THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE BOOKS BY SHELDON CHENEY THE NEW MOVEMENT IN THE THEATRE THE ART THEATRE THE OPEN'AIR THEATRE A CORNER OF THE ARENA GOLDONI, AT FLORENCE, ITALY. THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE BY SHELDON CHENEY NEW YORK MITCHELL KENNERLEY MCMXVIII COPYRIGHT Ipi BY MITCHELL KENNERLEY PRINTED IN AMERICA PREFACE MY. object in writing this volume has been three-fold: first, to offer, for that in- creasingly large public which is inter- ested in every significant development of the drama, a comprehensive view of the open-air theatre move- ment with relation to both the historical background and the remarkable current revival; second, to pro- vide the architect with a first-aid compendium of in- formation about old and modern open-air theatres, bringing together material which, if it has existed at all in print, has been scattered through a hundred books and magazine articles ; and third, to give those concerned with open-air production a birdseye view of the drama of the open in all ages and all lands, and by-comparison, to help them to an understand- ing of the peculiar characteristics and particular problems of production out-of-doors. The scope of the volume is limited. No attempt is made to treat of theatres of the half-enclosed type, which are in effect the ordinary architectural theatre with the auditorium roof lifted. There is no intention, moreover, to put forth the volume as v PREFACE an exhaustive treatise. Doubtless there are many open-air theatres that have not come to the writer's notice, and certain others offer so little of interest that descriptions would merely be tedious. But it is thought that every playhouse which is really im- portant, either for its productions or for its unique structural form, has been described. I have worked with full realization that this first book on the sub- ject must be hardly more than a sketch. It is of- fered as a preliminary essay in a field which I hope will attract new students, and which doubtless will find its exhaustive historian in due time. If I continually refer to the artificialities of the indoor stage, it is not because I disbelieve in the in- door theatre. Indeed, my faith in the ultimate re- generation of that over-commercialized institution is very strong. But I believe that there has been much following of false gods among the so-called "ar- tists" of the regular playhouse; and in the open-air theatre I see one of the finest correctives for its over- sophistication and artificiality. So many people have given generous aid in the compilation of this book, that it is impossible to make detailed acknowledgment. To the many who have provided information about their private thea- tres, or about the theatres of institutions with which they are affiliated, I extend again my cordial thanks. vi PREFACE A special debt is owing to Professor Thomas H. Dickinson of the University of Wisconsin, not only for information about the playhouse at Madison but for material gleaned from his admirable essay on open-air theatres in The Playbook of June, 1913. To Mr. Leroy Truman Goble and to Mr. Sam Hume I am grateful for material about open-air pro- duction in Europe, which otherwise would have es- caped me. To Miss Mabel Lincoln Edwards I owe thanks for similar aid in connection with certain American theatres. The chapters on historic thea- tres are based on material drawn from a multitude of sources ; but special acknowledgment must be made to A. E. Haigh's exhaustive volume, The Attic The- atre. For information about the Italian villa thea- tres I am especially indebted to Professor Henry Vincent Hubbard, whose descriptions and plans in the January, 1914, number of Landscape Architec- ture have been freely drawn upon. For photo- graphs of the Italian theatres special thanks are due to H. Inigo Triggs and to Mrs. Aubrey Le- Blond; and for pictures of the classic theatres, to Professor Allen Marquand. The introductory chapter was published in part in Craftsman Maga- zine, and the chapter on garden theatres originally appeared in Country Life in America. The editors have kindly given permission to reprint. vii PREFACE The book was written almost entirely during the year 1915, and was announced for publication in the following year. But difficulties in the way of ob- taining photographs, and other delays, have pre- vented earlier appearance. I have taken advantage of this circumstance to add descriptions of several theatres which were completed after the main por- tion of the text had been written. S. C. Vlll CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE MOVEMENT II. THE OLD GREEK AND ROMAN THEATRES 13 III. THE MODERN GREEK THEATRES 30 IV. THE MEDIAEVAL RELIGIOUS THEATRE AND ITS SURVIVALS 51 V. THE NATURE THEATRE 64 VI. THE GARDEN THEATRE 87 VII. THE DRAMA OF THE OPEN in APPENDIX I. THE PLANNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN- AIR THEATRES 135 II. VlTRUVIUS ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF GREEK AND ROMAN THEATRES INDEX 185 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. A CORNER or THE ARENA GOLDONI Frontispiece (By COURTESY OF GORDON CRAIG) PAGE 2. THE CRANBROOK GREEK THEATRE 6 3. THE BOHEMIAN GROVE THEATRE 8 (PHOTOGRAPH BY GABRIEL MOULIN) 4. THE GARDEN THEATRE AT VILLA GORI 10 (FROM H. INIGO TRIGGS* The Art of Garden Design in Italy) 5. THE THEATRE OF DIONYSUS AT ATHENS 14 (PHOTOGRAPH BY ALINARI) 6. A RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE AT EGESTA 18 7. THE GREEK THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS 20 8. RUINS OF THE THEATRE AT SYRACUSE 22 (PHOTOGRAPH BY ALINARI) 9. SKETCH PLANS OF GREEK, AND ROMAN THEA- TRES 23 10. RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATRE AT TAORMINA (PHOTOGRAPH BY ALINARI) 24 11. a. A RESTORATION OF THE ROMAN THEATRE AT ORANGE 26 (BY COURTESY OF RlCHARD SlLVESTER) xi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE b. THE ROMAN THEATRE AT ORANGE, PRESENT STATE (By COURTESY OF Fogue) 12. THE SMALLER THEATRE AT POMPEII 28 (PHOTOGRAPH BY ALINARI) 13. a. THE HEARST GREEK THEATRE AT BERKELEY 32 b. ARCHITECT'S DRAWING FOR HEARST GREEK THEATRE (BY COURTESY OF JOHN GALEN HOWARD, ARCHITECT) 14. THE GREEK THEATRE AT POINT LOMA 36 (PHOTOGRAPHS COPYRIGHT BY KATHERINE TINGLEY) 15. THE CRANBROOK GREEK THEATRE 38 16. a. THE POMONA GREEK THEATRE 42 (PHOTOGRAPH BY PIERCE AND WILLARD) b. THE BAKERSFIELD GREEK THEATRE (BY COURTESY OF LEWIS P. HoBART, AR- CHITECT) 17. PLAN OF THE ARENA GOLDONI 44 (BY COURTESY OF GORDON CRAIG) 18. THE ARENA GOLDONI AS SEEN FROM THE STAGE 46 (BY COURTESY OF GORDON CRAIG) 19. THE GREEK THEATRE AT BRADFIELD 48 20. THE PASSION PLAY THEATRE AT VALEN- CIENNES 54 (FROM CHARLES H. CAFFIN'S The Apprecia- tion of the Drama) xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 21. CONTEMPORARY SKETCH or AN ELIZABETHAN THEATRE . 58 (FROM CHARLES H. CAFFIN'S The Apprecia- tion of the Drama) 22. THE PASSION PLAY THEATRE AT OBER-AM- MERGAU 60 23. THE HARZ MOUNTAIN THEATRE 66 24. THE NATURE THEATRE AT HERTENSTEIN 68 25. THE KLAMPENBORG WOODS THEATRE 70 26. THE VASSAR COLLEGE THEATRE 74 (BY COURTESY OF LORING UNDERWOOD, AR- CHITECT) 27. THE DELL THEATRE 76 28. THE NATURE THEATRE AT MACOMB 78 (BY COURTESY OF WALTER P. MORGAN) 29. THE PETERBOROUGH PAGEANT THEATRE 80 30. a. THE BANKSIDE THEATRE 84 (BY COURTESY OF PROFESSOR FREDERICK H. KOCH) b. THE MOUNT TAMALPAIS THEATRE (PHOTOGRAPH BY GABRIEL MOULIN) 31. GARDEN THEATRE AT MONTECITO 90 (BY COURTESY OF HENRY E. BoTHIN) 32. GARDEN THEATRE AT VILLA MARLIA 94 (BY COURTESY OF HENRY VlNCENT HUB- BARD) 33. a. THE WATER THEATRE AT VERSAILLES 96 b. THE AMPHITHEATRE IN THE BOBOLI GAR- DENS xiii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACE 34. THE TREILLAGE THEATRE AT MANNHEIM 98 (PHOTOGRAPH BY B. TILLMANN-MATTER) 35. a. THE BROOKSIDE THEATRE 102 (PHOTOGRAPH BY NEW YORK HERALD SERVICE) b. THE GARDEN TERRACE THEATRE (BY COURTESY OF DR. G. H. DURAND) 36. THEATRE IN THE LAZIENSKI GARDENS, WAR- SAW 104 37. THE ROSEMARY THEATRE 106 (BY COURTESY OF ROLAND R. CoNKLIN) 38. GARDEN THEATRE AT MONTECITO no (BY COURTESY OF MRS. WlLLIAM MlLLER GRAHAM) 39. A PRODUCTION IN THE BOHEMIAN GROVE THEATRE 122 (PHOTOGRAPH BY GABRIEL MOULIN) 40. A PRODUCTION AT THE POINT LOMA GREEK THEATRE 128 (PHOTOGRAPH COPYRIGHT BY KATHERINE TINGLEY) 41. RUINS OF THE THEATRE AT FIESOLE 138 (PHOTOGRAPH BY ALINARI) 42. DIAGRAM OF RELATIONS BETWEEN AUDITORIUM AND STAGE 140 43. PLAN OF THE HEARST GREEK THEATRE 142 (BY COURTESY OF JOHN GALEN HOWARD, ARCHITECT) xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 44. PLAN OF THE CRANBROOK GREEK THEATRE 144- (Bv COURTESY OF Modern Building) 45. PLAN OF THE BUTTERICK MEMORIAL THEATRE 146 (BY COURTESY OF FRANK A. WAUGH, ARCHI- TECT) 46. THE THEATRE AT PRIENE 152 (BY COURTESY OF PROFESSOR ALLEN MAR- QUAND) 47. COMPARATIVE PLANS OF ITALIAN GARDEN THEATRES 156 48. CHAIRS OF HONOR IN THE THEATRE OF DIONY- SUS 160 (PHOTOGRAPH BY ENGLISH PHOTO COMPANY) 49. DESIGN FOR A PAGEANT STAGE 164 (BY COURTESY OF HERMANN ROSSE) 50. PLAN OF THE ROMAN THEATRE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 174 (BY COURTESY OF THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS) 51. PLAN OF THE GREEK THEATRE ACCORDING TO VITRUVIUS 180 (BY COURTESY OF THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS) XV THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE CHAPTER I THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE MOVEMENT IN the whole history of dramatic art there is no more illuminating truth than this: always when the drama has been simplest, most genuine, and lit up most brightly by the joy of living, and always when the drama has been closest to the life of the people, it has had its setting in the open. The two great periods of literary drama came at times when men naturally took their dramatic productions out-of-doors, as they al- ways have taken their games there. The Greek masters lived and died before the indoor theatre was thought of, and the glories of the age of Shakespeare in England came when the drama again had left the roofed-in places, developing and flowering on stages open to the sky. In these days when the world is talking vaguely of another great 2 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE renaissance of the art of the theatre, and is waiting expectantly for the new artists who will express their age as characteristically as the Greeks have ex- pressed theirs and Shakespeare his, one may read a new meaning into the recent revival of interest in the al fresco drama. For not since the theatre of the late Elizabethan decadence was roofed over have there been so many productions in the open and so many outdoor theatres as there are to-day. For the average theatregoer, who thinks of the outdoor dramatic production as an extra-normal affair, it comes as a surprise to find that the open- air theatre has existed more than two thousand years, whereas the history of the indoor playhouse is a matter of a mere three or four centuries. In- deed, the story of the birth of dramatic art, and of that art's growth through its greatest eras, is ex- clusively the story of the open-air theatre. In Greece the drama was born in the dances about an altar, during the festivals in honor of the god Dionysus; it grew on the platforms erected at the side of the "orchestra," or dancing-circle, at first in the market-place perhaps, and later at the foot of a hillside that formed a natural auditorium; and finally the art of ^schylus and Sophocles and Euripides flowered in the beautiful architectural theatres of Athens, at first of wood, and then de- THE MOVEMENT 3 veloping into stone bowls, immense in size and beau- tiful in proportion and in decoration. The Romans, stumbling on the heels of the Greeks in all matters of art, solidified the classic theatre building, gaining a certain sense of intimacy, perhaps, but losing some- thing of the open beauty and natural grace of the Greek structures ; and they took the first step toward the indoor playhouse when they roofed the stage. As the darkness of the Middle Ages settled over Europe, dramatic art became merely the degraded plaything of travelling bands of actors ; and perhaps because their vulgar and often obscene performances could not stand the clear light of day, the great open-air theatres lapsed into decay and the classic type of playhouse fell into a disuse which lasted to the present renaissance. The drama was reborn in the tenth and eleventh centuries within the church, but as soon as it became more than a mere incident of religious service it again sought the out-of-doors. At first the Mystery Plays were acted on the church steps, and then on platforms in the churchyard. Then the guilds de- veloped the pageant-cars, on which they had been wont to present tableaus in the religious processions, into elaborate platform stages on which the more elaborate Miracle Plays were acted, with realistic representations of Hell, Paradise, and other Biblical 4 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE localities. Finally the platform in an inn courtyard and the popular "bear-ring" established the type of playhouse for the early Elizabethan period, and when the genius of Marlowe and Shakespeare blos- somed, the theatre stage and pit still were open to the sky, though the galleries were roofed. In the later Elizabethan decadence the house was com- pletely covered over and the drama entered upon that period in which it became most polished but most artificial and farthest removed from the people. For nearly three centuries following there was only one notable revival of the open-air playhouse. On the estates of the Italian nobles of the late Renaissance period, there came into being the gar- den theatres, exquisite little bits of formal design, in perfect accord with the noble villa gardens, and forming ideal settings for the lovely pastoral drama of that time; and from these certain copies were made in the gardens of France and Holland and Germany. But interesting as the Italian "teatro di verdura" may be, it was far less significant than is the present world-wide revival of the drama of the open; for the men and women who to-day are taking the drama out-of-doors are inspired with something of the spirit that brought forth the classic open-air theatre and the pre-Elizabethan religious theatre; and the present age must inevitably take THE MOVEMENT 5 its place as one of the world's three great periods of outdoor dramatic production. The current revival is a spontaneous growth, arising on the one hand from a rediscovery of the value of the out-of-doors as a corrective to an over- citified and artificial life, and on the other, from a new spirit of dramatic experiment, and protest against the over-sophisticated indoor stage. This movement has brought into being countless dramatic festivals and pageants, and a remarkable increase in the number of al fresco theatres of every type. So to-day one finds the old Roman theatre at Orange, France, cleared of ruins, that a famous Parisian company may annually revive classic plays there; and in faraway California a new and beautiful Greek theatre has been built, not as an archaeologi- cal curiosity, but to satisfy a very pressing need for such an open-air structure. In that same California a unique forest theatre has developed a new drama form in the Grove Plays of the Bohemian Club, while on the other side of the continent the Peter- borough Pageant Theatre and the Meriden Pageant Stage promise to create equally vital original forms. In Europe, too, unique phases of dramatic art are being created at the "nature" theatres at Thale, at Hertenstein, and in the Klampenborg Woods near Copenhagen. And in many parts of the world the 6 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE garden theatre is again bringing the poetic drama to its proper setting of green trees and open sky. It is a poor month now that does not bring to the devotee of open-air drama news of another theatre either planned or actually built, or word of the es- tablishment of another annual outdoor play-festival. The significance and value of all this activity may be found in two directions. In the first place there are important dramatic or artistic aspects. In general there is a distinct value in anything that acts as an antidote to the artificial narrowing and stereo- typing of dramatic art as seen in the "regular" theatres. Because the open-air production is more often an experiment in new forms, or a revival of a classic, than a play that conforms to the set indoor stage conventions, it has a broadening effect on both the actors and the audience. In the open-air theatres of America there have been presented dramas from the Sanskrit, from the French, from the German, from the Norwegian, and even from the Japanese; and there have been revivals of Mystery Plays and Miracle Plays and of plays by every notable English dramatist from Shakespeare and Jonson to Bernard Shaw and Stephen Phillips. As an educative force, and as a corrective of the crystallizing influence of the commercial theatre, these productions can hardly be overvalued. But THE CRANBROOK GREEK THEATRE. AN EXAMPLE OF THE FIRST, OR ARCHITECTURAL, TYPE OF OPEN-AIR THEATRE. [MARCUS R. BURROWES, ARCHITECT] THE MOVEMENT 7 even more important artistically are the new forms of drama that are being developed by such theatres as those at Peterborough and Madison and in the Bohemian Grove. The MacDowell musical pageant-drama, the masques created and presented by the Wisconsin players and by community groups, the Grove Plays of the Bohemian Club artists, and certain of the dance-festivals at the co-educational and women's universities, seem to foreshadow the coming of a national form of spectacular drama. While one cannot say that this outdoor art will be the most important development of American drama during the coming decade or two, one cannot but see that it will be the most genuine and most spontaneous dramatic expression of the life of the people. In the matter of sheer visual beauty and in the matter of communal expressiveness, the drama of the open will far surpass that of the indoor playhouse. On the other hand one must recognize that emotional drama must develop in the more intimate atmos- phere of the roofed-in theatre. In other words, the outdoor theatre movement is one of the most whole- some phases of current dramatic development, and is building a new, clean and beautiful form of art expression more rapidly than any other; but it can- not and should not displace the legitimate activities 8 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE of the indoor theatre. As a matter of fact it is, by force of example, and by training dramatic artists to the simplicity and directness of the open, helping the indoor drama to rid itself of those deadening conventions and those artificial trappings that have so long burdened dramatic art. Eleanora Duse has said: "To save the theatre, the theatre must be destroyed; the actors and actresses must all die of the plague. They poison the air, they make art impossible. . . . We should return to the Greeks, play in the open air; the drama dies of stalls and boxes and evening dress, and peo- ple who come to digest their dinner." Madame Duse probably had no idea of banishing all drama to the open. Perhaps she did see that a very vital and lovely sort of drama might be developed out-of- doors. But what she very certainly felt was this: that no current form of dramatic activity can be vital until the playwrights, the actors, the stage ar- tists and the audiences, leaving behind all the trick- eries and artificialities of the modern stage, go out into the open and learn the simplicity, the direct- ness, and the joyousness of dramatic production un- der the sun and stars. The growth of the open-air theatre movement is quite as remarkable in its social as in its dramatic aspects. In the first place there are what may be THE BOHEMIAN GROVE THEATRE. AN EXAMPLE OF THE NATURE THEATRE" TYPE. [PHOTOGRAPH BY GABRIEL MOULIN] THE MOVEMENT 9 called the hygienic and economic effects of any great movement to the out-of-doors. Nature is the great revivifier, and the mere calling of masses of people away from the roofed-in places has its salutary ef- fect. Men always have taken their sports into the open; and the outdoor dramatic production, like a game, sends men and women back to their cities re- freshed in mind and body. Then there is the social solidifying of the community that comes, first from association in a common artistic purpose, and only slightly less so from the mere fact of recreation in crowds. The outdoor production usually brings great numbers of people to the stage, and the con- stant association in rehearsal creates a very real bond of interest; there is moreover no such gulf between players and audience as exists in the indoor thea- tre. Indeed, the present outdoor production achieves something of that pervading communal spirit which existed in Greece when the actors were simply the leaders in the revels, speaking for their followers; and which existed again in the Middle Ages when the churchmen were the players and their audience the congregation, actor and spectator feel- ing in the production a common sense of worship and reverence. Looking back at the long series of pageants and masques produced by American com- munities in the last decade, sometimes in open-air io THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE theatres and sometimes in improvised woodland set- tings, one wonders if they have not done more to create a healthy civic sense than all the books ever written about the duties of the citizen. Another so- cial aspect of the open-air theatre is to be found in the perfect equality of the seating arrangements. Here if anywhere is the purely democratic play- house, for there are no boxes from which to exhibit jewels and costly gowns, and there is no division into orchestra, balcony and gallery. And above all these others there is the intangible spiritual aspect, a subtle, almost religious effect on each individual, which collectively must make for so- cial betterment. For man is never else so near God as when certain sorts of dramatic beauty are re- vealed to him under the open sky. For convenience of discussion, all open-air thea- tres, ancient and modern, may be divided roughly into three classes, according to their structural char- acteristics. First there are the purely architectural theatres, usually of classic type, large stone or con- crete structures, with massive stage backgrounds. In this group are all the old Greek and Roman theatres, and of modern buildings such notable examples as the Arena Goldoni at Florence and the Hearst Greek Theatre at Berkeley. Closely allied to this type is THE THEATRE AT VILLA GORI, ITALY. AN EXAMPLE OF THE THIRD, OR GARDEN THEATRE, TYPE. THE MOVEMENT n the other purely architectural sort, the mediaeval re- ligious theatre, with its platform stage and back- ground of built-up "localities," of which the only im- portant contemporary survival is the Passion Play Theatre at Ober-Ammergau. In the second place there is the so-called "nature theatre" or "forest theatre," which is the exact op- posite of the architectural type. Usually its stage is merely an open place in the woods or on a moun- tainside, with an idyllic natural background, while the auditorium often is nothing more than an open hillside or sloping meadow, without even the arti- ficial touch of built-in seats. Of the nature thea- tres, the best-known of those in Europe are the Harz Mountain Theatre at Thale in Germany, and the open-air theatre at Hertenstein, near Lucerne. The most important examples in America are probably the pageant theatre at Peterborough, New Hamp- shire, and the Bohemian Grove Theatre in Cal- ifornia. The third type of open-air playhouse is the gar- den theatre, a type that stands between the other two, utilizing the trees and shrubs of nature for back- ground, but often adding incidental architectural features, such as pergolas, treillage-work, and stone walls and stairways. The theatres of the Italian villa gardens are the most notable historic examples, 12 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE while the theatres at Mannheim, Germany, and Mt. Kisco, New York, may be considered as typical mod- ern adaptations. Each type has its distinctive virtues and its dis- tinctive limitations, which really determine the forms of outdoor production. As these are mat- ters of prime importance to theatre-designer and producer alike, the type, rather than historic se- quence, is made the basis of this book's division into chapters. Thus the chapter on the old Greek and Roman theatres is followed not by that on the mediaeval religious theatre, but by "Modern Greek Theatres." The average reader, less inter- ested in the history of theatre-building than in what can be done and is being done in a certain sort of playhouse, will thus find all the theatres of one type treated in one group, with a discussion of each play- house from the viewpoint of structural characteris- tics, and from that of actual achievement in dra- matic production. CHAPTER II THE OLD GREEK AND ROMAN THEATRES THE Greeks did not designedly take their drama out-of-doors ; it was born there and grew there naturally. The drama was in- timately interbound with religious celebration, and it would have seemed little short of sacrilege to take such a communal expression into the artificial and artificializing atmosphere of indoors. From begin- ning to end, from the time when it was merely a rude circle surrounded by temporary wooden benches to the time when it was a magnificent stone structure, the classic theatre was open to the sky. When the revellers at the festivals of Dionysus permitted one of their fellow-participants in the songs and dances to be singled out as leader, and allowed him to take the chief part in their impro- vised dialogues, the Greek drama became a living thing. At first this leader mounted upon the sacri- ficial table, beside the altar around whicfo*the revel- lers had danced, and from that vantage-point ban- died with those who now became his "chorus" ; and 13 i 4 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE the mere onlookers brought up benches all round the dancing-circle. As the parts to be played by the actor multiplied, a tent, or "skene," was built for him at one side of the circle, where he could retire to make the necessary changes of costume; and then his platform was moved to the side of the tent, and while the chorus continued to dance about the cen- tral altar, the audience was pushed away from one side, occupying now only three-fourths, or less, of the territory about the dancing-place. In this arrangement may be seen the rough mould into which every later typically Greek theatre was cast. First, and most typical, was the "orchestra" forming a full circle, with the altar of Dionysus in the centre, about which the chorus danced; second, the auditorium with its rows of seats surrounding perhaps two-thirds of the outer circumference of the orchestra; and third, the tent and platform on the third side, prototype of all the stage buildings for many centuries to follow. Not until the glory of Greece faded before the grandeur of Rome did the orchestra become the half-circle of the later clas- sic and the modern theatre; and only then was the auditorium cut down so that it also was semi-cir- cular in shape, so that all the spectators faced the stage rather than the orchestra. In Athens, always the true home of Greek drama, THE THEATRE OF DIONYSUS AT ATHENS. THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT OF ALL THEATRES. IN HISTORY. ON THIS SITE DRAMATIC ART WAS FIRST DEVELOPED OUT OF THE GREEK RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS, AND HERE THE GENIUS OF AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES AND EURIPIDES FLOWERED. THE PRESENT RUINS DATE FROM ONE OF THE ROMAN RECONSTRUCTIONS, WHEN THE THEA- TRE HAD LOST MANY OF THE ORIGINAL GREEK CHARACTERISTICS. OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 15 the temporary structures built annually at the time of the Dionysia sufficed for the productions for a number of years. Perhaps it was in 499 B.C., when the temporary wooden benches collapsed, bringing death and injury to many of the audience, that the first substantial theatre was begun. Even then the seats and stage buildings were only of wood; but earthen foundations underlay the benches, and the "skene" was probably of more solid construction and greater beauty than the yearly temporary erec- tions had been. Although there still is some controversy among archaeologists over the matter, it seems fairly well established that the Athenian theatre in which the genius of ^schylus, Sophocles and Euripides flow- ered in the fifth century B.C. was of wooden con- struction. Passing over the gradual modifications which the wooden theatres doubtless underwent, in this century which witnessed so many changes in the drama, one may more profitably turn to the stone structures, of which sufficient ruins remain to afford the basis of a reconstruction/ even though the tragic drama had already perceptibly declined at the time they were built. The first stone theatre in Athens and the most famous of all classic theatres was constructed on the site of its wooden predecessors, in the enclosure 16 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE dedicated to the god Dionysus, on the south side of the Acropolis. The orchestra was a perfect cir- cle with an altar in the centre. During the purely Greek period the orchestra floor was formed of earth tamped hard and smooth, the marble pave- ment which exists to-day being a Roman addition. It was here that the chorus danced and sang, and therefore the interest of the spectators centred here rather than on the stage. The Athenian auditorium, as usual throughout Greece, was shaped in a hollow of a hillside, in this case violating the well-recognized rule that a thea- tre should never face the south. This auditorium was formed of seventy-eight tiers of seats, of Peiraic limestone except where carved from the solid rock of the Acropolis. The lower tiers were in the shape of a semi-circle with its ends prolonged in straight lines, like an inverted U; but as the outline of the theatre was irregular, the upper tiers were not sym- metrical. At Athens, as generally elsewhere, the front row of seats consisted of marble chairs for priests and other dignitaries, the elaborately-carved central one being reserved for the Priest of Diony- sus. The main body of the auditorium was divided by fourteen passage-ways up and down, making thir- teen wedge-shaped blocks of seats; and laterally, about half way up, by a wide passage-way, or "di- OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 17 azoma," which formed part of a through road when the theatre was not in use. According to the latest and most authoritative es- timates the Theatre of Dionysus seated about 17,- ooo people, although it was formerly believed that almost 30,000 could be accommodated. The great size of the Greek theatres is explained by the fact that they were designed to hold the entire theatre- going population of a city at one performance. Throughout the most splendid period of Attic drama the performance of tragic plays was limited to the few days in each year that were given up to the Dionysia, and no play was presented more than once. The seating capacity of the theatre at Megalopolis, the largest in Greece, has been esti- mated at figures varying from 20,000 to 44,000, while 50,000 has been suggested as the possible number of the audience at the theatre in Ephesus. These larger figures are doubtless over-estimates. The form of the stage-buildings, or skene, of the theatre at Athens, has been a matter of vigorous controversy among archaeologists. It is generally agreed, however, that the skene was in shape a long rectangle, with walls extending forward toward the auditorium at each end. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, ex- cavator of the theatre, and one of the most learned of modern archaeologists, maintains that the skene 1 8 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE was merely a high wall, forming a background for the action of chorus and players, all which he be- lieves took place in the circular orchestra. His view is gradually finding wide acceptance among schol- ars. The opposite theory is that a stage platform was constructed between the wall and the orchestra, terminated at each side by the projecting side walls, or "paraskenia." This platform, called the "lo- geion," or speaking-place, is supposed to have been occupied by the actors, who thus were lifted above the chorus in the orchestra. If this theory is cor- rect, doubtless temporary flights of stairs were built from the logeion to the orchestra to permit the nec- essary action between players and chorus. It has been suggested that the front wall of this platform was panelled, with doors giving access to the stage- building from the orchestra. In the typically Greek theatres the high wall be- hind the stage and at the ends, was ornamented with a single set of columns, a feature which later was developed by the Romans into an elaborate two- or three-storied system of columns, entablatures and pediments. In both the Greek and the Roman types the rear stage wall usually was pierced by three or five doorways ; and by a generally-understood con- vention, entrance from each particular door indi- cated that the actor was to be imagined as coming A CONJECTURAL RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE AT EGESTA. THE FORM OF THE AUDITORIUM IS PROBABLY CORRECT, BUT THERE IS LITTLE EVIDENCE TO INDICATE THAT THE STAGE BUILD- INGS ARE AUTHENTIC. [FROM j. H. STRACK'S "DAS ALTGRIECHISCHE THEATERGEBAUDE"] OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 19 from a certain place: when a figure came on the stage through the door at the right, it was known that he came from the immediate neighborhood, whereas one coming through the door at the left was clearly a traveller from a distance, and so on. These conventions arose from the situation of the theatre of Dionysus with relation to the city, the country roads, the harbor, and other topographic features. The proper height of the stage platform in a Greek theatre is given by the Roman architect Vitruvius * as from ten to twelve feet, and the depth as ten feet. But there is no exact evidence in re- gard to that at Athens, and the stages of other Greek and Greek-Roman theatres vary from eight to thirteen feet in height and similarly in depth. The existing remains of the stage at Athens, with the sculptured front-wall, throw no light on the sub- ject, as they date from the time of one of the Ro- man reconstructions. In the Greek theatre the auditorium and skene were in effect two separate buildings, and the space between was used as a gateway, giving entrance to the orchestra and auditorium. In the later Greek period, and especially as the Roman influence was * Vitruvius' rules for the construction of Greek and Roman theatres are quoted in translation in an appendix of this volume. 20 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE felt, the stage was brought nearer to the auditorium, and the gateways became doors. Then finally, in Roman times, the auditorium wall and the stage wall merged into each other, and the entrance became a vaulted passage-way. The ruins of the theatre at Epidaurus in some particulars are more interesting than those of the Athenian structure. The auditorium is almost in- tact, and the orchestra ring is perfectly indicated, as are the foundations of the stage-buildings. The auditorium, unlike that of the Theatre of Dionysus, is perfectly symmetrical, resulting in a more graceful general appearance. The topmost circle of seats has a diameter of four hundred and fifteen feet, the total seating capacity about equalling that of the au- ditorium at Athens. In addition to the row of seats of honor at the bottom of the auditorium, there are two rows on the level of the diazoma, two-thirds of the distance to the top. While the other known theatres followed closely the type already described, there are certain not- able variations. At Priene the row of seats of honor is formed as a continuous bench, with five thrones set in at various points; and similar thrones are found at the theatre of Oropus. At Priene the altar, which elsewhere almost invariably stands at the exact centre of the orchestra, is instead on the THE THEATRE AT EPIDAURUS. THIS IS THE BEST PRESERVED OF THE GREEK THEATRES. IT SHOWS THE COMPLETE ORCHESTRA CIRCLE, AND THE STAGE SET BACK FROM THE AUDITORIUM IN TYPICAL GREEK STYLE. OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 21 circumference of the orchestra circle, at the middle of the row of seats of honor. At Megalopolis (the largest theatre in Greece, with a diameter of 474 feet) a council chamber, the "Thersilion," faced the auditorium, taking the place of the usual stage- buildings. The steps and portico of the structure could be used when an architectural background was appropriate, as was nearly always the case with Greek drama; and at other times a temporary wooden stage may have been erected against the building. The stone skene, of which the ruins re- main, probably was not built until the Thersilion fell into decay. In a few of the theatres, as at Eretria, an underground passage connected the centre of the orchestra with the interior of the stage buildings, a feature for which no adequate explanation has been given. Greek theatres were built not alone in Greece, but wherever permanent Greek colonies were developed along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Some of the finest examples were in Asia Minor. Besides those already mentioned, some of the most notable ruins are at Delphi, Delos, Eretria, Aizari, Pas- sinus, and Pergamon. The dramatic productions in the Greek theatres were always connected with religious celebrations, and certain religious rites accompanied every per- 22 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE formance. But after the first separation of the actor-leader from the worshipping chorus, the drama speedily developed along less ceremonial and more human lines. In 535 B.C., shortly after tragedy had been officially recognized and put under state authority, the first dramatic contest was instituted at Athens. Soon came ^Eschylus, winning the vic- tory in 472, and after him Sophocles and Euripides. By the middle of the following century the drama had declined again, and the golden period had gone. The plays of this time were simple, straightforward, emotion-compelling dramas, which needed little or no background to help them hold the interest of the audience. We are told that as early as the time of Sophocles scenery was used to cover up the bare architectural stage-wall. But if painted scenery was used at all, it was very simple, and the only aim was to suggest the proper setting; in other words there was no attempt at realism. There was never any change of scene in the Greek theatre, and the set- ting of the action always was understood to be out- of-doors. Until the Roman period there never was a stage curtain, entrances and exits all being made in full sight of the audience. In addition to dramatic productions the Greek theatres were used for religious exercises at the Dionysian festivals, for political meetings, for the RUINS OF THE GREEK-ROMAN THEATRE AT SYRACUSE. FOR ITS IMMENSE SIZE. NOTABLE OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 23 dithyrambic choral contests, and by the rhapsodists and harp-players. The annual cock-fight was held here, and all sorts of vaudeville performers ap- peared at times. In the Roman period the Athenian theatre was even desecrated by gladiatorial con- tests, which were hotly protested by certain of the Greeks ; and there is evidence indicating that at one Comparative sketch plans of Greek and Roman theatres, showing change in relation between auditorium and stage. time the lower part of the theatre was made water- tight, in order that the orchestra might be con- verted into a lake for mimic sea-fights. The Roman theatre differed from the Greek mainly in two particulars. As the chorus no longer was of greater importance than the actors, the or- chestra was cut down from a full circle to a semi- circle, and the stage buildings were pushed up against the auditorium, forming a single building of the whole composition. These changes were neces- 24 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE sary because the spectators, who in the Greek thea- tres often faced away from, rather than toward, the stage, and still were content if they could see the or- chestra clearly, now must face the stage, to which all the action hereafter was to be confined. The sec- ond great change was in the wall behind the stage, which was greatly heightened and elaborately dec- orated with rows of columns, one above the other. The stage platform was at first made high, in order to give the spectators on the uppermost tiers of seats as good a view of the action as possible, and it was narrow so that those looking up at it might always see the actors in full; but later the desire to stage gorgeous spectacles made greater depth necessary, with a consequent lessening of the height. Vitruvius recommends that the height of the platform in a Roman theatre be not over five feet. The invention of vaulting allowed the Roman theatres to be built on level spaces, the auditorium bowl being held up by series of walls and arches, instead of being shaped in the hollow of a hillside. The only surviving classic theatre in Rome, the Theatre of Marcellus, has been so changed in later times that it does not illustrate the characteristics of the type as well as several others. Those at Orange, in Southern France, and at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, are the best-preserved of the typically , ' RUINS OF THE ROMAN THEATRE AT TAORMINA OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 2$ Roman structures. In both, the auditorium and stage-wall meet, forming one building, and in both the stage-front is approximately on the diameter of the orchestra circle. In both, too, the stage was evidently roofed with wood. At Aspendus another typical feature is the portico that surrounds the top of the auditorium. Here, too, is the best preserved stage-wall, with the elaborate architectural decora- tion formed by rows of niches flanked by columns and entablatures. In most of the Roman structures the arrangement of seats and aisles followed the Greek plan very closely. The Roman theatres, like the Greek, were very large. That at Orange measures nearly three hundred and fifty feet in width, with a stage wall one hundred and eighteen feet high; and the stage floor is over two hundred feet long and over forty feet deep. The widest diameter of the structure at Am- man, in Syria, was four hundred and twenty-eight feet. The three stone theatres in Rome (all built during the first century before Christ) are estimated to have accommodated audiences as follows: Pom- pey's Theatre, 17,580; Theatre of Balbus, 11,510; Theatre of Marcellus, 20,500. Larger temporary theatres were built of wood on special occasions, and it is chronicled that the extravagance of decoration of certain of these ephemeral structures was almost 26 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE beyond belief. The Romans invented means of stretching huge awnings over certain of their thea- tres, to protect the audiences from the hot southern sun ; and the smaller theatre at Pompeii was perma- nently roofed at some time in its history, as is proved by a tablet recently found, which commemorates the giving of the roof by a wealthy citizen. Throughout the development of the Roman the- atre there is a noticeable tendency away from the Greek openness and simplicity, toward enclosure and toward elaboration of detail. The change corre- sponds very closely to the transformation of the dramatic production itself. The Latin dramatists at best were successful imitators of the Greeks. Then as time went on, more stress was put on the scenery and less on the play, and finally spectacle displaced drama almost entirely. Then when the people were not drawn away from the theatre to the circus or arena, gladiatorial contests and sensa- tional vaudeville performances were brought to the theatre stage making its degradation complete. Closely related to the theatre of the Greeks and Romans was the "Odeon" or "Odeum," a smaller structure which usually was near the theatre, or even connected with it by a portico. The Odeons are referred to by classic writers as places for concerts and for rehearsals of plays, and doubtless dramatic ABOVE IS A MEASURED RECONSTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN THEATRE AT ORANGE, FRANCE, SHOWING THE TYPICAL ROOFED STAGE, WITH ITS ELABORATE BACKGROUND OF ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT. BELOW, THE THEATRE AT ORANGE AS IT EXISTS TODAY. productions were occasionally staged in them. Some authorities insist that the Odeon of Herodes Atticus, adjoining the Theatre of Dionysus at Athens, was roofed, thus affording a place of shelter in case the production at the theatre itself was inter- rupted by rain ; but others point out the impossibility of roofing such a structure before Roman times, suggesting that the cedar roof mentioned by a con- temporary writer refers to the stage-root common in all Roman theatres. However that may be, the Odeon and allied forms of assembly-place offer many suggestions for the modern builder of open-air the- atres. Thus the form of the little Odeon at the Imperial Villa at Pausilypon is more suited to the modern drama of the open than is that of the nearby theatre. The tiers of seats are in shape consider- ably less than a half-circle, and the stage shows very interesting variations from the traditional arrange- ment. This Odeon also has a notable feature in the large imperial box at the top of the auditorium. The little "Ekklesiasterion" at Priene, although hav- ing little to do with dramatic matters, is of interest to the student of the ancient theatre, as the audi- torium is not circular, each tier of seats forming three sides of a square. Other buildings common to Greek or Roman cities, which are in some measure allied to the the- 28 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE atre in form, are the stadion, the amphitheatre or arena, and the circus. Such notable examples as the Panathenaic Stadion at Athens, the Olympian Stadion, and the Colosseum and Circus Maximus at Rome, are interesting architecturally and as a re- flection of the life and tastes of the peoples ; but they had little influence on the form of the theatre or dramatic art. The Panathenaic Stadion recently was magnificently rebuilt, and at least one revival of a classic play has been given there. Similarly there have beeh modern productions in the half-ruined amphitheatres at Nimes and Aries, in France. After the drama and the theatre alike had been abandoned to the vulgar, in the years of the Roman decadence, it seems not to have occurred to any one that the great structures might again be utilized legitimately, until in 1869 Felix Ripert and Antony Real planned classical productions in the Roman Theatre at Orange. The stage had been cleared of ruins some years before by French archaeologists, and enough of the original tiers of seats remained to accommodate an average modern audience. The first productions were so successful that others fol- lowed at intervals of a few years until 1899, due in part to the efforts of the poet, Frederic Mistral, leader among the exponents of open-air drama in France. Since the latter date the Comedie Fran- THE SMALLER THEATRE AT POMPEII. THIS IS ONE OF THE MOST GRACEFULLY DESIGNED AND MOST INTIMATE OF ANCIENT THEATRES. OLD GREEK AND ROMAN 29 C,aise has given an annual series of classical produc- tions in the theatre, and more recently the Opera has given regular performances. Thus the walls that once echoed to the dialogue of the Latin poets and to the revived lines of the immortal Greeks, after fifteen centuries or more of silence have rever- berated again to the voices of the greatest contem- porary players to Sarah Bernhardt in "Phedre," to Coquelin in "Amphitrion," and to a hundred others whose names are written large in modern dramatic history. In Greece and in Italy there has been little at- tempt to revive interest in the theatres of the past. With the exception of a few playhouses of the type of the famous Arena Goldoni, the open-air theatres of the Greeks and Italians of to-day are chiefly of the summer amusement-park type. > It remained for the French to bring back to one of the classic the- atres some measure of its traditional dignity and splendor of production. And it remained for a far-away people of another continent to awake to the need of a theatre of the classic type, a people who were to build to suit the demands of their own art, but with all the old Greek beauty of architecture and with the Greek love of the out-of-doors. CHAPTER III THE MODERN GREEK THEATRES OF modern open-air theatres, all that are characterized by rising semi-circular tiers of seats, with raised stages and high rear stage-walls, are indiscriminately termed "Greek" theatres, whether modelled on Greek or on Roman forms. It is easy to differentiate this classic type of structure from both the nature theatre and the garden theatre; for the latter two are built of na- ture's materials, of trees and shrubs and hedges, whereas the Greek theatre is architectural in every sense. It is curious that the majority of modern Greek theatres are to be found grouped in a single state that is on the opposite side of the world from Greece. In California there are four so-called Greek the- atres, and others are building. In the rest of the United States there are only two structures that ap- proach the type, and in Europe practically all of the modern open-air playhouses are of the nature- theatre type. The reason is not far to seek. In 30 THE MODERN GREEK 31 California the climate is such that an open-air struc- ture affords the maximum of usefulness, so that a roofless playhouse is not considered merely a tem- porary or experimental matter, but rather a perma- nent and very practical bit of artistic equipment. In most parts of California there is a rainless season of at least four months, and four or five months more of each year are so generally fair that the outdoor producer is practically assured of perfect weather conditions. So the state has bred a race of outdoor people, lovers of nature and all that the open offers, and it is not surprising that they have taken their drama, like so many of their other activities, out under the sun and stars. The most notable of the purely architectural play- houses is the Hearst Greek Theatre at the Univer- sity of California, in Berkeley. This structure is not, as has so often been said, an example of per- fect fidelity to ancient type. On the contrary, it is a curious mingling of Greek and Roman forms. It is also very wisely modified to conform to the best traditions of modern dramatic art, although there is no provision for modern realistic scenery or other ephemeral and inartistic phases of contemporary staging. The general form of the building is Roman in that the auditorium outline forms only slightly more than a semi-circle, and the orchestra 32 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE circle is cut down to very small dimensions; and the low, wide steps of the lower auditorium are typical of such purely Roman structures as the little theatre at Pompeii. But the absolute separation of the "skene," or stage-building, from the auditorium, is purely Greek; and the stage-wall is decorated in the Greek fashion with a single series of columns in- stead of the over-elaborate Roman system of double or triple rows. The orchestra circle is six feet below the stage level; and above it on the auditorium side are twelve broad steps, each six inches above the other, on which sixteen hundred chairs are placed at times of performance. Above them, and on the level of the stage floor, is the diazoma, a wide aisle with a wall at the back, which separates the "pit" of the theatre from the upper auditorium. There are nineteen tiers of seats in the upper portion, rising at a sharp angle almost to the height of the top of the stage-wall. The upper section is divided into ten "wedges" by eleven aisles up-and-down. It has a seating capacity of more than four thousand, so that with the chairs on the steps below the diazoma and those which are often placed in the orchestra circle, a total of six thousand or more people can be accommodated. At university assemblies and lectures nearly ten thousand people occasionally THE HEARST GREEK THEATRE AT BERKELEY. ABOVE, THE THEA- TRE IS SEEN IN ITS PRESENT CONDITION. BELOW IS THE ARCHI- TECT'S DRAWING OF THE STRUCTURE AS IT WILL APPEAR WHEN COMPLETED. [JOHN GALEN HOWARD, ARCHITECT] THE MODERN GREEK 33 gather, some being allowed to stand at the entrances and above the highest tier of seats, and additional chairs being placed on the immense stage. The stage building has a cement floor one hundred and thirty-three feet long by twenty-eight feet deep. At the back and at each end there rises a massive wall, more than forty feet high, ornamented with a beautiful design of Doric columns and classic cor- nice. This wall is broken only by five doorways, for the actors' entrances and exits, three at the back and one at each side. The total effect of the "skene," with its spaciousness and almost severe beauty, is singularly impressive. At present the theatre is built entirely of concrete and cement. In time, however, the donor plans to finish the structure in marble. The architect's sketch of the finished building shows a further deco- ration of the stage-wall with bas-relief statues, the addition of walls at the sides of the stage building, and the addition of a portico at the top of the audi- torium a feature common in the finer Roman theatres. The theatre is so beautiful at present, and seems so complete, that one who has not seen the ultimate plan never guesses that the structure is not finished. And yet the plan indicates a subtler architectural beauty and a pervading sense of gran- deur that will be notable additions. 34 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE The Hearst Greek Theatre was not built as an archaeological curiosity. It was the outgrowth of a very definite need. For a decade before its con- struction an annual student play had been produced in the natural amphitheatre which the classic struc- ture now fills, and all the student activities had out- grown the facilities at hand. The theatre was opened in 1903, when a three-days' dramatic festi- val was held, with the dedicatory exercises and the production in Greek of Aristophanes' "The Birds" on the first day, a production of "Twelfth Night" under the direction of Ben Greet on the second, and a production of Racine's "Phedre" in French on the third. Since that time there has been a notable series of professional and amateur productions, every season adding to the list of masterpieces that have been presented and to the list of noted actors who have appeared. Perhaps the most nearly perfect productions have been the revivals by Margaret Anglin of Sophocles' "Antigone" and "Electra." Miss Anglin accepted frankly the conventions which the immensity of the stage and the lack of a curtain imposed; she tri- umphed by fitting the play to the stage, instead of attempting futilely to bring the setting into con- formity with what is commonly considered modern stage art. When Maude Adams produced "As You THE MODERN GREEK 35 Like It," she had the entire stage hidden by a trans- planted forest and thousands of yards of blue cheesecloth, the action taking place in the orchestra pit before the stage. The performance under the night sky with Miss Adams in the stellar role was necessarily charming, but of course it gained nothing from the hidden beauty of the theatre itself. Of other professional productions, Maude Adams' "L'Aiglon" and Sarah Bernhardt's "Phedre" de- serve special mention. The English Club of the University has successfully revived a number of old plays: translations of Schiller's "Maria Stuart," and Ibsen's "The Vikings at Helgeland," and a spec- tacular production of "The Little Clay Cart," from the Sanskrit; and of English drama, among others, "Abraham and Isaac," "Thersytes," Dekker's "Shoemaker's Holiday," Shakespeare's "Merry Wives of Windsor" and "The Winter's Tale," Henry Van Dyke's "The House of Rimmon," Shaw's "Csesar and Cleopatra," and Stephen Phil- lips' "Nero" and "Paolo and Francesca." Nat- urally the Greek department at the University has taken advantage of the unique opportunity to produce Greek drama adequately and has brought forth Sophocles' "Ajax," ^schylus' "Eumenides," and Aristophanes' "The Birds," in Greek; and in Eng- lish Sophocles' "QEdipus Tyrannus." There have 36 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE been also a number of French and German plays, dramatic festivals, students' class plays, and produc- tions by outside amateur and semi-professional com- panies. Altogether the range of material presented has been remarkably wide, and the theatre propor- tionately valuable in teaching the university com- munity and the public how much more there is to dramatic art than the types of play seen in the com- mercial theatres. The first of the California theatres of the Greek or architectural type was built under the direction of Madame Katherine Tingley in the grounds of the International Theosophical Headquarters at Point Loma, in 1901. Following, perhaps, an old tradi- tion that the ancient Greek theatres were purposely built with an outlook over the sea, the auditorium was hollowed out of a hillside facing the open ocean. There are eleven semi-circular tiers of seats, accommodating twenty-five hundred people, and from these the spectators look across the stage, with its floor of tessellated pavement, to a chaste little temple in pure Greek architecture, and beyond that to the deep blue sky and the deep blue waters of the Pacific. The stage stands at the head of a precipi-. tous canyon, through which a path winds up, allow- ing the players to reach the temple unseen by the audience. Although the theatre does not conform THE GREEK THEATRE AT POINT LOMA, CALIFORNIA. THE LOWER VIEW SUGGESTS THE BEAUTY OF THE OUTLOOK OVER THE PACIFIC. [PHOTOGRAPHS COPYRIGHT BY KATHERINE TINGLEY] THE MODERN GREEK 37 to Greek ideas of theatre-building, it achieves to a remarkable degree the beauty that is customarily considered Gr'eek. Certainly no theatre in ancient Greece ever had a greater loveliness, or a more idyllic background. As one comes to it on its preci- pice above the sea, it seems to nestle like some gleaming white jewel in a setting fashioned with perfect artistry. The plays at the theatre, too, have been perme- ated by the Greek spirit. One of the earliest dramas presented was the "Eumenides" of -^Eschy- lus, which Madame Tingley had earlier revived in New York. Recently the productions have been less dependent upon the texts of the Greek authors, being in effect modern compositions informed with the antique spirit. Indeed, there has grown up here what is in some sense a new art form, a sort of decorative drama that is more dependent upon the visual beauty of costumes, natural setting, grouping and dancing, and upon incidental poetry, than upon sustained emotional appeal. Madame Tingley per- sonally directs the productions in the theatre; and she is carrying out her ideal of dramatic art by clothing the action in physical beauty, and at the same time shaping the development of the story so that the whole will prove in some measure a spiritual revelation. Several critics have testified 38 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE to the symbolic effectiveness and unique decorative quality of "The Aroma of Athens," the first produc- tion at which the general public was admitted. And every one who has been in the theatre has remarked on the idyllic beauty of the stage and background. At Cranbrook, the country estate of Mr. George G. Booth, near Detroit, Michigan, one of the most beautiful of modern Greek theatres has been built. The structure is unique in several ways. The low auditorium is set well back from the stage, leaving an unusually large orchestra. The raised stage is flanked by two temple-like structures, which may be used for dressing-rooms or for the musicians. At the rear of the stage the wall joining the two build- ings is pierced by three wide entrances. At times of performances, if the play demands an intimate atmosphere, the openings are curtained and the pro- ducer can then obtain those subtler effects which are characteristic of the small garden theatre stage. At will, however, the curtains can be removed, and the audience then looks through the openings, across a long formal pool, to a second stage building at the rear. On this larger stage the director can pro- duce the more extensive, pageant-like scenes, which depend for their effectiveness upon moving masses of actors, changing colors, and distant processionals. When the Cranbrook Theatre was dedicated, in THE GREEK THEATRE AT CRANBROOK, MICHIGAN. THIS VIEW SHOWS THE UNIQUE INNER STAGE, WITH ITS POOL AND LOGGIA. THE MODERN GREEK 39 the early summer of 1916, with a masque specially written for the occasion by Sidney Coe Howard, every possibility of the structure was tested by the producer, Sam Hume. Some episodes were played on the fore-stage, with the openings curtained; again the processions were seen through the doorways, ap- proaching along the two sides of the pool; and at other times the actors utilized the wide dancing- space of the orchestra. Mr. Hume planned and installed a special lighting system, and he added to the effects it made possible, by beginning the masque in early twilight. The architecture of the Cranbrook Theatre fol- lows in its fundamental forms the early Greek the- atres. But the raised stage is Roman, and the use of the pilasters suggests Renaissance influence. The pilasters and cornices, together with the two relief panels set in the walls of the stage buildings, give an effect of richness foreign to the true Greek theatre, and avoid its usual appearance of austerity. The whole effect has a loveliness without parallel in the existing theatres of ancient or modern times. The structure was designed by Mr. Booth in collabo- ration with Marcus R. Burrowes, an architect of Detroit. The so-called "Greek Theatre" at Bakersfield, California, follows the Roman type in almost every 40 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE structural detail. In the first place, it is built on the flat, instead of being hollowed out of a hillside, as was the Greek fashion; and the "skene" and audi- torium are joined in a single building. The audi- torium, too, forms only a semi-circle, and is set close to the stage, as was the custom in the Roman theatres. The three tiers of seats and the terrace above accommodate only a few hundred spectators, although an upper auditorium could easily be added. The structure is in effect a miniature Roman theatre, occupying an almost unique position among modern open-air structures. What it loses in the sense of majesty, through its smallness, it gains in the sense of intimacy. One can hardly imagine a more charming setting for poetic drama, and especially for those amateur performances that so often are too slight to dominate the large Greek theatre or indoor theatre stages, and yet are very effective in their proper atmosphere on a miniature stage and before a miniature auditorium. The openings in the stage-wall at the back, designed by the architect to be filled by shrubs and hedges, form the only drawback of the theatre, interfering seriously with the acoustics. The mistake is corrected to some extent by hanging heavy curtains during the times of performance. This little theatre is owned by THE MODERN GREEK 41 the city, and is used by schools, musical organiza- tions, and amateur dramatic societies. The open-air theatre at Pomona College, Clare- mont, California, is an interesting hybrid form in which the auditorium is of the classic architectural type, but with a stage background of the nature the- atre type. The auditorium is modelled after that of the Hearst Greek Theatre at Berkeley, having the same arrangement of sunken orchestra-circle, low steps for chairs, diazoma on the level of the stage floor, and more sharply rising tiers of seats above. The one noticeable difference is that tunnel entrances are brought through under the seats, after the man- ner of the old Roman arenas. The stage front is a concrete wall, but for the floor the ground has simply been levelled, and there is no rear stage-wall. The background is simply a park-like landscape with lawn, trees and shrubs. For pageants and masques the advantages of this natural background over the architectural one at the Hearst Greek Theatre are evident; but for the more dramatic sorts of play, that demand concentration of attention, and for the various lectures, academic exercises, concerts, and similar activities for which a college theatre is continually utilized, the structure at Berkeley is incomparably better. The Pomona theatre would seem to be perfectly 42 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE fitted to that sort of dramatic masque which Amer- icans like Thomas Wood Stevens, Kenneth Sawyer Goodman and Joseph Lindon Smith have done so much to develop, a form that demands a flexible background of great natural beauty, to which the rigid architectural wall of the Greek "skene" is totally unsuited. But anything approaching inten- sive drama, and anything demanding close attention to the spoken word and sequence of incident, would lose half its effectiveness on the Pomona stage, be- cause there is no sense of intimacy, and the eye is continually invited to wander from the fore-stage to the beautiful bits of landscape at the back. A study of this theatre greatly strengthens the impression that no open-air playhouse can adequately house both the very dramatic play and the pageant, both Greek tragedy and American masque; the builders must choose the general kind of production to be given, and then build for that.* For Garfield Park, Chicago, a theatre has been planned specifically for pageant-like productions, * Since this book was written I have visited Forest Park Theatre at St. Louis, which also combines a nature stage with an architec- tural auditorium. The stage seems well-equipped for pageant production and other spectacular entertainment. But as I looked at the playhouse, the truth that struck me most forcibly was this: if a theatre is to be in any degree architectural, a real architect should prepare the design. The auditorium at Forest Park appears to have been laid out by an engineer or perhaps by a plumber. It is a thing of concrete steps and iron piping utterly devoid of architectural beauty, and altogether disillusioning. Photographs ABOVE, THE STAGE OF THE GREEK THEATRE AT POMONA, CALIFOR- NIA. HERE AN AUDITORIUM OF THE CLASSIC ARCHITECTURAL TYPE IS COMBINED WITH A NATURE-THEATRE STAGE. BELOW, THE GREEK THEATRE AT BAKERSFIELD, CALIFORNIA. THIS IS A FREE ADAPTATION OF ROMAN RATHER THAN GREEK FORMS. [LEWIS p. HOBART, ARCHITECT] THE MODERN GREEK 43 and like the Pomona theatre it is to have no rear stage-wall. But here the stage is framed by high pillars, two on each side, giving a formal touch and serving to concentrate sight lines on the centre of the stage. These pillars, too, shield lights to be used during performances at night. Another theatre of great size, but in pure classic style, is to be built in one of the parks at Los Angeles, California. The plans call for the im- mediate building of an auditorium seating ten thou- sand spectators, with provision for an eventual addi- tion to seat thirty thousand more. The "skene" will be similar to that of the Hearst Greek Theatre and will be decorated with Ionic columns, but the stage floor will be two hundred feet long and fifty feet deep. Of the modern open-air theatres of purely archi- tectural design in Europe, by far the most interesting is the Arena Goldoni at Florence, Italy. This is a curious combination of the Roman theatre and the arena types. It is like half of an arena with a raised stage opposite the seats. The stage is open at the front, but is roofed. The level floor below the stage, the arena itself in a narrower sense, is of the open-air theatre at Anoka, Minnesota, indicate a similar lack of decorative values. If a theatre is to depart at all from the pure nature-theatre type, the designer should be competent to add that legitimate attractiveness with which the architect is supposed to endow all his creations. 44 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE A ENTRANCE .. B ANTEROOM C ARENA D SCAUNATA E LOGGIA F GALLERY G CARPENTERS ROOMS H WOODCARVtRS R.JOMS I OH {CE J LIBRAW } STORE ROOMS M PHOTOCK! ROOM N STAdC O MECHANICS SHOP P COVRTYARO Q PASSAGES 1^ STAGE S STVDIO T CO\'RT U PWNTINfr OFFICE "P ROOMS OVft stage of the Arena Goldoni, showing the unique arrangement of , "arena," and auditorium. This is one of the few buildings in which an open-air theatre is combined with studios, workshops and offices a type that American "experimental theatre" groups can study to advantage. THE MODERN GREEK 45 larger than the stage, and may be used by the actors if desired, or may be added to the seating space. The auditorium proper is comparatively small, con- sisting of seven rising tiers of stone seats. Back of these there is a portico or loggia, and above that a small gallery where a number of chairs can be placed. Fifteen hundred spectators can easily be accommodated. A certain quiet charm is remarked by all visitors to the theatre. A recent writer has said: "The two immediate impressions which one receives on entering the building are its unexpected- ness and its beauty. On coming in from the nar- row Florentine street the first impression created is one of exquisite surprise, of having discovered some beautiful secret thing. The next impression is of a profound peace, due partly to a certain quietness and dignity in the architecture, partly to the silence, which, for all the keen and varied activities of the many workers, reigns over the whole." The Arena Goldoni stands on the site of an ancient convent and is rich in historic associations. It was built in 1818, as part of an elaborate group of buildings, including ball-rooms, a closed theatre and billiard halls, designed by an ambitious Floren- tine to offer "decent diversions for every season of the year." The diversions in the open-air theatre at this time, however, seem to have been more riot- 46 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE ous than dignified, for there are well-founded stories of official intervention at certain of the gatherings. Recently the Arena has passed into the hands of Gordon Craig and his associates, and it is here that the School for the Art of the Theatre, of which Craig dreamed so lovingly and which he planned so long, has finally been established. Nowhere could there be found an atmosphere more inspiring for the work of dramatic experimenters than in this charming open-air structure that still retains something of the cloistered silence of convent days. Similar theatres built during the nineteenth cen- tury exist elsewhere in Italy, but whatever may have been the development of dramatic art that called them into being, none of them except the Arena Goldoni is now notable for its activities. The only modern European theatre that follows closely the Greek traditions is that at Bradfield in England. Here the auditorium forms considerably more than a half-circle, and the orchestra pit is a complete circle with an altar in the centre, after the Greek fashion. The stage building is an ingenious arrangement of Greek motives, but in a form that has no parallel in the classic theatres. The stage is in effect a covered porch, with the conventional five doorways for entrances and exits. While the building loses much of the dignity and spacious- A CORNER OF THE ARENA GOLDONI, AT FLORENCE, ITALY, AS SEEN FROM THE STAGE. THE MODERN GREEK 47 ness of the classic theatres, this recessed porch would doubtless serve to frame the action and to concen- trate the interest of the audience better than the more open Greek stage. The whole theatre is sur- rounded by masses of foliage, which not only in- crease the sense of shelter but add greatly to the beauty of the place. The finest productions at the theatre have been the classic revivals by Granville Barker, who has pointed the way to so many innovations in the English theatre. Each year the students of Brad- field College produce in the original tongue one of the masterpieces of Greek drama; and the five per- formances of each, given during a week in June, are attended by people from all parts of England. The auditorium, which is of concrete, seats two thou- sand, but only about fourteen hundred spectators have a clear view of the stage. Tickets are not sold for the poorer seats a fact that may be com- mended to the usual commercial managers for thoughtful consideration. The Bradfield theatre is sometimes known as the "Chalk-cliff Theatre," be- cause it was hollowed out of an old chalk-pit. At Beziers, in France, there is a so-called "arena- theatre," built in imitation partly of the Greek the- atre and partly of the Roman amphitheatre, which is larger than any other modern out-door playhouse 48 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE (barring such temporary arrangements as the St. Louis pageant theatre). But the structure is only of wood, and it has been given up chiefly to spectacle and opera, with elaborate and atrocious imitations of indoor-stage settings. Of modern structures modelled after the ancient stadion, circus and amphitheatre (or arena), there are many, such as the bull-rings of Spain and the athletic stadia throughout the world; but these buildings have very little to do with dramatic art. At the Harvard Stadium in Cambridge notable pro- ductions have been staged, as well as in the Yale Bowl and at the stadion of the College of the City of New York. But while the spectacular effects were fine, the acoustic properties of the structures are so poor that a great deal of the true dramatic element was lost. In the stadion at Tacoma, Wash- ington, an annual dramatic festival is held, but very wisely the production is made rather a pageant than a play. Of the contemporary Italian outdoor theatres, or "arenas" as they are often termed, practically all are negligible both architecturally and as con- tributing to dramatic art. Many are simply indoor theatres with the auditorium roofs lifted, with stages that are given over to every sophisticated device that modern "scenic artists" and modern chorus- THE ORCHESTRA AND STAGE OF THE GREEK THEATRE AT BRADFIELD, ENGLAND. THE MODERN GREEK 49 girls can invent. Others have rustic stages but these usually approximate the German beer-garden type, which, indeed, is not unknown in the amuse- ment parks on this side of the Atlantic. A word may profitably be said regarding the type of drama suited to the modern Greek theatre stage. In the first place the lack of a curtain makes necessary the entrance and exit of all the actors in full sight of the audience. In the second place there can be no realistic scenery, so that the mod- ern play that is built with large dependence upon that artificial feature always fails on the bare classic stage. Two types of plays are finely suited to such theatres: first, the Greek tragedies, for nowhere else can they be so well revived with a background reflecting in its dignified architecture the noble beauty of the drama itself; and second, that sort of extensive play which demands a certain concentra- tion of attention and yet has place for pageant-like processions and mob-scenes. Entirely out of place here are the intensive plays that demand an intimate interior atmosphere, as well as the extensive pageants and masques that demand all outdoors for their setting. But the two intermediate types, the purely dramatic play that is clean-cut and gripping enough to dominate the large stage, and the play 50 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE that is built against a background of large masses of actors, here find their finest expression. Because the theatre of classic form is thus better fitted than any other to house certain sorts of drama, and because no finer form of open-air assembly hall has ever been invented for lectures and concerts and meetings, doubtless the Greek or Roman play- house will continue to increase in numbers on univer- sity campuses and in public parks, both in America and in the rest of the world. THE MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS THEATRE AND ITS SURVIVALS AFTER the decay of the Roman theatre, the Western world was barren of dramatic activity for many centuries. The rebirth of the drama came in the elaboration of an incident of the church service, probably in the tenth or eleventh century. The middle of the thirteenth cen- tury saw this activity still purely liturgical in char- acter; but the following fifty years witnessed the development of the Mystery Play, which quickly made its way out of the church into the open; and by the middle of the fourteenth century the separa- tion of the dramatic production from the church service was complete, and outdoor drama was firmly established as an independent expression of religious feeling. The first productions out-of-doors probably were given on the church steps. Although the auditorium was not all the audience might have desired, no finer outdoor stage could be imagined for religious plays. 51 52 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE The towering church facade as background doubt- less intensified the dignity and spiritual effectiveness of the production; the music drifting out to the audience from the church itself must have been strangely appealing; and doubtless God was the more convincing when he came on the stage through the church doors. Probably it was the form of this stage on the church steps that served as a model for the platforms later erected against houses or in the open square, with the people crowding around on three sides. The Mystery Play, following closely the scriptural stories acceptable to the church, soon gave way to the Miracle Play, into which crept gradually apocry- phal stories and legends of the saints, and which was characterized more often by a very broad human feeling than by religious fervor. From the time when the Mystery Play left the church steps to the time when the Miracle stage became a set type, there is little direct evidence regarding the detailed form of the mediaeval theatre. Doubtless it went through many changes, although always it seems to have been of wood, and usually built for a single cycle of performances, to be torn down as soon as the "season" was done. There is extant a description of a theatre built at Autun in 1516, which had an auditorium similar to those built by THE MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS 53 the Romans; but as the writer remarks that there were seats for eighty thousand people, there is a reasonable doubt as to the accuracy of his state- ments. There is also evidence of a sort that a Mystery was produced in the old amphitheatre at Bourges. But the typical auditorium of the mediaeval theatre is only a thing of conjecture. Of the stages on which the Miracles were pro- duced, at least from the end of the fourteenth cen- tury on, there is more knowledge. In France these stages took a set form, usually being raised a few feet, and having at the back representations of the various "localities" from which the characters were supposed to come, or which they were to occupy dur- ing the action. Generally these localities were like boxes or booths, built either directly on the stage floor, or with only a few steps to lift them above the common level; or as a second story, in which case the actors in them were raised above those on the stage into full view of the audience. Some of the Miracle Plays called for as many as twenty-four localities. In the late theatres of this type the local- ities were decorated to indicate the characters to which they belonged, one being for the Virgin Mary, one for God, and so on. Invariably the two local- ities at the ends represented Paradise and Hell, the latter usually being in the shape of a dragon's mouth. 54 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE The well-known engraving of the setting for the Passion Play at Valenciennes in 1547 shows a raised stage with an elaborate series of localities in a curve at the back. Hell is formed by the mouth of a ferocious-looking dragon, and the adjoining Pur- gatory is emitting very realistic flames. Stage of the Passion Play theatre at Valenciennes, 154.7. In England the system of presenting the Miracles in cycles, each guild being entrusted with a certain incident or scene, led to the use of movable instead of stationary stages. The guild of the bakers, appropriately presenting "The Last Supper," could hardly use the same stage-car as the barbers pre- senting "The Baptism of Jesus." And although one stage arrangement might do for the fishmongers with their "Flood" and the shipwrights with "The Building of the Ark," something different would be THE MEDLEVAL RELIGIOUS 55 demanded by the cooks who were entrusted with "The Harrying of Hell" because "they were in the habit of taking things out of the fire." Thus each guild prepared a stage-on-wheels to suit its own appropriate part of the cycle. When the day of performance arrived, into the open space where the play was to be presented was wheeled the first "pageant-car," on which the first incident or act was performed; that finished, car one went on to the next "station," and car two took its place, and so on, until the whole series of cars (varying from three to twenty-four) had formed the stage at each one of the several stations. The cars varied widely in form and appointments. None could be as elaborate as the French stationary stages, but often they were built in two stories, and many of them showed several localities "Hell- mouth" being a characteristic feature now as before. Some were curtained and roofed, while others were open at the top and on three sides. At some of the stations auxiliary stages were built, with an open middle space into which each of the cars in turn was drawn. Similar pageant-cars were utilized in Spain long after they had gone out of use in Eng- land. Lope de Vega wrote four hundred "scenes," designed for production out-of-doors during the pro- cessions of the Bloody Sacrament. These produc- 56 THE OPEN-AIR THEATRE tions were forbidden in Spain in 1765. But even to-day there are survivals of the pageant-car play in parts of Spain, and in such religious processions as that of the Holy Blood at Bruges. In Cornwall a special type of open-air theatre developed in the time of the Miracle Plays. This was in the form of a low amphitheatre, somewhat like our present-day athletic fields, with a few tiers of seats built on heaped-up earthen banks surround- ing the "field" or "stage." The ruins of such the- atres, or "rounds" as they are sometimes called, are found at several places in Cornwall, the best known, and one of the best preserved, being at St. Just, near Penwith. Edwin Norris, in "The Ancient Cornish Drama," describes the structure as follows: "It was an exact circle of 126 feet diameter; the perpen- dicular height of the bank, from the area within, now seven feet; but the height from the bottom of the ditch without, ten feet at present, formerly more. The seats consist of six steps, fourteen inches wide and one foot high, with one on the top of all, where the rampart is about seven feet wide. . . . The benches are of stone." Of the methods of produc- tion and the settings, when the Miracle Plays were brought to the "rounds," there is no authentic evi- dence. It was not a far jump from the pageant-car to the THE MEDIEVAL RELIGIOUS 57 temporary platform stage that was used for the Moralities and early secular plays in England. Nor was it a far jump from that again to the stage of the early Elizabethan playhouse. The first real English theatres had a double origin. When the drama had in succession gone out of the hands of the churchmen and then out of the hands of the guilds, it was carried on by companies of strolling actors. These bands were wont to set up their temporary platforms in the inn courtyards. The encircling galleries formed excellent boxes for the nobles of the audience, while the ground before the stage did very well for the common people. The Elizabethan theatre was evolved from this inn-court arrangement and from the "bear-ring," a sort of arena or amphitheatre in which the people of the time were accustomed to enjoy bear-baiting, cock- fighting and similar edifying exhibitions. James Burbage built the first playhouse, after this pattern, and "The Theatre," "The Swan," "The Rose," and the others, were simply variations of the one type. Thus Shakespeare wrote for a theatre with a high round exterior wall, with a circle of roofed boxes, tier over tier, with a "pit" open to the sky, where the "groundlings" sat, and with a stage partly cov- ered and partly open. How far the theatre de- veloped toward the pure indoor type during the Contemporary sketch of an Elizabethan theatre. This is a rough diagram of the Swan Theatre in London, and