THE SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE TO METHODS OF TEACHING AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT BY E. V. DE GRAFF, A. M. Conductor of Teachers' Institutes One Hundred. Twenty- Seventh Edition, with Index SYRACUSE, N. Y. C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 1904 Copyright, 1877, 1884, by E. V. De Graff ; 1890, 1894, by C. W. Bardeen PREFACE TO THE 111TH EDITION For the fifth time an entirely new set of plates has been made for this volume. The advantage of such large sale as to make this possible is nowhere more mani- fest than in a book of methods. Whatever it may have been in the past, the teaching of to-day is progressive, and the methods of 1877 are not altogether the methods of 1894. Particularly in Drawing and in Penmanship has such advance been made that it seemed necessary to have those chapters entirely rewritten. Of the new chapters it need only be said that they have been pre- pared respectively by Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks of Boston ; and by Charles E. Wells, author of the Movement Method of Penmanship. We have also substituted for the Geography of North America prepared by Mr. DeGraff an entirely new chapter, condensed from the admirable works of Prof. Meiklejohn, and in accord with the most approved modern method of teaching. Except in these three chapters, the changes are mainly of arrangement. The book was originally made up of the author's notes as an institute conductor, and hence contained many repetitions. In this edition all that was anywhere said on a particular topic has been (iii) 359981 IV PREFACE brought together, and by the insertion of topical side lines has been made easy of reference. But as a whole the book is still as the author origin- ally wrote it. What there is in Prof. De Graffs method of presentation that so reaches and holds the young teacher, it might be hard to say ; but he has never had his equal as an institute instructor in the inspiration he gave ; and superintendents everywhere agree that where other books are bought and put away, the " School Boom Guide"' is bought and kept on the desk, for daily use. There is probably not a county in the United States where this book is not known and valued. In this new edition, the responsibility for which has through the death of the author fallen upon the publisher, the latter hopes that all the features that were most worthy have been retained, while the additions and changes will make it still more available in the school-room. SYRACUSE, March 27, 1894. E. V. DE GRAFF. CONTENTS READING _ 9 I. METHODS _. 9 ABC Method _ 9 Drawing Method 10 Word-Building Method 11 Phonic Method __ 11 Phonetic Method _ 13 Phonotypic Method _ 13 Look-and-Say Method __ 14 Object Method _. __ 15 Word Method 16 Sentence Method _ 21 II. PRIMARY READING. _ 22 III. INTERMEDIATE READING 30 PHONICS 42 SPELLING..., _ ._ 45 Oral Spelling... _ 47 Written Spelling _ 50 Methods 53 Exercises in Orthoepy _ _ 59 PENMANSHIP (25 Illustrations) _ . 62 I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES __ 62 II. PRACTICAL EXERCISES __ _ 69 FORM STUDY AND DRAWING (27 Illustrations) 107 I. COURSE FOR PRIMARY GRADES 108 Color in Primary Grades 132 II. COURSE FOR INTERMEDIATE AND GRAMMAR GRADES. -.141 LANGUAGE (4 Illustrations) 147 Objects as Wholes .-149 Parts of Objects ._ 151 (v) VI CONTENTS "Words as Objects of Observation 153 Illustrated Compositions 156 Comparison of Objects 158 Lesson on General Terms 161 The Parts of Speech 163 Suggestive Abstracts 174 Synonyms _ __ 179 Mistakes and Vulgarisms 180 Topics for Brief Talks 183 Questions for Debate 184 Subjects for Compositions _ - 185 GRAMMAR 188 LETTER- WRITING (1 Illustration) 201 Importance of Letter- Writing 201 Startling Statistics as to Dead Letters 202 I. MECHANICAL STRUCTURE 203 First Attempts 203 Materials 204 The Heading .205 Models _ 206 The Introduction 207 Name and Title 208 Salutation 210 In Writing to Women 213 Models _ _ ..215 The Body of the Letter _216 Where Begun 216 Paragraphing _ _ 216 The Co nclusion 217 Signature 218 Women's Signatures 218 Models - -.218 Folding ~ -.219 Superscription _ __ -- 221 Models --- 222 Topical Review _ 223 Specific Hints 224 CONTENTS Vll A Postal-Card from Miss Peabody 225 II. THE STYLE OF THE LETTER 227 Bryant's Advice _ 228 III. SUBSTANCE OF THE LETTER. 229 What to write 230 When to write _ _ _ 231 When to delay ..232 Bitter Words __ _ 233 ARITHMETIC (2 Illustrations) __235 I. THE FUNDAMENTAL RULES 236 II. FRACTIONS 259 III. GENERAL REMARKS. 268 GEOGRAPHY (2 Illustrations).. ....272 I. FIRST STEPS _ 272; II. ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY 283: Study of North America 285 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY (1 Illustration) 301 I. ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE 301 II. THE GENERAL LAW 304 III. MODIFICATIONS 306 HISTORY.. ...320 OBJECT LESSONS _ 327 I. WITHOUT APPARATUS 330 II. WITH APPARATUS 341 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT _ _.34& I. ORGANIZATION 346 The First Day 347 New York Course of Study for District Schools 350 II. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. _ .355 The First Requisite. ._ ..355 Do not Anticipate Offences 356 A Cheerful School 357 Corporal Punishment. ._ _ 358 Elements of the True Teacher 361 Hints on the Correction of Special Offences .362 Communication .. 363, Vlll CONTENTS Loud Study _ _._ 363 Laughing 363 Moving Noisily _ 363 Questions during Recitation 363 Writing Notes _ _ _ .363 Uncleanliness _ _864 Disorder 364 Tattling 364 Quarrelling _ __ __364 Untruthf ulness ._ _ _ .364 III. CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS _ _ 365 General Suggestions. ._ _ 366 Dr. Harris's Description of a Lifeless School __373 Methods of Instruction _ __ _ .377 Text-Book 377 Oral 379 The Two Combined i 379 Socratic _ 381 Topical... ..381 Discussion 382 Lecture _ 383 Laws of Questioning 385 Special Hints to Young Teachers 387 A WORD IX CONCLUSION 392 To Superintendents ._ _ 392 To Teachers.. ..393 READING I. METHOD OP BEGINNING That teachers may distinguish good methods we begin with descriptions of several of those most in Methods of use. Some are old, long, unnatural and reading, tedious, affording little but monotony to stimulate the child's desire to learn. Others are shorter, but none the less unnatural and arbitrary. Some are unphiloso- phical, and leave no cause for surprise that so many children flounder at the very threshold of knowledge, the very place that should be made most attractive. We mention : 1. The A b c or Alphabetic Method. 2. The Drawing Method. 3. The Word-building Method. 4. The Phonic Method. 5. The Phonetic Method. 6. The Phonotypic Method. 7. The Look-and-say Method. 8. The Object Method. 9. The Word Method. 10. The Sentence Method. THE ALPHABET, OR A B METHOD The children by this method, are taught the names of the letters, and they begin to spell words at first. This attempts learning to read by learning to spell. Spelling may be learned through reading, but reading (9) 10 through spelling NEVER. The attempt to combine two things in one lesson, by diverting the learner's attention, interferes with his progress in recognizing the words. This method was universally used years ago, and even now is used in many of the ungraded schools. In the best schools, the alphabetic method is superseded by some of the modern ways. It is an imperfect method in that the letters do not guide to the pronunciation of the word. Take the word mat ; by the same method, the name of the first letter is em ; the second letter is a, and the third tee ; pronounced em a tee ; by the phonic it becomes mat. This method produces halting, stumbling readers ; it lays the foundation for mechanical, unintelligible read- ing, and is now abandoned by all good teachers. THE DRAWING METHOD The Drawing Method teaches the child first to draw the letter, and then learn its name. Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, seeks its gratification in finding new forms, this method of drawing can be used as a means of training his eye to quickness and accuracy of observation. Lessons should be given upon straight, curved and crooked lines, that the children may know what is meant by the terms used. By actually drawing and naming the parts of a letter its form and name as a whole may be easily impressed on the memory of the pupil. In this manner the learn- ing of the alphabet, instead of being a spiritless task, as it has too often proved, is attractive to the child THE PHOKIC METHOD 11 and becomes a valuable aid in cultivating the sense of sight. THE WoKD-BuiLDi^G METHOD The plan here is to begin with words of one letter as A, I, 0, and gradually form new, words by prefixing or affixing single letters. The child is taught to pronounce first the word, then the letters that form it. Separate letters of the alphabet, and spelling, are taught by asking questions similar to the following : e( What letter is placed after a to form an?" 66 What after an to form and?" {f What before and to form land?" THE PHONIC METHOD Every intelligent mind will welcome any means by which loose and bad habits of enunciation may be cast off, and correct ones formed in their stead. Children who have been taught and accustomed to sayjudgmunt for judgment, read'n for reading, an for and, muss for must, parent for pdrent, pass for pass, will not be likely, by a single effort, to set their speech right. By well directed and persevering effort they can do it ; with proper guidance and encouragement they will do it. A thorough knowledge of the elementary sounds is essential to success in the Phonic Method. It must be made a careful study and the teacher should master it. The Phonic Method consists in making the learner acquainted with the powers of the letters, so that when words are before him, he may, by uttering the sound of each letter in succession, construct for himself the sound of the word. Such a method, says John Gill, of 12 the Normal College, Cheltenham, it is impossible to have in a language like the English. A purely phonic method is possible only where the numbers of letters and elementary sounds correspond, where the same letter always represents the same sound, and where, in the spelling of words, the numbers of letters and of sounds agree. But these conditions in English are impossible. The letters give but five-eighths of the elementary sounds ; one letter often represents two or more sounds ; some sounds are represented by more than one letter, and often letters are found not sounded at all. The principal advantage of this method is, that it puts into the hands of the children a key by which they may be able to help themselves. The elementary sounds must be known before the child can take a single step in advance, except as he is assisted by the teacher. Another advantage is that it teaches the children from the beginning to enunciate distinctly ; many other advantages are gained by combining the Word and Phonic Methods. Letters are elements of the forms of words ; simple sounds are the elements of the sounds of words ; neither of these elements are units in language. The child must know the sounds and the names of the letters ; through these aids he may be able to help himself. This process, however, is not adapted to the child, until it has learned some words as wholes, as units of language, as the representations of thoughts. The best results have been gained by primary teachers in using the Phonic Method as an auxiliary to the Word Method, but not as a substitute for it. The word must be the unit of thought ; it is the natural way to THE PHONOTYPIC METHOD 13 begin with the units of language, which are words. Language deals with thoughts ; words are symbols of thought. With all plans that have been considered, let the teacher bear in mind that children can never learn to read with any degree of ease until they are able to call instantly the words in the sentence without stopping to analyze them. By the method suggested, children are enabled to read with more interest and expression in a far shorter time than by the plans heretofore generally pursued. THE PHONETIC METHOD The Phonic and Phonetic Methods are distinct ; the phonetic method provides signs to represent all the sounds of the language, using the common letters each to denote but one sound of that letter, and providing slight modifications of these letters to denote other sounds. This method is used with success in those schools provided with Leigh's Phonetic Eeader. THE PHOKOTYPIC METHOD This is another form of the Phonic Method, providing a character or letter for each sound in the language. The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters in place of twenty-six. There are those who claim that pupils will learn both methods, and become able to read better thereby in a given time, than they usually do when taught entirely from the common print. This method may be used with success ; but, as the schools are not provided with books on the Phonotypic plan, we will not enlarge upon it. 14 BEADIKG THE LOOK-AND-SAY METHOD By this method after the children have mastered the alphabet, all words are read without spelling. Attention is directed to each word as a whole, and its sound associated with it as a whole. In no case is the learner allowed to spell a word that he may afterwards recognize and pronounce it. The following advantages are claimed in favor of this method : First. For mastering the word by the eye. Second. For recognizing the word in the sign, and for acquiring practical acquaintance with the number of letters and syllables. Third. For suitability to the circumstances of com- mon schools. The above reasons must commend this method to many teachers who have not received special training. It best meets the requirements of class instruction. In the class, the aim is to bring out the energies of all. This is done through emulation and self-respect. Now when spelling is permitted, a child has little in- ducement to exert himself to retain a word once seen ; but let spelling be forbidden, let the remembrance of the word be thrown on the eye, and emulation will stimulate some to retain it, and to give it when called upon ; and self-respect will be appealed to in the others, not to require always to be told by a sharper companion. It is a method which requires no special preparation like the phonic, and therefore may be entrusted to an inexperienced teacher, THE OBJECT METHOD 15 THE OBJECT METHOD The children's attention is first directed to some object with which they are familiar by sight, name and use. The teacher shows the object to the children, and the name is given by the children. If they cannot give the name, the teacher tells them. The teacher presents a picture of the object, or makes a drawing of it upon the board ; then the name is plainly written under the drawing. The pupils are now taught to distinguish from one another the object, the picture of it, and the work representing it. The following order should be observed in teaching beginners to read by the Object Method, as steps in used by N. A. Calkins, Assistant Superin- Method, tendent of Schools in New York city. First Step. Teach whole words by sight that are already known by hearing, as signs of objects, qualities, and actions. Second Step. Teach the analysis of the word by its elementary sounds. Third "Step. Teach the analysis of the word by the names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. Fourth Step. Require the pupils to pronounce the word ; sound it ; spell it. Fifth Step. Group words into phrases and sentences. The children will learn new words by comparing the known words with the unknown. 16 READING THE WORD METHOD Directions 1. Call the attention of the children to some object. 2. Ask questions about the object. 3. Talk to the children about the object. 4. Ask the children to give the name of the object. 5. Show a picture of the object. 6. Make a drawing on the board of the object. 7. Print and write the word on the board. 8. Let the pupils copy the word on their slates. 9. Group words into phrases. 10. Group words into sentences. 11. After the pupils learn one sentence, use the words in making other sentences. 12. Select words that are the names of familiar objects. Cautions 1. Present only two or three new words for each lesson. 2. Teach the children to recognize words as signs of ideas. 3. At first give no attention to elements of which words are composed, as the elementary sounds, and letters. 4. Attempt no spelling of any of the words. Results 1. Knowledge. 2. Naturalness of expression. 3. Fluency. THE WOKD METHOD 17 In the earliest stages of the course, teaching precedes Remarks. learning ; the child's steps are guided and upheld by the teacher ; his way is made clear for him, and his difficulties are anticipated. It is essential that the child shall have a liking for the work in which he is engaged. It is the spirit of the teacher rather than his methods that ensures success in teaching little ones to read. In the word method, we begin by teaching words, leading the children to recognize them as wholes. This method is now used extensively ; it was the method used by the race in developing the language. Nature is the guide of both parents and children. There is a fitness in nature's means that secures in the most simple way the most desirable ends. We have become arti- ficial, mechanical in teaching ; we need to retrace our steps and imitate nature's process. Nature begins with objects the idea first, its signs second, and the ability to represent the idea Follow by its signs third the natural order of learn- plan, ing language, and the natural order of using it, are made to correspond. The word soon becomes familiar to the child. It is the object of thought. The word method begins with words, not with letters. In the word "hat" it does not teach first the letters h, a, t, and say " hat " ; but it takes the word and calls it "hat", without any reference to the fact that the printed word is made up of letters. The thing before the sign is the rule in teaching. w c^ds that are not signs of things can be The thing illustrated by examples : for instance, white, sign. re by showing the color ; runs, by showing the act; on by 18 HEADING showing the position, etc. By this method it will take no more time to teach the word, its elementary sounds, letters and spelling, than the letters alone by the old way of teaching the letters first. Let the teacher aim to get the children to talk freely. Hints. If possible, present a real object to the class : a picture, or a drawing. Ask questions to draw out what the children know of the object. You now have excited an interest ; show the class the word ; write or print the word under the drawing ; tell the children that the word is a picture of the real object ; require the children to pronounce it several times ; print the word in several places on the board ; and require the children to pronounce it in concert. In like manner teach quality words, for example, " red " ; show an object which is red, and print on the board the words, "a red cup", and request pupils to read the phrase. That the plan of teaching children to read by the word method may be made more clearly understood and readily applied, the following directions are given : Let the teacher begin by a familiar conversation with HOW to the children about some object. It is of lit- begin. ^ e importance what words are taught first, if the words are short ones and familiar to the children by use in conversation, and if the objects which the words represent and the pictures can be readily shown. The purpose of the talk and questions should be to put the child in conscious possession of a knowledge of the thing, or of what the word represents. "When the child has this knowledge, and not before, the teacher may show him the sign, i. e., the word. WORDS THE OBJECT OF THOUGHT 19 As soon as the word is presented the child should print it on the slate. A little practice will enable the child to print it rapidly. The printing will fix the word in the mind. In many schools the children are taught from the first to write the word ; not permitted to print it, for the reason that in after life we use script, not the printed forms. If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, daily lessons in writing, they will soon be able to copy the sentence from the board on their tablets. This exercise is important not only on account of the practice in writing which it affords, but for giving the children something attractive and useful to do, and preventing the mischief that comes from idle hands. The teacher should examine the work from time to time, and encourage the children to do the work neatly and correctly. The child knows nothing of vowels, consonants and articulation ; nothing about letters, when Letters and he looks upon the printed page. sounds. The word, the word ! This is the object of thought. The printed word is the object presented to the mind of the child. It is presented through the eye. It is known by its form ; the child learns to recognize the words by their forms, as it learns to recognize other objects. The names of letters are no guides to the correct pronunciation of words, and they can be of no possible service to the children in learning to read. After the children have made considerable progress in reading words, the teacher may call their attention 20 READING to the elementary sounds of which the words are com- posed. Some teachers combine the Word and Phonic Methods, Word and and af tei * tlie W0r(i * S learned b J si g nt > teach Methods elementary sounds. This is not necessary combined. to this plan of teaching reading, and if the teacher thinks best may be omitted. Children have been taught to read in a very few weeks by this plan, and we would encourage primary teachers to try it. It is useful in cultivating distinctness in articulation, and in aiding the children to acquire new words. When the pupils have been made familiar with the The names words that have been taught by sight, so as of letters. readily to pronounce them, and give their elementary sounds, the teacher may call the attention of the children to the names of the letters ; but as a rule the children will learn the names of the letters soon enough without any help from the teacher. As soon as the letters are taught, by all means show their use by putting them together and making the word ; use the same letters in forming new words. There is but little variance between the Object Method and the Word Method. The introductory part is the same, and both should be combined in order to interest the children. Whole words should be presented, and the pupils required to pronounce them, without spell- ing, by sight. Subsequently the analysis of these words into sounds and letters may be taught. First, teach words that are the names of things ; then words representing the names of qualities and actions. The little connective words and those that are used as ME SENTENCE METHOD 21 substitutes for other words, should not be taught until they are needed in the construction of phrases and sentences. THE SENTENCE METHOD In this method the teacher does not begin with the letters, nor with separate words, but with words in com- bination, that express a thought. Using this combina- tion of words as a unit, the separate words are learned, as the separate letters are learned by the Word Method, that is, without special effort and almost, if not quite, unconsciously. In teaching by this method let it be the aim of the teacher to teach not so much separate sounds, letters and words, as the proper expression of thought. The letters and words must be known, but as they will necessarily become known by this method without much special teaching, they are regarded and treated as of secondary importance for the time being. The attention of the children should be directed to the thought. To this end real objects and facts are at first employed to appeal to the senses and to demand of the child words to give the thought oral expression. In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from ob- jects, and then seek language to express them. It re- quires a combination of words to express a thought, or to give birth to a new idea or thought. The advantages claimed for this method over others are : First. It is a natural way teaching the child to read very much as he learned to talk. Second. The attention of the child is directed to the expression of the thought ; hence he reads easily and naturally. 22 HEADING Third. It makes the child thoughtful, and hence cultivates his intelligence. This method was first systematically used in the schools of Binghamton, N. Y., and is fully explained in "The Sentence Method of Teaching Heading " y by G. L. Farnham, at that time Superintendent of Schools. II. PKIMAKY READING Give special attention to the primary classes in read- ing ; if a child is not taught to read well during Ms first tivo years in school, he will probably be a poor reader through life. Directions 1. Train the pupils to pronounce the words readily at sight. (a) Print or write the words on the board in columns ; pupils to pronounce them at sight. (Z>) Write difficult words on the board, and sylla- bicate them ; mark the accented syllables, pupils to pronounce them. (c) Require the pupils to pronounce the words forward ; reverse. (d) Require the pupils to bring in a portion or all of the reading lesson upon the slate ; pupil? read the lesson from the slate. (e) Alternate. Cautions 1. Present to the pupils only one difficulty at a time. 2. Never permit the pupils to spell words in reading. 3. Insist upon correct articulation and pronunciation. If the pupils in the first lessons of reading are taught correctly, they will not spell words audibly. Remarks. PBIMABY BEADING 23 Many of the common faults in reading may be traced to the improper methods in use during the first lessons in this subjectc Bad habits at this period usually cling to the pupils during all their school days, and often seriously affect their entire future progress. The first lessons in reading are of the greatest impor- tance, and they should be given in a proper manner. To do this successfully there must be a system in the plans pursued. The pupils must be familiar with the words of the lesson, so that they can readily pronounce Reading them at sight. words - The teacher should introduce a short preliminary exercise, for calling the words at sight, as follows : Teacher and children alternating one word each ; boys and girls alternating one word each ; careless pupils alternating with class ; each pupil reading a line as rapidly as possible. In no instance should the teacher let a pupil stop to spell a word. The plan is in violation of the funda- mental laws of teaching. It attempts to compel the child to do two things at the same time, and to do both in an unnatural manner, viz : to learn reading and spelling simultaneously, and reading through spelling. Eeading has to deal with sounds and signs of thoughts. Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which is best ac- quired by writing. In attempting to teach reading through spelling the effort distracts the attention from the thought ; reading furnishes facilities for teaching spelling; but spelling does not furnish a suitable means for teaching reading. 24 HEADING If spelling is permitted, a love of reading is not enkin- dled ; good readers are not produced. The teacher should be familiar with the sounds of the Phonics. letters, and require the pupils to practise on them two or three minutes daily. Let it be a lively exercise, and insist upon clear, distinct articulation. Attend to one difficult point at a time ; see that the pupils understand it and are able to reproduce whatever you teach them. Further Directions 1. Train the pupils to read in natural tones. (a) Eequest the pupil to look off the book and tell what he reads. (V) Select a good reader ; request pupils to imitate. (c) Teacher illustrates how a sentence should be read. 2. The teacher should illustrate and define difficult words. (a) Illustrate by objects, pictures, drawings and diagrams. 3. No definitions should be given of those words whose meaning can be inferred from the context. 4. Every piece should be carefully studied before it is read aloud. Eeading should not be a mere mechanical exercise. Remarks. The end of reading is not to give vocal utter- ance to a succession of words, but to give expression to thought and feeling. Reading is the most important subject taught in school. It is specially important that it be thoroughly taught in primary classes. The "sing-song drawl " MAKE HASTE SLOWLY 25 and " nasal twang ", which so often prevail in the school-room, should be avoided. Almost all children can be taught to read well ; they imitate, unconsciously and naturally, the voices of their playmates. Many of the teachers are too ambitious in one direc- tion : that is, to promote pupils to higher TOO difficult books than they are qualified to comprehend. selections - This is a great mistake. Perhaps three-fifths of the pupils of our country are reading in books which they do not understand, or in which they take no interest. This is one of the principal causes of mechanical read- ing ; through this error in judgment the pupils have acquired a drawling way ; a lifeless, mechanical style. I am glad to admit that a reformation has begun in this department of instruction, but it will Reformation need the constant and varied efforts of needed - teachers and parents for years in order to overcome the effects that have already resulted from past negligence. Let the teacher select (from some book or magazine) a story which he will be sure shall interest suggestions. the pupils. Let him give the book containing it to a pupil, ask- ing him to read the story over a few times, to become familiar with it ; and at or near the close of school, let the pupil read it aloud to his schoolmates. As he reads, do not discourage him by frequent inter- ruptions, but occasionally, when he relapses into a drawl, repeat the passage, kindly, in a better way, and ask him to notice and imitate your manner. When he has finished, read to them yourself some 26 READING other good story, and let your style be worthy of imita- tion. Let the standard of good reading be its resemblance Reading ^ g 00 ^- conversation. The pupils may be sentences. j e( j to attend to the thoughts expressed, by requiring them to find out what the sentences tell with- out reading them aloud. The teacher may aid them by proceeding in a manner similar to the following : Kequest the class to study the first sentence, and each member to raise a hand when able to tell what the sen- tence is about. Call upon different pupils to state, in their own language, what the sentence tells ; in this way they will readily learn to read with easy conversa- tional tones. Special care should be taken in this step to train Distinct pupils in habits of clearness and distinctness enunciation. Q enunc i a tion ; also to read in an easy, speak- ing voice. Overcome the faults in reading by taking up one kind at a time, and continue the practice until the pupils clearly perceive the fault and take proper means to correct it. As a requisite essential to success, the teacher of read- ing should be a good reader. With proper The teacher i , should be a management it is a very easy matter to make good reader. C j 1 ji ( j ren rea( j we j^ an( j even the teacher who is a tolerable reader may teach pupils to read. That children have learned to read under such teachers I am willing to admit, because the fact is evident ; but that they have been taught by their masters I do not admit, for it is impossible for any person to teach well what he does not understand. If a child has sometimes learned to read under an DEFINING VOICE 27 incompetent instructor, it has been, not because of the teacher, but in spite of him ; and the question is, not how much he has learned, but how much he would have learned had the teacher been qualified to teach him. The young pupiFs knowledge of the meaning of words is limited. One object of reading is to in- D ifficu i t crease the knowledge of words. No defini- words - tion should be given of those words whose meaning can be inferred from the context. (See page 23). Kecourse should be had to a dictionary only when the pupil can- not think out the meaning for himself. The child learns the meaning of words by hearing them used seldom by formal definition. The teacher may impress the idea by resorting to objects ; this is the natural way. Sometimes pictures may be at hand to throw light upon the word ; again, a drawing may be given at the board to illustrate the meaning of the word. In no case should a definition be committed to mem- ory and mechanically recited. The meaning Defining should be inferred from the context, and the words, pupil requested to use the word correctly in a short sentence. Let the pupil tell what the word means in his own language. A definition is a general truth, a deduction ; children should be thought primary truths ; and, as their reason develops, deduce the definitions, rules and principles. Develop correct ideas ; then give definitions. We must not encourage teachers to require pupils to commit the definitions to memory in the primary reading books, 28 HEADING but we should insist that the pupils understand the meaning of the words used. Teachers sometimes instruct pupils to stop and count "Mind the " one " a ^ a comma, " one, two", at a semi- pauses." colon, etc. This leads to a mechanical, un- natural style of reading. First attend to the reading of sentences, and lead the pupils to see how the pauses aid in understanding the meaning. Do not teach read- ing as if attention to " pauses" were the chief object to be attained. Keciting definitions of pauses is useless and leads to waste of time. Teach the use of the pauses, instead of the definition of them. A few teachers pay no attention to the explanation of the words, but turn their attention almost entirely to the names and the pronunciation ; important points, to be sure, but by no means the life- giving elements of good reading. Pure tone. This is a clear, cheerful tone. It is Tone qualities. the language of common conversation. Rotund. This is the pure tone, rounded, deepened and intensified. It is the language of sublimity, grandeur, awe, reverence. Aspirate. This is whispered utterance. It is the language of hate, fear, secrecy. Gutteral. This is the sepulchral tone and has its resonance in the throat. It is the language of hate, rage, contempt. Pectoral. This is low, pure tone. It is the language of deep feeling, sorrow. Falsetto. This is a very high tone. It is the lan- guage of irritability, etc. QUALITIES OF THE VOICE 29 A particular stress of voice given to certain words, or parts of a discourse, or a distinctive utter- Emphasis, ance of words specially significant, is called emphasis. A new idea or fact, one now presented for the first time, constitutes the emphatic word or words. That which presents no new or dominant fact or thought is unemphatic : as clauses of repetition, antici- pation, sequence, subordination, knowledge beforehand. Do not require children to commit the rules to mem- ory in reading. They are hindrances instead Ru i es in of helps. If the teachers know how to read, reading, those aids in which many school-books abound are worse than useless, because positively injurious. The competent teacher needs but two rules by which to be guided in teaching the pupils to read : First Make the pupils understand what it is to be read. Second. Require them to read naturally. To expect a child to read what it does not understand is unreasonable, and yet nothing is more common. It is idle to put marks, rules and directions, whether by words or characters, into books intended to be read by children, for the reason that they are seldom or never used. The teacher should carefully study the reading lesson; should be familiar with the pronunciation of * . The teach- every word, including its literal and its re- er's prep- A ' TT i ij ^ -i aration. ceived meaning. He should give the pupils the history of the author and some of his prominent characteristics, this will, add to the interest. He should awaken thought in the minds of the pupils, this will secure interest. It matters not how simple the 30 BEADING lesson may be, previous preparation is indispensable. Previous study will add new power and generate better methods, by means of which success will be insured. The teacher will become independent, self-reliant, and a " law unto himself". III. INTERMEDIATE READING Directions 1. Teach and train the pupils to understand : (a) The prominent objects mentioned ; (b) The prominent facts mentioned concerning the object ; (c) What they read, so as to be able to tell the story, or the principal facts in the lesson ; (d) The connected thought, so as to express it orally and written. Caution 1. Attend to one subject of criticism at a time, and require pupils to correct errors. 2. Practice on one sentence at a time. 3. See that all the pupils understand the thought, and are able to express it. 4. Examine the subject carefully before reading. Results The pupils in the Intermediate Classes in Reading ' should be able : 1. To pronounce the words accurately. 2. To define the words. 3. To understand the subject-matter. INTERMEDIATE READING 31 4. To explain the language. 5. To account for marks of punctuation. 6. To point out what is true, beautiful and good in the sentiment. 7. To show the manner of delivery, and give reason for it. The number of those who can be properly called good readers in our schools is small ; but how Remarks, large is the number who can read quite indifferently, or very poorly. As a general thing it must be admitted that reading has not been well taught in our schools. It has re- ceived formal attention and frequent inattention. Time enough is given to the exercise, but not enough atten- tion. The elocutionary part of reading should receive but little attention in the intermediate classes. -rrr.., ., T ... .. An iritellec- With so many pupils under your training, it tuai ex- cannot be expected that you will go into all the minutiae of elocutionary drill. Your aim must be to teach well what you undertake to teach. You can- not even hope to make all your pupils accomplished elocutionists, but you can make them good and intelli- gent readers. When you find a pupil who takes to elocution it may be well to encourage it, but not to the neglect nor the expense of other subjects of instruction. It may be asked, what is good reading ? I call that good reading when a person reads distinctly, giving the sense with such intonation and emphasis as to be pleasant to the hearer, and in such a manner as to be easily heard and readily understood. 32 READING Take, for example, the following beautiful selection, An niustra- an( l see now niany pertinent questions may be asked in reference to it. NELLY Nelly sat under the apple tree, And watched the -shadows of leaves at play, And heard the hum of the honey bee Gathering sweets through the sunny day. Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ; Her head inclined with a gentle grace ; A wandering squirrel was not afraid To stop and peer in her quiet face. Nelly was full of a pure delight, Born of the beauty of earth and sky, Of the wavering boughs, and the sunshine bright, And the snowy clouds that went sailing by. Nelly forgot that her dress was old, Her hands were rough and her feet were bare ; For round her the sunlight poured its gold, And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air. And the distant hills in their glory lay, And soft to her ear came the robin's call : 'Twas sweet to live on that summer day, For the smile of God was over all. And Nelly was learning the lesson sweet, That when the spirit is full of care, And we long our father and God to meet, AVe may go to nature, and find him there. 1. Where did Nelly sit ? 2. Wha two things did she do ? 3. Wha^ is meant by the leaves at play ? 4. What were the bees doing? 5. What is said of Nelly's hands? 6. What is said of her head ? 7. What is said of the squirrel? A MODEL LESSOR 33 8. Of what was Nelly full ? 9. What is meant by being full of pure delight? 10. Of what four things was it born ? 11. What is meant by being born of these things? 12. What did Nelly forget ? 13. Why did she forget these things ? 14. What is meant by the sunlight pouring its gold ? 15. What is meant by kissed by the summer air ? 16. What is said of the distant hills ? 17. What is meant by the phrase 4w in their glory lay " ? 18. What is said of the robin ? 19. Why was it sweet to live on that summer day ? 20. What lesson was Nelly learning ? 21. What is the meaning ot gathering ? Inclined ? Peer ? Boughs ? Nature ? 22. Make sentences in which these words in some of their forms shall be used correctly. 23. Write a short composition about Nelly. The piece is descriptive and should be so read as to give the hearer a clear idea of the scenes Directions, described. State each thing mentioned as though you were telling some person what you had seen. The frequent or occasional study of reading lessons in this manner will be attended with two advantages. The pupils will read them better, for they will have a sympathy for the author, and a more intelligent percep- tion of the meaning. The answering of the question will prove very ser- viceable, by unfolding the sense of the piece, and thus enabling one to read it more understandingly. It will produce thought) and whenever we produce thought we secure interest. In intermediate classes constant attention should be given to punctuation, accent, inflection, emphasis, and correct pronunciation. Explanations of historical, biographical, or scientific allusions, should be given by the teacher and reviewed 34 BEADING in subsequent recitation. Higher classes may be taught the rhetorical divisions. Thus : a. Letters. b. Dialogues. c. History. d. Essays. e. Orations, etc. a. Pastoral. #. Lyric. c. Epic. d. Dramatic. e. Elegy. A. Composition. 1. Prose, and 2. Poetry. B. Subject Matter. C. Discourse. '1. Humorous. 2. Pathetic; 3. Sublime. '1. Narrative. 2. Descriptive. 3. Didactic. General remarks. No subject is of more importance than how to teach reading understandingly. Good reading is calculated to develop the mind, the body, and the imagination. Although so important, yet it is sadly neglected. Elocution is the art of speaking so as to be heard, so as to be felt, so as to impress. The first essential is to speak or read so as to be heard distinctly. Never speak above or below your natural voice ; if you do so, the effect will be lost. The three great rules that all should observe in reading or speaking are : " Be sure you have something to say ; say it as well as you can say it ; and stop ATTEND TO SPECIAL FAULTS 35 when you are clone. " Speak so that the listener may understand you ; speak so as to be felt, hence be in earnest ; if you do not feel what you say, you cannot expect your hearers to feel it. If you have a fault, attend to it ; overcome it by prac- tice. Much time must be taken in correct- Attend to ing bad habits of reading, but you must take faults, the time. And whatever you do, be sure to teach the pupils to do it in the right way. If the teacher wishes to succeed he must learn how intonation and articula- tion are to be taught. Before he can teach it he must learn it. It can be acquired only through study. Kules in books might as well be omitted ; correct reading might be taught by example. The object of teaching reading is to make good readers. Before good reading and good speaking can be taught it is necessary to learn how to articulate distinctly and pronounce cor- rectly. If you are careless in one single point, your pupils will be careless not only on that point but on others. In reading you must give each sound its true value. The requirements in reading are t ,vo-f old : first. To express rightly what you read ; and, tiecond. To do this pleasantly and naturally. A perfect understanding of what you read is the foundation ; you must understand the thoughts of the author and make the thoughts your own. It is the exception to find good readers in our schools ; the reason is because pupils are not required to study the lesson as in other branches. Study gives force, meaning, beauty, and power to the passage. After the pupils can speak distinctly, they 36 BEADING should be taught to express the sense, to give the exact meaning. In no other way can this be taught than through study on the part of the pupils. They must read and think. Pupils should be taught how to stand, and they should Posture. not be allowed to utter a word until they as- sume a position to give full force to their utterance ; they should not be allowed to appear awkward. Do not allow your pupils to mumble words, smother sounds, and thus destroy the sense of a passage. The position should be perfectly easy, natural, and graceful ; the posture should indicate the sentence to be spoken. Insist that your pupils always take an easy, graceful position in reading or speaking. It is important to know how to breathe properly. It Breath. is well to exercise the lungs before beginning to read. The power of the reader or speaker consists in having perfect control of his breathing, so as to utter his words in the proper and most effective man- ner. It is only when you have perfect control of the breathing that you can give full expression to words and sentences. Let me caution you against placing dependence upon caution. rules f or inflection of the voice given in read- ing books. All that you need is fully to understand the thought ; when you have the thought fully, you will know all about inflection of the voice. If a per- son cannot translate what -he reads into his own lan- guage, he most assuredly does not understand it. If you cannot bring out in your own language the full meaning of the lesson, you are not the one to teach, MECHANICAL READING 37 and you should either adopt some other work, or go through a rigid course of training. A great deal of teaching in reading is a positive in- jury to schools, and all because the teacher does not know how to teach. " Practice makes perfect ; " rap- idity and correctness are attained only through frequent repetition. No one ever arises at distinction by sitting with arms folded ; you must be willing to think, to exercise, to labor. It is not an easy thing to become a good reader ; it is acquired only through practice con- tinual practice. There is no other way than through practice. The following rules are taken from " Kidd's Elocu- tion ". They should be carefully studied and practised : First. Understand well what is read. Second. See to it that pupils never read without fulfilling the conditions of proper position and posture. Make them take the position God intended them to take ; train, not teach : there is a difference between the two. Third. Insist upon frequent and natural breathing. Good breathing is essential to health. Fourth. Reach the heart of the pupil. This is done by in- teresting them ; by making them understand what they read. Fifth. Cultivate a perfectly easy, distinct, and natural voice ; avoid all labored efforts ; let the voice come out full. Let pro- nunciation be correct, inflection natural ; give the best models, but never rules. Make pupils repeat the pronunciation of words they are in the habit of mis-pronouncing. Modulation and into- nation should be varied but always natural. Sixth. Have your pupils speak with naturalness. If the sub- ject be understood anyone will speak naturally. Train them to speak by the highest standard they possess. Seventh. Be in earnest. If the pupil has not an earnest man- ner, it proves that he does not understand his subject. 38 READING Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not con- Necessary sider the reading exercise an unimportant conditions. ou ^ Teach and train the pupils to be readers. It is the art of arts, and in it are the germs of growth and development. We read in the Bible at the eighth chapter of Nehe- miah, eighth verse, how they used to read in the olden times : " So they read in the book in the law of God distinctly, and gave the sense, and caused them to understand the reading." There are three kinds of reading that are often con- founded ; mechanical reading, intelligent reading, and intellectual reading. Mechanical reading, per se, is no reading at all ; it is but a form of voice training. It may include pronun- ciation, articulation, enunciation, inflection, tone pause, harmony, rhythm, and emphasis. A child may learn every one of these, in a foreign language, learn them to perfection, if he be well drilled in them by means of direction and imitation, and yet not understand one word of what he reads while he gives them. An intelligent reader is one who understands what he reads, who takes in the author's thought. There are various degrees of intelligent reading. One person takes in the meaning vaguely, another more clearly, another quite clearly and definitely. It is not possible for a young child to be more than an intelligent reader, but the power should come to him as he grows older. Yet how many adults there are who do never get beyond the child's power of reading. Take, for instance, the well-informed man who never will be wise : he is emi- INTELLECTUAL BEADING 39 nently an intelligent reader, but there is no hope for him that he ever will become an intellectual reader. Intellectual reading is not only a taking in, clearly and definitely, of the author's meaning, but it is also a ready recognition of the relation of that meaning, a prompt assimilation of it, and a consequent growth. This is the kind of reading that reigns in the student's den and the philosopher's study. That man who has the original power, or the acquired habit, which is often more than an equivalent for the original power, to grasp readily and clearly the meaning of what he reads, is one whom all others may well envy. And yet this power, valuable beyond calculation, may be given to every child in our schools, if we can but find the right way to secure it for him. The question then is : How shall we train our children so that they shall become not only intelligent but intel- lectual readers ? so that they shall become not only intellectual silent readers, but also accomplished oral readers ? By assigning to the lesson in voice-training all those exercises which pertain to voice-culture and Readin discipline of the organs, which drill in pro- nunciation and a consideration of emphasis and pauses, illustrated by mistakes taken from yester- day's lesson and difficulties in to-day's, we shall relieve the reading lesson proper of the necessity of taking note of all that machinery which produces effect, and leave the teacher and class time and opportunity to study the thought the passage contains, and to give it a free and natural expression. Let it be understood by the class as well as the teacher, J;hat_the_reading lesson should 40 BEADING be a clear, clean-cut process of thought carried on to expression, and should not be interrupted by continued, trivial and harassing corrections. What is more pain- ful than to see a child rise in his class, full of the thought the passage contains, confident of his power to give it good expression, his eye a-kindle and his cheeks aglow, and then to see him suddenly brought to a blank stand- still by a dozen upraised hands and snapping fingers, because, forsooth, he has omitted an " a/' a " the/ 9 or mis-called some simple word he knew quite well, or skipped some useless comma ? Where such practices are allowed, the reading lesson becomes a mere game in pronunciation, and a correct handling of the voice according to rules. Such games are good to make the children keen-sighted, quick- thoughted, and correct ; but their place is not in the reading-lesson, and if we keep them there we shall go on forever teaching only words, words, words. Let us first attend to the thought, then to the expres- sion, and last and least, to mechanical defects. Better that the thought should be full-born, and clothed in garments with here and there a rent, than that it should be still-born and in garments without a flaw. As in language the thought is the root of which the word is the blossom, so in reading an understanding of the author's meaning is the root of which oral reading is the blossom. If, then, we find our blossoms defective, it behooves us to look to the condition of the roots. But what method will help us here ? How can we make sure that a child understands what he reads ? Children imitate so easily, and habit counterfeits na- ture so closely, how can we be sure that we are not THE THOUGHT FIKST 41 misled ? Only by studying the lesson with children ; only by having before every reading-lesson a language- lesson upon the subject-matter of the reading ; only by compelling the children, by means of questions, to think, to reason, and to express : to express the thoughts of the lesson, first in their own words, and then in the words of the book ; and, whenever the subject-matter may be, from any cause whatsoever, vague to the children's minds, by illustrating it with objects, with pictures, printed pictures, and outline pictures drawn upon the black-board, and with what the English training-schools call "picturing out words ". PHONICS Till recently this important subject had received but little attention in the public schools of the country. Why it was so long neglected, when it is such an im- portant element of expression, is a curious problem. The object of teaching this subject should be : First. To train the organs of hearing so that the children may readily distinguish the sounds heard in speaking and reading. Second. To train the organs of hearing so that the pupils may learn to produce the sounds correctly in using language. To acquire an articulation which shall be at once accurate and tasteful, it is necessary : 1. To obtain an exact knowledge of the elementary sounds of the language. 2. To learn the appropriate place of these sounds. 3. To apply this knowledge constantly in conversing, reading, and speaking, with a view to correct every deviation from propriety. A good articulation is not to be acquired in a day, nor from a few lessons. Practice should begin with the primer, and continue through the whole course of education ; and even then there will remain room for improvement. (42) DIACBITICAL SlOtfS 43 Great care should be taken in giving these lessons that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils can make every sound and combination that it contains, readily and perfectly. The teacher should make the sounds, and then require the pupils to imitate them. The pupils should stand or sit erect, and use the natural tones of the voice. Only one or two sounds should be taken for a lesson. The exercise should not continue more than five minutes ; it may be introduced in the reading or spell- ing exercise, or the whole school may join in it. Tell the children " to open the mouth and move the lips ", to speak distinctly, and to enunciate every sound perfectly. Time should not be wasted in the endeavor to teach children definitions or descriptions of the vari- ous sounds of the letters. The chief aim should be to train the organs of hearing to acuteness, and the organs of speech to flexibility and accuracy. The pupil should be taught the correct sounds and the signification of the different marks. All Notation the vowels and many of the consonants have Sacrfticai marks to distinguish their sounds. siffns - After a sound is learned the teacher should write the letter on the board with its proper mark. The pupils should be required to copy and reproduce every exercise. Let the drill be thorough. Tell the pupils that when a short horizontal line called the macron is placed above the vowel it indicates the long sound, as a ; that a short curved line with the curve downward called a ~breve placed above the vowel indicates the short sound, as a ; that two dots placed above the vowel a indicates the Italian sound, as a, etc. 44 PHOKICS "We find few teachers who are able to give the sounds of the English language correctly, and many are unable to tell the kind of a mark or sign that indicates a certain sound. This subject requires study and practice. We need not expect distinct speaking so long as we Suggestions. , , ,, _, ,, . , . neglect the following suggestions : 1. Train the organs of hearing to distinguish readily and accurately the different sounds of language. 2. Train the organs of speech to produce these sounds with ease and accuracy. 3. Train the pupils to the correction of faults of enunciation and pronunciation in reading and speaking. 4. Train pupils in every lesson upon the elements. 5. Master the analysis before you attempt to teach it. 6. Let the drill be accurate. For full directions in teaching this important subject, the author refers to his book called "PRACTICAL PHONICS : A com- prehensive study of Pronunciation, forming a complete guide to the study of the Elementary Sounds of the English Language, and containing 3000 words of difficult pronunciation, with diacritical marks according to Webster's Dictionary ". Price 75 cts. SPELLING It cannot be denied that the orthography of the Eng- lish language is difficult. In a general way there are no principles governing it ; but few rules can be called to mind, and these have so many exceptions that they are of little use. There are only three rules that I have found of prac- tical value : 1. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before an addi- tion beginning with a vowel. 2. The diphthong ie is generally used after other consonants than c, which is followed by ei. 3. Words ending in final y, preceded by a vowel, form their plurals by adding s. It will be seen at once that English spelling must be learned to a great extent arbitrarily ; but industry and attention will enable any student to master it. Everybody knows how imperfectly the teaching of spelling accomplishes its purpose ; yet there Results un _ is no reason why any student should habitu- satisfactory, ally spell words badly. Any person may learn to spell, if in writing, whenever he shall come to a word which he does not certainly know how to spell, he will look for it in his dictionary and study its spelling and meaning. (45) 46 SPELLING Too often the spelling is a mere "parrot exercise", Mechanical * n that ^ s results are rapidly lost as soon as spelling. ^ e attention is given to something else. Inattention is a fruitful source 01 ill spelling. Time is wasted upon oral spelling, and bad habits are formed by spelling new words pupils do not understand. I should connect spelling and reading with writing from the very outset. As soon as the child In connec- ., iii ,-, i tion with can pronounce the alphabet on this plan he will be able to write it, and then as he ad- vances he must continue to write all the spelling lessons and as much of the reading lessons as time will admit. It is a rare thing to find children seven years old able to read a word of manuscript, much less to write well. A little instruction given by the teacher each day upon this special study will aid in making the children good penmen. It is a very valuable help. During a certain year I pronounced the following words to twenty-one Institutes in the State of New York, viz : accordion, melodeon, alpaca, beefsteak, billiards, caterpillar, diphtheria, harelip, surcingle, occurrence, inflammatory, succotash, tranquillity, exaggerate, vaccinate, centennial, brilliancy, collision, dissipate, tyrannical, valleys, lilies, numskull, primer, erysipelas. The average spelling of the teachers, including pub- lic school, union school, academy and normal school teachers, was 63 per cent. One county stood at 85 per cent, and one at 20 per cent. Only three teachers ORAL SPELLING 47 from the twenty-one counties spelled all the words correctly. The following list has been given at institutes, with similar results : judgment, infringement, abridgment, acknowledgment, tranquillity, dissyllable, bilious, lilies, eying, vying, halos, inseparable, privilege, licentiate, conscientious, intercede, supersede, sacrilegious, inflammation, quizzical, contrariwise, mucilage, millennium, metallic. ORAL SPELLING Spelling is the right formation of words with their proper letters. Oral spelling does not give value of oral the ability to write words correctly ; but it spellmg - must not from this fact be deemed a useless exercise. Long used as a basis of learning to read, and still clung to by many, there must be something in it. It makes words that otherwise would have been altogether strange familiar to the ear and sufficiently distinguish- able by the eye to enable the learner to recognize them again when met with in his reading lessons. It finds favor with parents as furnishing some school work at home. And it finds favor with the teachers, as giving the only means with the younger children, or with poor scholars, of forming those habits of attention, application, perseverance, and retention which are the characteristic features of a system of tasks. Directions 1. Require the pupil to pronounce : (a) The word accurately before spelling ; 48 SPELLING (Z>) The letters accurately ; (c) The syllables accurately ; (d) The words accurately after spelliu & , (e) The words of the succeeding lesson accurately before study. 2. Eequire the pupil to name everthing necessary to the correct writing or printing of the word, as the capital letter, hyphen, apostrophe, etc. 3. Eequire the pupils to copy the words of the suc- ceeding lesson several times before spelling. 4. Let every fifth exercise be a review. 5. Eequire misspelled words to be written correctly. 6. Eeview often and advance slowly. Cautions The teacher should : (a) Pronounce the word only once. (b) Never repeat a syllable. (c) Not permit the pupil to repeat a syllable. (d) Eequire pupils to divide one syllable from another by a pause. (e) Give no undue emphasis to unaccented syl- lables. (/) Forbid the pupil to try the second time on a word. (g) Explain new words. Results 1. The correct spelling of words. 2. The correct pronunciation of words. WKITTEtf SPELLING 49 In teaching Spelling, the instructor should aim to give interest to the exercise by frequently varying the mode of recitation. But what- ever course is pursued, the following directions should be strictly adhered to : a. The word should be pronounced distinctly ; just as it would be pronounced by a good reader or a good speaker. In giving out the words to a class, teachers sometimes commit the error of departing from the ordinary pronunciation, for the sake of indicating the orthography. No undue emphasis or prolongation of the utterance of a syllable should be given by the teacher. 5. The pupil should spell once only on a word ; as all beyond will be merely guessing. For employment between recitations the children should be permitted and encouraged, and required and compelled, to write all the exercises they read or spell upon their slates. The best way to study a spelling lesson is to require the pupils to write it several times on their -, , mi ,. . . ., . Importance slates. The practice of requiring pupils to of written study the lesson a given number of times only teaches them to hurry over their study, and not to study to any purpose. It is not the number of times a lesson has been studied that should be considered the mark of effort, but the ability to spell every word in the lesson. There is no reason why every child in every school should not be a good penman at a very early age. The advantage of this acquisition to o?teachin* the children cannot be overrated ; for, be- sides the mechanical skill, the child has the means of 50 SPELLING constant employment which will keep him from idle- ness and mischief, and the energetic teacher can make this skill bear upon almost every exercise in other branches of instruction. WRITTEN SPELLING Directions 1. Preparation for the lesson. (a) Pronounce the word accurately. (V) Use it in the construction of a sentence. (c) Define it. (d) Write a sentence containing it. 2. Materials Book, pen and ink. 3. Eequire the pupils to write the word neatly, as soon as pronounced. 4. At the close of the written exercise, the teacher, or some pupil, should spell the word orally. 5. The pupil should check the misspelled words. 6. Every misspelled word, and word omitted, should be written correctly on another sheet or page, with its number and the number of the column. 7. All blanks, letters or words erased, inserted, writ- ten over, or written indistinctly, should be considered as errors. 8. The teacher should examine the pupil's work, and keep a record of the scholarship. 9. Begin all words with small letters, except proper names. Cautions 1. The teacher should give sufficient time to the exercise. DISCOVERY OF MISTAKES 51 2. The direction number eight must be adhered to strictly ; any violation will be counted the same as a misspelled word. 3. If words are found unchecked, they should be marked with a cipher. 4. Every word which the student checks for himself will deduct one ; every one checked with a cipher will deduct five ; any correction whatever made in the column will deduct ten. " The old adage, ' Eyes are better than ears ', nowhere holds good with greater force than in learn- 11 i TI -T Remarks. ing to spell. familiarity with words as written, such as will give the knowledge of all the let- ters and their proper position, is necessary to the power of writing them, correctly. Such familiarity is obtained only from frequently seeing and writing them. The only way to produce words accurately is to make them familiar to the eye ; hence the well-known fact that persons who read much, as compositors, or write much, as copyists, invariably spell correctly ; hence also the common practice, when people are in doubt between two forms of words, to write them both, when the eye instantly decides on the right way. The detection of every mistake with least loss of time is of the first importance. Careful examin- Discovery ation of each slate by the teacher is most of mis takes. likely to secure this, but it is open to the fatal objection that it occupies much time and leaves the class idle. In some schools monitors are appointed to examine the slates and to correct the mistakes. This, apart from the difficulty of getting properly qualified monitors, is objectionable, as yielding the monitors no adequate re- 52 SPELLING turn for their long and irksome task, to which must be added the possibility of unfaithfulness. The plan of allowing the children to inspect each other's slates is open to serious objections, not the least of which is the distrust it seems to imply. Sometimes the children compare their slates with the lesson in the book, or written on the black-board ; a plan which has the advan- tages of throwing the labor on the child, and of having the corrections made at the same time : all that is needed being a vigilant oversight, to see that it is faithfully done. But the method which to our mind is the best, is to dictate but one or two sentences, and then to have each sentence spelled through, either by the teacher or by the scholars in turn, every mistake being underlined. The correction of mistakes should appeal to the eye, not to the ear. Pains should be taken to Corrections. ascertain the cause of any common defect. For this purpose the word should be written on the black-board, and alongside of it the correct form ; the two should be compared and the cause of the mistake discovered. Often this will be a lesson on the structure of a class of words, and probably prevent similar mis- takes afterwards. After this has been done, the whole class should write the word in its correct form, and then the words should be dictated afresh ; if any now have mistakes, they should be required to write the words three or six times, according to the degree of careless- ness shown. Sometimes it may be well to direct the children themselves to write correctly the words they have underlined, this making them attentive while the words are being spelled. But, as a general thing, this is open to the objection that it appeals to the eye, and METHODS 53 that it does not occupy the children who have spelled it correctly. METHODS IN SPELLING /. Constructive Method The teacher should request the pupils : (a) To name a few familiar words. (b) To construct with block or card letters. (c) To spell the words by the sound of the letters. (d) To copy the words on their slates. (e) To tell the silent letters. (/) To spell the words by the names of the letters. (g) To use each word correctly in a sentence. II. Objective Method The teacher should request the pupils : (a) To bring to school a number of objects of the same kind. (b) To examine them carefully. (c) To name the parts. (d) To spell and write words. (e) To tell the uses of the parts. (/) To introduce the word into a sentence. (g) To name the properties of the parts. (h) To write a short composition, reproducing words. III. Definitive Method 1. Assign an object to every pupil. 2. Pupils find the meaning. 3. Pupils name the parts, qualities, uses, etc. 4. Pupils write a short composition, reproducing the words. 54 SPELLIKG IV. Composition Method 1. The teacher writes a certain number of words on the board, requiring the pupils to copy. 2. The pupils learn to define them. 3. The pupils use them in composition of a sentence. V. Geographical Method Require the pupils to spell the names of : (a) Countries. (J) States. (c) Counties. (d) Cities. (e) Towns. (/) Divisions of Land. (g) Divisions of Water. (h) Occupations. VI. Natural History Method Require the pupils to spell the names of (a) Animals, Minerals, etc. (V) Trees. (c) Fruits. (d) Flowers. (e) Vegetables. VII. Dictation Method 1. The teacher has Dictation Exercises once a week. 2. He dictates stories, descriptions, etc., to the pupils, who produce them exactly. Suggestions for the Above Exercise 1. Write your full name on the paper. 2. Number the sentences. 3. Construct every letter accurately. METHODS 55 4. Do not erase letters or words. 5. Do not insert letters or words. 6. Do not write over letters or words. 7. Do not prompt, or be prompted. 8. Use capital letters correctly. 9. Use punctuation marks correctly. 10. Cross the "tV and dot the "i's". 11. The teacher or pupil writes the correct forms on the board. 12. Those who make mistakes in spelling, or in any of the directions, are required to correct them. 13. The teacher examines the papers ; and 14. Finds the per cent. However thorough the drill in spelling may be from the lessons of the speller or reader, every Remar k S teacher should have frequent and copious exercises in spelling words from other sources. These should be words in common use, chosen as far as possi- ble from the range of the pupiFs observation, including the new words that arise in object lessons, in geography, arithmetic, and grammar. The more difficult of these words should be written in columns on the board, and studied and reviewed with the same care as lessons from the speller and reader. Failures in spelling these words should be marked as errors, the same as failures in any other lessons. SUGGESTIVE METHODS IN SPELLING 1. Bead a short sentence distinctly, and require every word to be spelled by the class, the first pupil pro- nouncing and spelling the first word, the next pupil the second, and so on until all the words in the sentence 56 SPELLING have been spelled. (An excellent exercise : it demands attention.) 2. It will be well in oral spelling to make all the members of the class responsible for the accurate spell- ing of each and every word. If the first member of the class misspells the word given to him, let the teacher proceed and give out the next word, without intimating whether the first word was correctly or incorrectly spelled. If the second pupil thinks the first word was not spelled correctly, he will spell it instead of the one given him, and so on through the class, each being expected to correct any error that may have been committed. If the first pupil spells a word incorrectly, and no one cor- rects it, let all be charged with a failure. This mode will amply compensate for its frequent adoption. Two-thirds of the words in the English language need but little study. The remainder can Put your J hard work be mastered only by study. The pupils cult words, should be urged to study the difficult words. 3. Another mode of conducting the exercise of spell- ing is the following, and we may add that for more advanced schools it possesses some advantages. Let the teacher write legibly on the board twenty or more difficult words, and allow them to remain long enough to be carefully studied by the school. A few minutes before the exercise let all the words be erased from the board. Let each pupil provide himself with a slip of paper, following the order as directed in the previous exercises. The teacher will pronounce the words and the pupils will write them* SUGGESTIVE METHODS 57 After the words have been written, let the slips be collected and taken by the teacher, who may himself aided by some of the pupils examine the slips, and mark the words spelled incorrectly. Subsequently, let the teacher read the result to the whole school, stating the number of errors committed by the several pupils ; after which the papers may be returned for correction. If there is a good board in the room, a few pupils should write the lesson on it. 4. An attractive mode, which may answer for oral or written spelling, is the following : The instructor pronounces the word which is to be spelled by the first in the class, who will name immedi- ately another, commencing with the final letter of the first word which is to be spelled by the next pupil ; and he in turn will name another word, and so on through the class. It will awaken thought and interest. 5. Another mode which has its advantages is the following': , Let the teacher dictate some twenty or twenty-five words to the class, requiring the members to write them on their slates. These words are to be carefully exam- ined and studied by the pupils, who are also to be required to incorporate each word in a sentence which shall illustrate its meaning and show that it is under- stood by them. After these sentences have been read and erased from the slates, let the words be dictated again, to be written and examined with special reference to the orthography. The teacher should keep a copy of all words dictated to the pupils, and hold them responsible for the correct spelling in review. 58 Teachers should give close attention to this important importance subject, for truly it has been said, " To spell >f spelling. one > s own language well is no great credit to him, for he ought to do it ; but to spell it ill is a dis- grace, because it indicates extremely poor attention and loose scholarship." We have a great number of spelling-books, grammars, and other aids, but with all these, poor spellers still abound. One cause of the frequency of poor spelling may be found in the neglect with which the spelling lesson is treated in schools. It is often crowded into a few min- utes and passed over in a hurried and imperfect manner, while if any exercise must be omitted the spell- ing lesson is the neglected one. Another cause may be found in a feeling, not very uncommon, that spelling is undeserving the attention of any but very young pupils. Prom the beginning let your pupils understand that the spelling lesson will always receive its due share of attention, and its due time. Hold your pupils respon- sible for the correct spelling of every word in the regu- lar recitation and upon reviews. As soon as the pupils can write, which in a well-con- ducted school is about as soon as they can read, special instruction in spelling with script letters should be in- troduced, and children should be required to write and to spell orally every word in their reading, and the diffi- cult words in other lessons. If accuracy and neatness in every particular be required, habits of careful atten- tion will be formed. EXERCISES IK PROKtWCIATIOK 59 The child must be taught to spell correctly before twelve years old, as this habit is seldom acquired after that age. A good speller is one who habitually gives the cor- rect form to every word in his written exer- spelling used cises. It is only in printed and written Ian- guage that correct spelling possesses any ms ' value. Oral spelling is not a test of accuracy. It is impossible to memorize by their letters all the words in our language. If we wish to make pupils excellent spellers, we must cultivate the powers of observation and memory. If habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are allowed to be formed in childhood, no ordinary efforts in after life can overcome the defects or supply the deficiencies that result from such habits. GENERAL EULES FOR SPELLING Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthography and signification. Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. Eules for spelling are of but little use in primary classes, or in fact in any classes. It may be well to memorize them, as they may prove of a little use in spelling of derivatives. EXERCISES IBT ORTHOEPY NOTE. The teacher should write these words on the board, and let the pupils pronounce them. 1. sacrifice, 4. equable, 2. memoriter, 5. truths, 3. pedagogy, 6. torrid, 60 SPELLING 7. often, 9. finance, 8. pretty, 10. mercy. 1. sSc'rrfice, 6. tSrMd, 2. memSr'iter, 7. Sf'n, 3. pgcTagOgy, 8. prtt'ty, 4. 5'quable, 9. fT'nSnce, 5. truths, 10. mSi^cy. 1. finale, 6. inquiry, 2. apparatus, 7. employe, 3. orotund, 8. condolence, 4. jugular, 9. dessert, 5. enervate, 10. pronunciation. 1. finale, 6. Inquiry, 2. SpparS'tus, 7. employe, 3. C'rOtund, 8. condolence, 4. ju'gular, 9. dessert 7 , 5. engr'vate, 10. pronunciation. 1. aye, 6. acclimate, 2. area, 7. apparent, 3. almond, 8. aspirant, 4. alias, 9. allopathy, 5. arctic, 10. albumen. 1. a'ye, 6. ScclI'mate, 2. a'rea, 7. SppaVent, 3. a'mond, 8. Ssplr'ant, 4. a'ttas, 9. aildp'athy. 5. arc'tic, 10. Slbu'men. 1. Appala'chian, 6. Colorado, 2. Amazon, 7. Cohoes 7 , 3. New Orleans, 8. Virginia, 4. New'foiindland, 9. Arkansas, 5. Shawan'gunk, (Sho^gum) 10. Ausa'ble. ARTICULATION 61 " Exactness in articulation cannot exist without close discrimination and careful analysis." The Remar ks preceding exercises on the correct pronun- ciation of words should receive attention. It would be well for the teacher to write on the board a list of words pronounced incorrectly by the pupils, and require the pupils to correct them. The author's "Pocket Pronunciation Book" (price 15 cts.), gives 3,000 of the words oftenest mispronounced. Hall's " Or- thoepy Made Easy" (price 75 cts.) gives 38 selections containing in narrative form the words oftenest mispronounced, with a key at the end of each giving all the words with diacritical marks. Hoose's " Studies in Articulation" (price 50 cts.) gives a careful study of sounds, with abundant exercises in pronunciation. Sanford's " Limited Speller " (price 25 cts.) gives the 5 ; 000 words most commonly misspelled, arranging them alphabetically, and giving the diacritical marks, so that no mistake can be made in pronunciation. It is perhaps the best adapted to secure results of all the manuals published. PENMANSHIP I. GEJSTEEAL PKIJSTCIPLES Instruction in penmanship may be broadly classed under two heads ; one which aims to teach scholars to draw, and the other which seeks to develop the forms of letters through the medium of natural movements. The first makes use mainly of the movements which may be produced by the fingers, thumb, and wrists, while the second recognizes a medium of execution which brings into play the entire arm and shoulder muscles. These two processes are based upon principles so radi- cally different, that a clear understanding of the nature and tendency of each is quite essential to any intelligent plan of teaching. It would be comparatively easy to suggest theoretically a method for instructing classes in our public schools which if carried out according to programme would insure excellent results, but in practice we might find it an entirely different thing ; the conditions are usually so restrictive, and the requirements regarding other branches to be taught so numerous, that the question really becomes, not so much what ought a teacher to do, as what can he do, under the circumstances ? PENMANSHIP NOT ACQUIRED BY IMITATION OF FORMS One of the first requirements, especially in our graded schools, is that a child from the moment he A fundamen- tal error. enters shall begin to learn to make the script letters, and to form them into words and sentences, as (62) IMITATION OF FORMS 63 an essential medium for developing the faculty of lan- guage. In doing this if he is able to draw out the forms legibly upon the slate or tablet, the important question of how it is done is rarely considered, and even the more important question as to what future use the child may make of this writing, receives but little attention. It is a fact well known to teachers that in learning to form the letter, young children almost in- . 9 J & . Early forma- variably acquire a habit of grasping the pencil Jj ^.P f bad in a manner which cramps the fingers, forces the hand over to the right, bends the wrist in toward the body, and places the pen in a position which is so awkward and unnatural as to prevent absolutely any- thing like freedom in execution ; but it is forgotten that this habit of twisting and distorting the position of the hand must in time become as much a part of the act of writing as the form of the letter itself. The force of habit will be certain to assert its power, and this strained unnatural position must eventually identify itself with the forming process in every letter the act of writing becomes a torture instead of a pleasure, and a struggle ensues between teacher and pupil when the slate is exchanged for the copy book, and the attempt is made to correct the habit. Nor does the difficulty end when by careful teaching and patient effort the scholar has obtained some con- trol of the pen, and is able to imitate the forms of letters. The carefully drawn page in the copy book will often excite admiration, while the composition or other written exercise presents a style of penmanship which fails to suggest any connection between them, the character of 64 PENMANSHIP the handwriting in the two instances being as totally unlike as if written by different persons. This tendency to write two entirely different hands is not at all uncommon among school children, and demonstrates quite clearly that penmanship acquired by imitation,, and with the hand and pen in a false position, lacks the essential quality of practical application. Under these conditions the teacher is quite apt to become discouraged, and may conclude that such results are inevitable ; but when properly understood, the real cause of failure may be traced to the natural difference which exists between drawing two words per minute in the writing lesson, and the attempts to draw fifteen or twenty in the same time in the composition, where it becomes evident that the process of correct drawing must be restricted as to speed. It is perhaps practically impossible to do away with Disadvan- slate-work in teaching writing to primary sfate? ork scholars, notwithstanding its liabilty to pro- mote bad habits in pen-holding, its certain tendency to make a scholar careless in all his work ; but it is evident that the transition from the unyielding slate surface and the short pencil where main strength often becomes an active element, to the sharp, pliant pen and soft texture of the paper, is altogether too abrupt. Some kind of preparation is needful, and if an intermediate drill in which long lead pencils might be used on calendered manilla paper, was introduced, it would render the change more gradual and be produc- tive of better results. So long as instruction in penmanship consists of teaching by imitation the forms of letters, with such THE SECRET OF SUCCESS 65 occasional directions for position and pen-holding as a teacher who cannot himself hold a pen correctly may ven- ture to give, the theory of an intimate relation between writing and drawing will be accepted ; the faculty of drawing will possibly be somewhat developed, but as regards any practical application commercially or other- wise, the process results in failure, the scholar continues to draw term after term, but unfortunately never learns to write. This may partly explain why the slate work of the primary grades in many of our schools is so much better than the pen work of scholars in the higher classes ; the formation in writing is so simple that the elements are rapidly acquired, but in the attempt to use pen and ink, without having been thoroughly drilled in movement, the correct form quickly disappears. THE SECEET OF SUCCESS LIES IN THE ARM MOVEMENT. Want of confidence, generally arising from a belief that one must needs be a fine penman to teach this branch successfully, prevents many able teachers from attempting anything out of the ordinary routine. A knowledge of the nature and value of movement, the ability to make upon the blackboard a Every teacher few simple elements of form, a little faith gained from personal experience, and a dis- wel1 - position to work, will enable any teacher to obtain as good results in this as in any other branch, and quite frequently much better. If penmanship as now taught in our public schools is a comparative failure, the fault is largely with the teacher; he does npt need to be an expert penman to 66 PENMANSHIP teach it acceptably. It is better to know something of the analysis of letters, but the requirements in this re- spect are not beyond what the majority possess. He should, of course, understand from the start that he is to teach writing, not drawing ; and the scholar should be made to realize that he is to learn to form the letters with the whole arm instead of with the fingers. Whole-arm, as here used, should not be confounded with off-hand or free-arm movement ; for although the entire arm is used, the fore-arm rest on the desk is maintained, and the sleeve is kept from sliding. Next, and in this connection most important of all, Not imitation ^ eacner an( ^ scholar should each know that 76 ^ e ^ es ^ wa y ^ i m P rove hi s penmanship is to stop writing entirely, so far as imitation of letters is concerned, and to give all attention to the cultivation or development of movement through prac- tice on properly arranged exercises. It is evident that if a scholar has already acquired a false position of the hand in learning to form letters on the slate or otherwise, this form and position are to a degree inseparable, and continued practice on the let- ters with pen and ink will serve merely to confirm bad habits, and to prevent the establishment of correct ones. New forms of exercises must necessarily be associated Exercise w ^ ^ new movements ; and that the mo- on^vai? 6 ^ ve * or P rac ^ ce ma y not ke uncertain, the hand and arm under the impulse of an aug- mented power must be drilled to do something definite, having always for its object the application of the move- ments acquired to the construction of letters : hence all REPETITION OF ONE MOVEMENT 67 exercises of muscular drill should be based upon the standard forms of ovals, separately, and associated with straight lines. GENERAL DIRECTIONS There is so much variety in the shape and size of school desks that definite instruction for the position of the body, and the placing of the position the right arm so as to secure the best results in all cases, cannot be given ; but it will generally be found that if a scholar is given a start in arm movement, and is made to understand clearly what is expected of him, he will usually adjust himself to existing conditions and work out both problems in a satisfactory manner. It is the constant, persistent repetition of a single movement which tells in forming an exercise, Re etitionof and this part of a beginner's work cannot a single movement. well be overdone. Drill a scholar in this manner for a few months and you will have given him a degree of facility with the pen which he can no more forget than the knack of skating or swimming, and in addition you will enable him to lay the only true foundation for future success- ful practice in penmanship. In telegraphy the character, or the sound represent- ing it, is not produced by the operator through any mental recognition of the number or arrangement of the dots and dashes employed, but by an unconscious action of the fingers, which through long practice has come to personate that special character. And the business penman, although forming characters with per- fect uniformity, gives no thought to the matter of right, 68 PENMANSHIP left, or double curves ; a definite movement has been established for each letter, and the hand trained by practice does the work without mental effort. That which in practice is true of telegraphy or rapid business writing is equally true in applying acquired movements in learning to write. The letters are so constructed that by learning the strokes which form the principal types five in number the letters themselves may be formed without especial effort ; and if the stroke fails to produce a correct type, the error will be found to result from an imperfect movement rather than from any lack of knowledge in formation, and want of char- acter in any letter may be directly traced to lack of firmness and precision in the arm action. Very much of this fine theorizing about the necessity individuals ^ or developing the artistic and cultivating in penman- the beautiful in conception of form, as ap- plied to teaching school children to write, is mere nonsense, and may easily become a hindrance rather than a help to practical work. It is a well understood fact that no two persons ever did or ever will write exactly alike ; in learning, each one will be certain to develop characteristics peculiar to himself, and there is little use or reason in attempting to force all hands into any specific mould. Make a careful study of the right arm ; ascertain by study the practice which muscles and joints come most arm. prominently into use by the act of writing, and then introduce such calisthenic exercises as will dis- cipline these into subjection to the will ; now, basing your pen drills upon properly arranged exercises, put scholars in the way of securing this faculty or knack of IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 69 movement as applied to the different classes of letters, and the mere matter of form, although of equal impor- tance, will require but little special attention. THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS MAY MAKE GOOD PENMEN. Many teachers get the idea that as good work cannot be done in public schools as in those organized for special instruction in commercial branches, but experi- ence shows that the better work in almost every respect can and should be done in the former. The organization and force of discipline behind a teacher in a well regulated public school is a Forceofor powerful lever, which rightly applied may gamzation be made a means for producing results not easily attainable in any other way. In addition to this, the fact that children may be kept under a systematic course of training for several years, and the habits of correct position, movement and formation so firmly established as to assure continued improvement after leaving school, renders the public school instruction in many respects more valuable than tuition under other conditions. II. PRACTICAL EXEECISES SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS The lessons given on the following pages are intended to assist you in acquiring the ARM MOVEMENT Learn to do in writing, as distinguished from the use of b y doin - the thumb and finger joints. If you will merely take the time to demonstrate its value in your own case you cannot very well fail in teaching it successfully to others. But this is a case where for a certainty you must learn 70 PENMANSHIP to do by doing, and the measure of your own success will determine the degree of confidence with which you will impart it unto others. You need not necessarily wait for its accomplishment before beginning to teach it. As soon as you have learned to place the arm and hand properly, as directed on page 71, and can make the direct muscular movement as illustrated hereafter (but without the pen), put your class under the same drill, and by thus applying the theory in practice you will add materially to the value of your own training. When the work outlined in this lesson has been ac- Position of complished, when you can not only make the the pupiL movement exercises fairly well (this does not refer to a perfect formation, as that is merely a result and not a means) but can also teach others to make them, then you will be prepared to continue the application of the method by the use of properly arranged exercise books. For position you will probably obtain the best results by having the pupil turn the right side to the desk, placing the right fore-arm entirely on it (the elbow joint will not interfere if the arm is perfectly flat), and with left hand brought to the edge to hold the paper or book. The body should not touch the edge of the desk. Do not allow the pupil to lean on the right arm ; be careful that a light rest is maintained in all move- ments. In practising to improve your penmanship, ligibility and uniformity are the primary, and free- Thefour ... r ... ,. , ends to be dom m movement and rapid execution, the ultimate results to be attained. These, taken together, constitute the essentials of good writing. The motive for practice should not be uncertain ; the PRACTICAL EXERCISES VI hand and arm must be drilled to do something definite, and that having always for its object the application of the movements acquired to the construction of letters. We may say here, that all consideration of this subject will be from the standpoint of future utility, by assum- ing that those who undertake to carry out the instruc- tion will have in view a practical application in some form of what they may acquire either as teachers or penmen. POSITION The position of the hand and pen, in learning to write, is of such vital importance that any neglect Correct osi . to secure and maintain the standard position ^Jj^jf ~ will be almost certain to result in failure ; any attempt to evade this point by trying to do it your way, because it appears less difficult, will simply defeat its accomplishment. If you value success in this work, be sure that you begin right in penholding, and then be very careful that you keep right. The directions for securing this have reference to placing the body in such a position at the table (not always applicable to school desks), as will admit of an unrestricted use of the right arm, hand, and fingers. In teaching position to school children, let them turn the right side, placing the right arm on the desk parallel to its front edge ; left hand brought to the edge of desk to hold book or practice paper, both feet on floor, etc.; straighten the arm until the elbow comes near the front of the body. When practising at a table take a position, nearly square in front, with both arms resting, the left with the elbow projecting over the edge two to four inches, and brought near the body. This latter direction cannot be observed if the top of the table is much more than two inches above the elbow joint when the arm is dropped by the side. A low table or high chair is much better for movement practice. Cur No. 1. The Front Position /Both arms resting ; elbows projecting over edge of desk ; leaning upon the left arm ; arms forming right-angles at elbow, with body erect ; arms crossing desk obliquely. Best adapted for practice at a large desk or flat table. The usual position for busi- ness writing, whether sitting or standing. Advantageous for general practice where conditions are favorable. Not practicable for the ordi- nary school desk, mainly on account of lack of space from front to back MOVEMENT The training of the arm in the movements to be used in writing must be considered as distinct from the writ- ing itself. The indicated movement drills are simply CUT No. 2. The Side Position . Right side to desk, with arm and paper par- allel to the front edge ; body erect, with left hand at edge of desk to hold paper and to steady the position ; right arm resting very lightly, and forming a light- angle at the elbow; both feet on the floor; right elbow kept always below the centre of page ; right arm flat on desk, and balanced on the bunch of muscles near the elbow ; wrist elevated, with weight on nails of third and fourth fingers bent inward. Best adapted for ordinary school desks, and has been found to answer all requirements. 74 PEX-MAXSIJIP a kind of highly specialized gymnastics, having no nec- essary connection with the writing which is to follow except as they furnish the vehicle for producing it. The needed muscular movement requires a range of ef- fective exercises which the act of writing does not fur- nish. In fact the best way to obtain the desired muscular force, and through that the controlled movement, is to forget all about writing while practising these prelimi- nary drills. A condition of strong and positive vitality is indispensable ; stout nerves and supple muscles will greatly facilitate successful practice. FIRST POSITION FOB MOVEMENT DRILLS This can most readily be shown to the class by plac- ing the arm on the black-board or wall as indicated in the cut, giving at the same time the following direc- tions. See CUT No. 3, page 75. 1st. Eight side to desk, but without the body's touch- ing it. 2d. Both feet on the floor. 3d. Place right arm flat on the desk, parallel to the front edge. 4th. Hand perfectly flat (as in CUT 3), palm touch- ing desk. 5th. Wrist should be found naturally but clearly elevated. XOTE. This elevation of the wrist above the desk will vary somewhat and the exact distance cannot be determined ; but be sure that it is elevated, and teach the pupil that this position of the arm and hand flat on the desk gives the natural wrist-eleva- tion which is to be maintained throughout his practice. See ele- vation shown by CUTS 1 and 2. 6th. Impress upon each pupil the fact that when the MOVEMENT 75 hand is laid flat with palm touching desk, the arm is in exactly the correct position, and that when the hand is turned to the right, however slightly, the position of the arm must be wrong. 7th. When the arm is correctly placed on the desk the inside should form a right angle at the elbow. This rule must be rigidly enforced, whatever the height of the desk may be. It brings the arm into its correct relative position to the body, and admits of all move- ments being freely executed. See CUT No. 2. It will be as well if the elbow is kept entirely on the desk, as it generally will be if the arm forms a right-angle ; but if allowed to project at all the distance should not exceed two or three inches. CUT No. 3. Showing position of hand as placed flat upon the desk, before taking 2d and 3d positions, or commencing a movement exercise. SECOND POSITION. No. 2 The next step is to learn how to balance on the^ muscles of the arm near the elbow, without having the hand or elbow-joint touch the desk. See CUT No 4.. 76 PENMANSHIP Directions. Close the hand without changing posi- tion of the wrist, which should be neither lowered nor raised. The hand should now be held clear of the desk, the weight of the arm resting lightly on the bunch of muscles in front of the elbow-joint. See CUT No. 6. THIRD POSITION Without changing from second position make the direct movement as illustrated by CUT No. 5. Use the muscles of the shoulder in conjunction with shoulder and elbow joints, working the arm back and forth on a line with the direction of the forearm, pushing out and drawing in, but without sliding the sleeve. The sleeve in this movement should remain as station- Cur No. 4. Showing hand closed and slightly elevated from desk ; arm lightly balanced on muscles near elbow. The hand should be closetl tightly, and the muscles of hand and arm must be entirely relaxed. ary as if glued to the desk, while the wrist works out and in, impelled freely by the action of the shoulder muscles. The action of the arm is the movement which would straighten it if the motion was unrestricted by the rest on the desk. MOVEMENT 77 The simple motion of the entire arm thus produced on a line with the forearm is the key to all subsequent movements, and must be practised daily until the action of the muscles brought into play becomes easy and natural. The vibration of the muscular rest in this movement will carry the hand back and forth a dis- tance of from one-half inch to three inches without sliding the sleeve, varying according to the natural formation of the arm and amount of practice ; but it will be found that beginners can materially increase the range of movement by systematic drill. How TO EXPLAIN MUSCULAR MOVEMENT A correct idea of the vibratory action of the forearm, muscles is obtained by grasping the right arm with the left hand, as before indicated, firmly on the inside just below the elbow ; then, holding this hand stationary, work the hand back and forth on the direct movement, the wrist moving in and out of the sleeve. This action CUT No. 5. Showing action of hand and forearm, working back and forth. in direct line, but without sliding the sleeve. This action produces the developing movement which is the correct basis of all others. will show how the muscle-layers by slipping over each other produce what is called muscular movement. 78 PESTMA^SHIP CLASS DRILLS After the pupils have learned to take the three posi- tions at command, and are able to make the direct movement freely, begin the regular movement drills as follows : 2d position ; 3d position ; ready ; one-two- three (repeat). Draw the arm back quickly at each Cur No. 6. Showing muscular rest on forearm near elbow. Cur No. 7. Illustrating position and pen-holding. Holder between first and second fingers and thumb, crossing first finger in front of knuckle-joint and second finger at the root of naii ; end of thumb opposite the f CLASS DRILLS 79 joint of forefinger. Third and fourth fingers separated from the other two, and bent inward equally at the three joints ; keep entirely relaxed and resting almost flat on the nails. Keep hand and arm perfectly flat, with holder pointing at the head. End of second finger not to exceed one-half inch above the desk. This cut shows the simultaneous action of pen-point and finger-rest in forming oval or straight line movements. The arm should form a right-angle at the elbow. Wrist elevated above the desk. count, but without sliding the sleeve, counting 150 per minute. Continue for one minute without stopping. Kest one minute, relaxing arm and hand. Repeat this drill twice daily, not less than 10 minutes each time, paying strict attention both to the position and to the character of the movement produced. See that the arm rests lightly. FOURTH POSITION You may now have the class take the several positions in regular order, as explained in the last lesson ; and for the Fourth Position, place the hand as in CUT No. 11. This may be called forming the hand, and is an important part of the drill. With scarcely an excep- tion, pupils when learning script will have acquired cramped and unnatural positions in pen-holding. It will also be found that these wrong positions have by association become inseparable from the act of forming letters. The first step, then, should be to disconnect the new position and movements from the writing itself, to train the hand into a correct position independently of the pen-holding. During the first year in school it is better not to attempt pen- or pencil-holding in connection with movement exercises, but by aiming to conform the habit of correct position, secure the ability to hold and use the pen effectively in the higher grades. But in any grade where this method is being 80 PENMANSHIP introduced, the same rule should be observed at the Cur No. 8. Showing how the band and pen-holder should appear when the pupil is facing the teacher. When, tho arm and hand are kept flat on the desk the holder will naturally cross the ruled lines obliquely, or on the regular writing slant. When practising with the pen what was called the direct movement in Lesson EL, and which was made on a line with the forearm, should now be modified, and made in the oblique direction towards the head. This is indicated by the line shown in cut. beginning. Drill a great deal without the pen, and with a dry pen ; get all the range of action you possibly can ; and that which is to follow will come not only naturally, but easily. Do not be in any hurry to prac- tise writing. There will be ample time for that after the movement to do it with has been secured. Faithfully and intelligently carried out there can be no such thing as failure with this plan of teaching. From the Fourth Position, CUT "No. 11, make the modified direct movement towards the head on the writing slant, as explained under CUT No. 8. Count for this movement HOW TO GAUGE MOVEMENT 81 CUT No. 9 CUT No. 10 the same as directed for " Class Drills " in Lesson II. Be sure that the third and fourth fingers are relaxed, and bent well inward, and that they are sliding freely on the nails. How TO GAUGE MOVEMENT It is a good plan to place your arm on the desk in correct position and then to take an accurate gauge of 82 PENMANSHIP the distance your hand will move in a direct line with- out sliding the sleeve ; then by continued practice endeavor to increase the range. This course should also be adopted with the class. PEN-HOLDING After the hand has by practice been correctly formed, pen-holding is by no means difficult. Place the hand carefully as in CUT No. 11 ; then separating the thumb CUT No. 11 slightly from the forefinger, insert the peri-holder, pushing it down until the point just touches the desk. Now replace the thumb and note if the directions as illus- trated in CUTS 7 and 8 have been observed. With the hand and pen as now placed, drill the class once more on the straight line movement, made obliquely towards the head, counting the time as indicated before. Make these movements energetically, allowing the class to count part of the time. The arm should rest lightly on the desk. It is a good plan to have the class lift the arm occasionally, and replace it carefully on the desk VALUE OF MOVEMENT DRILLS 83 with just enough bearing to keep the sleeve from sliding. SPECIAL EXERCISE FOR MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT Have the class stand, and, with both arms extended horizontally, open and shut the hand twenty-five to fifty times. Shut the hands firmly and throw them wide open with a quick motion, spreading the fingers at each action. This drill if followed will materially increase the size, strength, and flexibility of these muscles. By taking a firm hold of the right arm on the inside below the elbow with the left hand, and then opening and shutting the right hand, the action of the muscles controlling this movement is clearly indicated." Have the class try this. CLASS DRILL ON HAND FORMING Starting from the first position with the hand flat on the desk : At the word One: bend the forearm back into a vertical position, with elbow resting, and hand open as in CUT No. 9. At Two : form the thumb and fingers into the correct position, as in CUT No. 10. At Three : drop lightly upon the desk, with the hand in position shown in CUT No. 11. Order of drill : At- tention ; First position ; One ; Two ; Three. After repeating ten times, follow with the oblique movement drill. This will be found especially helpful for young pupils. VALUE OF MOVEMENT DRILLS In the use of finger movement the muscles of the arm may be disciplined but cannot be developed ; but it will be found that the process of muscular develop- ment as outlined in these lessons will in itself effect the needed discipline. 84 PENMANSHIP Strength of movement can come only through the creation of muscular force, which alone will give the freedom of arm action necessaly to produce bold and definite execution with the pen. THE SIDE OB LATEKAL MOVEMENT For the reason that it assists directly in forming every letter, and in addition carries the hand from let- ter to letter and from word to word across the page, the lateral movement becomes the controlling action in writing. It is the force which will enable you to utilize all other movements, and must be thoroughly mastered at the beginning. PRELIMINARY PRACTICE Movement should always precede form : that is, a given form must be considered as the result of a specific movement ; hence a careful preparatory drill, first with the hand correctly formed, and then with a dry pen, will be an essential part of these elementary exercises. Place the arm in position as is shown by CUT No. 2, with the hand formed and placed as in CUT No. 11. The arm should be placed four inches from the edge of the desk and parallel with it : upper and lower arm forming a right-angle. Now balancing lightly on the muscular rest, and using that as a pivot, swing the forearm back and forth a distance of about eight inches. As only the elbow-joint should be used in this action, watch the wrist, and be sure that there is no movement of that joint. The hand is to be carried on nails of third and fourth fingers relaxed and bent well underneath. Have the class practise this, counting one, two, until every hand moves freely, in perfect concert, and with- PRELIMINARY PRACTICE 85 out apparent effort. The pupil should be especially taught to watch his own hand, to observe if it be cor- rectly formed, and to measure the distance of eight inches accurately. See that the arm lies perfectly flat on the desk, that the muscles are entirely relaxed, that the elbow action is unrestricted. When this action of the arm has become free and natural, place the pen in the hand and continue the same movement, but without the pen-point touch- ing the desk. To place the pen, leave the right hand, formed into position as in CUT No. 11, take pen in left hand, separate thumb of right slightly from first finger, and insert the pen-holder, pushing it down until the point touches the desk. Then raising the pen just enough to clear the desk, replace the thumb opposite the first joint of the first finger. See CUTS 7 and 8. Continue this pen drill until every pupil holds the pen correctly, keep the hand properly formed, and make the movement with a well indicated force. It will be found, as stated on page 82, that every pupil's habit of pen-holding has become directly asso- ciated with the letter-forming, and if asked at this point to write a word, he would be quite certain to relapse into the old position. It is also evident that this firmly fixed habit of finger movement combined with a cramped position can best be overcome by the creation of a stronger counter habit of arm movement, using the more natural position. In this connection it may be stated that the first pen- stroke to be made with these movements should be one requiring no effort as regards formation. And right here is a fundamental point. It is comparatively easy to teach a pupil these movements, but not so easy to get 86 PENMANSHIP him to understand clearly that to have any special value they must become self-recording; that the less effort made so far as the resulting form is concerned the better will be that result. We usually find more success in teaching new habits than in trying to induce pupils to let go of old ones. To remove the principal cause by disconnecting these positions and movements entirely from the act of writing for the time being, is therefore the first step necessary in this direction. MATERIALS FOR PRACTICE For the exercises which follow, foolscap of a good quality, or the largest size of letter paper, should be used. Foolscap cut into quarter sheets gives nearly the width of the ordinary copy-book page, and makes a convenient form for the purpose. Note paper and the smaller size of tablets will not answer for this prac- tice. A fine pointed flexible pen like " Gillott's 604 " is decidedly the best. Good black ink is a necessity. THE RECORD OF A MOVEMENT Have the class take the " Side" position as shown in CUT No. 2, page 73. The paper should be placed close to the edge of the desk and parallel with it. The elbow must be beiow the centre of the page, hand and wrist EXERCISE Ko. 1 crossing the ruled lines vertically, and with the pen held at the middle of the top line, without touching. KECORD OF A MOVEMENT 87 "With the arm balanced lightly on the muscular rest near the elbow, and using this as a pivot, swing the hand back and forth across the page, gliding on the nails of the finger rest. If no joint except the elbow is used, the movement of the pen-point would if recorded trace the arc of a circle, whose radius would be the distance from the pivotal rest to the pen-point. Now take ink and proceed as follows : At the word " Position " place the hand and pen at the centre, as directed above. " Ready " : swing the hand back to the left edge of paper. Next swing the hand to the right entirely across the page, counting one, back to the left edge counting two. After six preliminary swings, and starting from the left side at the word " Eight" let the pen-point drop lightly on the paper, and trace a record of the curved movement across the page ; at the word " Left " lift the pen-point enough to clear and swing back. Ee- peat this curved movement stroke six times but only making a record while moving to the right. The re- sult should be similar to Exercise No. 1, but nearly twice as long. Be very certain that no effort is made to form a curved line. Let tne hand swing freely, merely allowing the pen-point to record the natural movement. The pen starting from a given line at the left although moving on a curve should stop on the same line at the right, and the hand and paper should be so adjusted as to accomplish this without effort. While practising from this lesson, stop frequently and read over the questions at the end. You will find this not only helpful in your own practice, but very useful in the class drills. These directions are given in detail precisely as you are to present them to your pupils, and the repeat- 88 PEtfMAKSHIP ing of the questions while they are at work calls atten- tion directly to the most important points of the instruction. In practising Exercise No. 1, hr/ve the group of lines placed no more than J of an inch apart, and the lines themselves the same distance as shown in copy. After filling a page turn the paper and make the same exercise across the ruled lines, but with as much care as before. EXERCISE No. 2 The directions for practising Exercise No. 2, are the same as for No. 1, except that the record line for No. 2 is made continuously in both directions without lifting the pen. The ; rate of speed in this movement record fihould be about sixty strokes per minute. The order of class drills may be : 1. Position at desk. 2. Posi- tion of hand and pen at top of page, and middle of line. 3. Swing the left, "Ready". 4. Count six for preliminary strokes. 5. Eight, left, right, left, for the record lines. If, as will sometimes be the case, the pupils insist upon trying to make the curved line, have him swing the hand back and forth a few times, and then looking away from the paper allow the pen to touch and trace the line without seeing it. Attention is again called to the fact that while the object should be ultimately to connect the movements with the formative process, form must for the present be considered as a result only, and so far as possible should be entirely separated from all previously ac- QUESTION'S FOR EXAMINATION 89 quired habits of construction. In fact a pupil should be instructed not to try to form anything, but simply permit the arm to swing naturally while allowing the pen-point to trace this action on tho paper. The amount of time which may profitably be given to the practice of the exercises of this lesson cannot be definite- ly stated ; but there is little danger of overdoing it, and the more firmly this habit of position and movement becomes fixed, the more readily will a pupil understand and make application of the instructions which are to follow. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION Are you in a proper position at the desk ? Are both feet on the floor, the left in advance ? Does the arm lie flat on the desk, and rest lightly ? Do you keep the pen-holder pointing at the head ? (See CUT 8, page 80.) Do you slide freely on the nails (hand rest) ? CUT No. 12 Does the arm form a right angle at the elbow ? Are you swinging the hand freely and with a natural move- ment from left to right ? Are you using the wrist- 90 PENMANSHIP joint ? Does the record show a true curve, and are the Jines parallel ? Have you been careful about counting ? Has the elbow been constantly kept below the centre of the page ? NOTE. This position of the arm rest below the centre of the paper should be strictly maintained, and never be changed in writing across the page. Is the weight of the hand carried on the nails ? Do you hold the practice paper in position with the left hand ? It is once more indicated that the object of these lessons is not to teach the forms of letters except as a result, and that such exercises as may be introduced for the purpose of developing or disciplining the various movements to be used in writing, are to be employed suggestively. Even where letters or combinations of the same are given, they are not to be practised imita- tively, but merely as a test of movement. For example: If, after practising on the movement designed to pro- duce the first part of the capital W, an attempt to form this letter is unsuccessful, you are to assume that the failure is due to defective movement, and that more practice on the required stroke is needed. A properly developed, well disciplined action of the arm can be depended upon. Put aside tha idea that you must first learn to imitate a given form of letter. Confine your efforts to the acquirement of the natural unrestricted action of the shoulder muscles, so directed as to pro- duce certain definite movements of the forearm, with- out any use of the wrist or finger joints. Keep driving at this in a systematic manner, and the desired re- sults in formation will not be lacking. But so long as QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 91 the writing exercise retains any of the elements of a drawing lesson, as commonly understood, your efforts will not only be restricted, but in all probability de- feated. EXERCISE No. 3 Make it a rule to gain considerable freedom and con- trol in any given movement before you begin to look for correct form as the result of its record. Exercise No. 3 will aid directly in gaining all other movements, and some which are to follow cannot be learned with- out it. When practised as a direct movement, see CUT No. 12, it is made by drawing in and pushing out the arm in its own direction, using the shoulder muscles only and without sliding the sleeve. It is a good plan to have each pupil take a careful gauge of his direct movement, measured by the ruled spaces on the paper, and then seek to increase it as much as possible by practice. As given in Exercise No. 3, the action is modified so as to make the stroke towards the head. Try to get an easy range in this direction of at least three ruled spaces, and without any use of the thumb or finger joints. This movement is intended to make the straight line in the down stroke of all letters, and when made from the correct position, in the direction indicated above, will produce the proper slant for each individual. 92 PENMANSHIP This slant will be found to vary but little from the established standard. DIRECTIONS FOR PRACTICE Place the hand and arm in position as illustrated and explained by CUTS No. 7 and 8, pages 78 and 80. Next take ink and let the pen-point rest without touching, at the centre of the page near the top. Now swing the hand back and forth across the page a few times on the natural curve movement, stopping at the left side. Then with the pen-holder pointing at the head make a few preliminary movements in that direc- tion, drawing the arm into the sleeve and pushing it out, without any sliding action on the desk. Without checking this action let the pen-point touch the paper and trace the lines as in Exercise No. 3. In the preliminary practice begin counting quite briskly 1-2-3-4-5, making the downward stroke for each count, and be careful to keep the speed the same while making the ink record. Do not allow the arm rest to change from the position below the centre of the page. Watch the movement of the hand-rest on the nails of third and fourth fingers, as this action must always coincide with that of the pen. Observe the character of the strokes made, glancing occasionally at the copy but never trying to imitate it, except by use of the shoulder muscles. As illustrated by this exercise, the next movement, although the reverse of No. 2, page 73, is much more difficult. The swinging action of the forearm is the same, but instead of the natural sweep, the oblique movement of No. 3 is so combined with it as to con- tinually draw in the arm until the centre of the under DIRECTIONS FOR PRACTICE 93 curve is reached, whon it is again relaxed or pushed out gradually as either side of the paper is approached. The ease with which this stroke may be executed will depend very much on the freedom secured with No. 3. In all of these exercises, and for all purposes of practice or of writing, the elbow should be kept constantly below EXERCISE No. 4 the centre of the page. Always take this position with the pen-point at the middle of the line, and then swing back to the left side. This insures a command of the entire line, besides giving the down stroke the uniform slant, Make this exercise entirely across the page, and get all the action you can without sliding the sleeve, or using the wrist or finger joints. The movement to be gained is that used in forming the under curves of small letters. No. 1 forms the upper curves, and No. 3 the straight lines. It will be seen therefore that these three exercises will produce elementally all the movements used in making the small letters. Eate of speed not more than 50 strokes per minute. EXERCISE No. 4 PENMANSHIP Exercise 5 the same arm action as No. 4, slightly modified. Let the forearm swing freely back and forth across the page, at the same time training the hand to make the lines perfectly straight and parallel to each other. At first make them only in one direction, or while moving to the right ; after this becomes easy^ let the pen remain on the paper and trace a record in both directions. When beginning to practise this exercise rule the paper down the centre and make the line half the distance across ; afterwards try to cover the whole distance. This will be found to be an excellent drill to steady the arm action in the lateral movement, and it will enable you to write entirely across the page on a straight line, without lifting the pen or changing the fixed position of the arm rest. It will also prove very bene- ficial in overcoming the nervous action which often makes the lines in writing irregular. Make about fifty strokes per minute. EXERCISE No. 6 Rule the paper down the centre as directed for No. 5, and write half way across. In this exercise the design is to associate the straight lines of the lateral movement with the forming process as required in making the letter o. After taking position and practising the pre- liminary swings, let the pen touch and record a straight line. Swing the forearm again before making the QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS 95 next stroke ; then let the pen touch and slide to the centre, form the o with the shoulder action alone, and then finish the line. Make the first stroke on the ruled line, and make three others including the o twice, between that and the next line. Eepeat this process, never omitting the preliminary swings, down one side of, the page, and then complete the other half in the same manner. Now turn the paper and repeat the exercise across the written lines, covering the whole distance, if you are using quarter sheets of foolscap as directed. There must be no action of the finger, thumb, or wrist joints, the shoulder muscles only being em- ployed. Do not make the movement too rapidly at ifirst. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION Did you practise thoroughly on the " direct " move- ment before taking the pen ? After this did you drill on it as an oblique movement towards the head ? Were the hand and forearm kept in position to cross the Tilled lines vertically ? Was the elbow at all times below the centre of page ? Can you get a range of more than two spaces on the oblique movement ? Have you made the pen and ink strokes without using the fingers ? Have you practised Exercise No. 4, until the record shows an improvement ? Can you make this stroke without sliding the sleeves or changing the position of the arm rest ? It is not expected that any one without much practice can execute this undercurve movement so that it will compare with the results of Exercise No. 2 on page 73. But it is a very useful drill .and should have considerable time given to it. Have 96 PENMANSHIP you kept the arm, and held the pen as shown in CUTS 7 and 8, on pages 78 and 80 ? In the five lessons already given, we have endeavored to present a comprehensi"> plan of practice for the development of movements to K>O used in writing. We have several times suggested that this part of the process was of the utmost importance. It has also been stated that the greater portion of this required free action of the arm can be secured better, independently of any use of the pen. In other words the more we come to depend upon simple drills which will bring into action the muscles to be employed, developing the natural movements, and bringing them under control, the more immediate and lasting will be the results to the indi- vidual pupils. Take up any code of gymnastic drills designed to strengthen and render flexible the movement of the arms and hands, and use freely in connection with the exercises given in these lessons. But as a one-sided development is not wise, use both arms in all such sup- plementary exercises. If a pupil has been correctly instructed in the various movements and pen exercises heretofore given, he should be prepared to make some useful application of this in writing. Still it is very evident that the first requirements in this direction should be simple. The habit of using- the fihgers in constructing letters will still be strong and the process of overcoming this tendency must be a gradual one. By using the straight line made with a free swing of the arm, in connection with the letters, the disposition to use the fingers will be lessened, and finally the new habit will become the stronger. PRACTICE EXERCISES 97 The v/idth of the column does not admit of present- ing the exercises here the exact size they should be written ; hence in practice the spacing between the let- ters should be increased, although the letters need not be made any larger. With second and third year pupils there may at first be some difficulty in sliding the hand entirely across the page on a perfectly straight line, but so far as possible the exercise should be written the whole distance. The aim should be to obtain range and freedom of action, and the more you have the better. & o CJ EXERCISE No. 7 The directions for practising this are the s&me as roi No. 6. First take position and make preliminary swings. Then let the pen touch and record the straight line. Swing the hand back and forth again and then form the next line, making the "o" twice. Be sure that the letter is formed by the shoulder muscles. The spacing should be uniform, as well as the distance be- tween the lines. ~o o ^' ' (J " ^'^" 5 EXERCISE No. 8 Careful practice on this exercise, may be followed by increasing the number of letters in each line up to six, 98 PENMANSHIP but always observing the indicated rules for position and movement. It is not well to write too rapidly at this time, but there should always be a forceful swing of the hand in sliding between the letters. The pen strokes should be uniform, but decisive in action. EXERCISE No. 9 In this you will make the undercurved line in form- ing the letter " i ". First practise the exercise half way across the page, until the curve can be correctly formed by the sweep of the hand. Then extend it the whole distance, forming two letters ; afterwards gradually increasing the number to six. The down stroke for the "i" must be straight, and upon the regular writing slant. It is made by drawing back the arm towards the head. In forming this letter the movement need not stop at the turn, but should be continuous. EXERCISE No. 10 Practice on Nos. 8 and 9 will lead naturally to the construction of this exercise, if you will simply allow the movement to produce the form without attempting to make it with the finger action. Starting with the undercurve, swing the hand back so as to increase the alant of the "o", and then make the "i" to finish the PRACTICE EXERCISES 99 ** a". As you increase the number of letters, be careful to start the connecting stroke as a distinct undercurve. This may slightly diminish the apparent width of the " a ", but need not be considered an error in form. EXERCISE No. 11 The directions for writing standard script give the height and width of "n" as being equal. For the present we will use another scale, which makes the width two-thirds the height. As this is the proportion of letter " o", as we generally form it, we have a con- venient scale for measurement. Let the hand swing naturally in forming the upper curve, make the down stroke by drawing back the arm on the regular slant, form the second stroke so as to make the width two- thirds the height, and finish the line with a full under- curve sweep. The upper and lower turns are to be made without stopping the movement. Gradually increase the num- ber of letters in the line, being particular about the width and the turns, upper and lower, of each. If you form the habifc of swinging the hand freely across the page as a preliminary drill before making the EXERCISE No. 100 PENMANSHIP given strokes for any exercise, you will soon learn to depend upon the movement to carry it in the direction of a straight line. The required curves being naturally formed from this movement with but a slight exertion, the construction of the letters becomes quite easy. Make the "m" twice the width of the " o ", and the upper and lower turns without stopping the movement. With the hand correctly placed, the action of the third and fourth fingers sliding on the paper should trace the same form as the pen-point. EXERCISE No. 13 In writing this the full width of a page, the spacing will be so much increased as to change the appearance of the word. Make the first stroke to " m " with a free swing, the uiroke to "a" an undercurve, the stroke between "a" and "n" nearly a straight line, and the last stroke an undercurve. The f ( n " should be a trifle narrower than the "a". The fact that you do not get a perfect formation need not discourage you. Look upon all these lessons as movement drills, and give your attention mainly to that. The exercises given with this lesson will illustrate how the first three movements as given in lessons 4 and 5, the upper curve (convex), the lower curve (concave), and the oblique straight line, may find application in forming naturally the letters and connecting them into words. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 101 It will be evident that if these simple and easily acquired movements can be made so useful in learning to write, the time spent in training the muscles of th^ arm to execute them with freedom and precision is well invested. It may also show the importance of becoming thoroughly grounded in them before advanc- ing to their general application in writing. There is not a movement nor any combination of movements essential to free rapid penmanship, which cannot be better taught, first without the pen, secondly on simple lines, and thirdly on exercises containing but one let- ter, than by attempting to use words and sentences for practice. Reason and common sense support this theory. <~ive your pupils the power to do these simple things, let taem practise until they become habits of movement, supplement this by definite instruction as to the scope and value of the training, and you may be assured that they will not fail to find the means of application. "When practising these exercises be sure that the arm AS resting very lightly on the forearm muscles. It must be held so as to move freely in every direction. A goo^ plan is to lift the arm occasionally, replacing it lightly on 'the desk. Another point is to learn how to carry the weight of the hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, to avoid undue pressure on the pen-point, and to keep the lines of uniform thickness. Thess fingers should be completely relaxed and kept bent well underneath. I must again call attention to the fact that under this plan of hand training, the simple exercises are the really important ones. Designed to prepare the way for certain success on those more difficult, they cannot 102 PiJSTMAXSHIP safely be neglected. Do not imagine that a slight knowledge of all will be of more value than the com- plete mastery of the simplest one given. It is far better to exhaust every reasonable effort to become perfect in the few foundation principles of both movement and form, before seeking further advancement. Working out the lessons as given in these directions the first time will no doubt benefit you, but every additional time that you work them out will benefit you still more. A little patience and a good deal of perseverance will at this period of your experience prove very helpful m the end. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION Having acquired the movements which will form naturally the letters of one word, the next step will be to apply these same movements to the writing of other letters and other words. No copy will be required, either for yourself or for your pupils, in teaching this application. Take for instance the word main, and practise it with the same spacing action used in writing exercise No. 13. Be sure that you retain the swinging movement of the arm, with the pen sliding up to a letter, forming it with the arm action alone, and then sliding again to the next letter, until the word shall have been completed. At first, space sufficiently to carry the word entirely across a foolscap page. This spacing movement is the key to a free running hand. After writing the word ten times, reduce the spacing some- what and try it again. But for the present keep the distance between the letters at least half an inch as the narrowest spacing. Then in their order practise writ- ing the following list of words : Moan, time, dimes. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION 103 cause, rained, lamps, flamed, liinged, queenly, thinking, abruptly, enjoined, weaving, taxing. You are to proceed in exactly the same manner with pupils. Having first taught them to write a simple word with the arm action and spacing movement, begin at once dictating other words, and gradually force them to teach themselves the true application of all movements. This can be done in almost every instance, and you will be surprised at the immediate gain in the appear- ance of the writing. The next step will be to insist upon the use of the arm action and spacing movement in the regular spelling exercises. And if you insist you will not fail to get it. It should of course be understood that all the work here indicated must be written with pen and ink. It is absolutely certain that penmanship cannot be taught in the writing class alone. If any considerable part of the daily lesson-getting and lesson-record is done with slate or lead pencils you need not expect any permanent gain in penmanship. Penc'L work is almost without exception careless work, and careless work here will inevitably produce careless writing habits. Once get your pupils into the habit of doing careful written work all day long, and you need have no fear in regard to satisfactory penmanship results. You are to accomplish this gradually ; step by step, one thing at a time. If you now see your way towards getting results in the written spelling work, it is a great step in advance. With this well in hand, you may next begin on the written number work. The movements will apply there just as well, if you can only induce the pupils to use the same care. After this take up geography, language, etc. 104 PENMANSHIP The movement drills for the capital letters are practi- cally the same as those already given, and may be readily acquired by any pupil after the second year in school. Full explanations and directions for developing and applying these movements will be found in the exercise books of the Wells Natural Movement system, which is based upon the principles here laid down, and which, as Superintendent Phillips of Scranton says, " has made in penmanship not a reform but a revolution. " THE MONITOR, OR PUPIL-TEACHER PLAN From the beginning it will be found an excellent plan to encourage the pupils to assist each other. At the first lesson in movement, one or more will be cer- tain to make it correctly. Aid these especially, and by the third or fourth lesson you should have at least half a dozen who understand and can do it creditably. Select the most expert of these and set them to teach what they know to others. Teaching will soon perfect their own knowledge of the movement, and you will find the number of experts rapidly increasing. Keep this up until not less than 75 per cent, of your pupils are able to do it correctly. Pursue the same course with all the movements, and with the written exercises which follow. In any event a pupil must teach him- self to write. The chief work of a teacher, therefore, is to make the conditions such that this result may be accomplished. But do not forget that the main part of this self -teaching is to be done on the lesson-getting and lesson-record. The writing lesson proper is de- signed simply to prepare him to do this more important part of the work. When you have taught a pupil to make the movements as outlined in these lessons, and FINAL SUGGESTION'S 105 then have shown him how to apply them in writing, making him believe that it is possible to write with the arm instead of with the fingers, there remains but one thing more and that is to make him desire to do his writing in this way. It has been done in thousands of instances. It can be done with 90 per cent, of all pupils. FINAL SUGGESTIONS In beginning to teach movement, make that your sole business. Do not attempt an application until you are sure you have something to apply. Allow the pupils in their other work to hold their hands and pens as they are accustomed to. Let them write as they please. The movement instruction must be given and the habit of arm movement built up as a thing apart from the old writing habit. Do not mix the two together. The pupil will have strong habits of finger movement, strong habits of wrong position. These can be overcome only gradually. But as the arm is stronger than the fingers, so will this habit of arm movement, if persisted in, become stronger, and in due time supplant all others. With young pupils short periods of practice on the movement exercises are better than long. This is especially true when practising without the pen. If required to practise five or six times a day one minute at a time, better results will follow. Frequent repeti- tions will more quickly establish the desired habit. Faith is an essential element in this work. And not only must you believe, but you must establish in each pupil the same belief. Talk to them constantly about the importance of trying to do all writing with the 106 PENMANSHIP arm. Encourage them in every possible way to dem- onstrate the value of this theory. It does not matter whether the one who tries this writes better or worse at first. The main thing is to induce all to use the arm for writing ; and the direct way to accomplish this is through the spacing action. Give frequent reviews on the movements and exercises. Go back to some point where the majority can do the work creditably, and take a fresh start. Try to have all written work care- fully done, whether in the penmanship class or on the daily lessons. Kapid writing will not answer until the perfect movement has prepared the way for it. This method is universal in its scope and application, and while you will be expected to adhere to the foundation principles as here set forth, you should in an import- ant sense make the work your own. Individualize your efforts. Thoughtful study will enable you to find many useful methods, which although different from any here given may be quite as valuable. Seek to demon- strate by investigation that you are absolutely right, and then if you earnestly desire to teach penmanship successfully, the confidence necessary to do the work fearlessly will not be lacking. More detailed instructions will be found on the covers of the copy books of the Wells Natural Move- ment Series of copybooks. Where the detailed direc- tions for class work as given in this manual differ from those given on the covers of the copy book, follow the copy book instructions. FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR The purpose of education in Form Study, Drawing and Color is three-fold practical, educational and aesthetic. By following out this three-fold purpose, provision is made for mental and spiritual, as well as industrial growth, and the work becomes worthy of the broad designation, Art Education. A good course in Art Education stands for certain well-defined ends in the education of children : The recognition of the child's individuality, and of his aesthetic feelings, his natural love of what the the beautiful. course stands The recognition of Nature as a part of the child's environment and the cultivation of his power of appreciating and expressing the spirit and the beauty of natural objects. The recognition of Industry and Art as parts of the child's social environment, the cultivation of his power of appreciating the beauty and significance of Industrial and Art work, and the development of his creative powers along Industrial and Art lines. The method employed to secure these ends is that of appealing to the interest of the child in Its method. beautiful objects, encouraging his self -activ- ity, nourishing his mind with well-chosen mental food, (107) 108 FORM STUD?, DRAWING AHD COLOR and so developing his powers through intelligently guided exercise that he may be constantly growing in mind and in aesthetic feeling through his self-activity, in observation, thought, and manual expression. The work of this Course can be most clearly seen under its two divisions : Itstwo A Course for Primary Grades, divisions. ^ Course for Intermediate and Grammar Grades. I. A COURSE FOR PRIMARY GRADES Form Study and Drawing The foundation work of these grades is Form Study Form study fr m objects. The purpose of this Form tfoVo^pri*" Study is to build up in the child's mind clear mary work. an( j correct concepts of form as a basis for thinking and doing. To this end the Form Study should be made individual, the pupil exercising both touch and sight in his observations. The forms studied by the child should be presented to him in such a manner that he may grasp Develop- * mentofidea the idea of types of form, discovering such types, for himself, through observation and comparison of the common objects provided for such study. . 4 The study of type forms should be so conducted as to: a. Help the pupil to classify the miscellaneous forms which he already knows, by leading him to refer these forms to the types which he has found to represent them as ideals. b. Help develop the pupiPs imagination along healthy FIKST TWO TEAKS 109 and desirable lines, by leading him to see in each type the suggestion of natural and manufactured objects not present before his eyes. The types thus studied should be presented in the natural sequence proven by Kindergarten order of experience to be best adapted to the devel- oping comprehension of the child's mind. Spherical and nearly spherical objects first ten - lead the child to the idea of the sphere ; then, following the logical form-sequence of Frcebel, cubic and nearly cubic objects lead him to the idea of the cube, the form showing at once the greatest resemblance to, and the greatest difference from, the sphere, each idea being strengthened by the mutual contrast. Still following the Kindergarten sequence, cylindric and nearly cylin- dric objects next lead to the idea of the cylindric type, which is the mediation between the sphere and the cube. Other forms should follow these in course, each new form being studied in the light of all the preced- ing study, that the mental process may be that of sequential advancement from the known to the unknown. FIRST Two YEARS 1. To BE STUDIED. (a) Type solids for the first year : Sphere, cube, cylinder. Hemisphere, square prism, right-angled triangu- lar prism. Type solids for the second year : Ellipsoid, ovoid, equilateral triangular prism, cone, square pyramid, vase form. (b) Nature-forms and common objects : Objects resembling these type solids, 110 FORM STUDY, DRAWIKG AND COLOR (c) Pictures in which objects resembling these types may be found. 2. Observation. (a) Of form : In nature and common things. In type solids. () Of color ; In nature and common things. In type colors. 3. Expression. (a) By modelling in clay. (b) By laying color tablets. (c) By paper folding, cutting, and making. (d) By stick laying. (e) By oral and written language. (/) By drawing with chalk and pencil. 4. Time. Five fifteen-minute lessons a week. The study of Form should be in every case so guided as to take cognizance, first of wholes, and afterwards of parts. Each solid should be regarded first as a com- plete unit ; next as to its surface, and the parts (faces) which may make up that surface ; next as to edges, their direction and relationship, and their junction at corners. It is not held desirable to present many sections of type solids as themselves typical. This phase of Form Study is too analytical for primary work, the variations obtainable by section are too numerous for practical class-room study in these grades, and they offer as a rule comparatively few sug- gestions of familiar objects for individual study in the child's environment, The hemisphere and the right- " FIKST TWO TEARS 111 angled triangular prism, being the simplest, and to the child, the most suggestive of such possible sections, are explicitly presented, all others being left for inci- dental presentation and study in connection with the wholes from which they are derived. The ideas of Form obtained through this study are expressed in several different ways, as stated 1 rrn tit Expression above. These means of expression should of ideas of be cultivated, not for the production of re- sults of technical value in themselves, but chiefly as means of promoting the mental and spiritual develop- ment of the child, by enlarging and strengthening his conceptions of Form, developing his sense of beauty, his imagination, and his creative powers ; and, second- arily, as means by which the teacher is enabled to see the degree of progress he is making in his general de- velopment. The method advised for such exercises is largely that of free self-activity on the part of the chil- dren, with only so much direction and guidance by the teacher as are necessary to secure goo&general habits of work. Of the various modes of self-expression already named, Language is applicable to the Form Study at its every stage. Modelling is prac- modes of tised in connection with the study of types xpre and kindred forms as wholes, and also in connection with the study of sectional parts of those wholes. Making is practised in connection with the study of forms as wholes, and also in connection with the study of their parts (surfaces and faces). Tablet-laying is practised in connection with the study of parts (faces), as well as with the study of certain facts about the 112 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR wholes (views), and also in connection with the study of objects and of pleasing decorative arrangements. Stick-laying is practised in connection with the study of a form as to its parts (faces, edges, and corners), and also in connection with the study of objects and of pleasing decorative arrangements. Paper-folding and cutting are practised in connection with the study of a form as to its parts (faces, edges, and corners), and also in connection with the study of pleasing decorative arrangements. Freehand Drawing is practised con- tinually in connection with all the other means of ex- pression in Form Study, as the most ready means of expression. A special point should be made of encouraging free- hand drawing from objects having three di- Freehand . 3 . J & . Drawing men&wns as well as from geometric figures, and from objects having only two dimensions. Experience under widely varying school conditions proves the perfect practicability of pupils' drawing the appearance of sofid objects in various positions, even in the lowest primary grade, if such drawing is not ham- pered with technical requirements, but is allowed to be the free expression of what the child sees and desires to express. The practical reasons for beginning such drawing in the lowest grades are : Additional interest is felt by the child, if encouraged to draw solid objects. His natural power of seeing things just as they appear is strong in these early years ; but unless cultivated early, and in such a manner as to keep the work in this direction distinct from the analytical study of faces, edges, etc., this power of seeing things as they appear becomes confused with his knowledge of facts, and u^ FIRST TWO YEARS 113 biased " seeing " becomes very difficult. In the latter case the child's later work is of necessity narrowed down to mere technical reproduction (e.g. perspective), thus limiting his legitimate enjoyment of the work, and reducing his practical graphic power to a minimum. As already stated, the drawing by primary grade pupils, should be freehand. This is chiefly xl -, , -, Why Free- because the primary work aims, not at the hand Draw- production of technical results, but at the mgonly - development of thought and of the power of readily expressing thought through the training of the senses ; and freehand drawing, on account of its reliance ex- clusively on the thought that is in the individual mind, and the power that is in the individual hand, is best fitted to accomplish this purpose. The use, at this initial stage of the work, of measures and rulers is dis- couraged, as tending to substitute acquaintance with tools for the training of the senses, and as allowing the mechanical production of exact results to eliminate that element of increasing self-mastery which should be characteristic of the work. Throughout the work of the primary grades it should be a distinct aim of the instruction to culti- vate the imagination along desired lines. ItivJSe-^' Emphasis is laid upon this point, because at this stage the imagination may be very easily awakened and so directed as to become a most valuable element of the child's character ; while if left to die out or allowed to become perverted, the whole after-life is poorer and the child's individuality less effective in practical life. Opportunities for its right cultivation arc found in connection with almost every line of this work, including Form lessons, exercises in Building, 114 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR Modelling, Making, Tablet and Stick-laying, Paper- folding and cutting, Drawing, and work with color materials. Memory of Form should be cultivated through special Form review exercises, in which previously ac- Memory. quired form concepts are recalled by new applications rather than by formal drill, the aim being to bring out the little child's memory of form through his interest in it. The assthetic element should be present throughout the course, and there should be a distinct The .Esthetic aim to awaken and develop the pupiFs sense element. -, , * of beauty, and to encourage his expression of that growing sense, through the work of his hands. This may be accomplished through : 1. Providing type models of beautiful proportions, for study. 2. Emphasizing the selection of really beautiful ob- jects, natural and manufactured, for study. 3. Calling the pupils' attention in various ways to the beauty of these models and objects. 4. Encouraging the pupil to notice and recall the beauty of other objects, seen elsewhere. 5. Encouraging every attempt to express a sense of beauty in individual work, especially in his ar- rangements of tablets and sticks, his exercises I'TL paper-folding and cutting, and in all his drawing It is advised that the Primary grade drawing be done The use of <> n blank paper, because the drawing of Senary* these lowest grades is cultivated almost en- tirely as a simple means of self-expression. It is to be regarded chiefly as merely a graphic indict- GENERAL WORK OF PRIMARY GRADES 115 tion of the impressions made upon the child's mind by the world about him. So regarded, it is not met with technical criticism. The pupil is led to grow toward the proper standard through the development of his own powers. In all Primary grade drawing pupils should be en- couraged to use the pencil with a free, i j j. j -XT j. Character broad sweep, and to draw with soft, gray of line in lines rather than fine and wiry black lines. This cultivates the style of work which can most readily be adapted to the varying line-requirements of different kinds of drawing. Dictation has but a limited place in this Primary work. Where used it is in exercises for Dictation developing certain desirable ways and habits grades? 8 " 1 *' of working, not for the sake of producing technical results. THE USE OF FORM STUDY AND DRAWING IN THE GENERAL WORK OF PRIMARY GRADES The Course for Primary grades closely affiliates the work with the other school studies. Thus, . . -r> . T Affiliation for instance, Primary Language lessons are with other practically strengthened by the Form Study, in that the latter gives the children clear ideas as a basis for much of the regular language practice (e.g. in the use of terms relating to form, shape, size, propor- tion, color, etc.), while the practice in correct language involved in the Form lessons saves time for the other work by anticipating a part of its own purposes. The regular Language work is especially aided by those ex- 116 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR ercises in Form Study which involve the exercise of the pupil's imagination. In a similar manner Language the Language lessons are anticipated. em- Lessons. , . , , , , , , pnasized, or supplemented, by work in Building, Modelling, Tablet and Stick-laying, Drawing, and other modes of manual expression. The Freehand Drawing gives the child freedom and growing facility in the line of pencil sketching, and this sketching, though necessarily very crude in point of technique, is found in actual experience to be of great assistance in Language work, as supplementing the written repro- duction of stories. Primary work in Number is strengthened by the Help in Form Study, in that the latter makes the child practically familiar with certain standards of dimension (the form-models being one inch in diameter, or one by two inches in certain cases), and with many different combinations of numbers, concretely illustrated in the study of faces, edges, cor- ners, etc. The child has also valuable practice in thinking number, and the practical working out of number-ideas, in his exercises in Tablet and Stick-lay- ing. His work in Paper-folding and cutting makes him experimentally familiar with the idea of halves, thirds, quarters, etc., the division of a whole into parts, and the combination of parts to form a whole. His crude pencil sketches of real things are often found by experienced teachers to be a help in impressing ideas of Number, as, e.g., when he is allowed to " make np examples" of his own, illustrated with pictures of the objects concerned. GENERAL WORK OF PRIMARY GRADES 117 Primary lessons in " Place," or Elementary Geog- raphy, are strengthened by the work in '-pi ace Form Study, in that the various exercises Lessons - with models, tablets, sticks, and paper give the child clear ideas about position, location, and direction, and accustom him both to understand and to correctly use terms of position, location, and direction. Again, his developing power of Freehand Drawing, whatever its stage may be, is of help in this work, as it enables him to sketch with approximate success the natural forms he studies, or to make a simple diagram of class-rooms, school-yards, etc. The primary school instruction in Natural Science is, most clearly of all, related to the work of Nature the same grades in Form Study and Draw- study - ing. Since Form is a necessary property of the objects studied in Natural Science lessons, all the regular work in Form Study may be regarded as directly anticipating instruction which would otherwise have to be given in the "Nature Study " periods. Again, the Form Study and the Science work may and should be mutually helpful as means of cultivating the higher nature through exercise of the sense of beauty. The element of beauty (though not always given due recognition in otherwise excellent scientific instruction) is conspicuous in most of the natural objects selected for primary school study ; it is that characteristic in them which most immediately and strongly appeals to the child himself. The aesthetic training received by him in his elementary Art Instruction with models and objects when properly interpreted makes him still more appre- ciative of the beauty of things studied in Science les- 118 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR sons ; while, reciprocally, the Science Study may be of great benefit to the Art instruction when it gives the aesthetic element right recognition. The use of Freehand Drawing as a means of expres- sion in Nature Study is very generally recognized. Such utilization of Drawing in primary grades is made especially practicable by encouragement of the sketch- ing of solid objects from the very beginning of school life, and by exclusive use of the free hand. The ad- vantage of this freehand work is especially evident when considered in connection with Nature Study, be- cause not only is mechanical drawing, if taught in pri- mary grades, itself valueless for Nature Study, but its practice in primary schools is also proven by experience to hamper thought and retard the development of power to sketch freely and effectively. The Manual Training practicable for primary grades Manual * s gi yen through the regular exercises in Training. p orm study, Modelling, Making, Building, Tablet and Stick-laying, Paper-folding and cutting, and Freehand Drawing, which constitute a thorough elementary course in Manual Training. These exer- cises are entirely consistent with the requirements of Manual Training in higher grades, and are found in actual experience to prepare pupils broadly and prac- tically for such higher work. AH the general work of Primary grades is strength- ened by the Form Study and Drawing, in that the Form Study and Drawing are constantly developing the child through observation, thought, and expression, and are constantly relating the mental power gained to other lines of school work. The pupil's interest ia. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 119 school life is greatly increased, habits of observation are cultivated, and a love of neat, orderly, and beauti- ful work is awakened, tending towards a higher standard of effort in every direction. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS As many teachers have not had an opportunity to prepare themselves in this work, a brief out- line of Form Study of the first six solids is given here to open the subject to them for self-study. Fig. 1 In the illustration, Fig. 1, we see the type solids of the first year arranged in two groups, the group on the left containing the sphere, cube and cylinder that on the right, the hemisphere, square prism, and right- angled triangular. The six solids will furnish sufficient material for illustrating the subject here. 1. STUDY OF THE SOLIDS AS WHOLES The first step in the Methods of Study is to take the solids as a whole, in accordance with the Thesoiidsas well-known educational maxim, first the awhole - whole, then the parts. The study of a solid at first 120 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AKD COLOR must not, therefore, deal with the details of surface, face, edge, and corner, but must consider the solid simply as a whole. Study "by Touch Grasp the sphere in one hand, roll it between the two hands, Fig. 2, hold the sphere with the fingers of one hand, turn it with the fingers of the other hand, Fig. 3. Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Hold the sphere tightly in one hand, grasp the cube with the other hand, Fig. 4. What impressions are received ? The sphere is smooth and pleasant to hold,* The cube has sharp points and hurts the hands. Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Grasp the cylinder in various ways, Fig. 5. The cylinder is pleasant to hold in one way held in another way it cuts the hand. Move the fingers over the solids in different directions. The sphere feels the same all over the fingers move easily all over it. The cube feels smooth in some places-and sharp in others. STUDY BY TOUCH AND BY SIGHT 121 The cylinder feels something like the sphere and something like the cube. Study by Touch and ~by Sight Put the models on the desk or table experiment with each separately as to rest or motion. . The sphere will roll. The sphere will stand. The cube will not roll ; it will slide and will stand. The cylinder will roll, it will slide and will stand. The sphere will roll in every direction and however placed. The cylinder will not roll when it is upright ; when it is lying down, it will roll, but not in all directions like the sphere. Examine each model as to dimensions how do its different dimensions compare with each other ? In the sphere, the width from left to right, the width from front to back, and the height are equal. In the cube, the width from left to right, the width from front to back, and the height are equal. In the upright cylinder, the width from left to right and the width from front to back are equal, but the height is greater than the width. After the children have passed the kindergarten age, it is desirable to introduce new features and For older greater variety. The sphere and cube can- children. not be changed in proportion ; but the cylinder may vary very much in the proportion of the height to the other two dimensions. By using a cylinder higher than wide, two new elements are introduced, that of propor- tion and that of greater beauty of form. The cylinder in which the height varies from the width is much more beautiful than the cylinder in which these dimensions 122 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR are equal. It will be noticed that cylindric objects hav- ing the three dimensions equal are very rare ; but that those objects in which the height is greater or less than the width are very frequent. Fig. 6 In considering the elements of proportion in the cylin- der at this stage, it is desirable to choose a proportion easily appreciated. Therefore, the cylinder given for primary work has the very simplest proportion, that of 1 to 2. Build up the sphere, cube, and cylinder, and new rev- elations will be made concerning them. Try the arrangements illustrated and any others which may occur to you. What do you learn ? Fig. 7 The sphere can have but one position. TOUCH, SIGHT, AND ARRANGEMENT 123 The cube and cylinder can have several positions. The sphere and the horizontal cylinder cannot be used as foundations in building. Study ~by Arrangement Try now to arrange the solids in rows ; seek for pleas- ing arrangement. You will find yourselves, perhaps, working for an orderly and symmetrical arrangement, Pig. 8. Fig. 8 Study ly Sight Hold each model up before you, Figs. 9 and 10 ; turn it in any way you please. How much of it do you see ? The sphere cannot be held so that more than half can be seen ; neither can it be held so that less than half is visible. Fig. 9 Fig. 10 The cube and cylinder cannot be held so that more than half can be seen*; but they can be held so that less than half can be seen. Figs. 11 and 1&. * These statements need a little modification when very small models are used. 124 FORM STUDY, DRAWIHG AKD COLOR Definitions. f Fig. 12 #, 3. Study as to Surface and Face Surface in its geometric signification means simply length and breadth without thickness. But when applied to objects, it is used differently. The surface is the whole outside of a thing. A face is a limited part of a surface. The ordinary and general classification of surfaces classification an( ^ ^ aces ^ s i n ^ two kinds, plane and curved. of surfaces. Thj s j s a broad classification; but for the purposes of Form-study, a more specific classification is necessary. Take the sphere in your hand ; turn it over, you will find that it is round all over. If you apply a rule or any other straight edge to it, the rule will touch the sphere at but one point. And moreover this sur- face or face is continuous ; turn the sphere as you will, you will find the surface unbroken by an edge. Such a surface or face is called round. Looking over your solids you will find another resem- Round and bling the sphere in part but having two faces ; rounding. one c f these faces is round in character as far as it goes, but it is not completely round and is limited by an edge. Such surfaces or faces, being in some ways like a sphere, are called rounding. A rulr SUKFACE AND FACE 125 applied to any one of them will touch at but one point. Take now the cylinder ; applying the ruler to its length, you find that the ruler touches the cylin- der throughout its entire length. Turn the ruler and apply it across the Fig. 13 same face and it touches at but one point. You will find also another solid among the twelve that has a similar face. Such faces, that are round one way and straight one way are called curved faces. Take the cube ; its faces are all flat, as if they had been planed off. Such faces are called plane faces. Make a list now of six solids classi- Fig. 14 fied according to the kind of faces, beginning in this way : Bound face ; sphere. Rounding face ; hemisphere, ellipsoid, ovoid. Fig. 15 Now study the objects in the illustration, Fig. 15, with reference to the kinds of faces. Remember that all Form-study should be carried on from the type- solids to its application in objects. 126 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR 4- Study as to Edges and Corners Make a list of the six solids classified according to edges. Find all the solids having no edges, all the solids having straight edges, all the solids having curved edges, and write a classified list. Bemember that in each of these various classified lists, every one of the twelve solids must be included. The classification as to corners is exceedingly easy. Find the solids, like those in the illustration, Fig. 16, and place them as there shown. Consider the two models together as one ; study all the corners. Which of ' the corners are square ? Which of the corners are sharp, that is, sharper than a square corner ? Fig. 16 Which of the corners are blunt, that is, more blunt than a square corner ? A Suggestive Lesson The object of this first study of the solids is first to gain the child's recognition of these types through observing them in connection with similar objects with which he is already somewhat familiar, then to lead him to discover some of their more striking features, and finally to feel their beauty. At this stage of the work, no attempt should be made at an analytic study of the solids. This is the time for simply receiving mental impressions of concrete form. Association of ideas must precede an analysis of parts. Child nature must be remembered throughout. The work should not be dry and technical and formal but Object. OBSERVATION AND EXPRESSION 127 should be developed in a winning, sympathetic way which will bring delight to the hearts of the children. " To let the new life in, we know Desire must ope the portal." FIEST WEEK. FORM OBSERVATION EXPRESSION Sphere, Familiar Objects. Modelling. Location Lesson 1 Can you find something you know ? Tell me about it ? Several familiar oljects resembling the sphere such as a football, a globe, marbles, return balls, etc., on the table. These objects should be selected with especial refer- ence to the child's pleasure or to their beauty. With the objects place one or more spheres ; if of different sizes it will be better. Have the children's models ready to distribute later in the lesson. As there are but fifteen minutes for this lesson the 128 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AKD COLOR conversation must not flag, but should be bright and quick throughout. Let children come up to the table, two or more at a time, and be sure that those at the table talk so that they can be heard by those in the seats. Keep the interest of the whole class as active as though all were at the table. Encourage the children to talk about the way the ob- jects are used in their play or the way in which they have seen others use such things. Let the children show what the objects can be made to do by playing with them and let them observe the action. Be careful not to limit the conversation to the group at the table, but let individual children about the room who feel that they know something more about the objects come for- ward to the table or stand at their desks and add their stories. The group at the table should be constantly changing so as to bring as many children forward as possible, to take part in the observation. When there is evidence that the children are thinking of the general form of the objects (round), lead the children to tell which object they like best and observe whether it is the familiar toy used in their games or the sphere. Use the name sphere freely when it is neces- sary and allow the children to do so, being sure that there is no confusion as to which object is meant. It is hoped that the children will prefer the perfect sphere (the model), for the appreciation of the pure type leads to a love of the ideally beautiful. The teacher must be careful, however, about showing prefer- ence, for the choice of the child should be made with a free spirit, should be expressive of his own feeling. Try to limit the above work to ten minutes. The re- OBSERVATION EXPRESSION maining time can be spent in having each child take a sphere from the basket with the right hand and place it on the desk, in the groove, etc., and in collecting the spheres. The following illustrative lesson, while it differs slightly from the suggestions given above, for conduct- ing the same exercise, will serve to show what the spirit of the exercise should be. Lesson Developing Sphere from Familiar Objects Type included in the Collection Teacher We are to have a new game this morning. See how many things we have to play with. Fll stand so that my back is toward the table and you must let me know everything there is on it. Will you be sure to tell me something about the thing you mention so that I may know just which one it is when I turn around afterward to look ? Several children Yes, Miss Rich. Teacher Thank you. Now mention just one thing and tell me about it. Annie I see a ball, a white ball. I guess it is rubber. John There is a big ball with pictures on it. Teacher Where is that ? John Right in the middle of the table. Teacher Can you play with it ? John No, it is fastened to some iron things and can only turn around. Teacher Oh, I see ; you mean the school globe that belongs in Mr. Porter's room. Very well, go on. Mary I see a base-ball ; it is made of pieces of leather. Lizzie I see a kaby's rattle ; it has a round part and then a ta&dle. 130 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR Tom Eight side of the thing you called a blobe. Teacher I did not speak plainly then, it is globe, try again to say the word. Tom Globe. Side the globe there is a chestnut-burr. Teacher Can you tell me something about the burr, Jessie ? Jessie It's awful prickly. Teacher Very prickly indeed. Now for something else.* Bessie I see a round, round ball ; it looks like wood. Eleanor There is an orange there, too. Teacher You haven't told me anything about it, you know. Eleanor It is yellow. Teacher Now the next one see something for me. Philip I see some marbles ; they are made of glass. Rex One marble has stripes on it. Teacher Very well. Who else will use his eyes for me? Children Everything has been told about. Teacher Sure enough. Now you have told me something about each one ; can you now think of some one thing that you can tell me about all of them ? Bessie They are all on the table. Alice They are all round. Mary The rattle isn't all round ; it has a handle. , Joseph But part of it is round. * It will be observed that at this stage no formal correction of the child's expression is made. A child is easily disconcerted and his thought directed from the main point by being called upon to repeat his statement so as to conform to the teacher's standard. He soon learns, however, to detect the difference in the modes of ex- pression, and will gradually try to speak as does the teacher whom he loves. OBSERVATION EXPRESSION 131 Theo. The orange isn't just all round; it's been jammed on one side. Teacher Who will come and find the very roundest one of all ? Eleanor This wooden ball is the roundest one. Teacher That is so. This ball or sphere is perfectly round. (Models now rapidly distributed.} Teacher Who is ready now to tell me something ? Susie I have a ball or sphere and it is the roundest thing there is. A ' dissatisfied Dodd, gloomily 'Taint any rounder than any other ball. Teacher Very true. This sphere is no more per- fectly round than any other sphere. Teacher Let us play the spheres are round, round sponges, and we are going to squeeze the water out of them. (Children follow action of teacher.} Be careful or we shall wet our desks. Teacher Now let us play they are snow-balls and we will make them up round and hard so as to have a great snow-ball match. Teacher Now what would you like to play they are ? Freddie Fd like to play they are walnuts. Teacher We will. And what shall we do with them ? Freddie We'll crack them and get the meat out. Teacher But what can we play are our hammers ? John I know ; our pencils. Teacher Surely. Now we'll hold them on our desks, so, and be careful not to pound our thumbs with these heavy hammers. Teacher Now let us play they are plums, oh, so ripe, 132 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR and we must handle them so, just as carefully, and we will put them into boxes or baskets and send them to the sick children in the hospital. (This collects material.) The limits of this volume will not permit us to carry the primary work further. The instruction here given is in accordance with the methods now approved by leading educators. Teachers who are ready to carry it further will find it fully developed in the manuals of the Prang Educational Company, Boston. COLOE IN PEIMAEY GEADES The true aim and purpose of color instruction can be Aim of nothing less than the awakening, through instruction. cu iti va ted sense activity, of the child's higher spiritual powers, the opening up of new avenues of thought and enjoyment through enlarged observation of beauty in nature and in art, and the cultivation of better possibilities of usefulness to others through en- larged capabilities of expressing thought and feeling by the use of color materials. The object of such instruc- tion is thus both personal culture and practical useful- ness. The wise teacher who herself has eyes open to the beauty of color, and who recognizes in children, minds and soul to be nurtured as well as bodies to be fed and clothed, will find in this newly introduced study of color especially rich and suggestive opportunities for reaching the child's higher nature and encouraging its healthy and happy growth. The instruction in color which is suggested here is based on certain general principles which are considered fundamental. These are : COLOR IK PRIMARY GRADES 133 I. The Ideal Unit of Color. II. Color Instruction according to the Power of Color Perception in the pupils. III. Color Sensation before Color Names. IV. Simple Nomenclature. V. Coordination of the Study of Color with that of Form. For purposes of education there must be a unit of color and this color unit must be the em- Unitof bodiment of all pure color. The solar Color - spectrum has been considered the embodiment of all color. The solar spectrum however is known to be in- complete, as it lacks a series of hues which are found in nature and which are necessary to a complete color unit. Nature nowhere gives a complete color unit. It is neces- sary, therefore, to form an ideal color unit and this ideal color unit is here presented as the basis of color instruction. Instruction in color must be based not on scientific theory alone, but also on the physiological Color effect of color forces on the retina. It seems to Perception, be necessary, therefore, to make the state of color percep- tion in the child the starting point of color instruction. It has been found by numerous experiments that little children do not perceive the darker colors as well as the lighter, brighter colors ; but the color sense is with them, as with many adults, in an undeveloped state ; and that some colors have for them no distinct character as colors. Hence, investigation as to the color percep- tions of the pupils becomes an important factor in the course. 134 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR Care should be taken to have the impression or sen- sensation sation of a color precede its name. The before name. co lor sensation must be recognized by the teacher as something distinct from the color name. Investigation in this line shows that children may as- sociate a color name with some particular color object, and yet fail to recognize the same color sensation in another object ; hence it is necessary to study the sen- sation as produced by various objects having the same color. It will be seen that what the child needs is as- sociation with, and close observation of, various colored objects to awaken his color perception. It is very desirable that the terms used in any subject should be simple and well defined. There has been a degree of confusion with regard to some color terms incident to the newness of the study. The more necessary terms, with their signifi- cations according to the best accepted usage are given here : Standards are the colors which by common consent have definite and permanent value as accepted types. The tone of color in any given scale which is most typical of the whole scale is the normal tone. The normal is pure color unmixed with white or black. Hue is the characteristic of a color that distinguishes it from another color ; as red, blue, green, blue violet, etc. A Tone is any state of a color as it passes from light to dark. COLOR IN PRIMARY GRADES 135 A Tint is a tone of a color lighter than the normal tone of that color yet retaining the same hue. A Shade is a tone of color darker than the normal tone of that color yet retaining the same hue. A Scale of color is the orderly progression of related tones or hues. A scale according to tones is from light to dark of one color or vice versa. A scale according to hue is from one color through related color to a color differing from the first : For instance, any part of the ideal unit from red through orange and yeflow to green, from yellow to blue, etc. There may also be scales of hue and tone combined. For instance, from the lighter tint of yellow through light yellow orange, normal orange, dark red orange, to darker red. Positive color is decided color. The normal tones are most positive, the tints less so, etc. Pure color is a term used for physical color when free from admixture with white light or in re- lation to pigment color when free from admix- ture with white or black full unbroken color. Broken color is color slightly dulled. The shades and the different grays are broken colors. In early education the essential aim, is or should be to make the child acquainted with his en- Form and vironrnent. He is surrounded with objects, color - of which the chief visible characteristics are form and color. Through form and color, objects become appre- ciable to the mind. Hence through the study of color the environment of the child is made more and more real to him. 136 FORM STUDY, DRAWIKG AKD COLOR To the child form and color are an undivided unit, and the idea of color seems to come to the child as in some way a part of form, and the form of objects is brought out through color. Color instruction and form instruction should then be closely allied and the work in these two subjects should be parallel and should be so arranged that the instruction in the two subjects will be reciprocally helpful. If the use of color is to be treated as an expression of observation co ^ or ideas ^ must be preceded by observa- and expres- tion of color. Such observation must pro- sion. . ceed in regular order from colors easy of apprehension by the child to colors more difficult of apprehension. After a color is apprehended, it should be expressed as a means of completing and affirming the apprehension. Colored papers furnish the means of color expression, which is at present the most practica- ble and practical in the school-room. In schools where the funds are sufficient to have both Water colored paper and water colors, the latter colors. w ju b e found a valuable medium for illus- trative work. The children enjoy painting very much and will ex- press their thoughts and tell their stories in color in a very interesting manner. There should be, however, a good foundation laid by colored ^ ie S ^ U ^J f the color tablets and colored papers. papers before taking up the paints, as colored papers afford good standards of color desirable for the cultivation and study of color perceptions, whereas water colors are desirable for color expression. The COLOR IK PRIMARY GRADES 137 first exercises in water colors should consist of washing in colors and their tints to match the standard colors ; next a lesson in scaling the different colors according to tone, then an application of the knowledge and skill gained in a simple design : after which, twigs and leaves may be studied and color drawings made. From this the child may work into flowers and sprays, fruits and vegetables, bees and butterflies, in fact any object he wishes to represent. With a brush full of clean water, obtain the full strength of color from the cake and then transfer it to the spaces in the cover of the box, as to a palette. Add color or water as strength or delicacy of tint is required. When the color is satisfactory apply it with the side of the brush, using only the point to keep the edges well defined. Keep the brush full of wet color, and with paper inclined, work gradually downward, carrying the brush across from left to right. Surplus color can be removed if taken up quickly by using a brush nearly dry, a blotting paper, a soft cloth, or a hollow sponge. Do not leave the brushes in the water, or put them in the mouth. When ready to put the brush away wash it thoroughly in clean water and give it a quick shake ; this removes the water while bringing the brush to a point and preserves its shape. Every school should have color tablets, sheets of gray cardboard to be "used as a background for , . Materials. arrangements, and scissors as a permanent supply for color instruction. In addition there should be colored paper for each child. The study of pleasing arrangements for borders, etc. should be carried on to a great extent by means of colored paper. The follow- 138 FORM STUDY, DRAWIHG AND COLOR ing course in color study is suggested for the first two primary years. FIRST YEAR Normal. The six leading colors ; Bed, Orange, Yel- low, Green, Blue and Violet. Gray cardboard to be used as background. First Half. Color tablets. Color Choice. Color relations. Eecognition of color. Color names. Study of ideal color unit. Study of individual color. Second Half. Borders and rosettes to be cut from colored paper in the six leading colors in one tone, mounted on a very light gray or manilla paper. SECOND YEAR Normal. The six Leading Colors, and two tints of each. First Half. Scales of the six Leading Colors in three tones, normal, light and lighter. Figures in one tone. Second Half. Borders of rosettes in two tones to be cut from colored paper in the six leading colors and tints. A Suggestive Lesson The first step in the cultivation of the color sense is to learn the state of color perception through a series of investigations. The aim of the first investigation is to find out which colors appeal most to the children, and how the color perception grows when opportunity is given for its use. For this purpose the child is to be COLOR IN PRIMARY GRADES 139 allowed in the exercises given, to express himself freely, without any guidance or hint whatever as to the colors to be used, or the order in which they are to be taken. One of the main points in this lesson is to utilize the delight that children have in the bright-colored tablets, in leading them to an understanding of how to keep them in good order. Give to each child a box of colored tablets. Have the gray cardboards ready on the desk and show the children how to open the boxes over away from them so that the tablets will lie in a pile on the mounting board. Let the children spread out the tablets so that they can fully enjoy them, but have it done with such care that no tablets will fall on the floor or get off the mount- ing board on the desk. Make this care a pleasure and not a restraint. Ask the children to lay all the tablets of this shape O (showing it) in one pile, of this | | in another, and of ^his | | in another. Let them put the first two piles back in the boxes, thus leaving all the oblong color unit tablets on the cardboard, and place the box on the farther right-hand corner of the desk. Ask each child to select the color he likes best and place it under the box. Thus there will not be much opportunity for one child to be influenced by the choice of another. Make a list of the children's names, and make a record of the choice by writing after each child's name the abbreviation of the color name ; R., Red ; R. 0., Red Orange ; 0., Orange ; Y. 0., Yellow Orange ; Y., Yellow; Y. G., Yellow Green; G., Green; B. G., Blue Green ; B., Blue ; B. V., Blue Violet ; V., Violet ; K. V., Red Violet. 140 FOfcM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR This is an important lesson, as it will show what the order of study should be for the succeeding lessons. The needs of the children can be learned only through investigation. These and similar investigations are being made by many teachers, under the direction of The Prang Nor- mal Art Classes, and blanks have been prepared for recording the results without much expenditure of time. Any teacher who is interested in making these records can obtain the blanks by writing to The Prang Normal Art Classes, Washington street, Boston. COLOR IN INTERMEDIATE AND GRAMMAR GRADES The study of the intermediate colors and the grays and their tints and shades together with the harmonious combination of colors should be studied in these grades. The purpose of the lessons should be to bring to the pupils a greater power of color perception, hence a greater enjoyment of the beauty of color. The study of color like that of form should be presented in its practical, educational and aesthetic aspects. It would be interesting to carry out this work more in detail if space permitted. In connection with the study of types of color in colored paper, there should be a constant leading to the beauty of color in nature as well as in art. Suggestive lines of poetry (the poet sees color) in connection with the study add to the interest and delight of the child. Teachers interested will find these methods continued in Suggestions for Instruction in Color in the Public Schools published by The Prang Educational Company. INTERMEDIATE AND GRAMMAR GRADES 141 II. A COURSE FOE INTEEMEDIATE AND GKAMMAR GRADES The course for Intermediate and Grammar Grades is a development of the Course for Primary Grades, to meet broader educational needs and wider applications in practical life. There is this distinction between the work laid out for Primary pupils and that for older pupils. The main emphasis of the Primary grade between n work should be laid on the development, in the mind of the child, of certain typical ? a d r form-concepts derived from his original ob- servation of form in the material things by which he is surrounded, without too much self -consciousness on his part. The main emphasis in the Intermediate and Grammar grade work should be laid upon the further development of the child through his conscious effort in utilizing these form-concepts as a means for wider observation in nature and in art, and also as thought basis for the exercise of his imagination in the individual creation of industrial or artistic products of an educa- tional or practical character. The work laid out for the Intermediate and Grammar grades should be so planned and presented as to develop in the pupil : Habits of attention and observation, leading to a wider range of ideas, and a better appreciation of beauty in Nature and Art. Increasing power of self-command in thought, with a 142 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR steady growth of the creative imagination along the general lines of Industry and Art. In order to facilitate the educational purposes above subject named, and to give the instruction the most Divisions. direct and effective bearing on practical life, the pupil's study of form and drawing in the Inter- mediate and Grammar grades is classified under three subject divisions I. Construction. II. Representation. III. Decoration. Construction. This subject division includes the study of the facts of form in their relation to each other, as observed in types and in common objects ; the pres- entation by drawing of these facts so arranged as to convey definite ideas of the form, size, and structure of the objects in their reality, the making of objects from drawings, and the application of this study and draw- ing in elementary Constructive Design. The subject takes its name from the fact that its principles and methods find their fullest development in the Constructive Arts. The leading principles and methods of Construction are brought out through the following features : Form study in models and objects. Developments of Surface, or Pattern making from models and objects. View Drawings and Working drawings (both mak- ing and reading) from models and objects. Conventions of Constructive Drawing. Constructive Design, INTERMEDIATE AKD GRAMMAR GRADES 143 rti I i \ \ i i I i \ VIEW Y///M// 1 ''*. ! 14- l X /, $ i ^ ; X JECTION ON Al SECTION os CD BOTTOM VIEW BOTTOM VIEW The working-drawing of a hollow cylider closed at one end and the sectional views given above illustrate view-drawings, working-drawings and conventions. Representation. This subject division includes the study of the appearance of form in objects viewed under various conditions and in various relations ; the expres- sion by drawing of ideas derived from such study, and drawing in elementary Pictorial Composition, or Repre- sentative Design. The subject takes its name from the fact that its principles and methods have their fullest development in the pictorial, or Representative Arts. The principal features of the Representative work in the Intermediate and Grammar grades are : Form Study : leading to the discovery of the princi- ples of perspective. Outline Drawing : involving the use of certain desir- able modes of rendering. Rapid Sketching. 144 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR Drawing in Light and Shade. Study of Good Examples for gaining skill in render- ing. Pictorial Use of Color. Representative Design : (Pictorial Composition). The illustration given above shows some of the per- spective principles in Representation, as foreshortening of faces and edges, convergence of lines, &c. Decoration. This subject division includes the study of beauty in geometric forms, in historic ornament, and in natural forms ; the expression of this beauty by Modelling, Paper-cutting, and Drawing, and the adapta- tion of beautiful geometric, historic, and natural forms to purposes of Decorative Design. The subject takes its name from the fact that its principles and methods have their fullest development in the Decorative Arts. The principal features of Decoration, as taught in the Intermediate and Grammar grades are : The study of typical forms of beauty as found in Historic Ornament. The study of elementary principles of Decoration as presented in selections from Historic Ornament, INTERMEDIATE AND GRAMMAR GRADES 145 The study of beauty in natural forms, and the adap- tation of natural forms to purposes of decorative design. The study of beauty in type forms and in geometric figures, and of beauty in geometric arrangement, and their relation to decorative design. Decorative Design. The creation of the beautiful in ornament, by the pupil himself, through the use of geometric, historic, and natural forms in ac- cordance with decorative principles derived from geometric and historic ornament. Types of Beauty. The instruction in the subject of Decoration (the study and expression of Beauty of Form) includes the presentation to the pupil of certain ex- amples of Beauty found in the Decorative Art of differ- ent countries and different ages, which through their use and their historic association are regarded as types in the styles of art to which they belong. Special pains should be taken, throughout the work of pupils in Intermediate and Grammar grades, to cul- tivate an appreciation of the types of beauty, in order that the aesthetic sense may have nourishment as the condition of growth. The principal historic styles of ornament from which types of beauty are taken for individual study are the Egyptian, Greek, Eoman, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic. The illustration on next page shows the study of natural forms and the adaptation of natural forms to purposes of decorative design. 146 FORM STUDY, DRAWING AND COLOR The methods in all these subjects should lead to individual study and individual expression for only through wisely-directed self-activity can true progress be attained. It will be found that the Form-Study and Drawing in each of the three subjects, Construction, Representation, Decoration has direct application in Manual Training and in Illustrative work in other studies. It is impossible to indicate here how the various features of Form-Study, Drawing and color in the inter- mediate and grammar grades should be carried out in details. Teachers interested to make a study of these subjects will find great help in the text books and Manuals of the Prang Educational Company, Boston. LANGUAGE We are not of those who wish to do away with gram- mar ; every teacher should understand it, and Grammar pupils who are able to comprehend and as- co^e d too 0t similate it should be encouraged to study it. earl y- But a majority of pupils have formed a distaste for it because it was introduced at too early an age. Lessons in Language should receive attention from the first ; but they should be free from all definitions, grammati- cal rules, analysis and parsing ; these only clog the memory and signify nothing but mere notions of general terms. The object of the study of grammar is " To teach the science of language, and the art of correct object of expression." The study of our text books grammar, on grammar does not, as a rule, attain these results. Why ? Because grammar, proper, is a study of only the science of language. Scientific grammar belongs to the advanced course ; before the age of twelve years, pupils should study only the art of expression. In Language the duty of preparing the soil and plant- ing the seed is with the primary teacher. Only correct sentences should be used in the moreThtn presence of the pupil ; if the teacher do not ] err in this direction, the ear becomes accustomed to correct forms of expression, and the child will uncon- sciously acquire them. This does not come from class- ifying, conjugating, and declining. Pupils must learn (147) 148 LANGUAGE the art of language, and through the art come up to the science. Language is a growth. It cannot be stereotyped. Language and thought have reciprocal influence. Eight habits of language produce right thinking, and vice versa. The language of a person is a test and evidence of his thoughts and mental culture. The chief cause of alarm is on account of the woful ignorance of Eng- lish and the faulty use of our mother tongue among nominally intelligent and educated people even among teachers, who of all persons should use pure language. The teacher is responsible for the language of his pupils. We acquire language through imitation ; the pupil who has always heard good language, will Howgood , , J , . & ,.,., English is use good language; his ability to use good language does not depend upon his knowledge of grammar, but upon his having heard good English, read good English, and practised good English. With- out further comment upon language we would say that whatever else may be omitted in teaching no teacher can afford to dispense with the language exercise. " I had rather speak five words with iny understanding, that by my voice I might teach others also, than a thousand words in an unknown tongue." I. Cor. xvi. 19. SUGGESTIVE METHODS /. Directions 1. Ask the children to tell the names of the objects a. In the school-room, the yard, the house, etc. b. Made of wood, iron, gold, wool, cotton, etc. 0. Manufactured by the carpenter, moulder, etc. OBJECTS AS WHOLES 149 2. Ask the pupil to tell the names of the parts of things. 3. To name some of the quantities of things. 4. To tell the uses of things. 21. Cautions 1. Insist on correct articulation. 2. Form correct ideas ; then insist on the intelligent use of the terms. 3. Let every exercise bear upon the correct USE of language. ///. Results 1. A wide vocabulary. 2. Eeady and correct use of words. 3. Increased mental power. OBJECTS AS WHOLES The pupils will at first mention the names of things in the wildest confusion. The teacher lis- Syst emin tens patiently for a few seconds; then kindly namin s- bids them to begin at a certain part of the room and to speak one at a time, and name things in order. In the answers, constant attention must be paid to the pronunciation of words distinct and correct articulation being one of the first requisites pronuncia- of correct language. Yet this should not be insisted upon to such an extent as to make it irksome to the pupils. The child can attain perfection only gradually, and the teacher should encourage but not drive. Indeed, the child needs no driving ; he will work cheerfully and zealously with the leader who has learned the art of working with the child. 150 LANGUAGE As the names of objects are given by the children, incidental ^ ne teacher should write these names in col- speiiing. umns on the board, requiring the children to spell each word as it is written, assisting or correcting when necessary. Let the children say something about each object, the simple teacher helping them to determine how far statements. the terms they apply are appropriate. The teacher should add to these descriptions the names, and lead the children on to the formation of simple state- ments in their simplest forms. In the written exercise, the children should be led to Reproduction observe that each sentence begins with a cap- exercises, ital i e tter and ends with a period. The teacher will use judgment in the assignment of the directions in each lesson. The directions should be written on the board one at a time, and the pupils requested to follow the directions, and read the statements from the slate. After an ex- ercise has been carefully examined, the teacher should require the class to reproduce it. The children may be supplied with little books in which to write out these lessons at home. For some time they should not be required to originate anything for themselves, but merely to reproduce that which has been taught in school. They will find pleasure in doing that which they can do well. When the objects in the room have formed the sub- jects of such lessons, those in the play-ground, the street, or in the fields, may be resorted to, gradually extending the circle to more remote objects. i>ARTS Otf OBJECTS 151 At least a dozen lessons of this description should be given; PAK* OF OBJECTS After giving lessons on objects as a whole the teacher will ask the pupils to name the parts of objects, and the number of those parts. This is a second step. In these exercises, the teacher should be careful not to let the children call that a part which is merely a property or an accident. A part of a material object is a portion of it ; if the part is removed, the object will be diminished in size and weight. It is improper, then, to consider as parts the lines and surfaces of objects. The exercises on the parts of objects should be varied in many ways, so as to arouse and maintain a lively in- terest in the pupils. For example the parts of a pin are the head, shaft, and point ; of a chair, leys, rounds, seat, and ~back. The first step to be taken in language is to obtain ideas. The second is the proper expression The two of the ideas when obtained. steps * To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of observation ; to use the eyes in noticing not observation only entire objects, but also their different comes first, parts ; to consider their qualities, uses, operations and effects, together with their relations to other things. The mind employed in such processes acquires material for its own operations, and develops ideas and th6*ughts as it were spontaneously. For this exercise in language it is proposed that the children enumerate the parts of some visible object, something as follows : 153 LANGUAGE A House Its parts are : stone, sills, plates, ceilings, mortar, posts, rafters, floors, etc. joints, doors, shingles, beams, nails, chimneys, Glass Its qualities : It is hard, inodorous solid, colorless, smooth, heavy, bright, durable, transparent, inflexible, brittle, insoluble, cold, dry, * tasteless, fusible, etc. Its uses : For windows to admit the light ; For spectacles to assist the sight ; For useful vessels, such as goblets, pitchers, bottles, phials, lamps, etc. Thus far we have endeavored to teach the pupils the Qualities power of rapid, complete, and accurate obser- of objects. vation, and to prepare them for concise, com- plete, and accurate description. The teacher in order to give the children information on qualities of objects, so that they may form correct impressions, should subject the object to more or less complicated experiments. The names of some of these qualities, e. g., compressi- bility, flexibility, etc., must be fully illustrated. This exercise will furnish opportunity for the teacher to invent means of entertaining children while instruct- ing them. LESSONS OK WORDS 153 Interrogate the children closely upon the uses of objects, and require them to write short compositions about objects, to tell the name, parts, qualities, and uses. The teacher must have a plan of presenting subjects. Experience daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or what may be termed extempore must have a teaching, is sure to be diffuse and indifferent ; besides, the teacher must NEVER PAIL to enter the class well prepared, not only in regard to the OBJECT on which he intends to exercise his class, but upon the ORDER in which the exercises are to be conducted, and upon the manner in which the individual pupils are to be interrogated. He must himself have clear and dis- tinct ideas ; must observe accurately and speak carefully, concisely 9 and correctly. Without these requisites the teacher will fail in lan- guage. Let him study carefully Fitch's admirable lit- tle book on "The Art of Questioning." WORDS AS OBJECTS OF OBSERVATION /. Directions 1. Give the children words similar in pronunciation, but different in spelling. 2. Ask the children a. To find the words in the spelling-book. b. To write sentences that have the words men- tioned in them. c. To make a spelling-lesson of the words named. d. To write statements, using the words named. e. To write a composition, using the statements. //. Cautions 1. Kequire the children to answer in full statements. 154 LANGUAGE 2. Give constant attention to distinct articulation. 3. Correct the common errors in pronunciation. 4. Make the exercise pleasant and instructive. III. Results 1. The children will understand the meaning of words. 2. They will learn correct, simple expression. 3. They will learn how to write and to spell. An exact copy of a lesson given in the Primary De- A real partment of the State Normal school in exercise. Buffalo, New York, is here appended. The words for practice; leech and beach. List of words, given by the pupils : /. Beech II. Beach 1. beech-tree, 1. sand-beach, 2. beech-nut, 2. shell-beach, 3. beech-leaf, 3. pebbly-beach, 4. beech-wood, 4. beach-timber, 5. beech-root, 5. Rye beach, 6. beech-twig, 6. ocean-beach. 7. beech-bark, 8. beech-oil. SENTENCES WRITTEN BY THE PUPILS / Beech ; a tree 1. The beech-trees make a nice shade in summer. 2. The beech has a smooth green bark. 3. The squirrel hides beech-nuts in his hole for winter. 4. Beech-wood snaps in the fire. //. Beach ; a sandy shore 1. Year before last we all went to Rye beach in vaca- tion. 2. 0, see the pretty pebbles I picked up on the beach ! THREE GEKTJTNE COMPOSITIONS 1S5 3. What fun it is to walk barefoot on the dry warm sand, down on the 'beach, THREE OF THEIR COMPOSITIONS 1. A beech-tree is a very large forest tree. It has little three- cornered beech-nuts on it. I was out in the country once and I saw very many little shells of the beech-nuts where the squirrels had been. The beech- wood snaps when you put it into the fire, and makes a very hot fire. 2. I went down to the Beach one day and the sand was all smooth. I was on the Beach of Lake Michigan once and made little houses of the beach pebbles in the sand. Rye Beach is where the people go to bathe in the summer. 3. A squirrel is a animal that eats beech-nuts. When you burn beech- wood it crackles and snaps all on the carpet like ashes. The beech-tree grows to be very large and when it is very large men go and chop them into wood the beech-nut is very good to eat I had some twice and they were good sometimes people get oil from the nuts ; beech leaves are good to chew they have a sour taste they are very good ; beech-nuts are as big as the end of the finger they are three-cornered the beech-nut tree grows in Europe and america. The last was written by the youngest girl in the class, aged eight. All are printed just as written. Children from eight to ten years of age will do this work, if the teacher directs them. . The teacher should spell and pronounce such words, as the children cannot, and also tell their , .,, , T Suggestions. exact meanings and illustrate them. It pos- sible, let him draw a picture at the board, an indiffer- ent one is better than none. Indeed the off-hand drawing of sketchy pictures by the children has become in many schools a prominent feature of composition-work. Here are some specimens of actual class-work in Putnam school, Syracuse, N.Y., 15(3 taken from "English Grammar made Practical'*, an excellent work by the principal of that school, Mr. John D. Wilson. Maude Kinsley. December 20, 1887. THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE EARTH is WATERED Ct.u* The sun shines upon the water of the ocean and draws up in- visible vapor. It rises, and when it comes in contact with the cold upper air is partially condensed, and becomes visible clouds. These clouds are carried by the wind over the land, until they reach a still colder layer of air, or a colder mountain range, when they are wholly condensed, and fall to the earth as rain, snow, or hail. The rivers and the lakes are simply the ram, finding a pas- sage to the ocean. Clara K. Harth, age 15 years. June 5, 1888. LAND AND SEA BREEZES When the sun shines on the land and water, the land becomes heated first because it is motionless. The air over the land be- comes lighter and rises ; and the cooler air from the water rushes in to take its place, forming a sea breeze during the day. When the sun goes down the land imparts its heat first ; the warm air over the water rises, and the cooler air from the land rushes in to take its place, forming a land breeze at night ILLUSTRATED COMPOSITIONS ?. G. Strong, age 14 years. SPRINGS 157 Oct. 21, 1887. Springs are streams of water issuing from the ground. When the rain strikes the earth it soaks into the porous rock until it strikes impervious rock ; then it rushes along the imper- vious rock until it can go no farther ; then it bursts up through the ground and we call it a spring. Marion Kinsley, age 15 years ALCOHOL Starch under certain conditions with water forms grape sugar. Grape sugar, dissolved in water, in the presence of some vegeta- ble substance at a temperature of 70 to 100, separates into two parts : alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The carbonic acid gas 158 LANGUAGE rises to the top in bubbles, and passes off in a gaseous state ; the alcohol stays in the bottom. This process is called fermentation. Put any fermented liquor in a closed retort with a tube attached ; apply heat, and the alcohol turns into vapor, and passes through the tube into an ice box. It passes through coils, and is con- densed by the cold, and forms a liquid, which passes out as alcohol. This process is called distillation. Alcohol is not a food. It interferes with digestion, and injures the blood. It also deadens the nerves. All erroneous expressions uttered by the children should be immediately corrected and the proper words flxed upon the mind by repetition. In the daily work of the school-room, all definitions of the meaning of words, and all descriptions of places, objects or events, whether given by the teacher to the children, or elicited from them, should be clothed in simple and definite language, and fixed in the memory by repetition. The children should be trained to give complete answers to all questions put to them. Experience teaches that nothing more tends to make an idea clear to the mind, and to render it a permanent possession, than the act of clothing it in accurate language. Monosyllabic answers, as "yes" and "no", should be rejected, except when they express all that can be said on the subject. The value of such instruction has not been sufficiently appreciated, but it is hoped that these lessons will show how suited it is to promote mental training. COMPARISON OF OBJECTS /. Directions 1. Hold an object before the children and ask them to say something about it. COMPARISON OF OBJECTS 159 2. Place objects of the same kind in their hands, and let the pupils describe them ; first in oral, second in written description. 3. Let the pupils compare objects, and tell their dif- ferences, as paper and leather, lead and iron, wood and stone, etc. 4. Let the pupils ascribe different qualities to one and the same object. 5. Let the pupils ascribe the same quality to various objects. 6. Let them apply many descriptive terms, applicable to various objects. 7. Let them point out the value of each word and state what it adds to the description. //. Cautions 1. See that the children form correct ideas. 2. Correct all improper expressions. 3. Fix the new word in the mind by frequent reviews. 4. Assist the children in determining the suitability of words, correcting when necessary. 5. Encourage the children to reproduce lessons at home. ///. Aims 1. To train the children to SEE. 2. To teach them to COMPARE. 3. To train them to DO. 4. To train them to TELL what they see and do. In the oral description let the children give tne gen- eral properties, as the form and color ; then i -i T j i L Suggestions. the parts, properties and uses. In the writ- ten description require the work to be expressed neatly^ 160 LANGUAGE giving attention to spelling, writing, capital letters and punctuation. Let the teacher write the name of some familiar ob- combination J ec ^ on ^ ne board, and call upon the chil- of statements. ^ren o apply to it various qualities, writing them as they give them. It may be necessary to assist the children in determining the suitability of the quali- ties, and also in spelling the more difficult words. We may suppose a lesson in which the given name is "paper". It would present itself in such a form as this : The paper is white, The paper is thin, The paper is smooth, The paper is pliable, etc. The teacher should next lead the children to notice that the word "paper" need only be written once, and that the four sentences may be contracted into one. Then the teacher directed by the children writes : Paper is white, thin, smooth, and pliable. The children then read this over, and are led to per- ceive the necessity of commas in those places where the words "paper is" are omitted, and also the use of the word " and " between the last two words of the sentence. Cover the board and require the children to reproduce the lesson. When the same quality is attributed to many objects, it would present itself in such a form as this : Glass is brittle. Chalk is brittle. Coal is brittle. Glass, chalk, and coal are brittle. Iron is hard. GENERAL TERMS 161 Flint is hard. Glass is hard. Iron, flint, and glass are hard. The children should be led to notice the stops as before, and the change of the word " is " to " are." Let the children observe that each sentence begins with a capital letter, and ends with a period. Examine each slate, and require the children to reproduce cor- rect copies. Be sure the children observe that words used in a series are separated by a comma. Kequire the children to write many sentences, until this fact is fixed in the mind. A LESSON ON GENERAL TERMS 1. Ask the pupil to give a name that will apply to everything which they can perceive. 2. Ask the pupils a. To classify the different kinds of matter. b. To name the different classes. c. To name the things that belong to the indi- vidual classes. d. To observe and tell what animals and vegetables do. e. To notice and tell what animals can do which the vegetable cannot do. /. To observe the differences between the food of plants, and that of animals. g. To write a statement using the words named. h. To write a short composition, combining the statements. 3. Cautions. a. " Never assist the child to a thing that it can 162 LANGUAGE do itself " with reasonable effort. b. Eemember that it is a difficult thing to form a thought and express it. 4. Kesults. a. It will arouse the curiosity of the pupils. p. It will enlist their undivided attention. c. It will cause them to observe closely. d. It will teach them the importance of classifica- tion. The aim of these language lessons is to enlarge the Aim to train c i rc ^ e of the pupils' knowledge respecting the mind. ^he objects brought under inquiry. The true aim is not only to impart knowledge rightly, and teach the elements of order, but to train the poivers of the pupil. This is its dignity; this is its peculiar dis- tinction. The main design is the growth and develop- ment of the whole being. In order to teach language effectively we must begin the process, as nature meant w% should, by furnishing the children with the elements out of which language is created, namely, a knowledge of material things. The teacher should place upon the table a number of articles that belong to the mineral, vege- table, and animal kingdoms. He should ask the children to examine them carefully, and to tell a name that will apply to all of them. (It would be well to ask the children to bring different things from their homes.) The children will give the following names : Articles, objects, substances ; they may not be able to give the term that you wish, which is "matter/' Write the PARTS OF SPEECH 163 words on the board, and tell the children that the term MATTER is the one that you wish. After the children become familiar with this term, you may ask them to put all the objects of the , . , . . rrM .,, , Suggestions. same kind into groups. They will learn to classify objects an important lesson. The teacher will then ask the children to name the different groups, viz : mineral, vegetable, and animal. (It may prove a surprise to some of the children, that they belong to the animal kingdom.) Many lessons may be given, requiring the children to name things that belong to the different classes. The teacher should require the children to bring in long lists of these- names ; an exercise of this nature will arouse their emulation. Let the children observe that the animals move about, and plants are stationary ; that animals and plants take food, breathe, grow, and die ; that plants feed on min- erals ; and animals on vegetables, animals, and minerals. The teacher should be careful about assisting the children ; it may be well to let a question remain unan- swered for a day or so and see if the pupils cannot find out the answer by a few hours' study. THE PARTS or SPEECH We introduce at this point a new class of objects, viz : Words in regard to some of their offices. We have examined the nature and functions of other things and have made use of the facts thus obtained as material for language development. Words, as will be seen, can be made to give us a large stock of working material to be used in advancing the Art of Language. 164 LANGUAGE The Noun Teacher. What is this ? Pupil A bell. T. Spell the word bell. (Pupil spells the word, and teacher writes it on the board. Obtain and dispose of, similarly, the following ; book, pencil, cup, Henry, Aurora.) T. What are these on the board ? P. They are words. T. Pronounce this word : Henry. P. Henry. T. When you see or hear this word, of what do you think ? P. I think of a boy. T. What boy? P. My brother. T. Why, when you hear this word, do you think of him? P. Because that is his name. T. What kind of a word is it ? P. A name word. T. Of what is it the name ? P. It is the name of a person. T. Of what is the word cup a name ? P. The name of a thing. T. Find other words upon the board that are the names of things. (Pupils find pencil, book, bell.) T. Of what do you think when you speak this word ? (referring to the word Aurora.) P. Of a town. T. Why do you think of a place ? P. Because it is the name of a place. PARTS OF SPEECH 165 T. Find another word and tell of what that is the name. P. Wednesday is the name of a day. T. What is each of these words ? P. A name. T. Does any one know another word that means the same as name ? (No hands raised.) T. You may call these words nouns. (Pupils spell.) T. What is a noun ? P. A name is a noun. T. Give me twelve names. (Pupils give names and spell them.) For to-morrow write : 1. Ten words that are the names of persons. 2. Ten words that are the names of things. 3. Ten words that are the names of places. The Common Noun T. What is this ? (touching one of the boys.) P. A boy. T. What are you ? (addressing a boy.) P. A boy. (Address several boys and obtain similar replies.) T. By what name may all of you be called ? P. Boys. T. A boy may open the door. (Several boys^tart to obey.) T. Why do so many of you start when I speak ? P. We don't know which one you mean. T. Why ? P. Because the name belongs to each of us. T. What name belongs to each of you ? P. Boy. 166 LANGUAGE jT. What have you learned to call a word that is a name ? P. A noun. T. Why is it a noun ? P. Because it is a name. T. Because the name applies to each of you what kind of a name is it ? P. A common name. T. What kind of a noun is it ? P. A common noun. T. What is a common noun ? P. A common name is a common noun. T. But when is a name common ? P. When it applies to each one of the same kind of objects. T. What, then, is a common noun ? P. A name that applies to each one of the same kind of objects is a common noun. T. Peter, bring me five things that have a common name. What are these called ? P. Books. T. What name may be given to each boy and girl in this school ? P. Pupil. T. What common name may be given to Miss , Miss , and Miss ? P. Teacher. Lady. Woman. T. What kind of nouns are pencil, pupil, teacher, lady, boy, girl ? P. Common nouns. For to-morrow write a list of : 1. Twenty common nouns that are names of ^articles of furniture. tARTS OF SPEEOM 167 2. Twenty common nouns that are names of tools. 3. Twenty common nouns that are names of vegetables. 4. Twenty common nouns that are names of minerals. The Proper Noun T. Jane, write your name on the board. (Pupil does so.) What have you written ? P. I have written my name. T. Why do you say "my name" ? P. Because it belongs to me. T. What other person in your family has the same name ? P. No other person has the same name. T. Class : why do you think a different name from any other in her family was given ? P. To tell her from the others. T. To how many of her family does the name Jane belong ? P. It belongs to one. T. What is this name ? P. This name is a noun. T. What is a noun ? * P. A name is a noun. T. Because this name belongs to one only, what kind of a noun is it ? P. It is a particular noun. T. You may call it a proper noun. What is a proper noun ? P. A particular name is a proper noun. T. To how many does a proper noun belong ? P. It belongs to one. T. Give a name that is common to those three things. (Pointing to a pile of books.) 168 LAHGtTAGE P. Book. T. Give the proper name. P. Monroe's First Keader, Webster's Dictionary, Thomson's Arithmetic. T. Open your readers and find five proper nouns. (Pupils do so. ) With what kind of letter is each begun ? P. With a capital letter. T. Find a proper noun that does not begin with a capital letter. (Pupils fail to find one.) 1. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of men. 2. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of women. 3. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of places. 4. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of divisions of time. The Possessive Form of Nouns T. What is this ? P. That is a hat. T. Whose hat is it ? P. William's. T. Make a statement of what you say. P. That is William's hat. (Some of the pupils write this statement on the board ; the others write it on their slates. ) 'T. What is the word William's ? P. A noun. T. What kind of a noun ? P. A proper noun. T. For what is it used in the sentence ? P. To tell whose hat. To tell who owns the hat. T. You may say possesses, instead of owns. P. To tell who possesses the hat. PARTS OF SPEECH 169 T. Speak the word as we commonly hear it. (Pupils do so.) T. Speak the word as it is here used. (Pupils do so.) [This should be repeated, with this and other nouns, until the pupils perceive clearly and can state the dif- ference between the sounds of the two forms.] T. Open your books and find names used as we have used the name William in this sentence. (Pupils find many names and pronounce them.) T. What is the difference in the sounds of these words, and the same words as they are commonly called ? (Pupils state.) T. What do you find in the printed word to represent that difference ? P. An apostrophe and a letter s. T. As you look at the words William and William's, what difference can you see ? P. One has more letters than the other. A differ- ence in the size of them. A difference in the form of them. T. Because William is the way we commonly use the word, what form may we call it ? P. The common form. T. What shall we call the other form ? (Pupils do not know.) T. You may call this the possessive form of the noun. (Pupils spell the word.) 1. Write ten common nouns in the possessive case. 2. Write ten proper nouns in the possessive case. In like manner develop all the Parts of Speech, as the adjective, pronoun, verb, etc., and make immediate ap^ 170 LANGUAGE plication of tlie terms developed. This will lead the pupils pleasantly into the Science of Language so that it will become a rational study. The Comma Its Use in a Succession of Particulars T. I want you to tell by writing on your slates five things that this knife has. (The pupils at the age of those for whom these les- sons are intended will, almost without exception, write five sentences : This knife has a handle. This knife has a blade. This knife has a back. This knife has a spring. This knife has rivets.) T. How many sentences have you written ? P. Five. T. See how many times you have written the words this, knife, has, and a. Can you not shorten the work by putting all you have to say in one sentence ? (Pupils write : The knife has a handle and blade and back and spring, and rivets.) T. Listen closely. I am going to ask you another question. What is the use of the words handle, blade, back, spring, and rivets ? What did you discover ? P. You said and only before the last word. T. Now I think you can give the sentence that you have been writing, and have it just right. Who will try ? (Hands are raised.) P. The knife has a handle, blade, back, spring, and rivets. PARTS 01* SPEECH 1?1 T. That is right. All repeat. (Pupils repeat, and write on their slates.) T. There is a question unanswered. Who can give it ? (Hands are raised.) P. What is the use of the words handle, blade, back, spring and rivets ? T. Eight. Who will answer it ? P. To show what the knife has. T. Because they are all used for that purpose what may we say about them ? P. They are used in the same way. They are used alike. T. Now turn to your books, and find words that are used alike, and see how they are written ; then we shall know whether our work is right or not. What do you discover ? P. There is a comma after each of the words except the last. (Pupils correct the work on their slates. ) T. You say these words are used in the same way. How hiany words in this sentence are used in the same way ? P. Five. Many. Several. T. Which now makes the best answer to my ques- tion five, many, or several ? P. Several. T. I think so. We have learned something about the use of the comma, and I want you to tell me what it is. P. When several words are used in the same way, a comma is placed after each except the last. (The teacher ought now to suggest many kinds of sentences containing successions of particulars, and 172 LANGUAGE have them all written and carefully criticised. Drill on this lesson should continue several days.) THEMES FOR COMPOSITION /. Directions 1. The teacher will select a familiar theme and ask suggestive questions. 2. Write the correct answers on the board. Water a. Where does the water come from ? 1). How does it reach the clouds ? c. In what form is it carried ? d. What causes it to fall to the earth ? e. Is rain useful ? /. In what way is it useful ? A Journey a. The starting point. Z>. Time of departure. c. Mode of travel. d. Destination. e. Appearance of the country. /. Kind of trees, flowers, etc. g. Return. CAUTION. Enlarge upon the idea of criticising and correcting by the pupils. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES /. Directions 1. Tell or read a short story, and require the pupils to reproduce it. 2. Write a letter to a wealthy merchant in New York city, requesting a situation as salesman in his store. THEMES FOE COMPOSITIONS 173 3. Write an advertisement describing a lost child. 4. Write a composition on each of the following proverbs, explaining its meaning, and showing how far it is true : a. " Fortune favors the brave." I. "All is well that ends well." c. " Strike while the iron is hot." d. " A little pot is soon hot." e. " Out of sight, out of mind." 5. Take some poem of several stanzas, and write your opinion of it. 6. Write a letter to the New York Times, giving an account of a railway accident. 7. Write an allegory comparing tobacco to a thief. Perhaps as easy a method as any to induce the younger class of pupils to make their first Reproduction efforts at composition is to read or relate to of stories - them a short but interesting story, and desire them to write an outline of it, as full and extended as they can within a given time. In such an exercise the thoughts are already furnished, and the only labor of the pupil is to place them in their proper connection and clothe them with good language. In an exercise of this kind the pupil takes one of his first lessons in generalization ; he learns to separate and classify facts, selecting the most important, and rejecting those of little conse- quence. An excellent series of blanks for this purpose, with illustrations and suggestions, is Edwards's " Graded Lessons in Language," in six numbers, at $1.00 a dozen. 174 LANGUAGE SUGGESTIVE ABSTRACTS Abraham Lincoln I. His Early Life. a. Birth. b. Childhood. c. Youth. d. Manhood. e. Difficulties. II. His After Life. a. Occupatioo. b. Election to the Presidency. c. Administration. d. Assassination. e. Burial. III. His Character. a. Simplicity. b. Uprightness. The Influence of Kind Words I. A Kind Word costs nothing, yet its influence may last through a life time. a. Kind words at home. b. in school. c. to friends. d. to our inferiors. e. to strangers. /. to animals. II. The Influence upon the Speaker. a. They gain him friends. b. They gain him a reputation for amiability. c. They keep alive his kindly feelings. d. They produce images of beauty in his mind. e. They win for him love and gratitude. III. The Influence upon the Hearer. a. They shame him out of anger. b. They comfort him in grief. (?. They soothe him in pain. SUGGESTIVE ABSTKACTS 175 IV. The Influence upon Children. V. The Influence upon the Poor. VI. The Influence upon Other People. a. The morose. b. The misanthropic. c. The wicked. d. The weak. VII. Uses of Kind Words. VIII. Value of Kind Words. IX. Compared with : a. Angry words. b. Cold words. c. Hot words. d. Bitter words. e. Vain words, idle words, empty words, profane words, &c. X. Conclude by any instances you may be able to recall of the influence of kind words in your experience ; as, an anecdote or incident. Politeness I. Definition. Ease and grace of manner in the expression of a desire to please others, and a careful attention to their wants and wishes. II. Politeness exacts of us : a. Unselfishness, in our care for the comfort or pleasure of others. b. Elegance of manner, in our desire to please by our de- portment. c. Deference toward our superiors, either in age, station or importance. d. Kindness to our inferiors, either children or servants. III. Value of Politeness. a. Proceeds from the impulse 01 a kindly nature, proving a good heart. b. Will admit of a great degree of polish, proving a fin- fthed education. c. Gives respect where it is due, and thus wins considera- tion in return. 176 LANGUAGE d. Gives kindness to inferiors, and thus wins respect and gratitude from them. e. Promotes good feeling among friends. /. Assuages discord, even among enemies. IV. Natural Politeness. a. Proceeds from the heart without instruction. b. Often to be found among the rough and uncultivated, even if more clumsily expressed than among the educated and refined. V. Acquired Politeness. a. The observance of points of etiquette and good breed- ing by the well educated. b. Mere polish of manner, often covering a selfish, hard nature. VI. Politeness in different Countries. a. The etiquette of one nation often considered rude or insulting in another. b. Every race, even the most savage, has some form of outward politeness. c. Name any peculiar form of etiquette you may have seen or read of. VII. Politeness in Children and Young People is one of the most winning and graceful of attributes. It is a mistaken idea to fancy rudeness a token of manliness or bravery. Bayard, one of the bravest of cavaliers, was one of the most finished gentlemen mentioned in history. VIII. Perfect Politeness may be defined as the union of natural politeness of the heart, with the acquired politeness of Etiquette and Custom. Holmes describes the combi- nation : " So gentle blending courtesy and art, That wisdom's lips seemed borrowing friendship's heart. " Wisdom and Wealth I. Wealth may be defined as : a. Great possessions. b. A large amount of worldly good. SUGGESTIVE ABSTRACTS 177 II. Mere Money may, it is true, be considered as Wealth, but are there not more precious possessions, worldly goods far more valuable ? III. Poverty, it is true, will impede our search for Wisdom, as we shall lack : a. Time for study, if obliged to earn a livelihood. b. The means of buying books. c. The advantage of good instruction. IV. But Wisdom once gained is preferable to Money, for these reasons : a. Once gained it cannot be taken from us, while money may be lost by a thousand reverses. 6. It can never be given to us, but we must taste the sweets of exertion and enjoy the reflection that we have earned our treasures. c. We can never acquire wisdom by theft, or inherit it when dishonestly acquired, as we might mere money. a. Wisdom is independence. The man who has acquired knowledge can in a great measure control his own future. His opportunities for earning money are largely increased ; his pleasures lie in his love of reading and study, and are therefore always open to him ; he is respected by his fellow men ; he never feels the weariness of the vacant mind ; if reverses come to him his wisdom enables him to meet them bravely and often to conquer them V. Conclusion. In starting, therefore, in life, the possession of wisdom is far preferable to the possession of mere money, if ignorance is the price of the latter. A fool can never win honor or even respect though he were to possess unbounded riches ; all the pleasures that can be purchased are nothing compared to the delights of a cultivated mind arid refined intellect. Seek, therefore, to gain wisdom, that you may possess the true wealth that can never be taken away from you, that you win never lose, that you may impart freely tc others, and in so imparting increase your own store rather than diminish it. 178 LANGUAGE Whose life more brightly illuminates the pages of the past the wise man's or the rich man's ? In the history of the future, aim rather to figure as a Socrates than as a Croesus. Compare the life of the wisest man you can remember, and that of the richest man. Knowledge is Power ; Wisdom is Wealth. Absent Friends I. Introduction. In this world of change, every one is called upon to feel the pain of separation from friends endeared by association or acts of kindness. The dearest friends are severed by circumstances, often having the ocean between them. II. Treatise. a. Affection is kept warm by kind remembrance. b. Tender recollections will dwell upon words spoken by the absent, and the memory of their acts will be cherished with pleasure. c. Their return to us, or our joining them, will be an- ticipated with delight. d. The circumstances under which separation took place will seriously affect our thoughts. 1. Parting in anger Time heals rage. 2. Parting in affection. Time should increase love. 3. Parting in sorrow. Anticipated joy of meeting again. e. Separation by death. 1. Memory of friends then becomes holy and pleasant. 2. Faults are forgotten when the grave closes over them. 3. But few homes are without their unf orgotten dead, whose memory is associated with some spot or hour. /. Compare the pain of parting and the pleasure of meeting. 1. After a journey. 2. After years of separation. 3. Hope of reunion in another world. "The joy of meeting pays the pangs of absence ; JjUse who could bear it ? " SYNONYMS 179 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 1. Make a plan or outline of the essay before writing any part of it. 2. Note down in writing any useful thought that may occur to you while you are collecting material for your composition. EXERCISE IN SYNONYMS 1. Custom habit. Custom respects the action ; habit the actor. By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the same act ; by habit the effect which that repetition produces on the mind or the body. 2. Pride vanity. Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity makes us desire the esteem of others. 3. Enough sufficient. Enough relates to the quantity which one wishes to have of anything ; sufficient is all that is needed. 4. Remark observe. We remark in the way of attention, in order to remember ; we observe in the way of examination, in order to judge. 5. Qualified competent. Qualified, having the training, skill, knowledge ; competent, having the power. 6. Entire complete perfect. Entire, having all its parts ; com- plete, all its appendages ; perfect, all essentials, without flaw. 7. fortitude courage. Fortitude, power to endure pain ; cour- age, power to face danger. 8. Vocation avocation. Vocation is the calling or profession ; avocation, the temporary employment. 9. Excuse pardon forgive. We excuse slight offences ; we pardon manifest faults ; we forgive sin. 10. Or and sublime. Lovely pretty beautiful. (We omit definitions. Point out the distinctions.) 11. Amuse divert entertain. Amuse, to pass time lightly and pleasantly away ; divert, to turn one's thoughts to some- thing of a livelier interest ; entertain, to put the mind into agreeable contact with others, as through conversation, or a book. 12. Arduous hard difficult. Difficult, anything that requires more or less exertion to perform it ; hard f that which re- 180 LANGUAGE quires a decidedly greater effort to perform it ; arduous, that which requires strenuous and persevering effort to per- form it. 13. Gospel. Derived from the Saxon adjective G6d, meaning good, and spell, a narrative the good narrative, or glad tidings. Distinguish it from Scripture. This can be made a very pleasant and instructive ex- ercise ; the teacher should explain and illustrate the synonyms, and require the pupils to form sentences, using the words correctly. It will teach precision in the use of words ; great care should be taken to distin- guish between the general meanings and particular applications. Wilson's " Elementary English " will be found useful ; and Rogers " Thesaurus " is invaluable. Instruct the pupils to use simple, plain terms ; com- pare the quotations below and study the difference in the purpose and form of expression. " Life is real, life is earnest ; and the grave is not its goal ; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not spoken of the soul." Longfellow. " Life is the definite combination of definite composite hetero- geneous changes, both simultaneous and successive, in correspond- ence with external co-existences and sequences." Herbert Spencer. COMMON MISTAKES 1. " We have no corporeal punishment here/' said a teacher. Corporeal means having a body and is opposed to spiritual. Say, corporal punishment. 2. " Set down and rest yourself ;" say, sit down. 3. " Who do you mean ?" say whom. 4. " He has got my slate ; " omit got. 5. " Wlio done it \" say did it. 6. (t I intended to have written a letter yesterday ; " say, to write. MISTAKES AHD VtJLGAKISMS 181 7. " The girl speaks distinct ; " say,, distinctly. 8. " He lives at New York ; " say, in New York. 9. " He made a great splurge ; " say, he made a blus- tering effort. The first savors of slang. 10. "My brother lays ill of a fever ;" should be my brother lies ill of a fever. VULGAEISMS The following words and expressions should be strictly avoided in conversation and in writing. Only a few of the many hundreds in use are given, simply as sug- gestions. 1. " Acknowledge the corn/' instead of to admit. 2. " Ain't," instead of am not or isn't. 3. " Awful," instead of ugly or difficult. 4. " Beat out," instead of tired. 5. ' ' Dreadful, "instead of very. 6. " Hopping mad," instead of very angry. 7. " Strapped," wanting or out of money. 8. " Wrathy," instead of angry. 9. "Female," correctly used with reference to sex alone. To speak of a woman simply as a female is ridiculous. The teacher should keep a record of all the mistakes made by the pupils, and encourage them to Recordof do the same. Once a week these should be mist akes. written on the board, and corrected by the pupils, the teacher assisting when necessary. The pupils should be required to copy in a note-book the exercises in a form similar to the above. Let the pupils learn the correct way of speaking by a correct use of the term. Arbitrary rules are of little use in the beginning. 182 LAH6tTAGE FINAL SUGGESTIONS The teacher, at first, will assist the pupils to classify outlines of subjects, draw outlines, and form correct compositions, tabulations. Questions may be used for a brief time, to teach classification ; but should be cast aside as soon as possible. The teacher should always require pupils to hand in an outline of the subject. This plan will cultivate individuality and originality and give the pupils a training, intellectually, that will prove of great service in after life. The teacher must not attempt to do any more than Thought the S ^ e Can ^ We ^' ^ Would not do, for ill- one essential, stance, to select an object in which the properties to be illustrated were not well developed, nor an object with which the pupils were not familiar. Every lesson should be given in such a way as to draw out the perceptive powers of the pupil by leading him to reflect on what he sees, or to analyze the object before him. Powers are to be strengthened only by teaching the pupil to THINK upon what he sees. 1. Prepare yourself beforehand on the subject, fixing important * n J OUY mind exactly what aspects you will suggestions, bring up, just what definitions and illustra- tions you will give or draw out of the class. 2. Have the work marked or written down in the form of a synopsis. 3. Use the board in all exercises ; write on it techni- cal words, classification of the knowledge brought out in the recitation, and, whenever possible, illustrative drawings. FINAL SUGGESTIONS 183 4. Whenever the subject is of such a nature as to allow it, the teacher should bring in real objects illus- trative of it and encourage the children to do the same. 5. Do not burden the pupil with too many new tech- nical phrases at a time, nor fall into the opposite error of using only the loose common vocabulary of ordinary life, which lacks scientific precision. 6. Discuss the topics thoroughly. 7. Do not overburden the pupil's memory. 8. Do not distract his power of attention. 9. Never take up a topic that you are unable to ex- plain and illustrate so clearly as to make the pupil un- derstand it. 10. Avoid all phases of the subject that will tend to confuse rather than enlighten. 11. Draw out in a conversational way the experience and information which your scholars already possess on the subject. 12. Never omit to show by a synopsis on the board what has been discussed in the lesson, its classification and relation. 13. Eequire short weekly compositions of the pupils, expressing in their own language their ideas on the subject. By spending ten or fifteen minutes each day, in a familiar, conversational lecture, upon some Top i CS f or topic or object, selected from the following brief talks - list, not only will the scholars be interested and learn many new truths in a way to remember them, but the teacher himself will derive great advantage from his preparation for such an exercise. Whenever it can be done, the means of illustration should be at hand, to 184 LANGUAGE demonstrate to the eye, and thus fasten upon the mind the facts and reasoning of the lecturer. The curiosity of the pupils should be excited, and questions and re- marks should be encouraged, for by these means they will be led to closer habits of thought and observation. 45. Feathers. 46. Coral. 47. Gutta-percha. 48. A piece of fur. 49. Rotundity of the earth. 50. Spheroidal form of the earth. 51. Origin and use of salt in the sea. 52. Commerce. 53. The seasons. 54. Phases of the moon. 55. Tides. 56. Eclipses. 57. Electricity. 58. Mariner's com- pass. 59. Circulation of the blood. Questions for Debate Is the farmer the most useful member of society ? Does wealth tend to exalt the human character ? Has civilization increased human happiness ? Are great men the greatest benefactors of the world ? Is intemperance a greater evil than war ? 1. 2. Glass. India-rubber. 23. Vinegar. 24. Butter. 3. Leather. 25. Cheese. 4. 5. Sponge. Wool. 26. Coffee. 27. Tea. 6. Wax. 28. Rice. 7. 8. Whalebone. Bread. 29. Paper. 30. Cotton. 9. 10. Ivory. Chalk. 31. Flax. 32. Silk. 11. 12. 13. 14. A pin. A pencil. A brick. An acorn. 33. Gold. 34. Silver. 35. Mercury. 36. Lead. 15. 16. A cork. A stone. 37. Copper. 38. Iron. 17. Cinnamon. 39. Tin. 18. 19. 20. Nutmeg. Ginger. Gloves. 40. Lime. 41. Coal. 42. Granite. 21. Water. 43. Salt. 22. oil. 44. Slate. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS 185 Do inventions improve the condition of the laboring classes ? Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to exertion than the fear of punishment ? Do savage nations possess the right to the soil ? Is the mind of woman inferior to that of man ? Is the pen mightier than the sword ? Has increased wealth a favorable influence on the morals of the people ? Did the Crusaders benefit Europe ? Was the invention of gunpowder an evil ? Is the existence of political parties an evil ? Is the pulpit a better field for eloquence than the bar ? Subjects for Compositions Spring. Flowers. A Thunder-storm. What becomes of the Rain. Blessings of Hope. Flowers of Memory. The Prairies. Unity in Diversity. Snow. Mountains. Forests. The Beauties of Nature. Our Country. The Study of History. Peace. War. The Ruins of Time. The Fickleness of Fortune. A Dream. A Ray of Light. A Drop of Water. Immutability of Change. Town and Country. Never Give Up. Benevolence. History of a Looking-glass. Power of Mind. The Bible. The Sunny Side. The Aurora Borealis. The Earth. The Shady Side. Human Genius. Aim High. Past and Present. Book of Nature. Hope On, Hope Ever. Nature's Mysteries. The Contrast. The Starry Heavens. 186 LANGUAGE By-gone Hours. Immortality of the Soul. Influence of the Great and Good. Poetry of Nature. Music of Nature. Memory of our Fathers. Matter and Mind. The Stuff that Dreams are made of. The Seasons. Heat. Light. The Spirit of Discovery. The Art of Fruiting. Newspapers. Novelty. The Sun. The Rainbow. The Moon, the Stars. The Study of Geography. The Pleasures of Travelling. The Application of Steam. Rivers. To-morrow. The Ocean. Manufactures. The Influence of Women. Hero-worship. Magic of Kindness. Cost of Civility. Things that Cost Nothing. The Orphan. The Rolling Stone. Teachers. Loved Faces. We Bloom To-Day, To-m6r- row Die ! The Wreath of Fame. Reflections of a Looking-glass. Early Companionship. Music of the Sea-shell. Letter from the Town. Letter from the Country. Tricks of Trade. . Keepsakes. My Room-mate. The True Friend. What Shall we Read ? School Associations. Paddle Your Own Canoe. Star of Home. One by One. I've Wandered in Dreams. Philosophy of a Tear. Music of the Spheres. Oppression the Nursery of Re- form. The Book. Peaceful Conquests. The True Hero. Sources of a Nation's Wealth. Commerce. Early Rising. Cheerfulness. The Uses of Biography. The Backwoodsman. Punctuality. Curiosity. Foppery. Gardening. Modern Delusions. Young America. MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS 187 The Multiplication of Books. The First Stroke is Half the The Philosopher's Stone. Battle. Nature and Art. Make Hay while the Sun Shines. The Freedom of the Press. Necessity is the Mother of In- The Present. vention. The Past. A Picture of Fancy. The Future. Leaflets of Memory. Silent Influence. A Soft Answer Turneth away The Monuments of Antiquity. Wrath. Rome was not Built in a Day. Avoid Extremes. A list of 1,000 graded subjects for composition will be found in* Emerson's "Rules for Essay- Writing." REFERENCE BOOKS VERBAL PITFALLS. A manual of 1,500 words commonly misused, including all those the .use of which in any sense has been questioned by Dean Alvord, G. W. Moon, Fitzedward Hall, Archbishop Trench, Wm. C. Hodgson, W. L. Blackley, G. F. Graham, Richard Grant White, M. Schele de Vere, Wm. Mat- thews, "Alfred Ay res," and many others. Arranged alphabet- ically, with 3,000 references and quotations, and the rulings of tne dictionaries. By C. W. Bardeen. 16mo, pp. 223. 75 cts. ORTHOEPY MADE EASY. A Royal Road to Correct Pronuncia- tion. By M. W. Hall. 16mo, pp. 103. 75 cts. OUTLINES OF SENTENCE MAKING. A brief course in compo- sition. By C. W. Bardeen. 12mo, pp. 187. 60 cts. A SYSTEM OF RHETORIC. By C. W. Bardeen. 12mo, pp. 813. $1.75. A SHORTER COURSE IN RHETORIC. By C.W. Bardeen. 12mo, pp. 311. $1.00. GRAMMAR Grammar deals largely with abstract relations, and A mature ^ or tn ^ s reason some maturity in the pupil is study. indispensable. A great deal of time is wasted upon this subject ; if presented wisely and at the proper time it will prove delightful and interesting. A common fault in teaching grammar is to require pupils to commit to memory definitions and rules that have for him no meaning. Grammar should at first be taught orally ; all the terms should be developed, ex- plained and illustrated by copious examples. When these terms are fully understood, then, and not until then, should the pupils be required to commit the rules to memory. As fast as the terms are learned, the pupils should be required, in all cases, to embody them in sentences of their own construction. GENERAL PLAN OF STUDY I. Develop the Sentence. II. Develop the parts of a Sentence. III. Develop the kinds of Sentences (as to use.) 1. Subject. 2. Predicate. 1. Declarative, 2. Interrogative. 3. Imperative. 4. Exclamatory. (138) GENERAL PLAN OF STUDY 189 fl. Simple. . 2. Complex. 3. Compound. V. Teach the correct use of Capital Letters. VI. Teach the correct use of Punctuation Marks. The Sentence Ask the pupils to think of some object. Ask them how you may know the name of the object. They perceive that before their thoughts can be known to others they must express them. In order to communicate your thoughts, what must you use ? They will discover that to express a thought, they must use words. Now ask each pupil to express a thought, as " The bird sings ;" " The tree grows ;" " The boy laughs ;" " The clock ticks " etc. They are now told that a thought expressed in words is called a sentence. Eequire the pupils to form several sentences orally, using the following analysis : I first think about something ; I use words to express my thought. The words used are: " The bird sings." These words express a thought, and form a sentence. A thought expressed in words is called a Sentence. The pupils have already discovered that there must be an object or subject of thought in the mind. And when they tell their thoughts they speak of some object or subject and tell something about it. They are led to see this in every sentence. By repeated trials they soon find that they can form no sentence without speaking of something and telling something about it. 190 GRAMMAR Ask the pupils to express a sentence and analyze it. " The clock ticks. " " The clock ticks/' is a thought expressed in words ; it is a sentence. The word "clock" represents the object upoken of; it is the subject. The word "ticks' 9 repre- sents what is said of the clock ; it is the predicate. That of which something is said, is called the subject. That which is said of the subject is called the predi- cate. By a similar process of development the pupils are The object, led to observe the object of a sentence. The teacher should write at the board all the sen- tences given. It would be well for the teacher to ask questions of Kinds of sen- ^ ne pupils and endeavor to get in reply the tences. different kinds of sentences, as asking, tell- ing, etc. The teacher should write these sentences as given by the pupils on the board, and let the pupils dis- cover the differences. Let them see that every telling or declarative sentence, ends with a period. Every ask- ing or interrogative sentence ends with the mark of interrogation ; every exclaiming sentence with an excla- mation point ; and every commanding or imperative sentence with & period. REVIEW. To be committed to memory. 1. A thought expressed in words, is a Sentence. 2. That of which something is said, is called the Sub- ject. 3. That which tells what is said of the subject, is called the Predicate. 4. That which receives the act expressed by the predi- cate, is called the Object. KINDS OF SENTENCES 191 Every sentence should leg in with a Capital Letter. Every sentence should end with a Punctuation Mark. The Telling, or Declarative Sentence Teacher. Make a sentence about this cap. Pupil. The cap is red. (The teacher writes on the board, while the pupils spell the words. ) T. What did you do wnen you made this sentence ? P. We told you something said about the cap. T. Because this sentence tells or says something, what kind of a sentence may we call it ? P. We may call it a telling sentence. T. What then is a telling sentence ? P. A sentence that tells or declares something. T. What mark must be placed after the last word of every telling sentence ? P. A period. T. What have we learned in our lesson of to-day ? P. A sentence that tells something is called a Telling, or Declarative Sentence. We must place a Period after the last word of every telling, or declarative sentence. Eequire the pupils to write on their slates the defini- Fix facts by ^ on ^ a sentence, subject, predicate, object, wnting them. a telling sentence and the rule for punctua- tion. Let the pupils spell the words, and examine the slates carefully. The Asking, or Interrogative Sentence T. I will ask you a question, and will write it on the board. " Do you love study ? " What did I do ? P. You asked a question. 192 GRAMMAB T. Because it asks a question, what kind of a sentence is it? P. An asking sentence. T. What is an asking sentence ? P. A sentence that asks a question is an asking sen- tence. Let the pupils repeat, spell words, and write the defi- nition on their slates ; ask them to examine their reading books, and bring in asking sentences. Drill upon the above until every member knows how to use the period and the interrogation mark. The Commanding, or Imperative Sentence T. Tell me to do something. Can I use another word instead of tell? P. You can use command. T. Give me a command. P. "Hand me a cup." T. What does this sentence do ? P. It makes a command. T. What kind of a sentence may we call it ? P. A commanding sentence. T. What is a commanding sentence ? P. A sentence that expresses a command is a com- manding sentence. T. What mark have I placed after the last word of the commanding sentence ? P. A period. T. How do I begin a commanding sentence ? P. With a capital letter. T. How do I close it ? P. With a period. KINDS OF SENTENCES 193 T. What is a sentence ? What is a telling sentence ? What is an asking sentence ? What is a commanding sentence ? How do I close every asking sentence ? How do I close every telling sentence ? Write five telling, five asking, and five command- ing sentences. Write the definitions of the telling, asking and commanding sentences. The Exclaiming, or Exclamatory Sentence T. If you should see a house on fire, what would you say ? P. " 0, see the fire ! " "A house on fire ! " T. What would you call these expressions ? P. Exclamations. T. What do these sentences do ? P. They make exclamations. jP. What kind of sentences are they ? P. Exclaiming sentences. T. What is an exclaiming sentence ? P. A sentence that makes an exclamation, is an ex- claiming sentence. T. What mark do you find after the last word ? P. An exclamation point. T. You may all write an exclaiming sentence. Kequire the pupils to repeat all the definitions, see that they understand the idea before com- mitting them to memory. Let them construct drill in com- and write many sentences, holding them rigidly to the correct use of capital letters and punctua- 194 GRAMMAR tion marks, and requiring neatness in every exercise. Work on each sentence until it is right. If necessary to success, be willing to work three days on one short lesson. " Not how much, but how well/' should be the motto. Review, to be committed to Memory. 1. A thought expressed in words is a Sentence. 2. A sentence that tells or declares something is a Telling or Declaring Sentence. 3. After the last word of every Telling or Declaring Sentence we must place a Period. 4. A sentence that asks a question is an Asking or Interrogative Sentence. 5. After the last word of every Asking or Interroga- tive Sentence we must place an Interrogation Mark. 6. A sentence that expresses a command is called a Commanding or an Imperative Sentence. 7. After the last word of every Commanding or Im- perative Sentence, we must place a Period. 8. A sentence that makes an exclamation is an Ex- claiming or Exclamatory Sentence. 9. After the last word of every Exclaiming or Ex- clamatory Sentence, we must use the Exclamation Point. NOTE. Simple as this may seem, it requires on the part of the teacher a great deal of patience to teach it thoroughly. This is a very important subject, and the pupils should be able to make practical application of the above points. "Make haste slowly." The attention of the pupils should be called to the use of capi- capital letters at the beginning of all these tai letters. different sentences. This is very important, and one of the most practical rules in grammar. Ke- ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 195 quire written exercises to be brought into the class, subject to the criticism of the class and teacher. After the pupils have been made thoroughly familiar with the sentence, subject, predicate, and object, with the kinds of sentences, capital letters and punctuation marks, they should be required to form sentences and analyze them, and write the definitions of all the terms that have been taught. A perfect understanding of the thought to be expressed is essential to correct analysis ; hence, the first step should be to prepare the pupils to analyze sentences they them- selves have constructed. When they have become quite expert at this, they may analyze the thoughts of others. Let it be the aim of the teacher to present the subject so pleasantly and attractively that pupils will not say, as is often the case, " What a dry, distasteful, uninter- esting subject." Sentences Classified According to their Propositions T. Jennie, what have you in your hand ? P. I have a book. (Teacher writes the answer on the board.) T. What is the subject ? P. The subject is "I." T. What is the predicate ? P. " Have a book." T. When the subject and predicate express a complete thought it is called a Single Proposition. You may repeat what I have just said. P. Suppose it does not express a complete thought ? T. It may, or it may not, express a complete thought, and still be a proposition for a proposition is the union 196 GRAMMAR of a subject and a predicate. In the example, "I have a book," the thought is complete. In the example, "If I go," it is incomplete ; both are propositions. Fred, do you like the boys in school ? P. I like the boys who study. T. Eead the first proposition. P. " I like the boys." T. That is right: why is that a proposition ? P. Because it is the union of a subject and a predi- cate. T. What kind of a proposition is it ? P. A single proposition, because it expresses complete sense. T. Do the words "who study" make sense ? P. They do not, if used alone, but with the other proposition they assist to complete the sense. T. That is right. Are -the words "who study" a proposition ? P. They are ; because they form the union of a sub- ject and predicate. A proposition by itself may or may not form a sentence. T. What is such a proposition as " who study ", called ? Do you know ? P. It is called the second proposition. T. You might call it that, but it would not be defi- nite: we will call it a clause, as it performs different offices. In the sentence " I like the boys who study," which do you think is the principal proposition ? P. "Hike the boys." T. Why do you think that is the principal ? AHALYSIS OF SENTENCES 19? P. Because it is that which expresses the leading thought. T. That is right. Let us all repeat that. That which expresses the leading thought is the Lead- ing Proposition. P. And what of the words " who study " ? T. Do they make complete sense ? P. They do not ; they seem to have something to do with the principal proposition. T. That is right, John. They tell the kind of boys. We may call them the " study boys". It is not the principal proposition. What shall we call it ? In a regiment we have principal officers and [Fred answers "subordinate".] That is right, Fred. As the words "who study" modify the principal proposition we will call them a subordinate clause. Now, what is a subor- dinate clause ? P. The clause that modifies the principal proposition is a Subordinate Clause. T. You may all repeat it slowly ; so you see that sub- ordinate parts or elements are those that belong to other elements. They are called subordinate because they are under in order, or importance. Now, let us find another kind of proposition. I sep two boys in the park. Tell their names. P. Charles and Frank. T. What are they doing ? P. Charles runs and Frank walks. (Teacher writes answer at the board.) T. Read the first proposition. P. Charles runs. T. Read the second proposition. 198 P. Frank walks. T. Does the last proposition belong to any word in the first ? P. It does not. T. Does the first proposition belong to any word in the second ? P. It does not. T. Does the first proposition express a complete thought in itself ? P. It does. T. Does the second proposition express a complete thought in itself ? P. It does. T. Since each proposition expresses a thought by itself, meaning that it is not dependent, what shall we call it ? I will tell you. We call the propositions Co- ordinate. It means that the propositions are of equal rank. We will now repeat : Propositions of equal rank or order are called Co- ordinate. T. A sentence composed of one proposition is called a Simple Sentence ; a sentence composed of a principal and one or more subordinate propositions, is called a Complex Sentence; a sentence composed of two or more co-ordi- nate propositions is called a Compound Sentence. The teacher should not leave this division until the pupils can bring into the recitation written examples of all the different sentences. He should also require the pupils to analyze the sentences. Review 1. A proposition is the union of a subject and a predicate. CLASSIFICATION OF 199 2. A proposition ly itself may or may not form a sentence. 3. A single proposition is a sentence when it expresses a complete thought. 4. A proposition may form an element of a sentence ; it is then called a clause. 5. The principal proposition of a sentence is that which expresses the leading thought. 6. A subordinate proposition is one that modifies the principal. 7. Co-ordinate propositions are thosjs of equal rank in the same sentence. 8. A simple sentence is one composed of hut one propo- sition. 9. A complex sentence is one composed of a principal and one or more subordinate propositions. 10. A compound sentence is one composed of two or more co-ordinate propositions. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES AND THEIR ELEMENTS Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Subjects, Predicates, Objects, Attributes, Modifiers, Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, are classified in respect to and use, as are classified in f Declarative, respect to kind) Interrogative, or proposition, 1 Imperative, as [Exclamatory, are classified in respect to kind and proposiJn, as ( Simple, Compound, Complex. Affirmative, positional, > are classified in respect to kind, -j Infinitive, ) ( Participial. 200 GftAMMAH Sentences, ^j f Substantive, Clauses, L are classified in respect to office, J Adverbial' Phrases, [ Independent. Elements, \ -p . . , ( Subject, ( Verb, I Principal, -j Pre( i ica ^ Copu ' la and ^ *nhn te j Object, ( attribute. Sentences. J Subordinate. | ^g^ Elements ) ( Principal, of v are classified into 1 Phrases ) ( Adjunct, Conjunctions, Connective, Subsequent. Words, Modifiers. Conjunctive Adverbs, Copulas, Phrases, Relative Pronouns, Prepositions. Connecting Elements are classified into Independent Elements are ( (Words of Euphony. REFERENCE BOOKS 3000 Grammar Questions, with Answers, based on Brown's Grammar, with cross references to the grammars of Murray, Greene, Clark, Kerl, Quackenbos, Weld & Quackenbos, Hall, Fowler, Swinton, Reed & Kellogg, and Whitney. By HENRY KIDDLE, formerly Sup't of Schools, New York city. 16mo, pp. 200. $1.00. Exercises in English Syntax. By A. G. BUGBEE. 16mo, pp. 81 35 cts. Key 35 cts. LETTER-WRITING Good letter- writing is one of the foundation-stones of business, and one of the strongest connecting Its import . links of common life. It were to be wished ance - that more attention were paid to the subject of letter- writing in our schools. In the present day, when igno- rance is deservedly at a discount, and when so much is expected of every one, even in a humble position in life, there is no reason why letters should furnish so many examples of outrageous grammar and absurd diction. A habit of expressing oneself distinctly and without pretension ought to be inculcated in early life. When the difficulties of spelling have once been con- quered, there will be little difficulty in enabling the pupil to acquire such simple forms of letter-writing as are necessary to the ordinary correspondence of business. "True ease in writing/' as Pope says, "comes by art, not chance/' and every element of a complete educa- tion will find exercise in correspondence. Here we can offer only a few suggestions that may help one who is at loss how to begin, and may prevent anything like positive awkwardness or inelegance. The chief purpose of this chapter is to guide in the manner of the mechanical detail of a letter. Mechanical It is to be hoped that this subject will re- structure. (201) 202 LETTER-WRITING ceive attention, and that pupils may be taught HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. One can hardly realize that there is a daily average of 12,000 or 15,000 dead letters, or about 400,000 a month. In other words some 400,000 persons a month undertake to send letters either without stamps, without addresses, or with cancelled stamps, insufficient postage, illegible or incorrect ad- dresses. Many letters are without either stamp or address, and often without signature. Strange as it may seem, these are sometimes the most valuable letters, often containing currency or drafts for large amounts of money. It is estimated that some $3,000,000 in drafts and $75,000 in cash are sent yearly in letters that cannot be delivered. This is all returned, if pos- sible, to the persons sending it ; but if any portion of it fails to find a claimant, it is turned over to the Post Office fund. Little difficulty is experienced in restoring checks and LOSS of drafts to the rightful owners, but money money. generally comes in small sums, and is sent in the most careless, haphazard fashion. The loss of these amounts represents a deal of suffering and disap- pointment. Some hard working man may send $20, the savings of a month's labor, to his wife and little ones whom he has had to leave behind him ; but, alas, he is one of forty thousand who trust to Providence, without stamp or address, or else his writing or orthog- raphy are beyond mortal ken, and so the poor wife never gets the pittance which is her all. During November, 1876, more than 400,000 letters, newspapers and postal cards, were received for delivery *IRST SUGGESTIONS 203 by the letter carriers of New York city, of which 20, 000 were returned by them as undeliverable on account of incorrect and illegible superscriptions. Four millions and a half accumulate annually in the United States. Surely every teacher should give instruction in Letter- Writing. It has been taKen for granted, that pupils who could parse and analyze a simple sentence, bound the States and Territories, and explain an example in cube root, could write a passable letter ; but this is a mistake. A majority of our pupils are only able to do what has been taught to them, and that thoroughly. It is not enough to say to pupils, " You should be able to write a good letter ;" you should make sure by your own instruction that they can write a good letter. I. MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LETTER FIRST ATTEMPTS "How shall I teach the pupil to write a letter?" Try the following method : Ask him, 1. What are you going to write about ? Get the real fact or incident, and have him write it down T . 7 . . Subject. in proper form, as his subject. 2. What is the first thing you wish to tell about ? Tell him to write that down by itself, as he wishes to tell it. Proceed thus, with the several items, 2d, 3d, and so on, till he thinks of nothing more. So far you have the material. Now for the order. Ask him, 3. Which of these really ought to come first ? If he hits on the right one, have him number it 1. If he is wrong, point out the right one. Proceed in the same way to find the proper second item, 204 LETTER-WRITIK& and so on to the end. This settles the order. Now consider the paragraphs. Ask, 4. Which of these seem to belong together in a group ? Have them numbered a second time, as ^[ 1, 2, etc. Show the proper method for spacing the first lines of paragraphs. Attend next to the ex- pression. Ask, 5. What long words can be changed for short, simple words, or those in better taste ? Have the changes made by interlining. Next, con- sider the capitals and punctuation. Ask, 6. What ungrammatical words or expressions do you find ? Whatever such he finds, correct by interlining. Such as he fails to find, point out and have corrected. 7. What words should begin with capitals ? Have capitals. these marked. 8. Where do we want a full separation . Have the period inserted. And so proceed, as other Punctuation. r . . -. , points are needed. Now require a complete draught to be made. When this is done, examine and correct it under the pupil's close observation, explaining the corrections made. Lastly, require a carefully written copy according to the corrections. The materials for letter-writing should be of good quality. Good materials cost only a trifle more than poor ones. The paper for busi- ness correspondence should be white or tinged with blue. The size of the paper should be adapted to the size of the envelope to be used. THE HEADING 205 In business correspondence, it is not in good taste to use tinted or colored paper. Avoid the use of all fancy inks, and use simple black ; all other colors fade. Do not use envelopes of irregular or fanciful shape, and let them be adapted in size and color, to the paper. White is always suitable. The Heading The Heading includes the place and date. If your letter is to consist of one page only, the prop- er position for the Heading is on the first line : if of less than one page, proportionately lower ; so that the space at the bottom of the page may be equal to the space at the top. Begin the Heading a little to the left of the middle of the page ; and if it is too long to be placed within the limit of a half line, let it be ex- tended for completion to the next line below. It usually occupies two lines, but never more than three ; when two lines are used the second should begin farther to the right than the first. Business letters should always be dated at the top ; some place the date at the bottom, but this form is used more generally in social correspond- ence. When placed at the bottom it must be near the left edge of the paper, one line below the signature. (Model 5.) The heading of a letter should be self-explaining. The name of the State and County should be expressed, unless the letter is addressed to a very large city, like New York or Boston. If the letter is written in a city the street and number should be ex- pressed. The Heading should be full and complete, so 206 LETTER-WRITING that when a person answers the message, he may know where to send. The date includes the month, day of the month, and the year ; if letters are used after the figures, let them be placed on a line with the figures, and not a little above the line. The best usage requires cardinal numbers rather than ordinal Dec. 10, not Dec. 10th. The parts of the Heading should be separated by com- mas, and a period should be placed at the close of the Heading and after abbreviations. The ordinal adjectives 1st, 5th, 27th, are not abbreviations, and they should be followed by a comma. The Head- ing is an abridged form of sentence, composed of phrases, and phrases are usually set off by commas. The teacher should write or have written on the board the correct form of the heading of a letter, >ns * calling attention to the position and arrange- ment of the parts, capital letters, arjd punctuation. He should require the pupils to copy the correct form on their slates, spell the words, and give the correct ar- rangement and position of all the parts. Various Headings should be given by the teacher un- til the pupils are thoroughly familiar with them. A few lessons methodically given, will SECURE MASTERY. MODEL 1 Albany, New York, June 10, 1877. MODEL 2 Amsterdam, Montgomery Co., N. Y., June 11, 1880, THE INTRODUCTION 201 MODEL 3 Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., March 21, 1880. MODEL 4 1109 East Genesee St., Syracuse, N. Y., Tuesday, Dec. 10, 1889. MODEL 5 221 Fifth Avenue, Chicago, III, Aug. 30, 1893. The Introduction The name of the person to be addressed should be given on the line below the Heading, at the right and near the marginal line. It may occupy one, two, or three lines. The first line of the address should contain the name and title alone ; it should begin even with all the lines of the page, exceDt the Heading and those that commence paragraphs. The American form of correspondence places the address before the salutation, except in letters of an official character ; then it is placed at the close of the letter, at the left of the signature ; this corresponds with the English style. The direction should be as full in the address as in the Heading. The letter should be self-ex- plaining ; it should contain not only the name and residence of the writer, but also the name and residence of the person to whom it is written 208 LETTER-WRITING The name should be written in full ; for example, we write to J. C. Knox, Colorado Springs, Col- orado ; as it stands now it may mean James C. Knox or Jennie C. Knox. It is better, unless the party is well known, to write the full Christian name, and not the initials of the name. Too much pains cannot be taken in the address of letters and the superscription of envelopes. In New York city there are hundreds of persons by the name of John Smith ; in order to avoid confusion and prevent the profanity of mail carriers, it would be better for all correspondents to write the full name, the proper title and the name and the number of the street. The common titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Esq. Mr. is an abbreviation of Mister ; Mrs. is an ab- Title breviation of Mistress, but pronounced Missis, which is written Mrs.; Miss is not considered an abbreviation, but a contraction from the word Mistress ; Esq. is an abbreviation of Esquire. The following will illustrate the various titles fixed Titles. by custom. To the King's Most Excellent Majesty. To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. To his Grace the Duke of Argyle. To the Most Noble the Marquis of Westminster, To the Eight Honorable the Earl of Derby. His Excellency Grover Cleveland, President of the United States. The title of His Excellency is also applied to the Governor of any State, or to a Foreign Minister. Honorable Adlai Stevenson, Vice-President of the United States. THE INTBODUCTIOtf 209 The title of Honorable is also applied to Senators and Representatives of the United States, Governors of a State, State Senators and Representatives, Judges, Mayors, and Heads of Executive Departments of the General Government. The term Esquire is applied very indiscriminately. Properly it is limited to members of the legal profes- sion, or to non-professional gentlemen of note and dis- tinction. Two titles of the same class should not be applied to the same name. Thus in addressing John Roe, do not say Mr. John Roe, Esq.; though you may say Mr. John Roe, or John Roe, Esq. If the profession of the person addressed be known, the professional title should always be used. If a per- son be entitled to two titles, the higher is given ; if both are used, the lower first, followed by the higher. Titles of respect are usually placed before the name ; as Mr., Hon.) Rev., Dr., and military titles. Professional titles sometimes precede, and sometimes follow the name. Dr. Fred Childs or Fred Childs, M. D. ; Prof. Moses True Brown, or Moses True Brown, A. M. All titles should be written plainly and in full. One title should not include another, as Dr. Graham B. Bristol, M. D. It is allowable in writing to a clergy- man whose surname alone is known to us, to write Rev. Mr. Smith, the Mr. being in this case regarded as a substitute for the Christian name. A common but barbarous error is to write " Rev. Smith. " Two literary, or professional titles may be added to one name; thus, Prof. Leroy Cooley, A. M.; Rev. Dr. Shaw ; Rev. M. B. Anderson, D.D., LL. D. 210 LETTER-WEITING The wife of a professional man may be addressed, using the following title, as Mrs. Dr. Brown, Mrs. Sec- retary Bowen. It is a frequent custom to address the wife in her own name, as, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe. This is required in business transactions. The salutation should never be omitted ; it expresses politeness, respect, or affection. The terms Salutation. , , . ., . --,,. employed in writing to a man are Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir. The word Dear implies that the parties are acquainted ; My dear Sir suggests intimacy or friendship. In addressing a married woman, the following form is usual, including the title and Christian name of the husband : Mrs. Dr. J. J. Anderson, 105 Madison Avenue, Albany, N. Y. Madam, In the use of salutations, it is better to be too formal Avoid than too familiar. To use a term of affec- famiiiarity. j on wnen no endearment exists between the parties, is highly improper. It is assuming undue familiarity, not warrantable in business correspondence. On the other hand, a friendly correspondence once But do not established must not relapse into mere be capricious, formalities, unless a decided quarrel and separation have taken place. Small differences or dis- agreements should make no change in your modes of address and expression. You may some day have to oppose your friend at a caucus meeting, or in a warm discussion on religion or politics ; yet his aversion to your views, and your impetuous opposition to his, are THE INTRODUCTION 211 not to prevent you writing "My dear Harry " 9 or " My dear Tompkins", or "My dear Sir", as you did before the difference broke out. Depend upon it there is nothing more contemptible than to taint the amenities of social life with exhibitions of temper or vexation, or to suffer the pen to express unfriendly sentiments or greetings of a suddenly cool character, because some trifling difference has arisen between yourself and your friend. Here it should be hinted that whatever mode you adopt in addressing a person, is to be preserved in future correspondence, if not in exactly the same words, at least the same in purport ; you must not go back ex- cept for a special reason, but you may go forward with a proper grace as intimacy ripens, and increase the warmth of your congratulations. We remember an incident which may be mentioned in illustration of this. A gentleman had been for many years on terms of intimate friendship with his tailor, and the correspondence between them, whether of a friendly or a business nature, had always a cordial tone pervading it, until on one occasion the friendship was slightly interrupted. In fact, the gentleman was a little in arrear as to the settlement of his friend's account, and the latter sent a short and brusque letter, as follows : -Sir, "I am disappointed in not having received the amount of my bill as promised by you in your last ; may I beg the favor of a speedy settlement ? Yours obediently, SIMON SLOWSTITCH." To this an answer was returned as follows : ' ' My dear Slowstitch, ' ' Last time you wrote I owed you nothing, and you addressed me as your 'Dear Nonplus'; but since I have unfortunately 212 LETTER-WRITING failed to meet your demand, according to my own promise, you reduce me to a mere ' Sir ', upon your list of patrons. Do you intend to terminate a friendship of ten years in this way, or do you propose resuming the ' Dear Nonplus ', with a view to be mine ' faithfully ', when the account is settled (as it will be to- morrow), remaining in the meanwhile mine ' obediently ', only ? Will you allow me to suggest that expressions of friendship are open to question, both as to their value and their sincerity, when they are made to depend on business relations for their respective amounts of warmth or coldness which shall be infused into them. To be consistent, I shall have to adopt a cringing tone when I owe you money, and a tone of pompous patronage the moment I have paid it ; that is, if any correspondence should continue be- tween yourself and Yours very truly, STEPHEN NONPLUS." Among the forms of address for friendly, complimen- tary and semi-business letters, we have the formal " Dear Sir " for use on all occasions. The solicitor so addresses his client, the client his solicitor, the patient his physi- cian, the editor his contributor, and, indeed, any man of gentlemanly pretentions, addressing another to whom he has already been introduced, or with whom he has already corresponded. In correspondence of a profes- sional nature, where both parties are strangers, it would always be well to commence with the simple "Sir", or " Madam ", and in the second or third letter adopt the more agreeable "Dear Sir", or "Dear Madam". A little enhancement of the gentlemanly or ladylike feel- ing is to be found in "My dear Sir", or f ' My dear Madam ", which may by degrees, as the parties know and respect each other more sincerely, take a very friendly and now fashionable form of " My dear Mr. Swallowwing", "My dear Mrs. Pettitoe", or " My dear Miss Nightingale ". The latter form is that most in THE use at the present day in polite society, between persons who have met at least once, and who are on terms of acquaintance in which business has no part. When folks begin to say " My dear Higginbottom ", " My dear old boy ", and " My dear fellow ", all strict rules of etiquette are at an end, and good sense gives a proper form to the free expression of mutual friendship. The salutation used in addressing a woman, either married or single, is Madam, Dear Madam, or In writing My dear Madam. In writing to a young to women, unmarried lady, it is customary to omit the salutation and address her with the title prefixed to her surname, with the address at the bottom of the letter, at the left. (Model 9.) J. Willis Westlake says, "In writing to a lady wno is a stranger or mere acquaintance, persons often feel a delicacy, (unnecessarily so, it seems to us,) about saying ( Dear Miss Blank ', or f Dear Madam \ Dear does not mean any more in 'Dear Miss', than it does in 'Dear Sir*. Surely no lady would hesitate to use the latter form of address in writ- ing to a gentleman of her acquaintance ; and the gen- tleman would be a fool to suppose she intended to make love to him by so doing. When Miss or Dear Miss is used in the introduction it must be followed by the lady's name ; as ' Miss Flora May ', ' Dear Miss Barnes '." We should use the full form in the salutation ; as Gentlemen, not Gents; Sir, not Sr.; Dear, not Dr. The salutation should begin at the same distance from the marginal line as the paragraphs. If the address is omitted at the beginning of the letter, the salutation should be placed on the first 214 line below the heading, a little to the right of the mar- gin, so that the places of beginning the paragraphs may be uniform, and correspond to the salutation. (Model 11.) Place a period at the end of the address. The ad- dress and the salutation are not in the same Punctuation. , . , ,, , -, , . . ,, grammatical person, the address being in the third person, and the salutation in the second. As to the punctuation mark after the salutation, the best authorities use a comma when the body of the let- ter begins one line below the salutation (Models 7, 10), and a comma and a dash when the body of the letter begins on the same line as the salutation (Model 8). In the English form of letter-writing, the salutation, simply, is placed at the beginning of the body of the letter, and the address at the close of the letter, a little at the left. (Models 9, 11, 12.) Always preserve an even margin in letters, and in all forms of manuscript. The French preserve two margins, one at the left, and one at the right ; this adds to the appearance of the letter, making it correspond with the printed page. The Introduction to social and miscellaneous letters is in form the same as to business letters. All of the above points in the Introduction of a letter, should be neatly written on the board. The >ns ' teacher should call attention to each part, its exact form and place. He should require the pupils to copy the correct form on their slates ; and upon review, require them to spell the words, give correct position and arrangement of all the parts, and punctuate the introduction correctly. THE IKTHODUCTIOK 215 At this point in the instruction review the Heading and the Introduction together. It is delightful to be able to write a good letter, and it is a pleasure to read one. In this as in every other accomplishment "practice makes perfect," and pupils should at once set to work with a determination to con- quer the difficulties of writing. MODEL 6 Prang Educational Co., 646 Washington St., Boston, Mass. Gentlemen, I have received, etc., MODEL 7 Messrs. Bangs & Co., 737 Broadway, New York, N. T. Dear Sirs, Your favor, etc. MODEL 8 /. Edward Lyon, lanisteo, N. Y. Respected Friend, / have the honor, etc. MODEL 9 Miss Griffin, We are in receipt of yours, etc. Miss Ida L. Griffin, Mexico, N. Y. 216 LETTER-WRITING MODEL 10 Mrs. Daniel Keating, Canastota, N. Y. Dear Madam, Your kind favor, etc. MODEL 11 Dear Sir, Yours was received, etc. 8. H. Albro, Ph.D., Mansfield, Pa. MODEL 12 Gentlemen, Send me 10 gallons Hornstone Slating, etc. Scrantom & Wetmore, RocJiester, N. T. The Body of the Letter. The body of the letter is the message itself, exclusive of the Heading, Introduction, and Conclusion. The body of the letter may begin directly after the salutation, and on the same line (Models 6, 8); or on the next line below, a little to the right of the salutation (Models 7, 9-12). The salu- tation should never be placed so far to the right of the sheet of paper, as to leave room for only one or two words after it. The paragraph indicates a new subject, and begins on a new line, which begins farther to the right e ' than other lines. The first word of the first THE COHCLUSIOK 217 paragraph commences after the salutation ; the first word of the second paragraph should fall directly under the salutation, and so on with the remaining paragraphs. All paragraphs should begin at the same distance from the marginal line, preserving uniformity in the mechanical structure of the letter. The Conclusion The conclusion of a letter is the part added to the body of the letter. It includes the closing compliments, and should begin a little to the right, but near the middle of the first line below the body of the letter, about the same distance from the marginal line as the heading. The compliments may be broken into two lines, but it is not necessary. If composed of two lines, the second should begin a little to the right of the first, both lines beginning with a capital letter. Social letters admit of many forms of closing : Your friend ; Your sincere friend ; Yours with esteem ; Faithfully yours ; Yours heartily and affectionately ; Most gratefully and faithfully yours ; Yours very sin- cerely ; Your loving daughter ; Your affectionate father ; Ever your affectionate friend ; etc. Common business forms are Yours truly ; Yours re- spectfully ; Yours very truly ; Yours. The complimentary closing should be neither too familiar, nor too formal. It should have . . , , . . . , Be consistent. some reference to the salutation used, so that it may not seem inconsistent. If the salutation used be "My dear friend", do not close with "Your friend"* better " Truly yours". In writing the signature, begin a little at the right of the complimentary close, on the next line below. A letter should always be signed in a legible hand, and with accuracy, symmetry, uniform- ity and neatness. The full name should be written. Thousands of letters are dropped into the post-offices having no name subscribed. It is well to write the address under the signature if you wish an answer to your letter ; particularly if your letter is mailed at some other point than your regular residence. If the writer is a woman, she should, in writing to a women's stranger, so sign her name as to indicate signatures. whether she is married or single. Suppose a letter should be written by Miss Morris, for example, and signed J. E. Morris, how is one to know whether the letter was written by a man or a woman ; and the person receiving the letter, how should he address it ? He does not know whether to address it to Mr., Miss, or Mrs. J. E. Morris. The writer is thus placed in a dilemma ; he must either address the letter without using any title, or risk making a mistake. If the writer is single and unknown let her write her first name in full ; or if she is married, or a widow, let her prefix Mrs., in parenthesis, as shown on the fol- lowing page. Or she may sign her name as she chooses, but give her full address at the left and below. A comma should be placed after the complimentary close, and a period after the signature. MODEL 13 SOCIAL FORM / remain as ever. Yours sincerely, Henry R. Sanford. THE COKCLtfSIOK MODEL 14 BUSINESS FORM / am, gentlemen, Yours respectfully, Augustus S. Downing. MODEL 15 OFFICIAL FORMS / have the honor to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, Isaac H. Stout. I have the honor to be, Sir, Your most obedient servant, A. 0. McLachlan. lam, Sir, Your obedient servant, Welland Hendrick. Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, (Mrs.) B. Ellen Burke. Neatly folding a letter will add very much to its appearance. This is a simple thing but it M v i Folding. should be learned. For note paper nearly as wide as the envelope is long, fold up the bottom so that it shall be nearly the width of the envelope, turn down the top in the same manner, and press the folds neatly together. For paper of letter size, turn the bottom edge up so that it shall be nearly equal to the length of the en- velope ; then proceed in the same manner as above. 220 LETTER-WRITIM If the letter is to be enclosed in an official envelope, turn up the lower edge to the width of the envelope, and fold the top down over it. MODEL 16 SOCIAL LETTER Albany, Jan. 19, 1894. My dear Sister, Your letter makes me perfectly happy. I have so much to tell you, and so much to hear from you, too (0, you sly puss, a little bird has told me all about him!), that I can hardly wait for Wednesday and three o'clock. You will see my face first of all at the depot, and don't let the train be late. Till then, and always, Your loving sister, Mary B. Davis. Miss Eunice Davis, Granger Place School, Canandaigua, N. F. MODEL 17 BUSINESS LETTER 406 So. Franklin St., Syracuse, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1894. Sup't M. W. Scott, Binghamton, N. Y. Sir, Yours of Feb. 10 is duly received. I am glad to receive your order, and will ship the goods to you by the first of next week. Trusting they will prove satis- factory, lam, Yours very respectfully, Wm. A. TuttU. THE SUPERSCRIPTION 221 Superscription We have finished the letter and are now ready to superscribe it. This Superscription is written on the outside of the envelope. It consists of the name and title, post-office, county and State. Every element of the Superscription should be on a separate line. The first line, consisting of the name and title, should begin below and at the left of the centre ; the second should begin a lit- tle further to the right ; the third a little further to the right than the second, and so on. The spaces between the lines and the space below the last should be equal. Great pains should be taken in writing the Super- scription, and the full form should always be used. Each part should be written legibly. It is always the safer way to express the name of the county, unless the letter is directed to a large city. Place a period after abbreviations ; when the abbre- viation is at the end of a line, place a comma , , . , -i ' j i i Punctuation. after each line, and a period at the close. A postage-stamp should immediately be placed upon the envelope, lest it be forgotten. It should p ostage . occupy the upper right-hand corner, about st amp. a sixteenth of an inch from the upper and from the right edges. Pains should be taken to put it on neatly. It is better to moisten the envelope than the postage- stamp, as the latter often becomes too wet if applied to the tongue, and falls off the envelope. 222 LETTER- WRITING MODEL 18 Mr. A. C. McLachlan, Conductor of Institutes, Seneca Falls, New York. Seneca Co. MODEL 19 Mrs. Anna Randall- Diehl, 54 W. 55th St. New York, N. Y. MODEL 20 Hon. N. A. Calkins, East 88th St. New York, N. Y. MODEL 21 Gardner Fuller, A. M., Batavia, Genesee Co., New York. REVIEW 1. Develop every part of the letter. 2. Illustrate and explain each part on the board. 3. Require pupils to copy the correct form. 4. Require pupils to reproduce each part. 5. Carefully examine the pupiPs work. 6. After all the parts of the structure of a letter have been taught thoroughly, and the pupils have been drilled GEHERAL ANALYSIS 223 sufficiently, require them to reproduce the whole cor- rectly. 7. Teach them how to place the superscription upon the envelope, and require them to hand in a letter properly written, folded, inserted, and superscribed. REVIEW a. Domestic. b. Introductory, etc. a. Personal. b. Official. I. Private. -< \tion of Letters. 1. Social. 3. Miscellaneous. A. Materials. B. Heading^. 4. Postal Cards. II. Public or Open. STRUCTURE OF LETTERS ( a. Size. 1. Paper. -j b. Quality. ( c. Color. 2. Ink-Color. 3. Envelopes, j ^' ^4. Pen. I. Position and Arrangement. ( 1. -Post Office. 1. Place. J 2 ' Cou r ? t / or Uity. II. P'ts. <{ ( 1. Month. [2. Date. { 2. Day of the Month. (3. Year. III. Punctuation. I. Position and Arrangement. ;NO. 1 St. 0. Introduction. II. Parts. 1. Addressi 1. Name and 2. Salutation. | 3 Direction. III. Punctuation. ( 1. Business. IV. Model. j -J 2. Social and Miscel- laneous. 224: LETTER-WRITING {I. Substance. II. The Margin. III. Paragraphing. I. Position and Arrangements. E. Conclusion. II. Parts. V 2. Signature. Complimentary Close Address. III. Punctuation. F. Folding. I. Position and Arrangement. ( 1. Name and Title. G. Superscrip- II. Parts. -j M Post Office. tion. ( 2. Direction. J 3 County. III. Punctuation. ( 3. State. . IV. Legibility. tf. Postage Stamps, j ^ e put on . Specific Hints On the subject of penmanship, M. Ernest Legouve careful tells nis grand-daughter : " The people who penmanship. p ra i se y OU to your face and laugh at you behind your back, say, ' Ah ! all clever people write badly.' Answer by showing as I have shown you a hundred times, letters of Guizot, Mignet, and Alexan- der Dumas the elder, which are models of caligraphy. Write well, my child, write well ! Pretty writing in a woman is like tasteful dressing, a pleasing physiognomy, or a sweet voice. " Careless writers who correct their letters often cross interlining ou ^ an< ^ interline until the writing is illegi- and crowding. bi e . This is inexcusable. Nor should writ- ing be crowded. The postal-card on the opposite page was written by one of the most unselfish philanthropists A POSTAL-CAKD FROM MISS PEABODY 225 America lias known, yet her penmanship cost her friends much unnecessary labor. Copy and re-copy until every part of the letter pleases 226 LETTER-WRITING the eye. An hour or two devoted to careful copying will lead to habits of accuracy. Tautology is quite common with inexperienced writers; when a fact has been stated once, the point made distinctly and clearly, repetition only weakens and confuses. Sidney Smith once remarked : " After you have writ- ten an article, take your pen and strike out half the words, and you will be surprised to see how much stronger it is." Never allow a blot to be seen in your letters ; it is Blots. slovenly. Avoid nourishing in letter writing ; it is indicative of dash and display. It goes with an Alaska diamond pin, alligator boots, hair parted in the middle, and a slim cane. If it is necessary to write more matter than can be properly placed on the pages of a letter, use another sheet of paper. There is seldom excuse for writing on the margins of the sheet and over the body of the letter. In reading, certain words are emphatic, and when properly emphasized increase the intensity Underscoring. . ., ., , , of the thought. In writing it sometimes adds force to the expression to underline certain words ; but indiscriminate under- lining is as ineffective as it is disagreeable. A postscript is something added to a letter after it is properly finished, and is generally unneces- Postscripts. J sary. When the writer has received new information after the letter is finished, it may then be added. It is not LITERARY STYLE 227 best to get into the habit of appending postscripts. It is especially rude to consign to a postscript any word of compliment or affection, as an afterthought. The character & may be used between the surnames of a business firm or between the initial let- . . , . i , i ., & for "and". ters of Christian names ; but as a rule it should not be employed to take the place of the word for which it stands Figures are used for dates, time of day, rates, quanti- ties, prices, aggregate amounts, etc. In com- mercial paper it is best to use both figures and words. Business letters are generally preserved, and as lead pencil marks are easily blurred or erased, it is not business-like to use the lead pencil in correspondence. It would be a great favor to editors and printers, should those who write for the press observe Letters for the following rules. They are reasonable, newspapers, and correspondents will regard them as such . 1. Write with black ink, on white paper, wide ruled. 2. Make the pages small, one-fourth that of a foolscap sheet. 3. Leave the second page of each leaf blank. 4. Give to the written page an ample margin all around. 5. Num- ber the pages in the order of their succession. 6. Write in a plain, bold hand, without respect to beauty. 7. Use no abbreviations which are not to appear in print. 8. Punctuate the manuscript as it should be printed. II. THE STYLE OF THE LETTER Use the simplest terms. Fine words are avoided by educated people. Pompous expression and simp i elan . parade of language betoken lack of culture. g ua # e - Simplicity should characterize all correspondence. 228 LETTER-WRITING The words we use are an index to the mind and heart. Your letter will be accepted as a type of your mind and an index of your thoughts. Slang phrases are inconsistent with dignity of thought, word or deed. And be sure your language is chaste. Pure words show a pure heart. It is not considered good taste to use foreign words, Foreign unless necessity requires them. It is better words. to use p ure English. If people would plainly say what they think, without roundabout phases, and without being haunted at every step with the thought of saying fine things, and the necessity of moving on stilts in order to show style, they would be more interesting and effective. William CuJlen Bryant once made the following sen- Bryant's sible remarks to a young man who had advice. offered an article for the New York Evening Post. My young friend, I observe that you have used several French expressions in your letter. I think if you will study the English language, that you will find it capable of expressing all the ideas that you may have. I have always found it so, and in all that I have written I do not recall an instance where I was tempted to use a foreign word, but that, on searching, I have found a better one in my own language. Be simple, unaffected ; be honest in your speaking and writing. Never use a long word when a short one will do as well. Call a spade by its name, not a well-known oblong instrument of manual labor ; let a home be a home, and not a residence ; a place, a place, not a locality ; and so on of the rest. When a short word will do, you always lose by a long one. You lose in^ clear- ness ; you lose in honest expression of meaning ; and in the estimation of all men who are capable of judging, you lose in reputation for ability. OF THE LETTER 229 The only true way to shine, even in the false world, is to be modest and unassuming. Falsehood may be a thick crust, but in the course of time truth will find a place to break through. Elegance of language may not be in the power of us all, but simplicity and straightforwardness are. Write much as you would speak, and as you think. If with your inferior, speak no coarser than usual ; if with your superior, speak no finer. Be what you say and within the rules of pru- dence. No one was ever a gainer by singularity of words or in pronunciation. The truly wise man will so speak that no one will observe how he speaks. A man may show great knowledge of chemistry by carrying bladders of strange gases to breathe ; but one will enjoy better health, and find more time for business, who lives on common air. III. SUBSTANCE OF THE LETTEE Letter-writing is very much a matter of habit, and for that reason it is important that young people should learn early to consider it a wrrtegood pleasant way of communicating thoughts and feelings to their friends, instead of a burdensome task to be got over as quickly as possible. We often hear people excuse themselves by saying that they have no "gift for writing letters", as though it were something like a talent for music, only accorded to a favored few. But the truth is that any one can write interesting and pleasant letters who will take a little trouble and really persevere in the effort. The grand difficulty in the way is that they are too selfish and too indolent to try. Nothing that is worth any- thing comes without effort ; and if you do not care enough about gratifying your friends to take a little pains for it, you deserve never to receive any letters yourselves. 230 " Do not think what to write ; write what you think," whatto is an old rule, and a good one to remember, write. jf y OU are away from home, it is very selfish not to share your good times with the family by writing frequent letters. You can tell what you are enjoying so much better while it is fresh in your mind, than you can after your return, when you may not have leisure to go over the whole ground ; and these home letters may be a means of afterward refreshing your own mem- ory, and reminding you of incidents which you would otherwise have forgotten. There are many other things which might be said here, but this will do for the pres- ent. A very good rule for letter- writing is the golden one, ' ( Do as you would be done by." Write all that you have to say on one subject at once. Write That is, do not begin to tell about your gar- fuiiy. &en, and then about your school, and then about your garden again ; but finish one subject before you begin another. Do not be afraid of using the pro- noun I. Some people avoid it and thus give their sen- tences a shabby and unfinished sound, as " Went to Boston called on Mrs. Smith. " Never apologize for what you write by saying that yon do not like to write let- ters. You would not think it quite polite in visiting a friend, to say, "I do not like to talk to you, so I shall not say much." Keep the idea before you that you are writing for the sake of giving pleasure to your friend. When your letter is merely an inquiry, or on a mat- ter of business, the case is different. You then should try to be as brief, concise, and clear as possible. An elaborately drawn-out business letter is out of place as it it is inconsiderate. AS TOT; TALE 231 Do not consider anything too trivial to write about which you would think worth mentioning Write ag in conversation. Writing letters is simply you talk, talking on paper, and your friends will be much more entertained by the narration of little every-day affairs than by profound observations upon topics which they care nothing about. In writing to very intimate friends, who will be in- terested in the details of your daily life, it is well some- times to make your letters a sort of diary telling some- thing of how you have spent each day since you wrote last ; what books you have been reading, what letters you have received from mutual friends, and what you have seen or heard that has interested you. Many persons, not much accustomed to use the pen, have a notion that if any occasion happens Don , t defer to call for a letter on any business matter writing, they must immediately compose a tedious rigmarole of statements and explanations ; and, finding it difficult to makeup what they consider " a capital letter", they defer writing until the occasion is perhaps gone, or at least until the business in hand has suffered considera- ble injury by the delay. But if they divest their minds of all ideas of literary composition, and just write what they would say, in the fewest possible words, and at once, such persons would find correspondence agreeable rather than irksome. You will find it easier to reply to a letter soon after you get it than if you neglect it for a few Mnish your weeks, because you will have the impressions stories - which the first reading made upon your mind. Tell your friend when you received the letter which you are LETTER-WRITIKG answering, and take up the topics in the order which they naturally come, remembering to answer all the questions which have been asked. Try to think what your friend would like best to hear about, and when you undertake to tell anything do not leave it half told, but finish the story. People who are not careful about this often give a false impression without meaning to do so. For instance, one of these careless writers, in giving an account of a fire, simply stated that the house was burned, without giving any qualifications, thus giving the impression that it was entirely consumed, and causing a whole family much unnecessary trouble and anxiety, as the actual burning in question was very slight. To this rule there is a single exception. Friendship, ^^ to like all other moral and material adornments delay. O f \{f e) j s subject to blight occasionally, and the strongest union may be dissolved by a fiercer heat arising from the combustion of the very dregs and lees of amity. Your friend annoys you, disappoints you, breaks his word, or lets off a bit of scandal that reaches your ears. Then you will " write him such a letter", you'll tell him plainly what you think of him, and put him to shame by the evidence of black and white. Now, if you are wise you will do nothing of the sort ; you will never write a single word that may cause shame or pain in the reader's mind, or that the writer may have cause hereafter to regret. A letter is a document that may be preserved forever ; and should you be mistaken, or only partially informed, or the victim of your own too hasty or incompetent judgment, your own hand and seal may remain as a witness of your rashness, perhaps BITTER WORDS APOLOGIES 233 of your meanness, to the end of your days, aye, and long after that, to the end of the world even. Therefore if you want to tell your friend your mind, do not write, but speak it ; a spoken bitter- Bittep ness may be forgotten and forgiven, but a words - written one cannot be so readily forgiven, and can never be forgotten ; no, not even if burnt ; for when we are stung in the perusal of something, the effect goes deep, and can never be obliterated, even by all-corroding time. A fierce letter, a sharply written reproof, a disparaging communication to a friend, has been the cause of em- bittering many pairs of lives. Never should that be written which we may hereafter wish to recall. We are all fallible, and may be much in error when we feel sure that we are right. That consideration should be suffi- cient to make any sensible man or woman pause before giving vent to anger, with the pen in hand. But exceptions to such a rule may occur ; an admoni- tion, a reproof, nay, even an accusation, may sometimes be necessary, and a letter be the only possible mode of conveying it. Let good sense and good feeling deter- mine how the case shall be, and let it at the same time be borne in mind that what is once written cannot be unwritten, and that greater caution is necessary in using the pen, than in using the tongue. In apologizing for misconduct, for failing to meet an engagement, or for lack of punctuality, al- ways state the reason. Letters of excuse should be written as promptly as possible. In asking favors, do not urge the claims too strongly. Should a refusal be the result, the humiliation will be felt deeply. 234 LETTER-WRITING Letters refusing favors should be kindly worded, and should state the reason. In writing a letter, the answer to which is of more Encios benefit to yourself than the person to whom postage- you write, enclose a stamp for the reply. This may seem to be a small matter, but business firms usually adopt it, and it is only just. A letter of introduction, or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer by whom it is sent ought to be presumed to know the contents. As a rule, every letter, unless insulting in its language, requires an answer, which should usually be immediate. To neglect to answer a letter shows ill-breeding. Business letters must be pithy, short, and go straight to the point. Pleasantry is not advisable. It is best carefully to distinguish letters of business and of friend- ship. Every paragraph should be marked by extreme clear- ness and perspicuity ; so clear and unambiguous that the dullest person may be able to understand it exactly. For the sake of perspicuity, careful attention to punctuation is necessary. All intercourse between parents and children should be free and confidential. Bead your letter carefully when finished, to see that you have made no omissions or mistakes. Be very sparing of letters of advice. Even when solicited, advice often gives offence, and it should be obtruded only when the necessity seems overwhelming. Useful hints and illustrations will be found in Bar- deen's "Primer of Letter-Writing", 25 cts. ARITHMETIC In order to teach arithmetic successfully the teacher should have an idea of the subject as a whole. The most difficult part of the subject as in onthefounda- all subjects is the fundamental part ; and unless that is thoroughly taught, the after results will be unsatisfactory. More time is given to the subject of mathematics in the schools than to any other study. Important as it is, it should not receive an undue proportion of time, it should not be pursued at the expense nor to the neglect of other studies of equal importance, as language, read- ing, spelling, etc. Nothing is gained by passing rapidly through the primary part. Pupils should be perfectly Make haste familiar with all the fundamental operations ; slowl y- able to write numbers of five and six periods without hesitation ; to add rapidly and accurately long columns of figures ; and to perform all computations in the fundamental rules with dispatch. The first part of arithmetic should be simple, and the lesson should be given orally by the teacher. More attention should be given to the study of processes than to analysis computation comes first, elaborate reasoning afterward. During the primary course the aim should be to make pupils learn how to do it. (235) 236 ARITHMETIC Little attention should be given to definitions ; if used they should be fully understood and ex- Definitions, r - ..j.i! -4.4. j plained, otherwise they may be committed to memory, and this is not necessary during this period. The pupils should be able to explain the processes, but they should not be required to commit the rules to memory, nor the principles. Definitions, rules, and principles are deductions, do not burden the children with these. They belong to the science of arithmetic. Thomas Hill says in his book, " The True Order of Studies", that "the science of arithmetic receives so much attention that the art is neglected." The primary object of arithmetic should be, not to develop the reason- ing power, but to make pupils skillful in computation. He further says, that "A child should not be expected or required to reason at an early age. Any direct train- ing of the logical powers before the age of twelve years is premature, and in most cases a positive injury to the pupil. The common sense view would give facts before reasoning. Eeasoning upon facts is the work of a maturer mind." Granting this to be true, arithmetic is taught backwards in many cases, beginning with reason instead of observation. I. THE FUNDAMENTAL KULES The teacher should begin the lessons in number with Beeinwith objects, using pencils, crayons, pebbles, objects. books ; also a numeral frame. "Initiate children in arithmetic by means of the ball- frame alone, thereby making their elementary instruc- tion a simple and natural extension of their own daily BEGIN WITH OBJECTS 237 observation," says Laurie, in his standard book " On Primary Instruction in relation to Education", (p. 112), and as he leaves the subject of arithmetic, he adds this note, as if in fear he had not been sufficiently emphatic : "The teaching of arithmetic should be begun earlier than is customary, and always with the ball-frame" (p. 117). The object is to lead the children to the perception of the idea of numbers, as exemplified in surrounding objects. The idea to be gained at first is that of one, as it is the basis of all arithmetical calculations. The teacher should hold up one object before the class, as one pencil, one crayon, etc., until every child understands what is meant by one, 238 ARITHMETIC Tell the pupil that one is the word that expresses " the how many ", the number. After you have taught the word one, then teach the character that represents it. "Develop the idea, then give the term; educate the eye, then employ the hand ; cultivate the use of lan- guage, then exercise memory." Pupils should not count one, two, three, etc., naming the abstract term ; they should say one pencil, one crayon, one book. Proceed in the same manner to teach two, by holding ' up two objects of different kinds. After they are made familiar with the number of objects, let marks be made on the blackboard ; then the characters that represent the number of marks. Let children reproduce at their seats the work given at the board by the teacher. At this point see that the pupils get the idea of the Value of value of numbers, by comparing a greater numbers. group of objects. Care should be taken to teach the order of numbers, Order of so ^ na ^ ^ ne children can tell what number numbers. comes before and what after any given num- ber. This may be illustrated with the class, or the picture of a ladder. Teach the pupils in the same way to write numbers to 99. Give no instruction about units and tens, etc., until a later period. Teach the subject so thoroughly that your successor will not be obliged to instruct in it. NUMERATION AND NOTATION The pupils have been taught thus far to deal with ones. They are now supposed to be familiar with the numbers to 1,000, They may now NOTATION AND NUMERATION 239 be taught that there is another name unit, which means a sin le thing that may be used with the figures, as 1 unit, 2 units, etc. At this stage the teacher may provide several small sticks, about the size of matches. Take several sticks and let the pupils count 10 ; proceed in the same manner until 10 bundles have been made ; now let them see that 1 bundle contains 10 sticks, or ten units, or ten ; 2 bundles, 20 sticks, or 20 units, or 20 ; and so proceed until you reach 100. Write numbers on the board to correspond with the objects and groups ; let them read the numbers, as 1 ten and 1 unit, 1 ten and 2 units ; 20, 2 tens ; 30, 3 tens, etc. When the pupils can readily read columns of units and tens, they may be required to write these numbers on the slate. The teacher may dictate numbers. Let them write numbers below 100, and ask them what they used to write the number. For example, write 86. How did you write it ? With 8 tens and 6 units, etc. They have been already taught that 10 units make 1 ten, and 10 tens make 1 hundred. Now let them read the numbers. For example 123 ; 3 units, 2 tens, 1 hundred, read 123 units. The teacher, after sufficient drill, should obtain bundles with 100 sticks. Supplement these illustrations with dictation exercises, and so proceed until the pupils are made familiar with and can write numbers readily from dictation on the slates and at the board, and read their values. The pupils must have a clear idea that units may differ in size and value that one of any- orders of thing is a unit, whether large or small. One unitSt 240 ARITHMETIC bushel is a unit ; one dollar is a unit ; one cent is a unit. They have already been taught that numbers are built up of simple "ones", so far as 100; that each ten is considered as a whole, or 1 ten ; that each hundred is regarded as a whole, or 1 hundred. Now they are prepared to see what is meant by a unit of the first order, of the second order, of the third order, etc. This step is sometimes omitted in teaching number. It is a very important one ; it should be carefully taught and the pupils thoroughly drilled upon it. Let them see that it is the position of a figure that determines its value. Teachers are too ambitious in advancing pupils in arithmetic. Some teachers will promote to mote too higher classes pupils that could not pass an rapidly. ... . r ,. , examination in notation and numeration. Frequently we find pupils ciphering in percentage, who fail in writing and reading a number of four figures. Never let pupils pass beyond the fundamental rules until they are familiar with them, and are able readily to apply them. They will make slow progress in the advanced steps if- this is not understood, they will make rapid progress if it is thoroughly understood. Teach so thoroughly that your successor may not be obliged to unteach what has been taught. Too much pains cannot be taken with notation, numeration, and addition. The law of increase and de- crease may be thoroughly developed with these rules. Again we repeat, "not how much but how well," USE OF OBJECTS 241 ADDITION* Begin the subject in the same way as the first, with objects. Marks upon the blackboard may be used after the children have become fa- miliar with adding objects. Use the numeral frame but see that the children do not confound counting with adding. Let pupils add concrete numbers without having the objects before them. The continued use of Use of objects as counters by children is a positive objects- harm, as they look to them for results rather than to memory. It is only another form of counting on the fingers. Do not let the pupils add numbers in the following manner: " What is the sum of 8 apples, 7 Econ omy apples and 4 apples ? 8 apples and 7 apples words - are 15 apples ; 15 apples and 4 apples are 19 apples/' Kather have them say ; " 8 apples, 15 apples, 19 apples." Simply announce the results and do not allow them to count. The concrete numbers may soon be dropped altogether for they interfere with the one aim the teacher should have in view the instantane- ous recognition in any two numbers of their sum. Many expedients to effect this have been devised. Thus the Germans construct tables like the A German following I expedient. 2 3 86 97 2+4 3+4 2+6 3+6 40 51 (1) W 242 ARITHMETIC 4 5 2 8 26 91 4+2 5+7 4+8 6 6+7 4 08 37 (3) (4) 2 4 9 5 6 8 2 + 3 4 + 5 3 2 + 7 1 4 7 9 (5) (6) In circle No. 1, begin with 2, add 4, and write the results about the circle. When the result exceeds nine, write the right hand figure only. Beginning with 1, passing to the right, we have the following : 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 34, 38, 42, etc.; again beginning with 2, passing to the left, we have the following : 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, 32, 38, 44, 50, etc In order to form the circular tables, take any number less than ten and add a number to it, and continue the successive additions until you repeat the first figure ; write these numbers about the circle. Begin with the number 1, and add the number to 10 ; and so on with each number. This exercise produces great ambition in the school, and pupils like to take part in it. They should first, be called on to recite in concert ; subsequently by individual drill. Time them, and see how many seconds they will ADDITION 243 require to add 100. Only six of the tables are given, many others may be made by the teacher. The Ger- mans have attained grand results with the circular tables. But a more direct and effective method has been de- vised by Dr. H. K. Sanford, one of the New York State conductors of teachers' institutes, method in It consists of 45 cards containing the 45 pos- sible combinations of two digits, arranged as in the ac- companying figure, each card having on its back the same numbers in reverse order. Problems in addition, subtraction and multiplication are everywhere written for solution in this one way, viz., one number above the other with a line beneath. Evidently the method of drill should be the same. He thinks there is no advantage in the making of rules by children. His plan is to follow each development lesson imme- diately with a drill upon all combinations developed, using these cards exclusively. Hold the package of cards selected for a lesson in one hand before the class, and rapidly move them one at a time to the front ; the teacher thus sees one side and the pupils the other. Concert exercises are not recommended. The best re- sults will be obtained by calling pupils miscellaneously and presenting several cards in rapid succession. Only two daily exercises of ten minutes each are necessary. Do not introduce new cards too rapidly. At every exercise review all cards previously used as long as necessary. Answers must be instantaneous. The least hesitation should be considered a failure. Present the cards selected for a particular exercise miscellane- ously so that no answer can be known from the preced- 244 AKITHMETIC ABDITIOK 245 ing. The position can not indicate the result as when numbers are arranged on a chart, or tables are made by the children. Let the drill be so thorough that when a pair of fig- ures is seen, as j[, the sum, difference or product as required will instantly appear to the mind ; e. g., at the first glance the pupil reads as 16, not as 7 and 9 are 16, as CAT is read as a word, not as C-A-T. Pursue the same plan in subtraction and multiplica- tion. When in subtraction the smaller number is above, pupils will readily add ten to the minuend and give the remainder in the usual manner. No other means will be necessary for the complete mastery of the multiplication table in a marvelously short time. After perfectly learning the multiplication table, very little drill is needed in the division table. When the number 4 has been reached, commence column work, but never let the sum be greater than the last number developed. The columns will gradually become longer and the sums greater, yet no new com- bination of single pairs of figures can possibly occur. Finally let the columns be read up and down silently, giving only final results. This can be done with re- markable rapidity and accuracy, if all single combina- tions involved have been thoroughly learned by card drill. Wonderful results have been obtained with these cards in normal and other schools. Because pupils thus learn the combinations of num- bers, they learn that combining the 4 and 5 will always produce a 9 ; a 6 and a 5 a 1 ; 9 and 5 a 4 ; 8 and 5 a 3 ; 246 ARITHMETIC 7 and 5 a 2, etc., and by daily systematical drill they overcome the hesitancy which is a common fault in American schools. No rule in arithmetic is used so much as addition, and no pains should be spared to teach it well. An experience of fifteen years at institutes has re- vealed sad results in adding simple columns of figures. In many instances the teachers had not been taught to add properly in their youth, and we have frequently re- ceived twenty-five different answers to a problem like the following : Add 8085, 7898, 7697 and 9876. We are thus particular and emphatic, concerning The first * ne ear lj steps of mathematical education, step costs. because it is "the first step which costs ". Much more labor is required to unlearn than to learn. The teachers for the younger classes should possess par- ticular aptness for imparting instruction. Such teach- ers, deserve and are beginning to receive better wages. After the pupils have mastered the fundamental rules and their reasoning powers begin to develop, the teacher should require an analysis of the problem. The mechanical operation the doing part, should not be confounded with the logical operation the thinking part, but the latter has its place. Thus : What is the sum of 8764, 9789, 5786 and 9843 ? 8764 9789 5786 9843 34,182 SUBTRACTION 247 i have written the numbers so that units of the same order stand under each other. For convenience I will begin at the right hand ; adding the first order, the sum is 22 units. As ten units make one ten, 22 units are equal to 2 tens and 2 units ; I will write the 2 units in the order of units, and add the two tens to the order of tens. Proceed in this manner with each order, giving the reasons for every step. Eequire the pupils to deduce the rule from the analysis. ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE PROBLEM Problem : If a horse cost $120, and a wagon $110, and a harness $90, what will be the entire expense ? Analysis: The entire ' expense will be the sum of $120, $110, and $90 ; or $320. The simplest and most concise analysis should be taught to the children. No unnecessary words should be allowed in the analysis of a problem. SUBTRACTION This subject should be taught like addition, begin- ning with objects, first by taking away one ob- First by ject, then two objects, etc. After the pupils ob J ects - have become familiar with this process,' then use marks on the board, subsequently using concrete numbers without having objects before them. At first ask the pupils to answer in concert, followed by individual drill. After the children have become familiar with the pre- ceding processes, the teacher may write num- , , , , -, - n -, . , By figures. bers on the board as far as 9, and require the children to subtract one, then two, then three, etc. Vary the processes. For rapid work Sanford's cards will be found effective. 248 ARITHMETIC When the figure in the subtrahend is greater in value Minuend than the corresponding figure in the minu- smaiier. end, the process must be explained clearly. Subtract 456 from 824. 824 or 7 11 14 456 456 368 368 I have written the numbers as in addition, writing the subtra- Analysis. hend under the minuend. Begin at the right hand to subtract. Six units from 4 units I cannot take ; take 1 ^en from the 2 tens and it equals 10 units ; 10 units and 4 units are 14 units ; 6 units from 14 units equal 8 units ; write underneath in the units order. Five tens from 1 ten I cannot take ; take 1 hundred from 8 hundreds and it equals 10 tens ; 10 tens and 1 ten equal 11 tens ; 5 tens from 11 tens equal 6 tens ; write it underneath in the tens order. Four hundreds from 7 hundreds leave 3 hundreds, etc. By this process it will be observed that the form of the minuend was changed without altering its value. The subtrahend in form remained unchanged. The teacher should see that the pupils understand that 8 hundreds, 2 tens and 4 units are of the same value as 7 hundreds, 11 tens and four units. This is a simple analysis and easily understood. I cannot take 6 units from 4 units ; so will add 10 units to 4, equal 14 units ; 6 units from 14 units equal 8 units ; as * have acl ded 10 units to the minuend, in order to preserve the equality, I must add 10 units or 1 ten to the subtrahend ; adding 1 ten to 5 tens equals 6 tens ; 6 tens from 2 tens I cannot take ; I will add 10 tens to two tens, equal to 12 tens ; 6 tens from 12 tens equal 6 tens ; as I have added 10 tens or 1 hun- dred to the minuend I must add 1 hundred to the hundreds in the subtrahend ; 4 hundreds and 1 hundred are 5 hundreds, and 5 hun- dreds from 8 hundreds leave 3 hundreds. This depends upon the MULTIPLICATION ; DIVISION 249 principle that to add equal numbers to both minuend and sub- trahend does not alter the value of the remainder. This analysis may be required in addition to the first, but is not to be preferred to it. When there are ciphers in the minuend, ciphers in the explanation is similar. the minuend - Subtract 456 from 1000. 9 9 10 1000 456 544 Analysis /There are no units in the units order, no tens in the tens order, no hundreds in the hundreds order. In 1000 there are 9 hundreds, 9 tens and 10 units. Six units from 10 units equal 4 units ; 5 tens from 9 tens equal 4 tens ; 4 hundreds from 9 hun- dreds equal 5 hundreds. (The form of the minuend has been changed, but not its value.) Deduce the rule. MULTIPLICATION Problem .-What will 40 books cost at $9 apiece. Analysis : Since one book costs $9, 40 books will cost 40 times $9, equal to $360. The teacher should insist that the pupils use the true multiplier in all concrete problems. Drill upon the multiplication table. Kequire pupils to say it forward, backward and irregularly, till every product of two numbers presents itself to the mind instantly. Make constant use of Sanford's cards. DIVISION Begin with objects ; ask questions as follows : What have I on my table ? One apple. How many First by times can I take one from it ? Once. What ot) J ects - have I placed on my table ? Tivo pencils. How many times can I take one pencil from my table ? Two times. 250 ARITHMETIC Each may place one watch on his desk. How many times can you take one watch from your desk ? Once. Place three drums on your desk. How many times can you take three drums from your desk ? Once. How many times can you take one drum from the desk ? Three tim.es, etc. Place eight books on the desk. How many times can you take four books from the desk ? How many times can you take two books ? Once, twice, three times, four times. How many times can you take one book ? Once, twice, etc. Place sixteen pencils on the desk. How many times can I take four pencils from them ? Place ten coins on the desk, and divide them into two equal parts ; how many coins in each part ? Place nine books on the desk, and divide them into three equal parts ; how many in each part ? Take away one part, how m&ny parts will remain ? Take away one part, how many books will remain ? Place sixteen pencils on the desk, and divide them into four equal parts ; how many pencils are there in each part ? By the use of oral abstract questions, thus : How many two's in 8 ? In 2 ? In 14 ? In 10 ? strict mim- How many times can four be taken from 8 ? From 24 ? From 32 ? Twelve is how many times 2 ? How many times 4 ? How many times 6 ? How many times are four contained in 8 ? In 12, in 20 ? etc. Sixteen contains 2 how many times ? Contains 4 ? Contains 8 ? etc. What is one-third of 9 ? Of 15 ? Of 21? Of 18 Pete. THE GLUBB METHOD 251 It is usual to teach the subject of addition by itself, then subtraction, etc. By the Grube method The Grub the pupil begins with 1, and learns all there method - is to know about it before passing over another number, performing all the operations possible within the limits of this number. He has to see and keep in mind that = 2, 1X1 = 1 1 1=0, l-f-l = l, etc. 3, 3X1 = 3 21 = 1, 2-5-1 = 2, etc. The whole circle of operation up to 2 is exhausted before he goes on to the number 3, which is to be treated in the same way. The first four processes are naturally connected, and will appear so in the child's mind. If you take away 1 from 2, and 1 remains, the child in knowing this also understands implicitly the opposite process of adding 1 to 1 and its result. Multiplication and division are, in the same way, nothing but another way of adding and subtracting, so that we might say one operation contains, and may be shown to contain, all the others. "You must teach the child to know the numbers in some way or other," but " to know a number really means to know also its most simple relations to the num- ber contained therein." Any child who knows a num- ber and its relations, must be also able to perform the operations of addition and subtraction, etc., with it, as they are the direct result of comparing two numbers with each other. Only when the child can perform all these operations, for instance within the limits of 2, can it be supposed really to have a perfect knowledge of this number. 252 ARITHMETIC This seems to be a rational method and worthy of a trial ; it has proved superior in practice to the methods in use. A full exposition of this method, commonly known as the Grube metho.d, may be found in Beebe's First Steps Among Figures. A knowledge of the process must precede any attempt Processes ^ * ve a theory or to supply a rule. Theory, before rules. } n f ac t^ implies that the conceptions it em- braces are already in the mind, and the rule is universal that it springs from or is based on practice. The process must be made clear by examples from experience, aided in every possible way by sensible repre- sentations, either objects, marks, or diagrams. When these have set forth the process, it should be made familiar by well-constructed examples to be worked mentally. This, when a process is clear and intelligent, is a Accuracy matter only of a memory, and depends on and rapidity, practice. The two things to be secured are accuracy and rapidity. These important habits may be established by a thorough knowledge of all the tables, and abundant practice in computation. To acquire facility in operation the teacher should written require the pupils to bring in to the daily analysis. recitation a written analysis of one or two problems. The mechanical process also should be re- quired, and the work should be neatly and correctly ex- pressed. This work should be examined by the teacher, else the pupils will lose interest in its performanee and become careless in the mechanical execution. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 253 EXAMINE AND CROSS-EXAMINE THE PUPILS IN THEIR WORK, AND SEE IF THEY CAN GIVE A REASON FOR EVERY STEP. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 1. We cannot impress too strongly upon the teacher's mind that each lesson in arithmetic must be at the same time a lesson in language. As the pupil in the primary grade should be generally held to answer in complete sentences with clear and distinct articulation so especial- ly in arithmetic, the teacher should insist on fluency, smoothness and neatness of expression, and lay special stress upon the process of the solution of each example. 2. Teachers should avoid asking too many questions. Such questions, moreover, as by containing i i / , i n 11 111 Let the pu- half the answer, prompt the scholar, should piisdothe be omitted. The pupil should do the talking as much as possible. 3. No new numbers should be commenced before the previous one is perfectly mastered. It would Memorya be a mistake to suppose that in teaching ac- factor - cording to this plan, memory is not required on the part ot the child. Memory is an important factor here, as it is on all instruction. I say this boldly, though I know with some teachers it has become almost a crime to say that memory holds its place in education. 4. Analyses given by pupils are often re- Redundant dundant. analysis - Problem: James had five cents and he found seven more; how many had he then ? First Step. James had five cents and he found seven more ; how many had he then ? 254 ARITHMETIC Second Step. He had as many as the sum of five cents and seven cents. Third Step. Five cents plus seven cents are twelve cents. Fourth Step. Therefore, if James had five cents, and he found seven more, he then had twelve cents. In the above analysis, as it is given in many schools, the pupils have used fifty-one words. No business man in solving this problem would go through with this rigmarole. If the teacher repeats the problem it is not necessary for the pupil to repeat it. There is no ob- jection to the pupil's reading the problem from the book. The great object sought for in the study of arithme- tic, is to develop and strengthen the reasoning powers. It is a positive injury to require pupils to commit to memory simple arithmetical problems that are of no value whatever after the answer is attained. The following analysis is to be preferred : Since James had five cents, and found seven cents, he had the sum of five cents and seven cents, or twelve cents. In this analysis we have used twenty- two words, instead of fifty-one. "Therefore", etc., at the close of a problem is unnecessary repetition. Problem : A boy having seven marbles, lost five of them ; how many had he left ? First Step. He had as many left as the difference between seven marbles and five marbles. Second Step. Seven marbles minus five marbles are two mar- bles. Third Step. Therefore, if a boy having seven marbles lost five of them, he has two left. This is better : Since a boy having seven marble lost five of them, he had left the difference between seven marbles and five marbles, equal to two marbles. REDUNDANT ANALYSIS 255 Problem : At seven dollars a pair, what will five pairs of boots cost ? First Step. If one pair costs seven dollars, five pairs (or more frequently, five pairs which are five times one pair) will cost five times seven dollars. Second Step. Five times seven dollars are thirty -five dollars. Third Step. Therefore, at seven dollars a pair, five pairs will cost thirty-five dollars. Say instead : Since one pair costs seven dollars, five pairs will cost five times seven dollars, equal to thirty -five dollars.- Problem: If a man laid out $100 for cows, and paid $20 for each one he bought, how many cows did he buy ? Mrst Step. If one cow cost $20, he bought as many cows for $100 as 20 is contained times in 100. Second Step. 20 is contained in 100 5 times. Third Step. Therefore, if a man laid out $100 for cows, and paid $20 for each one that he bought, he bought 5 cows. How much better to say : He bought as many cows as $20 is contained times in $100, or 5 cows. Some meet with difficulty in analyzing problems in division, when they consist of concrete num- concrete bers. Division is finding how many times division, one number can be subtracted from another of the same kind. Dollars can be divided by dollars and by nothing else ; yards, can be divided by yards and by nothing else ; and so on for any other things that might be mentioned. That dollars can only be divided by dollars arises from the fact that division is but a short process of finding how many times one number or quantity can be sub- tracted from another, and we can subtract only dollars 256 AKITHMETIC from dollars ; therefore we can divide dollars only by dollars. Thus : Divide $42 equally among 6 men. Now we cannot divide $42 by 6 men or by 6 ; but if we give each man a dollar, then that will require $6, and $6 can be subtracted from $42 seven times. Hence we can give each man a dollar seven tunes, or we can give $7 at one time. After the operation is performed, we may call the 7, seven dollars ; then the 6 will be a mere number, and thus, indirectly, we may divide $42 by 6. Practically, however, all such operations are performed abstractly, as 42, 6, 7, taken as mere numbers. The study and solution of examples and their dis- Pointstobe cussion in the class involve the following emphasized. points : 1. Correct reading. Not one pupil in twenty reads a new kind of problem correctly the first time. 2. Examination preparatory to solution. A celebrated mathematician said that if his life depended on solving a complicated problem within an hour, he would give the first thirty minutes to studying it before putting down a figure. 3. Analysis and solution. 4. Keviewing, to see that there are no errors. 5. General correction by the rule of Common Sense. A mistake in pointing off may make a barrel of flour cost 70 cts. or $70, but the pupil's common sense should teach him that neither is possible. cautions. Keep in mind the following cautions. 1. Present single ideas, single facts and single diffi- culties. 2. Call up each point in the lesson frequently. MENTAL AKITHMETIC 257 3. Teach simple processes. 4. Keep the mind active. 5. See that pupils get a clear perception of principles. 6. Fix and hold the attention. ( 1. Correct perception. 1. Mental discipline -< 2. Attention. (3. Practice. Results. - 2. Practical business ( 1. Accuracy. preparation. { 2. Expertness. Rapidity. Ji I*. 3. Preparation for advanced study. The analysis of a problem is the same in mental as in written arithmetic. The difference is that Menta i mental arithmetic is limited to problems arithmetic, that may be performed mentally, without recourse to written symbols. It is a fact that those pupils who have been trained carefully in mental arithmetic take up the principles of higher mathematics more readily. The language used should be sufficient to render the solution of the example clearly intelligible to a listener, yet so brief as not to retard the process of mental cal- culation. Mental arithmetic should both precede and accompany the written arithmetic, step by step. In fact it would be much the better way to select a text-book that contained exercises in both mental and written arithmetic. In mental arithmetic the language should be clear, and the words enunciated distinctly. No hesitancy should be permitted pupils should pass through the solution rapidly. Pupils should be re- quired to construct original problems, and random exercises should be given by the teacher in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, to teach rapid- ity and accuracy in computation. 258 AKITHMETIC The teacher should give diversified problems of a practical nature to the class. There is a great deal of perfectly barren mathemati- Practicai ca ^ knowledge in this country, particularly application. am0 ng those who have studied, not for knowledge, but for a certificate or a diploma. Not unfrequently do we meet teachers who can dem- onstrate problems in algebra and geometry, who at the same time cannot make the least application of them. Again, we have met teachers who have graduated at the higher institutions of learning, who have passed over the rules of arithmetic finished the study who would be unable to determine how many feet there are in a board 12 feet in length and 12 inches wide. They seem to be unaware that the rules of arithmetic were ever intended for any practical purpose. Knowledge, so confined and abstract, is of doubtful Theory and utility, even as a mental discipline. Theory practice. an( j p rac tice should be united, or we per- ceive nothing of the beauties of mathematics. " De- tached propositions and abstract mathematical princi- ples give us no better idea of true and living science than detached words and abstract grammar would give us of poetry or rhetoric." Small acquirements in mathe- matics serve only to make us timid, cautious, and dis- trustful of our own powers but a step or two further gives us life, confidence, and power. Mathematics should not be studied merely for disci- Mental dis- pline. The object should be to understand cipiine. ^ e su bject and make it useful. Those who teach with no other view than giving discipline to the minds of their pupils, never more than half teach. FRACTIONS 259 Let a person undertake the study of any science with no other object than discipline and the science will come to him with difficulty. But let him begin the study determined to understand it and avail himself of it, and the science will come to him with ease, and with it a discipline of mind, the most effective he can attain. In the application of arithmetic there are two dis- tinct operations, the logical and the median- Logic of arithmetic. In too many schools greater attention is given to the mechanical. To some extent this is quite necessary, and pupils should be made very familiar with elemen- tary processes ; but after they become expert in compu- tation, greater attention should be given to calculation, the thinking. The undisciplined direct their atten- tion more to the doing than to the thinking, wbsn it should be the reverse ; and nearly all the efforts of the good teacher are directed to making his pupils reason correctly. If a person fails in an arithmetical problem, the failure is usually in the logic, for false logic directs to false reasoning, and true logic points out true opera- tions. II. FRACTIONS It is well to introduce the study of fractions by ob- jective teaching. For this purpose the best j . it. r,- -i Objects first. device is a series or equal spheres, of which one is whole, another is divided into halves, and the others into thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, etc. These have been provided in what is known as Davis's Fractional Apparatus. A similar but less perfect device is a series of circles correspondingly subdivided. Most 260 ARITHMETIC teachers will have to make use of apples or other objects obtained without expense. Whatever is used, the fol- lowing definitions should all be made so clear that every pupil can illustrate them by the objects employed. The term UNITY in mathematical science is applied to any number or quantity regarded as a Definitions. 11,1 -n whole ; the term UNIT in arithmetic, to any number that is used as the base of a collection. Every number, whether integral or fractional, has the unit 1 for a primary base. A quantity regarded as a whole, called a unit, is the primary base of every fraction. One of equal parts of a unit called the fractional unit, is the secondary base of every fractional number. The value of a fraction is the number of times it con- tains the unit 1. The quantity or unit that is divided into equal parts is the unit of the fraction. One of the equal parts is called & fractional unit. In f of a pound, 1 pound is the unit of the fraction, and | of the pound the fractional unit. A fractional unit or a collection of fractional units is a, fraction. (Or a fraction may be considered one or more of the equal parts of a unit, these parts correspond- ing to fractional units.) Two integers are required to express a fraction, one above a short horizontal line to denote the number of fractional units, called the numerator ; it numbers, or expresses how many are taken. The other below the line, expresses how many fractional units it is divided into, and is called the denominator ; it denominates or 261 names and expresses how many fractional units are equal to a unit. The numerator and denominator taken together are called terms of the fraction. Fractions are of three kinds, common, decimal and duodecimal. One or more of the equal parts of a quan- tity, expressed by two numbers, one written above the other with a line between them, is a common fraction J, T 5 ^ and f. Its denominator is other than ten, or some power of ten. A fractional number, whose value is less than a unit, is & proper fraction, as f, f. It is so termed because it expresses a value less than 1. An improper fraction is not properly a fraction of a unit, the value expressed being equal to or greater than 1. A single fraction, either proper or improper, is a simple fraction, f, f. A fraction of a fraction, or several fractions joined by of, is termed a compound fraction, as 2-4 of 7-8 of 3-12. A fraction in the numerator, or denominator, or both, 2. s is termed a complex fraction, as ?,? "5" Unity divided by any number is termed a reciprocal ; thus the reciprocal of 4 is J. An integral number added to a fractional number is termed a mixed number, as 3+f, 7+f. The sign of addition is usually omitted. GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. Multiplying the numerator increases the value of the fraction. 262 ARITHMETIC Because it increases the number of fractional units while the value of the fractional unit remains the same. 2. Multiplying the denominator decreases the value of the fraction. Because it diminishes the value of the fractional unit, while the number remains the same ; it diminishes the value of the frac- tional unit because the unit of the fraction is divided into a greater number of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 3. Multiplying both numerator and denominator by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction. Because it increases the number of fractional units, as many times as it decreases the value of the fractional unit ; that is in the same ratio. 4. Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the fraction. Because it diminishes the number of the fractional units, while the value of the fractional unit remains the same. 5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of the fraction. Because it increases the value of the fractional unit, while the number remains the same ; it increases the value of the fractional unit because the unit of the fraction is divided into a less number of fractional units, each fractional unit being as many times greater in value as there are units in the divisor. 6. Dividing both numerator and denominator by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction. Because it diminishes the number of fractional units as many times as it increases the value of the fractional unit. 7. If the numerator be multiplied by any number, the number of fractional units will be increased as many times as there are units in the multiplier. FRACTIONS 263 8. If the numerator be divided by any number, the number of fractional units will be diminished as many times as there are units in the divisor. 9. If the denominator be multiplied by any number, the fractional units will be diminished as many times as there are units in the multiplier. 10. If the denominator be divided by any number, the value of the fractional units will be increased as many times as there are units in the divisor. Naming the quantity or unit divided, the value of one of its fractional units, the number of Analysis of fractional units, the denominator, numerator a fraction - and the terms of the fraction, is to analyze a fraction. Thus: Analyze the fraction . | is a fraction because it expresses 4 of the equal parts of a unit. 1 is the unit of the fraction, or the unit that is divided to form the fraction. is the fractional unit, or one of the equal parts of the unit divided. 5 is the denominator ; it names the parts ; it shows that the unit is divided into 5 equal parts ; it tells the size or value of each part. 4 is the numerator ; it numbers the parts taken to form the fraction ; it is written above the line. 4 and 5 are the terms of the fraction, and its value is 4-5-5. PROCESSES Fractions are reduced to their lowest terms Lowe st as follows : terms - Reduce Jf to its lowest terms. 16-4-4 _ 4 20-4-4 ~ 5 Dividing ^f by | -=% ; as the numerator and denominator are prime to each other, the fraction is reduced to its lowest terms. This depends upon the following principle : Dividing both terms of the fraction by the same number does not alter the value of 264 ARITHMETIC the fraction, because the number of fractional units is decreased as many times as the valiw of the fractional unit is increased. (Deduce the rule.) Reduction of Improper fractions are reduced to integer frSons. or mixed numbers as follows : Reduce -f- to an integral number. ifJL -i- * = 25, or 5, ip = -^ = 25. In 1 there are 5 fifths ; in 125 fifths, as many ones as 5 is con- tained times in 125, or 25. This depends upon the following principle : Dividing both terms of the fraction by the same num- ber does not alter the value of the fraction ; the same reason as when we reduce fractions to their lowest terms. (Deduce the rule.) integers Integers or mixed numbers are reduced to improper fractions as follows : Reduce 49| to fifths. I X 49 = if* 145 + | = 147 In one there are 5 fifths ; in 49 ones, 49 times 5 fifths, or 245 fifths ; plus 2 fifths equals 247 fifths. This depends on the follow- ing principle : Multiplying both terms of the fraction by the same number does not alter the value of the fraction, because the num- ber of fractional units is increased as many times as the value of the fractional unit is decreased. (Deduce the rule.) common Fractions are reduced to a common de- denominator. nom i na tor as follows : Reduce , f , f , V- 3X 24 _ 72_ 5~>T24 ~ 120 3X 20 _ _60_ 6X 20 ~~ 120 4X 15 ^ 8 X 15 ~~ 120 15 X 30 _ 450 4 X 30 ~~ 120 FRACTIONS 265 The least common multiple of the denominators is 120 ; divid- ing the least common multiple by the denominator of the first fraction, we have the quotient 24 ; multiplying both terms of the fraction by 24, we have T 7 ^. This depends upon the following principle : multiplying both terms of the fraction by the same number, does not alter the value of the fraction, because it in- creases the number of fractional units as many times as it decreases the value of the fractional unit. (The same analysis for the re- maining fractions.) Fractions may be added as follows : Addition. Add f and }. l+| = f= If As the fractions have the same fractional unit, we may add the numerators ; f + f = f = 1 J- Add | and f . As the fractions f and f h&ve different fractional units, first re- duce them to fractions having the same fractional unit, f is equal to f f ; f equal to f f ; now as the fractions are of the same fractional unit value, we may add the numerators : f f -f- Jf = f-J = Iff- (Deduce the rule.) One fraction is subtracted from another as , ,, Subtraction. follows : Subtract f from }. B - A = A- The fractions f and f have different fractional units. First reduce the fractions to the same fractional unit value, equals IS; f is equal to $ ; as the fractions are of the same fractional unit value, we may subtract one numerator from the other, giv- ing us $. (Deduce the rule.) Fractions are multiplied by an integer as Multi p lica tion follows: by an integer. Multiply ___ 16 " 16 ~~ 2 2_ _ 2 _ 1 16 _*. 4 - 4 ~ 2 266 ARITHMETIC Multiplying T 2 ^ by 4, by multiplying the numerator is equal to T 8 T or |. This depends upon Principle 1. Multiplying the num- erator increases the value of the fraction, because it increases the number of fractional units, while the value of the fractional unit remains the same. Again, multiplying T \ by 4, by dividing the denominator, is equal to or . This depends upon Principle 5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of the fraction, because it in- creases the value of the fractional unit, while the number remains the same ; it increases the value of the fractional unit, because the unit of the fraction is divided into a less number of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many times greater in value as their are units in the divisor. (Deduce the rule.) Multiplication ^ e multiply a whole number by a fraction by a fraction. a s follows : Multiply 24 by f . a. I X 24 = 2 4 V X 2 = V = 16. b. i of 24 = 8 8 X 2 = 16. c. 24 X 2 = 48 48 -f- 3 = 16. a. Once 24 is 24 ; -J- times 24 is ^ ; f times 24 is 2 times Y or -V- = 16, Ans. b. J of 24 is 8 ; f , 2 times 8 or 16, Ans. c. Multiplying 24 by 2 = 48 ; as the multiplier is three times too great in value, the product is three times too great in value. To give the correct value divide by 3, which gives us 16, Ans. (Deduce a rule.) NOTE. See that the pupil understands that f of 1 is the same as J of 2. We multiply one fraction by another as follows : Multiply f by {. a. f X | or 1 = f . f X i - A- A x = if FRACTION'S 26? b. f x 5 = y. V 5 x 8=15. a % multiplied by f or 1 = f ; ? multiplied by is equal to ^. Since f multiplied by | is equal to / ? , f multiplied by f will be equal to 5 times / F or ^f . b. Multiplying f by J is the same as multiplying by the eighth part of 5. First multiply f by 5 = *f- ; as the multiplier is eight times too great in value the product will be eight times too great in value ; hence to get its required value divide - 1 /- by 8, by mul- tiplying the denominator, which gives J-f We divide a fraction by an integer as f ol- Division by lows : an integer- Divide f by 3. a. 6 -f- 3 = 2 7 7. 5.6 i ? 7 X 3 = 21 = 7. Dividing f by 3 = f ; according to the principle which says : Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the fraction, be- cause it diminishes the number of fractional units, while the value of the fractional unit remains the same. Again, dividing | by 3, by multiplying the denominator is equal to / T ; multiplying the denominator decreases the value of the fraction, because it decreases the value of the fractional unit, while the number of fractional units remain the same ; it dimin- ishes the value of the fractional unit, because the unit of the frac- tion is divided into a greater number of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as many times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. (Deduce the rule.) We divide a whole number by a fraction Divisipn by as follows : Divide 8 by f . a. I X 8 = - 4 /. V- - t = 13f b. 8 -*- 3 = 2f 2J X 5 = 13i. 268 ARITHMETIC a. In one there are ; in 8, 8 times = - 4 g ; 4 g divided by !=13i ; b. Divide 8 by f , or the fifth part of three ; dividing 8 by 3 gives us 2 ; now as the divisor is five times too great in value, the quotient is only one-fifth of its required value ; to get its re- quired value, multiply the quotient by five, which gives us 13^. (Deduce the rule. ) We divide a fraction by another fraction as follows : Divide by f . a. 3 X 3 _ 9 b. 3 _ 3 c. 3 _ j)_ 4 ~ 4 4 X 2 ~ 8 4 ~ 12 ? = ? = 14 ? X 3 = ? =14 ? = J? 4X28 8 8 3 12 9 -^=H 12 12 a. 1 is contained in f , three-fourth times ; i is contained in , three times , or f times ; $- will be contained in f , of , or . times. b. Dividing by 2 gives us f ; as the divisor is three times too great in value, the quotient is only | of its required value ; multi- plying the quotient f by 3 gives us f = 1|. c. Reduce f and $ to a common denominator, f is equal to T 9 ^ ; f is equal to T 8 ^ ; T 9 ^ divided by T \ is equal to f or l. III. GENERAL REMARKS It is not expected in a manual for teachers to explain suggestive every rule in arithmetic. A few rules have analyses. been carefully explained and illustrated in detail ; and these are suggestive only. The plan of this work has been to give a course of reasoning leading to those conclusions from which rules are drawn, and this is given in language free from technicalities, and easy to be understood. The explanations are so given as to put the pupil into the place of the original reasoner, until he arrives at a GENERAL REMARKS 269 conclusion from which he can deduce the rule for him- self. After the pupils are familiar with the process and have received sufficient drill, they should be Exactness in taught to analyze problems. The teacher language, should see that the analysis is thoroughly understood and accurately recited. Pupils should be required to write out an analysis, and the pupil that presents the most simple and concise analysis should write it on the board, subject to the criticism of the class. See that the language is used correctly ; that it tells " the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth". Now you may if you choose require every member of the class to commit this approved analysis verbatim, for it will mean something to them. There are teachers who allow a wide range in the forms of analysis as long as the language is good and the reasoning logical. While we should insist upon the development of individuality and originality on the part of the pupils, yet, as mathematics is an exact science, the language used in the analysis should be exact. I cannot see how language may be cultivated if the teachers allow a wide range in the use of words ; I call that the best analysis which is the most simple and concise. It is very common for the pupil to suppose that to explain an example simply means to state ,. r , Analysis what operations what processes are per- more than formed in reaching the results. Hence, he will consider it an unreasonable question if asked why he added or subtracted, multiplied or divided, 270 ARITHMETIC Such an explanation should never be accepted. To explain a problem, means to assign a reason for each of the several steps. I have heard the following given as an analysis to a problem in division of fractions : Divide by . "Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in multipli- cation." The rule tells how to solve the problem ; the analysis gives the reason for each step. A large number of pupils who pass through the entire Practical arithmetical course in our best schools fail work - to make application of their knowledge. This is owing to a lack of practical application of the rules. For example, let them measure the school-room, find out the area, measure the yard, fields, etc.; in all the tables make a practical application at the time. Too much time is wasted in solving problems in con- tinued addition, multiplication, division ; I have known a class to linger a week upon casting out the 9's in addition. All such subjects as these and many others, like circulating decimals; true remainder, foreign ex- change, alligation, algebraical and geometrical prob- lems, should be omitted in our public schools. By those who wish to pursue advanced studies, the subjects quoted may be studied ; but, as a majority of the pupils leave school at the average age of twelve years, they should be drilled upon the subjects that they will be obliged to use through life. Pupils should be put to the test in many ways ; the Frequent skilful teacher will not only examine the tests. pupils, but cross-examine them. The teacher should call for original problems; should encourage GENERAL REMARKS 271 variety of solutions ; should never leave a subject until the pupils are able to make ready application of it. Pupils should be made familiar with the simplest forms of commercial paper ; should be able Business to write a negotiable note, to cash interest forms - upon notes where partial payments have been made, to find the profit and loss upon articles bought and sold. When practicable bring in real notes given and held by men whom the pupils know. No subject is fully mas- tered by the pupil until he is able to make use of it in this manner. Whatever text-books are used, many outside problems should be given. Among the books of problems published the best are "The Regents' Questions" from the first examination in 1866 to June, 1882. Complete with Key, pp. 473. $2.00. " The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic only," in book form, 25 cts.; Key 25 cts. Next to the Regents' Questions in value come the Uniform Ex- amination Questions of the State of New York, like the Regents' Questions prepared with great care by experts, and in three grades of difficulty. They are published in three volumes : ' ' The New York Question Book", giving the questions from the begin- ning to March 31, 1890, pp. 461, $2.00; " Supplement No. 1", from April, 1890, to June, 1891, pp. 163, 25 cts.; and " Supple- ment No. 2", from Aug., 1881, to June, 1892, pp. 139, 25 cts. They give answers, and cover 29 subjects, the number of ques- tions in arithmetic being 958. Subsequent questions are published monthly in The School Bulletin. Another collection of great convenience to the teacher is Ed- wards's "500 Every Day Business Problems," price 50 cts. These are on slips of card-board that can be distributed, one box serving for an entire room. A Key accompanies them. In all the above, the questions are promiscuous. Those who prefer them arranged by subjects will find Prentice's " Review Problems " excellent. They cost 20 cts. GEOGRAPHY Geography acquires its full value as a branch of edu- cation only when it loses the character of an accumula- tion of facts, undigested by the child's mind, and be- comes real in his memory, linked by association with the world of thought and action which immediately surrounds it or that which is within it. Tell the child to observe the lines of the map which hangs perpetually before his eyes, and talk Make it real. i> i * *i / to him only of the names upon it, and you will soon weary his attention ; but speak to him of the living men who inhabit that country, tell him of their stature and aspect and dress, and ways of life, and of their forms of worship ; speak of its climate of the forms of vegetable and animal life with which his eye would be conversant if he dwelt there of trees and flowers, and you excite him to a new life. FIEST STEPS IN TEACHING GEOGEAPHY I. Talk about the earth as a whole of what it is composed and what may be found upon it. The heavens catch the child's attention early, and observation ^ e w i snes t know about the sun, moon and first - stars. He has a general knowledge of the earth ; he has learned something about land and water, varieties of surface, the location of places, vegetable (272) GENERAL NOTIONS OF THE EAKTH 273 products natural and cultivated, and the animal and mineral kingdoms. These things may be said to comprise the elements of geographical study ; and they may be made the subject of direct study by the children. With these, the study of geography may begin not ~by learning words from a book, but by actual observa- tion, guided by the oral instruction of the teacher. In teaching the first steps in geography, explain to the children that the sun, moon and stars are Theearth large balls, and that they resemble the ball in s P ace - we live upon. Tell them that we call this ball the earth, and "the earth hangeth upon nothing/' floating free in space like a bird in the air. To excite the pupils' curiosity and give them a correct idea of the form of the earth, blow a few soap-bubbles Use of soap . before them, and let them float in the air. bubbles. Tell them that a body of the shape of a ball is called a globe or a sphere. Talk about the outside of different objects and tell them that the outside of an object is called the surface. The outside of the earth is called the surface of the earth. The immense magnitude of the great globe they can- not as yet imagine ; at first be content to see that they understand its form and motion. Let the children see that if they should walk on the earth a certain number of hours or days in Landand any direction, they would come to the water. water - They will now see that the surface of the earth is composed of land and water. Tell them the fact that one-fourth of the earth's sur- face is land and three-fourths are water. 274 GEOGRAPHY Now explain to the child the figures on the globe ; point out which is meant for land; which for water ; and show him his own country. Draw an oblong figure upon the board and divide it colored ' m ^ ^ our P ar ^ s ^ ^ three parts represent crayon. water and one part the land. Draw a circle upon the board and let three parts represent the water and one part the land. Use colored chalk. The illus- trations will tend to impress the correct ideas on the mind. " Happy illustrations excite curiosity." Now, on looking at the globe, the first thing that must strike every one is, how much more water there is on it than dry land. Tell the children that we may ride for days and weeks on water and not see any land. Let them see how very unequally the land is arranged ; instead of being spread evenly all over the surface, it is collected together, some portions very large and some very small. Let them see the roughness of the fields and roads and hills, not to speak of the high mountains or depths of the sea. In the foregoing account we have spoken of the earth shape and as a s P nere > or a globe, or an exactly round size - ball. But this though practically true for our purpose, is not strictly correct, for the earth is not exactly round. You can see it is not. On so big a ball as the earth however, these things do not count for much. The earth, although so large, so many miles around it, may be travelled over we can go around it. A train of cars at the 'rate of 40 miles an hour would pass around the earth in about 26 days. Now, ask the children what may be found upon the DIVISIONS OF MATTER 275 surface of the earth ? They will give names to the different kinds of matter, such as trees, shrubs, plants, rocks, and horses, cows, etc. Let them see that the different things named may be classified. Tell them to name the different Divisions of things found within the earth that do not matter - grow, as iron, lead, gold, silver, rocks, pebbles, sand, etc. Tell that these objects belong to the Mineral Glass. Tell them to name the things only that grow out of the earth : as trees, plants, shrubs ; the different kinds of trees, plants and shrubs. Tell them that these ob- jects belong to the Vegetable Class. Tell them to name the animals that are found on the land, in the water, and in the air. Tell them that these objects belong to the Animal Class. Ask the children which class they belong to, and tell them wherein they differ. That plants grow, breathe, take food and die. That brutes do the same ; but that men differ in that they all possess a mind and a soul. Now they have learned : Review. 1. The earth is a large ball or sphere. 2. Its surface is composed of land and water ; one-fourth is land and three-fourths are water. 3. Minerals, vegetation, and animals are found upon the earth. //. Give instruction upon the relative position of objects and places. Draw their observation to relation, position or place, beginning with the situation of the things Relative which they see around them, and the dis- position, tances of these from each other. Question the children as to the position of objects before them, and lead them 276 GEOGRAPHY to describe how they are placed with regard to each, as above, below, on this side or that side, etc. The teacher should represent the positions of these objects on the board and request the pupils to copy the representations on their slates. These exercises will prepare them to appreciate the value of the map. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make clear the limits and form of its boundaries. Study the position of objects and places in regard to absolute and relative distances. Make the school the first division of space. Map with accuracy all the things learned, and have the pupils reproduce the representa- tions. ///. Give the children a knowledge of the cardinal points of the compass in their use in geographical description. When children have been accustomed to determine Points of ^ ne relative position of objects, they must be compass. j e( j ^o consider places in the same point of view ; and to this end they should be made acquainted with the use of the several points of the compass. Let the class face the North. Ask them to point where the sun rises and where it sets. Tell them that the place in the heavens where it rises is called the East that in which it sets, the West. Excite them to ob- serve, both at home and at school, that the sun rises in the East and sets in the West. Close the lesson by a simultaneous repetition : "That direction in which the sun rises is called the East ; and that in which it sets, the West." Begin the next lesson with a repetition of the preced- ing one. Call on the children to place themselves with POIKTS OF COMPASS their right hand to the East and their left to the West, and then tell them that the point directly before them is the North, and that directly behind them the South. Ask them to repeat together : " If we stand with our right hand to the East and our left hand to the West, the point directly before us is the North, and that di- rectly behind us the South. " Ask the pupils to face the East, the South, the West and the North. Let the children place a stick or draw a line with the chalk on the floor, in the directions of North, South, East and West. In such exercises the object is to occupy only so much time upon each new idea as may suffice to fix it in the mind. A figure should be drawn on the board repre- senting the compass, or better still a small compass should be exhibited. The teacher should see to it that the children are firm on one step of the ladder of knowl- edge, before they proceed to another, and not weary and disgust them by keeping them too long on one subject. When we wish to represent the situation of different places on paper or on a slate, we call the top Sem i_ car( ji. North, the bottom South, the right hand nal P ints - East and the left hand West. The teacher writes the four cardinal points on the board. But are things or places always exactly at the North, the South, the East or the West ? Where may they be ? They may be be- tween any two of these points. A point half-way be- tween North and East is Northeast. What do you think half-way between North and West is called ? De- velop the other semi-cardinal points in the same way. Drill upon the above facts. Draw a square on the board 278 GEOGRAPHY and let the children mark and tell the cardinal and semi-cardinal points. Draw a circle on the board and mark off the principal and intermediate points. Let the teacher draw the outline of the room on the Mapping the ^ oor ^ n cna ^^ an( l mark the position of ob- room. j ec s w jthin it; and when a map of the room is substituted, place it first in a horizontal position. Let the pupils place the different articles in the room along the northern, eastern, southern, and western boundaries. Eequire them to draw the room according to the same scale, and mark the relative positions of the objects. Let them measure the length of the school-room by a foot measure ; see that it is correctly done. Let the children see that we cannot represent the Scale of rep- dimensions of the room on the board by resentation. us ing the scale of feet, but that we must use the scale of inches. Now let one foot of the room be represented by one inch on the slate or board. If the room is twelve feet long, how many inches shall we make our line on the slate ? Twelve. Proceed in the same manner until the children obtain a correct idea of a scale. For example, the inch, the foot, the yard, the rod, and the mile. Teach the location of streets and the directions of them ; the public building, etc. Let the Mapping the , ., ' f, , . , , neighbor- children see that in geography we need not say top and bottom, right and left, but we call them north, south, east and west. When you are in front of a globe or map, the top is north, the bottom DEFINITIONS 279 is south, the right hand is east, and the left hand is west. IV. Give instruction and drill upon geographical definitions. Draw an irregular figure on the board representing one of the divisions of the earth, say South Land America. In drawing the coast, (that is, a ^visions, rib or side the edge of the land near the sea,) make the projections and indentations prominent, so that we may be able to use the figure to give the children a cor- rect idea of the shape of land and water divisions. The larger figure will represent one of the mainlands of the world, as distinguished from islands, which, though large, are still evidently surrounded by the sea ; and it is called a Continent. A prominent projection of land from the coast, not quite an island, not quite surrounded by the water, is called a Peninsula. It projects from the mainland or body, and generally is quite narrow at the point of pro- jection and gradually widens. Where there is a Penin- sula, there ought to be an Isthmus, which is a neck of land connecting it with the mainland. Proceed in the same manner to develop all the land divisions. Continue the drill until all the children understand what is meant by the terms used such as Continent, Peninsula, etc. Let the children draw many figures, until they are perfectly familiar with all the land divisions. Let the children see that all the water of the earth belongs to one great ocean, sometimes called Water the sea. Tell them that the ocean is the divisions, largest body of water. Talk to them about the extent 280 GEOGKAPHY of the ocean, what is found within its waters, and the great thoroughfares of commerce. Draw a figure with a prominent indentation in the coast, and let the children see that a recess in the coast is called a Gulf or Bay. The gulf is usually the nar- rower and deeper, and the bay the broader and more open of the two. In fact, the words are used without exact- ness of distinction. A narrow passage of water between two continents, not very deep, is called a Strait. A Sound is also a narrow passage of water between two continents or islands, but much deeper. All of the water divisions may be represented on the board in such a manner as to convey correct impressions. Develop all the terms in the same manner. The teacher should not be content until these terms Homeiiius- are thoroughly understood and mastered. trations. ' The ob j ect of them ^ ig t() teach the pupils about the earth, and they are of no use if they do not do that. Get the pupils into the habit of looking at the country itself, finding out all the ideas they can and what they all mean. The most important spot for us all in this and many other respects is our homes. What sort of a country is it ? What about its hills and mountains; its valleys and plains ; its resources and thoroughfares ? Can you answer all these questions ? It is that sort of inquiry, begun at your own home and gradually inclining to other countries and scenes till you know all about them, that is the useful part of the great science of man and nature of which Geography is an important part. Keep GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 281 your eyes open, and you will see something to study every day of your life. The first study of geography should be based as far as possible upon what the pupils can see about General sug . them. Upon this basis they are prepared to gestions. advance to the study of what they cannot see but must take from description this is the law of development. I. Teach direction, and apply it to the school-house and immediate surroundings. II. Teach dimensions, especially the smaller denomina- tions, with frequent tests. Direction and dimensions are essential to conception of space and distances in space. III. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make clear the form of its boundaries. Study the position of things within the space in regard to distances and directions. Make the school- room the first division of space. Map with accuracy all the things learned ; base your teaching on map- drawing. Buy and use Miss Wilkins's "Teachers' Manual of Map-Drawing," and follow it. IV. Take the school-house grounds as the second division of space and apply the preceding principles ; thence in succession the district, the township, the county, the State, the nation, the world. V. Study the vegetation, the animals, and the min- erals of the smaller spaces. Give names and uses, dis- tinguishing the wild animals and vegetation from those which are cultivated. VI. Study the occupations and the trades of tne people. VII. Study the manufactures and the forces employed in driving the machinery. 282 GEOGRAPHY VIII. Study the commerce and the transportation. IX. Study the social, religious, and political organi- zations. The above may be all taught objectively, for examples of them come within the perception of every ordinary child, if he be but taught to use it. This local geography should be studied thoroughly before undertaking the general study of the world ; it gives the basis of understanding the subjective treat- ment. Then : X. Study the form, size, and position of the earth. XI. Study its surface in respect to land and water and their relations. XII. In studying particular divisions pursue a natural order, viz. : outlines, surface, climate, vegetation, min- erals, animals, nations. Map-drawing. In Map-D rawing : 1. Begin with the school-room and draw a plan of it on the board. 2. Draw around it the plan of the yard. 3. Let the children measure the dimensions of the room and the yard, and draw the plan to various scales. 4. Draw a map of the neighborhood, village, city, etc. 5. Let the* pupils indicate the various streets, public buildings, etc. 6. GIVE THOROUGH DRILL. The geography often taught is not true geography ; it is a miserable hotch-potch of insignificant fragments, and is utterly unworthy the great name it bears and the time it occupies. Gigantic facts, magnificent generalizations, splendid speculations, in- ADVAHCED TEACHING 283 volving, as they do, the mightiest problems in several of the other sciences, are certainly not fitting food for little children's minds. Their imaginations are confounded at its first propositions. The huge round world, swinging unsupported in limited space, and wheeling with an inconceivable velocity along its track- less orbit, parcelled into vast expanses of continent and still vaster oceans, and peopled with a billion of human beings : what a conception is this to offer to a little child ! Picture it, explain, illustrate it as we will, it still remains a great mystery of which nothing is learned but the vaguest ideas. Nor are its later problems less difficult than these first and fundamental notions. The alter- nations of day and night, with their varying lengths in different latitudes and different seasons ; the variety and succession of the seasons and their relation to climate ; the precession of the equinoxes ; the movements of the tides ; the flow of the oceanic currents ; the sweep of the winds ; the great laws of climate ; the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and the migrations and varying civilizations of the human race : these surely are not questions for mere tyros in learning and novices in study to solve. II. ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY In Advanced Geography facts have to be classified, generalizations to be made, laws to be dis- Physlcal covered and the connection of causes and features first, effects to be established. It is now clearly understood that the most profitable way of teaching the geography of a country is to take up its physical features first, and then the facts which depend upon them. To be made 284 acquainted with the physical features of a country is as necessary to a geographer as the knowledge of the bones and great blood vessels of the human frame is to the anatomist. In order to understand the real geography of a country, its organic structure, so to call it, the form of its skeleton that is, of its hills ; the magnitude and course of its veins and arteries, that is of its streams and rivers, one should conceive it as a ivhole made up of connected parts ; and then the position of man's dwellings, viewed in reference to these parts, becomes at once easily remembered, and intelligible. The use of the blackboard in teaching geography is Blackboard now g enera l- I^ s relation to the use of maps and maps. j s better understood than it was. It fur- nishes the means of exhibiting any portion of a map on a larger scale, and bringing out prominently any feature that may be required, the usual maps being often confusing because so crowded. By means of colored chalk, the separate classes of colored ^ ac ^ s ma y ^ e ^ e P^ distinct an( ^ their relation crayon. more clearly shown. All facts presented to the eye are impressed on the mind. " The faithful sight engraves the knowledge with a beam of light." In the treatment of this subject, we associate Physi- cal and Political Geography as inseparable as one sub- ject ; with this fact overlooked geography becomes a mass of meaningless details, without either cause or correlation, while its study degenerates into mere rote work. We take as an illustration the study of a single division. THE NEW WOULD 285 The New World. STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA America lies between the two largest oceans on the globe the Pacific and the Atlantic, and stretches from north to south a distance of more than 9000 miles. Compared with its length, it is extremely narrow. There are certain distinctly marked contrasts between the New World and the Old ; and it may be well to take notice of these first of all. Let us compare them. AMERICA and EURASIA 1. Has its greatest length from north to south. 2. Its greatest mountain-chains run from north to south. 3. Is a continent of great plains. 4. The American Plains are open to the sea and the sea-winds. 5. America has no vast deserts. 6. America decreases in breadth as it goes south. 7. America lies in both hemispheres northern and southern. 8. America runs through four zones. 9. The heart of each of the two Americas is connected with the sea by rivers. 10. America is the " land of promise " and of the future. 1. Has its greatest length from west to east. 2. Its chief mountain-ranges run from west to east. 3. Is a /continent of immense and elevated plateaus. 4. The Eurasian Plateaus are shut off from sea influences. 5. Eurasia has the largest deserts on the globe (with the exception of Africa.) 6. Eurasia remains nearly of the same breadth in all longitudes. 7. Eurasia is confined to the north- ern hemisphere. 8. Eurasia lies mostly in the North Temperate Zone. 9. The middle of Asia is a closed basin, which sends no rivers to the sea. 10. Eurasia is the land of accom- plished fact and of the past. America has an area of 16| millions of square miles, and is larger than Europe and Africa taken together. The northern continent contains about 9 millions ; and the southern about 7. 286 GEOGRAPHY (i) The four extreme points of the American continent are : (a) Murchison Peninsula, hi the north ; (&) Cape Froward, in the south ; (c) Cape Branco, on the east ; (d) Cape Prince of Wales, on the west, (ii) The most remarkable breadths are : (a) In 45 North lat., 3100 miles across; (6) In 5 South lat., 3200 miles across ; (c) At Panama, 28 miles across. (iii) America is 4 times as large as Europe ; 5 times Australia ; and times Africa. But it is a good deal smaller than Asia. North America is the northern division of the New World. It is connected with South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In shape and character it is not unlike South America ; and the fol- lowing points of resemblance between the two ought to be noted : NORTH AMERICA and SOUTH AMERICA. 1. North America is an irregular tri- angle. 2. On its west coast, there is a high range of volcanic mountains. 3. Parallel with the east coast, runs a lower range. 4. The middle of the continent is oc- cupied by a vast plain from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 5. The St. Lawrence flows from west to east; the Mississippi from north to south. 1. South America is a regular tri- 2. On its west coast, there is a high range which contains many volcanoes. 3. Parallel with the east coast, runs a secondary range. 4. The middle of the continent is oc- cupied by a vast plain from the Caribbean Sea to the La Plata. 5. The Amazon flows from west to east ; the La Plata from north to south. North America has a roughly triangular shape, with Form and ^ s ^ ase near ^ s northern line, and its acutest Extent. angle stretching to the south. It contains about 8,600,000 square miles less than half the extent of Asia. (i) Its greatest length is 4500 miles, (ii) Its greatest breadth on 45 North lat., is 3100 miles. AMEEICA 287 The build of North America is extremely simple. On the west, there is a lofty table-land with high ranges of mountains ; on the east, a lower range parallel with the coast ; and between the two, an immense plain, which stretches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The length of the coast line of North America is es- timated at 24,500 miles. The eastern coast is much 288 GEOGRAPHY and deeply indented ; the west coast is comparatively regular. (i) This gives 1 mile of coast line to each 350 square miles of surface, (ii) Europe has a coast line twice as richly developed ; Africa has, com- paratively, less than half the coast line of North America. The eastern coast contains the mighty re-entrances of Bays and Baffin Bay ; Hudson Bay ; Gulf of St. Law- iniets. rence ; Bay of Fundy ; the Gulf of Mexico ; and the Caribbean Sea. The chief opening in the west coast is the Gulf of California ; in the north, the Gulf of Boothia. (i) Baffin Bay was first explored in 1615 by William Baffin, a pilot on board the ship " Discovery " in search of the North- West Passage. There is a great deal of whale and seal-fishing in this immense bay, which is open only four months in summer. (ii) Hudson Bay was discovered in 1610 by Henry Hudson, a famous sailor. His men mutinied ; put him and his son in an open boat ; sent them adrift on this great inland sea ; and they were never heard of more. (iii) The Gulf of St. Lawrence is the estuary of the mighty river St. Law- rence, which carries off the surplus x water of the Five Great Lakes. It is much infested by fogs in summer, and by ice in winter. (iv) The Bay of Fundy is a narrow arm of the Atlantic, between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. It is famous for its strong and rapid tides, which sometimes rise and fall fully 70 ft. (v) The Gulf of Mexico is the true '* Mediterranean of America ". It is a vast caldron, in which the waters from the Caribbean Sea are heated to over 90 and then discharged through the Florida Pass, to spread themselves as the ''Gulf Stream" over the North Atlantic, and give to the western shores of Europe their warm climate. (vi) The Caribbean Sea is the great inland sea which lies between the Great Antilles and the continent of South America. It is entered either by the 4 'Windward Passage " to the west of Hayti, or by the " Mona Passage " to the east. (vii) The Gulf of California is a long and very narrow gulf on the west coast. It is 700 miles long and in some parts only 40 miles broad. (viii) The Gulf of Boothia is an immense opening between the Boothia Peninsula and Cockburn Island. It was discovered by the famous navigator Sir John Ross, and named by him after his friend Sir Felix Booth. The chief Straits in North America are : Hudson Strait ; Davis Strait ; Barrow Strait ; and Straits. ^ , . a , ., Behnng Strait. NORTH AMEEICA 289 (i) Hudson Strait connects Hudson Bay with the Atlantic, (ii) Davis Strait connects Baffin Bay with the Atlantic. It is thickly beset with icebergs, which come down from the west coast of Greenland, (iii) Barrow Strait connects Baffin Bay with the Arctic Ocean, (iv) Behring Strait connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific, and divides the continents of North America and Asia. It is about 50 miles wide. There are, on the east coast, four great peninsulas : Labrador ; Nova Scotia ; Florida ; and Yu- p en insuias catan ; on the west coast, two : Alaska, and and Ca P es - Lower California. The most important Capes are on the east coast: Cape Eace (in Newfoundland); Cape Sable (in Nova Scotia); Cape Cod (in Massachusetts); Cape Hatteras (in North Carolina); and Cape Sable (in Florida). (i) Labrador is a triangular peninsula which lies in the same latitude as the British Isles between 50 and 60 ; and yet it has a nine months' winter. This is due, on the one hand, to the absence of the Gulf Stream, and, on the other, to the presence of a cold current, crowded with icebergs, from Davis Strait. (ii) Yucatan is one of the few peninsulas in the world which run to the north. The others are Jutland in Europe, and Cape York Peninsula in Australia. (iii) Other capes of secondary importance are : (a) On the East : Fare- well ; Charles : Breton ; Catoche ; Gracias-a-Dios. (b) In the North : Barrow and Bathurst. (c) On the West : Prince of Wales (in Alaska) ; and St. Lucas (in California). (iv) Cape Race is the land first sighted in sailing from Britain to America. (v) Cape Sable is so called from its sandy beach (Fr. sable, sand). The only Isthmus of first importance in North Amer- ica is the Isthmus of Panama, which joins ~ ., T ^ , . . Isthmus. South and Central America. (i) Its narrowest breadth is about 30 miles. The great French engineer, M. de Lesseps, attempted to cut a canal through it, thus saving the voyage round the whole of South America, and revolutionizing the commerce of the Western World. But though he had already cut through the Isthmus of Suez and shortened the voyage to India by saving the circuitous course round the African continent, the Panama canal has thus far proved a failure. (ii) Another isthmus of some importance is the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between the Gulf of the same name and the Bay of Campeachy. It is 140 miles across. 290 GEOGRAPHY The islands on the east coast of North America are much the most important. They are : Islands. . . . . . -~ . _JL* Anticosti ; Prince Edward Island ; New- foundland ; the Bermudas ; and the West Indies. On the north lies a vast archipelago, the largest island of which is Greenland. On the west, the most important island is Vancouver. (i) The largest island in the West Indies is Cuba; the second, Hayti ; and the third, Jamaica. (ii) Besides Vancouver, there are, on the west coast, the Queen Char- lotte Islands, the Sitka Archipelago, and Prince of Wales Island. The western part of the North American continent is one vast plateau. The well-marked moun- Table-lands. . , . , . , ~ , tain-range which runs through Central America branches into two ranges at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ; and these two ranges, under different names, run up almost to the Arctic Ocean, supporting between them a long and immense table-land. The highest table-land in the whole system is the Plateau of Mexico, which is about 9000 ft. above the level of the sea. The best known is the continental basin which is called the Plateau of Utah. North America has two great systems of uplift ; the Appalachian System and the Western or Cordillera System. In the Appalachian System, the most important range is that of the Alle- ghanies ; in the Western System, the chief range is the Rocky Mountains. (i) The Appalachian Mountains begin in the table-lands of Alabama, stretch north-east to the St. Lawrence, and reappear in the Plateau of Labrador. Their best-known ranges are the Alleghanies and the Blue Mountains. They are also connected with the Catskills of New York, and the Green Mountains of Vermont. (ii) The Western or Cordillera System consists of two plateaus and a number of mountain ranges. The two plateaus are the Mexican Plateau ; NORTH AMERICA 291 and the Western Plateau. The Mexican Plateau has the Sierra Madre as its western buttress. The Western Plateau has the Rocky Mountains, which are the backbone of North America, as its eastern buttress ; while, on its western edges, it has the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains. West of the Sierra Nevada range and parallel to it runs the Coast Range ; and the two support between them a river-valley. The most famous part of the Western Plateau is the Great Basin an elevated plateau which lies be- tween the Wahsatch Mountains on the east, and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the west. This Great Basin is a continental basin and contains rivers and lakes whose waters never reach the sea. The largest lake is the Great Salt Lake. The vast table-land which is called the West- ern System covers one-third of the area of the United States. (iii) The highest mountain in North America is Mount St. Elias (19,500 ft.) in Alaska. It stands in a continuation of the Cascade Range. The highest summits in the " Rockies " are Mount Brown (16,000 ft.) and Mount Hooker (15,700 ft.) The highest peak in the Alleghanies is Mount Mitchell, which is only 6088 ft. high. In Mexico, at the south end of the Mexican Plateau, Popocatepetl (the highest mountain in Central America) rises to the height of 17,884 ft. ; and Orizaba is only a little lower. (iv) The volcanoes of North America are found at the two extremities of the system in Central America and Alaska. The most remarkable feature in the build of North America is the Great Central Plain, which stretches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian System. One half of this plain slopes to Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean ; the other half to the Gulf of Mexico ; and the watershed between them is called the Height of Land. (i) The Great Central Plain merges gradually into the sloping table-land which lies to the east of the Rocky Mountains. (ii) The general name for the vast grassy plains of North America, is prairie. Most prairies are treeless ; but there are timbered as well as " bald " prairies. The surface is not perfectly level, but in general consists of a suc- cession of low wave-like swells. These are called " rolling country ". The terraces which rise gradually from the banks of rivers are called " benches ". In the south, grassy plains are called "Savannahs"; and along the lower Mississippi are found "prairies tremblantes ", or quaking plains. The prairies are covered with high waving grasses, interspersed with scattered belts of timber. These prairies fill the larger part of the Mississippi Valley. As North America possesses immense plains, it is also 292 GEOGRAPHY provided with a magnificent system of rivers. Rivers. * The mam axis of the continent, being near- est the Pacific, sends the longest streams into the At- lantic and the Arctic Oceans. The position of the two great systems of uplift the Cordillera and the Ap- palachian, with the Great Plain between them, throws much the larger part of the flowing waters into this plain ; and the Height of Land sends them down the north slope and the south slope respectively. The four largest rivers of North America are the Mississippi, the Mackenzie, the St. Lawrence, and the Saskatchewan ; and all four belong to the Great Central Plain. The Mississippi flows south, the Mackenzie, north, and the St. Lawrence, east. The two largest rivers into the Pacific are the Yukon and the Columbia. (i) (a) In addition to the Mississippi, the Rio Grande del Norte (=Great River of the North) flows into the Gulf. (&) The largest rivers falling into the Hudson Bay are the Saskatchewan or Nelson, and the Churchill, (c) A large number of streams flow down the short Atlantic slope. The best known are the Connecticut, Hudson, Susquehanna, Potomac, and James, (c?) The Fraser, Sacramento, and Colorado, also flow into the Pacific, (e) In addition to the Mackenzie, the Coppermine and the Back or Great Fish River, flow into the Arctic Ocean. (ii) The Mississippi or " Father of Waters" has a basin which consists mainly of three long slopes : one from the Rockies eastward ; one from the Appalachians westward ; and one from the Height of Land southward. Down these three slopes roll its three largest tributaries : the Missouri, the longest the Ohio, the largest ; and the Upper Mississippi. The Missouri- Mississippi is, measuring from the source of the Missouri, the longest river in the world. It is 4200 miles long ; and, with its tributaries, provides 35,000 miles of navigable water-ways. The Mississippi itself rises in the small lake of Itasca, in the State of Minnesota. Its upper course ends at the Falls of St. Anthony. In its middle course, it receives, from the west, the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers ; from the east, the Ohio. The Missouri is itself 2900 miles long ; and the others are nearly as large as the Danube. The Missouri brings down a vast quantity of yellow mud ; and, after it joins the Mississippi, the river becomes a dense yellow torrent. The Missouri itself receives mighty tributaries, the largest of which are the Yellowstone and the Platte. KOETH AMERICA 293 44 This great river-system penetrates to the very heart of the conti- nent; and, with its numerous tributaries, affords an inland navigation of unsurpassed magnificence. "FOSTER. (iii) The St. Lawrence is the overflow of the Five Great Lakes. It is 2000 miles long ; and the area of its catchment-basin is 480,000 square miles or twice the size of the Rio Grande. Though the third in length, it is the largest in volume. In the first part of its course it is called the St. Louis, and flows into Lake Superior. It receives all the rivers which flow from the long ranges of mountains and highlands, which separate the slopes to Hudson Bay from those to the south. Its largest tributary is the Ottawa ; its grand- est, the Saguenay. It receives also a large number of affluents from the south. It has a large number of different names : (a) above Lake Superior, it is called St. Louis ; (6) between Superior and Lake Huron, the Narrows, or " Sault Ste. Marie "; (c) between Huron and Lake St. Clair, the St. Clair ; (d) between St. Clair and Lake Erie, the Detroit ; (e) between Erie and On- tario, the Niagara ; and (/) between Ontario and the Ocean, the St. Law- rence. On the river Niagara are the " Falls of Niagara," the largest in the world. The Horse-Shoe, or Canadian Fall, is 1900 ft. wide and 120 ft. high. The American Fall is only one-third of the Cana- dian Fall in width, but is a little higher. (iv) The Mackenzie is 2500 miles in length. It is fed by mighty streams, both from the east and from the west. The largest is the Athabasca. (v) The Saskatchewan or Nelson is 1900 miles long, and has a catchment- basin nearly as large as that of the St. Lawrence. It rises near Mount Hooker, and flows through a country called the tl Fertile Belt ". If North America is remarkable for its splendid and highly-developed river-systems, it is still more remarkable for its % lakes. It has the largest number of the largest lakes of any continent on the face of the globe. It may be called the Lake Con- tinent. These lakes lie in the form of an immense semicircle, parallel and almost concentric with Hudson Bay. They lie in three great depressed basins, and be- long to three river-systems the Mackenzie, the Sas- katchewan, and the St. Lawrence. They may be counted by hundreds ; but the most important are : the Great Bear Lake ; Great Slave Lake ; Athabasca ; Winnipeg ; Superior ; Michigan ; Huron ; Erie ; and Ontario. The five last are called the Five Great Lakes, 294 GEOGRAPHY and form part of the St. Lawrence Basin. The Great Salt Lake belongs to the Continental Basin. (i) The St. Lawrence, with its lakes and rivers, contains more than one- half of all the fresh water on the globe. (ii) Lake Superior has an area of nearly 32,000 square miles, and is there- fore about the size of Ireland. It is the largest body of fresh water in the world ; and, in some parts, it is about 600 ft. deep. Its greatest length, measured on its own curve, is 420 miles. Its water is remarkably transpar- ent, and comes from more than 200 rivers. Its shores abound in silver, copper, and iron. (iii) The Five Great Lakes have together an area of over 90,000 square miles or more than the area of Great Britain. (iv) Of the Five Great Lakes, the only one which lies wholly within the United States is Michigan ; the others lie between the United States and Canada. North America stretches from 80 to about 10 North lat. ; and hence it possesses every gradation Climate. , v . *. , J \ of climate from arctic, through sub-arctic, temperate, sub-tropical, to tropical. There are cer- tain established facts relating to the North American climate : (i) Latitude for latitude, it Is colder than the climate of Europe, (a) Labrador is in the latitude of Great Britain. But Labrador is colder than Siberia. (6) Quebec is in the latitude of Paris ; but it has a very much colder and longer winter, (c) Washington is in the latitude of Sicily ; but at Wash- ington the Potomac is sometimes frozen oyer. (ii) In most parts of North America, the climate is more continental than in the corresponding latitudes of Europe. This is mainly due to the absence of inland seas ; and also to the fact that the south-west winds from the Pacific are kept off by the mountain ranges from the eastern plains, which are extremely cold in winter and intensely hot in summer. (iii) The changes of temperature are very abrupt. This is due to the fact that there is no range of mountains between the northern and the southern slope ; and the Great Central Plain extends without a break from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The " Height of Land " is very low ; and hence an icy wind from the north may suddenly spring up ; and the ther- mometer has been known to fall 40 in less than an hour. Under such a wind, ice has been known to form at the mouth of the Mississippi, and 9 of frost have been found in the south of Texas. (iv) In the Temperate Zone, th.e west coast is warmer and moister than the east. This is due to the fact that the warm rain-laden south-west winds from the Pacific blow on the west coast. But, in the east, a west wind is a NORTH AMERICA 295 dry wind ; and the east wind is cold as well as moist. " In California, it is never too hot nor too cold to work." (v) The rain-fall is greatest in the south, decreases as we go north ; and also decreases from west to east. The driest parts are the Western Plateau, especially the Utah Basin, which is drying up. The elevated plains east of the Rockies are always dry. The flora of North America is very rich and enor- mously varied. In the Arctic Regions we find, as usual, mosses, lichens, and stunted trees ; in the tropical districts of Central America, palms and bamboos ; and in the Temperate regions be- tween them a greater variety of forest-trees than is to be found in the forest-regions of Europe or Asia. Of cultivated plants, the North grows barley, oats, and ex- cellent spring-wheat ; maize grows in the warmer parts of Canada and in nearly all the southern parts of the continent ; the sugar-cane, tobacco, aud cotton, are cultivated in the southern districts of the United States. Rice is grown very far south ; and sub-tropical fruits (the orange, fig, and lemon) flourish in the warm southern regions, and on the Pacific coast. (i) The forests of the northern part of the United States are " mixed forests ". The forest regions occur chiefly on the western and the eastern coasts. On the east it extends from west of the mouth of the Mississippi to Massachusetts, and is of various breadths. Most of the trees are deciduous. (ii) In Canada, pines, oaks, maples, and poplars, are the commonest trees. (iii) In Mexico the most striking plants are the cactuses, some of which are nearly 60 ft. high, and with their stiff forms and odd arms look like gigantic candelabra scattered over what looks like a barren country. Azaleas and magnolias come to us from tropical America. (iv) Maize, or Indian corn, is the only cultivated cereal that is indigenous to North America ; and it is to the presence of this plant that the coloniza- tion of the continent is chiefly due. (v) The manioc (from which cassava and tapioca are made) and arrow- root are among the native food-plants of Tropical America. Both are tubers. The fauna of North America is rich and varied. But, while North America is as rich as the Old World in birds, insects, and plants, it is 296 GEOGRAPHY much poorer in mammals. In the North we find the bison (which is rapidly becoming extinct), the cariboo (corresponding to the reindeer of Europe), the moose- deer (elk), five kinds of bear, seals, beavers, racoons, and many other fur-clothed animals. There is only one marsupial the opossum. Monkeys are found only within the tropics. The continent is rich in birds. The humming-bird is peculiar to America ; and there are also many species noted either for their song or for their plumage. The rattlesnake is the most dangerous reptile. (i) (a) Among cetacea, we find the Greenland whale. (&) Among rumi- nants, there are four large deer ; the Rocky Mountain sheep called the "big-horn"; the musk-ox; and two antelopes, (c) Among rodents, there are beavers, hares, squirrels, and the prairie-dog, which is allied to the mar- mot and squirrel. Prairie-dogs live in villages, (it) Of Carnivora, there are foxes, wolves, jaguars, pumas, sables, and skunks (of the weasel kind), otters and gluttons, bears (the grisly bear of the Rockies), and racoons. (ii) Of the cat tribe, the puma is the most widely diffused. (iii) The common turkey is native to America. North America is unequalled by any continent in the richness and variety of its mineral products. The largest stock of coal known in the world is in the United States ; iron is enormously abundant; while the so-called precious metals gold, and silver, are mined in very large quantities. The purest copper is found in great abundance on the north and east shores of Lake Superior. Lead and quicksilver are found in many parts of the continent ; both Canada and Mexico produce tin. The area of all the coal-fields of the United States is estimated at 190,000 square miles or twenty times as large as all the coal-fields of Europe. The Appalachian coal-field, on the west side of the Alleghanies, has an area NOBTH AMERICA 297 of 70,000 square miles or more than twice the size of Ireland. The Missouri Basin or " Great Western coal- field," the largest in the United States, covers nearly 85,000 square miles. There is also a great deal of coal in the Dominion of Canada. There are at present in North America probably about 80, 000, 000 inhabitants. Of these 1 about 60 millions are whites and of European blood ; the rest are Negroes, American-Indians, and half-castes. (i) The white population usually speak English ; in Lower Canada the language is usually French, and in Mexico and Central America it is Spanish. (ii) The Red Indians (or Americans) are rapidly decreasing, and are said not to number half-a-million. Within the vast territory of the United States there are somewhat less than a quarter of a million. (When America was first discovered, Columbus believed that he had reached the eastern shores of India ; and hence these copper-coloured races were called Indians.) (iii) The Eskimoes in Greenland and the north are akin to the Lapps of Europe. North America was discovered by Christopher Colon ("Columbus") in the year 1492; but the mainland he saw only in 1498. The Span- iards were the first people to think of conquering the country ; and they seized Mexico and some of the West India Islands. The French appeared in 1534 ; and be- gan to build forts and plant colonies. Next came the English, who gradually expelled the French, and who declared themselves independent of the British Crown in 1776. The original colonies numbered thirteen ; and they formed a federation which they called the United States. Mexico threw off the Spanish yoke in 1830. The whole continent is now divided chiefly be- tween English-andSpanish-speaking peoples. (i) Cortez conquered the Mexican Empire in 1521 with 950 Spaniards. 298 GEOGRAPHY (ii) The first permanent settlement of the English was made in 1607 in Virginia. (iii) The English drove out the French in the war of 1756-60 ; and Wolfe took Quebec which was the strongest fortress of the French in 1759. With the fall of Quebec, all Canada fell into the hands of the English. (iv) The Negro slaves in the United States were set free in 1862, during the great American Civil War, by a proclamation of President Lincoln. The political divisions of North America are : Danish America ; British North America ; the United States ; Mexico ; the Central Amer- ican Eepublics ; British Honduras ; the West Indian Eepublics ; the Spanish West Indies ; the British West Indies ; the Dutch West Indies ; and the French West Indies. (i) Danish America includes Greenland and three small islands in the West Indies. (ii) The United States include the detached territory of Alaska. (iii) The West Indian Republics consist of one island, the western part of which is Hayti ; the eastern San Domingo. The teacher may continue the subject by treating the following topics : Natural Advantages 1. (At the home of the pupil, local geography.) 2. On the surface of the earth. a. Nature of the soil with reference to agriculture. b. Forests, nature and uses of the woods. c. Facilities for transportation afforded by the sea, rivers, lakes etc. 3. Within the earth. a. Useful minerals and metals as coal, building material, iron, copper, lead, etc. b. Precious metals, as gold and silver 4. In the waters. a. Sea fisheries. b. Lake and river fisheries. Industries) or Occupations 1. Agriculture. a. Relative importance among the industries of the State. BLACKBOAKD TABULATIONS 299 b. The crops raised. c. Statistics of crops. d. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. 2. Manufacturing. a. Relative importance. b. Articles produced. c. Statistics of manufactures. 3. Mining. a. Metals or minerals found. b. Mines, to what extent worked. 4. Lumbering. a. Locality of the forests. b. Description of the method. 5. The Fisheries. a. Locality of the fisheries. b. Kinds of fish taken. 6. Commerce. a. What is exported. >, What is imported. c. Means of transportation. Internal Improvements 1. Railroads. a. Local railroads. b. Trunk-lines. 2. Canals. 3. Navigation on lakes and rivers. After this subject lias been taught objectively and fully illustrated, it should be tabulated on the board and the pupils be required to recite topically. They should name every important item connected with the relief, and the teacher should require compo- sitions in which the tabulation is used as an outline. It is expected that after the subject is taught objec- tively all the divisions will be tabulated in a similar manner. Those who desire specimens of the treatment of local geography, can obtain for 25 cents each Bardeen's " Geography of Onondaga 300 GEOGRAPHY County", or Northam's "Geography of Lewis County" and "of Oneida County", all of New York, costing 25 cents each. Bar- deen's " Geography of the Empire State ", 75 cents, is an octavo volume of 126 pages, with 25 outline maps on uniform scale, 5 relief maps, and 125 illustrations, giving help for local geography as yet unequalled in completeness. The "Oswego Normal System of Geography", 50 cents, by Amos W. Farnham, teacher of geography in that famous institu- tion, was published in 1896, and gives the methods now employed there, embodying of course all that has proved permanently val- uable of recent devices. Griffin's " Topical Geography ", 50 cts., is also excellent. The use of relief maps is recommended wherever they can be obtained. The publisher of this volume can furnish maps of Switzerland, particularly adapted for showing contour, at $3. 50 for the size 11 x 17| inches, and $10.00 for the size 23 x 34 inches. Also map of Palestine, 22x35, $10.00, particularly useful in Sunday schools, but also adapted to day schools on account of the physical configuration. Much use is now made of card -board helps, such as "Geograph- ical Cards", $1.00; "Geographical Game, Our Country", 50 cts. These cards are intended to accompany any text-book in Geog- raphy. The topics and questions emphasize a necessity for thorough knowledge of commercial relations, exports, imports, routes of travel, expense of transportation ; in fact, the cards deal with the Essentials of Geography, omitting that which is of little or no importance. A set of these Cards will save the teacher many needless hours of study and research, by preserv- ing classified memoranda in compact form. Griffith's "Outline Blackboard Maps" serve a useful purpose. They include the five Continents, the United States, the State, and a blank for the County, and cost $8.00 a set. The outline is permanent, while tlie pupil is to locate before the class whatever are the main features of the day's lesson. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The special province of Physical Geography is the investigation of Climate and its modifications. . The great agents are the air, rain, frosts, springs, brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, mountains, and the sea. It is Climate, and Climate alone, that determines mainly the character of all vegetable and animal life. Climatic agents not only are now the most important and influential, but they have been so during all past geological ages. To account for all of the extraordinary * changes of Climate would require many volumes, but I have studiously avoided introducing theories of a hy- pothetical nature. The conclusions are in every case derived either from facts or from recognized principles. The student should never rest until he gets at the reasons for what he sees about him. He should know something about the air he breathes, and the earth he lives upon, and about the relations between them. It is the great book of Nature, wherein each of us, young and old, may read, and go on reading all through life, without exhausting even a small part of what it has to teach us. It is that great look Air, Earth, and Sea which I would have you study. I. ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE By climate we mean the temperature, the moisture of the air, the prevailing winds, and their results. (301) 302 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Temperature. Heat comes from the rays of the sun, which give the most heat when they fall the most directly upon any part of the earth, and the least when they fall the most obliquely. When we speak of the heat or the cold of the air, we use the word Temperature. When the air is hot, the temperature is said to be high. When the air is cold, the temperature is said to be low. The temperature is warmer at noon than in the morning or evening because at morning and at evening the rays of the sun fall in a slanting direction, and we receive comparatively few of the rays, because they are spread over a great surface. At noon when the sun is more or less directly upon us, then we receive more of them because they fall upon a comparatively small space, as will be seen from the following figure : Rays falling directly from overhead are said to be vertical ; those falling in a slanting direction are said to be oblique. OBLIQUE RAYS OF THE SU^ 303 This diagram put on the black-board will bring the matter home to the pupil's comprehension. oblique The vertical sheaf of rays, striking the earth rays ' at noon, falls upon a small surface. In the middle of the forenoon or afternoon, the rays, falling obliquely, are spread over a greater surface. At sunrise or sunset no part of the sheaf touches the earth's surface except its lower side, and most of the rays are lost in the at- mosphere beyond. Tell the pupils that the sun always shines vertically, or nearly so, on the equator, and on a considerable belt beyond the equator, on either side. Now, just as the sunbeams fall more directly at noon than in the morning or evening, so they fall more directly during the summer season than during the winter season. In our country the sun centre is never directly over- head, and its rays fall upon us in the most nearly verti- cal direction on the longest summer day. First Important Fact. Temperature that is, the heat or cold of a place is one element of climate. In some countries immense quantities of rain fall ; in others none, or next to none. In the rain- Humidity, less districts the climate is dry ; where much rain falls the climate is wet or damp. When we speak of a wet or a dry climate, we use the word humidity, or moisture. Second Important Fact. Humidity is another ele- ment of climate. TJiird Important Fact.-~ The prevailing p reva iiing winds form an element of climate. winds. The three elements of climate then are Temperature, Humidity, and Prevailing Winds. 304 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY A climate thafc is neither too hot nor too cold is called temperate. When it is very hot or very cold it is said to be extreme. A climate that is in every way fine and agreeable is called genial or salubrious. Three elements are included in climate : Review. 1. Temperature that is, the heat or cold. 2. Humidity, or the state of being wet or dry. 3. The prevailing winds. (a). A temperate climate means one that is neither too hot nor too cold. (b). An extreme climate means one that is very hot or very cold. (c) A genial or salubrious climate means one thafc is in every way fine and agreeable, favorable to health. These facts should be written on the board, and the pupils should be required to copy and commit them to memory. II. THE GENERAL LAW How can we tell what variety of climate any country has ? What must we know before we can tell ? NOTE. Before this division of the subject is taken up, a les- son should be given on the shape or form of the earth, lines upon the earth's surface, etc. We have learned that the earth in its motion, like a Latitude wheel, revolves around an imaginary line called its axis. The most northern point of the earth's surface is called the North Pole, and the most southern point the South Pole. THE GENEKAL LAW 305 There is an imaginary line called the Equator, drawn at an equal distance from each pole, and dividing the earth-surface into eqi^l parts. The countries where the sun shines directly over- head, or perpendicularly, are those that are near this line the equator (use a globe if you have one, or at least a map ; place a diagram on the board ; illustrate fully). Here, 23^- north of the equator, is another line, called the Tropic of Cancer, and 23^ south of the equator is the Tropic of Capricorn. Any country lying anywhere between the tropics is called intertropical. And since these countries have the sun directly overhead at certain seasons, and nearly so at all other seasons, they will have a hot climate. Then as we go nearer to the poles it becomes colder, till at last, at the polar regions, we find only ice and snow. We learn from these facts that the heat throughout the year is greatest at or near the equator, and diminishes gradually toward the poles. Thus we see that the climate of a place depends upon the latitude of the place. The latitude of a place is, therefore, of the first importance in determining its temperature, since a decrease of heat takes place with an increase of latitude as we travel, at the same level above the sea, from the equator towards the poles. So it will be seen that latitude is the fundamental element in climate, and influences all the others. At the equator, and within the tropics, the greatest heat is experienced, because the sun is always vertical to some place within those limits, and the solar action 306 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY is more intense in proportion as the rays are vertical to the earth. See figure, page 302. As we recede from the equator the rays fall more obliquely ; and, because fewer of them are spread over a larger space, they are less powerful, and consequently have less influence on temperature. It has been calculated that out of 10,000 rays falling upon the earth atmosphere, 8,123 arrive at a given point if they fall vertically ; 7,024 if the angle of direction is 50; 2,821, if it is 7; and only 5 if the direction is horizontal. As will be seen, the amount of heat produced by the sun upon the earth's surface is greatest near the equator, and diminishes gradually toward the poles, and these effects are referable to the spherical form of the earth, and the angle at which the sun's rays impinge upon the surface. In the equatorial regions they are vertical to the sur- face of the earth, and there produce maximum effect ; but on account of the curved outline of the globe, they fall more and more obliquely with increasing latitude, and the intensity of action diminishes proportionately. At the poles they are tangent to the surface, and their effect is zero. From these facts we may deduce the following : General Law The climate of a place depends prin- cipally on its latitude. MODIFICATIONS OF THE GENERAL LAW When we ascend mountains, the air becomes cool, cooler, cold, colder, till finally we find our- selves amid snows that last all the year around. MODIFICATIONS OF THE GENERAL LAW 307 We may travel several hundred miles from the equator toward the poles, along the level surface of the earth, before we become sensible of a diminished tem- perature ; but when we ascend the mountains between the tropics, as we begin to increase our elevation a rapid change of temperature is experienced, and those places that are elevated will be colder than those at the level of the sea. On an average, an increase of 300 feet altitude dimin- ishes the temperature 1 Fahr.; hence, the rate of diminution is about 3 to 1000 feet. In large plateaus, however, the effect of altitude seems to be, in some measure, intensified by the great extent of absorbing and radiating surface uplifted into the atmosphere. In general they are considerably warmer than the isolated summits of mountains of the same altitude. From this effect of elevation upon temperature, it is obvious that the mountain regions of the torrid zone have great varieties of climate. In this region we may find vines at the base of the mountain. The region of vines rises from the level of the sea to a certain height ; in this zone of vegetation may be found the date-tree, the sugar-cane, the fig, and the olive ; next come the hardy species of trees, as the oak, the laurel ; higher, the birch, the pine, and the firs ; higher still may be found the grasses ; and, be- yond, a few plants and lichens ; and, still beyond, the vegetation ceases entirely, and we have reached the line of perpetual snow. NOTE. Illustrate the zones of vegetation by a diagram at the board, using colored chalk. 308 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY From these facts we gather that the temperature of a place depends not on its latitude alone, but on its eleva- tion, or, as it is called, its altitude. The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere absorb the greatest amount of the sun's heat, and are necessarily the warmest ; the atmosphere is not much heated by the direct rays of the sun, but receives heat mainly by radiation from the earth's surface. First Modification The altitude of a place modifies the climate. Mountains also modify the climate of large areas of lower lands in their vicinity. Their elevation Mountains. . _".* ^ intercepts the moist currents approaching from the oceans, and their cold summits condense the moisture, causing it to be precipitated. Consequently, the winds, on leaving the mountains for the interior, are dry, and give the characteristics of dryness to the climate of the interior areas. This modi- fication is well illustrated in our own country by the climate of our Western Plains, which are influenced in their climatic conditions by the high, cold wall of the Rocky Mountains. The valleys west of this range have abundant rain- fall, and, consequently, rich fertility ; while those to the east have almost perpetual drouth, and consequent sterility. Therefore, another modification of climate is the proximity of mountain ranges. Second Modification The proximity of mountain ranges modifies the climate, MOUKTAIKS AKB WI^DS 309 Heat causes winds. Winds are motions of parts of the atmosphere ; warmer portions expand. J 4.1. ' 1 become lighter, rise, and their places are filled by cold air. Hence, tropical heat causes an ascending, warm cur- rent of air at the equator. The heavy cold air from the poles, flowing toward the equator, causes Trade Winds on each side of the equator. Ascending air cools, contracts, and descends to the surface beyond the tropics, meets the polar currents, and forms the return currents. The motion of the earth causes the polar and return currents to be turned from their northern or southern direction, and they take a northeastern or southwestern course. The character of the wind depends upon the region whence it comes. Winds from the equatorial regions carry into the middle latitudes some portion of the heat of the tropical regions ; while polar winds bring the low temperature of the latitudes whence they come. If there is nothing to break the force of the icy winds coming from the Arctic region, we may expect the country to be cold even if it is pretty far south ; on the other hand, if there is nothing to break the force of the hot winds coming from the torrid region, we may expect the country to be warm, even if it is pretty far north. In the United States the winds from the north are usually noted for their coolness, a property they derive from the frozen regions of Hudson and Baffin Bay ; while those from the south, coming from the Gulf of Mexico, impart a mildness throughout the whole country. 310 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The comparatively mild climate of the British Isles is owing to the prevalence of main currents of air which are warmed by sweeping over the Gulf Stream. In the same latitude the shores of Greenland and Labrador are washed by the icy waters of the Arctic currents and swept by the polar winds. The one region has a mild climate, and is occupied by the most enlightened nations of the world ; the other is a frozen waste, sparsely inhabited by degraded sav- ages and European traders. We gather from these facts that the climate of a place depends not alone on its latitude, altitude, or proxim- ity to mountain ranges, but on the character of the winds. Third Modification The prevailing winds at a given place modify the climate. Oceanic climate is characterized by uniformity. Water has a great capacity for absorbing heat, and but feeble conducting power ; hence, the ocean grows warm slowly under the rays of the sun, and never attains a high temperature. It also radiates heat slowly, and as fast as the surface particles become cool, they sink and are replaced by warmer ones from beneath ; hence the cooling process is as gradual as the heating, and neither produces extremes of tem- perature. The ocean retains the heat longer than the land. In the summer the land is warmer than the sea, and in the winter the land is cooler than the sea. NOTE. This is a general statement, and does not refer to daily variation of temperature. THE OCEAH 311 The air from the ocean moderates the heat of summer and the cold of winter. So the coasts have a more equable temperature than the interior. The land absorbs the solar heat rapidly, and the sur- face soon attains a high temperature. Especially is this the case when the soil is imperfectly covered with vege- tation, as in treeless plains or deserts. But, when the sun is withdrawn, heat radiates with rapidity, and a comparatively low temperature is soon reached. It is seen that the ocean preserves a much more uniform temperature than the land, hence islands and maritime districts have milder climates than inland regions under the same parallels of latitude. London, though situated in a higher latitude, enjoys a milder climate than Paris. The winters and summers of Ire- land are much more temperate than those of any other country in the same latitude. Let us take an example in Nature, and see what passes on an island alone in the midst of the ocean. Let us remember that the land is heated more readily than the sea. In proportion as the sun rises above the horizon, the island becomes warmer than the neighbor- ing sea. Their respective atmospheres participate in these un- equal temperatures ; the fresh air of the sea rushes from all directions under the form of a sea-breeze, which makes itself felt along the whole coast, and the warmer and lighter air of the island will ascend into the at- mosphere. During the night it is the reverse. The island loses heat by radiation, and cools quicker than the sea. 312 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Its atmosphere, having become heavier, runs into that of the sea, under the form of land-breeze, and this interchange lasts until the temperature, and conse- quently the density of the two atmospheres, has again become the same. This is the phenomenon observed on the eastern coast of Georgia, Florida, and almost daily on nearly all the seaboards. What takes place here on a small scale in the space of a day, passes on a great scale between the entire con- tinent and the ocean from one season to another. A moment's reflection will enable us to see that these dif- ferences of temperature, setting the whole atmosphere in motion, modify the climate of a place. So it is seen that the water of the sea keeps an island warm in winter and cool in summer. In the centre of the continent the wind in winter blows over immense fields of snow or ice, and keeps the air cold ; and in the summer it blows across the heated land, and the air must be very warm ; the countries in the centre of a continent have an extreme climate ; hence the nearness to, or remoteness of a place from the ocean, modifies the climate. Fourth Modification The proximity of a place to, or its distance from, the ocean modifies its climate. There are rivers in the ocean called ocean-currents. ocean cur- They consist of vast oceanic streams which rents. k ee p U p a perpetual circulation of the waters. Some of them have been traced many thousand miles. All the rivers in the world are insignificant when com- pared with some of these currents. OCEAH CURRENTS 313 They move on steadily through the water compara- tively at rest, and are often different from the latter in color and temperature. Some are hundreds of miles broad, thousands of feet deep, and have a course em- bracing a larger part of the ocean in which they move. Currents exist not only at the surface, but in deep waters, where their course is frequently in a different direction from, sometimes even opposite to, that of the surface-currents. The direction and velocity of currents are modified : 1. By the revolution of the earth on its axis ; 2. By the constant winds of the Torrid Zone ; 3. By being turned aside by the shores. The expansion and contraction of water by heat and cold are, perhaps, the principal causes to which currents are due. Heat causes water to become warm ; warm water is lighter than cold ; and when certain portions become heated, they rise by reason of their buoyancy, and are replaced by surrounding colder and heavier water flowing at the same time toward the equator. The ocean currents assist to cool the tropical and to warm the polar regions. Evaporation by solar heat causes large quantities of water to pass off in vapor ; and it is this excessive evap- oration within the tropics which tends to lower the level of the water there. The revolution of the earth round its axis is still another powerful cause in producing currents, particu- larly those of the equatorial regions, which have com- monly a western direction. 314 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The winds of tropical climates, which blow continu- ously or during long periods in one direction, also lend their influence in affecting the currents. The effect of the rise and fall of tides in producing an alternate flowing of currents in opposite directions is perceived in channels between islands, or between islands and the mainland. Thus, in the channel which connects Long Island Sound with the harbor of New York, known as the East Eiver, strong currents alternately prevail in opposite directions, as the tide ebbs and flows. The Gulf Stream, which first becomes apparent near the northeast coast of Cuba, has a great influence on climate. The Gulf Stream, as it issues from the straits of Florida, is of dark indigo-blue, so strongly contrast- ing with the greenish color of the sea that the line of contact is distinctly traceable by the eye. Near its ori- gin this remarkable current has a breadth of 32 miles and a depth of more than 2,000 feet ; off Cape Hatteras the breadth is at least 75 miles, and the depth more than 700 feet. The temperature at its origin is about 80 Fahr. ; on an average it is from 20 to 38 warmer than the adja- cent water. The comparatively high temperature of this great stream modifies the climate of the eastern coast of North America ; and as it sweeps across the Atlantic Ocean, in its northeast coast to the British Isles and Norway, it modifies the climate of those countries. It will be seen, by a study of the ocean-currents, that the polar currents and the return currents bring heat to the western shores, and that they produce contrasts in tern- RAIN-PALL 315 perature in the same latitude on opposite shores of con- tinents. We gather from these facts that the ocean currents modify the climate of a country. Fifth Modification. Ocean currents modify the cli- mate of a place. The annual quantity of rain that falls in a place con- siderably affects its climate, by imparting a J ! ,.,-, Rain-fall. greater or less degree of humidity or damp- ness of the atmosphere. In general more rain falls on islands and on sea coasts than in inland districts ; among mountains than in level regions ; and within the tropics than in the other zones. Heat and winds produce rains. Heat causes evapora- tion ; the vapors rise in the air ; air at a given tempera- ture has a certain capacity for moisture ; when this limit is reached the air is said to be saturated with humidity, and the least lowering of the temperature causes a con- densation of moisture in the form of dew, fog, clouds, or rain ; but, if the temperature is raised, the capacity for vapor being increased, absorption recommences. As long as the amount of vapor present in the air is much less than is required for saturation, evaporation goes on rapidly, and the air continues to absorb the ris- ing vapors. It is, therefore, called dry air. When the air is nearly saturated evaporation proceeds but very slowly ; when saturation is reached evaporation ceases, and the air is moist or humid. Visible masses of vapor resting on or near the ground are called fogs, while those floating in the air at a con- siderable height are distinguished as clouds. Condensation and rain are mostly caused by the cool- ing of currents of warm air laden with aqueous vapors. 316 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Cold causes condensation ; the vapors condensed fall as rain ; hence rain is caused by the cooling of air laden with moisture. The temperature of tropical winds ad- vancing into cooler latitudes is lowered, the moisture is then condensed, and the rain falls. Cold winds, if sat- urated, advancing into warmer latitudes become ex- panded, and their capacity for moisture is increased ; they become less humid, the clouds dissolve, and the air becomes clear and dry. Winds blowing over plains retain their moisture, but if they strike a mountain they become cooled, and the rain falls. Plateaus usually receive less rain than other forms of relief, because the mountains, which form the borders of the greater number, prevent the vapors borne by the winds from reaching them. From these facts we see that the annual amount of rain modifies the climate of a place. Sixth Modification. The annual quantity of rain modifies the climate of a place. The nature and covering of the soil have an influence upon the condensation of the vapor in the air. A region with nothing to shield it from the burning rays of the sun becomes intensely heated, and imparts to the superincumbent air a temperature so high as to dissipate all clouds which may float into it from the surrounding atmosphere. A covering of vegetation, on the contrary, shields the soil from the sun's rays, keeps its temperature lower, and promotes condensation. And whether a region be bare or covered with vegetation greatly affects its climate. From these facts we see that the nature and covering of the earth have an influence upon climate. SOIL, FORESTS, VEGETATION 317 Seventh Modification. The nature and covering of the soil modify the climate of a place. The clearing of forests, the draining of swamps and marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are among the operations of man by which the climate of a country is greatly modified and improved. Clearing a country of trees has the effect of raising the mean annual temperature, but at the same time introduces greater extremes of heat and cold. Open grounds are always frozen deeper than woodlands, but the latter retain the snow and ice of winter to a much later period in the spring than the former. From these facts we see that the cultivation of a place modifies its climate. Eighth Modification. The degree of cultivation and improvement modifies the climate of a place. Both the moisture and salubrity of a region are influ- enced by its vegetation. Vegetation. The leaves of trees and plants give forth moisture to the atmosphere, and take from it its carbonic acid ; hence the forests receive more rain than treeless regions similarly situated, while at the same time they check the evaporation of moisture from the soil ; thus they equalize the irrigation of the surrounding country and augment the volume of its springs and rivers ; hence forests effect an important modification of climate. Salubrity or the health condition depends greatly on the general character of the surface, as to evenness or unevenness. When the areas are even or flat the waters spread over larger surfaces, become stagnant, and are charged with decaying animal and vegetable matter. 318 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY The adjacent atmosphere receives foul emanations from these unwholesome waters, and the region is thus rendered insalubrious and unhealthful. Where, on the contrary, the surface is uneven or broken, the waters collect into narrower currents and move with consider- able velocity, carrying away decaying substances, cleans- ing the region, and rendering its climate more and more wholesome. Hence an important modification in a region results from its evenness or unevenness of surface. Ninth Modification The evenness or unevenness of the surface modifies the climate of a place. RECAPITULATION First Important Fact Temperature that is, the heat or cold of a place is an element of Elements. -. . climate. Second Important Fact Humidity that is, whether it is wet or dry is an element of climate. Third Important Fact The prevailing winds are an element of climate. General Law The climate of a place de- pends principally on its latitude. First Modification The altitude of the ms ' place modifies the climate. Second Modification The proximity of mountain ranges modifies the climate. Third Modification The prevailing winds modify the climate. Fourth Modification The proximity of a place to, or its distance from, the ocean, modifies the climate. RECAPITULATION 319 Fifth Modification Ocean currents modify the cli- mate of a place. Sixth Modification The annual quantity of rain modifies the climate of the place. Seventh Modification The nature and covering of the soil modify the climate of a place. Eighth Modification The degree of cultivation and improvement modifies the climate of a place. Ninth Modification The evenness or unevenness of the surface modifies the climate of a place. 1. A temperate climate means one that is Kinds of neither too hot nor too cold. climate. 2. An extreme climate means one that is either too hot or too cold. 3 . A genial or salubrious climate means one that is in every way agreeable, favorable to health. The condition of a country in regard to temper- ature, moisture, and the prevailing winds, is ' , Definition. its climate. HISTORY The facts of history comprise the sum of the events that man has brought about in all the teeming centuries since first he inhabited the earth. The number is be- yond the power of imagination to conceive, and histo- rians do not attempt to enumerate them. They describe some of the grandest and most interesting features of a nation's life, and leave the rest to be inferred or forgotten. History describes the past conditions and actions of Keep facts in men j an( ^ investigates the causes which have perspective, operated to produce them. History should be taught from a series of progressive standpoints. In the history of every nation there are certain prom- inent events from which as centres other minor events have seemed to emanate, and to which they bear refer- ence. It is only of these great events that we need to know the dates or the minute particulars. It is a use- less waste of time and labor to commit to memory a great number of dates to be speedily forgotten. Only such dates should be committed to memory as are indis- pensable as landmarks in history. The sequence of events, rather than the precise date of each, is what is chiefly necessary. The teaching that goes under this name in schools is useless generally a farce. It consists usually in teaching. stringing together the names and dates with a few facts of the least important kind. Or, if more is (32Q) INFLUENCE OF HISTORY 321 attempted, it is reading in a text-book ; in which case generally there is little within a child's sympathy or comprehension, and together are often jumbled, with- out purpose or method, facts of the most diverse kind, from which it is impossible to gain clear conceptions. Like geography, history should begin at home. In- terest the children first in the traditions of History their own school-district and village and atliome. town, and soon they will be eager for the history of their own State. Text-books on State history are now pub- lished in most of the States. In New York, for instance, Hendrick's " History of the Empire State " answers the purpose admirably, making history a real thing to pu- pils because it refers to events that occured in places they have seen. All teachers' and regents' examina- tions in this State contain questions in New York his- tory as a part of American history. In most States the law now requires the teaching of American history, and for the best of reasons. For history presents many examples of good and Moral great men and women who honored by their noble deeds the age and country in which they lived. Such examples have more influence upon the young than moral precepts. The heart is more easily moved to virtue by incidental teaching than by direct teaching. The history of such men as Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and scores of others, proves an incentive to youth, and the moral seeds sown by their examples germinate and produce rich fruit. The reason why pupils take so little interest in the study of history is principally on account of Topical the fragmentary manner in which the subject treatment - 322 HISTORY is presented in our text-books. Lessons in history should be assigned by topics, and not by pages. All verbatim recitations of sentences and paragraphs should be forbidden, and pupils should be required to state the facts in their own language. History should be taught as a methodical record of Essential to important events. To every American citi- citizenship. zen some knowledge of the history of his own country is useful ; he should know of the founding, progress, and growth of liberty in his own country. To- wards the preservation of good government and the per- manency of our institutions, it is necessary that the principles of government and the leading events of history be taught in our American schools. The idea of national unity and of patriotism should rise above the stripes of party and the turmoils of war, and plant itself as the one thing vital to American in- stitutions. That the subject of history may secure attention from the teacher, and study from the pupils, is the sincere wish of every loyal American citizen. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 1. Interest the pupils by a familiar talk. 2. Examine the lessons with the pupils. 3. Draw maps and locate important places. 4. Let the maps be examined and criticised. 5. Bring out the prominent, salient facts, with clear- ness. 6. Require pupils to classify and tabulate the lesson, and recite from the tabulation. 7. Do not require too many dates. 8. Let the pupils state the causes of the different wars and their effects. A MODEL LESSOR 323 9. Teach history as a methodical record of important events. 10. An objective representation should be given by means of maps and charts ; drawings and diagrams should be placed on the board of all important matters in the history of the nation. A MODEL LESSON Important Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What persons ? 7. What means ? What losses ? What results ? 8. 9. What event ? What causes ? What battle ? What time ? What place ? Taking these questions for the model form, we have the following lesson : History of the Battle of Bunker Hill What event ? Revolutionary War. r l. Rights of arbitrary govern- ment claimed by the Brit- "1. Remote. ^ ish. 2. Character of the King, George III. 1. 2. What causes?^ 2. Direct, j 1. 3. What battle ? Bunker Hill. 4. What time ? 1775, June 17. 5. What place ? Breed's Hill. 6. What persons ? - American Generals. British Generals. Importation Act. Stamp Act. (a) General Ward. (b) General Prescott. (c) General Putnam. (d) General Warren. (a) General Gage. (b) General Howe. (c) General Clinton. (d) General Burgoyne, 324: HISTORY 7 What Trip* ? 5 1 - American limited. 7. What means J T>^ h _ unlimited (1. American 115 killed, 305 wounded, and 8. What losses ? < 32 prisoners. ( 2. British 1054 killed and wounded. ( 1. Remote Gaining our fl. American, -j Independence. ( 2. Direct Encouraging. 9. What results ? 1 9 -RritUh J 1 - Remote Defeat. [* j sh ' \2. Direct-Discouraging. This model form may apply to a period of our coun- try's history, or to a battle of that period. Associate, as far as possible, geography with history. The review should take three distinct forms, chrono- logical, biographical, and geographical. In the chronological, the pupil should state all of the principal dates ; in the biographical all that has been learned in regard to particular individuals ; and in the geographical, whatever he can state of all important facts relating to the history of a locality. These reviews may be made spirited exercises, by re- questing the class to write a few of the essential dates, the sequence of important events, the names of impor- tant individuals. The system of the reviews above sug- gested, must, if faithfully carried out, result in a thorough unifying of the general subject of history. Many of the facts of history may be given in reading, incidental an< ^ especially in geography lessons. Such lessons. facts embrace pictures of social condition, growth of manufactures and of populous districts, actions that have made particular places celebrated, and inci- dents in the lives of remarkable men. Through these the mind, furnished with some of the material of his- TOPICAL TACiiIH 325 tory, may pursue with more advantage to itself its systematic study. Lessons on any subject are thus more adhesive than when given to a mind entirely ignorant of it. United States history may be taught in a way to make it of very little use. To memorize a dry narrative will be of little avail except to in- spire disgust with history in general. But all modern text-books accept the topical method of arrangement, at least in their summaries, and Northam's ' ' Helps in Fixing the Leading Facts of American History " makes this topical review practicable in every school. Here all facts are 1775. L exington. presented in groups. 1776. I ndependence. The key-word to the 1777. B urgoyne's surrender. Revolution, for in- 1778. E vacuation. stance, is LIBERTY, 1779. R etribution. as shown in the ac- 1780. T reason, company ing table of 1781. Y orktown. Key- Words ; and in like manner the events of the late civil war are kept chronologically distinct by the key- words SLAVES FREED. Chart No. 1 indicates by stars the years in each decade from 1492 to 1789 in which the most remarkable events occurred, while the colored Chart No. 2 arranges the events under the Con- stitution in the following groups : (1) Acquisition of Territory, (2) Financial Matters, (3) Tariff, (4) Treaties and Compromises, (5) Wars and Rebellions, (6) Important Proclamations, (7) Great Inventions, (8) Slavery, (9) Epidemics, (10) Conflagrations, (11) New States, (12) Deaths and Resignations of President or Vice-Presi- dent. 326 HISTORY In all your teaching the principle of proceeding from From known ^ ne known to the unknown must be followed, to unknown. ^ clear picture of the present must be drawn, embracing, in their order, all of the above particulars. The method, whatever it may be, should quicken the pupils' observation, and lead them to see some impor- tance in matters of everyday life. Every succeeding lesson should bring up vividly the condition of man in the past, and compare it, in its several particulars, with things now. This will make more and more evident how great has been the change, and how much for the better. The pupils should see how events, both great and small, have contributed to the prosperity and the advancement of the people. The aim in teaching history should be to inculcate those moral lessons which it is the office of history to teach by example. What, for in- stance, could be better adapted to produce a spirit of contentment and thankfulness, than a clear knowledge of the present condition of our country, with its points of superiority over that of other nations ? What better opportunity can be desired for showing and enforcing the necessity of character and skilled industry than is afforded while tracing the improvements and the progress of our nation for the past one hundred years ? Among books that will aid in teaching history are " A Thous- and Questions in U. S. History ", $1.00 ; Williams's "Topics and References in American History ", 50 cts. ; Juliand's " Brief Views of U. S. History ", 50 cts., and Van Wie's " Outlines in U. S. His- tory", 15 cts. Edwards's Historical Cards on United States His- tory ($1.00), and General History ($1.00), and his Historical Game 1 ' Our Country " (50 cts), are excellent helps. OBJECT LESSONS Can the natural sciences be profitably taught to the average pupils in our schools ? Our first inquiry leads us to distinguish between the natural and the artificial studies to which the children are introduced. The child's mind is an instrument for acquiring rather than using knowledge. He voluntar- Education ily begins the study of nature. Here he goes by nature - to school long before his parents send him. He touches with child-hand many forces, and tries to grasp them. His studies are natural, for they are in the order of his mental development. Study is play ; play is study. The objective part of mathematics unfolds to him the shapes and numbers of things. He begins physics with the weight of his toy, or watching the ripple and dash of brook, or the whirl of the water-wheel. He opens his botany when he plucks a flower, distinguishing color and form. He notices the material 8f rocks, and gathers various stones like a zealous mineralogist. A child confined as many pupils are to the reading, writing, and arithmetic method of discipline, might as well be brought up in a desert as contrary to in the world of beauty and power which sur- rounds him. His eyes are gradually closed to a thous- and alluring truths ; his ears are dulled to the myriad voices of nature. It is still true that to a majority of (327) 328 OBJECT LESSOKS pupils in the public schools, the acquiring of knowledge is uninteresting and positively irksome. But right teaching requires that the child's powers of Sense knowing accurately should be developed, teaching. an( j hence should begin and largely continue with his senses. "Words and number, over which so much time is spent in reading, spelling, and arithmet- ical problems, are valuable to his mental development, as they are associated with things really known. Hence the elements of science furnish the proper material for such study. Knowledge is not power to the child, if it is abstract. He cannot use knowledge which lies be- yond the sphere of his daily observation and experience. What the state needs is intelligent citizens, and intelli- gent youth from whom they can be made. These come of the power of knowing and judging accurately. We claim for the Natural Sciences this effect on the child. They deal with facts more sensible than those of arith- metic. The parts of a leaf or of a flower are definite, easily comprehended, and classified with certainty. This is true of the nature and species of the common animals, shells and insects, the constituents of a stone, the qual- ities of an acid or gas, the history of a rock traced in forms of life, the nature and effect even of geological changes. No wide range of knowledge is required to under- Mental stand definitely and surely scientific facts training. simply presented to the youthful mind. It easily comprehends them as a whole. We claim, there- fore, that to whatever degree the reasoning faculties should be developed to furnish the child-mind with power, this is best secured by its reasoning on facts and HABITS OF OBSERVATIOH 329 things rather than on abstract ideas, to which children's studies are often confined. The last knowledge gained by man is the correct understanding of human nature, of the causes of human actions. The sciences teach the relations of cause and effect in their clearest manifesta- tions. With enlarged comprehension the child may learn the secondary character of causes. He will trace their relation to effects with the certainty of conviction to his mind. Thence will be imparted the element of positiveness to the pupiFs acquirements and habits of character. He learns to act unwaveringly on what he knows, and to know positively that upon which he acts. Correcting by his own observations the conclusions to which he is led by the inductive methods of science, he gains independence in thought, and, with that, confi- dence in his own powers of judging, which are the safe- guards of his character and of his rights as a freeman under our republican institutions. Thus early introduced to the elements of science, the foundations of his character as a citizen are n^\^ O f more broadly laid. The child becomes more observation, inclusive in thought, more inventive through familiar- ity with the mechanism of nature, and more appreci- ative of the wealth and beauty of his country's resources. Taught to observe, he never ceases to be affected by the changing lines and hues of nature which his daily vision embraces, and the elements of a true aesthetic culture find place in him which will add to his certain worth and power as a citizen. The old idea that knowledge is for discipline is faithfully maintained in our education. Yet knowledge is one of the natural desires of the mind. The true science of education will make it a pleasure. 330 OBJECT LESSONS This will require for the senses larger opportunity than they now enjoy. Moreover, we owe to the State and its free institutions, to raise the standard of intelligence and culture among the people, among mechanics, farm- ers, merchants, and laborers in the mill or street. A discernment of the true nature and qualities of things, in their daily use will secure this far better than drills in spelling, arithmetic, and grammar. The mass of our citizens are not intelligent enough to understand one- half the instruction contained in a good weekly news- paper. We make, therefore, this demand for the sciences Place should ^ rs ^ ^ na ^ ^ nev ^ ave an e( l ua l place with the be made. usual studies of primary and grammar and district schools ; secondly, that our teachers be required to make plain the elements of the sciences to pupils be- low fourteen years of age, at the expense of rote-drills and problems in arithmetic, grammatical analysis, spel- ling without definitions, and the time spent in prepar- ing for pretentious written examinations, imposed at too early an age, that have become one of the worst abuses of an artificial system in public work. I. WITHOUT APPARATUS But how should these sciences be taught in district Methods of schools, or grades below the high school? teaching. The efforts of authors of elementary text- books in science are not entirely successful ; most of them are still too technical. There is less vividness in the statement of the facts of science, less personification and idealizing of the study, than a child's apprehension demands. The ancients taught their children the forces INCIDENTAL TEACHING 331 and sounds and shapes of the waters and fields and forests, by personifications of nymphs and dryads, gods and goddesses, in whose histories and habits they were personally interested. So should the stories of insects, fishes, mollusks, birds, and well known animals, or of plants and stones, be told without text-books by the teacher, with scientific truthfulness as to their modes of life and motion. Thus children would become familiar with their living forms. With text-books in^^ntai still defective, the teacher's opportunity lies teachin e- in what President Hill calls the incidental method. Let her have specimens of minerals, leaves, insects, flowers, pictures of birds and animals, and simple apparatus for illustrating chemical and physical forces, in order to make real to her classes the subjects of the lesson. By a hundred well selected stereoscopic pictures she could teach physical and political geography as effectively as the shapes, circles, and seasons of the earth by a globe. Thus the text-book in the hands of a suggestive and excursive teacher will become secondary to her personal power to make knowledge real and interesting to the youngest pupils in her classes. Yet the text-book in science will give the study equal dignity with the arith- metic in the mind of the scholar, whilst it corrects the unscientific or garrulous tendencies of the teacher. Moreover, no other studies will so naturally develop the personal power of the teacher. Proceed- Enthusiasm ing by the method of nature, step by step aroused, from the known to the unknown, she will awaken enthusiasm in the class, and from the fullness of her devotion to the subject there will be an overflow into the minds of the pupils. Rote-teaching in these ele- 332 OBJECT LESSONS ments of science is utterly defenceless. Every class of facts and every principle involved should have illustra- tion from the wide range of nature. The living method should be employed in the sciences. Every sense and power of the child can be grasped and applied to them by the live teacher. The chief purposes of the object lessons are two : first, object ^ cultivate habits of careful observation and lessons. reflection ; and second, to give facility in oral description. When properly given they involve the systematic discipline of the perceptive faculties and of the judgment, of imagination and the memory of facts, and in the use of language. The method that should be pursued is that known as the objective method. This presents two distinct though intimately related departments : perceptive teaching, in which the object, as an acorn, an egg, a leaf, or a piece of coal, is directly presented to the pupil's senses ; and conceptive teaching, in which impres- sions previously received are recalled, arranged, and util- ized, the objects themselves not being presented to the senses during the lesson. A lesson upon an oak, an elephant, or a thunder storm would fall under the latter department. The use of pictures, models, or other sen- sible representations of objects, is an important com- bination and modification of the two departments. Definitions should be very sparingly introduced, and never in the first stages of a subject. If Definitions, . ,, ,, , , . . d . _ given at all, they should sum up knowledge already attained. They should be as brief as possible and should be carefully prepared for by a process at once inductive and objective. The words organic, inorganic, THE VITAL ELEMENT 333 vegetable, animal and mineral, are prominent among the very few terms requiring definition. In every stage of the lessons, with the exception of a few indispensable definitions, the language used by the pupil should be entirely his own, and all set forms of words should be carefully avoided. "Familiar objects", and familiar animals, plants and minerals should take precedence of all others in the selection of topics. The process employed will necessarily present two distinct stages in accordance with the two chief purposes of these lessons already re- ferred to. The first may be called the analytic or pre- paratory, and furnishes the principal discipline of the powers of observation and reflection. In this stage, which is largely conversational, the teacher leads the pupils by questions or otherwise to discover or remem- ber the properties or peculiarities of an object, or to state any other important facts associated with it. The points thus considered should be written upon the black-board in very brief synoptical form, but each only after it has been dwelt upon. The vital element in this part of the work, that which gives it a living interest to the pupil, is the The ^^ discovery or learning of new facts, or the elei ent. gaining of new ideas about the object under considera- tion. It is evident that from the nature of the case this important element must be chiefly limited to the first presentation of the object. Reviews, although for certain purposes indispensable, soon become, at least as far as this element is concerned, much like "a thrice- told tale ". This makes it all the more important that the teacher should have an outline of the lesson care- 334 OBJECT LESSONS fully prepared beforehand, so as to be sure to include the points most likely to be interesting and instructive. Any additional point or fact afterwards drawn from the class may be readily incorporated. It should also be remembered that the effort to small " Develop the perceptive powers " of children classes. j^g fts ii m it, especially when applied to large classes. In teaching a little group of four or five, com- paratively little difficulty should be found by the skilful teacher. But when the class ranges in number from forty to sixty in the grammar school, and to seventy- five in the primary, and when at the same time owing to the pressure of the other and more directly important exercises of a graded school the time given to oral les- sons is limited to a very few minutes, it is evident that the problem is a different and more formidable one. In the first lesson upon any given object or phenome- Get answers non > un ^ss great care is taken to prevent it, from all. a f ew p u pil s o f naturally quick perceptions will give most of the responses, and the rest of the class will be as really "told" by their classmates as if the information had been given by the teacher., It is true that in both cases there is an exercise of the perceptive faculties ; but it is obvious that the mental condition in which we follow and verify a statement made by another is usually one of far less vigorous and profitable activity than that in which we discover a fact of ourselves. The former may be called the perception of discovery, the latter the perception of verification. Nevertheless, from the very nature and condition of class-teaching, the lower and the less profitable form of the mental exercise will be the* predominating one. The DEVELOPMENT 335 methods of reducing this evil to a practical minimum will be obvious to the experienced teacher. It is also well for us to consider how large a part of what we call our own knowledge has become ours only through veri- fying the statements and perceptions of others. The processes and results of this first or preparatory stage of the work, important and interesting as they may be, are entirely subordinate to the second stage. The preparatory stage collects the material for the work that is to follow ; the lumber, lime, bricks and stone for the edifice that is now to be constructed with them. DEVELOPMENT OF A SUBJECT Let us suppose that the subject of our lesson is Salt. The teacher has given the lesson with due Pointsde _ attention to the requirements of the objective veioped. method. The qualities, as learned by the senses, the kinds, uses, and sources of salt have been considered. To these points have been added the chief source of our own supply, the singular fact that it is a mineral food, its necessity to the health of the body, a brief reference to its ancient use as a symbol of hospitality and to certain superstitions which still cling to it, together with such other simple and interesting facts as seemed appropriate. In that stage of the lesson which we have now reached, the chief discipline is of the memory of facts. " What do you know or remember about salt ? " should be the teacher's only question : except when an error is made in the statement of facts, when a proper question or two should lead to its correction, not by the teacher, but by the class. The points as written upon the black- board in the order in which the pupils remember them 336 OBJECT LESSORS will be something like the following, omitting the pre- fixed numerals, which will presently be explained. Salt 3. Taste, 9. Springs, 6. Made into Soda, 4. Seasoning, 10. Ocean, 2. Soluble, 1. White, 11. Sparkling, 13. Hospitality, 7. Kinds, 12. Granular, 14. Superstitions. 8. Mines, 5. Preserves meat and fish, The next step is to have the class, not the teacher, condense and arrange this miscellaneous list Arrangement. ... .. . , -, * of items into a brief and orderly synopsis. This is a point of prime importance, but is so simple in practice that any ordinary class will need but one illus- tration in order to apply the principle. With beginners this will be best understood by illustrating with some short story one well-known to pupils is best. Whit- tington and his Cat would do admirably. Write the chief points of the legend on the blackboard in brief, synoptical form, but in an absurdly illogical order : Whittington a chest of gold goes to sea born in London Mayor cat given him dies respected poor boy, etc. , etc. If now the teacher will begin to tell the story, follow- ing the exact order of the synopsis, the class will soon object, and may readily be lead to number the items in the order in which they should be stated in telling the story. A very little practice will enable the class to number the items relating to salt substantially as they are num- bered in the synopsis already given. When these are arranged according to the principles of object teaching, they will condense into LESSON OK SALT 337 Salt 1. Qualities 3 : White ; soluble ; saline taste. 2. Kinds 3 : Rock ; bay ; table. 3. Uses 3 : Seasoning ; preserving meat, etc. ; soda. 4. Sources 3 : Mines ; springs ; ocean. 5. Associations 2 : Hospitality ; superstitions. In making up a final synopsis such as this, great care should be taken not to overload a subject by Not too many a multiplicity of details. To accomplish details - this, only the most important items of the irregular synopsis should be taken. To attempt more is to cause the lesson to break of its own weight. Most of the ob- jects properly selected as the basis of the lessons of the lower grades may readily be reduced to form seven to ten items. The smaller the number the better. Now what use is to be made of this synopsis ? It is obvious that if the pupil has the synopsis be- Ut5e of fore him on the blackboard and is called upon sy n P si s- to state without being questioned what he knows about salt, the synopsis will be to him a brief set of arranged suggestions or notes, and that with a little practice he will be able with its aid to make a " continuous oral statement". But a much more important use can be made of this synopsis. The next step is to train the class to reproduce it for themselves. This will be found to be of ... . Reproduction. great practical importance, and is indeed in- dispensable. The memory will now be called into ex- ercise to remember the facts, and the brief notes with which they are associated. The judgment will be trained to arrange them in their logical order of se- quence. When by many lessons this has been made a 338 OBJECT LESSONS mental habit, the influence of the training will be felt upon all the other school lessons, as well as through life. There are several ways of accomplishing this step of re- producing the synopsis. The following is one of the most simple, expeditious, and efficient. Skilful teach- ers will readily devise methods of their own. 1. Write the seven to ten or more items upon the blackboard in their proper order. This has already been determined by the pupil. Place its proper number be- fore each item. 2. Tell the pupils to look carefully at the items and try to remember them, and that you will presently re- quire them to be written in the same way upon the slates and from memory. 3. Cover the synopsis with a newspaper or the con- venient screen, and at a given signal let the pupils try to reproduce it upon their slates. 4. Call upon one to read what he has written, and let the rest of the class, without looking upon their slates, tell what he has omitted or what error he has made. Then give all a brief opportunity to correct and com- plete. Have the slates cleaned, and try once or twice more, if necessary, until a reasonably correct result is obtained. Clear the synopsis from the blackboard. 5. The final step is obvious. It is that for which all that precedes has been the preparation. Let a sufficient number of pupils be called upon one after another to make a connected oral statement of such facts and ideas as each can properly recall, glancing from time to time, as he may find it necessary, at the synopsis upon his slate. REPRODUCTION 339 SPECIMEN OBJECT LESSOR ( The Bear Use pictures. ) Parts Broad head ; strong, clumsy body, covered with long coarse hair ; stout thick legs ; short tail ; large, slightly pointed ears ; small, bright eyes ; front teeth in both jaws ; canine teeth (two in each jaw), long, strong, and slightly curved backwards ; molars broad and surmounted with tubercles ; five toes on each foot, each having a long, stout, curved claw or nail, fitted for dig- ging or climbing (not retractile). Sole of foot naked ; simple stomach. Hcibits Eats animal and vegetable food ; walks on his flat feet (hence called plantigrade) ; climbs trees ; nocturnal ; stands readily on hind feet ; uses fore feet for defence by striking or hugging. Uses Flesh, leather, fur, curiosity. Dwell on adaptation of parts to habits and uses. Miscellaneous Cunning, unsocial ; spends the winter in caves or in hollow trees, almost without food ; dangerous and formidable ; some- times called Bruin. (Why ?) A few lessons should be given with the use of pic- tures, upon the lion, tiger, wolf, fox, raccoon. The cat, dog, and bear being the types of the families to which they respectively belong, the matter furnished above will answer in all essential particulars for classi- fying the other animals. Give lessons on likenesses and differences ; from the former get the idea and term carniverous, and from the latter the following : 340 OBJECT LESSONS (Cat family. Bear " X NOTE. The other families of this order are not given, because to attempt so much would defeat the object of the lessons. Models for identifying or describing : Oral The lion is a wild, ferocious, toe-walking animal, that belongs to the cat family of carnivorous animals. Written Wild. g Carnivorous Animals. Claws retractile. Front teeth in both jaws. Canine, long, hooked, fit- ted for tearing. ! p arnivorous Molars, uneven, sharp, > fitted for cutting. Simple stomach. j After each animal studied has been identified accord- ing to plans given, and a general talk had upon the whole order, a composition should be written upon the subject, Carnivorous Animals. Several weeks may be spent profitably upon a com- parison of Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. The following points are suggested. Kinds of teeth. Kinds of food. Kinds of stomachs. Nature of food. Shape and comparative size of trunks, ) Qnantitv of fnorl especially the abdominal region. f *** Acuteness of senses. { M f btaining Pliability of osseous structure. j Mt of obtainin S USE OF APPARATUS 341 Freedom of motion of the ) j Manner of obtaining limbs. f ( food. ._. , - ( General habits, manner Kinds of feet. -j of obtaining food . Muscular power, (Relative.) ) ( Obstacles to be over- Limbs as weapons of offence [- - ] come in obtaining or defence. ) ( food. The animal in each order most } remote from the type. Food (both kinds.) (Hog, bear.) ) For an ideal lesson on the Duck, see Hooper's "Object-Teach- ing, or Words and Things". II. WITH APPARATUS /. Directions 1. Let the pupils describe the apparatus. 2. Let the pupils perform the experiments. 3. Let the pupils announce the experiments. 4. Use simple objects and illustrations. 5. Proceed by rudimentary facts. 6. Proceed by individual cases to deduce laws. 7. Let the principles be developed by the pupils. 8. Let the pupils perceive that we arrive at results by three different ways : 1st, Jby observation ; 2d, by expert ment ; 3d, by considering effects. II. Cautions 1. Speak slowly. 2. Repeat carefully. 3. Use simple language. 4. Write points on the board. 5. Require pupils to copy. 6. Keep close to the subject. 7. Require pupils to answer in complete statements. 342 OBJECT LESSONS 8. Eepeat experiments and illustrations. 9. Reproduce each lesson carefully. 10. Never use a term that has not been fully de- veloped. 11. Guide the pupil's thoughts, but do not lead them. 12. Arrange a definite plan. 13. Work so as to secure and hold attention. 14. Let your object be to guide pupils to see clearly and infer correctly. GENERAL FORMULA /. Objects should be presented, 1. To the senses, or perception ; 2. To the reflective or reasoning powers. 3. Their features should be thoroughly memorized. //. Ideas should be developed, 1. By appealing to the senses. 2. By comparison. 3. By experiment. 4. By reason. SPECIMEN LESSON ON DIVISIBILITY The teacher should have on the table different articles, as slips of wood, a lump of coal, pieces of glass, brick, stone, etc., glass jar containing water, cochineal, car- mine, etc. First, let the pupils describe the articles, as : "You hold in your hand a piece of pine wood ten inches in length, two inches in breadth and one-half inch in thickness. " See that they express the truth and use accurate language. LESSOR OK DIVISIBILITY 343 " You hold in your hand a lump of coal about as large as a hen's egg." " You have in your hand a piece of brick about four inches in length, four inches in breadth, and two inches in thickness. " " You hold in your hand a glass jar containing one quart of clear water," etc., etc. The teacher may now place in the hands of the pupil a small slip of wood and tell him to do some- wood, thing with it. The pupil will either break, cut, or split it. The teacher will ask him to observe what he has done with it. The pupil will answer, " I have broken it." The teacher will so question the pupils as to draw out an answer similar to the following : "The wood may be separated into parts." Again the teacher will request one of the pupils to take the hammer and do something with the coal. The pupil will break it, and he per- ceives that the coal may be broken into pieces. The teacher will also question the pupil so as to draw out the following answer : " Coal may be separated into parts." So proceed with the brick, glass, stone, iron, etc., and lastly take the glass jar and put in a few grains of cochineal, carmine, or indigo, and let the pupils notice the effects. They will say that the cochineal is coloring the water ; let them see that the cochineal is separated into thousands of parts; lead them to say that cochineal " may be separated into parts." The teacher should write all these facts on the board, and require the pupils to spell the words. See that the children begin every statement with a capital letter and end it with a period. The lesson thus far developed will appear on the board in the following form : 344 OBJECT LESSONS 1. Wood may be separated into parts. 2. Coal may be separated into parts. 3. Glass may be separated into parts. 4. Brick may be separated into parts. 5. Iron may be separated into parts. 6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. Pupils should be required to copy the above neatly, General an( ^ reproduce it. They should be led to principle. perceive that all objects may be separated into parts. At this stage ask them to give a general name to all things that they can perceive. They will give the names : things, objects, articles, substance, matter, perhaps not the latter ; if they do not give the word matter the teacher should give it. Tell the pupils that " matter " is the term you wish them to use. Now lead them to perceive that "Matter may be sepa- rated into parts. " Now tell them that this properly is called by a certain term, Divisibility, and lead them to develop the definition from the knowledge already possessed. For example, That property of matter which allows it to be separated into parts is Divisibility. The lessons will now appear on the board in the fol- lowing form : 1. Wood may be separated into parts. 2. Coal may be separated into parts. 3. Glass may be separated -into parts. 4. Brick may be separated into parts. 5. Iron may be separated into parts. 6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 7. Musk may be separated into parts, etc. General Law. All matter may be separated into parts. Definition. Divisibility is that property of matter which allows it to be separated into parts. BOOKS FOR REFERENCE 345 The pupil should memorize the General Law and the Definition. The teacher may give extended informa- tion in relation to divisibility, speaking of a grain of musk, of the small portions it throws off, and of various minerals. The best statement of the advantages of such teaching is found in "How to Teach Natural Science in the Public Schools", 50 cts., by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education. McKay's "100 Experiments in Natural Science", 15 cts., is especially intended for district schools. Hooper's " Object-Teaching, or Words and Things", 50 cts., treats of that subject from the most intelligent modern stand- point, and contains a model lesson on "The Duck" which has never been equalled for completeness and suggestiveness. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT School management may be considered under three heads : I. Organization ; II. Government ; III. Conduct of Eecitations. I. ORGANIZATION School organization is a system of arrangement de- pur ose of signed to secure constant employment, effi- organization. c i e nt instruction, and moral control. It aims at providing the means of instructing and educat- ing the greatest number in the most efficient manner, by the most economical expenditure of time and money. Organization puts each child in its proper place ; al- lots to each class proper work, proper in kind and amount ; secures to each subject the time that is justly its due ; arranges the work, both as to place and as to kind, so as to preserve a quiet room ; and properly dis- tributes the work, so that no interest of the school in any of its parts shall suffer. The young teacher should not select a difficult school choice of a ^ ^ rs ^ ^ man y teach for the money, a school. an( j d no t consider whether or not they are adapted to particular schools. The contract should be in writing, and express defi- nitely the conditions. Both parties should have a copy. Like all other business, this should be done in a business-like manner. It is import- ant that the teacher should know both his rights and (346) HOW TO BEGItf 34? his duties, and he should not begin school without a careful reading of Bardeen's " Common School Law for Common School Teachers ". Preparation for the first day's work is all import- ant. The seeds of failure are frequently sown the first hour. The teacher should day - have a plan in his mind : just what he will do ; hoio he will do it ; and when he will do it. He should not try to accomplish too much the first day. Let him not be too anxious about courting the favor of pupils good discipline cannot be established in a day ; he should use words expressive of friendly feelings and good intentions ; he should not let frowns cloud the brow, although all may not be, at the outset, just as one might wish ; he should leave nothing to the impulse of the moment ; he should be firm, watchful, and uniform ; he should en- deavor to make the first impression pleasant. Do not attempt to hear recitations the first morning ; after opening the school with a general ex- p.^ ercise, let them all join in singing some exercises, familiar piece ; this will dispel embarrassment. The im- portance of singing in school as an aid to school govern- ment, can hardly be overestimated. The "Song Budget", "The Song Century", and "The Song Patriot", at 15 cts. each, are certainly within the means of every school. Write on the board the requirements, and pass slips of paper, asking all that can write to hand 1 1 j. n Enrolment. in the following, viz. : 1. The full name. 2. The full name of parent or guardian. 3. Residence. 4. Age. 5. His studies and classes for the term before. 348 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Let some pupils pass around and take the names, etc., of those who cannot write. In the highest classes institute a written examination. This can be made a test exercise in spelling, Classification. mi 6 ' penmanship,, and the use of language. The questions need not be difficult ; ten questions upon the different subjects will test the knowledge of the pu- pils as well as twenty. The pupils that cannot write should be examined orally, and record kept of the stand- ing of each pupil. It is not best to make sudden and radical changes ; better adopt the classification of your predecessor, if you have not confidence in your own ability. Be especially careful not to find fault with the methods and work of the term before. Choose points to commend, not to criticise. Make all changes gradually and quietly, and let the pupils see that they are necessary for the good of the school. After having graded the pupils, attempt a tempor- Forminff ai T classification. It will be impossible to classes. classify permanently at first, and the pupils should so understand it. There should be not more than four grades in district schools. The primer and the first reader should be the limit of the D grade ; the second reader, of the C grade ; the third reader, of the B grade ; and the fourth reader, of the A grade. The number of classes in each grade should not exceed four, and by class classification they need not exceed this number. The teacher is now ready to draw up the plan of ivork, A DAILY PKOGKAMMB 349 specifying the number of classes and the * i T 1 J.-U i j-i. Programme. time of beginning, ending, and the length of each recitation. The programme should provide for study as well as for recitation. It lessens the labor of teaching, makes the work more effective, promotes good order, cultivates systematic habits, and promotes the ambition of pupils. While it is well to follow the programme carefully, the organization and discipline must not be too mechan- ical, or pupils will tire of it. No change in classes should be made for visitors, unless by special request. Pupils should be seated according to classification, so far as practicable, and graded according to Movement height, the tallest pupils seated in the rear, of classes. The teacher should have the entire charge of seating the pupils, and should change seat-mates when advis- able. As a rule it is not best to place pupils of the same temperament together, and seat-mates should understand that if they are disorderly they will be separated. Class movements should be conducted with precision, and no disorder should be allowed in the room. In no instance should the school-room be used as a play-ground; nor should pupils be allowed to deface, destroy, or in any way injure the school property. As a suggestion to teachers who do not find a pro- gramme of work already adopted in school, we give here the Course of Study adopted for country schools in 1894 by a committee of School Commissioners of the State of New York, and approved by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 350 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION FIRST YEAR Heading Word and Phonic method combined. Blackboard work. First Reader begun. Writing Much written work on tablet, slate, and blackboard. Spelling All words introduced. Language See Manual. Arithmetic First Term All combinations from 1 to 5 inclusive. Second Term Combinations to 10. Problems involving addition, subtrac- tion, multiplication, and division. Drawing Color, form, tracing. General Lessons Reverence for God. Good morals and manners. Care of the person. Simplest elements of vocal music. SECOND YEAR FIRST TERM Reading First Reader completed. Writing Same as first year. Spelling Oral and written spelling of all words introduced, Language Writing sentences containing given words. Filling blanks. Use of capitals. Arithmetic Combinations to 15. Reading and Writing of numbers to 100. Fractions. halves, thirds, and fourths. Drawing Color, form, ruling. General Lessons Inculcating good habits. Throughout all grades special attention should be given to the effects of stimulants and narcotics. Oral instruction on the parts and care of the body. Elements of vocal music. Items of useful knowledge. SECOND TERM Reading Second Reader begun. Writing Same as first year. Spelling Same as first term. Language Same as first term. Arithmetic Combinations to 25. Reading and writing of numbers to 1000. Addition and subtraction tables completed. Fractions to and including tenths. Numerator 1. Original concrete work. Drawing First term's work continued. General Lessons Same as first term. THIRD YEAR FIRST TERM Reading Second Reader completed. Writing Copy book No. 1. Spelling All words in various lessons. Language Use of such words as is, are, was, were, have, has. Simple let- ter writing. Picture lessons. Arithmetic Multiplication and division tables. Fractions to tenths, using 1, 2, and 3 as numerators, Easy problems in mental arithmetic. A COURSE OF STUDY 351 Geography Location and direction of objects. Drawing familiar surfaces to a scale. Natural features of school district, soil, crops, climate, etc. Drawing Color, form, measurements. General Lessons Functions of the principal organs of the body, and the preservation of health. Reading very easy music. Mineral, vegetable, and animal substances. Solids, liquids, and gases. SECOND TERM Beading Supplementary reading of Second Reader gfade. Writing Copy book No. 1. Spelling Same as first term. Language Reproduction exercises. Writing sentences containing such words as this, these, that, those, seen, saw, did, done, got. Arithmetic Addition, subtraction, and multiplication. Fractions See Manual. Concrete work with analysis. Mental arithmetic. Geography Town, and county as regards surf ace,* places, railroads, lakes, rivers, and mountains. Drawing First term's work continued. General I*esson$ First term's work continued. FOURTH YEAR FIBST TERM Heading Third Reader begun and much supplementary reading. Writing Copy book No. 2. Spelling New words in reading'and other lessons. Spelling book. Language Letter writing and descriptions continued. Such words as went, gone, lie, lay, lain, sit, set, rise, raise, written in sentences. Arithmetic Reading and writing numbers of four periods. Roman nota- tion to 100. Division. United States money. Mental arithmetic. Third year's work in fractions continued. Geography The world as a whole. Illustrating and defining the natural divisions of land and water. Description and location of the principal divisions on both continents. Drawing Geometric, decorative, and pictorial drawing. General Lessons Previous work reviewed. Lessons on food and drink. Biographical sketches of noted persons. Choice gems of literature memor- ized and recited. Vocal music. Simple experiments in natural science. SECOND TERM Reading Third Reader completed and much supplementary reading. Writing Copy book No. 2. Spelling Same as preceding term, Language Preceding term's work continued. Common abbreviations. 'Arithmetic Fractions, See Manual. Problems involving all principles! previously taught. Mental arithmetic. Roman notation to 1000. Problems in linear measure. Geography Prominent features and boundaries of all the grand divisions, Location of important cities, rivers, and mountains. Map drawing. 352 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Drawing First term's work continued. General Lessons Preceding term's work continued. Simple lessons on digestion. FIFTH YEAR FIRST TERM Reading Fourth Reader begun and much supplementary reading. Writing Copy book No. 3. Spelling Words from various lessons and from spelling books. Language Reproduction of stories and articles read. Letter writing, in eluding invitations and orders for merchandise. How to write possessives. Arithmetic Factors, multiples, and divisors. G. C. D. and L. C. M. Re- duction, addition, and subtraction of fractions. Simple problems in avoir- dupois weight. Easy bills. Geography A general account of the grand divisions as regards soil, cli- mate, productions, animals, commerce, and people. Drawing Geometric, decorative, and pictorial work continued. General Lessons Fourth year's work continued. Simple lessons on the blood and respiration. Vocal music. Rhetorical training. General infor- mation. SECOND TERM Reading Fourth Reader continued and supplementary reading. Selec- tions from classical literature, including stories from American history, read in school and at home. Writing Copy book No. 8. Spelling Same as preceding term. Language Work of preceding term continued. Arithmetic Common fractions completed. Simple problems in liquid and dry measure. Problems involving all principles previously taught. Geography A thorough review and completion of elementary geography. Drawing First term's work continued. General lessons First term's work continued. Easy lessons on the ner- TOUS system and the five senses. SIXTH YEAR FIRST TERM Heading Fourth Reader completed. Supplementary reading. Writing Copy book No. 4. Spelling Spelling book and important words in various lessons. Language Writing descriptions of things seen, heard, or read. Analyses for compositions. Arithmetic Review of common fractions. Decimals. Problems invol- ving all previous work. Mental arithmetic. Geography Mathematical geography. Divisions of North America, the* United States in particular. Draw ing Fifth year's work continued. Physiology Review of work given in connection with General Lessons. The skeleton, muscle*, and skin. A COUKSE OF STUDY 353 General Lessons Selections from classical literature. Rhetorical training. Vocal music. Illustrated lessons in the elementary natural sciences. Gen- eral information. Calisthenic drill. SECOND Tl&M Beading Brief history of the United States. Choice selections from standard authors. Writing Ca$7 book No. 4. Spelling From, readers, spelling book and other text-books as in preceding terms. Language Preceding term's work continued. Arithmetic Compound numbers, tables and reduction. Problems invol- ving all previous work. Geography Review of county. New York State, boundaries and nat- ural features, counties, principal railroad systems, cities and important towns, minerals, products, manufactures, government, and education. Drawing Fifth year's work continued. Physiology Review of preceding term's work. Digestion. General Lessons A. continuation of previous term's work. SEVENTH YEAR FIRST TERM Reading Fifth Reader, or selections such as Rip Van Winkle, Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Snow Bound, The Barefoot Boy, Black Beauty, Swiss Fam- ily Robinson, Evangeline, Tom Brown at Rugby, Bitter Sweet, The Deserted Village, the Chambered Nautilus, Biographies of Washington and Lincoln. Writing Copy book No. 5. Spelling Previous work continued. Word analysis. Grammar Parts of speech and their modifications, except case, declen- sion, mode, and tense. The sentence, subject, predicate, and modifiers, word, phrase, and clause. Arithmetic Compound numbers completed. Problems involving all pre- vious work. Geography South America, Europe, and Asia. Drawing Fifth year's work continued. Physiology Review of sixth year's work. Circulation and respiration, in- cluding voice. General Lessons A. continuation of previous lessons. (See sixth year, first term.) Current events. SECOND TERM Beading Continuation of preceding term's work until proficiency is at- tained. Writing Copy book No. 6. Spelling Continuation of previous work. Grammar Review of last term's work. Case, declensions, simpler rules of syntax, parsing, conjugation of the verb to be. 354 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION Arithmetic Percentage, insurance, taxes, commission, profit and loss. Problems involving all previous work. Geography Africa, Oceanica, standard time, and general review. Drawing Fifth year's work continued. Physiology Nervous system and special senses. General review. Gene?'al Lessons A continuation of previous term's work. EIGHTH YEAR FIRST TERM Heading Miscellaneous reading. One or two recitations a week. Gramma? 1 Review of previous year's work. Conjugation of the active voice. Analysis and parsing. Arithmetic Review of last term's work. Simple interest. Partial pay- ments, United States rule only. Problems. Drawing See Manual. History Discoveries and explorations ; Colonial period to 1763. General Lessons See sixth year, first term. Current events. Making of simple apparatus and other useful articles. SECOND TERM Reading Same as preceding term. Grammar Conjugation completed. Four principal parts of irregular verbs learned. Rules of syntax completed. Arithmetic Review of percentage. Longitude and Tune. True and bank discount. Stocks. Drawing See Manual. History First term's work briefly reviewed, and continued to the close of the war of 1812. General Lessens Same as preceding term. NINTH YEAR FIRST TERM Grammar General review. Special attention given to subordinate clauses, infinitives, and participles. Arithmetic Bills, ratio, proportion, partnership, square root, domestic exchange, mensuration. Drawing See Manual. History American History completed. History of the State of New York. Civil Government Some elementary work. Special attention given to the constitutions of the United States and of New York. Geography General review preparatory to final examinations. Physiology General review preparatory to final examinations. General Lessons See eighth year, first term. SECOND TERM During this term let pupils pursue those studies of the course in which they have not yet passed the final examinations ; and if they are capable of doing more work than this, they should take up some or all of the following studies, Algebra, Physical Geography, Book-keeping. FIRMNESS A FIRST REQUISITE 355 II. SCHOOL GOVEBNMENT The strength or weakness of a teacher is no where more clearly shown than in the government of the school. How often have I been asked, " Tell me how to govern my school." The subject is the most impor- Difficulty of tant that can engage the attention of teach- government, ers. It is one that calls for experience, judgment, and wisdom. Every pupil has a conscience, that decides on all actions contemplated or begun decides whether the act is right or wrong. The fundamental rule is, "Do nothing that your conscience tells you is wrong." This covers the whole ground, and a score of rules will only weaken it. Some consciences are depraved, but few are seared. For the maintenance of a healthy discipline, it is not necessary that there should be great severity in the punishment of offences. Firmness is the first requisite to school government ; the pupils must understand that the teacher has absolute control, that his authority is supreme ; and this in most cases is sufficient in itself to hold the evil propensities of pupils in check. On the contrary, a lack of firmness will encourage the spirit of revolt, and make necessary frequent resorts to punishment of one kind or another. School government should be administered in such a way that it shall be a reign of justice. The J ..... xi j- Justice. sense of justice is strong even in the case of vicious children. Offences will occur in the best con- 356 SCHOOL GOVEKIOIENT ducted schools, but the teacher must discriminate be- tween trivial, aggravated, and flagrant offences. Children know that disobedience and wrong-doing in general deserve punishment ; and providing the de- gree of punishment does not exceed its just bounds, no feeling of resentment will be cherished toward him who inflicts the penalty. A teacher should not, generally, make a rule until DO not antici- there i g necessity for it. It should then be pate offences, enforced, and for a violation of the rule a penalty should be inflicted. Children soon learn to feel contempt for a teacher who does not insist on respect- ful obedience ; they instinctively admire the firmness and decision which mete out to offenders their deserved punishment. Complete success in school management at the outset is not to be expected ; only by slow degrees can dexterity in government be attained. Common sense is an important element in management. A noble Quaker once said : " There are three things a man needs to make him successful ; first, good health ; second, re- ligion ; and third, good sense : if he can have but one of these, let it be good sense ; for God can give him grace, and God can give him religion, but common sense must be born in him." But very few special privileges should at first be granted to pupils, such as leaving seats, Privileges. , . ' , . . ' speaking to one another, asking questions of teachers, making complaint to teachers, receiving help from teachers, etc. After the school is thoroughly organized the teacher may gradually extend these privi- leges, as he finds it convenient and safe, but at first they are troublesome. A CHEERFUL SCHOOL 357 The teacher should be careful not to disgust pupils with learning. Frequently revengeful feel- .. -. , . . , ., , Learning ings are excited by requiring children to re- should be a main after school hours and commit lines of poetry to memory, or to work long arithmetic problems. Teachers are sometimes at fault for unlearned lessons on the part of pupils, because they have not told the children what to do or how to do it. If the young un- derstand the nature and object of their work, and the manner in which it should be prosecuted, they will find a pleasure in endeavoring to surmount every apparent difficulty. The work should be represented both as a duty and as a pleasure. A smile from the teacher lightens the labor of the school, and lessens the burdens of the day. A cheerful School rooms should be spacious, light and sch o1 - airy, well ventilated, comfortably heated during winter, and erected in delightful and commanding situations. The walls should be adorned with pictures, mottoes, vines, and ornaments. The school-room should be made homelike as possible, as inviting as public halls. Teachers should frequently exhibit amusing and instructive experiments, and ask the children to assist them. The children should be gratified occasionally with excursions into interesting parts of the country, to view the works of nature and thus increase their love of the beautiful. Scholastic exercises should carry delightful associations. The principle of emulation should be made subordi- nate. In an intellectual point of view emu- Do not rely lation may be satisfactory to the few that on emulation, excel ; satisfactory to the parents and guardians, who 358 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT are led to form false estimates of their progress and acquirements by the places they occupy in their respect- ive classes ; but it often produces an injurious effect on the moral temperament of the successful, and of their companions whom they excel. One grand end of instruction, which has been too much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the moral powers to produce love, affection, concord, humility, self-denial, and other moral graces. But the principle of emulation has a tendency to produce jealousy, envy, hatred, and other malignant passions. Besides it is only a very few in every class that can be stimulated to exertion by this principle, and these few are generally of such a temperament as to require their ambitious dis- position to be restrained rather than excited. A ma- terial prize is the least effectual mode of accomplishing the desired object ; it is founded on injustice, inasmuch as it heaps honors and emoluments on those to whom nature has already been most bountiful. In the curiosity of children there is sufficient and natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and we live in a world abounding in the means of useful and pleasurable gratifications. All that is required of teachers is to aid the faculties with affection and judgment. A certificate of diligence and good conduct seems to be all that is necessary to distinguish from the vicious, the idle, the slothful, those who have employed their time and talents in a proper manner. Corporal punishment, as it is generally administered, Avoid * s rev lting and degrading in its character, whipping. an( } the necessity of resorting to it generally CORPORAL PUNISHMEHt 359 indicates that there has been a want of proper training in the earlier stages of life. It is vain to imagine that children can be whipped into either learning or good conduct ; and if an enlightened and judicious mode of tuition were universally adopted there would seldom be any necessity for resorting to such a stimulus. But in the modes of teaching which used to prevail, corporal punishment was inevitable, and in some instances it seems still necessary. When other means of correction have failed and it becomes a choice between whipping and expulsion, whipping is almost always to be pre- ferred. But let the teacher be sure that it is necessary, and that he does not inflict it to gratify an angry feel- ing of his own. Plato said, " A teacher should never punish in anger." When reproofs are uttered in passion, and wih looks of fury, they seldom or never produce any good effect, and not unfrequently excite a spirit of revenge against the reprover. A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was never- theless an audacious dog. One day the old vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which he had made of foreign steel, but could not succeed. " Horse- whip it, father," exclaimed the youth, " if that will not harden it, nothing will." A school ought never to serve the purpose of a prison. Classes too young to prepare lessons them- Make gchool selves, should be provided with "busy work " hours short - of various kinds. In mild weather they should have frequent recesses, and they should always be dismissed earlier than the older classes. 360 SCHOOL GOVERHMEHT The school should always be not "my "school but " our " school, and teacher and pupils should work to- gether to make it excel. Pupils should be taught to investigate, to study, to insist on think, to notice every object within the attention. reach of their vision, and to give an account of what they have seen or heard. This will induce a habit of attention, without which there can be no solid improvement in any department of instruction. The teacher should not proceed with the exercises of the school until he has the undivided attention of every pupil. We would commend to every teacher Fitch's little manual "How to Secure and Retain the Attention of Pupils", and Hughes's larger work of similar name. Too much government may prove as injurious as too Over-gov- l^tle ; both may prove failures. The teacher erning. should govern as little and teach as much as possible. In some schools there is more of govern- ment than of teaching. The pupils should understand that in no instance will the teacher stop the recita- tion to manage a school or discipline a pupil. If the teacher observes that a pupil is disorderly during recitation, he should silently mark him, and attend to the offence during recess or at some convenient oppor- tunity. All discipline has its spring in the character of the teacher. It depends more on the man than on his means. It is character that imparts efficacy to action. Character is the source of success or failure in all character of Pursuits. So apparent is its influence in the teacher, schools that one who had many opportuni- CHARACTER OF THE TEACHER 361 ties for observing has said that, " A teacher has more need to watch himself than his children, as the evils found in a school are often traceable to some omission, inconsiderateness, hastiness of temper, want of firmness, or absence of principle in himself ." The school becomes a reflector of the teacher, and in every case it will be an accurate reflector. A teacher cannot appear what he is not in the presence of his pupils. The attempt is vain. Their eyes pierce through every disguise. He must be what he seems, and must seem what he is. Love, honor, truthfulness, sincerity, consistency, justice, patience, and judgment, must be ele- ments of a teacher's character. Earnestness of the true and cheerfulness are also elements. Earn- estness has great influence over children ; cheerfulness is sunshine. Sympathy with them in their trials, sports and labors is an element of power ; but fear KEVER. Is there not a lesson prettily expressed in the follow- ing : He who checks a child with terror, Stops its play, and stills its song, Not alone commits an error, But a great and moral wrong. Give it play, and never fear it, Active life is no defect ; Never, never break its spirit, Curb it only to direct. Would you stop the flowing river, Thinking it would cease to flow ? Onward it must flow forever, Better teach it where to go. 362 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT Particularly must it be kept in view by the teacher that quietness in governing is allied with A low voice. ,,..,. ., , good discipline. A loud voice, reiterating commands in an authoritative tone, is often considered favorable to discipline. It is not really so. A quiet way of issuing orders is favorable to quietness of dis- position among the pupils. It conveys a double impres- sion that obedience is expected, and that there is a large reserve force at command if the teacher should have occasion to use it. One thing deserving careful consideration is the im- obedience portance of inculcating the habit of obedi- from the first. ence f rom the first. If children are accus- tomed from their very earliest school experience to move together in accordance with the fixed signals, the work of discipline is greatly simplified. Simultaneous move- ments as in rising, taking seats again, or marching . always contribute to the result in a very pleasing way. We would encourage daily drill in Calisthenics, as well calculated to enforce prompt obedience. The first thing that a child should learn is obedience. All governments and all peoples have regarded filial dis- obedience with great disfavor. The teacher should supplement the parent's work. HINTS ON THE CORRECTION OF SPECIAL OFFENCES /. ^Communication 1. By suggestion, advice, admonition. 2. By reproof, make it unpopular. 3. By restraint of personal liberties. 4. By separation of seatmates. 5. By printed reports to parents. SPECIAL OFFEKCES 363 //. Loud Study 1. Suspend exercises until quiet. 2. Train pupils to study with closed lips. ///. Laughing 1. By suspension of exercises. 2. Make pupils laugh until weary of it. IV. Moving Noisily 1. Train the pupils how to walk, to stand, to sit, and to move. 2. Always admonish them, when a command is vio- lated. 3. Require the pupils to try again, until they do it quietly. 4. Slates should be covered. 5. Let the teacher move quietly himself. V. Questions During Recitation 1. Prohibit them. 2. Show their impropriety. 3. Refuse to notice signals. VI. Litter on the Floor 1. Encourage neatness. 2. Require the floor to be swept. 3. Inspect the floor in the presence of the pupil, without any remarks. VII. Writing Notes 1. Give pupils all the work they can do. 2. Read the notes before the school, omitting names. 3. Ask for the writer. 4. Destroy the notes without reading them. 364 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT VIII. Undeanliness 1. Have basin and towels at hand, for washing. 2. Send pupils home till they are fit to return. 3. Insist upon cleanliness. IX. Disorder 1. Have a place for everything, and everything in its place. 2. Allow no changing of position, without permission. 3. Hold pupils accountable for the care of property. 4. Insist on quiet attention when addressing pupils. X. Tattling 1. Point out its impropriety it leads to gossip and slander. 2. Eefuse to notice it. XI. Quarrelling 1. Persuade of its sinfulness. 2. Oblige pupils to play alone. 3. Make it unpopular by ridiculing those who engage in it. XII. Untruthfulness 1. Ignorance. i. 4. Innate tendency. {1. Loss of reputation. 2. Loss of character. 3. Loss of conscience. 4. General demoralization. 3. Cultivate honor. THE FINAL TEST OF THE TEACHER 365 III. CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS As it is considered more important to digest what is learned than merely to acquire it, the man- Testof ner of conducting a recitation becomes of the teacher - the highest importance. It is to be expected that the pupils carry away with them the habits of mind that the class training engenders. The ability of the teacher to make each recitation a model of the best method of investigating a subject and of expressing the results, is the highest recommendation for the position he holds. Discipline is only a means, whereas the recitation is an end. A failure here is a failure altogether. It has definite and rational aims, to be carefully sought after and earnestly pursued. It is the most delicate part of all the school work. Here the teacher may exhibit skill, tact, and individuality ; the inventive powers are to be taxed to their utmost, in order to bring about the desired results. The object is to develop the powers of the pupils, and this development will be attained in propor- ,. ,, r , .,., ., , . ., Object. tion to the ability, capacity, and ingenuity of the teacher. The conditions of success in school work are as fixed as the axioms of mathematics. Intense in- Con( ji t ion8 of terest, activity, self-reliance, well-directed success - effort these are the essential features of all efficient methods. Any method of conducting recitations that embraces these is a good one. Different teachers do not always succeed best with the same method. Adaptation and variety are cardinal principles in edu- cation. The safe rule is : Employ the method ivhich will best enable you to effect the desired results. 366 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS GENERAL SUGGESTIONS /. Essentials 1. A brief reproduction of the preceding lesson. 2. A brief review of the preceding lesson. 3. Kehearsal and critical examination of the daily lesson. 4. Eecapitnlation of the daily lesson. 5. Adequate preparation for the advanced lesson. //. Objects 1. The development of the faculties. 2. The acquisition of knowledge. 3. Its application to the use of life. ///. Ends 1. To develop individuality. 2. To encourage originality. 3. To cultivate self-reliance and self-possession. 4. To cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, for- bearance, and courtesy. 5. To nurture the development and the growth of the pupils, physically, intellectually, and morally, and to prepare them for life's service. IV. Hints 1. Teach " one thing at a time, and that well." 2. Fix and hold the attention. 3. Develop the power of close observation. 4. Cultivate exact, concise, and ready expression. 5. Aim to increase the attainments of the class. 6. Determine the pupil's habits and methods of study, and correct whatever is faulty in either manner or matter. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 367 7. Ascertain the extent of preparation on the part of the pupil. 8. Encourage. This is important to prevent apostacy " back-sliding ". 9. Give preliminary drill on subsequent lessons, show- ing what is to be done and liow it is to be done. This needs special attention. 10. Hear reports on subjects assigned at previous recitations. 11. Eequire pupils to answer in full and complete statements. 12. Permit no pupil to speak until recognized by the teacher the chairman of the meeting. 13. Eequire the pupil to rise when called upon to recite. 14. Do not yourself recite, or repeat the pupil's answer. 15. Let system, neatness, and accuracy characterize all work. 16. Be ready with criticism, but always give it in the spirit of kindness. 17. Stop the recitation when there is any confusion in the room. 18. Aim to reach general principles. 19. Kemember that in primary work the "how "al- ways precedes the "why ". 20. Master subjects rather than pages. 21. Remember that mind-training is more important than mere knowledge. 22. Avoid wandering ; keep the object of the, lesson before you. 368 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS 23. Avoid leaning in -slavish dependence upon the text-book. 24. Use judgment in the assignment of lessons. 25. Propound lessons promiscuously. 26. State the question then call upon the pupil. 27. When the pupil is called upon to recite, permit no interruptions, as speaking without permission, hold- ing up hands, etc. 28. Cultivate honesty in every recitation. 29. Never "show off " pet classes or pet pupils. 30. Do not talk too much about order. 31. Cultivate language in the pupils ; let every exer- cise bear upon the correct use of language. 32. Close recitations promptly. 33. Dismiss the class, in order. 34. Be cheerful, active and energetic. 35. Thoroughly master your subjects. 36. "Make haste slowly. " 37. Do not yourself remove difficulties, but teach pu- pils to overcome 9 to master them ; in all instruction "never remove a difficulty which the pupil has the power to remove. " 38. Allow no questions foreign to the recitation. 39. Allow no hesitation during recitation. 40. Give entire time and attention to the recitation. 41. Require expertness in mechanical operations. 42. Comprehend the difference between memory of words and knowledge. 43. Comprehend the difference between "hearing a recitation", and teaching. 44. Always prepare your class in advance of the lesson for any difficulty which may meet them. You may ex- GENERAL SUGGESTIONS plain the difficulty orally ; you may solve an example, not in the book, which shall meet the difficulty ; you may give the class a preliminary drill on the rule, or on a. series of more difficult examples under any rule, or in miscellaneous examples under a number of rules. Such preparation, judiciously given, is calculated to keep up the ambition of all the c]ass, by removing all excuses for laziness and discouragement. 45. Eemember that true education is the forming for life of correct habits of thinking, feeling, and doing. V. Requisites 1. An energetic, intelligent teacher. 2. Comfortable recitation seats. 3. An abundance of blackboard. 4. Apparatus, such as globes, charts, maps, numeral frames, measures, etc. 5. Eeference books. 6. Call-bell. 7. Proper ventilation. 8. Equal temperature. VI. Preparation ly the Teacher 1. A knowledge of the subject and of the pupils. 2. General preparation, as special as possible. 3. A programme for each day's work. 4. Knowledge how to " use " books without abusing- them. No permanent results can be attained in teaching without thorough, careful and repeated re- Reproduc . production of lessons. tion - After a lesson has been given, and recited by the pupils in the subsequent recitation, they should be re- 370 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS quired to restate what they learned in the preceding lesson, using good language and distinct and definite propositions. Xo questions should be asked by the teacher and if the work has been done as it should be in the preceding exercise, there will be no need of any. In primary classes require oral reproduction ; in inter- mediate and senior classes, written reproduction. In the review the teacher asks questions of the pupils, direct and general ; pupils are required to construct tabulations. It is well to let the pupils ask questions of each other this will inspire the pupils with a desire for study, and make them ready, prompt, and self-reliant. The teacher should institute weekly reviews, both oral and written. Kehearsal is perhaps the most delicate part of the reci- tation. So to conduct it that pupils may pass Rehearsal. ,, ... i -n -i a thorough examination requires skill, judg- ment, and experience. The teacher is not expected to render assistance in this division of the recitation ; the pupils must do the work, and give clear proof of their comprehension of the lesson. If they cannot do it, the teacher is in fault, and not the pupils. During this part of the recitation, the teacher should not take the time " to recite "; it is the pupils' time. He is a very poor teacher who will do the work that should be done by the pupil. Before the class is excused, let them give the leading, salient points of the lesson a summary a digest of the whole. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 371 A great deal of time is lost in the school, because pupils do not knOW What to do Or how to do Preliminary it. In all primary classes oral instruction drilL should precede pure recitation. In fact, in all classes, where it is necessary, oral instruction should be given. The main object of an education is to teach a child self- control physical, intellectual, and moral. f , , ,, 11 Harmonious This can be done only through a harmonious deveiop- development of all his powers. Pupils should be so taught in school that they may have a desire to pursue other studies, and may be able to acquire knowledge by observation, investigation, and study. The knowledge imparted should be applied, as far as may be, to practice. In recitations, the expression of the thoughts which the pupil has acquired by study should be Howfar embodied in his own language. verbatim. If the lesson contains captions, mathematical defini- tions, principles or tables, or fixed rules, they should be accurately recited in the words of the author. But they must first be thoroughly understood. The mind should be the depository of thoughts, and not of mere words and signs. In the class-recitation the pupil should be required to stand erect while reciting. This will give stand while him confidence and self-reliance. reciting. It should not be known beforehand what order will be pursued in conducting the recitation. If Fixed order called on consecutively, some will be inatten- in recitm g- tive ; if called on promiscuously, the idle and inattentive will be called more frequently. 372 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS Every teacher must see to it that each pupil is so Adaptation to classified as to be required to perform a full each pupil. amount of mental labor. " Each mind must be taxed. " It is the wise teacher who is able to adapt his treatment and instruction to the wants of each and all. Teachers are quite apt to call out the bright, intelli- DO not slight S en ^ pupils in the recitation, but they should the dull. remember that mere scholarship does not make the man, and not slight those who are dull, slow to understand. It is not brightness that wins in life's long race ; it is faithfulness/ perseverance, persistence. These qualities gave success to Nathaniel Bowditch, the mathematician ; Benjamin Franklin, the philoso- pher ; George Peabody, the philanthropist ; and Abra- ham Lincoln, the statesman. I would not intimate that scholarly ability is not de- sirable, but it is not the only test. Long and unwearied toil is the price of merit. The highest honors of pro- fessional life are reached, not by genius, but by labor. Strive to make the recitation attractive and interest- ing. This requires thought and professional tions inter- skill. The teacher should study each lesson before meeting the class, not merely to en- able him to understand what he teaches, but to be able so to conduct the recitation that he will awaken and keep alive the interest of his pupils. The grand test of the teacher's ability and the secret of his success is found in his power to inspire his pupils with earnest- ness and enthusiasm. To wake up mind, is his first and most important duty. A true teacher is alive and in earnest ; his heart throbs with tenderness and emotion ; A LIFELESS SCHOOL 373 his blood flows freely through his veins, and imparts cheerfulness and vigor to his being. Enthusiasm speaks out in his voice, glows in his countenance, and flashes from his eye. We need in active service more of these live teachers ; teachers that can bring order out of con- fusion, light out of darkness, and awake to activity the slumbering powers of the intellect. When superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Wm.T. Harris, LL. D., now commissioner of educa- causes of tion, said that listnessness in the school- Hstiessness. room might be traced to : 1. Lack of proper ventilation. 2. Lack of equal temperature. 3. Too long recitations for the strength of the pupils. 4. Injudicious and too frequent concert recitations. 5. The practice of "keeping in" pupils at recess or after school for failure in lessons or misbehavior. 6. Lack of definite analysis of the subject of the les- son by the teacher during recitation. 7. Substitution of individual explanation on the part of the teacher for correction (in the class) of bad habits of study. On entering the room of a careless or inexperienced teacher, the visitor is struck by the life- A nf e i ess less atmosphere that seems to pervade both sch o1 - teacher and pupils. The pupils all turn their gaze upon him as he enters, and stare abstractedly, forgetful of the presence of the teacher and of the purpose of their at- tendance at school. The teacher languidly, or with a slight flush of surprise and embarrassment, invites him to a seat. After a little, the pupils settle back into the condition prevailing before the entrance of the visitor. 374 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS The pupils at their seats are variously employed ; many are leaning over their de,sks, their faces full of ennui ; others are endeavoring to relieve the tedium of the slow creeping hour by ingenious devices of their own pin- traps,, spit-balls, picture-books under the desks, writing notes to their fellows, making caricatures on their slates, scratching furniture, telegraphing on a small scale, etc., some have books open before them, others not ; the class that is ' 'on the line " for recitations are leaning against the blackboards behind them, or against the desks in front of them ; some are paying attention to the lesson, others are busied with the pupils at their seats. The teacher is distracted and confused. Take the room as a whole, and the lack of the one spirit that should prevail in it is painful to witness. The almost audible sigh of the whole is : " Oh, that school were out ! " The visitor thinks of the Lotus-Eat- ers and of the " land in which it seemed always after- noon ; all round the coast the languid air did swoon, breathing like one that had a weary dream." The visitor who has come to inspect the school looks carefully into the methods of instruction and discipline in order that he may discover the primary causes of this failure, and suggest its remedy. He notes : " This teacher has no force ; she has no NO force in hold over these pupils; she does not make the teacher. U p ^ er m i n d a t the outset that she will have this and not that ; she commands incessantly, and does not wait to see whether any command is obeyed ; she ob- viously had not prepared herself on the lesson before coming to school, for, see, she holds the text-book in her hand and is closely confined to the text while she WHAT MAKES A SCHOOL LIFELESS 375 asks questions : at obvious allusions to the subject of the previous lesson she does not pause to call it up, nor does she illustrate the difficult portions of the lesson for to-day ; while she is looking in the book for the next question, a pupil has answered the previous one inaccu- rately, or has omitted the essential point ; she treats the important and the unimportant questions alike ; no wonder the pupils are listless ! " But he sees that this phase is not the only one where- in the teacher acts like a novice ; in the more general programme similar defects manifest themselves which he notes accordingly : " The class is too large, and too much time is taken to hear it ; the lesson for the next day is too Defective long, and no directions are given as to how to organization, study it ; all those who fail are kept in at recess or after school ; some receive individual explanations, and con- sequently get in the habit of crowding around the teach- er's desk, and of depending on her direct assistance. " Added to this, the teacher hears many parts of the lesson in concert, and the consequence is, Concert only those portions of the lessons are dwelt recitation - upon that are most mechanical, for only such can be recited in concert discriminating and original answers cannot be given in concert concert answers must be something verbatim, usually short answers : 'Yes, Sir', ' No, Sir ', ' Atlantic Ocean \ and the like. Complete answers are made by the smart pupils, while the dull ones follow the lead and join in toward the end of the answer. The bright pupils answer the whole : f Twenty- five thousand miles ' ; the less bright ones says : ' Five thousand miles ' ; and the dull ones : ( Thousand miles'; 376 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS the dullest comes in at the word ' Miles '. These pupils have not the power or discipline of mind to concen- trate their attention for so long a recitation ; they get fatigued before it is through, and listlessness is the result. Again : " The ventilation is not attended to, and the impure air causes incipient congestion of the Ventilation. \ f brain; so a few of the delicate ones have headaches, while all feel that apathy and indifference which is its premonitory symptom. " Most important is the failure of the teacher ; she Definite ^ oes no ^ P rac ^ise a system of definite analysis analysis. o f the lesson at recitation. She asks probing questions only seldom ; the pupil is not made to seize the subject and analyze it till he thoroughly under- stands it. The consequence is, he does not know how to study the next lesson, nor when he has learned it, and therefore does not study at his seat, having no defi- nite sense of his deficiency and of his ability to over- come it." These causes of failure when generalized may be Preparation traced to one prevailing defect on the part by the teacher. of tte teacher. And this may be described thus : The teacher fails because she does not pay care- ful attention to the power for work which her pupils actually possess, and so lay out tasks and secure their accomplishment as to increase constantly this power of work. Previous preparation on the part of the teacher is indispensable for this result. Everything should be digested by the teacher before entering the school- room ; she should re-enforce the moments ~by the hours, and thus be able at all times to bring to bear the entire METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 377 weight of her character upon the pupil. The practice of keeping the pupil in at recess for failure in lessons is very baneful in its effects. The cause of the failure is probably owing to inability to concentrate his mind, and here the cure prescribed is calculated to heighten the disease. The teacher should get the lesson into such shape that the pupil can master it by a general assault, and he should not be allowed at home or in school to make a dissipated, scattering attack on it. The country needs school-teachers, not school-keepers. The country needs men and women to conduct rational recitations, not to hear classes. The country needs masters, and mastery is attained only through voluntary and persistent labor. Michael Angelo says: " Trifles make perfection, but perfection is no trifle." The teacher should be watchful, faithful, and prayerful. Then, and not until then, will he attain success in teaching. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION . Rote, memoriter. . Rational. I. Methods of 1 IL Teaching. III. IV. V. VI. Text-book, (1. Rote. \ 2. Rational. Oral, Socratic, Topic or Subject, Discussion, Lecture. In our schools, all the above methods may be found and many other ways not entitled to the name of method. The text-book method is by some a much abused method. When teachers simply require the Text-book pupils to commit a lesson to memory and method - 378 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS recite it mechanically, this is an abuse of the method. The subject is one of unusual interest at the present time, for the reason that so much is said and written for and against the so-called " oral " and " text-book " methods respectively. While on the one hand the text- Memoriter book method is stigmatized as a dead me- recitations, chanical memorizing of the words in the book and then a parrot-like repetition of the same to the teacher, who sits behind the desk and looks on the book to see that the lesson is given verbatim, on the other hand the oral system is accused of relieving the pupils from the necessity of study ; of throwing all the work upon the teacher. No doubt there are legions of unskilful, untrained, or Unskilled negligent teachers in the country. Indeed, they far outnumber the skilful and pains- taking and it is hardly fair to judge the methods they employ when they misuse the position and the instru- ments placed in their hands so far as to make the text- book a procrustean bed and the recitation a benumbing process to the faculties of the child. The mere memor- izing of the context is no index to the understanding of it. A school-mistress once said to a little girl : " How is it, my dear, that you do not understand this simple thing ?" " I do not know, indeed," she answered, with a preplexed look ; " but I sometimes think I have so many things to learn that I have no time to under- stand." It is not best to condemn a method that has been in use for hundreds of years because all cannot attain good results. But systems should not have their merits ad- judged by their results in the hands of bunglers ; they METHODS OF INSTRUCTION" 379 should be compared in their results as achieved at the hands of those who have mastered the methods. A sys- tem is not responsible for the failure of those who do not follow out its principles. Grand results have been attained with the text-book method, by adopting the rational method of recitation, appealing to reason, to a proper understanding of the context before memorizing. The latter is insisted on by all rational teachers. The oral method is distinctively German, and like the text-book method has its friends and its foes. Oral In some schools the teachers lecture before method - the children, and require them to reproduce the exact language of the lecture. In this case it is as much a rote or memoriter exercise as the text-book method. In other schools, the teachers ask suggestive questions, they excite the pupilsf curiosity, awaken the mind, and easily hold the attention. The pupils do the work, and infer the answers through their powers of percep- tion. This is real education. This is the rational oral method. The best method is a philosophical combination of the oral and the text-book methods uniting The combined the merits and rejecting the faults. Oral m ethod. methods predominate properly in American primary schools ; text-book methods in secondary schools and colleges ; and we return again to oral methods, or lec- tures, in the professional schools. The true place for oral methods is in preparatory work. Oral instruction should lead to and prepare for the text-book. The best work in American schools is found in a judi- cious combination of both methods. Oral instruction 380 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS alone, if carried through a course of education, even if teachers are prepared to give it, is not the best method. It should lead to a mastery of other thoughts than those on the printed page. The most effective teaching uses both the oral and text-book methods. If used properly, oral teaching will teach the pupils how to investigate. Oral instruction, in its results, is of the highest impor- tance to American citizenship. Young children have few ideas, for they have heard little, read little, and their observation has not yet been developed. Oral instruction takes a more permanent hold of the mind than memorizing from books. It affords the learner an opportunity to ask questions as the lesson proceeds, and gives the teacher the entire control of the youthful minds that lie fallow before him. It opens also a field for enthusiasm in teaching and learning, where everything with some teachers is mere drudgery. It would give life where there is nothing now but worn and worthless machinery in our public schools. Children are often made to commit to memory names and dates and rules, without a proper understanding of them. The text-book becomes the real instructor, and not the living man or woman who should impart in- struction. We would not discard the text-books entirely, neither would we exclude them. The proper place for oral instruction is in the primary department ; and in other classes the oral instruction should be of such a character as to prepare the pupils for study, so that no time may be wasted. Pupils should be made to study their text-books ; learn short lessons ; be asked by their teachers not only METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 381 the questions in the books, but others that will test their knowledge and awaken their interest. Some pupils learn readily from their text books, and get along with a little explanation. Some are more dull and need the stimulus of recitation, of questions and answers, and of illustrations. By skilful questioning the pupil is led to discover the truth, and trained to think. Subjects are socratic developed from the standpoint of the learner. method. The teacher stimulates and directs, but never crams. Pupils are encouraged to present their own thoughts. If correct, the teacher deepens and widens their views by suggestive illustrations. If incorrect, the absurdity is shown by leading the pupils to discover the legitimate consequences. Thus the burden of thought and re- search is thrown upon the learner, who, at every step, feels the joy of discovery and victory, and the conscious pleasure of assisting the teacher. Such teaching results in development, growth, and education. " The exercise of the child's own powers, stimulated and directed, but not superseded, by the teacher's interference, ends both in the acquisition of knowledge and in the invigoration of the powers for future acquisition." In this method the pupils are trained to tell consecu- tively their own thoughts. The art of con- Topical nected discourse is essential ; hence by our method - best teachers the topical method is made the basi$ of the recitation. This should be required of every class in school, whenever the subject will admit of it. No other method can so easily secure the results to be accom- plished. Pointed, searching questions are asked when- ever necessary, and instruction is given in the Socratic 382 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS method. At any moment any member of the class is liable to be called on to explain a difficulty, to answer a question, or to continue a topic. Thus life, vigor, un- divided attention, and effective individual effort are secured and maintained throughout the recitation. Prompting, in all its forms, is inartistic and perni- cious. The aim is to train the pupils to habits of inde- pendent expression, as well as independent thought. The exclusive use of the topic method is an extreme to be studiously avoided, as it excludes instruction and fails to elicit the intense interest and the earnest effort of every member of the class. It should have a limited use in the primary department, more extended in the intermediate and senior departments. In the primary classes, the terms may be developed individually, and written on the board, thus forming a complete tabula- tion and classification. The pupils should be required to review the terms written on the board, without any assistance from the teacher. In intermediate and senior classes, the pupils should be taught to tabulate and classify, and recite from the tabulation. Briefly and pointedly pupils present their arguments Discussion i n favor of their respective positions. Criti- method. cisms are urged and answered. Every point is sharply contested. The reasons for and against are carefully weighed. Educationally the discussion method stands high. It is like the interest excited in debate ; in these mental conflicts, the utmost power of the pupil is put forth. METHODS OF TEACHING 383 There is no better way to cultivate independence, self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion method supplements the Socratic and topic methods. It breaks up monotony, dissipates stupidness and in- sipidity. From the primary school to the university this method may be used with incalculable advantage ; but in all cases it must be kept well under the control and direc- tion of the teacher. Perhaps there is no method that will excite greater interest than this rational method. There is less exam- ining, less artificial training, and more solid develop- ment. The discussion method is pre-eminently the method to make thinking men and thinking women. Lecturing is another method of instruction which has its uses and abuses. A lecture by the Lecture teacher should never be substituted for a method - recitation by the class. Many teachers suppose that the measure of their ability as instructors is the power they have to explain and illustrate before their classes, and hence spend most of the time assigned to recitation in the display of their own gifts of speech. But in the recitation room the good teacher has but little to say. Her ability is tested more by her silence than by her loquacity ; more by her power to arouse and direct the ac- tivity of her pupils, than by her own actions. In pro- fessional schools and in the advanced classes in colleges, the time for recitation is largely spent in this way. The lecturer outlines the subjects, suggests the fields of research, indicates the line of thought, givefe much in- formation, and stimulates the pupils to eifort. If the 384 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS student, by long continued effort makes the lecture his own, great will be the results. But nowhere in this country has the lecture method alone given entire satisfaction. It has been found necessary to institute oral and written examinations in order to make it effective. The conversational lecture gives results. The class by skilful questions are led into rich fields of thought. Topics are discussed by the teacher and the pupils. Questions are asked that produce thought ; experiments are performed that elicit attention ; pupils are led to draw inferences from what they perceive. This method was admirably used by the wise Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. From these great masters modern teachers may learn important lessons. The lecture method is utterly out of place in primary classes. Wherever it has been used it proves a failure. Whenever a teacher gives a lecture to her pupils, she should require them to take notes, and recite after every formal lecture. It is well for the teacher to write on the board a tabulated classification, and require the pupils to copy. GENERAL REMARKS Whatever method the teacher may follow, ONE end should be attained : the best possible development of true manhood and womanhood. The inquiry may rise, what is the end of study, recitation and instruction ? Not the attainment of knowledge, but discipline POWER. It is undoubtedly a fact that "secular educa- tion will make a good man better, but a bad man LAWS OF QUESTIONING 385 Education, then, is not the storing of knowledge, but the development of power ; and the law of development is thorough exercise. Any system of education, therefore, which weakens the motive or removes the necessity of laborious think- ing is false in theory and ruinous in practice. There is only one way to acquire knowledge, and that way is through study the voluntary and continual ap- plication of the mind to a subject. Laios of Questioning 1. Questions should be clear and concise. 2. Questions should be to the point. 3. Questions should be adapted to the capacity. 4. Questions should be logical. 5. Questions should not be ambiguous. 6. Avoid questions that give a choice between two answers. 7. Avoid direct questions. 8. Avoid set questions. 9. Avoid general questions. 10. Avoid questions that simply exercise the faculty of memory. Objects of Questioning 1. To find out what the pupils know. 2. To ascertain what they need to know. 3. To awaken curiosity. 4. To arouse the mind to action. 5. To illustrate ; to explain, when necessary. 6. To impart knowledge not found in the text-book. 7. To fix knowledge in the mind. 8. To secure thoroughness. 386 COXDUCT OF RECITATIONS Cautions to be Observed in Questioning 1. Ask questions only once. 2. Vary the questions. 3. Begin the exercise with an easy question. 4. Let your questions be connected. 5. When a question is asked do not suggest the first words of the answer. 6. Enunciate every question with distinctness. 7. Anticipate answers ; arrange suggestive questions. 8. Never neglect or ridicule an answer. 9. Never tell a child what you could make that child tell you. 10. Question the lesson into the minds of the pupils, and question it out again. 11. Lead the pupil by a pleasant question to discover his own mistake, instead of directly charging him with it. General Suggestions 1. Show the necessity of a subject before you begin to teach it. 2. Eequire one subject to be understood before taking up another. 3. Eequire everything that is taught to be reproduced by the pupils. 4. Always take up subjects in their logical order. 5. That which is attempted should be thoroughly mastered. 6. Eemember that all the powers are developed by being judiciously and vigorously exercised. 7. Eemember that knowledge is of little value unless it can be utilized. NOTE. Two excellent helps on questioning are Young's "Art of Putting Questions", and Fitch's "Art of Questioning", cost- ing 15 cents each. MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 387 Special Suggestions to Young Teachers 1. Make weekly or bi-weekly inspections of all books lield by the pupils, holding each responsible Inspection for the right use of the same. This will of books, prevent much mutilation and destruction of books. 2. In the class-room teachers should not confine the attention of the pupils exclusively to what Outsi( j e is found in the books. "Books are but information, helps," or instruments ; and while that which is con- tained in them should be judiciously used and thor- oughly understood, yet, so far as time will permit, the teacher can with advantage introduce such matters as not only are valuable in themselves, but will tend to im- press the subject of the lesson more firmly upon the mind. 3. Be judicious and sparing in awarding credit or dis- credit marks ; to be lavish, would render Ju( ji c j 0us them cheap and comparatively valueless. marking. 4. Before reproving delinquents in recitation, first inquire whether or not they have studied, credit honest and, if so, what effort has been made. Some effort - pupils may devote much time and labor to the acquire- ment of their lessons, and yet in the class room be weak in their recitation ; to denounce such would discourage rather than stimulate. 5. During a recitation, the attention of all should be engaged upon the lesson or subject under Ensure consideration. attention. 6. When a pupil applies for assistance on any ques- tion, do not accomplish the whole yourself, Give help? but nor send him away entirely unaided; but not too much, after he has studied the subject faithfully, present to 388 CONDUCT OF KECITATIOKS him one or two of the leading principles involved, and then leave him to develop the matter himself. Too much aid is sometimes worse than too little. 7. Before entering on the duties of the day, the The teacher's teacher should be thoroughly conversant preparation. w jth the sub ject of each lesson. A teacher, while conducting a recitation, should never be obliged to refer to the look or map for the purpose of ascertain- ing whether or not the pupil is correct in his answer. Besides displaying a weakness on the part of the teacher, there arises in the mind of the pupil the query, Why should I study what my teacher does not know ? The teacher should be first well acquainted with the true answer to every question, and the correct pronun- ciation of every word in the several lessons. It will be seen that many advantages attend this plan ; the chief of which are much time is saved, the teacher instructs with more facility and success, and the pupil, observing the familiarity of the teacher with the several subjects, feels for him and for the subjects a greater respect. 8. In hearing a lesson, give the pupil time to answer when he appears to have a correct idea, and but P anowno merely hesitates to find words to express himself ; but when it is evident that he is ignorant of the answer, waiting is but a loss of time, ideas not ^. Be sure the pupils have gained IDEAS, words. Words, without ideas, clog the mind. 10. A teacher taking charge of a new class, should at Push first advance it beyond the farthest point it forward. ^ad previously attained in each study, In case the teacher finds the new class deficient in what has been passed over, he should not turn back until MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS 389 about two weeks have elapsed, when all necessary re- views may be made'. When a class passes under the control of another teacher, a sudden retrograde move- ment would produce discentent in the class. At all times, the teacher should avoid allusion tending to dis- parage the course of his predecessor in the estimation of the class. 11. The hearing of the class should not occupy more than one hour and a half daily, the remain- Recitinff der of the day being devoted to actual teach- vs - Caching. ing, when the lessons for the following day may be ex- plained by the teacher. Answering in concert should be little used. 12. Whenever practicable, teach by means of objects, or through the medium of the eye ; in geog- Employ raphy, use globes and maps ; in astronomy, the eye - use orrery, globes, and diagrams ; in spelling, frequently require the pupils to write the words or sentences given. 13. If you would have no drones in your school, talk at each recitation to the dullest in your class, ., . , J . Work most and use all your ingenuity in endeavoring to with the i i i mi 1.1 ^ dullest. make him comprehend. The others, then, will be sure to understand. 14. Make each exercise as attractive as possible. Think out your methods beforehand, and m ustra te illustrate freely. freel y- 15. Cultivate self-control ; never be led into confusion ; and above all be in earnest. 16. Be cheerful and smile often. A teacher with a long face casts a gloom over everything, and n u-n j J i Be cheerful. eventually chills young minds and closes young hearts. 390 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS 17. Use simple language when you explain lessons, simple Long words are thrown away in the school- language, room. 18. Thoroughly test each pupil on the lesson, and do Frequent n0 ^ ^e a ^ ra ^ f repetition. Eeview every reviews. ^ay, or mucn w in be lost. Do not try to teach too much ; better teach a little and teach it well, 19. Endeavor to make the pupils understand the Make them meaning of what they study. Probe the understand. ma tter to the bottom, and get at the real knowledge of your scholars. Cultivate the understand- ing, and do not appeal to the memory alone. Lay the foundation of knowledge firmly and well. 20. Impart right principles and lead your pupils to a higher level, to a nobler range of thought. Endeavor to accomplish all that skill, intel- ligence, and love can suggest. What now you do, you know not, But shall hereafter know, When the seed which you are sowing To a whitened field shall grow. 'Tis a rich young soil you're tilling ; Then scatter the good seeds well ; Of the wealth of the goldest harvest Eternity will tell. 21. Teach your pupils to fight manfully in the war- set a noble * are ^ & ooc * a g a i nst ey i^ truth against error ; example. an( j above all let the eternal principles of right and wrong govern your own life, and form a part of your own character. If you do this, you will "sow beside all waters, and eventually bring home your sheaves rejoicing." FINAL MAXIMS 391 22. Train the eye to perceive correctly, the ear to understand correctly, the hand to execute Final correctly, the tongue to speak correctly, and maxims - the mind to retain correctly. 6( Begin at the begin- ning. " "Follow a natural order." "Classify knowl- edge." "Master principles." A WORD IN CONCLUSION To COMMISSIONERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS Upon you rest, to a great extent, the success of the schools and the advancement of the educational interests of this country. It is by the recommending and licensing of competent and efficient teachers that you are the most successful in promoting the interests of your charge. Let the teachers recommended by you be selected more with reference to social culture, to exalted moral character, to the development of true manhood and womanhood, than to either scholarship or talent. This you can do by selecting and recommending only such persons as shall illustrate in their lives the moral lessons which should be set as an example in schools. You stand pledged to further the interests, not only of literature and science, but of the highest type of morality. If you would redeem this pledge you will not license as a teacher any one who violates the laws of moral purity, who gives to social dissipation the hours that belong to sleep, or who indulges in any practice of vice. A sacred trust is committed to you, which, if faithfully and wisely discharged, will make your own day beauti- ful, and scatter blessings along the pathway of coming years. (302) A WORD IN" COKCLUSIO^ 393 To TEACHERS An experience of thirty years in the field of education has secured principles and conclusions which Help the may be considered not theories, but facts. weaker - One fundamental fact thus gained is, that the school should be an appendage of the family, fitted to train the ignorant and weak by self-sacrificing labor and love, and to bestow the most attention on the weakest, the most; undeveloped, and the most sinful. It is exactly the opposite course to which teachers are most tempted. The bright, the good, the industrious, are those whom it is most agreeable to teach, who win most affection, and who promote the reputation of a teacher, and of a school or a college. To follow this principle, then, demands more clear views of duty and more self-denying benevolence than ordinarily abound. Another is, that both quickness of perception and retentiveness of memory depend very greatly importance on the degree of interest excited. Hence of interest - the importance of educating young persons with some practical aim, by which, in case of poverty, they may support themselves. Another is, that there is no other knowledge so thor- ough and permanent as that gained in teach- Know i e dge ing others. b ^ teaching. Eepeatedly has it been observed that a lesson or a problem supposed to be comprehended was imperfectly understood, and became clear only in attempts to aid others in understanding it. In no other profession is the sacred promise, " Give and it shall be given unto you," so fully realized as in that of a teacher. 394 A WORD IK CONCLUSION Another is that in acquiring knowledge but few Few subjects branches should be taken at one time, and at a time. these should be associated in their character, so that each is an assistance in understanding and re- membering the others. There is a great loss of time and labor in the com- mon method of pursuing four or five disconnected branches of study. The mind is distracted by variety, and feels a feeble and divided interest. In many instances, the method of cramming the mind with uninteresting and disconnected details serves to debilitate rather than promote mental power. The memory is the faculty chiefly cultivated, and this at the expense of the others. In government be gentle yet firm ; not anxious to govern in those things that are innocent and harmless, but to restrain practices that are unquestionably immoral by the exercise of all the authority with which you are invested. In order that you may worthily discharge the duties which thus confront you at the threshold of your field of labor, it is of the first importance that your own habits of thought and life be wholly correct. No one is fit to govern others until he has learned to govern himself. Self-government and self-restraint are impossible without intelligence and virtue. The task of the teacher is one of great responsibility and labor. It is easier for a general to command an army than for a teacher to govern a school ; for a general has to TO TEACHEKS 395 deal with and consider only immediate results, besides being invested with absolute power, while the teacher has to consider chiefly results to be attained in the future, and he is forbidden by the consideration of his own and the pupil's welfare to exercise other than qualified power. Then the military commander trains his soldiers to wield weapons only against material fortifications, while the teacher is to discipline those under his control in the skilful use of the mental and moral powers, and prepare them to contend successfully against superstition begotten of ignorance, against habits of thought and action that reach their root far back in the centuries, and " against spiritual wickedness in high places". Hence great statesmen and victorious generals are of little value in any country without efficient teachers. To our public schools we must look for those who will be called upon to manage the affairs of families, to transact the business of town and of State, to fill the vacated bench of justice, to sit in the halls of legisla- tion, and to direct and control the church of God. Upon the character of our schools and teachers, there- fore, depends the weal or woe of unborn millions, the prosperity or downfall of our boasted institutions. As the concluding thought, teachers and friends, may we all bear in mind that our life in this world is but the preparatory department in the School of God. Let us be so attentive to the lessons given us by the Great Teacher, that when the day of examination with us severally shall come, we may hear the glad welcome " Well done ", and at last gather beyond the River, under 396 A WORD IN CONCLUSION the cloudless sky undimmed by the shade of night, there to renew our search for knowledge and our labors of love, with immortal faculties that are least weary when most employed. INDEX PAGE PAGE abstracts for compositions 174 arrangement of material 330 accent 33 study by 123 accuracy and rapidity 252 art education 107 adaptation to each pupil 372 of arts 37 addition 241-247 of language 148, 163 advanced geography 283 articulation 22, 24, 35, 42, 149 aesthetic element in drawing 114 exactness in 61 feelings 107 aspirate tone 28 aim high 390 attention 47 in teaching history 326 secured 360, 387 aims of language teaching 159 avoid capriciousness 217 all may write good letters 229 alligation 270 bad spelling a disgrace 58 analysis for compositions 172 ball frame, use of 236 analysis and parsing 147 Bardeen's Common School Law.. 347 in arithmetic. . .246, 253, 256, 268 Geography 299 in reading 32 Primer of Letter-Writing. . .234 of letter writing 223 Rhetoric 187 of literature 34 Verbal Pitfalls 187 of the lesson 373, 376 beautiful, love of 107, 114 of words 15 Beebe's First Steps among analytic stage, object lessons 333 Figures 252 Angelo, Michel, quoted 377 beginning reading 9-22 angry letters 232 Bible quoted 38, 148 answers from all 334 biography in moral training 321 received 158 bitter words 233 to letters 234 blackboard in geography 284 apologies 233 blots in letters 226 apparatus 369 books and magazines in school . . 25 in object teaching 347 breath in reading 36, 37 application 41 Bryant's advice to a young writer. arithmetic 235-271 228 and reason 254 Bugbee's English Syntax 200 fundamental rules 236-259 business forms 271 taught in drawing 116 letters 234 arm movement in penmanship. 65, 69 busy work 19, 49, 359 (397) 398 THE SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE PAGE PAGE calisthenics 362 curiosity in children 10 Calkins, N. A. , quoted 15 the natural stimulant 358 capital letters 160, 189, 204 casting out the 9's 270 Davis's Fractional Apparatus . . .259 cause of poor spelling 58 dead letters 202 certificate of diligence 358 decoration in drawing 144 character of the teacher 360 defective organization 375 cheerful school 357 definition a deduction 27 cheerfulness in the teacher 389 of words 50 children imitate 40 definitions 30, 50, 147 citizens needed 328 development of 188 class drills in penmanship 78 in arithmetic 236 classification 162 in color 134 of sentences 199 in- geography 279 climate 301-318 in object lessons 332 color and form study 133 of pauses 28 in primary grades 132-140 definitive method, spelling 53 names 133 DeGraff, E. V., portrait iv perception in pupils 133 DeGraff 1 s Practical Phonics 44 sensation 133, 134 Pronunciation Book 61 colored crayon 274, 284 derivatives 59 papers for study 136 development of definitions 188 combined method 379 of manhood 384 comma, lesson on 170 of subject 335 common noun, lesson on 165 devices in spelling 55 composition 172 diacritical signs 43,59 method of spelling 54 dictation in drawing 115 computation first 235 method, spelling 54 concert recitation 373, 375 dictionary, how used 27, 59 concrete division 255 discipline 360, 365 construction in drawing 142 discussion method 382 constructive method, spelling ... 53 disorder in pupils 364 conversation in drawing 127, 129 division 249 in object lessons 333 drawing iii, 107-146 in teaching 18 and arithmetic 116 conversational lecture 384 and geography 117 corporal punishment 358 and other stndies 115 correct sentences used 147 in penmanship 63, 66 correction of faults 44 from solids 112 corrections in reading 40 on the blackboard 27 counting for pronunciation 28 drill in penmanship 70 course of study 350-354 dull pupils not slighted .... , .372, 389 credit honest effort 387 criticisms one at a time 30 ear trained 43,44 cross lines in letters 226 early habits in penmanship 63 INDEX 399 PAGE earnestness in teaching 37, 389 economy words 241 edges and corners in drawing 126 education a pleasure 329 by nature 327 Edwards's Business Problems.. .271 Graded Lessons in Language. 173 Historical cards 326 elevation of the wrist in penman- ship 74 elocution 34 elocutionary reading 31 emphasis 29, 33, 39, 226 emulation 357 enrolment of pupils 347 enthusiasm aroused 331 enunciation 26 every teacher may teach pen- manship 65 exactness in language 269 example of the teacher 390 exam pies in arithmetic 180 excite interest 18 excursions into the country 357 expedients in history 325 explanations in reading 33 expression in reading 40 eyes better than ears 51 facts about salt 336 in perspective 320 falsetto tone 28 familiar objects 333 Farnham's Sentence Method 22 faults corrected 35 few subjects at a time 394 firmness in teaching 355 first day in school 347 step costs 246 Fitch's Art of Questioning 153 How to Secure Attention 360 fixed order in reciting 371 flexibility of vocal organs 43 flourishes in penmanship 226 folding letters 219 follow nature's plan 17 PAGE force in teacher 374 foreign words 228 form and color 135 study 119 drawing and col or.. 107- 146 the foundation 108 forming classes in school 348 foundation everything 235 four ends of penmanship 70 fractional unit 260 fractions., .259-268 f reearm movement 66 freedom in movement 70 freehand drawing., 112, 117 Froebel's form sequence 109 from known to unknown 326, 331 fundamental error in penman- ship 62 gauging movement in penman- ship 81 general law of climate 304 principles 62-69 terms, lesson on 160 gentle yet firm 394 geography 272-319 first steps in teaching 272 from drawing 117 of North America iii, 285 should be real 272 geographical method of spelling. 54 German method in addition 241 Gill, John, quoted 11 good reading defined 31 language acquired 148 sense in arithmetic 256 in school management. .356 grammar 188-200 a model study 188 definitions and rules 188 not too soon 147 object of 147 grammatical rules 147 Griffin's Topical Geography 300 Griffith's Outline Blackboard Maps 300 400 THE SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE PAGE Grube method 251 guess work forbidden 388 guttural tone 28 gymnastic drills in penmanship. 96 PAGE Juliand's Brief Views of United States History 326 justice in teaching 355 keep the mind active 257 keeping in pupils 373 Kidd's Elocution quoted 37 Kiddle's 3000 Grammar Questions 200 kindergarten experience 109 knowledge by teaching 393 for discipline 329 habit in penmanship 63 Hall's Orthoepy Made Easy.. 61, 187 hand firm in penmanship 83 training in penmanship. .. .101 harmonious development 371 Harris, Wm. T., quoted 373 Natural Science Teaching.. 345 help but not too much 387 Hicks, Mrs. Mary Dana iii language 147-187 Hill, Thomas, quoted 236, 331 a growth 148 history 320-326 and form study 11 and citizenship 322 exactness in 269 dates in 320 through arithmetic 253 moral lessons in 321,323 lateral movement in penmanship. 84 home illustrations 280 laughing 363 Hoose's Studies in Articulation . . 61 Laurie, S. S. , quoted 236 Hughes's How to Secure Atten- learning uuderstandingly 390 tion 360 lecture method 383 legibility in penmanship 70, 224 ideal unit of color 133 Legouve quoted 224 ideas and expression 151 letters, material for 204 of form Ill heading 205 illustrate freely 389 date 206 imagination in drawing 113 introduction 207 in reading 34 titles 208 importance of reading 38 salutation 210 incidental method of teaching. ..331 avoid familiarity 210 independent expression 382 avoid capriciousness 210 individuality in penmansip 68 style of 227 in pupils 269 of introduction 234 of children 107 letter-writing 201-234 industrial education 107 importance of 201 inflection 33, 37 lifeless school 373 inspection of text-books 387 listlessness in school 373 intelligent reading 38 literature, analysis of 34 intellectual arithmetic 257 1 itteri ng up the floor 363 reading 39 living method of teaching 332 interest secured 29, 393 logic of arithmetic 259 intermediate drawing 141-146 Longfellow quoted 180 intonation 35, 37 loud study 363 INDEX 401 PAGE machinery of reading . 39 make haste slowly 235 manual training 118 map drawing 282 maps 284 margins in letters 214, 217 marki ng pupils 387 McKay's 100 Experiments 345 mechanical defects 40 reading 38 spelling 46 structure of letters 201 , 203 Meiklejohn, J. M. D iii memoriter recitations 378 memory in arithmetic 253, 254 of facts 335 of form 114 mental arithmetic 257 discipline in arithmetic 258 training, sciences 328 methods in language 148 in spelling 53, 55 of instruction 377 misspelled words repeated 50 mistakes corrected 39, 158 in speech 180 in spelling discovered 51 record of 181 model inspection of work 52 lessons in color 138 in divisibility 342 in drawing 127, 129 in grammar, 195 in language 154 in object teaching 336, 339 modelling Ill modes of recitation varied 49 modulation 37 money lost i n letters 202 monitors 51 in penmanship 104 moral sentiment cultivated 31 movement in penmanship 62 drills in penmanship 74, 83 of classes 349 moving 363 PAGE multiplication 249 muscular development in pen- manship 83 movement in penmanship... 77 nasal twang 25 natural history 163, 275 method spelling 54 position in penmanship 67 science and drawing 117 effect of 328 in elementary schools. .327 voice 34, 37 nature as an educator 327 begins with objects 17 recognition of 107 study and drawing 118 Nelly 32 newspaper letters 227 North America, study of 285-299 Northam's Facts of American History 325 Geography of Lewis county. 300 not imitation but movement 66 knowledge but power 384 too many details 337 notation 238 noun, lesson on 164 numeration 238 obedience from the first 362 object and word method 20 lessons 327-345 aim of 332 of teaching reading 35 objective method of spelling 53 objects as wholes 148 comparison of 158 first in division 249 first in fractions 259 in addition 241 in language teaching.. .148, 183 in recitation 389 in subtraction 247 parts of 151 oblique rays 302 402 THE SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE PAGE observation before thought.. 151, 272 ha bits of 329 offences not to be anticipated.... 356 offhand movement 66 one difficulty at a time 22 oral and written spelling 49 method 379 spelling 47-50 not a test 59 . only one trial 49 value of 47 teaching of grammar 188 organization 346-354 original problems 270 originality in pupils 269 orthoepy exercises 59 our country first 321 outlines of compositions 182 outside information 387 ovals in penmanship 66 over governing 360 paper folding and cutting. ..112, 116 paragraphing .204, 216 parts of speech 163 pauses in reading 39 minding the 28 Peabody. Elizabeth P., postal card 225 pectoral tone 28 pen, holding of 82 penmanship iii, 19, 62-106, 160 by imitation 64 in spelling 49,58 not acquired by imitation. . . 62 perception of discovery 334 of verification 334 perseverance 47 personal power of the teacher. . .331 phonic and word methods 12, 20 phonics 24, 42-44 physical and political geography.284 features first 283 geography 301-319 pictures, use of 27 picturing out words 41 PAGE place lessons 117 plan of grammar study 188 Plato quoted 359 points of compass 276 Pope q uoted 201 position in penmanship 71 of pupil 70, 371 of the hand 63 possessive form, lesson on 168 postage stamps 221, 234 postcripts 226 posture in reading 36, 37 practical arithmetic 257 exercises 69-102 work in arithmetic 270 preliminary drill 371 preparation by the teacher 376 for difficult lessons 368 for reading class 29 for the lesson 153, 182, 369 Prentice's Review Problems 271 primary drawing 108-140 readi n g 22-30 truths for children 27 printing and script 19, 58 privileges i n school 356 process more than analysis 235 programme of school -day 349 promotion too rapid 240 pronunciation 22, 30, 33, 37, 39, 47, 49, 149 exercises 59 phonic method 11 proper noun, lesson on 167 propositions in sentences 195 punctuation 31, 33, 48, 150 ...160, 170, 189, 190, 204, 214, 221 marks 28 pupils must do the work 370 pure tone 28 push forward 388 qualification of pupils 348 qualities of objects 152 quality words 18 quarrelling 364 INDEX 403 PAGE PAGE questioning 158, 334, 384 record of mistakes 181 in arithmetic 253 of movement in penmanship. 86 laws of 385 regents' questions 271 objects of 385 rehearsal of recitation 370 questions during recitation 363 repetition of movement in pen- for debate 184 manship 67 in penmanship 89,95 representation in drawing 143 presented singly 256 reproduction exercises 150 quietness in the schoolroom 362 in object teaching 337 of lessons 369 rapid execution in penmanship... 70 of stories 173 reading 9-41 requirements in reading 35 a thought process 39 retention 47 alphabet method 9 review 256, 370 devices in 23 frequently 390 difficult selections in 25 reviews in object lessons 333 drawing method 10 Roget's Thesaurus 180 interest in 25 rote teaching 331 intermediate 30-41 rotund tone 28 interruption in 25 rules for spelling 45 like conversation 26 in arithmetic 236 look and say method 14 in orthography 45 natural tones in ,. 24 in reading 29, 35 naturally 29 of inflection 36 no spelling in 22, 23 not mechanical 24 Sanford's Limited Speller 61 object in 27 word method in number objectmethod 15 243,247 of problems 256 scale of color 135 phonetic method 11, 13 scholarly ability 372 phonotypic method 13 school government 355-364 questioning in 18 management 346-391 sentence method 21 reflects the teacher 361 the end of 24 should be home-like 357 thought in 21 science of language 147 understandingly 29, 30, 37 vs. art of arithmetic 236 vs. spelling 23 without apparatus 330 word-building method 11 see, compare, do, tell 159 word-method 16 self-control 389, 394 reason in young children 236 help by the pupil 161 recitation an end 365 sense teaching 328 object of 365 sentence, declarative 191 recitations 365-391 -explanatory 193 made games 40 imperative 192 made interesting 372 interrogative '. . . 191 reciting vs. teaching 389 kinds of 190 404 THE SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE PAGE PAGE sentence object of 190 surface and face in drawing 124 predicate of., 190 synonyms, exercises in 179 study of 189 synopsis in object teaching.,. ...337 subject of 189 importance of 18 short exrcises 43, 373 short school hours 359 tablet laying Ill, 116 sight, study by 121 tajks on composition, 183 simple language tattling 364 150, 180,227,228, 334, 390 tautology 226 sing-song drawl 24 teacher must have a plan 152 sketching of solid objects 118 must labor 37 slang 228 -should be good reader 26 slate work deprecated 64, 65 teacher's contract 346 Smith, Sidney, quoted 226 preparation 38& soapbubles in geography 273 teachers not school keepers 377 Socratic method 381 teaching contrary to nature 32 7 and topical methods 383 technical phrases avoided 183 solids, study of 119 telegraphy 67 songs in school 347 temperature 302, 373 sounds of language 42 ten rules for spelling 59 special offences 362 tests of the teacher 365 specimen compositions 155, 156 tests in arithmetic 270 spelling... 9, 14, 45-61, 160 text-book history 321 acquired by writing 23 method 377 and reading 46 text-books 368, 380- in language lessons 153 themes for composition 172 neglected 58 theory and practice. 258 taught incidentally 150 thing before the word 17 through the eye 51 thinking men 383 Spencer, Herbert, quoted 180 thought carried into expression. 40 spirit of the teacher 17 first in reading 40 stand while reciting 371 the one essential 182 standard colors 134 three rules in speaking 34 stick laying 112, 116 topical method 381 stories in language teaching 173 touch, study by 120 in school 25, 26 training mental powers 162 study in reading 35 trial on the difficult words 56 made interesting 37 trivial corrections 40 made pleasant 17, 359 true manhood 390 the problem before solving.. 256 two hands in penmanship 64 subjects for composition type models 114 173, 184, 185 types of beauty 145 substance of the letter 229 of form 108> subtraction 247-249 suggestions to young teachers. ..387 uncleanliness in pupils 364^ superscription 221 underscoring in letters 226- INDEX 405 PAGE uniform examination questions . .271 uniformity in penmanship 70 unity in arithmetic 260 unskilled teachers 378 untruthfulness 364 use of text-books 369 Van Wie's Outlines in United States History 326 ventilation 373, 376 verbatim recitations 371 vital element in object lessons. . .333 voice in the schoolroom 362 training 39 vulgarisms, examples 181 wake up mind 372 Wells, Charles R iii what to write 230 whispering 362 whole-arm movement 66 Wilkins's Manual of Map Draw- ing 281 PAGE Williams's Topics and Refer- ences 326 Wilson's Elementary Language. 180 Grammar Made Practical ... 156 women's signatures 218 work most with the dullest 389 write as you talk 231 fully 230 promptly 231 writing not drawing 66 notes 363 written analysis in arithmetic.. .252 problems 257 spelling 50-59 word and object method 20 and phonic methods 12, 20 the object of thought 17, 19 words, definition of 24, 27 difficult 27 in sentences 50 misspelled 46, 47 observed t ..,,.,.. 153 -THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS- Books on School Management 1. School Management: including a general view of the work of educa- tion, with some account of the intellectual faculties from the teachers* point of view, organization, discipline, and moral training. By JOSEPH LANDON. 16ino, pp. 400. In Manilla 50 cts. ; in Cloth $1.25. This standard work is at once scientific and practical: it gives the bear- ing of the facts of psychology upon the work of the teacher, and deals par- ticularly with organization and discipline, while at the same time it con- tains a great many hints upon actual teaching, making a complete and helpful manual. It has been adopted as a text-book in the school of pedagogy, Syracuse university, and in many of the largest normal schools in the country. The author has positive views, and illustrates them from actual experience, so that the book gives the teacher much food for thought, as well as direct in- struction. For class use and for the teacher preparing for examination, it has no equal. It is a modern book, giving the latest views of leading au- thorities with the author's comments, and is adapted to the school wants of to-day. The chapters upon school discipline and moral training are of especial value as being in line with the most recent thought and the most approved practice. 2. Hand Book for Young Teachers. By H. B. BUCKHAM, formerly prin- cipal of the State Normal School af Buffalo. Cloth, 16rao, pp. 152. 75 cts. This is emphatically a book for beginners, and it is a book without which no teacher should undertake a first term at school. " If there be another book to compare with it in practical usefulness we have not seen it." Public School Journal. 3. The Management of Country Schools. By J. P. BATSDOBP. Paper, 8vo, pp. 33. 20 cts. Of especial assistance to rural teachers. 4. Introductory Text-Book to School Education, Method, and School Management. By JOHN GILL. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 276. $1.00. 5. Mistakes in Teaching. By JAMES L. HUGHES. American edition, with contents and index. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 135. 50 cts. More than 15,000 have been used in the county institutes of Iowa, and elsewhere superintendents often choose this book for their less thoughtful teachers, assured that its pungent style and chatty treatment will arrest attention and produce good results. 6. A Primer of School Management. Manilla, 16mo, pp. 45. 25 cts. 7. The School Room Guide. By E. V. DEGRAFF. 16mo, pp. 396. In Manilla, 50 cts.; In Cloth, $1.50. 8. The Theory and Practice of Teaching. By DAVID P. PAGE. 16mo, pp. 448. In Manilla, 50 cts. ; In Cloth, $1.00. Of the last two it need only be said that they were two of the three books selected by the Examination Board of the State of New York as the text-books on which all questions upon Methods and School Management should bo based in the State and Uniform Examinations for 1895, and were "e-adopted for 1896 and 1897, after which no books were specified. STANDARD TEACHERS' LIBRARY, No. 51.- Landon's School Management. This standard work, by Joseph Landon, lecturer on school management in the training college, Saltley, England, gives a general view of educa- tion, with some account of the Intellectual Faculties from the teacher's point of view, Organization, Discipline, and Moral Training. It is at once scientific and practical ; it gives the bearing of the facts of psychology upon the work of the teacher, and deals particularly with or- ganization and discipline, while at the same time it contains a great many hints upon actual teaching, making it a complete and helpful manual. The chapters are as follows: PART I. GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORK OP EDUCATION. 1. The meaning and scope of education. 2. Three lines of educational development. 3. Some lessons to be learned from a brief consideration of sensation, perception, conception, and attention. 4. Memory in education. 5. The cultivation of the imagination, judgment, and reason. 6. The school work of the teacher. PART II. ORGANIZATION. 1. Systems of organization. 2. The school and its appointments. 3. The classification of the children. 4. The qualifications, duties, and distribution of teachers. 5. The arrangement of time and subjects. 6. The apparatus and books. 7. Kegistration. PART III. DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING. 1. The use of the emotions in education, and their cultivation. 2. General moral and religious training. 3. The government of children school tactics. 4. Motives, and the training of the will. 5. The nature and uses of punishment. It has been adopted as a text-book in the school of pedagogy, Syracuse university, and in many of the largest normal schools in the country. The author has positive views, and illustrates them from actual experience, so that the book gives the teacher much food for thought, as well as direct in- struction. For class use and for the teacher preparing for examination, it has no equal. It is a modern book, giving the latest views of leading au- thorities with the author's comments, and is adapted to the school wants of to-day. The chapters upon school discipline and moral training are of especial value as being in line with the most recent thought and the most approved practice. 16mo, pp. 40O. Manilla 50 cts.; Cloth $1.25. C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, ST. Y. -STANDARD TEACHERS LIBRARY, No. , Pap's Ttory ani Practice of Teaciins. No other American book on teaching has so much claim as this to be considered a classic. For nearly fifty years it has been regarded almost uni- versally as the one book the young teacher would most profit by. A hun- dred thousand teachers have drawn help and inspiration from its pages. It seems only just to the author of a work so successful that his book should be printed just as he wrote it. The day is past when commentators re-write Shakspere. They may annotate and explain and conjecture, but they take the text as they find it, and print their observations in another type. This lx>ok has been less fortunate. In different editions since Mr. Page's death chapters have been added, details have been changed, passages have been entirely rewritten. This volume goes back to the book that Mr. Page published, and fol- lows word for word the text of the only edition he ever authorized. Where the times have changed and we in them, references to present conditions are given in the notes that follow, which will be found of great value as illustrating how different in many respects is the environment of teaching now from what it was half a century ago, while yet the teacher's difficul- ties are largely the same, and his failure or his success depends upon the same fundamental principles. These notes are also in some part explana- tory and historical, with portraits of Page, Mann, Colburn, Emerson, Pot- ter, Wadsworth, and Olmsted. There are also a biography of Mr. Page and a full topical index for review. * In short this is so much the best edition issued, that even those who al- ready have another edition can afford to throw that aside and use this alone. The following are among the commendations it has received : " This work has so long been recognized as one of the great educational classics that comment here is unnecessary, except to say that Mr. Bar- deen's latest edition is especially well printed and has a fine full-page por- trait of its great author. Art Education." " While it is one of the oldest books on teaching published in this coun- try none of its successors surpass it in its high ideal of the teacher's life and work, which is held constantly in view. The true spirit of the teacher breathes in every line, and it is a continual source of guidance and inspira- tion to all who would realize the most fruitful results in this noble and responsible vocation. It should be the first book studied by every teacher, and should be his constant companion at all times." School Forum. C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, K. Y. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. DEC 22 1937 fff 3599 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY