become again one of the most valuable foods for
men and animals.
252 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Value of ammonia in the world. This trace of am-
monia, then, which exists in the air, 1 part in 1,000,000,
is also an important constituent of the atmosphere. It
is a valuable food for plants, and thus indirectly is
equally serviceable to animals. When the amount rises
above the standard, as it does in towns, and especially
in dirty, ill-kept towns and other places, it indicates an
impure atmosphere, not because the ammonia itself is
harmful, but because its presence in excess points to the
close proximity of an excess of decomposing animal or
vegetable matter.
Law of diffusion of gases. Although carbonic acid
and ammonia are chiefly produced in some places and
chiefly used in others, their percentage in the outside
air remains practically constant all over the world.
The reason for this is found in the law of the diffusion
of gases. If a glass jar is filled with any kind of gas,
and its mouth closed with bladder or parchment, the gas
will not remain in it as a fluid would. In the course of
a short time it will be found that a quantity of gas has
passed out of the jar and its place has been taken by a
similar amount of air. The lighter a gas is, the more
rapidly it diffuses ; thus hydrogen diffuses very quickly,
and carbonic acid more slowly ; but the tendency all
gases have to diffuse through the air is so great that
nothing but absolutely impermeable substances can keep
them in.
Ozone. Ozone is not an invariable constituent of the
air, but is present in the pure mountain and sea air,
and in towns when the air has been purified by a storm.
Its presence is always taken as indicating an especially
healthy atmosphere, for it is a powerful, deodorising, and
disinfecting agent. When it comes in contact with
impurities, it combines with them and renders them
OZONE MOISTURE 253
harmless, hence the small trace which exists in the air
is very rapidly removed when that air reaches a town.
Ozone consists of oxygen in a compressed and very
active form.
Moisture : uses : relation to health. The vapour oi
water is always present in the atmosphere. How readily
it is dissolved and rendered invisible may be observed
by watching the steam as it issues from an engine on a
fine day. The dense white cloud escaping from the
funnel vanishes into the air almost immediately it
appears. It is dissolved by the air as sugar is dissolved
by water. The warmer the air the more vapour it can
take up. The amount that it actually contains is not
constant, like oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and am-
monia, but usually varies between 50 and 70 per cent,
of that which it is capable of dissolving according to the
temperature.
Under no circumstances is the air devoid of moisture.
Without moisture in the air the surface of the earth
would be uninhabitable. There would be no clouds,
rain, mist, or dew, and no rivers, lakes, ponds, or ditches.
The surface would consist only of rocks and dust or sea.
Moisture is therefore another essential constituent of
the atmosphere.
When we speak of a dry air we do not mean one
that is really dry, but which is capable of absorbing
more moisture. In this sense a moderately dry air is
the best for health, especially when free from dust.
254 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER LXXI
COARSE DUST FINE DUST LIVING GERMS
Coarse dust : irritation of mineral dust. Solid particles
do not properly belong to the atmosphere, but they are
always present in it, and where life is busiest there dust
is the most prevalent. In a strong wind or a thick
town fog visible particles fill the air, and we feel their
irritation, especially in the eyes. The lungs have a
much more delicate structure, though not the same
sensitive nerves as the eyes, and they suffer exceedingly
from constant exposure to coarse dust. Fortunately
fogs and winds only last for short periods, and the dust
inhaled during their prevalence is soon coughed up in
the form of discoloured mucus.
Dust of trades. In certain trades, such as knife and
other steel grinders, sand-paper makers, coal miners,
stonemasons, flax dressers, &c., hard, irritating par-
ticles are thrown off and fill the air of the places in
which the people work. So well recognised are the lung
diseases caused by such trades that they are named
after them ; as, knife-grinders' consumption, stone-
masons' consumption, and so on. Indeed, these trades
in former times were so fatal that the people who
worked at them were not expected to reach middle age.
Now, however, by the use. of proper respirators which
filter out the dust, their lungs may escape altogether.
Dust bad for weak chests. The danger of constantly
inhaling dust should be especially observed by those
inheriting a natural tendency to chest delicacy. They
ought to avoid a dusty occupation : it is worse for them
even than a draughty one ; and when consumptives are
sent abroad windy and dusty places should never be
ATMOSPHERIC DUST
255
selected. The absence of dust is no doubt one of the
reasons why a long sea voyage does so much good in
these cases.
Fine dust : fine organic dust less harmful. Fine
atmospheric dust is invisible in an ordinary light, but
when a strong ray of sunlight gleams through a dark
room the little particles may be plainly seen dancing
about in its illuminating course. The stiller the air,
and the further from the busy haunts of men, the less
of this fine dust there is, but the air is never entirely
free from it. For the most part it consists of light
particles of matter derived
from the wear and tear of sur-
rounding objects our skin,
clothes, furniture, houses,
and plants and animals gene-
rally. Such debris as this
is not of much practical im-
portance to us. Unless ex-
cessive in amount it is not
harmful, and then chiefly as
indicating, like ammonia, the T H lar p e erm * to the ri ft* are th ? cause
ot a form of fever in cattle (anthrax) ;
presence of too much organic the smaU ones to the left of blood -
. ., . poisoning.
matter in the air.
Living germs. Mixed with the foregoing particles, and
forming the finest dust recognisable under the highest
powers of the microscope, are numerous minute specks
which, on close examination, prove to be definite forms
of life. They are small beyond conception, for a blood
corpuscle appears a giant beside most of them (fig. 101) ;
but they bring about some very important changes both
for good and evil in the world.
Germs cause decomposition: use of germs. In the first
place, these germs are the great cause of decomposition,
s 2
FIG. 101. Blood Corpuscles and
Disease Germs.
256 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
as was explained in the chapter on the preservation of
food. The decomposition of food is, however, a very
small matter in comparison with the part they play in
the universe. Consider for a moment what would
happen if dead things did not decompose that is, if
dead organic matter did not return to its inorganic or
mineral condition, and the vast yearly accumulation of
dead plants and animals remained unchanged. Why,
in a few years at most, the surface of the earth would
become choked and unfit for living things. Dead things,
when not devoured by any higher kind of life, invariably
become the food of germs, and so inevitably perish and
make room for fresh life.
Varieties of germs : parasitic or disease germs : diseases
caused by germs. These minute germs are not all of the
same kind. They have their varieties, like animals and
plants, and each variety has its own particular food,
habits, and characters. Also, like animals and plants,
some are parasitic, feeding on and inhabiting living
things. Such parasitic germs, when they infest the
blood of an animal, bring about the most profound
changes, and are the cause of the most serious of all
diseases. The chief germ diseases attacking man are
the infectious fevers, blood-poisoning, cholera, dysentery,
erysipelas, influenza, ague and consumption. In ani-
mals anthrax, pleuro-pneumonia, foot and mouth dis-
ease, consumption, fowl cholera, salmon disease, and
some other affections are due to germs. And in plants
they cause the well-known forms of blight which so
frequently attack the growing crops.
These diseases, and probably many more which are
not yet attributed to them, are brought about by germs,
which float in the air or in water, and may be inhaled
or swallowed by us unconsciously. When the circum-
VENTILA TION 257
stances arc suitable for their development they multiply
and flourish in us, and having expended their lives they
leave behind them myriads of spores or seeds, which, if
we survive, are again scattered in our breath, in particles
of skin, and in the excretions, to take their chance of
another victim.
Good and evil effects of germs. That germs cause
much trouble and much suffering is an undoubted fact,
but as a class we must remember that they are not
altogether bad. The great part they play in the uni-
verse is not only a useful but a necessary one. That they
take our food and become parasitic in us is rather our
misfortune than a fault in them. Such attributes are
characteristics of many higher forms of life.
CHAPTEE LXXII
VENTILATION IMPORTANCE OP PURE AIR TEST FOB IM-
PURITIES MODE OF CALCULATING AMOUNT OF FRESH
AIR REQUIRED BY EACH PERSON
Ventilation, We can now approach the subject of
ventilation with that preliminary knowledge which is
necessary to understand it. The knowledge referred
to is :
(1) The composition of the atmosphere, and the
nature of carbonic acid.
(2) The effect on the air of respiration and com-
bustion.
(3) The law of the diffusion of gases.
(4) The production of currents in the air by heat.
Necessity for ventilation, In a house where the ordi-
nary rules of cleanliness are observed, and the sanitary
arrangements are not defective, the sources of impurity
258 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
in the air are simply the exhalations of the inmates, and
the products of combustion derived from artificial lights.
Either or both of these causes are at work in every
dwelling, and bearing in mind their action on the air-
that is, the exhaustion of oxygen and the production of
carbonic acid it is perfectly clear that if a room were
an absolutely closed space, and people were shut up in
it, they could only live for a definite length of time.
Natural ventilation. So rapid, however, is the diffu-
sion of carbonic acid in every possible direction, and so
easily are currents of air set up by even the heat of our
bodies, that it is practically impossible to poison people
outright in a confined room, except under conditions
approaching the terrible barbarity of the Black Hole of
Calcutta. Air finds its way into a room between the
frames of the doors and the windows, between the floor
boards, and through every other possible crevice (fig. 102).
It escapes easily and rapidly up the chimney, and actually
diffuses to a greater or less extent through the solid
walls.
Effect of impure air on health. Though it is difficult
by overcrowding to contaminate the air in a room to
such an extent as to make it immediately dangerous, it
is very easy and a very common thing to allow it to
become sufficiently impure to be decidedly detrimental
to health. It is difficult to convince people of this
because they do not suffer from it at once. They cannot
trace the cause and effect. Hence, when the harm comes,
as it must do in time, in debility, consumption, prema-
ture age, or whatever form it may take, it is put down
to some other fancied cause. And yet a very little re-
flection ought to impress people with the value of pure
air, for it is certainly the chief reason why people are
healthier in the country than in the town. The average
VENTILATION 259
town workman has better food, better clothes, and a
better home ; he has less exposure, and, as a rule, less
hard work. Yet he does not live as long, and his chil-
dren are more sickly, and die in greater numbers. Of
course there are other things against the town man
besides this, but the principal evil is that he breathes
a less pure air. Therefore let him make the best of such
air as his town affords, and endeavour to keep it as pure
inside his house as it is outside.
The art of ventilation, This is the aim and object of
ventilation, a word derived from the Latin, ventus, wind.
Ventilation is accomplished by causing a sufficiently
rapid change in the air of a room or building to keep it
in a state of purity ; the more people or lights there are
in the room, the more rapid must be the change. The
art of perfect ventilation is to secure this change of air
without producing cold or draught.
Air space for each person. In Chapter LXVIL, deal-
ing with the bedroom, it was definitely stated that 1,000
cubic feet of space should be allowed for each adult.
This is taken as the standard, as it is the smallest space
which can be kept in a state of purity by natural venti-
lation without causing a draught. When expensive
mechanical processes are employed half this space is
sufficient, but such means are too costly for private
houses, therefore in the house 1,000 cubic feet should be
allowed for each individual.
Amount of fresh air for each person. Next we have to
determine how often it will be necessary to change the
air in this space to keep it pure, a point which is settled
by ascertaining the rate at which it becomes impure.
To do this we must know how to test the purity of the
air, and how much impurity a man exhales per hour.
Tests for purity of air. The purity of the air in a
26o PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY .
room is commonly judged in two ways : (1) By esti-
mating the amount of carbonic acid present. (2) By
the very simple process of exercising the sense of smell.
The first is an exact scientific method. The second,
though less exact, is really much more satisfactory than
would be supposed when used with good judgment. . The
essential point is that the room should be entered directly
from the fresh air outside, when, if the least stuffy
odour characteristic of close rooms is detected, the air
may be regarded as in the first degree of impurity.
Such air, when analysed, yields about -06 per cent, of
carbonic acid, which is '02 per cent, more than fresh air
contains (4 parts in 10,000, or *04). If the room smells
decidedly stuffy, it will contain about twice as much
excess of carbonic acid, and if very stuffy indeed, there
may be any amount above *1 per cent., which is the
limit of the sense of smell in detecting impurities of
this nature.
Ratio between various impurities. Now, carbonic acid
has no smell ; it is, therefore, not this, but other
emanations in the breath and perspiration, which are
detected by the nose. However, the ratio between the
amount of carbonic acid and other organic impurities is
so constant, that any means by which you can judge of
one enables you to estimate the other. An excess of
carbonic acid in an inhabited room means an equal
excess in human emanations, and also in germs ; and
rici' /vrxff, the close smell of an unventilated room is a
fair indication of the amount of carbonic acid present.
Mode .of calculating amount of fresh air needed. For
practical purposes we may be guided by the sense of smell,
carefully exercised in the manner directed. It will warn
us as to whether a room is well or badly ventilated, and
as to whether the space is sufficient or insufficient. Still,
PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION 261
it is better to have definite rules to go by, an-d these can
only be arrived at by the use of figures. Hence, in
making calculations, we regard the carbonic acid alone,
as that can be exactly estimated, The first degree of
impurity as judged by smell, or more accurately deter-
mined by analysis, is found to represent an increase of
02 per cent, of carbonic acid. Now, a man in a room
containing 1,000 cubic feet of space will pollute the air
to this extent in the third part of an hour ; therefore it
follows that to keep the air of such a room pure it will
be necessary to change it three times an hour ; or, in
other words, that a man requires 3,000 cubic feet of
fresh air per hour. Children only require about half as
much air as adults ; but adults, when working hard,
need something like twice as much as when at rest, work
being the result of the combustion of more food, and, of
course, accompanied by the exhalation of more carbonic
acid.
These, then, are the accurate facts by which we are
guided when laying down rules for ventilation : (1)
Adults at hard work require 5,000 or 6,000 cubic feet
of fresh air per hour. (2) Adults during rest require
3,000 feet. (3) Children require 1,500 to 2,000 feet.
Thus we see that though overcrowded bedrooms are bad,
overcrowded workrooms are worse a lesson which has
been severely taught at the cost of many lives from
consumption.
CHAPTEE LXXIII
VENTILATION METHODS PRINCIPLES NATURAL VENTILA-
TION SPECIAL APPARATUS INLETS
Methods of ventilating. It is now time to answer
the practical question, By what means are people to be
supplied with the proper amount of fresh air in their
262 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
houses ? Or, in other words, How is the ventilation of
rooms to be effected ?
The air may be changed in two radically different
ways : (1) By periodically opening all the windows and
doors, and so rapidly changing the entire amount. (2)
By allowing a constant stream of fresh air to enter
whilst an equal amount of impure air escapes, thus con-
tinuously maintaining a pure standard. The former
plan has its advantages under special circumstances, but
cannot be employed for the ordinary purposes of venti-
lation on account of the cold and draught introduced by
it. Crowded rooms can only be properly ventilated by
the use of expensive machinery supplying fresh air pre-
viously warmed ; if, therefore, a schoolroom, church,
lecture room, theatre, or similar building, is thoroughly
flushed with fresh air during a short interval, it lessens
or removes the harm of insufficient ventilation during
the period of its use. This plan can be most effectively
used in schools, where at each change of the class the
windows on both sides of the room should be opened for
a few minutes to permit a stream of fresh air to flow
through the room.
Principles of ventilation. The continuous method is,
however, the only form of ventilation suitable for the
inhabited rooms of a dwelling-house. In this way the
air of the room is kept pure, as it is in the lungs, by the
process of respiration. In the lungs there are about
200 cubic niches of air, which is kept pure by constantly
respiring small quantities of fresh air, 30 cubic inches.
The lungs are not emptied and filled at each respiration,
only just sufficient of the warm air they contain is changed
to maintain the standard of purity. So in ventilation,
our object is to keep up a continuous supply of fresh air,
which will be sufficient for the purpose, without affecting
NATURAL VENTILATION
263
the warmth and comfort of the room. A difference
between respiration and ventilation is that in breathing
the air is drawn in and expelled through the same
opening, the windpipe ; whilst in the latter the air
passes by two apertures, or sets of apertures. Those
through which the air enters are called inlets, and those
by which it leaves are called outlets. One of the chief
difficulties is so to arrange these apertures that fresh air
shall always pass by the inlet, and foul air by the outlet
FIG. 102. Natural Ventilation.
Air entering through the crevices between the floor boards and window and door
frames, and leaving by the chimney. A candle flame near the door is deflected
by the draught. (After Teale.)
Natural ventilation : natural inlets and outlets : faults.
After what has been said (p. 261) as to the rate at which
the air of inhabited rooms becomes impure, it stands to
reason that some natural process of ventilation must go
on without our paying any special attention to it. If
this were not the case the air would become unfit for
respiration. The natural inlets are as shown in fig. 102
.the various crevices between the window and door frames,
264 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
and between the floor boards. A careful examination of
these crevices will prove that a greater or less current of
cold air enters by them whenever the room has no proper
inlet for ventilation. The natural outlet is the chimney.
When a fire is burning the draught up it is very great,
and even when there is no fire the chimney still main-
tains a steady current of air drawn from the room. In
the latter case, the chief agent in causing the draught is
the action of the wind, which draws air out of the chim-
ney as it blows over the top (see fig. 103).
The faults of this natural process of ventilation are :
(1) The inlets are insufficient, and of a nature to cause
draughts. (2) The outlet is too low
down> When the c himney draws
well the draught is usually felt near
the window and door and along the
floor in the direction of the fire.
The position of the outlet should
always be near the ceiling, as foul
air, whether expired or from arti-
FIG. 103. -Draught up ficial H g hts > is alwa ? S Warm and
the chimney caused by ascends to the top of the room ;
the top d WOWing Ver thuS mUCh f the fresh ah " enterin 8
the room is wasted as it flows along
the floor to the fire, and only a small proportion mixes
with the air of the room to purify it.
Special inlets: characters of a good inlet. An inlet
for cold air should have three qualifications : (1) It should
be above the heads of the inmates. (2) It should be so
constructed that cold air can enter by it without causing
draught. (3) It should be of sufficient size to purify
the room under all circumstances. The best height for
the inlet is from eight to ten feet from the floor. If too
near the ceiling it acts irregularly, sometimes as an inlet
INLETS
265
and sometimes as an outlet, according to the heat of the
room, and the action of other inlets and outlets. Draught
is prevented (1) by directing the current of air upwards as
it enters (see figs. 104 to 107), and (2) by making the inside
opening larger than the outside one, as is sometimes done
in perforated bricks. The former plan is much the better,
as cold air is heavier than that in the room, and having
been directed upwards on entering, falls gently like the
spray from a fountain. In calculating the size of the
FIG. 104.-Tobin's Ventilating
System.
FIG. 105. Hinckes Bird's
Plan of Window Ventilation.
inlet, we bear in mind that it is required to transmit
3,000 cubic feet of air per hour for each inmate. This
can be accomplished by an opening of about twenty- four
square inches for each individual ; that is, one of five
inches by five inches for one, and seven inches by seven
inches for two, and so on.
Tobin's tube (fig. 104). This is one of the simplest and
best inlets, probably the best. It consists of a wooden
shaft or tube entering the room near the floor, and then
266
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
FIG. 106.- Sherringham Valve.
A special inlet to direct the air upwards.
turned up along the wall for a height of six or eight feet.
In the tube is a flap valve by which it can be closed when
not required, and sometimes a tray of water, which col-
lects the greater part of the blacks, always suspended in
town air. It is important
that the external opening
should be in a place where
fresh air has free access
to it.
Hinckes Bird's window
ventilation. This is an in-
genious contrivance for ven-
tilating by opening the window without causing a
draught. The illustration (fig. 105) explains the device.
The lower sash is raised a few inches, and the opening
closed by a board (A) exactly fitting it. Air can now
only enter between the two sashes, and is directed up-
wards, as indicated by the arrow. This plan requires
nothing but the board, and it is, there-
\fore, a very cheap as well as effective
inlet.
The Sherringham valve (fig. 106) is an
aperture which can be opened and closed
X at will, and is arranged to direct the current
of air upwards. It should be placed nine
or ten feet from the floor ; but is more
draughty than the Tobin's tube.
Perforated bricks and gratings. These
are always draughty ; though this trouble
is lessened by making the inner openings
much larger than the outer ones. They are generally
placed high up in the room, where they act irregularly
as either inlets or outlets.
Louvre ventilator (fig. 107). This may be made of
FIG. 107.
Louvre Venti-
lator.
OUTLETS
267
glass or wood. The pieces are arranged like a Venetian
blind, and are either fixed or made to open and close.
The louvre ventilator is always draughty.
CHAPTER LXXIV
VENTILATION SPECIAL OUTLETS
Special outlets. The only outlet acting constantly by
natural means is the chimney. Other openings intended
for outlets generally act irregularly, and are practically
useless. Now, the fireplace is too low down to carry off
the foul air, which always ascends towards the ceiling,
therefore the only efficient outlet is by an opening leading
into the chimney near the top of the room. Such an
outlet was invented by Dr. Neil Arnott, and is called
Arnott's exit valve (fig. 108).
The idea has been improved
by Boyle, who Las made the
valve perfectly self-acting by
the use of light flaps of
talc. These permit a free
current of air from the
room to the chimney ; but
flap to at once and check a
current in the opposite direction. A good outlet is the
essential feature in ventilation. If the bad air is re-
moved, fresh air will find its way in somehow ; the chief
object of special inlets being to let it in without draught.
For an outlet to be reliable it must be connected with
an aspirating force such as is produced by heat or fans.
Now, the only aspirating force acting in an ordinary room
is the chimney ; therefore, if a special outlet is to be
reliable, it must be connected with the chimney.
FIG. 108. Dr. Arnott's Valve.
268
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Ventilation of large rooms : of small rooms : of bed-
rooms : of workrooms. To sum up, in reference to dwell-
ing houses we may say that, when the rooms are large,
the inmates few, the consumption of gas moderate, and
the doors frequently opened by people passing in and out,
the ventilation supplied by natural means may be suffi-
cient ; but the rooms would be both more comfortable
and healthy if proper inlets and outlets were fixed.
When the rooms are small, overheated with gas, or
overcrowded, special inlets are necessary, and Arnott's
improved exit valves are certainly advisable. In bed-
Fio. 100. A revolving Cowl. FIG. 110. McKinnell Ventilator.
rooms sufficient space and an open chimney are very
important, as the doors and windows are usually kept
closed for about eight hours, during most of which time
the occupants are unconscious. If the chimney causes
a draught it should not be blocked up, but a proper inlet
provided. Every morning the windows should be freely
opened to change the air of the room completely.
The thorough ventilation of workrooms is essential.
It is not only of the first importance to the health of
the employes, but to the interest of the employers, as
people can do much more work in pure air. Each work-
VENTILATION OF PUBLIC ROOMS
269
man employed should have at least 1,000 cubic feet of
space and 3,000 cubic feet of air per hour, and in the
case of hard muscular work 5,000 or 6,000 feet.
Ventilation of single-story buildings. Schoolrooms,
churches, concert halls, theatres &c. are usually warmed
by hot pipes or hot air. They are not generally provided
with a chimney ; but an outlet is easily made through
the roof. Such outlets are of various kinds. (1) Cowls,
revolving or fixed (fig.
109). The revolving
kind would be the
best if they were not
so liable to get out of
order. (2) McKinnell's
ventilator (fig. 110), a
double tube which acts
both as an inlet and
outlet whilst the room
is closed, but directly
a door or window is
opened it acts irregu-
larly, and is therefore
not very satisfactory.
(3) An opening along
the top of the roof
covered by an elevated
ridge carried well down on each side to prevent the rain
getting in. (4) An extraction shaft heated by gas, as
in the case of the large sunlight burner in the dome of a
theatre (fig. Ill) ; or in connection with a furnace or a
fan. This is a very satisfactory outlet.
The best inlets for such buildings are those sup-
plying warm air, which should enter through iron
gratings in the floor, and should be supplemented
FIG. 111. -Ventilation by Sunlight
Gas-burner.
270 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
by window ventilators directing the air upwards
(fig. 112).
Artificial systems of ventilation : mines : large build-
ings. When ventilation is required on a large scale, as
in mines, factories, and other large buildings, the cheapest
and most effective process is that of extracting the air by
means of a heat shaft or chimney. This is merely an
extension of the principle on which the ordinary house
chimney acts. In mines, for instance, the subterraneous
passages are all connected with a tall chimney, in which
a big fire is kept burning. The fire creates a great
draught, and is so arranged that the air supplying it
must be drawn from the mine. Another shaft descends
into the mine to supply fresh air to take the place of
that extracted, thus a constant and powerful current of
air is maintained through every part of it. The chimney
is called the upcast shaft, and the other the downcast
shaft. Similar upcast shafts may be connected with any
large building, and made to extract the foul air from the
rooms through openings near the ceiling ; fresh air being
admitted by some of the special inlets described. Fre-
quently the fire is made to do double duty, to warm the
fresh air as well as to extract the foul air. Under these
circumstances the warm air is admitted through iron
gratings in the floor, as is usually the case in churches.
Ventilation by propulsion : ventilation of special
buildings. Another system employs force to propel air
into a building instead of for the purpose of extracting
it. Propulsion is effected by fans driven by machinery.
It is a system which may be rendered very perfect, but
is expensive. In the basement of St. George's Hall at
Liverpool fresh air can be washed by passing it through
an artificial rain, heated in cold weather, cooled in hot
weather, moistened if too dry, and actually perfumed,
SPECIAL VENTILATING SYSTEMS
271
before being propelled into any or every part of this
magnificent building.
In the Houses of Parliament both propulsion and
extraction are in use ; the foul air being extracted by
FIG. 112. A Circular Ward in the Liverpool Royal Infirmary,
showing extraction shaft heated by the ward fires, fresh warmed
air entering through the steam radiators, and fresh cold air by
the hopper windows.
heat, and duly warmed and prepared fresh air being
driven in by fans. Fans are also sometimes used instead
T 2
272 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
of heat in extraction shafts ; but are not so effective as
for propulsion.
In the Liverpool Koyal Infirmary, admitted to be one
of the most perfect hospitals in existence, the wards are
ventilated by extraction shafts passing from basement to
roof through the centre of each, and heated by the ward
fires (fig. 112). Fresh warmed air is admitted through
steam-heated radiators, and supplementary ventilation
can be obtained by specially constructed windows
(hopper), which admit air in an upward direction at a
height of twelve feet from the floor. The sanitary
blocks are entirely cut off from the wards by short
passages, with cross ventilation from louvre windows on
each side.
CHAPTER LXXV
HEATING I ASSOCIATION WITH VENTILATION - NATURAL
SOURCES OF HEAT INDOOR TEMPERATURE ARTIFICIAL
SOURCES OF HEAT
Heating : relation of heating and lighting to ventila-
tion. The artificial heating and lighting of dwellings arc
intimately associated with ventilation. It has already
been mentioned several times that the chief products of
combustion are the same, whether it occurs in a fire or
in the body. A gas burner and a man each use up the
oxygen and pollute the air of a room with carbonic acid ;
therefore each alike calls for ventilation. Another asso-
ciation is that we take advantage of the currents in the
air produced by fires and lights for the purposes of ven-
tilation. Hence, w r hen we are discussing the merits of
any particular stove or light, we do not consider its
heating or lighting power alone, but also its bearing
upon ventilation.
Natural sources of heat. The natural source of bodily
HE A TING 273
heat is the combustion of food. With proper and suffi-
cient food and clothing man is capable of withstanding
great cold without any assistance from artificial heat.
Even in arctic explorations, men not previously acclima-
tised have borne the most intense cold, sleeping under a
canvas tent, and with no fuel but a lamp to thaw their
food. In such cases the bodily heat is of course entirely
derived from the combustion of carbonaceous foods,
especially fat, and is carefully economised by using the
warmest woollen and fur-lined clothing. The direct rays
of the sun are also a great natural source of heat, but
one that is very unequal at various parts of the globe.
The regions of extreme temperature are not favourable
to the development of strong and energetic races ; the
tropics being enervating from excessive heat, and the
arctic regions depressing from excessive cold and the
prolonged absence of sunlight during the winter. Tem-
perate climates produce the finest races, as they enjoy
an invigorating temperature combined with sufficient
sunlight.
Indoor temperature. In the house it is almost more
important to guard against heat than cold in the case
of healthy people. 60 F. is regarded as the best tem-
perature for a room. Overheated rooms tend to make
people less vigorous ; but a moderately low temperature
unaccompanied by draught certainly does no harm.
The very young and the very old are less able to with-
stand cold, and so are the sick, and to some extent those
who lead sedentary lives. Young babies and old people
often do best at a temperature of 70, whilst that
for invalids varies with the complaint. In febrile affec-
tions the room generally should be kept cool, about 55 ;
but during convalescence and in exhausting illnesses 60
to 65 is advisable. In bronchitis and similar chest
574 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
affections a moist heat of 65 should be employed. For
practical purposes it is sufficient to remember that, for
the strong, the temperature indoors should not exceed
60, and for the weak it should not be less than 60.
Artificial sources of heat. Heat is artificially obtained
for dwellings from the combustion of various substances
containing carbon and hydrogen. Carbon (C) is a
solid substance with which we are familiar in the forms
of charcoal, coke, and soot. It burns without flame,
but yields a considerable amount of heat. Hydrogen (H)
is a gas ; one of the constituents of coal gas, and one of
the elements of water. It is much more inflammable
than carbon, and burns in flames only. The dull red
heat in the middle of a fire is due to the combustion of
carbon, whilst the flames on the top are derived from the
combustion of the gaseous hydrogen compounds.
Combustion of hydrogen and carbon, Combustion is a
process of oxidation associated with the production of
heat. It was explained in Chapter LXIX. The com-
bustion of coal means that in place of the carbon and
hydrogen of which it consists, we have heat and these
substances combined with oxygen. The carbon, as we
already know, forms carbonic acid gas, C0 2 . It also unites
in equal proportions with oxygen, forming carbonic oxide
gas, CO, which is even more poisonous, but is produced
in much less quantity. It does not occur in the breath
at all. Hydrogen combines with oxygen, in the propor-
tion of H 2 0, which is water, therefore heat and water
represent the combustion of hydrogen, as heat and C0 2
represent the combustion of carbon. The presence of
moisture in a flame is very easily demonstrated by
holding a cold tumbler over a lighted candle, when the
moisture carried off in the hot air is at once condensed
on the cold glass.
FUELS 275
Light : products of combustion, Pure hydrogen burns
with a non -luminous flame, but yields a great heat.
The bright light of the oxy-hydrogen or lime-light lamp
is due to the intense heat of the flame producing a white
incandescence of the cylinder of lime : the light being
entirely derived from the heated lime and not at all from
the flame. The reason that the flame of coal gas is
luminous is that the hydrogen is not pure, but is com-
bined with particles of carbon, which become similarly
heated to incandescence, and are the cause of the light.
The gases derived from combustible substances are
always thus combined, therefore the flame is always
luminous, and, what is of quite equal importance, the
product of combustion is not simply H 2 0, but also CO
and C0 2 . Thus, though pure hydrogen when burnt yields
water only, the hydrogen gases derived from all kinds
of fuel, coal, wood, oil &c. yield CO and C0 2 as well.
When considering the impurities of the air derived from
combustion, water, of course, may be dismissed ; the CO,
though very poisonous, is only small in quantity, and is
merged in the larger amount of C0 2 . Hence we come
back to what has been previously stated, that heat and
C0 2 are, for practical purposes, the essential products of
combustion.
CHAPTER LXXVI
FUELS : COAL COKE PEAT WOOD CHARCOAL COAL GAS
AND MINERAL OIL
Fuels : coal. Coal is the chief, because the cheapest
and most efficient, source of artificial heat. It occurs in
seams or strata at various depths in the earth, and
originally consisted of vegetable matter, the fibres and
seeds of which are often still recognisable under the
276 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
microscope. The most important changes it has under-
gone whilst in the earth are the conversion of vegetable
fibre and essences into miner a] carbon and mineral oils.
Varieties of coal: cannel, anthracite, lignite. There
are many kinds of coal, distinguished chiefly by the
amount of gas they give off in burning, or, in other
words, by the amount of hydrogen they contain. Those
kinds containing a large proportion of this gas are very
inflammable, and burn brightly with plenty of flame.
They are called bituminous coal, and yield paraffin
when distilled at a low temperature, and coal gas at a
high temperature. The well-known cannel is a kind of
bituminous coal. When the percentage of hydrogen is
very low, and the coal consists almost entirely of carbon,
it is slow to burn, like coke, but gives out a good heat.
This kind is called anthracite, and is chiefly used in
boiler fires for making steam. Lignite, or brown coal, is
a substance intermediate between coal and peat. It is
not a good kind, and does not occur in large quantities
in England.
Composition of fuels. The following table gives the
percentage composition of fuels, excluding the ash : !
Fuel C H O & N
Wood 52 5 43
Peat .
Lignite .
Cannel
Anthracite
Charcoal and coke
60 6 34
67 5 28
86 6 8
94 3 3
100
The coal industry. The coal industry is the most
important trade of Great Britain, not only on account
of the enormous number of people employed in it, but
because almost every other trade is dependent upon the
coal supply for the motive power which is necessary to
carry it on.
1 Modified from Roscoe.
FUELS 277
Coke, Coke is obtained from gasworks. It consists of
the carbon and earthy impurities of coal after the gas
and other volatile substances have been removed by
distillation. It is not so easily ignited as coal, but
when burnt in a proper stove yields a good amount of
heat without flames or smoke.
Peat. Peat is a useful fuel in thinly populated
districts where the transport of coal is difficult and ex-
pensive. It is largely used by the peasantry in many
parts of Ireland and Scotland. Peat is composed of
vegetable matter, chiefly species of bog-moss, which has
undergone slow changes towards the formation of coal.
It is met with on the surface of land which at one time
has been of the nature of a bog, and is prepared for fuel
by simply cutting it in suitably sized pieces and stacking
them till dry.
Wood. Wood can only be available as a fuel in new
or sparsely populated countries, though owing to its
inflammability it is generally used to start the com-
bustion of coal, or, as it is called, to light the fire. Fir
wood is the most inflammable, and is the best for this
purpose ; but hard woods, like ash, are much to be pre-
ferred when wood is used as a fuel, as they burn quietly
and yield more heat.
Charcoal : charcoal fumes. Charcoal is prepared by
burning wood with an insufficient supply of air, when
the more inflammable hydrogen compounds are con-
sumed and the carbon remains. It is very little used in
this country as a fuel, as it is of course more expensive
than wood, and much more so than coal. Its chief use
is for the manufacture of gunpowder, and it is also a
valuable purifying agent, as it has the power of absorb-
ing bad smells. Charcoal bears to wood the same
relation that coke bears to coal. It burns easily, with a
278 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
bright-red glow, without flames or smoke, leaving a
white, feathery ash. The fumes of charcoal have
always been considered especially dangerous, not because
they are more poisonous than those of coal, but because
we are not warned of their presence by the irritating
smell of smoke or sulphur.
Coal gas and mineral oil. Gas has come into much
more general use of late both for heating and cooking.
It is very clean and convenient, but more expensive than
coal. Paraffin stoves are often used in places where gas
is not obtainable, chiefly for cooking purposes. The
nature and preparation of gas and mineral oil will be
described under the head of lighting.
CHAPTER LXXVII
SMOKE COMMUNICATION OF HEAT HEATING APPARATUS-
OPEN GRATES THE KITCHEN RANGE
Smoke. Smoke is one of the worst nuisances of
town life, especially in England. It is due to the in-
complete combustion of carbon. When combustion is
perfect the fumes are invisible ; but if the air is in-
sufficient, or the draught over the fire is too cooling,
some of the carbon remains unburnt in the form of
smoke. These different conditions of combustion may
be very well seen in an ordinary oil lamp. If you light
it with the wick at its usual level, the flame smokes
until the chimney is put on. It also smokes after
the chimney is on if you turn the wick too high. In
the first instance the smoke is due to incomplete com-
bustion on account of the cooling effect of the air, and
in the last because there is not enough air in the
chimney for the combustion of a larger flame than that
COMMUNICATION OF HEAT 279
for which the lamp is intended. In each case in-
complete combustion is also proved by the smell of
paraffin in the room. When the flame is of the right
size, and combustion is perfect, there is neither smell
nor smoke.
Smoke and soot produced in open grates. In the same
way, when coal is burnt in a closed stove with the
draught properly regulated, combustion is complete,
and no smoke is produced ; but in an open grate the
cooling effect of the air is such as to check the complete
combustion of the carbon which is burning in the
hydrogen flames, and thus smoke and soot are produced.
Coke or cinder fires burn without flames, and conse-
quently without smoke. Part of the smoke produced
remains in the chimney in the form of soot, but a good
deal escapes into the air, rendering it hazy or murky,
and causing the moist, stagnant air of fogs to become
exceedingly thick and irritating to the lungs. Fine
particles of soot are always floating about in the air of
towns, and are harmful in various ways. Smoke inter-
feres with trade, with pleasure, and with health, so we
ought all to do what we can to lessen this evil.
Communication of heat. Heat is communicated to
surrounding objects in three ways : (1) radiation, or
the shooting out of rays of heat ; (2) convection, or
the carrying of heat, as by air which touches the
hot substance and immediately rises, carrying heat
with it ; (3) conduction, or the transmission of heat
along substances like the walls, which are in absolute
contact with the fire (fig. 113). The third method has
very little influence in heating rooms, and may therefore
be dismissed without further consideration. The other
two methods produce such different conditions that
it is important to know how this is brought about.
28o PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Radiated heat passes through the air without heating it,
therefore the walls, people, and furniture in a room are
warmed without the air being heated. In convection,
on the other hand, the air which carries the heat is
necessarily hotter than anything else in the room. We
are equally well warmed by either process ; but the
former warms us without warming the air, whilst the
latter warms us by warming the air. Now, hot air is
FIG. 113. Diagram illustrating Communication of Heat.
The plain arrow indicates the conduction of heat along a bar of metal : tin-
feathered on one side the heat 1-adiated or thrown out from the flame ; and the
arrows feathered on both sides the heat carried by the air \\lucli touches it
(convection).
oppressive and drying, but cool air, if the body is warm, is
pleasant and invigorating ; therefore it is clear that ra-
diated heat is more healthy than carried heat or hot air.
Most kinds of heating apparatus heat in both ways,
some equally, others almost entirely by one or other. A
closed stove, for example, heats equally by radiation and
convection ; an open grate almost entirely by radiation ;
and hot pipes almost entirely by convection.
HEATING APPARATUS 281
Heating apparatus. In estimating the value of the
different heating apparatus we have to take into con-
sideration : (1) the way they communicate heat to the
room ; (2) the assistance they afford to ventilation ; (3)
cost in fuel ; (4) efficiency ; (5) smoke.
Open grates : the most healthy. An open grate is in
England by far the most popular kind of fireplace. Its
advantages are that it heats almost entirely by radiation,
it is the best ventilator, and the most cheerful in ap-
pearance. Its disadvantages are that it is extravagant in
fuel, it is inefficient for very large rooms, and it yields the
most smoke. The advantages on the score of health
are preponderant, smoke being the only hygienic defect.
Public buildings are usually too large to be warmed by
open grates, as radiated heat rapidly lessens in value
at a distance from the fire ; but for domestic purposes
they are so obviously pleasant and healthy that, not-
withstanding the smoke nuisance and extravagance in
fuel, there is no likelihood of their falling into disuse.
In order to obtain the largest amount of heat the
grates should be placed low, and covered as little as
possible by projecting parts of the fireplace, which
intercept the rays of heat.
The kitchen range. The kitchen range is a form of
open grate, to which there are attached, in addition to
the ordinary big chimney, certain small chimneys called
flues. The object of these is to conduct heat to the
oven and the boiler. The nature of an oven flue is very
well shown in fig. 114. It commences at the bottom of
the fire (H), passes under and round the oven, and joins
the main chimney at (o). When the oven is not required,
the flue is closed by pushing in the damper (D). This
cuts off the draught through the flue, and causes all the
flames to pass up the main chimney. In a town house
282
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
the boiler is placed at the back of the fire, not at the side,
as shown in the figure. The flue for heating it passes
directly underneath it, and then turns up to enter the
FIG. 114. A Kitchen Grate and Oven, showing Flues and Damper.
STOVES
283
main chimney about the same level as the oven flue.
The flues are readily choked with either soot or cinders,
and it is necessary to clean them out carefully, when the
grate is cleaned, if they are to be efficient.
CHAPTER LXXVIII
HEATING APPARATUS I AMERICAN STOVES SLOW COMBUSTION
STOVES GAS STOVES HOT PIPES HOT AIR
American stoves. These well-known stoves heat both
by radiation and convection. They are economical, burn
any kind of fuel, have great
heating power, give off very little
smoke, are very convenient for
cooking, and ventilate moderately
well ; but they render the air of
a room hot and dry, and the
red-hot iron allows some of the
fumes of combustion, especially
carbonic oxide, to pass into the
room. Thus, with many advan-
tages, there are a few serious
drawbacks to the use of open
stoves in houses. They are more
economical, but certainly not so
healthy as the open grate.
Closed or slow combustion
stoves. These stoves are in-
creasing in use, chiefly owing to
their special economy in fuel,
and the small amount of atten-
tion they require. Properly managed they never go out,
if attended to twice daily. Like the last, they heat
FIG. 115. A Slow Com-
bustion Stove.
284 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
equally by radiation and convection, they are intended
to burn coke, and are quite smokeless. They make the
air hot and dry, but do not pollute it with the fumes
of combustion, owing to an internal lining of fire clay.
At the same time they are very little help to ventilation ;
therefore, in rooms heated with slow combustion stoves,
special ventilating apparatus is always required. They
are unsuitable for cooking. In houses, slow combustion
stoves are excellent for warming halls and corridors, but
are not so cheerful nor so healthy in the rooms as open
grates (fig. 115).
Gas stoves. If clay or asbestos balls are heated by
gas in an open grate the effect is practically the same as
that of a coal fire, except that the cost is very much
more and no smoke is produced. This is, in fact, about
the most expensive kind of heating apparatus. If gas is
to be used at moderate cost for heating, it must be burnt
in a stove projecting more or less into the room, when
it will heat and dry the air as coal and coke stoves do.
The majority of such stoves are poor ventilators ; but
some of the Fletcher's stoves and George's calorigen
overcome this objection, as they supply fresh warmed
air by means of an iron pipe passing through the stove
from outside.
Gas for cooking. Gas can be used much more eco-
nomically for cooking than for heating. Its fumes do
not flavour or smoke food, so a gas oven is heated by
burning the gas in the oven, and thus there is no waste
of heat. Moreover, it need not be lit until the moment
it is required, and can be turned out the moment it is
done with. Gas is becoming more and more popular
for cooking.
In most gas stoves, whether used for cooking or heat-
ing, complete combustion is insured by mixing air with
HOT PIPES 285
the gas before it is burnt. In this way a smokeless and
non-luminous flame is produced (fig. 116).
Hot pipes, Large rooms, extensive corridors, and
public buildings of all kinds are commonly heated by
means of hot pipes. Such pipes usually contain water,
but they may be heated with steam. Low-pressure hot-
water pipes are about four inches in diameter, and are
always in a double row to allow of circulation. The
diagram (fig. 117) illustrates the arrangement. The
boiler is placed in the basement of the building, and is
heated with a large fire. The main pipe, which is usually
concealed under the floor, branches from the top of the
boiler, and is carried to the furthest end of the building ;
NON-UUMIMOUS FLAME.
.__,<-^ GAS
AIR"
FIG. 116. Fletcher's Smokeless Gas-burner.
it then returns underneath the other and re-enters the
boiler at the bottom. Hot water being lighter than cold
escapes through the pipe at the top, and, having given
up its heat to the various rooms, returns cooled by the
lower pipe ; thus a constant circulation of water is going
on in the main pipe. For every room or corridor that
has to be warmed a coil or double row of pipes is brought
up through the floor, one end of which is connected with
the upper and the other with the lower main pipe, and
in each branch of this kind a similar circulation is esta-
blished. The heat of the pipes is controlled by a valve
which can be opened and closed at will. A feed from
the supply cistern enters the return pipe near the boiler,
u
286
PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
HOT AIR
and an escape for air is provided at the highest point of
the system of pipes.
This is called the low-pressure system, to distinguish
it from another form of heating apparatus in which the
water is under high
pressure, and can con-
sequently be made
much hotter. The
latter requires very
careful management,
as a failure in circu-
lation would at once
result in explosion.
Steam pipes. -
Steam pipes are made
much smaller than the
preceding, but they
are a very efficient
form of heating appa-
ratus. They require
careful management,
and it costs more to
supply steam than hot
water. No circulation
is needed, the steam
being led directly to
the coils or radiators,
as they are called, in
the rooms.
Hot pipes heat al-
most entirely by convection, especially the ordinary low-
pressure system ; that is, they heat the air. Of course
they do nothing for ventilation. Eooms heated entirely
by hot pipes will always be rather oppressive, and will
u 2
FIG. 118. Section and Plan of
Captain Galton's Grate.
288
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
require special ventilating apparatus. Hot pipes are
best as an adjunct to fires in rooms too large to be
heated by the latter
alone, and for corridors,
churches, and other pub-
lic buildings not regu-
larly inhabited.
Hot air. Air driven
by fans over hot pipes
or bricks enters the room
ready warmed, and is
sometimes so supplied
to public buildings. This
plan insures efficient
ventilation, but is too
costly for general use.
An excellent stove
has, however, been in-
vented by Sir Douglas
Galton, in which the fire
which warms the room
is also utilised to supply
warm air (figs. 118 and
119). Stoves on this
principle are employed
at the Liverpool Eoyal
Southern Hospital, and
have been found to
FIG. 119. Elevation of Captain Gal-
ton's Grate, and Section of Room
showing Air-duct and Flues.
answer well, both for
warming and ventila-
tion ; whilst at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary fresh-air
pipes enter through the steam radiators and supply
warmed air to the wards (fig. 112).
LIGHTING 289
CHAPTER LXXIX
LIGHTING CANDLES FATS AND WAXES COLZA AND
MINERAL OILS GAS COAL TAB.
Lighting. Artificial light is derived from two entirely
different sources, combustion and electricity. In each
instance the light is due to incandescence, the result of
heat ; but in the one case it is brought about by burn-
ing inflammable fats, oils, or gases, and in the other by
interrupting a powerful current of electricity.
Candles. Candles are a time-honoured source of
artificial light. They consist of a cotton wick embedded
in a cylindrical rod of tallow or other fat. Originally
they were prepared by simply dipping the wick in melted
tallow, the hard fat or suet of animals. The chief im-
perfections of these primitive * dips ' were feeble light,
unpleasant smell, and the necessity for snuffing the wicks.
The two former have been overcome by improving the
burning quality of the fat, and the latter by plaiting the
wick so that it curls to one side and consumes as the
candle burns.
The materials now commonly used for the best
candles are stearin and paraffin wax. Inferior candles
are made of mixtures of these with other fats, whilst now
as formerly the cheapest variety is the old-fashioned
tallow dip.
Fats : purification of fat for candles. Fat is a complex
body. It consists of three chemically different fats,
stearin, palmitin, and olein. They are usually met
with together, but vary in relative quantity in the fats
of different animals. Stearin is the hardest, and is the
chief component of suet. Palmitin is softer, and occurs
largely in beef fat, Olein is fluid, as in olive oil. Each
290 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
of these consists of a fatty acid, stearic, palmitic, and
oleic acid, in combination with glycerine ; just as carbonic
and hydrochloric acids are in combination with soda in
the carbonate and chloride of soda. The fatty acids
burn well, but glycerine does not. Hence the first object
of the candle manufacturer is to separate the glycerine.
The next is to get rid of the oleic acid, because hard
fat makes the best candles. The remaining mixture of
purified stearic and palmitic acids is technically known
as stearin, and is the substance used for the manufacture
of stearin candles. The by-products of glycerine and
oleic acid are of course valuable. The former is used in
the arts, manufactures, and medicine, as well as forming
one of the chief ingredients of nitre-glycerine or dynamite.
The latter has a large demand as a lubricating oil.
Paraffin wax. Paraffin wax is obtained from crude
paraffin, one of the products of the distillation of bitu-
minous coal ; and from petroleum, a natural mineral oil
derived from wells in certain parts of America. When
purified it is a hard, white, translucent wax, from which
some of the very best candles are made.
Dips and moulds. The old method of dipping has
been almost entirely superseded by moulding. Stearin
and paraffin candles are always made in moulds by
machinery.
Wax candles. Genuine wax candles are very costly.
They are made of purified and bleached beeswax ; as they
cannot be moulded they are dipped and rolled.
Sperm candles: the standard candle. Sperm candles
are made of spermaceti, a wax-like substance obtained
from the sperm whale. The standard candle for com-
paring and estimating the value of various lights is a
sperm candle burning 120 grains per hour. If a gas-
burner is said to give a twenty-candle flame, it means
CANDLES AND OILS 291
that it gives twenty times as much light as this standard
sperm candle.
Lamps : Colza oil. The fuel used in lamps is neces-
sarily fluid at the ordinary temperature, so that it may
be readily taken up by the wick. Formerly colza or rape-
seed oil was extensively used ; but in the present day it
has been almost entirely replaced by the mineral oils,
paraffin and petroleum. Colza has the advantage of
being quite safe ; but is expensive, and requires a special
kind of lamp. Owing to its somewhat viscid nature some
mechanism is necessary for raising the oil to the level of
the top of the wick, as in the Moderator and Queen's
reading lamps, which are much dearer than equally
serviceable lamps for paraffin.
Petroleum : paraffin. Petroleum is imported from
America. It is a mineral oil which is obtained from
wells at certain parts, where it flows naturally from the
rock. A similar fluid has been met with in some coal
mines in England ; but the English paraffin, a closely
allied substance, is derived from bituminous coal, by
distillation at a temperature lower than that used to
obtain gas. The crude oil which distils over yields,
when purified and re-distilled, four distinct products :
(1) Naphtha ; (2) Paraffin oil ; (3) Lubricating oil ; (4)
Paraffin wax. Naphtha is very volatile and inflammable,
and is unsafe for lamps. It consists of benzol com-
pounds, and is chiefly used for dissolving substances like
india-rubber, resin, and fat ; and for cleaning things
which will not bear washing, such as gloves and various
dyed goods. The lubricating oil is a smooth, pure oil,
suitable for machinery. The wax makes excellent
candles, and the paraffin oil itself when thoroughly
purified is the best illuminating oil. Not only is its
use almost universal for household lamps, but it has
292 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
gradually displaced the more expensive oils in such im-
portant institutions as lighthouses.
Gas : products of distillation of coal. Coal gas is
distilled from coal by heating it with fires in large iron
retorts. Treated in this way it yields three varieties of
product : (1) Solid : coke, which is the carbon residue
of coal left in the retort. (2) Fluid : coal tar, which
distils over and is received in tanks. (3) Gas, coal gas,
which is collected in the gasometers.
Bituminous coal like cannel yields the most gas, but
is the most expensive, and leaves a very poor residue of
coke ; so what is generally used is a mixture of ordinary
coal and cannel. Anthracite makes good coke, but is
otherwise useless for this purpose, as it contains so little
gas.
Coke. Coke has been described as a fuel ; see
page 277.
Coal tar. Coal tar is a product of vast commercial
importance. At one time it merely represented so much
tar or pitch ; but now owing to great triumphs of
chemistry many substances identical, or almost iden-
tical, with the active medicinal principles and colouring
matters of plants are extracted from it. Medicines and
dyes obtained in this way yield excellent results, and are
many of them very inexpensive when compared with the
natural article.
The following are some of the more important sub-
stances derived from coal tar by proper chemical treat-
ment : Ammonia, the source of all the commercial com-
pounds of ammonia. Naphtha, including the benzol
compounds. Carbolic acid, the important disinfectant.
Anilin<>, and the host of valuable dyes obtained from it.
Creosote, a disinfectant and preservative, largely used to
preserve railway sleepers. Lubricating oil, for machinery.
COAL GAS 293
Salicylic acid, antipyrin, saccharine, and many other
medicinal substances ; whilst pitch remains as a residue.
CHAPTEK LXXX
COAL GAS COMPOSITION ILLUMINATING QUALITY YIELD-
STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION GAS POISONING EXPLOSIONS
Coal gas composition illuminating quality. Coal
gas is not a single and distinct chemical compound. It
consists of a mixture of whatever gases can be distilled
from coal at a high temperature. These are : (1)
Hydrogen, H ; (2) Marsh gas, CH 4 ; (3) Olefiant gas,
C 2 H 4 ; (4) Carbonic oxide, CO. The last two form only
a small proportion of the whole.
Hydrogen and marsh gas are both very inflammable,
but of low illuminating power. Carbonic oxide is of no
practical consequence ; but olefiant gas, though small in
quantity, is the chief source of light. The illuminating
quality of a flame depends upon two features, heat and
the presence of solid particles. The heat is chiefly
supplied by H and CH 4 , and the solid particles by C 2 H 4 .
The flame of a candle, To understand this matter
better, examine carefully the flame of a candle (fig. 120).
It may be described as consisting of three parts or zones.
(1) The central zone ; the coolest part of the flame, and
quite dark. This consists of unburnt gas volatilised by
heat from the tallow or wax of which the candle is com-
posed. It may be led off, as in the diagram, by a fine
glass tube and ignited at the other end. (2) The inter-
mediate zone, which is both hot and luminous. (3) The
outer zone, which is the hottest, but again non- luminous.
In both the outer zones the gas is in a state of combus-
tion, and the reason that one is light and the other dark is
because in one combustion is incomplete and in the other
294
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
complete. In the light flame there are solid particles
of carbon heated to incandescence, and in the hot dark
flame these are burnt into C0 2 . Heat alone produces no
light ; but if you heat a solid substance it gives out light.
In the lime light the light is due to the intense white
heat of the lime, and in
the electric light to the in-
candescence of the carbon
thread or points. In the
flame of a candle or gas the
hydrogen has the greatest
attraction for oxygen, con-
sequently it burns first,
leaving the carbon scattered
through the flame of the
intermediate zone, in the
form of a fine powder. In
the outer zone, there is
enough oxygen for both
hydrogen and carbon, so
both are burnt, and there
are no solid particles to
produce light. Thus the
illuminating power of a
flame depends upon the
incandescence of minute
solid particles of carbon
suspended in the interme-
diate zone. The presence of these particles can be easily
demonstrated by introducing a slip of cold glass into the
flame, when it will at once be smoked, or in other words
coated with these fine particles of carbon.
Importance of C,H 4 in gas. Coal gas is not nearly so
rich in carbon as tallow, wax, or oil, consequently the
FIG. 120. The Flame of a
Candle.
1, the dark central an a of unburnt gas,
some of \vhicli is cnrrifil off l>j- the tube
and ignited at 4 ; 2, the luminous area ;
3, the outer dark area. The arrows on
the left side are int.-n.lcd to illustrate
the oxygen of the air combining with
the carbon and hj'drogen in the rhime
to make the water and carbonic acid
gas of combust ion.
COAL GAS 295
excess present in olefiant gas (C 2 H 4 ) is very important
as the chief cause of its illuminating power. The more
C 2 H 4 the brighter the light, and as C 2 H 4 is chiefly de-
rived from bituminous coal, the more cannel the gas
company use the better the gas yielded.
All fats and oils are rich in carbon, and burn with
luminous and smoky flames. Alcohols have much less,
and burn with very pale smokeless flames. Coal gas is
intermediate ; its flame is very hot and only slightly
smoky ; its light varying with the amount of olefiant gas,
as already explained.
Non-luminous gas flame. When coal gas is mixed with
air before being burnt, as in the Fletcher's cooking
burners (fig. 116), the fame is non-luminous; because
combustion is complete throughout it, as there is enough
oxygen for both hydrogen and carbon. This hot but
non- luminous and smokeless flame is named after the
great chemist Bunsen, \\ho invented the original Bun-
sen's burners for producing it, and of which Fletcher's
and similar burners are copies. Any kind of dust
dropped into a Bunsen's flame will at once be heated to
incandescence and for the moment render it luminous,
thus showing still more clearly that the light of a flame
depends upon the actual presence of minute solid particles
in it.
Yield of gas per ton of coal. Average coal yields
10,000 cubic feet of gas per ton, as well as 10 to 12
gallons of coal tar products, and over half a ton of coke.
It is considered that if the consumer pays the value of a
ton of coal for 6,000 feet of gas, the balance of 4,000 feet
of gas with the coal tar and coke ought to yield an ample
profit to the gas company. Thus if good coal costs
eighteen shillings per ton, the price of gas ought to be
three shillings per 1,000 feet.
-96 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Storage and distribution of gas. Coal gas is collected
in the immense gasometers which form so prominent a
feature of all gas works. The pressure in these drives it
through the pipes by which it is brought to our houses.
In the streets it is conducted in large iron mains, from
which smaller iron pipes bring it to the houses. Inside,
the gas at once passes through the meter, an iron box
containing a revolving drum which measures and records
the number of cubic feet used. From the meter it is
carried to the various rooms and corridors of the house,
almost always by means of lead pipes, which are for the
most part concealed in the walls and floor-spaces. The
company are responsible for the safe delivery of the gas
as far as the meter, but the householder is responsible
for its distribution through the house, and must attend
to the repairs required in his pipes and burners.
Water in the pipes, Gas carries with it a certain
amount of watery vapour, some of which, especially in
cold weather, deposits in the pipes. Part of this water
flows back to the meter, and in other places there are
special dependent branches with a screw cap at the end
to catch it. The presence of water in the pipes, or an
excess of it in the meter, is indicated by ' bobbing.' If
all the lights ' bob ' the trouble is in the meter ; and all
that is required is to unscrew the opening which permits
the excess of water to flow out of the front of the meter.
If only certain lights ' bob,' look for a dependent pipe
under the floor or in a corner of a passage below.
The screw cap at the end shows its object. Gas pipes
should be laid with a slight slope, so that water deposited
in them drains back to the meter. It is only when this
has not or cannot be done, that special dependent
branches are required.
Poisoning by coal gas : explosions : escapes. Coal gas
OIL LAMPS 297
has the misfortune to be both poisonous and explosive.
Workmen have sometimes been suddenly overcome by a
rush of gas from a large pipe, but this is fortunately
very uncommon. Cases of poisoning by coal gas have
generally been due to a slight escape in a sleeping apart-
ment, when the great danger is that people gradually
become unconscious without awakening from their
sleep.
Gas explodes when mixed with a certain proportion
of air. With less gas the mixture will not ignite, and
with more it burns without explosion, as in the Bunsen
flame. Its powerful smell renders the detection of the
smallest escape certain. When a bad escape occurs,
turn the gas off at the meter, and open the windows and
door of the apartment. If the cause is not apparent,
such as a tap turned on or a broken pipe, as soon as the
air is pure again turn on at the meter, and carefully
smell out the leak. Under no circumstances use a light
when seeking for an escape of gas. One of the com-
monest causes of an escape, apart from the burner and
its fittings, is an injury to the pipe due to knocking a
nail into it as it lies concealed in the wall.
CHAPTEE LXXXI
LAMPS AND BURNERS PARAFFIN LAMPS GAS LAMPS
ELECTRIC LIGHT ARC LAMPS INCANDESCENT LAMPS
Lamps and burners : characters of a good oil lamp.
The only popular oil lamps in the present day are those
for burning paraffin oil. The chief requisites for such
lamps are : (1) a suitable reservoir for the oil ; (2) a
good burner ; (3) a chimney with a properly regulated
draught ; (4) a patent extinguisher. A globe and shade
are ornamental and useful accessories.
298 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
The oil reservoir. The reservoir for the oil is gene-
rally made of glass, china, or metal. The two former
have an advantage over the latter in not heating the
oil ; but this is counterbalanced by the drawback that
they are easily broken, and when an accident happens
scatter the oil far and wide. The reservoir should not
be too small, or it will need very frequent filling ; it
should hold not less than a pint for a duplex burner, and
not less than half a pint for an ordinary single wick
lamp. It should never be filled quite up to the top ; nor
be allowed to burn quite dry. If too full the oil may
overflow and catch fire ; and when burnt to the last
drop, the smouldering wick may possibly ignite an ex-
plosive mixture of vapour and air in the hot lamp.
Burners: draught, The ordinary burners are the
single and duplex flat wicks, and the argand burner.
The former are almost universally used, and are the
simplest and safest. In the argand burner the wick is
round, and air enters to supply the centre of the flame
through a tube passing up from the bottom of the lamp.
When the flame is spread by a flat disc of metal just
above the wick this burner gives a very brilliant light.
A properly regulated draught through the chimney is
essential. This is maintained by the length of the
chimney, and a correct inlet for air through the per-
forated metal below. An improper chimney checks com-
plete combustion, and causes a smell of unburnt paraffin.
In all good lamps this matter is carefully attended to by
the manufacturers.
Patent extinguisher. The patent extinguisher is a
great element of safety. Most lamp accidents, not due to
gross carelessness, have been caused either by turning
a smouldering wick down into the hot oil chamber, or by
blowing down the chimney, either of which may give rise
GAS BURNERS 299
to an explosion. When the lamp has no extinguisher,
turn the wick down a quarter of an inch and wait : it
will soon go out. Impatience is frequently the cause of
danger.
Cause of smells : cause of danger, Smells from paraffin
lamps are due to (1) cheap, impure oil ; (2) want of clean-
liness ; when the oil left about the lamp is volatilised into
the room ; (3) imperfect combustion ; from turning the wick
too high or too low, or having an imperfect chimney.
Danger is due to (1) carelessness and accidents ;
(2) cheap oil, from which the volatile naphtha com-
pounds have not been removed ; (3) over-filling ; (4) any
circumstance allowing a smouldering wick to drop into a
FIG. 121. Fish-tail Burner. FIG. 122. Batwing Burner.
hot reservoir ; (5) any strong draught carrying the flame
down the chimney, such as blowing down it, or quickly
raising a lamp as in running upstairs with it, especially
with a big flame.
Gas burners. Gas burners are of various kinds : the
common flat burner is called the fish-tail (fig. 121). In
it the gas issues out of two small holes opposite to each
other, which causes the flame to spread like a fish's tail.
A larger burner of the same class is called the batwing
(fig. 122), in which the gas issues from a narrow slit at the
top. Both of these burn steadily without a chimney, and
with a good pressure of gas.
The argand (fig. 123) is a circular burner, which allows
3 oo
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
air to pass up the centre of the flame. It requires a
chimney, and only burns well with a low pressure of gas.
The latter is attained either hy having the tap at some
distance from the burner, or by the use of a special gas-
regulator.
The Bunsen's burner has already been described. It
is used in most gas fires and cooking stoves (fig. 116). It
gives out a very good heat, but no light.
Gas-regulator. A gas-regulator is a simple contrivance
for regulating the pressure of the gas throughout the
house. It is attached to the main pipe after passing
through the meter, and insures a steady flame with no
waste of gas.
Gas lamps. Gas lamps are more
simple than oil lamps, and hardly re-
quire a special description. They are
in the form of reading lamps, brackets,
standards, and chandeliers. The latter
hang from the ceiling, and are fixed to a
strong iron gas pipe screwed to the rafter
above. The tube of a chandelier has a
ball-and-socket joint, which allows it to
swing in all directions ; and usually a
draw-tube as well, which permits it to be
raised or lowered. If gas escapes when it is drawn
down, a little water should be poured into the top of
the outer tube.
The healthiest gas lamps are those which discharge
the foul air into the chimney or out of doors ; but un-
fortunately these ventilating gas lamps are both clumsy
and expensive, consequently they are very little used.
Electric lights : advantages. Electricity is generally
regarded as the future source of artificial light. The elec-
tric light possesses certain great advantages over illumiiia-
Fio. 123.
ELECTRIC LIGHT
301
tion by coal gas, oil lamps or candles. (1) The light is
more pure and brilliant ; (2) its heating effect in rooms
is inappreciable ; (3) it neither
consumes the oxygen nor pollutes
the air ; (4) it is absolutely free
from smell, smoke, and chemical
vapours. Thus it gives a better
light without rendering the air
impure, or affecting plants, or
tarnishing decorations and orna-
ments. When the wires are pro-
perly laid, and all the machinery
and apparatus are of modern
construction and in good order,
there is only one serious draw-
back, and that is cost. The
electric light needs only to be
cheapened to replace gas.
Electric lamps, The lamps
at present in use are of two
kinds : the arc lamp used in the
streets, and the incandescent
lamp used in houses. The for-
mer consists of two large carbon
points inclosed in a glass globe,
but exposed to the action of the
air. A very powerful current of
electricity is sent through these FIG. 124. The Swan or
points which heats them to an Incandescent Electric Lamp.
i ., ,-i /. Above are the metal fittings for
intense WmteneSS, trie CaUSe OI connecting the lamp with the
IT i n j_ i i j. mi i battery, and below is the glass
the brilliant light. The carbon g i be with the delicate carbon
points are slowly consumed, and
herein lies the chief imperfection of the arc lamp. As
they waste away it is necessary to bring them together
302 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
again, and unless this is done with perfect regularity and
steadiness, the light flickers and hisses. In the Brush
form of arc lamp the mechanism is most effective. It is
in general use when electricity is employed for outdoor
illumination.
The incandescent lamp is quite a different thing (fig.
124). It consists of a delicate carbon thread suspended
in a small glass globe from which all air has been re-
moved and is excluded a vacuum, in fact. When the
current of electricity is sent through this thread it heats
it to incandescence, but does not destroy it on account
of the absence of air. The incandescent lamp invented
by Swan is that which is in general use. It is made in
sizes, from the tiny little globe giving only a one-candle
light, up to larger globes of several hundred candle-power.
The arc lamp gives a still more intense light, a large one
having the power of 1,000 candles.
CHAPTER LXXXII
WATER SUPPLY NATURAL SOURCES OF WATER CHARACTERS
OF WATER SUITABLE FOR DRINKING AND OTHER DO-
MESTIC PURPOSES
Water supply : relation to health. It is hardly possible
to over-estimate the importance of a plentiful supply of
pure water for domestic purposes, especially in large towns.
In beautiful summer weather, when health ought to be
at its best, the death-rate invariably rises with a long
drought, even although the town supply is fairly good.
When we remember that the streets, houses, drains, even
the air of towns, as well as our bodies and clothes, all
require constant washing, the supply cannot very well be
too large. A downpour of rain cleanses the air, housetops,
streets, and sewers, in a way that cannot possibly be
WATER SUPPLY 303
equalled by artificial means ; but when rain is absent, it
is so much the more necessary to use water with a free
hand for every cleansing purpose to which it can be
applied.
Domestic uses of water. Twenty-five gallons of water
per head daily seems a large amount to supply for do-
mestic purposes ; but when the work that it has to do is
considered, it is not found to be too much. Water is
required for drinking, for washing and bathing, for cook-
ing and washing up, for scrubbing and cleaning the
house, for washing clothes, for the lavatory, for keeping
the house-drains clean, and for putting out fires. The
supply should never be stinted, for economy in water
means imperfect cleanliness in person, house, or drains,
and this sooner or later ends in disease.
dualities of water for domestic purposes, Natural water
varies greatly in its suitability for domestic purposes.
Its source, and the way in which it has been stored and
distributed, must be taken into consideration, as well as
the qualities which render it appropriate for drinking and
washing. Drinking-water must be perfectly free from
all organic impurities, but is improved in quality by the
presence of small quantities of mineral salts, such as
carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia. Washing -
water, on the other hand, cannot be too free from the
hardness caused by saline substances, whilst a little
organic impurity is of no consequence.
Natural sources of water : rain and surface water. The
water of springs, rivers, lakes, ponds and ditches, is
derived from rain. As the rain falls from the clouds it
is perfectly pure, but even before it reaches the earth it
takes up from the air gases, dust, germs, and various
small seeds. When collected in the ordinary way as it
runs from the housetops, rain-water soon becomes full
x 2
304 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
of microscopic life, both animal and vegetable. This is,
of course, organic matter, and therefore, unless caught
perfectly fresh from the clouds, rain is unsuitable for drink-
ing-water. Rain which falls on the ground partly runs
off the surface into streams, rivers, ditches, ponds and
lakes, and partly soaks into the earth to form the springs
which supply wells, and the source of some rivers and
lakes. The surface-water picks up organic matter, and
if it rests long in one place, as is the case in ponds and
ditches, it soon becomes full of animal and vegetable life.
If, however, it rushes down a mountain side into a rapid
river or deep lake, the proportion of organic matter is
but small, and as it consists chiefly of little dead portions
of plants, it is easily removed by filtration. Surface-
water contains but very little saline matter.
Spring and shallow well water. Water which soaks
into the ground loses by a natural process of filtration
the solid particles which it may have picked up on the
surface ; but it dissolves out of the earth various saline
substances, such as lime, magnesia, soda, iron, &c., and
carbonic acid gas. Hence spring water is hard, especially
in limestone districts, but it is pleasant and refreshing
to drink, and is quite free from organic matter. If the
earth through which the water soaks contains any de-
composing substances such as sewage or manure, of
course some of these will be dissolved, and will pollute
the spring. Now the ground about houses and towns
is never fresh and pure, so that shallow wells sunk in
such neighbourhoods invariably tap impure springs, and
afford the most dangerous kind of drinking- water. The
impurities do not penetrate very deeply into the earth,
so that deep wells are free from this most dangerous
kind of organic matter, and even in the heart of London
DRINKING WATER 305
the deep artesian wells supply perfectly wholesome
drinking-water.
Distilled water, Distilled water is chemically pure.
In ships the drinking-water is frequently distilled from
sea water, but it is not much relished, as chemically
pure water is insipid to the taste. Pure water has
another disadvantage especially important to towns-
people : it dissolves lead and other metals from the pipes
used to distribute it, whereas spring water containing
salines scarcely acts on the pipes at all.
Drinking and washing waters. There are, then, many
points to be considered in selecting water for domestic
purposes. First, drinking-water should be free from
organic matter, especially that kind dissolved out of foul
earth, but it should contain a little saline matter. There-
fore, it should be drawn from deep wells or springs in pure
ground, or it should be taken from unpolluted rapid rivers
and deep lakes, and subsequently filtered. Drinking-
water should not be taken from shallow wells, nor from
ponds, ditches, or other stagnant surface- water, nor from
stored rain water. Second, washing-water should be
soft ; that is, should not contain salines, especially lime.
Rain-water, therefore, answers the purpose very well, so
does river and lake water from any but limestone dis-
tricts. Deep spring and well water is generally too hard.
In towns the rain water is neither clean enough nor
sufficient for washing purposes, therefore the town supply
must be, if possible, not only wholesome for drinking,
but suitable for washing. Such water is practically only
to be obtained from pure rivers and lakes, and these are
the sources which are usually selected for the supply of
large towns.
The following table, given by the Rivers Pollution
306 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Commissioners, presents in a concise form a classification
of the natural sources of drinking-water :
( (1) Spring water 1 f Very
Wholesome \ (2) Deep well water /* \ palatable
( (3) Upland surface-water \ j Moderately
((4) Stored rain-water / \ palatable
(5) Surface - water from ,
cultivated land
((6) River water to which I Palatable
sewage gains access i
(7) Shallow well water I
An important point to notice in the table is that taste
is no sure guide, for dangerous waters may be quite
palatable. By upland surf ace -water, mountain streams
and lakes are meant.
CHAPTER LXXXIII
STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER- CISTERNS DIS-
TRIBUTION PIPES DISEASES DUE TO IMPURE WATER
Storage and distribution of water. Water is collected
and stored for towns in large reservoirs or lakes, where
any sediment it may contain is deposited. If necessary
it is passed through filter beds composed of fine gravel
to render it perfectly bright and clear. It is then pumped
up to a height sufficient to distribute it to all parts of
the town and to the highest rooms of the houses. The
distribution is conducted by means of large iron water-
mains in the streets, and small lead pipes in the houses.
The supply may be either continuous or intermittent ;
the former is, of course, much the better, as fresh water
can then be drawn at all times from the main taps. The
latter involves large house-cisterns, which are filled when
the water is on, and have to supply the house during the
time that is cut off.
Cisterns : material cleaning. Cisterns are one of the
sources of danger to drinking-water. It is important
STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 307
that they should be made of the proper materials, and
that they should be kept clean. Slate is the best material
for large cisterns, and glazed stoneware for small ones ;
but galvanised iron is generally used in the cheaper class
of houses. The drawback to the latter is that water
slowly acts on the zinc with which the iron is coated,
and dissolves it ; but the quantity dissolved is too small
to do much harm. Lead is the worst material. Some
kinds of water, especially the purest, dissolve lead, and
even a very small quantity of lead constantly present in
drinking-water causes lead-poisoning. The cistern is
placed at the top of the house, often unfortunately in a
position difficult to get at for the purpose of cleaning it
out. People are strangely careless about cleaning the
cistern. Those who would not drink out of a soiled glass
will sometimes leave the cistern uncleaned for years.
Yet dust and dirt collect in it freely, and actually such
abominations as old boots and dead cats have been found
there. The main tap ought to be turned off, the water
run off, and the cistern cleaned once a month, or at the
least once in three months.
Pipes connected with the cistern. The pipes connected
with the cistern (fig. 125) are: (1) the supply pipe from the
main (not shown in the diagram), which enters at the
top ; (2) the overflow pipe, which passes out from the top
through the outside wall of the house ; (3) the distribution
pipe, which leaves from the bottom, and is distributed to
those parts of the house supplied by the cistern. The
supply pipe is guarded by a self-acting tap called a ball
tap. This is merely a form of tap, the handle of which
is connected with a hollow metal ball floating on the top
of the water. When the water falls the ball descends
and opens the tap, and as the cistern fills again it rises
and gradually shuts it off. The overflow pipe is very rarely
3 o8 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
put to any use, but is necessary in case the ball tap
should at any time fail to act properly. The important
point in connection with it is to make sure that it does
A
Fro. 125. A. Insanitary System of Cistern Accommodation.
1, the cistern ; 2, the overflow pipe entering the waste pipe of the lavatory ; 3, the
distribution pipe supplying the whole house including the lavatory.
B. The Defects remedied.
The overflow pipe (2) discharges outside ; the distribution pipe (5) supplies all
the house except the lavatory, which has a separate cistern to itself (3).
not discharge into a waste pipe going down to the sewer.
No kind of waste pipe should have even the most remote
communication with drinking-water, and. yet in old houses
the overflow pipe of the cistern frequently entered the
DISEASES DUE TO IMPURE WATER 309
discharge pipe of the lavatory. In such cases the foul
sewer gas is carried by this pipe directly into contact with
the drinking-water. The distribution pipe may supply
the kitchens, bedrooms, bath, and every part of the house
except the lavatory. That should always have a separate
cistern, though it is a much less serious fault to supply
the lavatory from the drinking cistern than it is to open
up a communication between the latter and the sewer by
means of the empty overflow pipe.
The distribution pipes, The distribution pipes in the
house are nearly always made of lead. Water remaining
in them is liable to act upon the metal as it does in a
lead cistern, but it takes no harm from merely running
through them. For this reason the tap should be turned
a few minutes before drinking-water is drawn : it is then
both fresher and more wholesome. There is always a
stopcock in the main pipe where it enters the house, in
order that in case of accident the water may be cut off
in a moment, a matter that is frequently urgent in frosty
weather, when the pipes are liable to burst.
Diseases due to impure water. The water of ponds
and ditches does not, as a rule, do any harm, unless sewage
or some equally impure matter finds access to it. But
occasionally there may be present in such water the eggs
of some intestinal parasite, which would if swallowed de-
velop in the human alimentary canal. The most dan-
gerous water is that which is contaminated by sewage,
as river and shallow well water frequently is. Such water
may contain the germs or seeds of certain diseases, such
as typhoid, diphtheria, dysentery, cholera, ague, yellow
fever, and some others. Perfect cleanliness, and a per-
fectly pure water-supply, ought to be able to stamp out
this class of diseases.
Very hard water is not wholesome. After prolonged
310 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
use it is liable to cause indigestion, and sometimes more
serious illnesses.
Some natural waters are impregnated with an unusual
quantity of mineral salts. They are called mineral
waters, and are used in the treatment of disease. The
waters of Buxton, Harrogate, Bath, Ems, Vichy &c. are
of this nature.
Lead-poisoning. Pure water like distilled or rain
water is capable of dissolving a small quantity of lead
from cisterns or pipes made of that metal, and this power
is increased if the water contains organic matters and
such salines as nitrates or chlorides. The presence of
carbonates and sulphates, on the other hand, renders the
water quite incapable of dissolving lead. It is, there-
fore, always dangerous to allow any kind of drinking-
water, except spring water, to remain in contact with lead
in either cistern or pipes. Spring water nearly always
contains enough carbonates or sulphates to prevent it
from acting on lead.
CHAPTER LXXXIV
PURIFICATION OF WATER FILTRATION BOILING DISINFEC-
TION DISTILLATION SOFTENING OF HARD WATER
Purification of water: characters of pure drinking-
water. Drinking-water should be perfectly clear, free
from odour or taste, cool, aerated, and not too hard ;
but it sometimes happens that people have to drink what
they can get, when a knowledge of how to purify foul
water proves very valuable.
Filtration. Unwholesome waters may for practical
purposes be divided into those which are contaminated
with sewage or other decomposing matters, and those
which are not. The latter class includes the ordinary
PURIF1CA TION AND SOFTENING OF WA TER 311
surface-water of ponds, ditches, streams, &c., the im-
purities of which can be removed by a carbon filter.
Carbon niters off all the little particles of vegetable
matter suspended in such water, as well as the eggs and
animalcules which inhabit it. It even does more than
this : when the carbon is fresh it has a purifying effect,
helping to remove any stale or unpleasant odour. But
it must be remembered that the carbon filter does not
remove the soluble products of decomposition, nor the
germs of disease, and is therefore quite useless for the
really dangerous kinds of water. The carbon block be-
comes impure with use, and should be frequently renewed
or purified.
Boiling: disinfection: distillation. Water which is
suspicious, but which has no unpleasant taste or smell,
should be thoroughly boiled for ten minutes and filtered.
Such water is frequently met with at seaside places and
country villages, where worn-out townspeople go to renew
their health, and sometimes fall an easy prey to typhoid
fever. The water of shallow wells is always suspicious,
and should be boiled, especially for children. Thorough
boiling kills the disease germs, but of course does not
remove the soluble products of decomposition. For-
tunately in a civilised country we a.re not likely to be
placed in circumstances in which it is necessary to drink
water which is actually foul, though our countrymen as
soldiers and travellers abroad are exposed to such con-
ditions. It is then a matter of life and death to know
how to deal with it. First, the water is purified by adding
Condy's fluid to it until a slight pink tinge is retained.
When Condy's fluid is not available, the next best thing
is fresh coke or charcoal. The water is then well boiled
and subsequently filtered. Under this treatment, unless
very foul, it will be rendered wholesome. When very
312 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
bad indeed after the use of Condy's fluid or coke, it must
be distilled, for which, of course, a special apparatus such
as they have on ships is necessary. In some places
even in England rain water is the only drinking-water
available. If it becomes foul in the summer, it should
be treated with Condy's fluid, boiled and filtered.
Softening of water : Clark's process. Hardness in water
generally depends upon the presence of carbonates or
sulphates of lime or magnesia, lime being the usual
mineral. When sulphate of lime (gypsum) is present in
marked excess, the water is not fit for domestic purposes ;
as, though it is improved for washing by the addition of
a little soda, it cannot be softened on a large scale, and
is not a good water for drinking purposes. Water, how-
ever, containing much gypsum is not very common.
Sulphate of magnesia in excess acts on the bowels.
Water containing much of it would be a mineral water
like that at the Epsom wells.
Carbonate of lime (chalk) is the common cause of
hardness, and is fortunately much more easily dealt with.
Chalk only dissolves in water which contains carbonic
acid gas, consequently any process which removes this
gas from the water throws down the chalk as a fine
sediment. Boiling will do it : the heat drives off the gas,
and the chalk deposits as a fine white powder. But
boiling cannot be used on a large scale, so when town
water is too hard it is softened by Clark's process.
This consists in adding lime to the water, certainly at
first sight a strange way of getting rid of carbonate of
lime. It acts in this way. The lime combines with the
carbonic acid gas to make more chalk, but as there is
now no gas left in the water, all the chalk falls to the
bottom as a sediment. This process ought to be employed
for softening the hard water derived from all the lime-
stone districts like Derbyshire.
HOT-WATER APPARATUS 313
CHAPTER LXXXV
HOT-WATER APPARATUS A DANGEROUS APPARATUS THE
WORM BOILER APPARATUS THE RESERVOIR APPARATUS
Hot-water apparatus. Almost every modern house is
supplied with hot as well as with cold water. Hot water
in the bath-room and bedrooms in addition to the kitchen
is not only a great convenience, but an encouragement
in habits of cleanliness. We read, however, occasionally
of kitchen boilers exploding with disastrous results, and
it is therefore only right that everybody should know
something of the various apparatus used for this
purpose.
Three kinds of apparatus. They may be divided into
three kinds. All others are simply modifications of one
or other of the plans to be described. First, there is the
cheap and dangerous apparatus (fig. 126) often to be met
with in cottage-houses at low rental. Second, the safe
but not very efficient worm boiler system, now practically
gone out of fashion, but still to be found in a great many
first-class houses. Third, the reservoir apparatus, very
efficient, and very rarely a source of danger. This is the
best kind at present in use. With proper knowledge
every kind is safe ; but even with complete ignorance of
their construction an accident can only happen to the
second and third varieties under most unusual circum-
stances.
Bearing in mind what has been said on p. 285 in
reference to the circulation of water in all properly con-
structed hot-water apparatus, it will be easy to understand
the working of these systems by studying the annexed
diagrams.
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
A dangerous hot- water apparatus. Fig. 126 illustrates
the first variety. It consists of a feed or supply cistern
at the top of the house ; a plain boiler at the back of
the kitchen fire ; a
cold feed-pipe from
the cistern, enter-
ing the bottom of
the boiler ; and a
hot supply pipe,
leaving at the top
of the boiler, and
supplying the sink,
bath, bedrooms,
&c., and ending in
an open escape-pipe
over the top of the
cistern. This is a
simple and effective
apparatus, and is
quite safe whilst
every part is in
working order ; but
should the cold sup-
ply fail, or the pipes
become blocked
with frost, danger
is at once intro-
duced.
A common cause
of accident is when
both pipes become frozen during the night, at X and X, where
they are near the roof and exposed to the cold. When
the fire is lit and the water boils, there is now no escape
by either pipe, consequently as the pressure of steam in-
PIG. 126. A Dangerous Hot-water
Apparatus.
WORM BOILER APPARATUS
315
creases an explosion is inevitable. In other cases the
cold feed to the cistern alone is blocked, or the cistern
FIG. 127. The Worm Boiler Hot-water Apparatus.
for some reason is empty. In course of time the water
in the boiler boils away, and (he latter becomes red-hot.
3 i6 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY'
If, now, the cold supply is renewed, the water rushing
into a red-hot boiler is suddenly converted into steam,
and results in a violent explosion.
In this class of apparatus, whenever the water does
not run properly from the taps the kitchen fire should
at once be put out, and a tap should be left open by
which steam can escape in case both pipes are blocked
with ice.
The worm boiler apparatus. Fig. 127 shows the details
of the worm boiler apparatus. It really consists of a
double system. First, the boiler with its small feed-
cistern near it in the kitchen, and its hot supply and
escape pipes. Second, the larger feed-cistern at the top
of the house, with its cold feed-pipe to the worm which
is contained within the boiler, and the hot supply pipe
from the worm to the house, generally ending in an
escape pipe above the cistern which is not necessary, as
the water in the worm tube never boils. The worm is
heated by the hot water in the boiler, but the water in
one set of pipes does not anywhere communicate with
that in the other set. This arrangement is perfectly
safe whilst there is water in the little feed-cistern to the
boiler, and as this is in sight in the kitchen, it would be
noticed at once if the main failed to supply it. Of course
it is too near the kitchen fire to be affected by frost. If
the pipes belonging to the worm system are frozen, the
kitchen fire need not be put out, as the worm is only
heated by water, which heat is not sufficient for an ex-
plosion. All that is necessary is to see that the small
cistern referred to does not get empty. The drawback
to this apparatus is that the worm rapidly cools when
the hot water is run, so that only a few gallons can
be obtained at once, though in ten minutes it is as hot
as ever again. It should be observed that the hot supply
RESERVOIR APPARATUS 317
to the kitchen is drawn from the boiler itself, and not
from the worm system ; thus if much hot water is drawn
FIG. 128. The Keservoir Hot-water Apparatus.
in the kitchen, the entire supply to the house is cooled
down.
The reservoir apparatus, Fig. 128 illustrates the
Y
,3i8 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
more modern apparatus. It is perhaps a little more
dangerous than that just described, but then it is very
much more effective. If constructed as in the diagram,
the water runs hot as soon as the taps are turned, and
a large quantity can be drawn at once. In this apparatus
a copper reservoir is introduced between the cold feed
and the hot supply, in which the water is heated by
circulation between it and the boiler. If the arrows an-
followed from the cold feed cistern onwards, the whole
of this somewhat complicated circulation will readily be
understood. The hot return pipe is sometimes omitted.
Its object is to maintain a circulation in the hot supply
pipes, which causes the water to run hot directly the tap
is turned, and makes it almost impossible for the hot
escape pipe to become blocked with ice.
The element of danger lies in the possibility of both
supply and escape pipes becoming frozen, and then the
water in the reservoir being brought to a rapid boil
without thawing the ice in the hot escape : an almost
impossible thing with circulating hot water so near it.
Should the pipes become frozen, the boiler would take
weeks to boil dry, as the reservoir cannot be emptied by
means of the taps. Still, when the cold supply is cut off,
the water in the reservoir soon begins to boil unpleasantly
hard, and whilst the pipes remain blocked it is best to
keep the fire small, or to place an iron plate at the back
of it to shield the boiler from some of its heat.
CHAPTEE LXXXVI
WASTE MATTERS THEIR REMOVAL IN THE COUNTRY AND IN
TOWN THE CONSERVANCY AND WATER-CARRIAGE SYSTEMS
Waste matters. The waste matters of an ordinary
town house are -as follows: (1) Coarse waste; ashes,
e. J :.
WASTE MATTERS
319
sweepings, food remains, &c. (2) Kitchen sink : dish
washings, of which fat is the most troublesome product.
(3) Bath waste. (4) Kain water. (5) Lavatory and bed-
room slops.
Of these, all except ashes, rain and bath water, con-
tain a quantity of organic matter either in a state of de-
composition or ready to decompose. If allowed to remain
in the house for any length of time they would pollute
the air, and encourage the spread of the worst kinds of
fever. It is therefore of great importance to health that
they should be quickly and thoroughly removed, and so
disposed of as not to affect the healthiness of other dis-
tricts.
Disposal of refuse in the country and the town. In the
country this is not a difficult matter, for fresh earth is
the natural purifying agent of decomposing organic sub-
stances. When the house refuse is thrown on the garden
or fields the soil is thereby rendered richer and better,
and the vegetables or farm produce grown on it are per-
fectly pure and wholesome. Not only is the organic
matter of sewage thus purified and utilised by nature,
but the foulest water, after it has percolated through a
considerable layer of fresh earth, runs away clear and
sweet again. The abundant fresh air of the country,
too, renders harmless manure heaps, refuse heaps, and
other abominations which would breed disease in towns,
Whilst therefore the removal and disposal of waste matters
in the country ought to be accomplished without danger
or difficulty, in towns the problem is the most serious
one with which the guardians of the public health have
to deal. Waste matters cannot be thrown into the
streets. Even rain water unable to soak through the
pavements would flood the lower parts of the town with
every storm, if there were not efficient artificial means
Y 2
3 2o PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
for carrying it away. Similar efficient means must be
provided for the removal of every class of waste matter,
in order that no accumulation of such products may be
permitted to take place to endanger the public health.
Two systems : conservancy and water-carriage.
Now there are only two feasible methods of removing
refuse. One is to cart it away, and the other to drain it
away by means of sewers. The former is a laborious
and expensive plan, and is consequently only employed
for removing refuse which is too solid to be carried off
by the sewers, such as the contents of ash-pits, street
sweepings, &c. The latter is rapid, effective, and much
the cheaper method, and is therefore employed for the
removal of every kind of waste matter which is sufficiently
fluid. The former is called the hand labour or con-
servancy system ; the latter the water-carriage system.
Conservancy systems have the advantage of removing
the waste matters in a form in which they can be used
as manure for the crops ; but the expense is heavy, and
the refuse is allowed to accumulate from day to day, or
for weeks, or even months. The water-carriage system
removes the waste matters immediately, and is the
cheapest system, but is not free from dangers to health.
Moreover, sewage is practically useless as a manure, and
is difficult to dispose of except in towns with a suitable
fall for drainage, and a large estuary or the sea to drain
into. The advantages of the conservancy system arc tl at :
(1) all kinds of refuse can be removed in carts ; (2) tho
refuse is in a form useful for manure. The disadvantages
are : (1) very heavy cost ; (2) the refuse is allowed to
accumulate before removal.
The advantages of the water-carriage system are ;
(1) drains must be built, whether used for sewage or not,
to carry off the rain water ; (2) it is very much cheaper ;
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM 3^1
(3) it removes the refuse at once. The disadvantages
are : (1) coarse refuse cannot be carried by water ; (2) the
difficulty of satisfactorily disposing of the sewage ; (3) the
dangers of sewer gas.
Economy. Undoubtedly the best plan, if it were pos-
sible, would be to remove in carts all refuse solid or liquid,
which was suitable for manure, and dispose of it on the
neighbouring farms ; using the drains for such waste
water only as would not pollute a stream. But this is
simply impossible, on account of the enormous labour and
great cost involved in such a plan. Economic reasons
render it absolutely necessary in all large towns to utilise
the drains, not only for fluid refuse, but for every kind of
refuse which can be carried by water, and so to limit the
employment of hand labour as much as possible.
CHAPTER LXXXVII
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM ASH - PITS, CESSPOOLS, EARTH
CLOSETS WATER-CARRIAGE SYSTEM VENTILATION AND
TRAPPING OF DRAINS
Conservancy system : ash-pits. Ash-pits are usually
constructed of brick. They should be well cemented
inside and at the bottom. Food refuse and ashes are
the two chief waste matters for which they are required,
and fortunately the latter possess the purifying and
deodorising qualities of coke and charcoal. The effect
of ashes in arresting decomposition and checking foul
odours is observed when the food refuse is stored
separately in tubs for pigs. Notwithstanding that the
tubs are emptied daily, they invariably acquire a foul
smell, and are not fit to be near a human residence ;
whilst a carefully tended ash-pit rarely smells a,t all.
Management of ash-pit : Richardson's ash-pit. The ash-
322 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
pit should if possible stand quite clear of the house. It
should be emptied at least once a week, and should be
kept dry, as wet ashes have very little power to arrest
decomposition. Under no circumstances should bed-
room slops be thrown into the ash-pit. In reference to
this matter, Dr. B. W. Richardson has made an excellent
suggestion: namely, that the ordinary ash-pit should be
removed, and in its place should be built a wall in which
a.re some large pigeon-holes containing galvanised iron
buckets. The refuse is put into the buckets, and when
the dustman comes he has simply to carry them to his
cart and replace them empty ; a great saving in labour,
and a great gain in cleanliness.
Ash-pits are an absolute necessity, as the refuse for
which they are required cannot possibly be removed by
drains ; but this is the only kind of house refuse which
should require removal by hand labour.
Cesspools. By a cesspool is meant a covered pit or
tank placed under the ground somewhere near the house.
It may only receive the contents of an outdoor closet,
or the entire drainage of the house. Sometimes it is a
mere hole dug in the ground and covered over, when if
the soil is porous the fluid drains away and the solid
refuse is only removed at long intervals. In other cases,
the cesspool is lined with cement, and has an overflow at
the top by which the more fluid part drains into the
nearest ditch or stream. In either case a cesspool is one
of the most unhealthy modes of disposing of waste matters.
Foul gases are generated in it, and if a shallow well is
near, some of the contents are sure to percolate into it,
and render the water dangerous. Cesspools are un-
fortunately still quite common in country houses, and in
small inland towns. They are one of the frequent causes
of typhoid fever.
WATER-CARRIAGE SYSTEM 323
Earth closets. Dry earth is a potent disinfectant.
When it is sprinkled over any foul decomposing substance,
that substance at once becomes inodorous and harmless.
This knowledge led to the invention of Moule's earth
closets, in which the excretions are covered with dry
earth. When properly attended to they are perfectly
free from smell, and are by far the best form of closet
for all houses in which the water-carriage system cannot
be employed. Earth closets could not be used to replace
water closets in a large town, on account of the enormous
amount of labour which would be involved in supplying
the earth, and in removing the vast daily accumulation
of refuse.
The water-carriage system : advantages and drawbacks,
Seeing that a town needs a plentiful water supply for
other purposes than drainage (p. 303), and that a
system of covered drains or sewers is necessary to
replace the natural water- courses which carried off the
surface water before the town was built, it is quite clear
that there could be no cheaper way of removing refuse
than by turning it into the street sewers. Certainly
these sewers must be larger, more numerous, better con-
structed, and better attended to, if they are to carry
house refuse as well as rain and waste water ; but the
additional cost of perfecting the drainage system is as
nothing when compared with the enormous cost of
removal of refuse by hand labour.
The chief difficulties that have to be met are: (1)
That foul gases are developed in the sewers, which if not
guarded against will find their way into the house, and
cause outbreaks of disease ; and (2) the difficulty of dis-
posing of the sewage at a reasonable cost, and in such a
manner that it shall not pollute streams, estuaries, and'
harbours, or otherwise become a public nuisance.
324
PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY-
The first of these provisions is secured by efficient
ventilation and trapping of the drain pipes. The second
is for the most pavt a problem still unsolved.
Ventilation of drains. Ventilation of drains is effected
by letting the foul air escape from them through pipes
opening above the houses, where it can very rarely do
any harm, whilst fresh air enters at lower openings; or
by making such numerous openings, as in the case of
street sewers at the level of the ground, that the sewer
gas becomes too much diluted with fresh air to be
harmful.
Fio. 129. Stoneware Syphon
Trap.
Fio. 131. Dipstone Trap.
FIG. 130.- Ventilated Syphon Trap.
V, the ventilation pii'.
Traps : the syphon trap. Traps are bends or other
receptacles made in the discharge pipes which always
remain full of water. They offer no impediment to the
downward flow 7 of water, but prevent the sewer gas
passing upwards. The almost universal form of water-
trap used in the present day merely consists in a
U-shaped bend in the pipe. It is called the syphon
trap, and is shown in figs. 129, 180. Its advantages over
other traps are cheapness, pmall bulk, and efficiency
when w r ell managed. Its disadvantages are liability to
be emptied by the syphon action of the water descending
fRAPS
the pipe beyond it, and liability to become choked with
debris. The former is prevented by ventilating the pipe
just beyond the trap (see fig. 180), and the latter is
overcome by making a special opening for cleaning
and flushing out the trap.
The dipstone trap. The dipstone trap, fig. 131, was
formerly used to trap the yard and street gullies, but is
now generally replaced by a syphon gully, fig. 137. It
consists of a square hole made of bricks set in cement,
the entering and discharge pipes opening near the top.
It is covered with a stone slab, and another is placed
vertically dipping into the water held by the trap. If
FIG. 132. Bell Trap with
Cover on.
FIG. 133. Bell Trap with
Cover removed.
used for a gully, the iron grating would of course be
placed to the left of the dipstone in the figure. The
chief fault of this trap is its liability to leak under the
edges of the covering stone, when the sewer gas readily
escapes, and as a trap it is quite useless. A dipstone
trap made in one piece of stoneware is perfectly reliable,
and is sometimes used for small gullies such as those in
the house area.
The bell trap. The bell trap is somewhat similar to
the dipstone in principle. It can readily be understood
by referring to the illustrations, figs. 132, 133. It is
not so good as a syphon trap.
Whatever kind of trap is used, it must be re-
326 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY '
membered that it is only efficient whilst it contains water.
In dry weather, and at all times in houses when the pipe
is not in use, the water dries up, and a direct communi-
cation with the drain is established. An occasional
flushing with water will remove this source of danger.
CHAPTER LXXXYIII
THE HOUSE DRAIN I SINK WASTE BATH WASTE RAIN-WATER
PIPES YARD GULLIES
House drain. The various waste pipes converge,
usually at the back of the house, to a single drain pipe
called the house drain, which connects them with the
main sewer. The house drain is the most important
pipe in the whole system, because it generally passes
directly under the house to get to the sewer, which is in
the street in front ; and because it is buried in the
ground out of sight. If there is any fault in it the
ground under the house becomes soaked with sewage,
and as the pipe is out of sight, the error is some time
before it is detected, and involves a good deal of work
and expense to correct it. The house drain is made of
short lengths of 6 -inch glazed stoneware pipe, the joints
of which are carefully cemented together, and it is
allowed a fall of about one in forty-eight on its way from
the back of the house to the sewer.
The sink waste (fig. 134). This is a short pipe made
of lead, which is visible throughout its whole length.
Just beneath the sink the pipe has an S-bend which
forms a syphon trap. As a good deal of dirt from potato
washings &c. passes through this trap, it is very liable
to become choked, and is therefore provided with a
screw plug, fig. 135, by undoing which it can be easily
cleaned out. From this trap the pipe is continued on
WASTE PIPES
32?
through the wall, and ends outside over the grating of a
small gully in the yard or area. The pipe should never
FIG. 134. Waste Pipe of Sink, provided with S-trap and discharging
over Yard Gully. House Sewer provided with Syphon Trap and
Air Inlet.
be carried under ground, as this would mean that it
was connected directly with the drain,
and as the S-bend syphons empty
each time a big gush of water is sent
down the pipe, there is nothing to
prevent the sewer gas passing up
from the drain and entering the
house. These email, unventilated
syphon traps are absolutely unreliable,
therefore the only safeguard with such
waste pipes is that they should open FlG ' ia5_Lead Sy-
in the air over a gully in the yard. phon (or S) Trap
The bath waste. An imperfect ^^ Cap fo1
bath waste has several times been the
cause of typhoid fever. Formerly it was not unusual to
find in first-class houses a large bath in the bedroom,
328
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
which was inclosed with wood-work to look like a cup-
board or wardrobe. The bath waste would be one-and-a-
half inch lead pipe, trapped only by a simple S-bend,
FIG. 13o. The Bath Waste discharging at once into the open head
of a Downspout, which discharges over Yard Gully. There is a
free circulation of fresh air through the Downspout.
and carried down through the middle of the house to
the drain beneath. The force of the long column of
water falling from the bedroom to the drain empties
WASTE PIPES 329
the trap every time, so that such a bath waste is more
constantly employed in carrying sewer gas into the
house than in discharging bath water. The proper
form of waste pipe for baths or wash-handbasins is
shown in fig. 136. The first discharge pipe is made of
lead, and only passes from the bath through the outside
wall, where it discharges into the open head of a down-
spout. The latter is continued to the ground, where it:
should always end over a yard gully. Thus there is
interposed between the house and the drain a length of
downspout open at both ends to the fresh air, and which
can never be charged with sewer gas.
Rain-water pipes. Eain water is a waste product in
towns, as it is too dirty to be used for domestic purposes.
The rain pipes have no direct communication with the
house, and therefore it is commonly considered that
they may be carried without trap or break to the sewer,
thus permitting them to act as ventilation shafts. If
the head of the downspout is well above the highest
window there is no objection to this, as the more
thoroughly the sewers are ventilated the better ; but it
often happens that windows are quite close to the top of
the rain pipe, and sometimes just above it, when the
sewer gas would pass into the house whenever the win-
dows were opened. The safest plan is for the rain pipe
to discharge, like the sink and bath wastes, over a gully.
Yard gullies. The openings in the street gutters
through which the rain finds its way into the sewers are
called gully-holes, or more shortly gullies, and similarly
constructed traps in the yard or area have received the
same name. Until recently the dip&tone trap was the
usual form of gully, and it is still often used. When
only a small one is required, as in a yard or area, a
glazed stoneware dipstone trap answers very well ; but
330
PAUL S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
a syphon gully made of the same material is better, and
is the form which will probably be employed in the
future, fig. 137. A gully consists of a hollow or recep-
tacle, into which the water flows through a removable
grating, and it has a trapped
opening leading to the sewer
placed rather high up on one
side. Gullies occasionally be-
come blocked with the dirt that
is carried or swept into them,
which falls to the bottom and
accumulates, until the opening
of the sewer pipe is choked.
To clean them out all that is
necessary is to remove the
FIG. 137. Stoneware Sypho/i
Gully, with side Inlet.
grating, ladle out the dirt, and throw down two or three
pailfuls of water. If the blocked gully is that into which
the kitchen sink discharges, the water should be boiling,
as the cause of the block is most probably congealed fat.
CHAPTER LXXXIX
THE LAVATORY : SITUATION APPARATUS WATER SUPPLY-
CONNECTION WITH THE DRAIN
The lavatory, This is the most important sanitary
arrangement in the house, as, when in fault, it is the
most frequent cause of illness. The chief points to study
in regard to it are the situation, the apparatus, the
water supply, and the connections with the drain.
Situation, In hospitals, where sanitation is of such
paramount importance, the sanitary block, as it is called,
is a separate building cut off from the main building
containing the wards by short, well-ventilated passages.
In a private house this is not convenient, and perhaps
LAVATORY 331
not necessary ; still, there are a few points in reference
to situation to which attention ought always to be paid.
In the first place, the lavatory ought to be near an out-
side wall, so that the soil pipe may be carried outside at
once. Secondly, it should not communicate directly
with any room, but with a well-ventilated passage.
And lastly, the higher up in the house it is situated the
better, as foul gases tend to rise, and, if admitted at the
bottom of the house, pass up throughout it.
Apparatus : the pan closet. The apparatus still very
frequently met with is the old form of pan closet, an
FIG. 138.-- Pan Closet. FIG. 139.-' D ' Trap.
arrangement which is only mentioned and explained in
order that the reasons why it should be condemned
may be understood. It consists of four essential parts
(fig. 138) : the receiver or basin, the pan, the container,
and the D trap (fig. 189). In connection with the pan
is a handle, which, when raised, moves the former into
the position indicated in the diagram, and causes its
contents to be thrown into the container. Through this
they fall into the trap, and then pass on into the soil
pipe. The basin and the pan are the only parts in
sight, and they can be kept quite as clean as in any
other apparatus ; but between the basin and the trap is
332
PAULS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
a large surface always coated with filth, and giving off
foul gas. This condition of the container makes it
impossible to keep the air of the close I sweet and whole-
some, and is by itself a sufficiently grave point to abso-
lutely condemn the pan apparatus. There is, however,
another fault. The D trap is cumbrous and dirty, and
liable to leak at the joint which connects it with the
FIG. 140. Valve Water-closet.
container, when of course it ceases to be a trap. For
tlu-s. 1 reasons the pan closet must be considered to be an
imperfect and unhealthy arrangement.
The valve closet. The valve closet (fig. 140) is a
marked improvement upon the pan, as the surface be-
tween the basin and the trap is much reduced, and the
trap is a better kind. It has, however, been entirely
LAVATORY 333
superseded by newer and better forms, and is now
chiefly of interest as the connecting link between the
old and the modern style.
Modern apparatus, The essential features of the
modern apparatus are that they are entirely constructed
out of a single piece of glazed earthenware or two pieces
cemented together ; that the surface between the basin
and the trap is reduced to a minimum, and is all in
sight ; and that the trap is the best variety of syphon
a trap that is convenient to clean and flush out, and is
ventilated so that it cannot syphon dry.
FIG. 141. ' Short-hopper '
Water-closet. FIG. 142.' Wash-out ' Closet.
The ' Short-hopper ' (fig. 141) is one of the best in
principle : it is inexpensive, and is therefore generally
adopted for small houses. The Wash-out (fig. 142) is
also very good, but not quite so clean as the Hopper, as
there is a considerable surface of pipe between the
basin and the trap, and the basin itself is too shallow.
There are now many slight modifications of both forms,
which are satisfactory in proportion as they conform to
the essential features given above. In all kinds the
woodwork should be made to raise up for convenience in ?
emptying slops into the receiver.
The water supply. The water supply to the closet
334
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
has already been referred to (p. 308) ; but the two
chief points may here be mentioned again. One is
that the water-closet should have a separate flushing
FIG. 143. A. Insanitary Arrangement of Soil-pipe.
The ventilation-pipe (5) is too small, and there is no opening below at 6 for
the air to enter.
B. These Defects remedied.
5 has the same diameter as the soil-pipe (4), and the pipe going to the drain
is open at 6 to let in the air, and trapped at 7 to keep back the sewer-gas.
cistern, connected with the main if the water supply is
continuous, and with the house cistern if it is inter-
mittent. The water should never be supplied directly
DISPOSAL Of SEWAGE 335
from the house cistern to the basin of the closet. The
second point is that the overflow pipe from the house
cistern should under no circumstances be allowed to
discharge into any pipe connected with the lavatory.
The soil pipe, The soil pipe (fig. 143) connects the
water-closet with the drain, and is the most important
of the waste pipes leaving the house. It commences at
the syphon trap, and passes at once through the outside
wall, where it joins with a long four-inch iron pipe, which
ascends to the roof and descends to the ground. Above,
the pipe is generally carried halfway up the slates,
in order that any foul air which may escape from it
may be discharged well clear of the windows. Below,
it is often continued straight through to the drain.
But the proper plan is that it should first pass through
a gully in the yard, as in fig. B, in order that the fresh
air may enter below ; and thus, as in the case of the
bath waste, there will be between the drain and the
house a length of pipe filled with fresh air.
The advantages gained by thus ventilating the soil
pipe are : (1) sewer gas is carried off quite clear of the
house ; (2) the descending column of water cannot suck
the trap empty ; (3) the connection between the house
and the drain is intercepted by a length of piping
always charged with fresh air.
CHAPTEE XC
THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE : POLLUTION OF RIVERS
DISCHARGED INTO THE SEA PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE
SEWAGE FARMS
The disposal of sewage : pollution of rivers. Finally we
have to consider what is to be done with the enormous
bulk of liquid discharged every day from the sewers.
z 2
336 PAUVS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
How great the quantity must be may be estimated from
the amount of water supplied per head per day (see p. 303).
For a town of 100,000 inhabitants the daily outpour
would be something like 10,000 tons, all of which has to
be got rid of at a reasonable cost, and without affecting
the healthiness of the neighbourhood. Obviously the
easiest way to get rid of it is to turn it into a watercourse
or the sea, and this was the method universally adopted
at first. But when sewage is turned into rivers the
consequences are very disastrous. Not only are the
fish destroyed, which is comparatively a small matter,
but the chief source of water for domestic purposes is
contaminated, and riverside districts are rendered un-
healthy. What, for example, could be more unfair than
to allow a little town like Welshpool, at the head of the
Severn, to destroy the purity of that noble river for all
the thousands of inhabitants who live by its banks on
its way to the sea ? A great deal has been done to
check such pollution of rivers, and the time cannot be
far distant when the most stringent regulations will be
adopted concerning it. The cholera at Hamburg, and
its relation to the pollution of the Kiver Elbe, teaches a
lesson by which the people of every enlightened nation
should profit.
Sewage discharged into the sea. To dispose of sewage
by discharging it into a river may be regarded as one of
the worst and least sanitary methods. To turn it into
a land-locked bay or a harbour is not quite as bad, but
is still very pernicious, for it will accumulate and render
the neighbourhood unhealthy. When, however, a city
has the good fortune to be placed, as Liverpool, Hull,
and Southampton are, on the banks of large tidal
estuaries, or on the sea- shore where there is a good set
of tide, it may be allowed to use the cheap and ready
SEWAGE FARMS 337
method of getting rid of its sewage by turning it into
the sea, where the tide will mix it with such a vast body
of water that its organic matters cease to be harmful.
Purification of sewage. But if only seaside towns are
to use this method, what are the inland towns to do ?
At present there are only two ways suggested to help
them out of their difficulty, neither of which is very
satisfactory. The least satisfactory is that the suspended
matters should be removed, and the purified liquid be
allowed to flow into the river. The liquid can only be
partially purified. The most valuable manure, ammonia,
and the chief danger to health, disease germs, both
remain in it. The plan, therefore, fails all round, for it
is expensive, and the substance removed is not very
valuable as manure, whilst that passed on to the river
is almost as deleterious as ever.
Sewage farms. The other method is to irrigate cul-
tivated land with the sewage. This is a much more
hopeful plan, for it is adopting nature's way of purifying
foul substances. Such matters, if applied to a sufficient
area, simply enrich the soil without conveying to it any
unhealthy characters. Moreover, the soil is capable of
extracting the whole of the organic matters, so that the
water which flows from land irrigated with sewage with
proper care is so thoroughly purified that it may be
safely discharged into the river.
There are then but two methods of disposing of
sewage which can be regarded as at all satisfactory :
(1) To discharge it into tidal water, where, with careful
management, it does but little harm, and is, perhaps, a
source of nourishment to marine animal life ; and (2)
to dispose of it by irrigation on sewage farms a scheme
theoretically satisfactory, but at present somewhat too
costly.
338 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTEK XCI
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE : MONEY
Money : standard and token money. Money is the form
in which we receive our income, and the means through
which we obtain the necessaries of life. Money is used
in two forms, coin and paper. English coins are made
of gold, silver, and copper. The gold coins are called
' standard ' money, as their real and nominal value are
the same. Standard gold bullion can be changed at the
Bank of England for an equal amount of standard gold
coin, and it is owing to this fact that an English sove-
reign is worth its nominal value in precious metal, that
it can always be passed in foreign countries. Silver and
copper coins are called ' token ' money. Their real
value varies with the market price of silver and copper,
and is less than their nominal value as a fractional part
of a sovereign. The manufacture of token money is
limited to the requirements of the country. It is not legal
to tender in payment more than a certain amount, namely
twelve pennies or two pounds' worth of silver for one
transaction. There is no such limit in payment with gold.
Paper money: bank notes. Paper money occurs in
many forms, of which the most important are bank notes,
bank cheques, and bills of exchange. Bank of England
notes vary in value from 51 to 1,0002. They are manu-
factured with such great care that forgery is almost im-
possible, and the credit of the Bank of England is such
that they are generally easily passed in foreign countries.
They are consequently a very convenient form in which
to carry large sums of money both abroad and at home.
Bank of England notes are legal tender in payment of
sums of 5/. and upwards. Many other banks issue bank
notes.
MONEY 339
Cheques, Cheques are money orders drawn upon a
bank. In business payments are generally made in this
way. A cheque is made payable to ' bearer,' to 'order,'
or is ' crossed.' If you receive a cheque paj able to bearer,
it is only necessary to present it at the bank on which it
is drawn to receive the money. If payable to order, it
must first be endorsed, that is countersigned on the back,
by the person to whom it is made payable. If crossed, it
can only be paid through a banking account. This is a
very safe and convenient way of sending money by post,
as such a cheque cannot be cashed ; but it requires that
both parties shall have a banking account.
Bills of exchange, Bills of exchange are used in the
following way in large commercial transactions. A mer-
chant sells so many thousand bales of cotton to a manu-
facturer. He desires payment at once in order that with-
out delay he may freight his ship for her outward voyage.
Now the manufacturer is not prepared to pay the enor-
mous sum required, until he has manufactured and sold
to the retail traders at least a part of the goods ; he there-
fore signs a bill of exchange, the amount of which is
covered by the value of the cotton. The merchant takes
the bill to a bank, where for a certain payment called
discount it is cashed. Practically the bank lends the
money until a specified time when the manufacturer will
be prepared to repay it. The discount is the profit on
the transaction charged by the bank.
Sending money by post, For sending money by post,
Postal Orders and Money Orders are the most convenient
method for small sums, and cheques and bank notes for
larger sums. Coin can only be sent in a registered
envelope. It is never a good way of posting money.
Bank notes should also be sent in registered envelopes,
340 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
CHAPTER XCII-
EXPENDITURE REGULATION OF IN TOWN AND COUNTRY
RULES
Expenditure. Every working man with proper self-
respect desires that his family should be entirely supported
by the income earned by him or them. If he trusts to
the hospital in times of sickness, to the parish in old age,
and to charity or credit on any sudden emergency or
temporary loss of work, and if in the event of death he
would leave young children or other helpless dependents
unprovided for, he is not living within his means. Though
.every bill has been regularly paid, one payment has been
neglected : the weekly payment to the reserve fund, by
which means alone he can make himself really in-
dependent.
Weekly expenses. The weekly expenditure may be
classed under three heads : (1) The ordinary or current
.expenses, such as rent, taxes, food, fuel, light, clothing,
and materials for cleaning ; (2) occasional expenses, as
for tools, books, new furniture, or a holiday; and (3)
money reserved for provident purposes ; that is, money
saved, and money invested in some sick club or benefit
society.
Regulation of expenditure. To meet everything it is
necessary that the weekly expenses should be properly
proportioned, paid to time, and never in excess of the
means. It is quite possible, even for the poor, with self-
denial and careful forethought and planning on the part
of the housekeeper, not only to pay their way when in
the fulness of youth, strength, and prosperity, but also
in times of sickness, loss of work, and old age. A com-
mon fault in expenditure is that too much is spent on
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE 341
little things. Small expenses like small savings add up
considerably, and soon reach a goodly sum. Much money
is wasted in pennies spent on things which are not
wanted ; pennies which would pay the subscription of a
sick club, or serve some other useful purpose. One does
not realise how much is spent on trifles, and therefore as
a check an account should be kept. It is the duty of
every housekeeper to keep an account of the way in which
she spends the money. At the end of each week it
should be added up so as to show the amounts received,
paid, and saved. The items spent unnecessarily, and
those for which too high a price was paid, should be
marked as a guide for the future.
Proportion for various items. It is impossible to state
exactly how the weekly money ought to be divided amongst
the various expenses, as the cost of the items will differ in
accordance with the size and special requirements of the
family, and the prices of the district in which they live.
The following may be taken as a rough guide as to how
the income should be proportioned : rent and taxes, - .
Food and fuel, #. Clothing, 3 F . Education and
books, sV (rather less). Eepairs and cleaning materials,
^o (rather more). Eeserve fund, -^-.
Income and expenditure of town and country workmen,
These proportions must of necessity be altered according
as a man and his family live in the town or the country.
In town houses rent is high, and more fuel and light are
used ; but clothing and articles of food, with a few ex-
ceptions, are cheaper. Frequently a labourer in the
country grows his own vegetables, and this item is cut
out from his expenditure. The keeping of fowls, pigs, or
bees often gives small profits, and in agricultural dis-
tricts gleaning serves to lessen the amount of flour to be
bought, Wood for firing is gathered free of cost, or
342
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
bought for a mere nothing. On the other hand, a
labourer in the country has less wage than a worker in
town. The expenditure of the two (with wife and three
children) might be as follows :
ARTISAN. INCOME, 30s. WEEK
*. d.
Rent and taxes .... 56
Fuel 16
Food 14
Clothing 46
Education 06
Light, cleaning, repairs . 1
Reserve fund 30
30
LABOURER. INCOME, 16s. WEEK
X. nnns<'. <>r<-;iM B
3 66 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
shape shown in fig. 101. Some of them may be grown,
or cultivated as it is called, on nutrient jelly in a glass
tube, with such precautions that no other living thing is
present in the tube. If the pure germs are now injected
into the blood of a healthy animal, it will at once be at-
tacked with the same fever.
The observation shows that splenic fever is caused
by these peculiar germs, and that it is conveyed from
one animal to another by means of the germs.
Fevers regarded as a phase of germ life. These
diseases are more easily understood if we study them as
part of the natural history of germ life, rather than too
exclusively from our own point of view. From our side
an attack of small-pox is simply a disease, and is al-
together bad ; but looked at from the germ life point of
view, we are merely a suitable soil for the propagation of
a crop of small-pox germs. At the time of an epidemic
the seeds are floating about in the air, ready to grow if
only they can find a suitable soil to grow in. A man
breathes some into his lungs, and at once that suit.iMi-
soil is found. As germs they grow and flourish, passing
through their phases of life, and seeding again. But the
man suffers a serious illness whilst they are living in his
blood, and when their short life is over and he recovers,
he very often passes some of the seeds on to his neigh-
bours, in whom the same conditions ai*e repeated.
CHAPTER C
CONDITIONS OF GERM LIFE EFFECT OF ISOLATION AND
CLEANLINESS GERMS CARRIED IN AIR, WATER, AND
FOOD CONDITIONS INFLUENCING INFECTION
Conditions of germ life : effect of isolation : of dirt. The
cause of infectious diseases will now be understood. They
are due to germs whose natural home is in the living
CONDITION'S OF GERM LIFE 367
body. They evidently exist under two conditions : (1)
an active condition when inhabiting and flourishing in
the living body, that is, when causing an attack of fever ;
(2) a more or less passive state during their existence
outside the body. As regards this latter state, it is very
important to know where they live, and how long they
can survive. Many kinds of disease germs or their seed's
are certainly carried in the air, but they do not appear
to be carried far in this way. Typhus fever, for instance,
is terribly infectious in the dirty dens in which it thrives,
but cases have frequently been put in the well-ventilated
wards of a general hospital without showing any indica-
tion of spreading from bed to bed. Near contact with
the patient is always dangerous to those who have not
had the disease, but typhus germs seem rarely to be
carried through more than a few feet of pure air. In
the case of the other fevers also, though they often
spread from room to room in a house, and may be. sent
a thousand miles in a letter, a few yards of perfect isola-
tion seems to prevent them from being carried from one
place to another. But in the houses where the fever
originates and thrives, infection always hangs about for
a long time. Such places are in some way dirty, for
perfect cleanliness and plentiful fresh air banish infection.
There is something in close and dirty rooms, in badly
kept ash-pits and middens, in foul drains, and all other
filthy conditions which is especially congenial to germ
life not only to the germs of decomposition, which
find their natural home in filth, but also to their close
allies the disease germs, the seeds of which can ap-
parently remain in an active condition for an indefinite
length of time under such circumstances. These facts
must be remembered when we come to study the pre-
vention of infectious diseases.
B B 2
368 PAWS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Germs carried in water. In some cases the germs are
carried in water. This happens in typhoid fever, cholera,
and dysentery. In a case of typhoid fever the doctor
will tell you that you need not fear infection with reason-
able care and cleanliness. This is because typhoid is a
fever which attacks the bowels, and the germs are not
exhaled into the air but pass off with the motions, and
live in the drains. The germs of typhoid and cholera
are just as infectious as those of typhus and small-pox,
but the former are only infectious through the excretion^
of the bowels, and thus ought to be much more easily
avoided than the latter, in which the genus pass into the
air from the skin and lungs.
Infection in food and through wounds. Infectious
diseases are not often carried in food, because the heat
employed for cooking destroys any germs which may !>;
present in the raw substance. Epidemics have, however,
several times been traced to milk, especially of typhoid
fever, when the source has invariably been proved to be
due to the addition of impure water to the milk before
it was sold. Milk houses are now under special super-
vision, in order that the public may be safely guarded
in respect to this most important food for the young.
Some infectious diseases enter the body through
wounds. This is the case with blood-poisoning, erysipelas,
and some other foi ms of wound fever.
Conditions influencing infection : exhaustion : a previous
attack : vaccination. In order to take a fever it is not
only necessary that the germs should in some way Jind
ad mission into the body, but also that the body should
be in a condition favourable to their propagation. A
person may be exposed to infection from measles, for
instance, twenty times without taking it, and then suc-
cumb the twenty-first time. This usually cannot be
. DISEASES CAUSED BY GERMS 369
explained, but we know that slight causes, such as ex-
haustion from want of food or over-work, at the time
predispose the body to yield to the attack of infectious
germs ; and, no doubt, it is often a very little thing which
determines whether germs succeed or fail in inoculating
us. There is, however, one condition which definitely
protects the body from infection, and that is a previous
attack. Sometimes people have measles or scarlet fever
twice, or are supposed to have them twice ; but these
are exceptions. The rule, which is almost invariable, is
that one attack of any fever protects against a repetition
of the same illness. This is believed to be due to the
action of the germs upon the blood. The profound
change they work in it not only makes us ill at the time,
but makes our bodies more or less permanently unsuit-
able for the further propagation of the same class of
germs. This is a most important fact, and has been
taken advantage of in the attempts to prevent infectious
disease, as in the case of vaccination for small-pox, and
inoculation, or Pasteur's treatment for hydrophobia. In
either case the object is to bring about the protective
change without causing the disease, or at any rate only
a very mild and modified form of the disease.
CHAPTEK CI
THE DISEASES CAUSED BY GERMS
Germ diseases, The list of germ diseases includes a
number of illnesses in addition to the fevers. In the most
acute kinds, the germs find their way into the blood and in-
fect the whole system, as in the common fevers. In other
cases, their action may be entirely local, as, for example,
in a boil, which is due to a local crop of germs. These
local germ diseases afford no protection against future
37o PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
attacks. One boil, for instance, instead of preventing
others, usually produces them by inoculation.
The fevers. The first group of germ diseases com-
prises the fevers called scarlet fever, measles, small-pox,
( lii<-ken-pox, and typhus. These all run a definite course
FIG. 146.
1, the germs of cholera, fn.in a >tain on linen, inainiilinl 7oo < trookghank) : 3, germs of typhoid fever in a
preparation of diseu.-ed tu.\v.-l. x 1,000 (A. Uarroii) ; 4, LHTIIIS of that needs attention. Unfortunately, the
symptoms vary very much, so that it
is often difficult to say what is the matter. Sometimes
the patient is deeply unconscious, sometimes only stupid ;
sometimes he is noisy as if in drink ; sometimes has fits, and
so on ; and there is often no mark whatever to be seen on
the head. If there is any reason to think that a person has
had a blow or fall on the head, and is in any way peculiar,
the safest plan is to regard the case as one of injury to the
brain, as it is much better to have taken perhaps unneces-
sary care of a drunken man, than to have harshly neglected
a pase of concussion of the brain.
Jaw. Of fractures of the bones of the face there is only
one that is usually of importance. This is fracture of the
SPRAINS, STRAINS, AND BRUISES 423
lower jaw. Immediate treatment is not very urgent ; but it is
as well to keep the jaw closed by passing a bandage or hand-
kerchief under it, and tying the ends on the top of the head
(fig. 162). Fractures of the nose or cheek do not require first
aid unless it may be that the bleeding in the former case re-
quires treatment.
CHAPTER CXV
SPRAINS, STRAINS, AND BRUISES BURNS AND SCALDS
Sprains, strains, and bruises. A sprain is a violent wrench
of the leaders and ligaments which surround a joint. A strain
is a similar condition applied to other parts, particularly the
muscles. Thus, a man is said to sprain his ankle or wrist,
but to strain his back or thigh. In either case some of the
tissues are overstretched or actually torn ; more or less blood
is effused and shows under the skin in bruise-like patches,
and some inflammation is set up. In a sprain the inflamma-
tion affects the joint and the neighbouring leaders, causing
swelling and stiffness. With rest the former generally sub-
sides soon, but the latter is often slow to go.
Treatment. The best treatment is first to bathe the part
in water as hot as it can be borne for half an hour or more,
and then to put on hot flannel or bran fomentations. The
hot applications should be continued for about twelve hours,
during which time the sprain may be bathed as often as the
patient likes. Then for a few days, whilst the limb is kept
perfectly at rest, the joint should be wrapped in cold water
bandages, or lead and opium lotion (Goulard water one pint,
laudanum one ounce). When the swelling has gone down,
which may happen in from a few days to two or three weeks,
the wet applications should be given up, and the part well
rubbed with some simple liniment, such as the soap liniment,
and the joint worked about.
Nearly all the stiffness and pain, which is so frequently
left after a sprain is due to the glueing together of the leaders
by the inflammation, a condition which is generally removed
by freely moving them. When the joint has been much
swollen, a bandage, or some similar support, should be worn
for a few weeks after beginning to use it again.
424 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
Bruises. Bruises which are unaccompanied by fracture
or internal injury are not serious. Cold water or lead and
opium lotion applied on lint, and kept in position with a ban-
dage, is all that is necessary.
Burns and scalds : causes. These injuries are, unfortu-
nately, of very common occurrence. They are most frequent in
women and children, owing to the inflammable nature of their
clothing. Men generally meet with such accidents at their
work, or as the result of drink. In the former a common
cause is that light cotton articles of clothing, such as night-
dresses, aprons, and pinafores, are drawn against the bars of
the fire by the draught up the chimney. Other causes are
various forms of carelessness with lighted matches, candles,
and paraffin lamps, upsetting pots and kettles of boiling
water, &c. In men, besides fire and hot water, molten metal,
boiling oil, and gunpowder are met with as causes, and very
severe burns they produce. In some places mothers are
foolish enough to allow the children to take a drink out of
the kettle-spout when it is full of cold water. It is easy to
see how this may occasionally lead to a terrible accident when
the mother's back is turned and the water happens to be
boiling ; an accident which is well known in the London
hospitals.
Degree of injury. Burns are met with in every degree,
from simple reddening of the skin to destruction of a limb ;
but the severity of the injury depends not only upon the depth
of a burn, but its extent. The greater the damage to the
nerves of the skin, the more intense will be the shock, even
although the skin itself is only partially destroyed. Scalding
water is not so severe as burning clothing, but hot metal and
oil are both very destructive.
To put out burning clothes. Burning accidents might
very frequently be prevented by the exercise of a little pre-
sence of mind. Some one is generally near when a child's or
a woman's clothing takes fire. The first flame is a small
one ; and if, instead of standing aghast, the burning spot
were seized and crumpled up in the hands, the catastrophe
would be averted. The person whose clothing is on fire
should be laid flat immediately, as flames spread upwards
with great rapidity. In a minute more the clothing is all in
flames, when the only thing that can be done is to cover the
BURNS AND SCALDS 425
person up with woollen things and roll her about, and so
smother and press out the flames. The woollen articles most
likely to be at hand are coats and shawls, hearthrug, carpet,
and blankets, any of which will do. Flames can be more
quickly smothered in this way than put out with water, unless
it happens to be possible to jump bodily into water. When
a woman is endeavouring to put out fire, she must take the
utmost precaution to prevent the flames touching her own
dress.
To go into a burning room. When a house is on fire, the
people in it may be killed in two ways : by burning, and by
suffocation with the fumes of combustion. If it is necessary
to go into a burning room, take the following precautions : If
possible, wear only woollen clothing. If none is to hand,
wrap the head and as much of the body as you can in a
blanket, preferably wet ; crawl quickly into the room, keeping
the head near the floor, as, if there is any fresh air, it is always
near the floor. If, at the last moment, you take several
rapid and deep inspirations, you may be able to hold your
breath long enough ; but if you must breathe in the room,
draw the breath through a comer of the wet blanket held
over the mouth arid nose, which will filter off the choking
particles in the smoke, or through a wet handkerchief stuffed
into the mouth. Wool, silk, and leather being animal sub-
stances burn with difficulty, and therefore protect the body
against fire ; and a wet woollen material is the best respirator
that can be extemporised at a moment's notice.
Treatment of burns and scalds. These cases call for
immediate help, both on account of the painful nature of the
injury and the severity of the shock. Get the patient into a
house as soon as possible, cut off the clothing, and dress the
burns at once. The object is to apply something soft and
soothing which will keep the air out and keep the part warm ;
for though the injury was caused by heat, the subsequent shock
is accompanied by the usual coldness of the surface. Strips
of cotton wadding, oiled on the side next the skin, make an
excellent dressing ; or, in the absence of wadding, oiled linen
will do. If these are not to hand, boiled starch is very
soothing and healing ; or even a simple dusting with flour
helps greatly to relieve the pain. The oil generally used is
called carron oil ; it consists of a mixture of equal parts of
426 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
linseed oil and lime-water. In the absence of this, linseed oil
alone, or olive oil, or vaseline will do. In hospitals some
disinfectant is generally used in the dressing, as parts of the
burnt skin die and become offensive. The best is eucalyptus
oil, which is used mixed with vaseline ; and when starch is
applied, boracic acid is added to it.
Course and results of burns. In addition to the dressings,
warm drinks and stimulants will be required to overcome the
shock in bad cases, and a few drops of laudanum are often
urgently needed to relieve the pain. Following the shock is
a stage of reaction, accompanied by fever, which lasts till all
the dead skin has separated and the sore become clean. Then
there is a prolonged period, during which healing is slowly
progressing, but in which an exhausting discharge is taking
place. Ultimately, if the case does well, the sores heal ; but,
unfortunately, this is rarely the end of the trouble ; for all
large scars gradually shrink and contract, and this con-
traction of the scars of burns is often the cause of distressing
deformities.
CHAPTER CXVI
FAINTING APOPLEXY EPILEPSY
Shock. Shock is a condition of nervous prostration
which accompanies all severe injuries. Any circumstance
which sufficiently depresses the power of the nervous centres
is felt throughout the whole body. When they fail, energy is
withdrawn from the vital organs ; their functions are reduced
to the lowest ebb, and life is almost suspended.
Symptoms. When suffering from severe shock, the
patient is partly or altogether insensible. He looks dull,
languid, and lifeless. The skin is very white, and feels cold
and clammy. The pulse is hardly or not at all perceptible.
The breathing is shallow and irregular. The muscular sys-
tem is almost paralysed. Indeed, every part of the body is
in a condition of complete prostration.
Reaction. Should the shock not be fatal, the vital organs
continue to struggle hard to maintain life, and as the brain
power gradually returns and energy is restored to them, they
begin to err on the side of doing too much. The patient now
rouses ; the stomach often vomits its contents ; the pulse
SHOCK: FAINTING: STROKE 427
becomes full and bounding ; the skin hot, dry, and flushed ;
the mind excited and perhaps delirious. This is the stage of
reaction. In weak, irritable, and excitable constitutions it
may be so excessive as to be fatal ; but in most cases reaction
is succeeded by sleep when danger, so far as shock is con-
cerned, is over.
Treatment of shock, In the first place, if bleeding is
going on, that should be stopped as quickly as possible. Then
the indications are to restore warmth and stimulate the vital
powers. With this object, give the patient a small dose of
brandy and water, and wrap him up with warm clothing.
Let him be removed and put to bed without delay, and when
there, put hot-water bottles or hot bricks wrapped in flannel
to his feet and sides, and cover him with a well-warmed
blanket. Do not give more than a wineglassful of brandy
in any case, and generally not so much ; for, whilst a little
does good, much does harm. If the patient swallows pretty
well, a small cup of some hot meat-essence, such as Liebig
or Bovril, is better than continuing alcoholic stimulants. If
he cannot swallow, you may try to restore him with smelling-
salts. When reaction sets in, the opposite conditions have to
be guarded against. The hot bottles should be removed, the
stimulants replaced by cooling drinks and sedatives, and sleep
in every way encouraged.
Fainting : symptoms and treatment. Fainting is recog-
nised by the ghastly pallor which precedes and accompanies
the attack of unconsciousness. There are no convulsions, as
in epilepsy, and no snoring breathing as in apoplexy, brain
injuries, drink, or poison. Life seems for the time to be
almost arrested.
A person about to faint is well aware of the fact, as the
period of unconsciousness is preceded by sensations of giddiness,
sinking, singing noises, flashing light, and other evidence of
disturbed circulation in the brain. The attack may at this
point generally be cut short if the person will at once lie down
flat on the back with the head low, which causes the blood to
return to the brain. If this cannot be done, stoop the head
as low as possible, use smelling-salts, and drink a little
cold water or some stimulant. Get away from the cause of
the upset as soon as you can, as fresh air is usually sufficient
to restore a person at once ; and remember that a mental
42 8 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
effort will often enable anyone subject to fainting to avoid the
actual attack.
A person in a dead faint is perfectly unconscious and en-
tirely dependent upon the assistance of others. In such a
case carry the patient with the head low into a cool room or
the fresh air. Open the clothing at the neck, and dash a
little cold water over the face. Use smelling-salts, and give
a little cold water or stimulant as consciousness returns.
Particularly remember that in a dead faint the head should
never be raised, but that, if necessary, the head should be
lowered and the feet raised.
Apoplexy, or stroke. Apoplexy is a form of internal
bleeding. It is due to a diseased blood vessel in the head
giving way and bleeding into the brain. The symptoms are
not caused by loss of blood, for there is not room in the head
for much blood to escape, but to the injury of the brain, due
to pressure and tearing of the delicate tissue by the effused
blood.
Symptoms. People who are attacked with such an illness
are generally upwards of fifty years of age, and more often
than not have partaken too freely of either drink or animal
food. The attack resembles a fit in suddenly rendering a
patient unconscious, but it is not accompanied with convulsions,
and recovery is at the best slow and imperfect. It may come
on either during sleep, or when the person is walking about.
If, under the latter circumstances, he falls and is unconscious,
with deep snoring breathing and a congested face. When
you come to examine him you find that one side of the body
is paralysed and motionless, and this more than anything else
guides you as to the nature of the complaint.
People sometimes die from a stroke within an hour or
two, but this is not often the case; even very bad cases usually
last longer. In the majority, after a few hours the patient is
sick, and then begins slowly to recover consciousness, when
it is more plainly seen that he is paralysed on one side. In
course of time he may be able to get about again, but rarely
recovers full use in the paralysed limbs.
Treatment. Having made up your mind that a person is
Buffering from a stroke, remember that the cause is bleeding
into the brain, and that the sooner it is stopped the less
mischief will result. At once loosen the clothing about the
FITS 429
throat, and put the head into a position in which the breathing
seems easy. Then let him be carried home flat on some kind
of stretcher, and put to bed with the head a little raised.
Apply cold to the head and keep the room cool, dark, and
quiet. Avoid everything which might excite him, and es-
pecially give no stimulants, nor is it necessary to give nourish-
ment for at least some hours.
Fits or epilepsy. Epilepsy is the cause of true fits. In
such cases there is no diseased structure to be found in the
nervous system or elsewhere ; but, for some subtle reason, an
otherwise healthy brain is suddenly upset and the person falls
in a state of complete unconsciousness.
Nature of the attack. Fits occur in two forms : a minor
and a major. In the minor attacks there is only a momentary
unconsciousness, without convulsions. In the major the
patient after falling becomes stiff and rigid throughout the
body ; the colour of the face changes to be almost black, and
within half a minute the muscles are violently convulsed. A
fit lasts from three to five minutes, when the convulsions
cease and consciousness is regained. Shortly afterwards the
patient usually falls into a deep but natural sleep.
Accidents accompanying fits. The chief dangers of epi-
lepsy are lest the patient should sustain a serious injury owing
to the suddenness of the attack causing him to fall too near
a fire, or into water, or on to some hard substance. A lesser
danger is to bite the tongue severely. This is common, and
is shown by bloodstained froth issuing from the mouth.
Another accident is for false teeth to get dislodged and choke
the patient ; but, on the whole, it is marvellous how constantly
the subjects of epilepsy pass through life without any such
untoward accidents.
Cause of fits. The actual cause of epilepsy is unknown,
but the tendency to it is certainly frequently inherited. The
fits may be brought out by some comparatively trivial circum-
stance, such as a fright, excitement, worry, the irritation of
worms, &c., or they may follow an illness, or a blow on the
head. But a careful inquiry will often show that there has
been either brain disease or dipsomania irr the family.
Treatment. The immediate treatment consists in watch-
ing the patient through the attack, and preventing him during
his unconscious state from suffering any harm. The fit will
430 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOAfY
soon be over, so unless he is in a dangerous position you need
not move him. Loosen the clothing so that it may not impede
breathing, and try to put something like a cork or a piece of
firewood between his teeth to prevent him from biting his
tongue. Beyond this there is no occasion to do anything, as
there is no way of checking the duration or altering the
character of the attack. When a patient recovers from a
major attack, it is better that he should rest until he feels
restored ; but after a minor attack there is no exhaustion,
and neither the desire nor occasion to sleep.
CHAPTER CXVII
DBOWNING SUFFOCATION CHOKING
Drowning : cause of death. When anyone who is unable
to swim falls into deep water, he is very soon choked by the
water getting into his windpipe and lungs. Death from
drowning is brought about by suffocation, owing to the water
entering the lungs instead of air. The greater the struggle
for life made by a drowning person, the more water he draws
into his lungs, and the more difficult it is to restore him
when he is rescued. Experience has taught us that in the
case of those who faint and make little or no respiratory
effort after falling into the water, resuscitation is possible
after upwards of fifteen minutes' complete submersion ; whilst
with those who struggle hard, the chance is but a poor one
when the submersion has not reached half that time. Thus,
success or failure in treatment will always depend a good
deal upon the amount of water which has been drawn into
the lungs.
Treatment. Let no time be lost. Even seconds are
valuable. The treatment must be undertaken with coolness
and precision, and, unless the details are carried out carefully
and intelligently, no benefit is likely to be experienced.
Drain the water out of the body. (1) Drain the water
out of the body. Pull the coat off and roll it up. Turn the
body on its face, and put the coat under the chest and pit of
the stomach. Now press hard on the lower and back part of
the chest, so as to squeeze the water out of the lungs and
etomach. To do this, it is best alternately to squeeze hard
DROWNING
43'
and to relax ; when you squeeze, some of the water is forced
out ; and when you relax, a little air is probably drawn in by
the elastic recoil of the ribs. Having occupied one or two
minutes with this, clear the mouth out with your finger, and
turn the body on its back.
Restore breathing. (2) Perform artificial respiration.
Artificial respiration consists in producing movements in the
chest of an inanimate or dead body such as shall resemble
breathing ; that is, such as shall actually cause inspiration
and expiration. Natural inspiration is effected in two ways :
FIG. 163. Artificial Respiration Movement of Inspiration.
by the descent of the diaphragm, and by the ascent of the
ribs. Over the former we have no control, but we can make
the ribs rise by pulling on the muscles attached to them.
Natural expiration is effected by the elastic recoil of the ribs
and lungs. This is not a vital act, and will take place just
as well after death as during life. Artificial respiration,
therefore, consists in pulling up the ribs, and letting, or help-
ing them, to fall back again. Now the muscles of the chest
are attached to the ribs below and the arms above ; con-
sequently, if you pull up the arms as high above the head as
FF 2
432
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
you can get them, you pull up the ribs at the same time, and
when you let the arms down, you let the ribs down also.
Process of artificial respiration. To perform artificial
respiration, stand behind the patient's head, as in fig. 163.
Grasp the arms above the elbows, and steadily and firmly
pull them up above the head, having it in your mind that
you are trying to pull up the ribs, expand the chest, and get
the air into the lungs. Take time over it, as you would in
taking in a good breath yourself. Then quickly lower the
arms, as in fig. 164, and squeeze them against the chest to
^
FIG. 164. Artificial Inspiration Movement of Expiration.
help the expiration as much as possible. Repeat these move-
ments not more than sixteen times in a minute. If you
make the movements properly, air should be heard to enter
and leave through the mouth or nose. If none enters on
pulling the arms up, it is probably because the tongue has
fallen back and blocked the throat. Under these circum-
stances, an assistant should grasp the tongue with the help
of a pocket handkerchief and hold it forwards. Unless you
hear the air enter, you have no evidence that you are doing
any good ; if you do hear it, you may rest assured that you
are doing all that can be done at the time.
SUFFOCATION 433
Should you not have succeeded in restoring natural
breathing within an hour, the case is hopeless, for the person
is certainly dead. But if you are more fortunate, you will
find that after a time a gasp is made, and then another, and
later on natural breathing is resumed. As soon as you are
satisfied on this point, turn your attention to the next.
Warmth and stimulants. (3) Restore warmth, help the
circulation, and maintain the strength. Get off the remainder
of the wet things, and wrap the patient in warm clothes or
blankets, and use hot- water bottles or hot bricks if you can
get them. To restore warmth is of vital importance. It is a
matter of life and death ; so, in the absence of any other source
of heat, that which may be derived from a warm and healthy
human body should be utilised.
Rub the limbs and body with warm flannel to improve
the circulation, and give a little stimulant as soon as the
patient can swallow. Later on, follow this up with some hot
broth, and keep the patient in bed warmly wrapped up and
well watched lest there should be a relapse.
Inflammation of the lungs. \Vhen all the immediate
danger has been overcome, there is, unfortunately, a pro-
bability that the chill will be followed by some internal
inflammation, especially of the lungs, owing to the fact that
cold water has been in actual contact with their delicate
tissue. In all cases of partial drowning there is cause for
great care and anxiety for at least two days after the accident.
Suffocation. There are many ways of getting suffocated
besides that just described, but the treatment in all is on the
same general lines. First remove the cause ; then perform
artificial respiration ; and when natural breathing is esta-
blished, restore warmth, circulation, and strength.
Choking. When any foreign substances, such as food,
buttons, coins, &c., get into or across the top of the windpipe,
the person is choked. This accident is more common in
children than in adults. It is due to a sudden inspiration
whilst the foreign body is loosely held in the mouth.
Treatment for bodies in the windpipe and throat. When
the body passes between the vocal cords into the windpipe, it
is practically shut up there, for the vocal cords generally
prevent it from getting out again. The accident is recognised
by the suddenness of the attack of fearful spasmodic coughing,
434 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
in which the child is nearly choked. Occasionally the body
may be expelled in this way, especially with the help of a few
smart pats on the back. If so, all is well ; but usually,
when thoroughly exhausted, the coughing subsides, and there
is an interval before another paroxysm comes on. Unless the
danger is very pressing, it is better only to try and soothe
the child until a doctor can be obtained with the necessary
instruments to give it relief ; but if the choking seems likely to
be fatal, it should be suspended by the heels, when the body
may drop out. The only reason why this should not always
be done at onco is that it is pretty sure to cause a spasm
which, in the absence of the instruments, may be fatal.
When the foreign body sticks at the top of the windpipe,
it may block it altogether or only partially block it. In this
position you can do no harm by trying your utmost to dislodge
it ; therefore, in large foreign bodies, or in any which act by
impeding the breathing without causing paroxysms of cough-
ing, at once put your finger down the throat. If you cannot
touch it you may excite vomiting, and the act of vomiting
will often dislodge a foreign body. Failing this, invert the
person that is, hold him head downwards and give him
some smart pats on the back.
When the body is large enough to be arrested at the back
of the throat, it can be reached with a finger, and with pluck
and perseverance may generally be either hooked out or pushed
aside.
In such cases as these never give in. You may fail up to
the moment of death, and then, owing to the stillness and
relaxation of the parts, you may be able to get it out. If you
get it out within one or two minutes after apparent death,
you ought to succeed in resuscitating the patient by artificial
respiration.
CHAPTER CXVIII
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE ALIMENTARY CANAL -IN THE NOSE,
EAR, AND EYE BITES AND STINGS POISONS
Foreign bodies in the alimentary canal. These are,
fortunately, much less urgent and dangerous than cases of
foreign bodies in the wdndpipe. One of the chief marvels hi
the mechanism of the human body is the extraordinary way
FOREIGN BODIES 435
in which the folds and turns of the alimentary canal accom-
modate themselves to the passage of foreign bodies. Coins,
stones, pins, and various small articles are frequently swallowed
and passed again with safety. Even things like large plates
of artificial teeth, clasp knives, long iron nails, shawl-pins, &c.
(fig. 165), have been naturally passed a few days after being
swallowed ; but if they catch and stick anywhere, the case
is almost certainly fatal without a successful operation is
performed.
Treatment. Never give an emetic or purge to get rid of
a foreign body in the stomach or bowels. The proper treat-
FIG. 165.
1, a tooth-plate removed from the gullet by operation ; 2, a shawl-pin passed by
" the bowels three days after it was swallowed ; 3, a sovereign eleven years in the
alimentary canal.
ment is based on quite opposite lines. Put the person to bed
and give a full diet of solid farinaceous food, like suet pudding,
boiled bread, &c. This makes large motions, in which the
body may be safely passed without injuring the tissues of the
bowels.
Foreign bodies in the nose, ear, and eye : treatment.
Children will sometimes slip round smooth things into the
ear or nose. The articles are usually pebbles, glass beads,
436 PAWS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
peas, or pips. The foreign bodies themselves never do any
immediate harm, but rough and unskilful attempts at removing
them has often done very serious harm. Never poke at them
with a hairpin or any similar instrument, especially in the
ear. This is dangerous, and will only succeed in pushing
them further in. The only plan which ought to be attempted
by untrained hands is to try and wash the body out by
syringing with warm water.
Particles of grit frequently get into the eye and cause
considerable pain. In most instances they are naturally
washed out by a flow of tears, and the winking movements of
the eyelids. When this is not the case, the body should be
looked for, and if seen, gently removed with the softest suit-
able thing at hand. The corner of a pocket handkerchief is
generally used, but a small camel-hair brush is much better.
If you cannot see it bathe the eye in warm water, and then, if
the pain continues severe, drop in a little pure olive oil to
shield and soothe it until the doctor comes.
When anything of a caustic nature, like lime, gets into the
eye, adopt the same treatment, namely, bathing and olive oil.
Bites and stings : treatment. The worst injury of this kind
that we meet with in England is the bite of a mad dog, except
in the rare case of a bite from an imported poisonous snake.
In all bites of a poisonous nature the general treatment is
the same. Tie something tightly round the limb above the
wound to stop the circulation, and then try and suck the
poison out of it. The risk in doing this appears to be very
slight, as what is sucked out of the wound is of course ex-
pectorated ; and, even if a little went into the stomach, it
would probably be destroyed by the gastric juice. Poisons of
this class are only powerful when they are directly introduced
into the blood through a wound. Having sucked out as much
poison as possible, what may be left behind should be de-
stroyed by cauterising the wound ; but as this can only be
safely done by a doctor, the best substitute is to thoroughly
rub strong Condy's fluid into every scratch. In bites of
poisonous snakes in India, the injection of Condy's fluid into
the tissues about the wound with a needle-pointed syringe
has been found the most efficacious treatment.
In all cases of bite by a mad dog the patient should be
subsequently submitted to Pasteur's treatment for hydro-
phobia.
SITES, STINGS, AND POISONS 437
The English viper has a very venomous bite, which,
if treated as recommended above, will generally not be
dangerous.
The pain caused by the acrid stings and bites of insects is
best relieved by the immediate application of sal-volatile to
the part.
Poisons. Poisons are of many different kinds, and give
rise to a variety of symptoms which are often like those caused
by disease. Still the circumstances surrounding cases of
poisoning are such as do not often leave us in doubt as to the
cause of the malady. In suicide, the previous condition of the
patient, some strangeness of manner, accompanied with a
smell or appearance of poison about him, or a suspicious cup or
bottle, tell the tale. And in accident or homicide, the previous
good health, the suddenness of the attack after taking some-
thing, a peculiar flavour in the poisoned substance, the fact that
others who partook of the same thing are also ill, and other
similar points create suspicion, and generally lead on to in-
quiries which clear up the case.
Suicidal poisons. The most common suicidal poisons are :
carbolic acid, because it is often at hand ; laudanum, on
account of its narcotic properties ; prussic acid, for its rapidity ;
and various substances, such as mineral acids, alkalies, oxalic
acid, and various mineral salts, because they happen to be
used by the individual in his work and are constantly before
him.
Accidental and homicidal poisoning. Accidental poison-
ing may be due to the careless habit of leaving poisons like
carbolic acid about in cups, when they may be drunk in
mistake, especially by people who are partly intoxicated. Or
food may be poisonous, as is sometimes the case with mush-
rooms, bad meat, &c. Other forms of accidental poisoning
are copper from dirty copper cooking-vessels ; arsenic from wall-
papers ; lead from water or lead paint ; poisonous berries,
seeds and roots ; over-doses of medicines ; or giving lotion in-
stead of medicine, &c.
The favourite homicidal poison is arsenic.
Treatment of poisoning 1 . First aid is very valuable in
cases of poisoning, as without help the patient might be dead
or hopeless before the doctor could arrive ; but, unfortunately,
the first-aid pupil cannot make use of two of the most im-
portant details of treatment the stomach-pump and medicinal
438 PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
antidotes and therefore medical help should always be ob-
tained with all speed.
The first indication in nearly all cases is to induce rapid
vomiting, in order that the poison may be rejected before much
of it has been absorbed. The exceptions are those cases in
which the poison is of so corrosive a nature as to destroy the
coats of the stomach, and render that organ unable to bear
the strain of vomiting ; that is, in the case of poisons like the
mineral acids and alkalies. In all other cases it is a general
rule to make the patient vomit at once, as the success or
failure of treatment depends upon early vomiting. The best
emetic is twenty grains of sulphate of zinc dissolved in water ;
but as this is not usually at hand, a teaspoonful or more of
mustard in a tumbler of tepid water is what is generally used,
and answers very well. In the absence of this also, a finger
must be thrust down the patient's throat and kept there till
he vomits. Having emptied the stomach once, give plenty of
tepid water to drink and cause it to be vomited again.
When you are satisfied that the poison has been pretty
well cleared out, you must treat the symptoms which have
been caused by it. In the case of an irritant, the stomach
and bowels will be raw and irritable, so you must shield and
soothe them by causing the patient to swallow some olive oil,
white of egg, or flour and water. In the case of a narcotic,
you should give some strong coffee, to rouse the patient ; and
in the case of a corrosive, you should treat him as one of
shock from internal injury.
Alcoholic poisoning, Alcohol sometimes acts as a danger-
ous poison in those who are unaccustomed to it, or in those
who have taken an excessive quantity. Whenever a person
who is, or is supposed to be, under the influence of alcohol
cannot be roused, he should be treated as a serious case. It
may be that the symptoms are all due to drink, or they may
be partly due to a stroke or an injury, the result of drink
previously taken. Serious mistakes which have resulted in
loss of life have been made by doctors as well as others under
such circumstances ; so act on the safe side, and treat care-
fully every person apparently drunk and smelling of drink if
he is unconscious. If drink is the cause, nature's treatment,
vomiting, is the best. See that the breathing is not impeded,
and that the body does not become chilled.
BANDAGING 439
CHAPTER CXIX
BANDAGING APPLICATION OF THE TKIANGULAB AND BOLLEE
BANDAGES
Bandaging: triangular and roller bandages. It is not
at all necessary for ambulance pupils to go through an
elaborate course of bandaging. What they require is to know
how to fix on a splint or a dressing with a reasonable degree
of security and comfort to the patient.
Calico, flannelette, and flannel are amongst the best
materials for bandages ; but, on emergencies, they must be
made from any material which is at hand. The shape is of
more importance : it must be either triangular or long and
narrow. The triangular bandage of Esmarch is shaped as in
fig. 166. The lower border be measures about 4 feet, and
the sides about 2 feet 10 inches. This is large enough for
FIG. 166. The Esmarch Triangular Bandage.
any part of the body, and may be divided through the centre
to make two smaller bandages, which would be suitable for
parts like the hand or foot. The St. John's Ambulance
Association sell for sixpence a triangular bandage illustrated
with figures to show the mode of applying it in various parts of
the body. The long and narrow bandage is torn from calico
and rolled up as tightly as possible for convenience of appli-
cation. It is called the roller bandage, and measures three
or four inches broad and six feet long.
The triangular bandage is the more useful for first-aid pur-
poses, as it can be more rapidly applied, and requires less
skill and training in its use.
440 PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMV
FIG. 167. Esmarch Bandage applied to the Head.
FIG. 168. Bandage for the Chest.
TRIANGULAR BANDAGE 441
To bind on splints. For this purpose the bandage is
folded, and then passed twice round the limb and splints, and
knotted as in figs. 157 and 158. The bandage should not be
fastened directly over the fracture, but above and below it,
and the knots should be tied over the splint so as not to
press upon the skin. The splints when fastened on should
feel quite firm and secure.
Head bandage. To retain a dressing on the head, lay
the bandage on the head with the point hanging down the
back of the neck, and the middle of the lower border placed
over the forehead. Carry the two ends round the back of the
head, cross them, bring them forward again, and tie them on
FIG. 169. Bandage for Hand. FIG. 170. -Bandage for Foot.
the forehead. Lastly,. turn the point up, and pin it on the
top of the head (fig. 167).
The chest. Lay the bandage on the chest with the point
over the sho alder on the bad side ; pass the ends round the
waist and tie them behind, and then draw the point down
and tie or pin it to one of the loose ends (fig. 168).
The shoulder or hip. The bandage is applied on exactly
the same principles, the ends being crossed and tied round
the limb, and the point pinned under a sling or a waistband
as the case may be (fig. 172).
The hand. Place the hand palm downwards on the open
bandage with the fingers towards the point ; turn the point
442
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
over the back of the hand ; cross the ends over it, and tie
them round the wrist (fig. 109).
The foot. Apply the bandage in the same way, except
that instead of tying the ends round the ankle, cross them
over the instep and tie under the sole (fig. 170).
The arm sling. "When a sling is required for injuries
of the hand, forearm, wrist, or elbow, the broad sling is used, in
FIG. 171. Esmarch Bandage forming Sling for the Arm.
order that the entire forearm and hand may be supported as in
a kind of cradle (fig. 171). It is applied as follows : One end
is laid over the shoulder on the uninjured side; then the arm
i; b.'iit, the other end brought up in front of it, and carried
ovor the shoulder on the injured side, and the two are
knotted. The first end should be taken further over the
shoulder than the second for two reasons. One is that the
knot will come on the sise of the neck, where it is less likely
TRIANGULAR BANDAGE 443
to hurt than at the back ; and the other is that the point will
be above the elbow, and can be brought forward and pinned
in such a way as to support the elbow all round.
The narrow sling is used for fractures of the arm bone
and collar bone, in neither of which it is at all desirable to
raise or support the elbow. The bandage is folded and
applied as in fig. 172,
FIG. 172. Bandage for Injuries of Shoulder.
The roller bandage. When the fracture comes to be
permanently set, or daily dressings have to be applied, or a
gentle and even support is required for a limb, the roller
bandage is to be preferred before the triangular ; but more
skill and practice is needed for its application, and for first-
aid purposes it is not only unnecessary but not equal to the
latter.
444
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
When using the roller bandage, the chief point to observe
is that it must always be allowed to lie evenly on the skin,
and never be twisted or forced into the desired position. If
the part being bandaged is all about the same diameter, like
FIG. 173. Bandage for the Forearm. The reverse.
FIG. 174. - Bandaging Hand and Wrist. Figure-of-8.
the arm from the elbow to the shoulder, the roller is applied
in simple spiral turns. When, however, there are inequalities
to be got over, the bandage will not lie even and smooth
unless special turns are adopted. Of these there are two
ROLLER BANDAGE
445
kinds, the reverse and the figure-of-8. The reverse is used
when the size of the part is gradually increasing, as in the
case of the forearm or calf. The mode of making it is
shown in fig. 173, where each spiral turn as it comes to the
front is reversed, and then carried on round the limb. The
hgure-of-8 is employed when the inequality is too great to be
evenly covered by reverses ; as, for. ex-
ample, in carrying the bandage above
and below the wrist, ankle, hip, and
shoulder jo'mts. Under these circum-
stances, the spiral turns are wound
alternately round the part above and
the part below the joint in a figure-of 8
pattern, as in fig. 174.
Boiler bandages are always applied
from below upwards. The leg bandage
is commenced as a figure-of-8 round the
ankle, is continued in plain spiral turns
from the ankle to the calf, and the calf
is covered by reverses. The arm is ban-
daged in the same way, and if it is
continued up to the shoulder, the elbow
must be passed by figure-of-8 turns. When applied to the
head, the roller bandage should generally be put on in two
directions and pinned where they cross (fig. 175) ; this pre-
vents slipping. In a case of bleeding from a scalp wound,
this form of bandage makes more effectual pressure than the
triangular ; but on the limbs the triangular is quite as good.
FIG. 175. Bandage
for Head.
a G
INDEX
AER
AKRATED waters, 146
Air, 245
tests for purity of, 259
Alcohol, 147
Alcoholic poisoning, 438
Ale, 149
Alimentary canal, 12
principles, 78
Alpaca, 171
Ammonia, 251
Animal kingdom, 5
Animals used for food, 83
Annuities, 347
Apoplexy, 428
Apple, 120
Area, 227
Arnott's valve, 267
Arrowroot, 109
Arteries, 34
Artichoke, 116
Artificial respiration, 431
Ashpits, 321
Asparagus, 116
BACON, 88
Baked flour, 407
Banana, 120
Bandaging, 439
Barley, 106
- water, 409
Bath, 207
BRE
Bath room, 232
- Turkish, 210
vapour, 211
- waste, 327
Bathing, sea, 209
Beans, 112
Bed cradle, 401
Bedroom, 242
Beds, 244
Bedsores, 398
Beef, 86
juice, 408
- -tea, 126
Beetroot, 116
j Bell trap, 325
Benefit societies, 349
Beverages, 140
Bile, 26
Bites, 436
Bleeding, 410
I Blinds, 240
i Blood, 27
j Bodily heat, 162
: Boiling, 124
; Bones, 49
as food, 84
Boots, sanitary, 197
| Boracic acid, 393
Brain, 72
Bran, 103
Brandy, 151
1 Bread- making, 128
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
BRE
Brewing, 149
Bricks, porosity, 226
Bruises, 424
Building societies, 351
Bunions, 198
Burners, 298
Burnett's fluid, 393
Burns, 424
Butter, 97
CAFFEIN, 144
Camel hair, 171
Candle flame of, 293
Candles. 289
Carbohydrates, 79
Carbolic acid, 391
Carbonic acid gas, 249
Carpets, 235
Carrot, 116
Casein, 92
Cashmere, 171
Ceiling, 228
Celery, 116
Cereals, 101
Cesspools, 322
Changing sheets, 402
Charcoal, 277
Cheese, 97
Chest, 40
Chicken broth, 409
Chicory, 144
Chilblains, 198
Chocolate, 145
Choking, 433
Cider, 122
Cisterns, 306
Cleanliness, 202
Clinical thermometer 396
Clothing, 162
bed, 200
children's, 201
clubs, 353
healthy, 194
heavy, 192
infants', 201
natural, 184
night, 200
DRE
Clothing, unhealthy, 184
Coal, 275
gas, 292
tar, 292
Cocoa, 145
Coffee, 143
Coir, 174
Coke, 277
Cold applications, 403
Colza oil, 291
Combustion, 24S
Conduction of heat, 279
Condy's fluid, 392
Conservancy system, 321
Convection, 279
Cooking, 123
Co-operative stores, 352
Corns, 198
Cotton, 172
Cowls, 268
Cream, 92
Creamometer, 94
Cress, 117
Cucumber. 117
Curds and whey, 96
Currants, 120
Currents of air, 246
Curtains, 241
DAMP course, 226
Diaphragm, 40
Diet, mixed, 100
Diets, 153
Diffusion of gases, 252
Digestion, "2 .'
Digestive juices, 25
system, 12
Dipstone trap, 325
Dirt, 202
Disease, 354
germs, 365
prevention of, 357
Disinfectants, 390
Disinfection, 384
Distemper, 238
Dress-making, 183
materials, 166
INDEX
449
DRO
Drowning, 430
Dust, 254
EAR, 63
Egg-flip, 407
Eggs, 98
cooking, 127
preservation, 135
Emetics, 438
Epilepsy, 429
Esmarch's bandage, 439
tourniquet, 412
Eucalyptus, 392
Expenditure, 340
Expiration, 41
Extraction shafts, 269
Eye, 62
FAINTING, 427
Feathers, 169
Feeding the sick, 399
Fevers, 369
First aid, 410
Fish, 90
cooking, 126
preservation, 134
Fits, 429
Flax, 172
Floor boards, 228
spaces, 227
Floorcloth, 236
Floors treatment of, 233
Flour, 102
Fomentations, 405
Food, 78
animal, 83
for invalids, 405
preservation, 132
principles, 80
stuffs, 81
unwholesome, 136
uses, 78 .
vegetable, 99
Foot, Chinese, 189
Foreign bodies, 433
Fractures, 416
HOT
Fruit, 118
beverages, 122
bottling, 133
cooking, 129
dried, 121
preserves, 122
Frying, 125
Fuels, 275
Furs, 168
GALTON'S grate, 288
Game, 90
Games, 217
Garters, 190
Gas, 292
Gastric juice, 25
Germ diseases, 365
Germs, 255
Gin, 151
Gloves, 199
Grape, 119
Grass cloth, 174
Greens, 116
Grilling, 125
Gruel, 406
Gullet, 18
Gully-holes, 329
Gymnastics, 217
HEMORRHAGE, 410
Hair, care of, 212
Ham, 88
Hats, 199
Health, 1
Heart, 30
Heat, communication of, 279
Heating, 272
apparatus, 281
Hemp, 173
Hinckes Bird's ventilator, 266
Home nursing, 394
Home, the, 221
Hopper closet, 333
windows, 271
Horsehair, 169
Hot air, 288
450
PAULAS DOMESTIC ECONOMY
HOT
Hot pipas, 235
- -water apparatus, 313
House, aspect, 223
construction, 226
drain, 326
elevation, 225
situation .223
subsoil, 225
sunlight in the, 223
Human body, 5
work, 7
Hydrocarbons, 80
ILLUMINATION*, 293
Infection, prevention of, 373
Infectious diseases, 362
Inlets, 264
Inoculation, 376
Inspiration, 40
Intestine, 19
lodoforrn, 393
Isolation, 381
JOINTS, 53
Jute, 173
KII.NKYS, 45
Kitchen range, 281
Koumiss, 96, 406
LAMPS, 297
electric, 301
Lavatory, 330
Lead poisoning, 310
Leaders, 55
Leather, 166
Legumes, 110
Lemonade, 146 410
Lentils, 113
Lettuce, 117
Life insurance, 347
Lighting, 289
Lime -wash, 238
NUT
| Linen, 173
1 Liver, 22
I Long skirts, 191
Louvre ventilator, 266
Lungs, 38
MACARONI, 104
Maize, 107
Malt, 106
Margarine, 97
Mastication, 23
Mate, 143
McKinnell ventilator, 26$
Meat, 83
- decomposed, 137
diseased, 138
preservation, 131
Medicine, 400
Melon, 120
Midriff, 40
Milk, 92
preservation, 135
Mineral kingdom. .",
Mohair, 171
Moisture in air, 253
Money, 338
Motion, 7
Mouth, 13
Muscles, 55
Muscular action, 57
Mushroom, 117
Mustard, 117
poultice, 404
Mutton, 87
- -tea, 408
Ni i.vi:s, 75
Nervous system, 59
Night-clothes, 200
Nitrogen, 249
Nose, for breathing, 37
for scent, 67
Notification, 380
Nursing, 394
Nutrition, 6
INDEX
451
STO
OATMEAL, 105
Oats, 105
Onion, 117
Open grates, 281
Outdoor wraps, 199
Outlets, 267
Oxygen, 248
Oyster, 91
Ozone, 252
PAINT, 237
Pan closet, 331
Paperhanging, 239
Paraffin, 291
Parsnip, 116
Pear, 120
Peas, 112
Peat, 277
Penny banks, 346
Peptonised food, 406
Personal cleanliness, 202
Petroleum, 291
Physical exercise, 217
Pineapple, 120
Poisons, 437
Pork, 88
Potato, 114
sweet, 116
Poultices, 403
Poultry, 89
Provident dispensaries, 350
Pulses, 110
RADIATION, 279
Eadish, 116
Kain-water pipes, 329
Raspberry, 120
Recreation, 217
Respiration, 37
Revalenta Arabica, 407
Rhubarb, 118
Rice, 108
water, 409
Rigor mortis, 85
Roasting, 124
Roller bandage, 443
Roof, 227
Rum, 151
Rye, 107
SAGO, 110
Salivary glands, 17
Sanitas, 392
Sausages, 89
Savings bank, 344
Scalds, 424
Scraped beef, 409
Sea bathing, 209
Seakale, 116
Sensation, 7
Sewage, 335
farms, 337
Sheets, changing, 402
Shellfish, 91
Sherringham valve, 266
Shock, 426
Sickness, 354
Silk, 171
Sink waste, 325
Skeleton, 47
Skin, 44
chapped, 207
cleanliness, 204
Sleep, 218
Smoke, 278
Snow shoes, 199
Soap, 207
Soda-water, 146
Soil pipe, 335
Soup, 125
Spinach, 116
Spinal marrow, 72
Sprains, 423
Sports, 217
St. John's Ambulance Association,
410
Starch, 103
Steam pipes, 287
Stewing, 125
Stings, 436
Stomach, 19
Stone fruit, 120
Stout, 149
452
PAUL'S DOMESTIC ECONOMY
STO YAR
Stoves, 283
Vegetable marrow 117
Strains, 423
Vegetables, cooking, 127
Strawberry, 120
- fresh, 114
Stroke, 428'
- preservation, 135
Subsoil, 225
Veins, 34
Suffocation, 433
Ventilating systems, 279
Sugar of milk, 1)3
Ventilation, 257
Sunlight, value of, 223
- inlets, 264
Sweetbread, 22
natural, 2G3
juice, 26
outlets, 267
Syphon trap, 324
Vermicelli, 104
TAPIOCA, 110
Taste, 68
WAIST, 186
Tea, 141
Teeth, 14
Wall papers, 233
Walls, 226
- care of, 212
Temperance, 148
drinks, 146
Tendons, 55
Thein, 142
treatment of, 237
Washing, 206
the sick, 397
Wash-out closet. 333
Waste matters, 43, 313
Theobromine, 145
Thrift, 344
Tight lacing, 186
skirts, 191
pipes, 326
Water, 140
-carriage system, H23
impure, 309
sleeves, 191
Tobin's tube, 265
Tomato, 117
Tongue, 13
Touch, 71
Trade unions, 353
purification, 310
supply, 302
Watercress, 117
Waterproof cloth, 181
Weak back, 192
Wheat, 101
Traps, 324
Triangular bandage, 439
Turkish bath, 210
Turnip, 116
Whey, 406
Whisky, 151
Whitewash, 238
Wholemeal, 102
Windows, 228
UREA, 45
Urine, 45
treatment of, 210
Windpipe, 37
Wine, 150
VACCINATION, 378
Wood, 277
Valve closet, 332
Vapour bath, 211
Veal, 86
Wool, 170
Woollen underwear, 193
Work and rest, 213
tea, 408
Vegetable kingdom, 5 YAM, 116
food, 99 Yard gullies, 329
'r inters, Xrtc-streel Squ< re, London.
SP 1 1978
BEa CIR. N6 14*78
418543
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY