Ex Libris [ C. K. OGDEN ' KM i v. THE DICTIONARY OF MERCHANDIZE, AND Nomenclature in ALL European Languages, FOR THE USE OF COUNTING-HOUSES, $c. CONTAINING THE HISTORY, PLACES OF GROWTH, CULTURE, USE, AND MARKS OF EXCELLENCY, OF SUCH NATURAL PRODUCTIONS AS FORM ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. BY C. H. KAUFFMAN. FOURTH EDITION, Considerably enlarged and improved by an Alphabetical Arrangement of all European Foreign Names of Merchandize, with their Translation into the English Language, BY THE EDITOR OF THE COMMERCIAL DICTIONARY, AND FOREIGN PRICES CURRENT OF EUROPE. LONDON: PRINTED FOB T. BOOSEY, NO. 4, OLD BROAD-STREET, ROYAL EXCHANGE, 1815. (Entered at Stationers' Hall.} W. Wilson, Printer, 4, Grcville-Stret, HaUon-Gaiden, London. PREFACE. THE object of this Dictionary is, to give an ac- count of the origin, places of growth, culture, use, and the murks by which the excellency may be ascertained, of those principal productions of nature which form materials for commerce ; some of these in their original raw state, as spices, seeds, corn, woods, fruit, fyc. others after having received a new form. from human art, as metals, oils, spirits, ashes, salts, /tax, 6fc. But such articles of trade, as have undergone a still further change, to make them Jit for use, and which are com- prehended under the general denomination of manu- factures, as cloths, callicoes, muslins, /tard-ware, earthen-ware, glass, fyc. are excluded from the present work, as being objects not so universally interesting, and requiring by themselves a Dictionary of much larger volume than this. The extent of this undertaking is such, that no man has opportunity or ability, to get thoroughly acquaint- ed with every material article of traffic, so as to describe it from his oioi experience. But the author having been in business for a number of years, and, during his travels in most parts of Europe, made it his study to enquire into the nature of merchandize, flatters him- self to have given from his own observations, a more true and full account of many articles, than i<:a$ car published before. 2015245 IV PREFACE. This publication^ the author presumes, will be one of the most useful and necessary works of a counting- house library ; and, though principally written for the merchant, he conceives, it will be of service to every man of business or curiosity. Every man is in some degree a merchant, in so far, as he has something to buy or to sell ; and it may be interesting for him to acquire a knowledge of the na- ture of his commodity. To render this book the more useful for the foreign, merchant, the names in the twelve most current lan- guages have been prefixed to every article of impor- tance; viz. The letter F. stands for French. G. . . . German. D. . . .Dutch. I. ... Italian. S. . . . Spanish. P. ... Portugueze. DA. . . . Danish. Sw. . . . Swedish. POL. . . Polish. R. . . . Russian. L. . . . Latin. To this Fourth Edition is added the Foreign names O of all articles of commerce, contained in this work, with their translation into English, and by a reference to the English name of each article, the growth, cul- ture, use, and marks of quality will be found. London, January 1, 1815. OF Merchandize contained in this Dictionary, in Twelve different Languages. French. Agaric FRE1 English. Agaric Agate Boards Alabaster Aloes Alum Amber Ambcrgrease Amadon Amethyst Amiartthus Almonds Starch Amomi-seed Aniseed Antimony Anchovies Arrack Arsenic Assa-fcetida Biticum Juadicum Alquifou Silver Slate Oats Small-nuts Smalts Valonea Aloe-wood Annatto Balsam Bamboe *CH. French. English. Barille Barilla Ais Alabatre Bezoard Bezoar Aloe Bismut Bismuth Alun Bidauct Bistre Ambrejaune ... Ambregris ...... Amadon Bistre Bistre Bitume de Judee BitumenJuadicum Bol Bole Amethyste Amiante Bol d'Armenie... Bole Bol fin du Levant Bole Borax Borax Amidon Bcis de Buis Box-wood Brandevin Brandy BoisdeBresil ... Brasil-wood Bresillot Brasiletto-wood Antmoine Ble Sarrasan 7 T> i u m' XT > Buckwheat Ble Noir j Buffle BufFSkins Arsenic Beurre Butter Asphalte Bleds Corn Arquifou .. Bouses Cowries Bois d'Ebene ... Ebony Boisjaune Fustic Bois de Japan .., Japan-wood Bled de Turque Indian Corn Baies de Genevre Juniper berries Bois de Gaic ... Lignum Vitse Bois sait Ditto Avoine Azur d' Holland Avelande Bois d'Aloes...... Bichet BoisdeCamneche Logwood Boisd'Acajou ... Mahogany Bois deMahagony Ditto Bois de Nephretic Nephritic wood Bleu de Prusse... Prussian blue BoisdeQuassie... Quassia Bambou "1 Bamboches ... \- Baniboucs ,..J VI NOMENCLATURE. French. English. Boisde Rose Rose-wood Blanc de Baleine Spermaceti Couperose bleue Blue vitriol Cuirs de Buenos Avres ,, Buenos Ay res hides French. English. Crema de Tartar Cream of Tartar Cubebs Cubebs Colle forte Glue Cheveux Human hair Calaminc Calamine Camphre Camphire Corne Horns Cantharides Cantharides Capres Capers Caoutchou Indian rubber Colle dePoisson... Isinglass Cuir Leather Cumin des pres. . . Ditto Cardamomes Cardamom Citrons ............ Lemons Chene Oak Cassia sobutive ~] Cassc en batons I ou en canons > Cassia Fistula Canefice j Cassefistule ...j Cassia tignea...} Casse enbois... f ,-, . T . Candle de la f Cassia Lignea Chine ) Castoreum Castoreum Cendres de Perle Pearl ashes Charbons de terre Pit-coal Chiffon Drapeaux Rags Cartame Safllower Curcuma Turmerick Cendres bleues ... Verditer Cire Wax Cliaux de plomb Ditto Dattes ... . Dates Diamanl Diamond Dictame blanc... Dittany Chataignes Chesnuts Douves a Pipe ... Staves, pipe-staves D'Outremer Ultramarine Eauforte . Aquafortis Cloux de Girofle Cloves Cobalt Cobalt Eau regale Aqua regia Eau de vie Brandy Escarboucle Carbuncle Cochenille Cochineal Ecorcede Winter Cortex Winteranus Ederdon Eider-down Cafe Coftee Emeraude .. .. Emerald Colophony Colophone Emeri Ditto Essences Essences Encens fin ou male ... .. Ditto Cornaline Cornelian Colon, en lauie... Cotton- wool Cauris Ditto Etain... Tin NOMENCLATURE. Vll French. English. Ecaille de tortue Tortoise-shell French. English. Huile de lin Linseed oil Huile Oil Fleurs de Casse... Cassia buds Huile de palme Palm Oil Fraxinelle Dittany Huile de Senegal Ditto Huile de navette Rape Oil Fenu-grec Fenugreek Fiffues ., . Fiers Huile de poisson Train Oil Herbe a jaunii'j... Weld; Dyers Weed Fleur de musade Mace Fanons de baleine Whalebone Ipecacuanha Ipecacuanha Graine de trefle Clover seed Iris de Florence Orris, or Jreos root Girofle Cloves Kermes de Pro- Galles Galls Gomme gutte ... Gamboge L'Orcanette Alkanet root Gentiane Gentian L'Orcanete ...... Anchusa>or6ws'70M Gingrembre . ,. Ginsrer . ^ Ginseng Ginseng Lin Flax Graines de para- Lichen ou mousse d' Island Iceland-moss Limons Lemons Lin Linseed Litharge ........ Litharge Gomme elastique India rubber Grainesd'ecarlate Kermes Gommelacque ... Lac ; Gum Lac Mine de plomb noir Mack lead Graine de lin ... Linseed Graine de lucerne Lucerne-seed M ouches d'Es- Garance Madder Morue Codfish Graine de mou- IVIaniciuette . . Ditto Graine de navette Rape-seed Malaguette Ditto Miel Honey Macis .. Mace Gaude Weld Dyer's We ed JVIanne ... . Manna Graine d'avignon Yellow berries Marbre Marble Mastic Mastich Huiledericin ... Castor Oil Mil Millet Millet Ditto Vlll NOMENCLATURE. French. English. Muse .. Musk French. English. Myrrhe . Myrrh Pistaches Pistacia-nuts Minium Rpd leaf! Poix Pitch Nard Indienne... Spikenard Noix d'Acajou... Acajou-nuts Noir d'ivoire ... Ivory-black Noir de fumee ... Lamp-black Nacre Mother of pearl Prunes se ches... Plumbs Porphyre Porphry Potasse Pot ashes Pommes de terre Potatoes Prunes de brig- noles Prunes Noix de mu.'cade Nutmegs Noix vomiques... Nux Vomica Noisettes ......... Small-nuts j hazel- Pierre-ponce ... Pumice-stone Plumes d ecrire Quills nuts Noird'Allemagne Frankfort-black Oignon de fleurs Bulbs, flower roots Oliban Frankincense Pastel Woad Q,uede Ditto Racine d'Angeli- que Angelica root Or Gold Olives Olives ^ assa( | 1 1 e I Beads; glass beads Rocaille j Racine de Colom- bo Columbo-root Onix Ditto Oranges Oranges Raisins de Co- rinthe Currants Oignon marin ... Squill juice Petit povre Agnus-castus seed Plomb de Mine Black lead Potelot Ditto Rum Rum Roux Ditto Peuux de buffles Buff-skins Pierre calami- SafFran batard ... Safflower Saffranon Ditto Sagou Sa^o Saltpetre Saltpetre Poil de chevre ... Goat's-hair Saphir Sapphire Salsepareille Sarsaparilla Sassafras ... Sassafras Peaux Hides Plomb Lead Sandal SauHders Perleasse Pearl ashes Santal .. . Ditto Perles Pearls Scamonee Scarnmonv Poivre Pepper Sene Sena Petrole Petrole' Oil of Pe- Seneen feuilles... Ditto Sel Salt ter NOMENCLATURE. IX French. Sel Ammoniac... English. Sal ammoniac Rye Soap Silk Squill Storax Ditto Tallow Sugar Sugar candy Sumac SaccharumSaturni Amber Ammeos-seed Barilla Brimstone Bristles China-root Cornelian Cortex Simarouboe Dragon's blood Epsom salt Acacia Molasses Worm-seed Argol, or Tartar Oak bark French. Terre a foulon ... Terre du Japan English. Fuller's earth Japan earth Linens Tamarinds Tea Tick, or ticking- Tobacco Tripoli Truffles Ditto Turmerick Turpentine Vanilla Verdigrise Vermillion Vinegar Weed ashes Wine Woad Beads; glass beads Blue vitriol Ditto Bugles Gum heder Kermes Quicksilver Savon Soie Scille The Styraz Taves Suif Trusses Sucre candy Sumac Terre merite Sucre de Saturne Succin Tereben thine ... Semence d'amtni Souede ............ Verd-de-gris Vermilion Squine Vedasse Sarde Vin Simarouba Sang de dragon Sel d'Epsom ... Vouede Verroterie ...... Vitriol bleu Sue d'Acacia ... Syrop de sucre Sementirie Tartre Vitriol de chypre Verroterie Vesin hedre Vermilion V if ardent. German. Achat GER English. Agate Acajou-nuts Alabaster Aloe Aloe -wood Allum Amber Ambergfease Amethist Ammeos-seed Ditto ' Amomi-seed Anchovies Angelica root MAN. German. English. Aniseed Ditto Antimony Armenian bole Arrack, or rack Arsenic Cortex winteranuf Oysters Snake root Starch Valonea Ipecacuanha Akaju-niissee ... Alabaster Ariis saarnen Antimonium ... Armeni^cher ... Aloe-holtz Alaun Agtsteen Amerikanische gewiirzrinde... Ambra Amethist Ammey Amerikandische Amny samen ... Amomchen Anchojcn Ackerdoppen ... A merikanische brechwurzel.,. Angelica vvurzel NOMENCLATURE. German. Balsam English. Balsam German. English. Lemons Bamboe China-rinde Peruvian bark Bleyglantz Bernstein Alquifou Amber Datteln Dates Bolu< . .. Armenian bole Deals Blauer bolus Armenian stone Diamant Diamond Bark cich enrinde Duen Down loth Bark-oak Drachenblut ... Dragon's blood Bier Beer Des Horns Beryll Beryl Bezoar Bezoar Angelica root Bister Bistre Eervptischer Acacia Blauer vitriol Blue vitriol Ebony Bretern Boards Eiderdunen Eider-down Bole Epsom salz ...... Epsom salts Buxbaum-holz Bo^ wood Essences Branntewein Brandy Gentian Brasilien-holz Brasil-wood Iron Borsten Bristles Ivory Buchweizen Buenos Avres Buck-wheat Elfelbein schwarz Ivory-black Peas * haute BuenosAy res hides Vinegar Biiffelhaute Blumenturebln... Buff skins Bulbs, flower roots Eisenvitriol Copperas Oak Butter Butter Cast ore um Bole Bakalau Cod fi>,h Fenchel samen ... Fennel -seed Baumwolle Cotton wool Fpicrpn Fio-s Bettfedern Feathers j bedfcu- Fiehe Fish thers Flax Blei Lead Frankfurter Sch- Blauholz Logwood Frankfort black Bisam Muak Foerberrothe Madder Blutholz Nicaragua- wood Fi^ch thran Train oil Berliner blau ... Prussian blue Whalebone Brimstein Pu m i ce-stone Federii Feather* bedfea- Bleyzucker Saccharum saturni, or sugar of lead Felle thers Skins Bade-schwamm Buirncnsu"' . Spunge Tick, or tickin " Barley Bergblau , Verdi ter Glasperlen Beads -glass bcuds Bley weiss White lead Glaskorallen Ditto Galmey Calcimine Cassia lignea Cederholz China-wurzel ... Cassia Lignea Cedar-wood China root Geworznelken ... Geigenharz Cloves Colophony Corn Cochenille Cochineal Gelbholz Fustick Columbo-wurzel Colmnbo-root Galgant Galangal NOMENCLATURE. German. Gallapfel ... English. Galls^ German. English. vappern ><. Capers Gummigut ...... Gamboge Genever ... Geneva Gentian varfunckle-stein Carbuncle 'Cardamom lien Cardamom Ginsen" v'armin. Carmine Gold Gold asiabltith Cassia-buds Granates 'Cassiablumen ... Ditto Granite G u m va;sienrinde...... Cassia li^nea Gurnmi elasticum Indian rubber Gummilake Lac j eum lac Glette Litharge vastanien ......... Chesnuts Nephritic- wood van eli 1 Cinnamon Getroeknete ...... Plumbs vleesaat Clover-seed Giftwurzel Snake root Kobalt Cobalt Gru'nspan Verdigrise vakao . . Cocoa Gelb Beeren Yellow -berries Vokos-niiss Coco-nuts iCobliau Cod-fish Hiitten-rauch ... Arsenic iCaffe Coflee Hair human hair t^oloquinter ...... Colocynth Haare vonthieren Hair of animals K.upfer Copper Hanf Hemp E^upferwasser ... Copperas Herrings Halite Hides Honey Hops Korn Corn Hausenblase Isinglass Millet Kauris Cowries Oats Hafer Ditto Haselnusse Hazel-nuts Heidekorn Buck-wheat Kupferdruker schwarze ...... Frankfort-black Indianischer rohr Bamboe Kraftwurzel Ginsenf Judenpech-bi~ 7 Juadicuvn, or Jew's tumen C pitch In^wer Ginger Ditto Karloffelen Potatoes Jalapwurzel ... .. Jalap Kiibsen Rape-seed Japanische Japan earth Kandizucker ... Sugar candy Japanholtz ... Japan wood Kurkuma Turmeric Jasper Keusch-lam-sa- Islandisches moos Iceland Mos Indigo Indigo Krcehenaugen ... Nux vomica Jamaicapfefter ... Konigs wasser ... Kupfer vitriol ... Pimento Aqua regia Blue vitriol Lerchen-schwaimn Agaric Langer kummel Cummin Xll NOMENCLATURE. German. Lun^enmous ... Leder Limoen Linnen Leinsaat Leinnl Luzerne-saamen Lumpend vodden English. Langvvort Leather Lemons Linens Linseed Linseed oil Lucerne-seed Rao-s Mausse-gifft ... Arsenic Mandeln Almonds Mehl Flour Mensehenhaar... Hair, human hair Mays Indian corn Muskatbliilhe ... Mace Mahoganyholz... Mahogany Manna Manna Marmor Marble Mastix Mastich Matten Matts Mohe Mohair Mooe Ditto Myrrhen Myrrh Muscatniisse Nutmegs Manning Red lead Meerzwiebel ... Squill Nikaragaholz ... Nicaragua-wood Nieswurz Hellebore Ochsenzungen- wurzel Orkanet Orlean Oehl Oliven , Onyx Or.-elje Operment Oder peruanische Aikanet-root Anchusa, and do. Annatto Oil Olives Onyx Orchella Orpirnent Snake root Paradies korner Grains of Paradise Purgier kassia ... Cassia fistula Pelzwaik Furs Pockliolz Lignum vitae Perl-mutter Mother of pearl Pomeranzen ... Oranges Palmol Palm oil German. English. Perlasche Pearl ashes Perlen Pearls Pfeffer Pepper Pimento Pimento Pistazien .... Pistacia-nuts Pistaschen Ditto Pech Pitch Perphyr Porphyry Pottasche Potashes Prunelien Prunes Posen Quills Pottloth Black lead Pipenstabs Staves ; pipe-staves Quassienholz Quecksilber . Quercitron . Rothe ochesen- zunge Rothstein RoteL-tein Hack Ratten- pulver ... Ru>.>-schv\arze... Romischer vitriol Roehrtnka>sia ... Ricimus-oel Hulirwurzel Rosinen Rubol Riib saat Khabarber Reiss Ro.-enhaltz Rubin Rum Koggen Rauchwark Ruhrwurzd Quassia Quicksilver Quercitron bark Anchusa Armenian bole Ditto Arrack, or rack Arsenic Bistre Blue vitriol Cassia fi>tulae Ca-tor oil Cortex simaroubae Raisins Rape oil Rape-seed Rhubarb Rice Ruby Rum Rye Furs Ipecacuanha Steinkohlen ...... Pit-coal, stone-coal Saftlor ............ Saffiovvtr Saffian ............ Saflron Salmiak ............ Salammoniac Salz ............... Salt Saltpeter ......... Saltpetre NOMENCLATURE. German. English. German. English. Thee Tea Sassaparilla Sarsaparilla Tabak Tobacco Tchiklkrbten ... Tortoise-shell Sandelholz Saunders Skamrnonie Scammony Tru^sell Truffles Senesblatter Ditto Unoechtes palmoel Castor oil Sumack ...... .. Ditto U.tramariu Ultramarine Schiefer ......... Slate Vedlenwursel .. Orris, or Ireosroot Smalt blaussei .. Smalts Vanilje Vanilla Venniijon Vennillion Steinol Petrol Spikeanarden ... Spikenard Schvvamm ,. Sounfe Wilder saflran ... Safflower Wacks VVax, bees' -wax I O Storax Storax Waidasche Weed ashes Wau Weld, dyer's weed Schlehe-dorn ... Acacia Waude Ditto Schlehen-safft ... Ditto Schaf-miillen ... Agnus castus-seed Wallfechbarden Whalebone Spesss^lass Antimony Wein Wine Schfcidwasser ... Aciua-fortis Waid Woad Schwefel Brimstone Wolle Wool Spanische fliegen Cantharides Schokolate Chocolate Worm-saamen ... Worm-seed \Vinters rinde ... Cortex winteranus Scharlach- wurm Cochineal Weinstein Cream of Tartar Stock-fisch Cod-fih Weisser diptam... Dittany Schneckenhopfe Cowries Schmero'el Emerv W^achholder bee- Scharlach-beeren Kermes ren Juniper berries- Wcihrouch Frankincense juice Walkererde Fuller's earth Senfsaat ......... Mustard -seed Zucker Su^ar Tannen-schwamm Agaric Zink Zinc Teufelsdreck ... Assa-fcetida Zinnober Cinnabar Tiirkisch korn ... Indian corn Zimmet Cinnamon Tal^ Tallow Zibcth ... .. ... Civet Tamarinden Tamarinds Theer Tar Zieffen-haar ... Goats* hair XIV NOMENCLATURE. ITALIAN. Italian. Aringhe ... < English. Herrings Italian. English. Beer Ivorv Berillo Beryl Avolio Ditto Bezoar Avena Oats Bezzuano Do. Argento vivo..... . Quicksilver Bismuth Acacia Bitume giudacio Bitumen Juadicum Agata Aerate Bolo Bole Alabaster Aloe Box- wood Archifooiio Alquifou Alum Brasileto Brasiletto-wood Ambra gialla ... Amber Bufalo Buff? skins .Ajnbracane Amber-orease Bulbi Bulbs \jlo~MCT roots Amethyst Burro 7 Amianthus Butiro 5 Butter A mmeos-seed Baccala 7 Ditto Baccalare Cod-fish Amomi-seed Biadi Corn Acciu or he Anchovies Bambagia Cotton wool Anchusa Bruscandoli Hops Angelica Angelica root Bisi Pease Aniseed White lead Antimonio Antimony Acqua forte . .... Aqua-fortis Beads ; glass beads Acqua-regia Aqua-regia Cervogia Beer Arrack ; rack Cuojo di bufalo Buff-skins Arsenic Busies Assafetida Assafcetida o Camphire BitumenJuadicurn Cantarelle Cantharides Boards Cappari Capers Brandy Caraway -seed Acquarzente ... Ditto Silver Carbonchio Cardamomi Carbuncle Cardamom Small nuts j hazel Canninio Carmine nuts Starch Cassia fistola Cassili'na Cassia fistula Casssia Lignea Ditto Castorio Castoreum Azurrro di mon- Caviario Caviare Verdi ter Caviale Ditto Vinegar Cedro Cedar-wood Azzuro Prussiano Prussian blue Cacio Cheese Castagne ...... .. Chesnuts Balsam Ciocolata Chocolate Bamboe Cinabro . . Cinnabar NOMENCLATURE. XV Italian. English. Cinnamon Italian. Dittamo bianco. . . English. Dittany Chiovi di o~arofa.no Cloves Jasper Cobalto Cobalt Doghe di botti ... Staves ; pipe-staves Coccmio'lia Cochineal Diamond o Cocoa Do. Ebano Ebonv Cocchi Cocoa-nuts Essenze Essences Caffe Coffee Erbione Pease Coloquintid Colocynth Elleboro Hellebore Colophony Erba guada Weld j dyer's wood Copparosa verde Copperas Coral Buckwheat Coriandro Coriander Ditto ; flour Curiandolo Ditto Cornelian Fiori di cassia ... Frassinella Cassia buds Dittany Cotton wool Finocchis Fennel-seed Cori Cowries Fichi Fies Crema di Tartaro Cream of Tartar Iron Cubebi Cubebs Pistacia nuts Cummin Fedra Tick, or ticking Ditto Fromento Wheat Colla , . Glue Fromaggio Cheese Capelli umani ... Hair; human hair Hemp Guadarelia Weld, dyer's meed Hides Saffron Cuerno Horns Grana sarraceno Buckwheat Cacciu Japan earth Giallamina ...... Calamine Catto Ditto Garosani Cloves Cola di pesee ... Isinglass Ditto Cocole di ginepo Juniper berries Corn Chermes ......... Kermes Galanga ..... Galan cr al Ditto Galle Galls Ditto Ditto Cufcjo Leather Gommao'utta . Gamboge CaniDeo'o-io leerno Genziana Gentian tauro ......... Logwood Gen"iovo .... . Ginger Cippola Onions Ginseng ......... Ginseng Cenere di perla Pearl ashes Granates ; garnets China Peruvian bark Granito ... Granite Chinacchina Ditto Gum Carboni fossili ... Contra erba Pit-coal Snakt-r,oot Gomme cedera... Grano Turco o Gum Heder Cipolla marina... Squill ; sea-onion Tar Siciliano Grano d' India ... Indian corn Ditto Curcuma Turmerick Gomma o resina. Cera \Vax j bees' wax e^lastica ...... Indian rubber Kermes Datteri Dates Gommalacca ... Lac ' sutn-lac XVI NOMENCLATURE. Italian. (rUiljaCO > English. Lignum vitse Rushes Wheat Woad Orris, or ireos root Italian. Miso English. Rice Frankfort black Lamp-black Ditto Nutmegs Nux vomica Saltpetre Small nuts ; hazel nuts Gold Linseed oil Oil Olives Orchella Ditto Orpiment Oysters Palm oil Rape oil Annatto Barley Castor oil Train oil Ultramarine Whalebone Millet Furs Goats' hair Hair ; hair of ani- mals Langwort Lead Liquorice ; Spanish liquorice Pearls Pease Pepper Petrol ; oil of petrc Pimento Pistacia nut* Pitch Plumbs Porphyry Pot ashes Nero di Germania Nero di fumo ... Negro fuuio Glastro Noci muscado ... Noce vomiche ... Nitro Ipecoacanna Incense ..... .. Ipecacuanha Incense, or Frank- Indigo [incense Flax Hops Japan-wood Fustic Lignum vitas Linseed Litharge Mahogany Nicaragua- wood Quassia Aloe -wood Brasil-wood Rose-wood Slate Ditto Wool Lemons Mace Grains of Paradise Honey Manna Marble Mastich Millet Mohair Molasses Mother of pearl Musk Mustard-seed Myrrh Oranges Red lead Almonds Ditto Beads; glass beads Black lead Indaco ... Nocciuole Oro .. Legno de Japan Legno giallo Lego santo Ll 11SC 11 1C Olio di lino Olio Olive Litar'iris Legno mogano... Legno sanguigno Legno di quassia Legno di aloe ... Legno de brasile Leger-redie Lav3"na Orpimento O>triche Olio di palma ... Olio di ravizzoni Oriana Orzo Olio di ricino ... Olio di pesce ... Oltramarino Lastra Limoni Osso di ballena... Panicastrello Meleghetta Pelo di capra ... Pelo Palmonaire de chone Miglio Piombo Mielazzodizuce- Pasta liquirizia... Perle Madreperla Aluschio Piselli Pepe .. Mirra Petroleo ... . Melarance Minio Pepe gaiaianato Pistacchi Pece Prune a-sausine Porfido Margheritine ... Miinradipiombo NOMENCLATURE. XV1J Italian. Patate Pomi di terra ... Pietra pomice ... Penne da serivere Piombaggine ... Pietra calamina- ris Porcellanc Penna matta Piumini ... Piume Pisei Pelli Preseie Piane English. Potatoes Ditto Pumice-stone Quills Black-lead Calamine Cowries Down Ditto Feathers Figs Skins, fells Spars Deals Quado Woad Quadone Ditto Quercia Oak Raspa Robbia Recella Ravizzone Rabarbaro Reobarbaro Radice China ... Radice di colum- bo Rame Rubino Rum Orchella Madder Orchella Rape-seed Rhubarb Ditto China root Columbo root Copper Ruby Ruin 5ciarappa Jalap Sluoje Matt; Senapa Mustard seed Susinedebrignola Prunes Strucci Rags Strasse Ditto Semenz d'agno casto Agnus castus seed Seizia de quercia Bark ; oak bark Solf'o Brimstone Setole Bristles Semenza di tri- foglio Clover-seed Sughero Cork Snvero . Ditto Italian. English. Simaruba Cortex simaroubcR Scorza magelanica Cortex winterianus Smcratdo Emerald Smuriglio Emery Smeregio Ditto Sale di Epsom ... Epsom salt St'gale Rye Segala Ditto Sago Sage Sale ammoniaco Sal ammoniac Sale Salt Salnitro Saltpetre Salsapariglia Sarsaparilla Sassafrasso Sassafras Scamonea Scammony Sena Sena; senna Sommaco Sumac Seta Silk Smalto azzuro ... Smalts Smaltino Ditto Sapone Soap Spemaceti Spermaceti Spigenarde Spikenard Spugna Spunge Spungia Ditto Scilla Squill; sea-oniojt Storace Storax Sevo Tallow Sego Ditto Stagno Tin Santonies .. . Worm-seed Terra da purga- tori Terra cattu Terra Japonica... Tela Tartaro Tavole Tallia Tamarindo Tobacco Topazio Tartaruga Tripoli Trementina .. .. Terra d'ombre.. Fuller's earth Japan earth Ditto Linens Argol Deals Rum Tamarinds Tea Tobacco Topaz Tortoise-shell Tripolo Turpentine Umber XV111 NOMENCLATURE. Italian. English, Ulive Olives l.'ve passe Raisins Ueusa Aikanet root Urianna Annatto Urucu Ditto Uve passe di Co- r into Cu rrants Urnbria Umber Vermiglione Kermes Vena Oats Vallonea Valonea Valonia Ditto Vainiglia Vanilla Verderame Verdigrise Vermiglione Vermillion Vino... . Wine Italian. English. Vitriolo turchino Blue vitriol Verzino , , . Brasil wood Zenzero 1 Zen/overo . }~ Ginger Zinzibo J Zatfetiea . , , . Assafootida Zelemina .... Calamine Zibetto .... Civet Zaffvone .... Saftlovver ZafFerano .... Ditto Zucchero de sa- .,.. Saccharum satnrni Zamro , . , . Sapphire Zuccaro .... Sugar Zinco .... Zinc ; spelter SPANISH. Spanish. Acacia verdadera English: Acacia Agate Alabaster Aikanet root Almonds Aloes Ditto Aloe-wood Alquifou Alum Amber Amber-grease Amethyst Ditto Amianthus; earth flux Ammeos-seed Ditto Amomi-seed Anchovies Anchusa; alkanet Angelica root Aniseed Spanish. English. Annatto Ditto Antimony Aqua fortis Aqua regia / Arrack, or rack Arsenic Assa fcetida Beads ; glass beads Bitumen judairum Brandy Brimstone Buff skins Bugles Camphire Caraway-seed Castor oil Civet Cotton wool (Jails Ginger Herrings Indigo Achote Antirnonio Aqua fuerte Aqua rejia, 6 real Arak Arcaneta Almendras Aloe Ar^emro Aloe chino Alquifolovidriado Asfalto Aguardiente Azufre Arnbargris Ante ,. Alcanfor Ameos Aceyte de ricino Alffodon \(r;il];is .. Arcaneta Agengibre AreiK[ues Anil NOMENCLATURE. XIX Spanish. Aceite de linaza Almartaga English. Linseed oil Litharge Manna Mastich Ditto Musk Oats Oil Olives Pistacia-nuts Prussian blue Quicksilver Rape oil Red lead Rice Saccharum saturni Safflower Ditto Saffron Small nuts ; hazel nuts Smalts Starch Ditto Sugar Train oil White lead Capers Palm oil Tar Balsam Barnboe Barilla Beryl Bezoar Ditto Bismuth Bitumen judaicum Jew's pitch Bole Borax Box-wood Brasil-wood Brasiletto wood Cod-fish Cowries Juniper berries Spanish. Ballenaspalode7 cotilla 3 English. Whale-fins ; whale- bone Annatto Bark ; oak bark Barley Beer Bristles Bulbs ; flower roots Calami ne Carnphire Cantharides Carbuncle Ditto Cardamom Carmine Cassia-fistula Ditto Ditto Cassia lignea Ditto Castoreum Caviare Cedar-wood Chesnuts China root Chocolate Cinnabar Cinnamon Cloves Ditto '" Cobalt Cochineal Cocoa Cocoa-nuts Coffee Colocynth Ditto Colophony Copper Coral Coriander Citto Cork Cornelian i Cortex winteranus Cubebs Almastiga Almaciga Cortezado do en- Alniizcle Aceite Aceitunas Cerdas Alfocigos Cebellos de flore Azul de Prussia Azogue Aceite de nabina Cantaridas Carbunculo Cardamomos Carinin Azucardesaturno Azafran bastardo Azafran Canafi^tela ...... Casia purgante... Casia fistola Avellanas Azul de azur ... Amidon Casia lerrosa...... Casalignea Aim i don ......... Azucar Aceito de pescado Albayalde Alcaparras Cocolmeca Aceite de palma Balamo ......... Clavos de especia Clavillo* ... Cobalto Cochinilla Berilo Cacao Bezar Cafe Bismuth Coloquintidas ... Callabacillas Betunjudaico ... Bol Cobre ... Coral ... . ..... Box Cilantro . .. Brasil Culantro ......... Brasilete Corcho Bacallao Bucios Cortf za winterano Bavas de enebro XX NOMENCLATURE. Spanish. English. Comino Cummin Spanish. Fresmllo ......... English. Dittany Chitan Dittany Flojel Down Cola Glue Cabellos Hair; human hai r Corn Canamo Hemp Galantjal Col-pez... . Isinglass Gommoguta Gamboge _^ Cuero Leather Guta o-arnba .. Ditto Caoba "Mahogany o Grana del parai e o Grains of Paradise Caobana Ditto Granates ; garnets Chancaca Molasses Granites Granite CJocha de nacar Mother of pearl Goma Gum Carballo Oak Gomme yedra ... Gum heder Cebolla Onions Goma l Hides Salitre Saltpetre Salsa-parilha ... Sarsaparilla Pao sancto Lignum vitae Panno de linho... Linens Pao de campoche Logwood Senna Ditto Sumacrre ... Sumac Seda Silk Pimenta da Ja- Seteio Rye Semente de nabos Rape seed, cole seed Semente de luzer- Passad'amings... Plumbs Semente de agno Pomos Vanilla Verdete Verdi grise Verdegris Ditto Verdemontanha Verditer Vermelhao Vermillion- Vinegar Wine Velorios Beads; glass -beads Vitriolo de cobre Blue vitriol Cowries Zinco Zinc ; spelter DUTCH. Dutch. English. Agaatsteen Agate Albaster Alabaster Amandelen Almonds Aloe Aloe Aloe-hout Aloe- wood Aluin Alum Ambergrys Amber-grease Amathisteen ... Amathyst Amyzaad Ammeos-seed Amomizaad Amomi-seed Ansjoves Anchovies ' Angelica Angelica root Anys Aniseed Anys-zaad Ditto Arak Arrack; rack Arsenik Arsenic Ajuin Onions Aardappelen ... Potatoes Arduin Slate Amydon Starch Ameldonk Ditto Akerdoppen Valonea Azyn Vinegar Ameril Emery Barnsteen Amber Balsem Balsam Bamboesrieten , . . Bamboe Dutch. Eng' Bier ...; Beer Berylsteen ...... Beryl Bezoarsteen Bezoar Bismuth Bismuth Bergsteen Ditto Blaau vitrioul ... Blue vitriol Berden Boards Borden Ditto Bolus Bole Brandewyn Brandy Brasilienhout ... Brasil-wood Brasilethout Brasiletto-wood Borstels Bristles Boekweit Buck wheat. Buflekleer Buft' skins Buffel-huiden ... Ditto Bolien Bulbs: flower Boter Butter Beervergeil Castoreum Bakkeljauw Cod-fish Bitterappeleu ... Colocynta Boomwol (,'otton wool Bedveern Feather,-* ; bcd-fea- thtrs Bout Furs Boi.twerk Ditto Braakworstel ... Ipecacuanha Braaknooteu . Nux vomira XXV111 NOMENCLATURE. Dutch. English. Brai ., Pitch Berlins blaauw . . . Prussian blue ; Ber- lin-blue Bres Rushes Basterd satfran ... Safflower Belltulyk Tick; ticking Banilje Vanilla Balein Whale-fins ; whale- bone Balyn Ditto Bloedhout Nicaragua wood Bergblaauw Verditer Ceder China\vortel Cinabar Caneel Civet Cochenilje Columbo wortel Coper Citroenen .. Cedar wood China root Cinnabar Cinnamon Civet Cochineal Columbo root Copper Lemons Dadels Dates Daayen Ditto Deelen Deals Demant Diamond Diamant Ditto Donsv^-.. Down Draakenbloed ... Dragon's blood Duivelsdreck ... Assa-fbetida Dambesien Juniper-berries Eik Oak Erwten Peas Ebbenhout Ebony Ebbehout Ditto Esmeraud Emerald Epsom zout Epsom salt Foelie Mace Foely Ditto Flores Safflower Fluweelzwart ... Ivory black Galinga Galangal Galnooten Galls ; gall-nuts Gcnever Geneva Dutch. English. Gember Ginger Gentiaan ... t Gentian Ginsem Ginseng Ginseng ......... Ditto Gom Gum Gomme...c Ditto Granaaten Granates; garnets Granitsteen Granite Goud Gold Guineas grein ... Grains of Paradise Gitte gom Gamboge Gutta gamba ... Ditto Gutte gom Ditto Genever-bessen Juniper berries Grein Kermes Gomlak Lac ; gum-lac Gelit Litharge Geerst Millet eers Ditto Gierst Ditto Gravehout Nephritic wood Garst Barley Gerst Ditto Geroffles Cloves Groen vitriool ... Copperas Graanen Corn Geelhout Fustic Giftwortel Snake root Huisenblaas Isinglass Hair Hair; human hair Hair Hair; hair of ani- mals Ilaringen Herrings Hennip Hemp Honig Honey Honing Ditto Hoppe Hops Hoorn Horns Huiden Hides Haver Oats Hazelnooten ... Small nuts; hazel- nuts Hout kassie Cassia lignea Jamaica peper... Pimento Jodcnlym Bitumen judaicnm Jew's pitch NOMENCLATURE. XXIX Dutch. English. Jalap Dutch. Kwickzilver English. Quicksilver Japaansche rarde Japanhout ...... Japan earth Japan wood Keelduivel Rum Sugar candy Jasper Kandy zuiker ... Ditto Indisfo . Indis'o Kurkuma Turmeric O Kaas Cheese Loodslans Akmifou Kavejaar Caviare o Glue Kastanien Chesnuts Longemos Longwort Kavsten ^en Ditto Lead Klaver zaad Clover-seed Ditto Kruid na^elen ... Cloves Leather Kobald Cobalt Ditto Kakau Cocoa Lemons Kokosnooten ... Cocoa-nuts Lywant ......... Linens Kalappusnooten Ditto Linseed ; flax-seed Kabeljaauw Cod-fish Lynoli Linseed oil Koffv Coffee Luzerne zaad ... Lucerne-seed Coral Loodwit ......... White lead; cerucc Koriander Coriander Lood-suiker Saccharum saturni Kork Cork Koren Corn Meel Flour Karneol Cornelian Moerderkaneel . . . Cassia lignea Katoen Cotton- wool Mee Madder Kauris Cowries Ditto Cubebs Mahoo'nvhout . Mahogany Cummin o J Manna Koren ten Currants Marble Ditto Marmalada Marmalade Kuischboom zaad Agnus castus-seed Mastik Mastich Koningswater ... Aqua regia Matten Matts Koper vitriool ... Blue vitriol Moor Mohair Calamine Mu^kus ... Musk Kalamynsteen ... Kamfer Ditto Camphire Mosterd zaad ... Mirrhe Mustard-seed Mvrrh Kappers Capers JNIu^kaatnooten Nutrncir^ Karway Caraway-seed Menie ... Red lead Karbonkel Carbuncle TVTofP Kardemomen ... Karmyn Cardamom Carmine Nieswortel Hellebore Kassiebloemen ... Cassia-buds Cassia fistula Nootenmuskaat . . . Nutmegs Hemp Kampechehout... Logwood ' o Osseton" Anchusa i alkanet Madder Orkanette Ditto Kraanoogen Nux vomica Annatto Kina Peruvian bark Oil * olie olv Oil Kivassiehout Quassia Oran'cs XXX NOMENCLATURE. Dutch. English. Orchella Ditto Ditto Orpiment Oysters Box-wood Bhck lead Cassia fistula e Ditto Lignum vitae Mother of pearl Palm oil Pearl ashes Pearls Pepper Pistacia nuts Pitch Pimento; allspice Porphyry Pot ashes Prunes Pumice stone Quills Staves; pipe-staves Tripoli, rotten stone Feathers ; bed-fea- thers Colocynth Peruvian bark Arrack; rack Arsenic Bark; oak-bark Blue vitriol Cassia fistula Cortex simaroubae Ipecacuanha Raisins Rape oil Rape-seed Rhubarb Rice Rose-wood Ruby Dutch. English. Rum Rye Ditto Annatto Antimony Aqua-fortis Barilla Cantharides Chocolate Cowries Emerald Emery Fustic Kermes Molasses Petrol; oil of Peter Pit coal; stone coal Safflower yaffron Sago Sal ammoniac Saltpetre Sapphire Sarsaparilla Sassafras Scammony Sena ; senna Sumac Ditto Smalts Spars Spikenard Spunge Ditto Squill ; sea onion Storax Ditto Sugar Tortoise-shell Verdigrise Spelter Tobacco Tallow Ditto Tamarinds Tar Orchillie Ro"- . Orseille Operment Rokoe .. Oesters Palmenhout Potlood Steakwater Souda ...... ... Pypkassie Spaansche vliegen Shokolade Purgeerendekassi Pokhout Slangenhoofdjes Smara'd ., Paarlemor. Palme olie Smergel Paerelash Stockvischhout... Scharlakenbessen Syroop Paarlen Pistasjes Steenoli Pek Steenkoolen Saftloer Piement Porfiersteen Saffraan Potas Sasro .. Pruimellen Puimsteen Sal am 111 on i a k ... Salpeter Pennen Saffiersteen Sarzaparille Pipestaver Pedra tripe Sa^afrass Pluimen Skammoneum ... Senebladen Smak Quintappclen ... Quinquina Rack Smalt Spikenard Rottekruid Run runne Roomsch vitriool RistkasMe Roodenloop \vor- tel Styrax Roodenloop wor- tel Schildpad Spaansch green Rozynen Haapoli Tabak Raapzaad Rhabarber Ryst TaK .. Talo- Rosenhout Tamarinden Teer NOMENCLATURE. XXXI Dutch. English. Thee Tea Tin Tin Topaas Topaz Thraan Train oil Tartufels Truffles Terpenty Turpentine Taru Wheat Turksch koorn... Indian corn Umbra Umber Ultramaryn Ultramarine Uyen Onions Vellen Skins ; fells Vermiljoen Velkars \ 7 ermillion Gum Heder Veerkragtig bars Violwickel Vennettianse paarlen Indian rubber Orris ; ireos root Bu'les Veld komyn Vermilioen Caraway-seed Cinnabar Colophony Venkel Fennel -seed Ficrs A ** Fish Vlasch Flax Fuller's earth Walschot Spemaceti W'asch Wax; bee's wax Weedasch.... Weed-ashes Dutch. English. Wouvv Weld ; dyer's weed Wouwe Ditto Walvischbeen ... Whalefins; whale- bone Weede Woad Wol Wool Wyn Wine Winters bark ... Cortex winteranus Wynsternoom ... Cream of tartar Witte diptam ... Dittany Wierook Frankincense Wynsteen Argol; tartar Yslandich mos... Iceland moss Yvoor Ivory Yzer Iron Yzervitriol Copperas Zolfer Brimstone Zwavel Ditto Zwartzel Lampblack Zoethout Liquorice root Zout ..- Salt Zilvcr Silver Zy Silk Zyde Ditto Zeep Soap Zeeajuin Squill; sea onion Zink Zinc; spelter Zuiker Sugar Zeverzaad Worm-seed DANISH. Danish. English. Agat Agate Agnus castus froe Agnus castus-seed Alabaster Alabaster Aloe 'Aloe Aloe-troee Aloe- wood Alun Alum Aluun Ditto Ambra Ambergrea^r Amethyst Danish. English. Amrnyfro Ammeos-seed Amomfro Amomi-seed Ansios Anchovies Anis Aniseed Arrak Arrack; rack Arsenik Arsenic Aerter Peas Allehaand Pimento; alhpiot Aeddike Vinegar xxxn NOMENCLATURE. Danish. English. Starch Danish. Colophonium ... English. Colophony Balsam Balsam Columborod Cohunbo root Cubebs Bernsteti . . Amber Isinglass Batnbusror . Bamboe Lemons Bark gavaback... Bv- .. Bark ; oak bark Barley Campeschetra? ... Logwood Peruvian bark Beryl Beryl Chinabark Ditto Bezoar Bryant Black lead Dansk kummen Caraway -seed Blaa vitriol .. Blue vitriol Dyveldro?k '\s-iafoetida Blaat kobbcrvaiul Ditto Dates Braeder Boards Deals Bolus Bole Diamond Buxbom Box-wood Down Brasndevin . Brandy Dragon's blood Bra^ilientroee . Brusil-wood Musk Brasilelholt Brasiletto-\vood Drogue pmnen. . . Plums Bristles Boghvedp Buck -wheat Ebonv Boflellader Buff-skins Ditto Boflelhuder .. Ditto .Edderduun Eider-down Blomsterloger ... Bulbs goiter roots Castoreum Epsom salt Entian Epsom salt Gentian Bakedu Cod-fi^h Elastick gummi Indian rubbev Cotion wool Enebser Juniper berries Broekrod Ipecacuanha Elfenbeen Ivory Bly, or blyc Blaaholt Lead Logwood Elfensbeenvoerte Ivory black Oak Nicaragua-wood Braeknodder Beo- . Niix voinica Pitch Fiolenharpix ... Colophony Feathers; bed-fea- Prunes thers Berlinerblaat Prussian blue FtJiuiikel Fennel seed Pumice stone Fonugrsk Fenugreek Bier^blaat Verditer F jo-en Fisrs Blyehvidt White lead Filk Fish Furs Cardemomer ... Cardamom Carmine Fiergummi Fransostraee Indian rubber Lignum vitsc Cassieblorastre ... Cassia buds Fiskebeen \Vhalefins i whale- Cassia Cassia fistula bone Caviar Caviare Fitleer Bole Cedertrae Cedar-wood China root Glaskoraller Beads * slciss beads Cinnamon busies Cochenille Coloquinter ...... Cochineal Colocynth Glasperler Ditto Calamine NOMENCLATURE. XXX1H Danish. English, Grontkobberwand Copperas Guulholt ; Fustic Galange Galangal Galdaebler Galls Ginseng Ginseng Guld .'... Gold Granater Granates; garneis Granitsteen Granite Gummi Gum Gummilak Lac; gum-lac Glod Litharge Grenstree Nephritic-wood Geldyvel Rum Giftrod Snake root Gurgumeye Turmeric Haar Hamp Honning Huder Huuder Humle Humble Huusblaas Horrfroe Horrolie Hirse Havre Hassel nodder ... Hvalrar Hvalspenne Hvud diptamrod Hor H&rr Huede . Hair Hemp Honey Hides Ditto Hops Ditto Isinglass Linseed ; Jlax-seed Linseed oil Millet Oats Small nuts ; hazel- nutti Spermaceti Ditto Dittany Flax Ditto Wheat Jalaprod Jalap Japanholtz Japan wood .faponish jord ... Japan earth Jaspis Jasper Islands mos Iceland moss Indigo Indigo Jern Iron Jordoebler Potatoes Jodebeeg Bitumen judaicum Jodeliim Ditto Ingesaer Ginger Danish. English. Kampher Camphire Kapers Capers Kappers Ditto Karve Caraway-seed Kummen Ditto Karbuncle Carbuncle Kobber vitriol ... Blue vitriol Kongevand Aqua regia Kastanier Chesnuts Kleverfro Clover-seed Krydenelliker ... Cloves Kobold Cobalt Kakao Cocoa Kokosnoodder ... Cocoa nuts Kalbliau Cod-fish Kaffe Coffee Kobber Copper Koraller Coral Koriander Coriander Kork Cork Korn Corn Karneol Cornelian Kauris Cowries Kummen Cummin Konrog Lampblack Krap Madder Krantsoine ftux vomica Kermesboer Kermr; Kina Peruvian bark Klude Hags Lim Glue Liim Ditto Longuemare ... Langwort Loeder Leather Limoner Lemons Laerd Linens Liinolie Linseed oil Lakrizrod Liquorice Lucernefro Lucerne-setd Mahagoni Makogany Manna Manna Marmor Marble Marmalada Marmalade Mastix Mastich Matten Matts Moor ,,,.. Mohair XXXIV NOMENCLATURE. Danish. Mu^katblommer Myrre Muskadaodder... Minie Mandler Moderkaneel ... Meel.. English. Mace Myrrh Nutmegs Red lead Almonds Cassia lignea Flour Nelliker Cloves Nyserod Hellebore OJje -. Oil Oliver Olives Orcel Orchella Orchillie Ditto Orselje Ditto Operment Orpiment Osters Oysters Oxetunge Anchusa Orkanette Ditto Orlean Annatto Oel Beer Oell Ditto Ost , Cheese Ormfro Worm-seed Paradiskorn Grains of Paradise Pclsverk Furs Pokkentroee Lignum vitae Perlemor Mother of pearl Perlamoder Ditto Pomeranser Oranges Perlaske Pearl ashes Perler Pearls Palme olie Palm oil Peber Pepper Piment Pimento Pistacier Pistacia nuts Pistacer Ditto Porphyr Porphyry Pottaske Pot ashes Patater Potatoes , Pimpsteen Pumice-stone Penne Quills Quassebark Quassia Queksolv Quicksilver Danish. English. Rabarber Rhubarb Roeolje Rape oil RoetYo Rape-seed Rosentree Rose-wood Rosiner Raisins Rom Rum Riis Rice Rubin Ruby Rug .... Rye Rodlog Onions Rottekrud Arsenic Roercassia Cassia fistula Saffian Saffron Saftlor Safllouer Sagogryn Sago Salmiak Sal ammoniac Saphir Sapphire Salt Salt Sarsa-parille Sarsaparilla Sassafra-; Sassafras Sandelholt Saunders Skammonium ... Scammony Semsblader Sena Smak Sumac Sutiiak Ditto Silke Silk Solv Silver Skind Skins; fella Skifer Slate Smalt Smalts Ssebe Soap Spiren Spars Spikenans Spikenard Siv Rushes Svamp Spunge Skille Squill; sea onion Strandlogrod ... Ditto Steenolje Petrol; oil of Pet re Steen kull Pit-coal > stone-coal Sild Herrings Sirup Mola?s(> Senep Mustard-seed Spidseglass Antimony Skedevand Aqua-fortis Skevand Ditto Soda Barilla Svovel . . Brimstone NOMENCLATURE. XXXV Danish. English. Spanske fluer ... Cantharides Skreitorsk Cod-fish Simaruba Cortex simaroubas Smaragd Emerald Smerlgel Emery Sengefiere Feathers; bed-fea- thers Sodrod Gentian Storax Storax Suker Sugar Sukkerkandi ... Sugar-candy Skildpaddeskal ... Tortoise-shell Sparask gront ... Verdigrise Smor Butter Talsy Tallow Tttig Ditto Tamarin Tamarinds Thee Tea Ticere Tar Tin Tin Tobak Tobacco Topas Topaz Terpentin Turpentine Tran Train oil Tripel Tripoli Trofler Truffles Danish. Turkisk hvede English. Indian corn Uld Wool Umbra Umber Ultramarin Ultramarine Uegte safiran ... Safflower Vau Weld; dyer's iveed Vede Woad Veedaske Weed ashes Vermillion ...... Vermillion Vaniller Vanilla Valkejord Fuller's earth Vin Wine Vox Wax; bee's wax Virak Frankincense Virog Ditto Vandelscharf ... Gum-heder Vintersbark Cortex winteranus Vinsteen Argol; tartar Vismut Bismuth Vilsrod Orris root Zibet Civet Zinober Cinnabar Zink Zinc; spelter SWEDISH. Swedish. English. A gat Agate Agnus castus fro Agnus castus-seed Alabaster Aloe Aloe Aloetriid Aloe-wood Alun Alum Ambra,graambra Ambergrease Ametist Amethyst Asbest Amianthus ; earth flax Ammifro" Ammeos-seed Amomi'ro Amomi-seed Anchovies Aniseed Swedish. English. Arack Arrack; rack Arsenik Arsenic Armenisk bolus Bole Aderdun Eider-down Attika Vinegar Aerter Peas Balsam Balsam Bambos Bamboe Bamborbr Ditto Bernsten Amber Biugg Barley Beryl Beryl Bezoar .. . Bezoar XXXV] NOMENCLATURE. Swedish* English. Blyerts Black lead Bla vitriol Blue vitriol Brader Boards Bolus Bole Buxbom Box- wood Briinnvin Brandy Brasilia Brasil-wood Brasiletta Brasiletto-wood Borst Bristles Bohvete Buckwheat Buffclhuder ButF skins Brodkumin Caraway-seed Basvergall Castoreum Bakelau Cod-fish Bomull Cotton wool Bagsbta Gentian Bly Lead Blodtrad Nicaragua wood Bruneller Prunes Berliner blatt ... Prussian blue Baniller Vanilla Bergblatt Verditer Blyhvitt White lead Beek Pitch Capris Carrnin Cassia Cassia blomster Caviar Cedertraed Chinarot Cinnober Canel Cobolt Cochenille Coloquinter Columborot Cumin Citroner Campeschetra ... China Candisocer . Capers Carmine Cassia fistula Cassia buds Caviare Cedar-wood China root Cinnabar Cinnamon Cobalt Cochineal Colocynth Columbo-root Cummin Lemons Logwood Peruvian bark Sugar-candy Dadlar Dates Demant Diamond Diamant Ditto Drakblod Dragon's blood Siv edish . English . Dun Eiderdown Dy {Velstiack ... Assafcetida Desman Musk Ebentraed Ebony Ebenholts Ditto' Epsom salt Epsom salt Elastisk kada ... Indian rubber Enbar Juniper berries Elfenben Ivory Elfenbensvarta... Ivory black Ek Oak Fankel Fennel-seed Fenugrek Fenugreek Fiken Figs Fjadrar Feathers; led-ff.u- thcrs Federwerk Furs Fransosenholts ... Lignum vitso Feberbark Peruvian bark Fiskben Whalebone Fiolkada Colophony Galgazot Galangal Gal'lapplen Galls Gelbhoults Fustic Ginseng Gjnseng Guld Gold Granater Granates; garnets Granit Granite Gra-ten Ditto Gummi Gum Gro'n victriol ... Copperas Glaspiirlor Beads; glass beads Gallmeja Calamine Gummilak ....i. Lac; gum lac Glitt Litharge Glette Ditto Giftrot Snake root Griine sapa Soap Gurkmaja Turmeric Gaude Weld; dyer'sveed Har Hair Hampa Hemp Honing Honey Hudar ., . Hides NOMENCLATURE. XXXVII Swedish. English. Hops Swedish. English. Madder Harts Colophony Kryddpeppar ... Pimento j allspice Unit diptun ...... Dittany Pumice-^tone I-Ior Flax Caraway -seed Iin h Oel Beer KofTe Coffee Ot Cheese Copper Koraller Coral Palm oil Koriander Coriander Pearls Cork Perlaska ... Pearl ashes Cornelian Peppar .. ........ Pepper Cowries Pistacier ... Pistacia-nuts Cubebs Porohvi'v Kummin Cummin Pot ashes Krakrot ,' Ipecacuanha Pomcranser Oranges Kermesboer Kermcs Mother of pearl Kimrok... .,,.,. .. Lampblack PurgEferrot ...... Jalap XXXV111 NOMENCLATURE. Swedish . English . Pockenholts Lignum vitae Potatos Potatoes Pimsten Pumice-stone Pennor Quills Paradiskorn Grains of Paradise Prustrot Hellebore Pelsverk Furs Quassiaetrsed Quassia Quicksilfver Quicksilver Rabarber Rhubarb Ris Rice Rofolja Rape oil Roffro Rape-seed Rom Rum Ruben Ruby Russin Raisins Rum Rum Rag Rye Rafkaka Nux vomica Raf Amber Rack Arrack; rack Rottpulver Arsenic Raercassia Cassia fistula Rokosnoetter ... Cocoa-nuts Rodlok Onions Saf Rushes Safllor Safflower Saff'ran Saffron Sagogryn Sago Salmiak Sal ammoniac Salt Salt Sarsaparilla Sarsaparilla Sassafras Sassafras Sandel Saunder Scanmonium ... Scammony Sennets bladen... Sena Smack Sumac Sumack Ditto Silke Silk Silfver Silver Skinn Skins ; fells Skifver Slate Smalt Smalts Spirar Spars Svamp Spunge Swedish. English. Skilla Squill; sea-onion Starkelse ,. Starch Storax ,. Storax Socker Sugar Socker-candi ... Sugar-candy Skoldpadda Tortoise-shell Sirap Molasses Senap Mustard seed Stenolja Petrol; oil of peter Stenkol Pit-coal, stone-coal Spets-glans Antimony Skedvvatten Aqua fortis Soda Barilla Souda Ditto Sill Herrings Svafel Brimstone Smor Butter Spanska flugor... Cantharides Sad '. Corn Spanmal Ditto Simaruba Cortex simaruba; Spiskumin Cummin Smaragd Emerald Smirgel Emery Spansk grona ... Vedigrise Talg Tallow- Tamarind Tamarinds Tjk'ra Tar , Thee Tea Tenn Tin Tobak Tobacco Topas Topaz Tran Train oil Trippel Tripoli Terpentin Turpentine Tval Soap Turkiskt hvede... Indian corn Tilijor Deals Tjan Down Ull Wool Ultramarin Ultramarine Umbra Umber Valraf Spermaceti Vallrat Ditto Vax Wax ; tecs' wax NOMENCLATURE. XXXIX Swedish. English. Veedaska Weed ashes Vejde Woad Yin Wine Vermilion Vermillion Vismut Bismuth Vaplino--fr6 Clover-seed Vintersbark Cortex winteranus Veirauch Frankincense Sivedish. English. Virack Frankincense Valklera Fuller's earth Valkjord Ditto Winsten , . Argol ; tartar Zibet Zink . Civet Zinc : spelter POLISH. Polish. English. Agat Agate Alabaster Alabaster Aloa Aloe Aloes Ditto Ambra Ambergrease Anyz Aniseed Arak Arrack; rack Arsenik Arsenic Aurypigment ... Orpiment Aloe drzewko ... Aloe Balsam Balsam Bezoar kamien . . . Bezoar Bursztyn Amber Bukspan Box-wood Brezylia Brasil wood Bawelna Cotton wool Bielidlo White lead Bleywas , Ditto Czerwieniec Cedr Chyna korzen ... Cynober Cynamon C'ochenilha Ciemierzyea Chmiel .Cebula Cyndal Cobula zamorska Anchusa ; alkanet Cedar- wood China root Cinnabar Cinnamon Cochineal Hellebore Hops Onions Saundors Squill; sea onion Sugar Polish. English. Cukier lodowaty Sugar candy Cyna Tin Cynek Zinc; spelter Czarzie laino ... Assafcetida Deski Boards Daktyle Dates Dymant Diamond Dyptan bialy ... Dittany Dab Oak Farbieriskie dr- zewko Fustic Futro Furs Futrowizna Ditto Farbownick Weld ; dyers* weed Fiszbin Whalefms ; whale- bone Fistula Cassia fistula Fiki Figs Galgan Galangal Galas Galls Goryozaka Gentian Granatki Granates; garnets Gummi , Gum Gumrni gotta ... Gamboge Gumalaka Lac; gum lac Gwaiak Lignum vitae Gleta Litharge Gleyte Ditto Gryka .,..,, Buckwheat xl NOMENCLATURE. Polish. English. Polish. Koralki English. Coral Ditto Coriander Cork Cubebs Cummin Ditto Fennel-seed Frankincense Furs Galangal Glue Hemp Isinglass Ditto Logwood Peruvian bark Satflower Starch Liquorice Lemons Flax Slate Small nuts Smalts Bismuth Almonds Butter Copper Flour Honey Mace Madder Manna Marble Mastich Mohair Mother of pearl Myrrh Nutmegs OrchelJa lied lead Sumac Soap Cantharid Koralu Gozdziki krainne Cloves Gorrozyka Mustard-seed Groch ......... Peas Koryander Korck Garbarskie drzew- Kmin Kmin kramny ... Kopr colowsky... Kadzedlo Kosmacizna Kalkan Halun Alum Kley Hiszpanskie Cantharides Herbata Tea Konop Klei-ryby Heban Ebony Karluk Jalowiec iagody Juniper berries Inianp Linseed ; Jlax seed Kampesza Kwinkwinna Krokos Krochmal ......... Juspid kamien ... Jasper Indych Indigo Lakrycia Limonii Jecymien , Barley Len Ikra Caviare Lupny kamien ... Laskowy orzech Lazur Jedwab Silk Markazyt cynowy Kantarjdy Cantharides Kapray Caj>ers Karuy Caraway-seed Maslo Kmin polny Ditto Karbunkul "Carbuncle Kardamom .... Cardamom Karmin Carmine Miedz Maka Miod Muskatowy kwiat Marzana Kasztany Chesnuts Koniez Clover-seed Manna Konik Ditto Marmur Kobolt Cobalt Mastyks Kakaowry orzech Cocoa Kokos Cocoa-nuts Mora Maciaperlowa ... Mirra Kolokwintida ... Colocyuth Kalofonia Calophony Muszatowa galka Mech farbierski Minia Koperwasyzelaza Copperas Korolki sklane ... Beads; glass beads Kleij ziemsky ... Bitumen judaicum Koperwas cy pryys Macznika Mydlo Muchv NOMENCLATURE. xli Polish. Ocet English. Vinegar Turmeric Spermaceti Oysters OH Olives Annatto Black lead Lead Linseed oil Millet Musk Oranges Pearls Pepper Pimento Pistacia nuts Porphyry Pot ashes Quills Ditto Wheat Beer Wheat Down Eider-dow Feathers; bed-fea- thers Rhubarb Ditto Rice Ruby Rye Raisins Rape-seed Annatto Currants Leather Sal ammoniac Ditto Salt Saltpetre Ditto Sassafras Polish. Sene .............. English. Sena Ditto Safflower Saffron Sapphire Silver Skins ; fells Spermaceti Storaz Petrol Tar Tortoise-shell Turmerick Woad Antimony Aqua ibrtis Ditto Assafoetida Brimstone Bristles Castoreum Cheese Cornelian Dragons' blood Emerald Emery Herrings Hides Ivory Kerrnes Lampblack Linseed Liquorice Pitch Tobacco Topaz Tea Turpentine Slate Ditto Buckwheat Deals Umber Ultramarine Argol ,; tartar Ostrzyzindyyski Olbrod Szafranpolny ... Ostry"i Oley.! Szafir Oliwki Skory Spermaceti Glow Oley Iniany Skalney oley Smola gesta Skorupa zolvvia Pizmo Pomeranczy Perly Serwaser Pieprz z Jamaki Pistaoye Stychwaser Smrodzieniec ... Siarka Porfir Potasz Szezeciny . Piora Stroybobowrv ... Ser .".. Pipy .. Pszenica Sardyk Shiocza krevv ... Szmaragd Sz mergiel Pohanca Puch bialozorovvy Skory Reubarbarum ... Rum tureckie ... Ryz Sloniowa kosc ... Szarlatne jagody Sadz Slodki korzen ... Rubin Rez Tabaka . . . Rezepnica Topazyn Roku Te Rozinki mete, Terpentyna Tesannoi kamen T^cherepiza Tatarca Tarcice . Umbra .... ... Sol Ultraymaryna ... Waystin ,,, Salnitra ......... xhi NOMENCLATURE. Polish. English. Wodka Brandy Wlosy Hair Wronie oko IS'ux vomica Wosk Wax; bees' wax Welna \Vool Wiuo .... Wine Zits Rye Polish. English. Zuzel kamienna Pumice-stone Zlotokost Orpiment Zy\ve srebro Quicksilver Zybet Civet Zboze Corn Zloto Gold Zelazo Iron RUSSIAN. Russian. A~at . English . A.gate Alabaster Aloewood Anchovies Aniseed Antimony Arrack ; ruck Bitumen judaicum Diamond Eider-down Orchella Orpiment Pimento Vanilla White lead Balsam Beads ; glass beads Bezoar Black Iqad Brasil-wood Castoreum Dittany Kermes Lignum vitae Corn Cotton wool Hops Peruvian bark Ditto Russian. English. Deals ; boards Caraway-seecl Dragon's-blood Oak Tar Ebony Gentian Dates Calamine Buckwheat Cloves Gaipboge Gum Lac ; gum lac Litharge Granates ; garnet* Mustard-seed Peas. Cantharides Verdi grise Sapphire Rye Ruby Raisins Potatoes (5 Dikii timon Drakonowa krovv Dub -Aloe derewo Antshofischi Anis Deeot , Antimonia Ebenowoe derewo Enzian A stall Agatschiipuch ... Arsel Auripigment ... Anglinskoiperez Cretscha Cummi gut Bjelilii [Gummilak Glet Bisser i dekui ... Granatnoi-kamen Gortschiza Goroch Brasil&koe derews Bobrovvaja struga Histhpanskiemu- chi Berri Bukaut Jar Chljeb Jachant... . Chlobtschataja bu- Jar Jachont tscher- wtschatoi , Issum . ..... . Chmel Jabloki .,..,,, NOMENCLATURE. xliii Russian. English. Amber Barley Bitumen judaicum Box-wood Caviare Emerald Ginger Jalap Jasper Indigo Cajamine Camphire Ditto Capers Carbuncle Cardamom Carmine Cassia fistula Chesnuts Cocoa Calophony Cedar-wood Cinnabar China root Cinnamon Cobalt Cochineal Cocoa-nuts Coffee Colocynth Coral Coriander Cork Copper Cowries Cubebs Cummin Currants Galangal Glue Hemp Ditto Hides Indigo Isinglass Ditto Russian. Kost slonowja ... Kosha English. Ivory Leather Liquorice Logwood Madder Alquifbu Alum Petrol ; oil ofpctre Potatoes Skins ; fells Starch Tortoise-shell Turmeric Flax Ditto Frankincense Lemons Linseed oil Onions Prussian blue Smalts Squill ; sea onion Sugar candv Woad Manna Madder Mace Oil Almonds Arsenic Butter Copper Flour Furs Marble Honey Juniper berries Mastich Musk Nutmegs Soap Sal ammoniac Jatschmen Jidovvskaia smola Keren soledkowoi Kampetschkoe derewo Ikra Isumrud Krapp Kubikowataia ... Kwassu Jalap Jaschma Kamennoe masslo Kartoflii Indix> Kamen kalaminar Koshti Kruchmal Kost tscherepa- chowaja Karbunkel Len i Kassia Ladonprostoi ... Limonii Kaschtanii Kakao Lnjanoe masslo Luk Kedr Lasor Berlinskaja Lasor Koi'en tschapu- Luk morskii ...... Kobolt Manna Mariona Kofe Muskatnoi zwet Maslo Korallii Mindal Koriander Miischjak Korkovvoe dneweo Krasnoi mjed ... Masslo korowe... Mjcd Muska Machkajaruchlad M armor Med ... Kalan m Moschshuchii ... Mastika . . Kiel Muscus . .. Muskatniie ores- chki .} Koshi Krutik Miilo Klei riibiii Naschatiir,....,.,, xliv Russian. NOMENC1 English. Emery Mohair Annatto Currants Oats Olives Orpiment Tin Small nuts ; hazel- nuts Beer Down Feathers; bed-fea- Millet Molasses Oranges Pepper Porphyry Pot ashes Pumice stone Quills Rice Safflower Ditto Wheat Grains of Paradise Rape oil Rape-seed Quicksilver Rhubarb Rum Rye Aloe Barilla Blue vitriol Box-wood Brimstone Cheese Cornelian Fullers' earth Fustic Gold LATUJIE. Russian. Scherst English. Hair; hair of ani ma Is Herrings Iron Lampblack Lead Linseed, flax seed Copperas Mother of pearl Pearls Pitch Potatoes Quills Red lead Rye Saffran Salt Saltpetre Sassafras Saunders Sena Shumac Silk Silver Spermaceti Storax Sugar Tallow Tar Train oil Turpentine Wool Zinc ; spelter Tobacco Black lead Clover-seed Cummin Galls Hellebore Indian corn Tea Topaz Vinegar Obiir Seld Orlean Owe* Svvinez Oliwkii Somja lenjanoe... Saleniii kuparos Shemtschufhnaja., rakowina Shemtschug Smolo gustaja ... Semleniie Opermente ...... Puch Stwoli Pera Sel Schafran Patoka sacharnaja Pomeranczu ... Sol Sasafra*..... Porfir Sandal Senetniie listii ... Penza Pera Schelk Pscheno sarazins- Spermazet Stirax ... Polewoi Prostoi schafran Sachar Salo topleno Raiskieziarnka... Smold shitkaja ... Salo worwannoe Skipidar . ... Rapnoe siimja ... Rtut '. Schpiauter Tabak Rosch Tschernsi kran- Sabir Trilisnik Solianka Timon Sinei kuperos ... Tschernilniieores- chki Tschemeriza ... Tureskoichljeb... Tschai Schiflernajaglina Shcltoe derewe... Ukzus ... t NOMENCLATURE. xlv Russian. English. Umbra Umber Ultramarin Ultramarine Ussii kitowiie ... Whalebone Ustrizu Oysters Ugolje kamennoe Pit-coal Wino gradnoe wine Wine Winniia jag-ode... Figs Wino Wine, or brandy Wismut Bismuth Winniii kamen... Argol ; tartar Russian. Wodkakrebkaja Wolowoi jusiik... Woloskoi ukrop Wolossii Wolna .'. Wosk Worwan Wou .. "English. Aqua-fortis Anchusa Fennel-seed Hair ; human hair Wool Wax ; Ices' wax Train oil Weld ; dyer's weed Zibet Civet Zulibuchu Nux vornica LATIN. Latin. Acaciae succus... English. Accacia Agaric Agate Agnus castus-seed Alabaster Almonds Aloe Alum Ambergrease Amethyst Amianthus ; earth flax Amrneos-seed Amorai-seed Ampelites Ditto Anchusa; alkanet Angelica root Aniseed Antimony Aqua fortis Aqua regia Arsenic Assafoetida Bamboe Bitumen Judia- cum Latin. English. Diamond Ginger Gold Grains of Paradise Onions Oranges Orpiment Silver Small Nuts Starch Vinegar Cardamom Oats Verdigrise Annatto Balsam Beryl Bezoar Bismuth Jew's Pitch Bole Ditto Box-wood Butter Amomum Zingi- Achantes Agni-casti semen Alasbastrites Amygdala Amomum grana paradise Allium cepa Aurantia mala... Auripigmentum Argentum Ambra ; ambra- Amethystus Amylum ......... Amomum verum Amomum vul- "are .. Amomum Bixa Balsamum Beryllus .. .. Angelica Bezoar .. .. .... Antimonium ... Aqua fortis Aqua regia Arsenicum Asafoetida Bismuthum Bitumen Judia- Bolus Armenia- ca rubra Bohemica A r undo Bam bos Asphaltum , xlvi NOMENCLATURE. Latin. English. Bombax Cotton Wool Bacca conchae... Mother of Pearl Brassica Chinen- sis.... Rape-seed Cerevisia Cyprinum Cadmia Calamina Camphora Cantharides.. ... Capparis Carvi Carbunculus ... Cardamomum... Carminium Cassia Fistula ... Cassia Lignea ... Castoreum Caviarium Cedrus Caseus Castaneae Cinnabari Cinnamomum... Canella Caryophylla Cobaltum Cochinella Cocci-cactus ... Cacao Coflea Caffea Colocyntidum jioma Colophonium ... Colombo Columbse radix Cuprum Corallina Coriandrum sati- vum Carncolus Sardus Cubebae .'. Cyminum Caricae Cambogia Colla Beer Blue Vitriol Calamine Ditto Camphire Cantharidcs Capers Caraway-seed Carbuncle Cardamom Carmine Cassia Fistula Cassia Lignea Castoreum Caviare Cedar-wood Cheese Chesnuts Cinnabar Cinnamon Ditto Cloves Cobalt Cochineal Ditto Cocoa Coflee Ditto Colocynth Colophony Columba Root Ditto Copper Coral Coriander Cornelian Cubebs Cummin Figs Gamboge Glue Latin. Capsicum ...... Capelli Cannabis Corium Concha margari- tifera China Cortex Peruvia- nus Ciners Clavellati Ceruleum Bero- linense Carthamus tinc- torius Crocus Contrayerva Curcuma Ceeruleum mon- tanum* Cera Costa sartoria ... Cerusa English. Guinea Pepper Hair Hemp Leatlier IVIother of Pearl Peruvian bark Ditto Potashes Prussian blue Safflower Saliron Snake root Turmeric Verditer Wax; bees-wax Whalefins ; whale bone White lead Dactyli Dates Dictamnus albus Dittany Ebur Ivory Electrum Amber Encrasicholi Anchovies Ebenus Ebony Fagopyrum Flores cassiae ... Frumentum ... Fraxinella ...... Foaniculum Foenum graecum Fici Farina Ferrum Fuliffo .. Buck wheat Cassia buds Corn; wheat Dittany Fennel-seed Fenugreek Figs Flour Iron Lampblack Galena Alquifou Gadus morhua... Cod-fish Gossypium Cotton- wool Galanga Galnagal Gallae Galls NOMENCLATURE. xlvii Latin. English. Gummi guttse ... Gamboge Gutta gainba ... Ditto Gentiana Gentian Latin. English. Milium.. Millet Myrrha Myrrh Gin^eri " . >. Gin^en " Margaritas Pearls & . o Gluten ... . ..... Glue Granati Granatesj Garnets Nuces indicaj ... Cocoa nuts Nuxmoschata ... Nutmegs Granita Granite Gummi Gum Gummi elasti- Oleum Oil Grana chermes Kerines Gummi laccae ... Lac; gum lac Guaiacum Lignum vita; Glycyrrhiza ... Liquorice Oleum palma Oleum recini ... Ditto Olibanum Frankincense Oleum lini Linseed oil Helleborus Hellebore Humulus Hops Haematoxylum Log-wood Hydrargyrum... Quicksilver Jalappa Jalap Ostrese Oysters Oleum palme ve- rum Palm Oil Oleum piscinum Train oil Plumbago Black lead Indigo Indigo Ichthyocolla ... Isinglass Juniperi baccaD Juniper berries Lignum aloes ... Aloe-wood Lignum brasilia- Passulae corinthi- Panicum milia- Lapiscalaminaris Calamine Lupulus Hops Lini semen Linseed ; flax-seed Litharfyros Litharge Piper jamaicense Pimento Petroleum ...... Petrol; oil of j>e- Lithanthrax Pit-coal Lignum quassia Quassia Lana Wool tre PUtaciae ......... Pistacia nuts Pix . ... Pitch Porphyrius ..... Porphyry Pumex , .. Pumice stone Pix liquida , Tar Plumbum .... Lead Macis Mace Magnesia alba ... Magnesia Quercus Oak Quinquina ..,.., Peruvian bark Mastix Ma^tich xlviii NOMENCLATURE. Latin. English. Romanum Blue vitriol Latin. English. Radix chiiut' ... China root Radix ipecacu- Squilla Ditto anna? Ipecacuanha Sty rax Storax Rubia tinctorurn Madder Rocella Orchella Saccharum Sugar Saccharum crys- tallinum ...... Su^ar candy Rha Rhubarb Sebum.. Tallow Rhabarbarum ... Ditto Rheum palma- Terra orelana ... Annatto Tartarum Argol Rhus coriario- Terra fullonum Fuller's earth Reseda lutcola... Weld; dyer's- vveed San^uis draconis Dragon's-blood Terra Japonica Japan earth Tubera Virginia- na esculenta ... Potatoes Tamarindos Tamarinds Smara^dus Emerald Thea Tea " Succinum ...... Amber Topazius Topaz Sulphur Brimstone Testudinis testa Tortoise-shell Terra merila ... Turmeric Terebinthina ... Turpentine Salniirabile ""lau- Testum ......... \Vhale-fins * u beri Glauber salts bone Saccharum sa- Umbra ......... Umber Ultramarinium Ultramarine o Saflranum ...... Saftlower Sal ammoniacum Sal ammoniac Sal Sail Sapphirus ...... Sapphire Viride aeris Verdigrise Santalum ........ Saunders Scammonium ... Scammony Sen n ae folia Sena Sericum Silk Vitriolum coeru- Schistus ardesia Slate Vritriolum mar- Serpentaria Snake root Zibethum Civet Spermaceti ., ,. Spermaceti Zincum . . Zinc: sDclter THE DICTIONARY OF MERCHANDIZE. A. ACACIA. (F. Sue d' Acacia; G. Egyptischer Schlehe-dorn, Schlehen-sajfi ; I. Acacia; S. Acacia verdadera, o de Levante ; P. Acacia; L. Acacia succus.) AN inspissated juice, obtained by pressure, from the kernels of the pods of the acacia vera, a thorn-shrub growing in Egypt and Arabia. It is of a tan colour, smooth, shining, and of a disagreeable taste; and comes to us from the Levant, made up in round balls, covered with fine bladders. The German acacia, being nothing more than the juice of unripe sloes boiled to a solid consistence, and put up in bladders, is frequently sold for the true acacia. This imposition may easily be distinguished, by the colour of the German acacia, which is as black as Spanish-liquorice. It is used externally and internally for medical purposes. ACAJOU NUTS; (F. Noixd' Acajou; G. Akaju- nusse ;) come from Jamaica, and other islands in the West Indies about the same latitude. 2 AGA The acajou-tree (anacardium), in a good soil, spreads to the size of an English walnut-tree, which it much resembles, in the shape and smell of the leaves. It produces a large fruit like a pear, except that the greater end is towards the stalk. At the small end of the fruit, it brings forth a nut, resembling a kid- ney, about the bigness of a walnut. The outer shell of this nut is of an ash colour, and very smooth; un- der this is another, which covers the kernel; between these lies a viscid, inflammable oil, of a reddish co- lour, extremely acrid, bitter, and caustic, which has been used with great success, in eating off cancerous ulcers, &c. The kernel, when fresh gathered, has a most delicious taste, and abounds with a sweet milky juice. It is likewise an ingredient in puddings, and many agreeable preparations. When somewhat older, it is usually roasted. Ground with cocoa, it makes an excellent chocolate. When kept too long, the kernel becomes shrivelled, and loses its flavour and best qualities. The acajou-tree annually transudes, from five, often to ten or twelve pounds, of a fine semi-transparent gum, similar to gum-arabic, and little inferior to it in virtue. From this tree is also procured, by inci- sion, a milky juice, which stains linen of a lasting deep black. AGARIC. (F. Agaric; G. Lerchen-schwamm, Tannen-schwamm ; L. Agaricus.) This is a kind of fungous excrescence, growing on the trunks and large branches of several trees, parti- cularly the larch-tree, in Muscovy and Tartary; though an inferior sort also grows on the Alps, the mountains of Dauphine, and the Trentine. The best agaric ought to be large, white and loose; of taste, first sweet and then bitterish. This article was 'formerly much esteemed in pharmacy and physic. There is also a rough, yellowish, and woody kind of agaric, used in dying. AGN 3 AGATE. (F. Agate; G. Achat; D. Agaatsteen; l.Agata; S. Agata ; P.Aagata; DA. Agat; Sw. Agat; POL. Agat ; R. Agat] L. Achates.} This is a precious stone, differently denominated, according to its different colours; some being trans- parent, some opaque ; and some partly transparent, and partly opaque. The Sardian agates are red, and the most valuable of that kind are the flesh-coloured, mixed with brown ; the less valuable are those, the red of which borders upon a yellow. The onyx is entirely opaque, and of a whitish and black colour. The sardonyx participates of the nature of the onyx and Sardian, and is the most precious of all kinds of agates. The Egyptian agate, is very hard ; red, and inter- mixed with white and blue. That which resembles a rainbow is the most valuable kind. The Chalcedonic agates are half transparent, of a rose colour, and clouded. There are some also white, but these are scarce. The Roman agate is of various colours. In Ger- many, agates are to be found ; in Saxony, Bohemia, and the county of Leuchtenberg. The agate .is used for making beads, rings, seals, handles for knives and forks, hilts for swords, snuff- boxes, and abundance of toys. AGNUS-CASTUS SEED. (F. Petit poivre , G. Keusch-Lam-Samen, Schaf-mullen ; D. Kuischboom- zaad ; \. Semenza d'agnocasto; S. Pimiento /oco, Sauzgatillo ; P. Semente de agnocasto ; DA. Agnus- castus frbe ; Sw. Agnus-castus fro; L. Agni-casti semen.) Agnus-castus seed, is the fruit of a shrub of that name, growing sometimes to the size of a middling tree, a native of most warmer climates. It delights in the banks of rivers, and other marshy soils. Its 4 ALE leaves resemble those of the olive-tree, but are much softer and longer. Its blossoms are odoriferous, of a purple colour, and sometimes white ; these are suc- ceeded by seeds, which are first of a white, and at last of a dark red colour, something similar to cori- ander-seed. They are of a sharp aromatic taste; and the best ought to be new, large, and plump. This seed is chiefly used in venereal complaints. ALABASTER. (F. Alabatre; G. Alabaster; D. Albaster ; I. Alabastro ; $. Alabastro; P. Alabastro; DA. Alabaster; Sw. Albaster; POL. Alabaster; R. Alabastr ; L. Alabastrites.) Alabaster is a kind of stone, softer than marble, and more easily worked. Its colours are various, but the white is the most beautiful. Some sorts are ex- tremely white and shining; some red, like coral; some of a dark horny colour, resembling onyx; and another sort of a yellowish colour, like honey, varie- gated with specks and little veins. This stone is found in the greatest quantities, in Saxony at Nordhausen, in some parts of Lorrain, at Clugny in France, about Rome in Italy, in various places of Sicily and Egypt, &c. ; (for which, see the article Marble.) But the most valuable sort is pro- duced at Montania, in the Roman territories, where the alabaster is in the highest esteem, for its beauti- ful whiteness, and admirable magnitude. Alabaster is principally used by statuaries; also for making various toys and utensils. ALE is a fermented liquor, obtained from an infu- sion of malt, and differing only from beer, by having a smaller proportion of hops. Ale is thought the same kind of liquor with the cerevisia, zythum, andcurmi of the antients. There are several sorts of ale, prepared in different ways. Pale ale is brewed of malt, slightly dried, and is esteemed more viscid, than brown ale, which is made of malt more highly dried or roasted. ALM 5 ALKANET ROOT. (F. L'Oreanette; G. Ochsen- zungen-Wurzel; D . Oxtertunge ; I . Uneusa ; S.Arca- neta, Pallomilla de Tinte ; P. Alcane bastardate, He- ana Spuria.} It is chiefly imported from Holland ; is of a reddish colour, and chiefly used for staining wood to resemble mahogany. ALMONDS. (F. Amandes ; G. Mandeln; D. Amandelen; I. Mandole^ Mandorle; S. Almendras ; P.Amendoas; DA.Mandler; Sw. Mandlar ; POL. Migdal; R. Mindal ; L. Amygdala.) Almonds are the fruit of the amygdalus communis, a tree or shrub growing to the height of nearly twenty feet. It much resembles a peach-tree, is a native of Africa, but very common now in all the southern parts of France, Spain, and Italy. There are two kinds of almonds, sweet and bitter. The greatest quantity of both sorts, is collected in Syria, Barbary, Turkey, Spain, Italy, the Island of Cyprus, and France. In the kingdom of Naples, almonds abound in the territories of Bari, Lecce, and the Abruzzo ; but the best come from Bari. In Si- cily, the principal loading-places for almonds are : Palma, Girgenti, Mascari, Catanea, &c. They give the preference to those of Mascari. The almonds are gathered about the end of August, and in Sep- tember ; but they cannot be shipped until the middle of October, as it requires time to take off the shells and to dry them. In the trade of this country, three sorts of almonds are distinguished; small Barbary; long Jordan; and short, broad, Spanish or Valencia almonds. This fruit, to be good, ought to be of a fresh yellow co- lour, large, of a fine flavour, and as little broken as possible. Almonds make a very considerable part of the French trade, as well on account of the oils extracted from them, as on account of the prodigious con- sumption of this fruit in Lent 6 ALO In medicine, almonds are chiefly used for making emulsions. ALOE. (F. Aloe; G. Aloe; D. Aloe; I. Aloe; S. Aloe, Acibar ; P. Aloes, Azevre; DA.A/oe; Sw. Aloe ; R. Sabir; POL. Aloes, Aloa ; L. Aloe.) Of this genus of plants there are ten species, whereof the most current are: The aloe perfoliata, or aloe SUCCOTRINA, or so- COTORINA, brought from the island Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapped in skins. It is the inspis- sated juice of the Asiatic aloe, prepared in the fol- lowing manner. From the leaves fresh pulled, is pressed a juice, the thinner and purer part of which is poured off, and set in the sun, to evaporate to a hard yellowish substance. This sort is the purest of those, which we shall enumerate. It is of a glossy surface, clear, and in some degree pellucid; in the lump, of a yellowish red colour, with a purple cast; when reduced to powder, of a bright golden colour. It is hard and friable in the winter, somewhat pliable in summer, and grows soft betwixt the fingers. Its taste is bitter", accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but insufficient to prevent its being disagreeable. The smell is not very unpleasant, and somewhat re- sembles that of myrrh. The suecotrine aloe plant has long, narrow, succulent leaves, which come out without any order, and form large heads. The stalks grow to the height of three or four feet, and have two, three, and sometimes four of these heads branch- ing out. The lower leaves spread on every side, but the upper leaves turn inward towards the centre. The flowers grow in long spikes, upon stalks about two feet high, each standing upon a pretty long foot- stalk ; they are of a bright red colour, tipt with green. The aloe HEPATICA, Barbadoes, or common aloe, called hepatic, on account of its liver colour, is not so clear and bright as the foregoing sort ; it is also of a ALO 7 more compact texture, and generally drier. Its smell is much stronger and more disagreeable, the taste in- tensely bitter, with little or nothing of the fine aro- matic flavour of the socotorine. The best hepatic aloes come from Turkey. This species also grows in Barbadoes and Jamaica, whence the better qua- lity is imported in large gourd-shells; and an inferior sort of it, generally soft and clammy, in casks. This sort of aloe is said to be common also in the other West-India islands. Aloe CABALLING, fetid, caballine, or horse aloe, is supposed to be obtained from the same species with the foregoing ; but being the thicker part, pre- pared in a different manner. It is chiefly distin- guished by its strong rank smell, and used as a purge for horses. The following is the method, of preparing aloes in Jamaica. When they are grown into a perfect state, the labourers go into the field with tubs and knives, and cut offthe largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk ; these are immediately placed in the tubs, and ranged one by the side of another, in an upright position, with the cut-part downwards, that all the loose liquor may dribble out at the wound. Some make also a longitudinal incision from top to bottom, to facilitate the discharge. When the juice has been by this means sufficiently extracted, it is put into shallow flat-bottomed receivers, and gradually ex- haled in the sun, till it has acquired a due consist- ence ; and thus prepared, it is packed in large dry gourds for exportation. The method of preparing the common or horse aloes, is not so tedious; for, in manufacturing these, all the leaves are cut off, severed into junks, and thrown into tubs, there to lie, till the juice is pretty well drained out; they are then hand-squeezed, and the liquor mixed with water, in the proportion of about one quart to ten quarts of juice; after which, it is put into convenient boilers, and evaporated to a S ALO due consistence; when it is emptied into large shal- low coolers, and afterwards into small barrels. As the drossy resinous part of the aloes is not so- luble in water, it has been found, when combined with other mixtures, an excellent preservative to ships' bottoms against the worm, on account of its bitter nauseous acrimony. From the American aloe a vegetable soap is prepared in Jamaica, which will serve for use in washing linen, as well as Castile soap; but it has the superior quality of mixing and forming a lather with salt water, as well as fresh. All the different kinds of aloes are gum-resins, with more gummous than resinous parts; they are used in medicine as a stimulating, stomachic purge. ALOE-WOOD. (F. Boisd' aloes; G. Aloe-holtz; D. Aloe-hout ; I. Legno di aloe; S. Aloe Chino ; P. Pdo de Aloes; DA. Aloe-trvee; Sw. Aloetrdd : POL. Aloe drzcwko ; R. Aloe derewo ; L. Lignum aloes.} The aloe- wood is the product of the ExccBcaria agallocha, a tree growing in China, and some of the Indian islands. There are three sorts ; the calambac or tambac ; the common aloe-wood, and the ca- lambour. The CALAMBAC, or finest aloe-wood, called by authors lignum aloes prtfstantissimum, is of a light spongy texture, very porous, and its pores so filled up with a soft and fragrant resin, that the whole may be pressed and dented by the fingers like wax, or moulded about by chewing in the mouth, in the manner of mastich. Its scent is very fragrant and agreeable, and its taste acrid and bitterish, but exceedingly aromatic and pleasant. It is very variable in its colour ; some variegated with black and purple; some with black and yellow, and some yellow alone, like the yolk of an egg. The COMMON aloe-wood, or lignum aloes vulgare, is the second in value. This is of a more dense and ALU 9 compact texture, and consequently less resinous than the other. We meet with it in small fragments, of a dusky brown colour, variegated with resinous black veins. Its smell is very agreeable, but not so strongly perfumed as the former sort. Its taste is somewhat bitter and acrid, but very aromatic. The calambour, called also agallochuin sylvestre, and lignum aloes mexicanum, is light and friable, of a dusky and often mottled colour, between a dusky green black, and a deep brown. Its smell is fragrant and agreeable, but much less sweet, than either of the two other sorts ; and its taste bitterish, but not so much acrid or aromatic of the fine or common aloe-wood. It is said to be met with very frequently, and in large logs. This is the aloe- wood used by the cabinetmakers and inlayers. The two first sort of these aloes are used in me- dicine, as a cordial. A very fragrant oil may be pro- cured from them, by distillation ; recommended in paralytic cases. It is generally thought that these three sorts of aloe-wood are produced by one tree ; the calambac or tambac being the heart of the trunk. ALQUIFOU, Potters ore. (F. Arquifou; G. Bleyglantz ; D. Loodglans ; I. Archtfoglio ; S. AlquifoloVidriado ; P. Arquifolho; R. Kubikowataia; L. Galena.} This is a sort of lead-ore, which, when broken, looks like antimony. It is used by the potters, to give a green varnish to their works, and thence it is called Potter's ore. It is met with in Cornwall, &c. ALUM. (F. Alun; G.Alaun; D. Alain; I. Alume; S. Alumbre ; P. Hume, o Pedro, hume ; DA. Alun, Aluun, Allun ; Sw. Alun; PoL.Hahm; R. Kwassu ; L. Alumen.) Alum is an astringent salt, the component princi- ples of which are, argillaceous earth, supersaturated 10 ALU with vitriolic acid ; it also contains a considerable quantity of water. The proportions of these consti- tuent principles may be ascertained as follows : first, the water and superfluous vitriolic acid may be dis- sipated by evaporation, or rather distillation ; and the loss of weight sustained by the salt, as well as the quantity of liquid which comes over into the re- ceiver, shews the quantity of aqueous phlegm and unsaturated acid ; then, by combining this with as much caustic fixed alkali, as is sufficient to saturate the acid, which comes over, we know its proportion to the water ; and by re-distilling this new compound, we have the water by itself. Lastly, the earth may be obtained, by precipitation with an alkali in its caustic state, either fixed or volatile. Alum analysed in this manner, was found to contain thirty-eight parts of vitriolic acid, eighteen of clay, and forty-four of water. Our alum was certainly not known to the Greeks or Romans, and what the latter called ahimen,\vas an impure vitriol. The alum used at present, was first discovered in the Oriental parts of the world. Though the period of the invention cannot be exactly fixed, it seems certain, that it was later than the twelfth century. One of the most antient alum- works, of which we have any account, was that of the Rocclia, now Edessa, a city of Syria ; and from this city was derived the appellation of roch-alum ; an expression so little understood by the generality, that it has been supposed to signify rock-alum. At present, every fine kind of alum, and particularly the purest Roman alum goes under the denomina- tion of roch alum. From this, and from works in the neighbourhood of Constantinople, as well as at Phocasa Nova, now Foya Nova, near Smyrna, the Italians were supplied till the middle of the fifteenth century ; when they began to set up works of a simi- lar kind in their own country. The first Italian alum-work is said to have been established in the ALU 11 island of Ischia, about 1482, by Bartholomew Perdix, or Pernix, a Genoese merchant, who had discovered the proper matrix, or ore of alum. But some affirm^ that as early as the year 1458, the alum- work at Yol terra, in the district of Pisa, had been erected by a Genoese, named Antonius. Soon after, to wit, about the year 1460 or 1465, alum-ore was discovered at Tolfa, in the territories of the Church, by John de Castro, who had visited the alum-manufactories at Constantinople. Having observed the ilex aquitblium to grow in the neighbourhood of the Turkish manu- factories, and finding the same near Tolia, he con- cluded that the materials for alum were to be found there also ; and was quickly confirmed in his sus- picion, by the taste of the stones in the neighbourhood. These alum-works prospered exceedingly, and their success was augmented by an edict of Pope Pius II. prohibiting the use of foreign alum. In the six- teenth century, an alum-manufactory was erected at Alamaron, in the neighbourhood of Carthagena, where it still continues. Several others wre erected in Germany. The preparation of this salt was not known in Sweden till the seventeenth century. The first alum-work in England, was erected at Gisborough in Yorkshire, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Sir Thomas Chaloner, observing the trees tinged with an unusual colour, suspected that it was owing to some mineral in the neighbourhood. He found out, that the strata abounded with an aluminous salt. On this, he privately engaged work- men belonging to the Pope's alum-works, and :ii a little time the undertaking succeeded so well, that several more were established ; and, in later times, the proprietors of the British alum-works went so far, as even to farm those of the apostolic chamber. The ores from which alum is prepared tor sale, are of two kinds ; one, containing the alum already formed ; the other, only its principles, which then are united by roasting. The former is only to be 12 ALU met with in volcanic countries ; and of this kind are the principal Italian ores of alum, particularly that employed at Tolfa near Cincelles, for boiling the lo man alum. The aluminous ore at Solfatara in taly, consists of old lava, whitened by the phlogisti- c ated vitriolic acid. A variety of aluminous ores may be met with in several other parts of the world. In Hessia and Bohemia, this salt is obtained from wood impregnated with bitumen. At Helsingborg in Sca- nia, a turf is found, consisting of the roots of vege- tables, mixed with nuts, straw, and leaves, often co- vered with a thin pyritous cuticle, which, when elixated, yields alum. Even the sulphureous pyrites is generally mixed with an argillaceous matter, which may be separated by menstrua. In some places, sulphur, vitriol, and alum, .are extracted from the same material. The sulphur rises by distillation ; the residuum is exposed to the air till it effloresces, on which a green vitriol is obtained by lixiviation ; and alum from the same liquor, after no more vitriol will crystallize. The alum-slate, from which this salt is made near York in England, contains a con- siderable quantity of sulphur ; and therefore produces alum on the principles already mentioned. The process which the alum ores must undergo, to extract that salt, are : roasting, elixating, and boil- ing the ley for crystallization. The roasting is absolutely necessary, in order to destroy the pyrites, or metallized sulphur ; for on this the formation of the alum entirely depends ; as the sulphur of the pyrites will not part with its phlo- giston, without a burning heat in the open air. The roasting is performed in Sweden, in the following manner. Small pieces of the ore are strewed upon a layer of burning sticks, to the thickness of half a foot. When the sticks are consumed, these are covered, nearly to the same thickness, with pieces burnt before, and four times lixiviated. Thus, strata are alternately laid, of such a thickness, and at such intervals of time, ALU 13 that the fire may continue, and the whole mass grow hot and smoke, but not break out into flame. When the ore is once roasted, it still contains so much phlo- giston, that water acts but little upon it ; but after the operation has been two or three times repeated, the ore yields its principles more freely ; the roasting may even be repeated to advantage, till the whole be reduced to powder. The bitumen keeps up the fire ; for which reason, alternate layers of the crude ore are used, and, in rainy weather, these layers of unburnt ore should be thicker. The elixation is performed, in some places with hot, and at others with cold water. In some places the water passes over the schist, which has been washed three times, for six hours ; then that which has been twice washed, next what has been once washed, and, lastly, the ore which has been newly roasted. The lixivium before boiling, ought to be as richly impregnated witb alum as possible, in order to save fuel. In some places the taste is used, as the only criterion; but in others the weight of water which fills a small glass bottle, is divided into sixty-four equal parts, each of which is called in Sweden a panning ; and the quantity by which the same bottle, full of lixivium, exceeds it when filled with water, indicates the quantity of salt dissolved. It is thought, that the weight of the lixivium, ought not to ex- ceed the weight of the water, more than four and a half pannings. Boiling the ley for crystallization. The ley is brought from the pits, and put into a leaden boiler, at the back of which is a reservoir, out of which the loss sustained by evaporation is constantly supplied. The foiling is supposed to be finished, if the increase of weight be equal to twenty pannings. The ley then flows through proper channels into coolers, where it is allowed to rest for about an hour, to free itself from the grosser sediment ; after which it is put 14 ALU into wooden or stone receptacles to crystallize. In eight or ten days, the remaining liquor, commonly called mother ley, or magistral water, is let off into another vessel . A great number of crystals, generally small and impure, adhere to the bottom and sides of the vessel, which are afterwards collected and washed in cold water. When a sufficient quantity of the small crystals is collected, they must then be put into the boiler, for depuration. They are now dissolved in as small a quantity of water as possible ; after which, the lixi- vium is poured into a great tub, containing as much as the boiler itself. In sixteen or eighteen days, the hoops of the tub are loosed, and the aluminous mass bound with an iron ring ; and in twenty-eight days more, the residuum of the solution is let out through a hole, arid collected in a trench ; after which, the saline mass is dried, and sold as depurated alum. The boiler, emptied for the first crystallization, is next filled two-thirds full, with the magistral lixi- vium ; and as soon as the liquor Urrives at the boiling- point, the other third is filled with crude lixivium, with which the evaporation is also constantly sup- plied. A certain quantity of the aluminous impuri- ties, left by washing the salts of the first crystalliza- tion in water, is then added, and the above-described process repeated. Only the first boiling, in the spring, is performed with the crude lixivium alone, the rest are all done, as just now related. It is remarkable, that pure alum cannot be ob- tained in very considerable quantity, by merely eva- porating and cooling the ley; and the lixivium some- times acquires such a consistence, that it both crys- tallizes with difficulty, and produces impure crystals. This proceeds from an excess of vitriolic acid, which impedes the crystallization. This excess may be removed, by the addition of vegetable and volatile alkalis; but experiments have proved, that the addi- tion of clay is preferable. ALU 15 Alum, as commonly made, though depurated by a second crystallization, yet is almost always found contaminated by dephlogisticated vitriol ; whence it grows yellow, and deposits an ochre in solution, when old. This is equally useful in some arts, with the purest kind, and is even so in dying, where dark colours are wanted ; but where the more lively colours are required, every thing vitriolic must be avoided. This is done by the addition of pure clay, which precipitates the iron, and produces an alum entirelyvoid of any noxious or heterogeneous matter. By M. Chaptal, formerly of the Royal Society of Montpelier, we are furnished with a method of pre- paring alum, by the direct combination of its consti- tuent principles. Alum, (says he) being produced by the combination of the vitriolic acid with pure clay, all the known processes of the alum manufac- tories consist, in facilitating the combination of the mixture, by exposing it to a moderate heat. Vitrio- lic acid is only a mixture of water with the vapour produced by the combustion of saltpetre and sul- phur; let us therefore expose the clay to the action of this vapour : the effects of the acid, in a state of vapour, must be infinitely greater, than when in a liquid state. Upon this principle, he established a large manufactory. Rooms lined with lead, are very proper for the purpose of burning the mixture of sul- phur and saltpetre, the vapours of vitriolic acid having very little action upon lead. But lead is heavy and expensive. He therefore substituted a cement, consisting of equal parts of rosin, turpentine, and wax. A white and pure clay is then to be cho- sen, which, in order to dispose it to combine with the vitriolic acid, must first be calcined, then reduced to powder, and in that state exposed to the vapour of sulphur and saltpetre, by placing a layer of it upon the floor. At the end of some days, like incrusta- tions, and sometimes even crystals of pure alum are 16 ALU perceived upon it, and when an efflorescence is formed, all over the clay, it is taken out of the room, and then lixiviated in the usual way. By forming proper partitions at the bottom of simi- lar rooms, iron, clay, copper, and water, may be ex- posed to the vapour, and consequently vitriol of iron, of copper, and of alumine, and vitriolic acid, made at the same time. The different kinds of alum differ from one ano- ther, merely by being mixed with some heteroge- neous salts. The Roman alum is generally considered prefer- able to any other, and is usually met with in small crystals of a reddish colour. Large quantities of alum from Whitby are annually exported from Great Britain. The best British alum, produced in the hills of Yorkshire and Lancashire, is extremely white, clear, "and transparent, and of an acid taste, leaving in the mouth a sense of sweetness, accompanied with a considerable degree of astringency. Roman alum is also of an acid, but disagreeable taste. Alum of Liege and Meziers is much of the same quality as that of Yorkshire, only flatter, and consequently less pro- per for dyers. This salt is of important use, as a dying material ; as, by means of it, great numbers of colours are fixed and rendered permanent upon cloth. It also consti- tutes the basis of crayons. Mixed with tallow, it gives it a hardness and consistence, and is therefore of use in the making of candles. In tanning, it as- sists to dose the pores, and to restore the cohesion of skins, almost entirely destroyed by the lime. It also, though to the great detriment of the health of man- kind, is used by vintners to fine down and to sweeten their sour wines. Fishermen use alum, for the dry- ing of their cod-fish, and bakers mix it with the flour, to make their bread compact and white. Jn medi^- cie it is used externally. AMB 17 AM ADO W. (F. Amadou; G. Zander schwamm.) A kind of tinder or touchwood, coming from Ger- many. It is made of a kind of mushrooms, or spungy excrescences, which commonly grow on old trees. This substance is boiled in common water, and after- wards dried, and well beaten, then put in a strong lye, prepared with saltpetre; after which it is again put to dry in an oven. AMBER. (F. Ambre jaune, Succin; G. Agts-. tern, Bernstein; D. Barns feen ; I. Ambra gialla, o ghidcclata; S.Ambar; P.Atnbar; DA..Bernsteen, Rav ; Sw. Bernsten, Rcif ; POL. Bitrsztyn, R. Jan- tar ; L. Succinum, Electrum.) This is a pellucid and very hard inflammable sub- stance, of one uniform structure, a bituminous taste, very fragrant smell, and highly electric. The generality of authors contend for this sub- stance being a bitumen, which trickling into the sea from some subterraneous sources, and then mixing with the vitriolic salts, that abound in those parts, becomes congealed and fixed. However, as good amber is found by digging, a yreat distance from the v C?O O ' C* sea, it is probable, that it is a bitumen or' the naphtha or petroleum kind, hardened into its present state by a vitriolic acid, or oil of vitriol. The natural colour of amber is a fine pale yellow, but it is often made white, and sometimes black ; in both cases, it is rendered opaque, by the admixture of extraneous bodies. The most frequcL. Nation, however, from the yellow, is into a dusky brown. Sometimes it is tinged with metalline particles, and remains pellucid. The salt, oil, and tincture of amber, have been variously applied in medicine; but its mechanical use for toys, beads, cabinets, and utensils, and the better sorts of varnishes, are of more importance. This substance is principally to be met with on the sea-coasts of Prussia. The river Giaretta in Sicilv, 18 AMB formerly called Simethus, which takes its rise on the north side of Mount ytna, throws up near its mouth, great quantities of fine amber, some of which is more electric, and emits a stronger smell, than what comes from the Baltic. Some pieces of this amber contains flies and other insects, curiously preserved. It is generally supposed to issue from the earth in a liquid state, at which time the insects that alight upon it, are caught, and by their struggle to get loose, soon work themselves into its substance ; which hardening round them, they are for ever preserved in the greatest perfection. Large fine pieces are constantly found at the mouth of the Giaretta, supposed to have been brought down by the river ; but it is singular, that none of it is ever found any where, but on the sea shore. This amber, at Catanea, is manufactured into beads, images of saints, crosses, &c. AMBER-GREASE; AMBERGRISE, or GRAY AMBER. (F. Ambre-gris ; G. Ambra ; D. Amber- grys; \.Ambracane; S. A mba rgris ; P. Ambargris ; DA. Ambra; Sw. Ambra, gra Ambra; POL. Am- bra ; L. Ambra, Ambra grisia.) Ambergrise is a solid, opake, generally ash-co- loured, greasy, inflammable substance, variegated like marble, remarkably light, rugged and uneven in its surface, and has a fragrant odour, when heated. It does not effervesce with acids, melts freely over the fire into a kind of yellow rosin, and is hardly soluble in spirits of wine. It is found on the sea-coasts, or swimming on the sea, or in the abdomen of whales, in various shapes arid sizes, weighing from half an ounce to upwards of an hundred pounds. By Dr. Swediar's account of this substance, in the Philosophical Transactions, it appears, that the per- sons employed in the whale-fishery observe, that whenever they hook a spermaceti- whale, it con- AMB 19 stantly not only vomits whatever it has in its sto- mach, but also generally discharges its faeces at the same time : and if this latter circumstance happen, they are generally disappointed of finding ambergrise in its belly. But whenever they discover a sperma- ceti-whale, torpid and sickly, they are always pretty sure to find ambergrise, as the whale in this state seldom voids its faeces on being hooked. They likewise generally meet with it in the dead sper- maceti-whales, which they sometimes find floating on the sea. The ambergrise found in the abdomen of the whale, is not so hard as that which is found on the sea-coast, but soon STOWS hard in the air. When * O l first taken out, it has nearly the same colour, and the same disagreeable smell, though not so strong, as the more liquid dung of the whale has : but on ex- posing it to the air, it by degrees not only grows greyish, but also loses its disagreeable smell, and, when kept for a certain time, acquires that particular odour, so agreeable to most people. It is known, that the cuttle-fish is the constant food of the sper- maceti-whale ; hence it is easy to account for the many beaks, or pieces of beaks, found in all amber- grise. Dr. Swediar therefore defines ambergrise, to be the preternaturally hardened dung or faeces of the spermaceti-whale, mixed with some indigestible re- ' lies of its food. The colours of ambergrise vary ; there is, first, the white ambergrise, which is scarce and of little value; as it seems, either not to be ripe, or mixed with some heterogeneous matter ; then, the ash-coloured, or true ambergrise ; afterwards the black ambergrise, which is inferior to the preceding sort, and frequently adulterated ; lastly, the brown ambergrise, which has a peculiar, unpleasant smell. It looks mostly sleek or smooth, as if covered with a skin. Ambergrise ought to be chosen in large pieces, of an agreeable odour, entirely grey on the outside, 20 AME and grey with little black spots within. The pur- chaser should be extremely cautious ; as this article is easily counterfeited with gums and other drugs. Ambergrise is chiefly found in the Atlantic Ocean, on the sea-coast of Brasil, of the East Indies, China, Japan, and the Molucca Islands. But most of the ambergrise brought to England, comes from the Ba- hama Islands and Providence. The use of ambergrise is now nearly confined to perfumery ; it was formerly recommended in medi- cine by eminent physicians. In Asia and part of Africa, it is also used as a spice in cookery. AMETHYST. (F. Amethyste ; G. Amethist; D. Amalhisteen ; 1. Amatista ; S. Amatista, Ametisto ; P. Ametista, Ametisto ; DA. Ametist ; Sw. Ametist ; L. Amethyst us.} A gem of a purple colour, which seems composed of a strong blue and a deep red, and, according as either of these prevails, affording different tinges of purple, sometimes approaching to violet, and some- times even fading to a pale rose colour. Though the amethyst be generally of a purple co- lour, it is nevertheless found sometimes naturally colourless, and may at any time be easily made so, by putting it into the fire ; in which pellucid or colourless state, it so well imitates the diamond, that its want of hardness seems the only way of distin- guishing it. The amethyst is scarcely inferior to any of the gems, in the beauty of its colour ; and, in its purest state, is of the same hardness, and at least of equal value with the ruby and sapphire. It is found of various sizes, from the bigness of a small vetch, to an inch and a half in diameter, and often to much more than that in length. This precious stone is found in the East and West Indies, and in several parts of Europe ; some of the finest specimens of the Oriental ones being so hard AMI 21 and bright, as to equal any of the coloured gems in*, value. However, by far the greater number of ame- thysts fall infinitely short of these, as all the Euro- pean ones, and not a few of those brought from the East and West Indies, are very little harder than com- mon crystal. Counterfeit amethysts come from France and Ger- many. They are spars and crystals, and even tinged glass. AMIANTHUS, or Earth-Flax. (F. Amiante, As- beste ; \.Amianto \ S. Amianto ; P.Amianto; Sw. Asbest ; L. Amiantus.) A fibrous, flexile, elastic, mineral substance, consisting of short, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is found in Germany, in the strata of iron-ore, sometimes forming veins of an inch in diameter ; also in Crete and Cyprus, in Tar- tary, Namur in the Low-countries, in the old No- ricum, in Egypt, in the mountains of Arcadia, at Puteoli, in Corsica, Anglesey in Wales, Aberdeen- shire in Scotland, at Montauban in France, and in Siberia. The amianthus may be split into threads and fila- ments, from one to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle yet somewhat tractable, silky, and of a greyish colour. The industry of mankind has found the me- thod of employing this stubborn metal for the manu- facture of a kind of linen, called asbestos. It has the wonderful quality of being inconsumable in fire, which only serves to whiten it. The shorter filaments of the amianthus, that separate in the washing of the stone, are used for making paper. The method of making asbestos, is now entirely unknown: but Bapt. Porta assures us, that, in his time, the spinning of asbestos was a thing known to every one at Venice. This kind of linen was chiefly esteemed among the antients, being held equally pre- cious with the richest pearls. AMP AMMEOSSEED; true Amomum. (F.Semence d'ammi: G. Ammy-samen, Ammey ; D.Amyzaad; I. Ameos, Ammi , S. Ameos, Ammi ; P. Ameos, Am- mi o ; DA.Ammt/fro; S\v. Ammi-fro ; L. Amomum verum.} This seed comes from a round fruit, about the size of a middling grape ; containing, under a membra- nous cover, a number of small, rough, angular seeds, of a blackish brown colour on the outside, and whitish within. Ten or twelve of these fruits grow together in a cluster. The husks, leaves, and stems of the plant, have a slight, grateful smell, and a mo- derately warm, aromatic taste. The seeds freed from the husks, are in both respects much stronger ; their smell is quick and penetrating, their taste pungent, approaching to that of camphor. Notwithstanding amomum is an elegant aromatic, it has long been un- known to the shops. AMOMI SEED. (F. Amomes; G. Amomchen ; D. Amowizaad ; 1. Amomo ; S. Amomo ; P. Amomo ; DA. Amomfro ; Sw. Amomfrb-, L. Amomum vul- garc.) These are brown grains, brought from the East In- dies, of a hot aromatic smell and taste, somewhat re- sembling that of cinnamon, cloves, and pepper. They are of the size of a chick-pea, and grow on a tree, which has a red-coloured odoriferous wood, and bears a kind of berries or pods in the shape of grapes. These berries contain the seeds ; which ought to be light- coloured, heavy, and well -filled. If the berries be light, with black seeds and shrivelled, they are of no value. These seeds are only used in medicine. AMPELITES, cannel or candle coal. (L. Ampe- lion, Ampelis.) A hard, opaque, fossil, and inflammable substance. ANC 23 of a black colour. Though much inferior to jet, it i a very beautiful fossile, and for a body of so compac a structure, remarkably light. There is a large quar- ry of it near Alencon in France ; it is also dug in many parts of England, and the finest in Lancashire and Cheshire. It makes a very brisk fire, flaming violently for a short time, and after that, continuing red and glowing hot for a long while. It is capable of a very high and elegant polish, and in the coun- tries where it is produced, it is turned into a vast number of toys. It is likewise used for dying the hair black. ANCHOVIES. (F. Anchois-, G. Anchojen ; D. Ansjovis ; \.Acciughe; S.Anchovas; P.Anchovas* DA.Ansios; Sw. Ansjovis ; R.Antshqfischi; L: En- crasicholi.) The anchovy is a species of clupea, with the upper jaw longest. It is so much like the common sprat* that this fish is often sold under its name. Anchovies are fished on the southern coast of France, on the coasts of Italy, and other parts of the Mediterranean ; but those coming from Gorgona, an island in the sea of Tuscany, are esteemed the best. Anchovies should be chosen small, fresh pickled, white on the outside, and red within. They must have a round back ; for those which are flat or large, are often nothing but sardines. The pickle also, on opening the pots or barrels, must be of a good taste, and not have lost its flavour. The common way of eating anchovies is with oil, vinegar, &c. or they are made into a sauce, by min- cing them with pepper, &c. ANCHUSA ; ALKAXET, or BUGLQSS. (F. L'Orcanete; G. Rothe Ochsenzunge, Orkanet ; D. Ossetong, Orkanette ; I. Ancusa ; S. Arcuneta, Palo- milla de Tinte; P. Alcanna bastarda, Orcaneta ; DA. 54 AN I Oxetunge^ Orkanette ; Sw. Oxlunga; POL. Czcncic- niec; It. iVolowoi jasuk; L. Alcanna.} Of the eight species of this plant, we only enume- rate two ; namely, the of/icinalis, or greater garden- bugloss; and thetinclorin, or true alkanet. The for- mer grows naturally in France, and in all the warmer parts of Europe; it will even thrive well enough in Great Britain. The flowers of this species have ob- tained the name of cordial flowers, as they moderately cool and soften, and are u$ed for that purpose in medicine. The tinctoria is a native of the Levant, but equally hardy with the former species; its roots are used, on account of their red colour, as a co- louring ingredient for ointments, plasters, &c. The colour being confined to the cortical part, the small roots are preferable. ANGELICA ROOT. (F. Racine d'Angeliqne; G. Angelica-wurzel, Engcl-icurz: D. Angelica; 1. An- gelica; S. Anjelica; P. Angelica; L- Angelica.} All the parts of the angelica plant, but particu- larly the root, have a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant, bitterish warm taste, glowing upott the lips and palate for a long time after they have been chewed. For medicinal use, the angelica coming from Bo- hemia and Spain is reckoned the best. The roots are chiefly used in the aromatic-tincture, and the stalks make an agreeable sweetmeat. Angelica-roots are apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed upon by insects, unless thoroughly dried, kept in a dry place, and frequently aired. ANISEED. (F. Anis ; o. Anis, Anis-saamcn ; D. Anys, Anys-zaad; I. Anice;S. Anis; P. Anis. Anise; DA. Anis; Sw. Anis,' POL. Anyz ; R. Anis; L. Anisuin.} Aniseed is a roundish striated wed, flatted on one side, and pointed at one end ; of a pale colour inclin- ing to green ; it has an aromatic smell, and a pleasant ANN 25 warm taste, accompanied with a degree of sweetness. Tt is the seed of the piinpinella anisum or common anise, an annual plant, which grows naturally in Egypt, but is cultivated in the southern parts of Eu- rope, particularly Malta and Spain, whence the seed is imported into Great Britain. The smaller kind, brought from Spain, is preferred. Aniseed is used in medicine and for confectionery. It gives out all its- virtue to rectified spirit, which be- comes of a bright lemon colour, and tastes very agree- ably. In distillation, it gives over the whole of its flavour. An essential oil arises with the water, in a considerable quantity; above an ounce having been extracted from three pounds of the seed. ANNATTO, Anotfa, Roucou. (F. Roucou, Bi- chcl ; G. Orlcan ; D. Or/eaan, Rokoe; I. Oricma, Urianna, Vrucu ; S. Achiote, Achote, Cochehue, Orel- lana ; P. Urucu, Oriana; DA. Orlcan; S\v. Orleana; POL. Or/can, Rolm ; II. Orlcan; L. Terra Orleana, Oreliana, Bi.va.} Annatto is a red colour, formed from the pellicles or pulp of the seeds of the Bixa, a tree common in South America. The annatto-tree has a reddish bark, and large, strong, and hard leaves, of a dark green colour. It is as high as a plum-tree, and more bushy. The flowers that STOW* in bunches, not unlike wild roses, are sue-, ceeded twice a year by pods, as prickly as the shell of a chesnut, bat smaller. They contain some small seeds of a pale red colour, and from these the an- natto is prepared. As soon as one of the eight or ten pods that grow in a bunch, opens of itself, all the rest may be gathered. The seeds cleared from the pods, are then steeped in water, for seven or eight days, or longer. When they be^'in to ferment, the seeds ou2fht to be strongly stirred and bruised with wooden pestles, to promote the separation of the red skins. This process is re- 26 ANT peated several times, till the seeds are left white. The liquor passed through close cane-sieves, prettv thick, of a deep red colour, and a very bad smell, is received into coppers. In boiling, it throws up its colouring matter to the surface, in form of scum, which is taken off, saved in large pans, and afterwards boiled down by itself to a due consistence, and made up, while soft, into balls or cakes of two or three pounds weight. According to others, annatto is nothing else but the red farina, w r ith which the seeds of the plant are covered, when coming out of the pods ; and the pro- cess for preparing the dye, simply as follows: When a sufficient quantity of the seed is collected, they are thrown into a vessel, and as much hot water poured upon them as is necessary to suspend the red farina, which is gradually washed off the seeds w r ith the hand, or a spoon. When the seeds appear quite naked, they are taken out, and the wash is left to settle; after which, the water is gently poured away, and the sediment put into shallow vessels, to bejdried by degrees in the shade; and, after acquiring by this means a due consistence, it is made into balls or cakes, and set to dry thoroughly in an airy place, until perfectly firm. The annatto commonly met with among us, is moderately hard and dry, of a brown colour on the outside, and a dull red within. It is used as an ingredient in varnishes, and for dying wool and silk. It is also esteemed in medicine. ANTIMONY. (. Antimoine ; G. Antimonium, Spiessglass; D. Spiesglas; I. Antimonio; S. Antimo- nio; P. Anlimonio; DA. Spidseglas; Sw. Spels-glans ; POL. Spiszglas; R. Antimoma; L. Antimonium.} This semi-metal, when pure and well fused, is of a white shining colour, and consists 'of laminae applied to each other. When it has been well melted, and not too hastily cooled, and its surface is not touched AQU 27 by any bard body during the cooling, it exhibits the perfect figure of a star, consisting of many radii issu- ing from a centre. This proceeds from a disposition that the parts of this metal have to arrange themselves in a regular manner, and is similar to the crystalliza- tion of salts. Regulus of antimony, is moderately hard; but, like other semi-metals, it has no ductility, and breaks in small pieces under a hammer. It loses one-seventh of its weight in water. The action of air and water destroys its lustre, but does not rust it so effectually as iron or copper. It is fusible with a heat sufficient to make it red-hot; but when heated to a certain de- gree, it fumes continually, and is dissipated in vapours. There are different methods of preparing from an- timony, the regulus of antimony; but all of them con-ist merely, in separating the sulphur which this mineral contains, and which is united with the regu- lus. It is ph'm, therefore, that regulus of antimony may be made, by the addition of any substance, to crude antimony in UL-ion, which has a greater attrac- tion for sulphur, thnr; the regulus itself has. Regulus of antimony enters into the compositions for metallic specalums for telescopes, and for printing- types. It is also the basis of a number of medicinal preparations ; but many of these, which were formerly much esteemed, are found to be either inert, uncer- tain, or dangerous in their operation; so that the only two preparations now retained, by the most skilful practitioners, are the infusion of glass of antimony in wine, and emetic tartar. AQUA-FORTIS. (F. Eau forte; G. Scheid- wasser ; D. Sterkwater ; I. Acqua-forte ; S.Aguafu- erte ; P. Agoa forte ; DA. Skedevand, Skevand ; Sw. Skedwatten; POL. Ser leaser, Stychwaser; H. Wodka- krcbkaja ; L. Aqua for 'tis.} Aqua-fortis is a nitrous acid of a certain strength; when concentrated and smoaking, it is called spirit of 28 ARG nitre. The aqua-fortis used by dyers, brass-founders, &c. is not only weaker than spirit of nitre, but con- tains a portion of vitriolic acid. It may be made, by distilling crude nitre with calcined vitriol, equal parts; or with somewhat more than half its weight, of oil of vitriol; or by mixing one part of oil of vitriol, with nine parts of pure spirit of nitre. Aqua-fortis there- fore is a mixture of the vitriolic and nitrous acids. AQUA REGIA. (F. Eau regale; G. Konigs- wasser ; D. Koningswater ; I. Acqua regia; S. Agua rejia, 6 real ; P. Agua regia., ou regal ; DA. Konge- vand ; Sw. Kungsvatten ; L. Aqua regia.] Aqua-regia is a compound of nitrous and marine acid, in different proportions, according to the pur- pose for which it is intended. It is particularly used as a menstruum for gold ; it likewise dissolves all other metals, except silver. AQUA VmE; see BRANDY. ARCHILLA ; seeORCHELLA. ARGOL, Tartar. (F. Tartre ; G.Wcmstem\ D. Wynsteen\ I. Tartaro; S. Tartaro ; P. Tartaro; DA. Vinstecn; Sw. Winsten; POL. Waijstin\ R. Wmmd kamen ; L. Tartarmn.} Argol, or tartar, is a substance thrown off from wine, after it is put into casks to depurate. The more tartar is separated, the more smooth and palate- able is the wine. This substance forms a thick, hard crust on the sides of the casks: and as part of the fine dregs of the wirie adhere to it, the tartar of the white wines is of a greyish white colour, called white argol; and that of red wine has a red colour, and is called red are^ol. When separated from the cask in which it is formed, argol is mixed with much heterogeneous matter; from which, for the purposes of medicine and che- ARM 29 mistry, it requires to be purified. This purification consists in first boiling the argol in water, filtrating the solution, and allowing the salt to crystallize ; which it very soon does, as it requires nearly twenty times its weight of water to dissolve it. The crys- tals of tartar obtained by this operation, are far from being perfectly pure; and therefore they are again boiled in water, with an addition of clay, which ab- sorbs the colouring matter; and thus, on a second crystallization, a very pure and white salt is obtained. These crystals are called Cream of Tartar, and are commonly sold under that name. Cream of tartar may be re-composed in the follow- ing manner: Upon fixed vegetable alkali pour a so- lution of the acid of tartar ; and continue this, till the effervescence is over. The fluid will then be trans- parent; but if more of the acid be added, it will be- come turbid and white, and small crystals like white sand will be formed in it. These crystals are a per- fect cream of tartar. Argols therefore consist of fixed vegetable alkali, supersaturated with the pure acid of tartar, and joined by large quantities of earthy impuri- ties and colouring matter. The white argol is preferable to the red, as contain- ing less of the drossy or earthy matter. The marks of good argol of either kind, are its being thick, brit- tle, hard, brilliant, and little earthy. That brought from Germany is the best, on account of being taken out of those great tuns, wherein the salt has time to come to its consistence. Argol is of considerable use among dyers, as serv- ing to dispose the stuffs to take their colours the better. ARMENIAN BOLE. (G. Armenischer Bolus, Rotltstein, Rotelstein.) Is a soft bole of red colour, used in medicine. An indurated kind of this, af- fords the material for the red pencils. Boluses, or boles, are martial clays, containing a 30 ARR fine and dense clay of various colours, with a large quantity of iron. The Armenian bole was formerly brought from Armenia, but is now found also in several parts of France and Germany. ARMENIAN STONE. (G. Blauer Bolus.) This substance is improperly called a stone, being nothing- else than an ochreous earth, and properly called blue ochre. It is a very valuable substance in painting, being a bright and lively blue. It easily breaks be- tween the fingers, and does not stain the hands. It is of a brackish disagreeable taste, and ferments with acids. It is a very scarce fossile, and was in so high esteem as a paint amongst the antients, that counter- feits were continually attempted to serve in its place. Though in but small quantities, it is found very pure in the mines of Gosslar in Saxony. ARRACK or RACK. (F. Arac ; G. Arrack, Rack; D. Arak,Rak; I. Aracco ; S. Arak ; P. Araca, Orraca ; DA.Arrak; Sw. Rack, Arack; POL. Arak; R. Arak.} Arrack seems to be a general name amongst the Indians, for spirituous liquors of all kinds. Accord- ing to Lockyer, what we understand by arrack, is a spirit procured by distillation from a vegetable juice called toddy, which flows by incision out of the cocoa-nut tree. Others are of opinion, that arrack is a spirit obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa-nuts. This seems to be the most established opinion, and that rice is the principal ingredient from which this spirit is distilled, of three different degrees of strength, in large pans, after a previous fermentation with water, treacle from the sugar-houses, and the juice of the cocoa-trees. The weaker sort of arrack is drunk by the Chinese, at their merry-meetings. The white arrack, which is immediately bottled off, ARS 31 is stronger, and used chiefly in India. Arrack, after it has been put into wooden vessels to be sent to other places, acquires a colour from the wood, and is the brown arrack commonly sold in Europe. Goa and Batavia are the chief places for arrack. Arrack is also the name of a spirituous liquor, made by the Tartars, of mare's-milk left to sour, and then twice or thrice distilled. ARROW-ROOT ; see INDIAN ARROW-ROOT. ARSENIC. (F. Arsenic, Poudre aux rats ; G. Arsenic, Mausse-gifft, Raiten-pulver, Hittten-rauch ; D. Arsenik, Rottekruid; I. Arsenico \ S. Arsenico ; P. Arsenico ; D A . Arsenik, Rottekrud ; Sw. Arsenik J Rottpuluer ; POL. Arsenik; R. Muschjak ; L. Ar- senicum.} Late experiments have made it evident, that white arsenic consists of an acid united to phlogiston ; and that, by diminishing the latter, the acid becomes more and more apparent ; while, on the contrary, by aug- menting the quantity of phlogistic matter, the arsenic assumes the metallic form, and is called regulus of arsenic. In our systems of Chemistry, it is reckoned amonst the semi-metals. Arsenic, in its pure state, is a most destructive and deadly poison, for which the art of medicine has scarcely as yet found a cure. The extreme danger attending this substance, when taken into the human body, arises from its insolubility, and the difficulty of decompounding it. Notwithstanding the dreadful effects of arsenic when taken unprepared in large quantities, it has been introduced in medicine both internally and externally. Besides the medicinal use of arsenic, it is, but too frequently, used for edulcorating sour wines. Regulus of arsenic enters into the composition of Meuder's Phosphorus. The powder of the calx is 32 ASS frequently employed in glass-houses, either for facili- tating fusion, for acquiring a certain 'degree of opa- city, or for carrying off phlogiston. In painting too, the artists sometimes employ arsenic ; it is used for the preparation of a most beautiful green pigment. In dying it is likewise of great service ; and, in cloth- printing, for dissolving indigo. Arsenic is found in a metallic shape in Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, Hercynia, and other parts ; par- ticularly at St. Marieux in Alsatia. ASBESTOS; see AMIANTHUS. ASHES are the earthy particles of combustible subslances, after they have been burnt. If the ashes be produced Uxuii vegetable bodies, they contain a considerable quantity of fixed salt, blended with the terrene particles ; and from these ashes, the fixed alkaliaesalts, called pot-ashes, pearl-ashes, weed-ashes, barilla, &c. are extracted ; for which, see under the respective heads. ASPHALTUM; see BITUMEN JUDAICUM. ASS A DULCIS ; a name sometimes given to ben- zoin ; see GUM-BENJAMIN. ASSA- FOETID A. (F. Assa-felida, Mcrde de diable; G.Teiifelsdreck\ D Duivelsdreck ; I. Assa fetida, Zaffetica ; S.Asafetida; P.Asafetida; DA. Dyvelsdrtek ; Sw. Dyfwelstrack ; POL. Smrodzieniec, Czarzie laino ; L. Asafcetida.} Assa fcetida is a kind of gum, of very offensive smell, procured from the root of a plant common in some parts of Persia, and called there hingesch. The leaves are of a horribly offensive smell, and no animal will touch them. It seldom flowers, sometimes not till its twentieth, thirtieth, or fortieth year : dur- ing all this time, the root is increasing, and conse- BAL 33 quently sometimes grows to an enormous bulk. Roots of it have been seen, of the thickness of a man's thigh, and of a yard and a half in length ; those of the thickness of an arm are common. When it sends forth a stalk, and has ripened its seed, it perishes. The root, within, is perfectly white, and full of a white, milky, and fetid juice, which, when collected and dried, is our assa-foetida. They never make incisions in roots of less than four or five years stand- ing, and the older and larger the root, the more plen- tifully the juice flows. The most strongly scented assa-fcetida is always the best ; and Kcempfer observes, that it is so much stronger when fresh than when kept and imported into Europe, that a drachm of it has more scent than an hundred weight of what our druggists keep. It is by much the strongest of the deobstruent warm gums, acting frequently as an antispasmodic and an anodyne. AVIGNON BERRIES ; see YELLOW BERRIES. AZURE ; see SMALTS. AZURE OF COPPER; see COPPER. AZURE STONE; see LAPIS LAZULI. B. BALSAM. (F. Baume; G. Balsam; D.Balsem; I. Balsamo ; S. Balsamo ; P. Balsamo ; DA. Balsam ; Sw. Balsam ; POL. Balsam ; R. Balsam ; L. Bal- samum.) Balsam implies an oily, resinous, liquid substance, D 34 BAL flowing either spontaneously, or by means of incision, .from certain- plants. There are many varieties of balsam, generally denominated from the substances from which they are obtained ; the principal of which are here enumerated. BALSAM CAPIVI, or Copaiba; which comes from Brasil and Guinea, in earthen bottles, is of two sorts ; the one bright and thin, the other thick ; the first being white, of a thinner consistence than tlio common turpentine, but much more fragrant and detersive ; the other inclining to yellow. Both sorts pass away quickly by urine, and have therefore chiefly been prescribed in complaints of the urinary passage : though now they are not so much in use. BALSAM OF GILEAD ; called also Balsamum Judaicum, Syriacum, Meccha, and Opobalsamum. It is admitted, even by .the Turks, that, on account of the great price of balsam of Gilead, it is very difficult to find this commodity genuine; it being adulterated immediately on its filtration from the tree, and scarcely to be found pure any where, but in the possession of the Turkish Emperor and the Grandees of the Empire, who get it as a valuable present from some traveller. The marks of its supposed purity are : a very yellow colour, perfectly transparent ; a strong fragrant smell, with something of the lemon or citron flavour ; and a bitter, sharp, and astringent taste. It is also very tenacious and glutinous, sticking to the fingers, and may be drawn into long threads. The way of trying balsam of Gilead, at Cairo and Mecca, is as follows : they let fall a drop of the balsam into a cup- full of clear cold water ; if this drop remain in one place on the surface of the water, the balsam is of little value; but if it instantly extend itself, like a skin or pellicle, over the whole surface, and this skin BAL 3o be even and clear, and can be taken off the water with a hair, silk, or thread, leaving it as clear as it was before ; then it is a sign, that the balsam is of the best kind, and not adulterated. The balsam of Gilead principally comes from Ara- bia Petrea ; and the Arabians carry it to Mecca, and sell it there, during the time of the stay of the cara- vans from Egypt and Turkey. It also grows in Pa- lestina, but requires the greatest care there, to prevent it from degenerating ; whereas, in Arabia, it grows without cultivation. It is the produce of a species of amyris, rising to the height of the pomegranate- tree, to which it has a great resemblance, both in its long branches and flowers. The wood is red and gummy, and its fruit is a small nut, covered with a dry and brown pellicle, which contains a kernel. In the months of June, July, and August, the Arabs make a slight incision in it, from which there distils a kind of viscous juice, called opobalsamum. The juice extracted from its fruit, is called carpobalsa- mum, and that from the wood xilobalsamum. The opobalsamum is the most perfect part ; it is white when it comes from the tree, then turns green, and afterwards to a gold colour; but as it grows old, it becomes a little tarnished, and in the end assumes the appearance of honey. Its smell, though strong, is agreeable ; and it thickens like the turpentine of Cyprus. The opobalsamum coming to us from Arabia, is frequently mixed with this turpentine. There is likewise a sort of balsam of Mecca, a white balsam, or dry white gum, resembling cop- peras, especially when old ; which has all the virtues of the balm of Gilead or Judea ; whence it is con- jectured to be the same, only hardened and altered in colour. Balsam of Gilead is used in medicine, to open ob- structions of the lungs, as a stomachic, and also ex- ternally for curing wounds, &c. The Turkish wo- men employ it as a cosmetic. 36 BAL BALSAM OF MECCA; see BALSAM OF GlLEAD. BALSAM OF PERU. This Balsam is extracted from a shrub called myroxylon peruiferum, a native of Peru, and the warmer parts of America; and the way of extracting it, is said to be by decoction in water. This balsam, as brought to us, is nearly of the consistence of thin honey, of a reddish brown co- lour, inclining to black, an agreeable aromatic smell, and a very hot biting taste. There is another sort of Balsam of Peru, of a white colour, and considerably more fragrant than the former. This is very rarely brought to us. It is said to be the produce of the same plant, which yields the common or black bal- sam, and to exude from incisions made in the trunk, while the former is obtained by boiling. There is also a third kind, commonly called the red, or dry. This is supposed to acquire a different state from the white, merely in consequence of the treatment to which it is subjected, after it is gotten from the tree. It is almost as fragrant as the Balsam of Gilead. It is very seldom to be met with in Great Britain. Balsam of Peru is a very warm aromatic medicine, considerably hotter and more acrid than copaiva. BALSAM OF TOLU is obtained from the toluifera balsamum, or Balsam of Tolu tree, which grows in Spanish America, in the province of Tolu, behind Carthagena, whence we are supplied with it, made up in little gourd-shells. It is procured, by making incisions in the bark of the tree, and is collected into spoons made of black wax, from which it is poured into proper vessels. This balsam is of a reddish yellow colour, and transparent, in consistence thick and tenacious ; by age, it grows so hard and brittle, that it may be rubbed into a powder between the finger and thumb. Its smell is extremely fragrant, somewhat resembling BAR 37 that of lemons ; its taste is warm and sweetish, and, on being chewed, it adheres to the teeth. Thrown into the fire, it immediately liquifies, takes flame, and disperses its agreeable odour. Though it does not dissolve in water, yet, if boiled in it for two or three hours in a covered vessel, the water receives its odoriferous smell. Water also suffers a similar im- pregnation from the balsam by distillation. With the assistance of mucilage, it unites with water, so as to form a milky solution. It dissolves entirely in spirit of wine, and easily mixes with distilled oils, but less easily with those of the expressed kind. This balsam possesses the same general virtues with the Balsam of Gilead, and that of Peru ; it is how- ever less heating and stimulating. BAMBOE, Bambou, or Bamboos. (F. Bambou, Bamboucs, Bamboches ; G. Indianischer Rohr, Barn- bus ; D. Bamboesricten ; I. Bambu ; S. Bambu ; P. B ambit ; T)A..Bambusr'6r ; Sw.Bambos, Bamboror ; L. Arundo Bambos.} This is a plant growing in the East Indies, which multiplies very much by its root, from which springs a branchy tuft, after the manner of the European reeds. It is of the largest kind of cane, and decreases gradually to the top, where it bears a blossom like our reeds ; being the only kind of grass that grows to the size of a tree. This is one of the most useful plants to the In- dians, as from it they make almost every thing they want. With it they build houses ; of it too they make chairs, tables, bedsteads, ladders, also vessels and household utensils; whicn are light, strong, and neat. Large quantities are annually brought to Europe. BARILLA. (F. Soude, Barille ; G. Soda, Baril- la-, D. Souda; I. Soda, Barriglia; S. Sosa, Soda, 38 BAR Barrilla ; V.So/dfa, Barrilha ; DA. Soda ; Sw. Soudct, Soda ; R. Solianka.} Barilla is produced, by the incineration of different sea-plants, chiefly in Spain and Italy, where whole fields are sowed with them by the farmers, to good advantage. From this impure and mixed mass of cinders, is obtained the marine alkali. They prepare barilla in Spain and Italy from the plants called salicornia herbacea, and salicornia fru- ticosa ; and sometimes also in Spain from the cheno- podium maritimum, and the batis maritima. In France arid other parts, this article is obtained from the fucus vesiculosus and from thesalsola soda. The Saracens in Spain, called the plant which they used for the preparation of their barilla, kali ; which, with the addition of the Arabian article, has given rise to the name of alkali. The discovery of the use of these plants, seems to be a present of the Saracens to the Europeans ; for no mention is made of it, before the Mahometan aera. The antients seem to be silent on that head. The manner of preparing these ashes, usually, is thus: when the plant has attained its full height, they cut it down and let it dry ; afterwards they burn and calcine it in certain pits, like lime-kilns, dug in the ground for that purpose, which are co- vered up with earth, so that no air may come at the fire. The matter by this means is not only reduced into ashes, but, by means of the salt juices, united into a hard substance, which they break out of the pits with hammers. Our market is supplied with barilla chiefly from Alicantand Carthagena in Spain, from the island of Teneriflfa, and from Sicily. The Spanish barilla is reckoned the best ; and, among the Sicilian barilla, the preference is given to the produce of Ustica : next comes that of Trapnni. then Cntanea, Marsala. &c. BAR 39 In Sicily, the first crop of these herbs is cut in September and October ; and they make a second crop about the end of November ; but this second crop produces an inferior kind of Barilla. In shipping barilla, particular attention should be paid to have as little small, or dust, as possible ; as. in the latter state, it is most exposed to the access of air, which destroys its virtue. The marine alkali, however, is less subject to attract humidity than the vegetable alkali, like pot and pearl ashes, which can only be preserved when closely packed in casks. The usual assortment in which barilla is sold in Sicily, consists of two-thirds large lumps, one-sixth small lumps, and one-sixth dust. It answers best not to ship any dust, but to re-sell it at half price. Prime quality in barilla is to be distinguished, by its strong smell, when wetted with the spittle, and by its whitish colour. If the lumps be hard, it is a proof that they are fresh. Barilla is used by glass-makers, soap-boilers, bleachers, and other manufacturers. BARK is the exterior part of trees, serving them for a skin or covering ; of which there are a great many kinds in use in the several arts : some in medi- cine, as Jesuits-bark ; others in dying, as the bark of the alder and quercitron bark ; others in grocery, as cinnamon and cassia lignea ; the bark of oak, in tanning ; the bark of the cork-tree, for corks ; that of the linden-tree, for a kind of cordage ; and the bark of a sort of birch-tree, is used by the Indians for canoes, capable of holding twenty-four persons. In the East Indies, they also manufacture the bark of a particular tree into a kind of stuff or cloth. It is spun and dressed much after the manner of hemp, and the manufacture called pinassesandbiam- bonnes. Oak-bark, independently of its use in tanning lea- ther (for which also oak sawdust has of late been sub- 40 BAS stituted) is employed by the Highlanders, to dye their yarn of a brown, or, mixed with copperas, of a black colour. BARK, OAK. (F. Tin brut ; G. Bark Eich en- rinde lathe ; D. Run Runne ; I. Seizia de quercia ; S. Cortezado do Encina ; DA. Bark Gavaback.} English bark is most universally esteemed, but large importations are made from Germany and Hol- land. The quality most esteemed is that of bright colour, most free from rind and moss, and of bitter taste. There are two descriptions of oak bark, tim- ber and coppice, or the bark up the trunk of the tree, and the boughs. BARK ANGUSTURA, first imported from the West Indies in the year 1788. Its name is said to be taken from Angustura in South America. It is used in dysenteries, diarrhoeas, and putrid fevers. BARLEY. (F. Orge-, G. Gerste\ D. Gerst, Garst ; I. Orzo ; S. Cebada; P. Ccveda; DA. Byg ; Sw. Biugg, Korn ; POL. Jecymien ; R.Jatschmen ; L. Hordeitni.} The principal use of barley among us, is for making- beer. In Scotland, barley is a common ingredient for broths. In Spain, they feed the horses with bar- ley. Pearl barley, and French barley, are barley freed from the husk by a mill ; the distinction between the two being, that pearl-barley is reduced to the size ot a small shot, all but the very heart of the grain being ground away. BAR-WOOD, the red wood of Africa. Imported in large quantities from Angola, and other parts of the coast of Africa. BASALTES is a heavy hard stone, chiefly black BAT 41 or green, consisting of prismatic crystals ; the num- ber of its sides being uncertain. The most remarkable property of this substance, is its figure: being never found in strata, like other marbles, but always standing up in the form of regu- lar pillars. Basaltes is frequently met with in Spain, Russia, Poland, near Dresden, and in Silesia ; but the most noble store in the world, seems to be that of the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and Staifa, one of the Western Islands of Scotland. Great quantities are likewise found in the neighbourhood of Mount ^Etna in Sicily, of Hecla in Iceland, and of the volcano in the island of Bourbon. Much has been disputed about the nature of Basal- tes. Sir William Hamilton contends in support of its volcanic origin ; Mr. Bergman is of opinion, that both fire and water contributed to produce it. Some of the antients call this stone Lapis Lydius, from Lydia, where probably it was found in abun- dance. The moderns denominate it the touch-stone, being used for the trial of gold and silver. The Romans, Grecians, and chiefly the Egyptians, made most of their statues of basaltes. See also MARBLE. BATH STONE has its name from the city of Bath, most of the beautiful buildings of that place being erected with it. It is not so white and hard as Portland stone ; but, as it is easy to be wrought with edged tools, and fashioned for all the ornamental parts of architecture, statuaiy, &c. it is sent to all parts of England. This stone is dug out of the quarries upon Charl- ton-down, and brought thence down a steep hill, by a four-wheeled carriage, of a particular structure. The wheels are of cast-iron, broad and low, with a groove in the perimeter, to keep them on the pieces of wood, on which the carriage moves down-hill, 42 BEE with four or five tons weight of stone, very easily, and without the help of horses. The motion is mo- derated by means of a friction-lever, bearing more or less on the hinder wheel, as occasion requires. Great quantities of the stone dug out of those quar- ries, are sent by the Avon to Bristol, and thence to London. BEADS ; GLASSBEADS. (F. Verroterie, Ras- mde, Rocaille ; G. Glasperlen, Glaskorallen ; D. Ve- netianse paarlen ; I. Coutaria, Margheritine ; S. AbalorioS) Rocalla, Vidrieria ; P. Missanga, Velorios^ Aljofar, Rocalha ; DA. Glaskoraller, Glasj, r ; Sw. Glaspiirlor ; POL. Koralki sklane \ R. Bisser i dekui.} Beads are small globules or balls, chiefly used for necklaces ; and made of pearl, steel, garnet, coral, diamond, amber, crystal, paste, glass, &c. There is a considerable trade, chiefly of coral, amber, and glass beads, carried on with the savages of the coast of Africa, and the East-India Islands. The Roman- Catholics make great use of beads, in rehearsing their ave-marias ; and the like usage is also found among the dervises and other religious of the East. BEAR SKINS ; see FURS. BEAVER SKINS ; see FURS. ' BEER. (F. Bicre; G. Bier; D. Bier; I. Birra, Cervogia; S. Ccrveza; P. Cervtja; DA. Oe/, Oell\ Sw. Oel\ POL. Pirvo ; R. Pirvo ; L. Cerevisia.) Beer is a spirituous liquor, made with the addition of hops, from farinaceous grains, by decoction and fer- mentation. Barley is generally used for making beer, sometimes also wheat, and even oats and rye. In North Ame- rica, they brew beer from maize. The invention of brewing beer is very old, but not BEZ 43 so old as that of preparing wine. According to Dio- dor, Osiris'sbeer was so good, that it was little infe- rior to wine, with respect to taste as well as strength. The antients were strangers to the use of hops. The chief sorts of beer in Great Britain, of which considerable quantities are annually exported, are Alt and Porter. Among the different sorts of beer brewed abroad, the most famous are : the Broihan, made at Hanover and Gottingen ; the Brunswick mumme ; the Brenier ac/it'groten ; the Dantzisj spruce beer; &c. BEES-WAX; see WAX. BELL-METAL; see COPPER. BERLIN BLUE; see PRUSSIAN BLUE. BERYL. (V.Beril; G.Beri/ll; D. Berylsteen ; I. Berillo; S. Berilo ; P. Berillo ; DA. Beryl; Sw. Be- ryl ; L. Bert/ 1 fits.} Beryl is a pellucid gem of a blueish green colour, found in the East Indies, and about the gold-mines in Peru. Some also come from Silesia ; but they ar<* oftener coloured crystals than real beryls, and always much inferior to the East-Indian and Peruvian kind. The beryl, in its perfect state, approaches to the hardness of the garnet; and its size is from that of a small tare to that of a pea, a horse-bean, or even a walnut. BEZOAR, Bezoard. (F. Bezoard; G. Bezoar; D. Bezoarsteen; I. Belzuar, Bezzuarro ; S. Bezai\ Bezoar; P. Pcdra-Bazar ; DA. Bezoar ; Sw. Bezour ; POL. Bezoar kamien ; R, Besoar ; L. Bezoar.) Bezoar is a general name, in natural history and medicine, for antidotes, or substances to prevent the effects of poison. 44 BIS The bezoar is a calculous concretion, found in the stomach of certain animals of the goat-kind. It is composed of concentrical coats surrounding one an- other, with a small cavity in the middle, containing a bit of wool, st aw, hair, or a similar substance. The Oriental bezoar, brought from Persia and the East Indies, is the best sort: it has a shining, dark green, or olive colour, and an even, smooth surface. On removing the outward coat, that which lies under- neath appears likewise smooth and shining. The Occidental bezoar, brought from the Spanish West Indies, has a rough surface, and less of a green colour, than the Oriental. It is likewise much hea- vier, more brittle, and of a looser texture. The Oc- cidental is generally less than a walnut; the Oriental mostly larger, and sometimes as big as a goose-egg. Many of the stones sold under the name of Bezoar, are artificial compositions. The common mark of the goodness of this stone, is its striking a deep green colour on white paper that has been rubbed with chalk. Bezoar, in medicine, can only be considered as an absorbent. German bezoar, is said to be found in the stomach of the chamois, a sort of wild goat, and supposed only to be the hair of that animal, licked offby the tongue, and, by its impregnation with the saliva, condensed into balls, which are used sometimes in medicine, but chiefly to make a yellow colour for painters in minia- ture. BICE; see COPPER. BISMUTH, Tin Glass. (F. Bismuth ; G. Wiss- muth; D. Bismuth, Bergsteen ; I. Bismutte ; S. Bis- muth, Piedra inga; P. Marcasita ; DA. Vismut ; Sw. Vismut; POL. Markazyt cynowy ; R. Wismut ; L. Bistnuthum.} Bismuth is a semi-metal, of a reddish or yellowish BIS 45 white colour, a lamellated texture, moderately hard, and brittle. It is the heaviest of all semi -metals, its specific gravity being nearly as that of silver, viz. ten times heavier than water. It has no degree of mal- leability, or of being reducible by trituration to a fine powder. It melts a little slower than tin, and. is about as fusible as lead. It seems to flow the thinnest of all metallic substances. This semi-metal is chiefly found in Germany and in Norway. It is employed by pewterers, to communi- cate hardness to tin, and may be used instead of lead in the cupellation of metals. It resembles lead in many respects, and is thought to be dangerous when taken internally. Most metallic substances unite with Bismuth, and are thereby rendered more fusible; hence it is used in the making of solder, printers' types, &c. as well as pewter. The calx of bismuth is said to promote the vitrifi- cation of earths, and of the refractory metallic calces, more powerfully than lead ; and likewise to act as a more violent corrosive on .crucibles, than the glass of lead itself. Hence, it is preferable to lead in the purification of gold and silver; destroying more ef- fectually the baser metals with which they have been adulterated. This semi-metal is most commonly lodged in co- balt ores ; which, when of a high red, or peach bloom colour, are called bismuth bloom, or flowers of bismuth. A tincture drawn from the ore with aquafortis, and this afterwards mixed with a saturated solution of sea salt, and inspissated, yields a reddish salt ; the watery solution of which is the green sympathetic ink. The characters written with this ink, disappear as soon as dry, but, on holding the paper to the fire, they become green and legible. BISTRE. (F. Bidauct, Bistre ; G. Bister, Russ- schwdrze.} Is the burnt oil extracted from the soot of wood. It is of a brown transparent colour, having 46 BIT much the same effect in water-painting-, where alone it is used, as brown pink in oil. Though this colour is much valued, yet it is not in general use in this country, perhaps on account of its not being easily procured ot'a peiiect kind. The best is that procured from France. Dry beech- wood affords the best soot for making it. The goodness of Bistre may be perceived, by its warm deep brown colour, and transparency, when moistened with water. BITUMEN JUDAICUM, Jew's -Pitch. (F. A*- plialte, Bit time de Judce ; G. Jiidenpech ; D. Jodcn- lym ; I. Asfa/fo, Bitume giudaico ; S. Asfalto, Betttn judaico ; P. Asphalto, Bctnme judaico \ DA. Jode- beeg, Jodelum ; Sw. Jiidebeck ; POL. Kleij ziemskij ; R. Asfalt, Jidowskaia smola ; L. AspJtattuni^ Bitu- men juda icum . ) This is a kind of pitch, which may be found float- ing on the waters of the lake Asphaltites, in Pales- tine, like large lumps of earth; and which, being driven by the winds to the eastern and western shores, adheres to them. It is then collected by the Arabs, and divided between them and the Bashaw of Da- mascus, who purchases their share of it, for some pieces of money, or such stuffs as they use for clothing. This bitumen is a sulphureous substance, mixed with salt, which is gradually condensed by the heat of the sun. It is as brittle and shining as the black Stockholm pitch, which it so much resembles, that nothing but the bad smell of the latter, and the hard- ness of Asphaltum, can shew the difference. It is combustible; and exhales, while burning, a strong and penetrating smell. The Jews formerly used it to embalm their dead ; the Arabs gather it for pitching their ships; but Eu- ropeans use it in several medicinal compositions,, as also for a fine black varnish, in imitation of that of China. BLU 47 BLACK LEAD. (F. Mine deplomb noir, Plomb de mine, Potelot; G. Pottloth; D. Potlood ; I. Mini- era di piombo, Piombaggine ; S. Piedra mineral de plomo ; P. Pedra mineral de churnbo ; DA. Blyant ; Sw. Blyerts ; POL. Olowek ; R. Tschemoi krandasch, Bleierz ; L. Plumbago.} Black-lead is an inflammable substance, which, when fresh cut, appears of ablueish white, and shin- ing, like lead; but when pure, becomes extremely black. It is micaceous, and minutely scaly ; easily broken, and, when broken, of a granulary, dull ap- pearance. Black-lead is too soft to strike fire with steel: it is insoluble in acids; but in a very strong fire, when exposed to the air at the same time, it is entirely volatile, leafing only a little iron and a small quantity of siliceous earth. The substance evaporat- ing is phlogiston and aerial acid. Black-lead is found in different countries: as Ger- many, France, Spain, the Cape of Good Hope, and America; but, Malaga in Spain excepted, generally in small quantities, and of very different quality. The best sort, however, and the fittest of all for making- pencils, is that met with at Borrowdale in Cumber- land. It is found there in such plenty, that not only the whoje island of Britain, but the whole continent of Europe, may be said to be supplied thence. The principal use of black-lead, is for making pen- cils for drawing. One part of black-lead, with three of clay and some cow's-hair, makes an excellent coat- ing for retorts; as it keeps its form, even after the re- torts have melted. The powder of black-lead also serves to cover the straps for razors; and it is with that, the cast-iron work, such as stoves, c. receive a gloss on their surface. BLACK PEPPER; see PEPPER. BLUBBER is the fat of whales and other large sea- animals, whereof is made train-oil, by boiling it down. 48 BOA The whole quantity of blubber yielded by a whale, ordinarily amounts to forty or fifty, sometimes to eighty and more hundred-weights. See TRAIN OIL. BLUE VITRIOL, VITRIOL OF COPPER, or RO- MAN VITRIOL. (F. Vitriol bleu, Couperose bleue, Vitriol Romain, Vitriol de Chypre ; G. Blauer Vitri- ol, Kupfer Vitriol, Rbmischer Vitriol; D. Blaauw Vi- triool, Kopervitriool, Roomsch Vitriool ; I. Vitriiiolo turchinQ) di rame, ciprio ; S. Vitriolo azul, de cobre, Romano, de Chipre ; P. Vitriolo de cobre ; DA. Blaa Vitriol, Kobber Vitriol, Blaat Kobber vand ; Sw. Bla Vitriol, Koppar Vitriol; POL. Koperwas cypryyski, modnj ; R. Sinei Kuperos ; L. Vitriolum cceruleum, Cyprinum, Romanum, Veneris.} * If pure oil of vitriol be boiled on copper filings, or small pieces of the metal, it dissolves them into a liquor of a deep blue colour, which easily crystallizes. The crystals are of a beautiful blue colour, and are sold under the name of blue or Roman vitriol. Where sulphur is found in great plenty, blue vitriol is made by stratifying thin plates of copper with sul- phur; and, on slowly burning the sulphur, its acid corrodes the copper. The metal is then to be boiled in water, that the saline part may be dissolved. The operation is to be repeated, till all the copper is dis- solved^ and all the saline liquors are to be evaporated together, to the crystallizing point. B}^ this method, however, a great part of the acid is lost; and in Bri- tain, the purr; acid must be preferable for those who prepare blue vitriol. Vitriol of copper is chiefly employed in medicine as a caustic. BOARDS. (F. Planches, Ais; G. Bretern; D. Borden, Berden; I. Assi ; S. Tablets ; P. Taboas ; DA. Breeder; Sw.Brader; PoL,.Deski; R. Dos Id.) Boards are long pieces of timber sawed thin. Deal boards are generally imported into England BOL 49 ready-sawed, because this can be done cheaper abroad. Clap-boards are imported from Sweden and Dantzic ready- formed for coopers. Oak-boards chiefly come from Sweden and Holland, some from Dantzic. We also import white boards for shoemakers ; mill and scale-boards, &c. for divers artificers. Scale-boards are a thin sort of board, used for the covers of primers, thin boxes, &c. They are made with large planes, but might probably be sawed with mills to advantage. BOLE. (F. Bol, Bol d'Armenie, Bol fin du Le- vant; G. Bolus, Bissen, Fetthon; D. Bolus; I. Bolo; S. Bol; P. Bolo; DA. Bolus, Fiileer ; Sw. Bolus, Armenisk Bolus; L. Bolus Armeniaca rubra, Bohe- mica, &c.) Boles are viscid earths, less coherent and more fria- ble than clay ; more readily uniting with water, and more freely subsiding from it. They are soft and unctuous to the touch, and melt in the mouth, im- pressing a slight sense of astringency. Amongst the various sorts of these earths, the principal ones are the following: The Armenian bole, of a bright red colour, with a tinge of yellow. The French bole is of a pale red colour, variegated with irregular specks of white and yellow. The bole ofBlois is yellow, and remarkably lighter than most of the other yellow earths. The Bohemian bole is of a yellow colour, with a cast of red, and generally of a flakey texture. The Lemnian earth, is of a pale brownish red colour. The Silesian bole, is of a pale yellow colour. These and other earths made into little masses, and stamped with certain impressions, are called terrcs si- gillatw. They are recommended as astringent, sudo- rific, and alexipharmic. 50 BOX BORAX. (F. Borax; G. Borax ; D. Boras ; I. Borrace ; S.Borrax; P. Borax; DA. Borax; Sw. Borax; POL. Borahs; R. Bura, Bora/ess; L. Borax.} Borax is a saline salt, chiefly found in the province of Patna, in the East indies. Hitherto the chemists in Europe have in vain attempted to counterfeit it. Some of them consider it as an alkaline salt, which is found, completely formed, in Indostan; others will have it to be the produce of volcanoes, or subterra- neous fires. Borax is of great use in the working of metals, by facilitating their fusion and purification. This sub- stance being quickly vitrified by the action of fire, attracts the heterogeneous particles that are inter- mixed with these metals, and reduces them to dross. The borax is likewise absolutely necessary in the es- saying of ores, and the soldering of metals. The Dutch alone formerly had the secret of refining it, but it is now likewise refined in Britain. BQX-AVOOD. (F. Bois deBuis; G. Buxbaum- holz ; D. Palmenhout; I. Busso, Bosso, Bossolo ; S. Box; P. Bucko, Buxo ; DA. Buxbom; Sw. Bux~ bom; POL. Bukspan; R. Jamschitj Seleniza; L. Buxus.) Box -wood is extremely hard and smooth, therefore well adapted to the use of the turner ; combs, mathe- matical and musical instruments, works of sculpture, knife-handles, and button-moulds, being made of it. It may also, properly enough, serve as a substitute for ebony. The box- tree formerly grew in great plenty, upon Boxhill, near Dorking in Surry; but now only few large trees are left. Box-wood is chiefly imported from the Levant, sometimes also from Spain. The best quality ought to be in pieces of a good size, straight, and void of knots. BRA 51 BRANDY. (F. Eau devie, Brandevm-, G. Brann- teweln; D. Brandewyn ; I. Acquavite, Acquarzente ; S. Aguardiente\ P. Bguardente ; DA. Brcendevin ; Sw. Brannvin ; POL. Gorzalka^ Wodka ; R. Wino.} Brandy is a spirituous and inflammable liquor, ex- tracted from wine and other substances by distillation. Wine brandy made in France, is esteemed the best in Europe. They make it wherever they make wine; and those accounted best, are the brandies of Cogniac, Bourdeaux, Rochelle, &c. The general method of distilling brandies in France, differs in nothing from that practised here, in working from malt-wash or molasses ; they only observe more particularly, to throw in a little of the natural ley into the still, along with the wine, and this seems to give their spirit the superior flavour for which it is admired. Some wines are much more proper for distillation than others. The wines of Languedoc and Provence afford a great deal of brandy by distillation, when the operation is performed on them in their full strength. The Orleans wines, and those of Blois afford yet more: but the best are those of the territories of Cognac and Andaye; which are, however, in the number of those the least drunk in France. Those of Burgundy and Champagne, though of a very fine flavour, are improper, as yielding but very little in distillation. The wines of Spain, the Canaries, of Cyprus, of Grave, of Hungary, and others of the same kind, yield very little brandy by distillation, and conse- quently will not answer. A large quantity of brandy is distilled in France, during the time of the vintage: for all those poor grapes, that prove unfit for wine, are usually first gathered, pressed, their juice fermented, and directly distilled. It is also a general rule with them, not to distil wine, that will fetch any price as wine; for in that state, the profits on them are vastly greater, than when reduced to brandies. The large stock, of small 52 BRA wines, with which they are almost overrun in France, sufficiently accounts for their making such vast quan- tities of brandies in that country, more than in others which lie in warmer climates, and are better adapted for the production of grapes. All the wine which turns sour, is also condemned to the still. Our distillers imitate foreign brandies to a tolerable decree, by mixing dulcified spirit of nitre with British spirits. But the only method of imitating French brandies to perfection, is by an essential oil of wine ; this being the very thing that gives them their flavour; the spirit, however, should be perfectly pure and tasteless: for it is in vain to expect, that this essen- tial oil should correct the fulsome flavour of our malt spirits. To imitate Cogniac brandy, it is necessary that the essential oil should be distilled from Cogniac lees ; and the same for any other kind of brandy. French brandy, that has acquired by age a great degree of softness and ripeness, is observed at the same time to have acquired a yellowish brown colour, which seems to proceed from some of the resinous matter of the oak cask, dissolved in the spirit. Also this colour our distillers have endeavoured to imitate, by digesting extract of oak, or oak shavings, in spirit of wine. Treacle and burnt sugar are also used for colouring brandies. The spirit distilled from molasses or treacle, is very clean or pure. But though much cleaner-tasted than malt spirit, it will not prove so vinous, unless good fresh wine-lees are added to and fermented with the molasses. ~By this addition, and if not sufficient, that of some good dulcified spirit of nitre, when brought to common proof strength, spirit of molasses, may be made to pass on ordinary judges for French brandy. Great quantities of this spirit are used in adulterating foreign brandies, rum, and arrack. Brandy distilled a second time, is called spirit of wine ; and this, after another rectification, is called spirit of wine rectified. BRA 53 BRASIL-WOOD. (F. Bois de Bresil ; G.Brasili- enholz ; D. Branlienhout ; I. Legno deBrasile, Verzi- wo; S. Brasil, Madera del Bresil\ P. Pdo Brasil; DA. Bmsilientr&e ; Sw. Brasilia ; POL. Brezylia ; R. Brasilskoe derewo ; L. Lignum Brasilianum.) Brasil-wood is a very heavy, hard, red wood, first brought from Fernambucco, a town of Brasil in South America; but the same sort of wood is also found in Japan and St. Martha; that of Fernambucco, how- ever, is esteemed the best, and should be chosen in thick pieces, close, sound, and without any bark. The true Brasilian is a large tree, with a reddish and thorny bark; the leaves small, obtuse, and of a fine shining green ; the flowers a little sweet, and of a beau- tiful red hue ; the pods flat and prickly, containing two com pressed seeds, like those of the gourd. The Brasil-wood brought to us, differs little other- wise, than as different parts af one log; some pieces being richer in colour than others. Many have con- founded this wood with red saunders; but the two woods, chemically considered, are very obviously dif- ferent ; brasil-wood very readily communicating its red colour to water, whilst saunders gives no red tinge to any aqueous liquor. The watery tincture of Brasil-wood, however, is not quite so deep, as that made in rectified spirit of wine, or in volatile alkaline spirits. Brasil-wood dyes woollen of a red colour, which does not want beauty, but has little durability. It is also used by turners. BRASILETTO WOOD. (F. Bresillot ; G. Bra- silettholz ; D. Brasilethout; ]. Brasileto ; S. Brasi- lete\ P. Brasileto ; DA. Brasiletholt ; Sw. Brasi- letta.) The coesalpinia brasiletto, Brasiletto or Jamaica wood, grows naturally in the warmest parts of Ame- rica, whence it is imported for the dyers, who use it much. It is thought a very excellent timber, though in general of small diameter. The wood is elastic, 54 BR1 tough, and durable; takes a fine polish, is of a beau- tiful deep orange colour inclining to red, full of resin, and yielding an excellent tincture by infusion. The demand for this wood has been so great, that none of the large trees are left in any of the British plantations. The largest remaining, are not above two inches in thickness, and eight or nine feet in height. The branches are slender, and full of small prickles; the leaves pinnated ; the flowers white ; and the pods inclose several small round seeds. The red colour produced from this wood, is greatly improved, by solution of tin in aqua regia. BRASS; see COPPER. BRIMSTONE. (F. Soufre ; G. Schwefel-, D. Zwavel, Zolfer ; I. Zolfo, So/fo ; S. Azufre ; P. En- xufre ; DA. Svovel ; S^ Svafoel\ POL. Siarka ; R. Sjera; L. Sulphur.} Brimstone is a yellow, tasteless, hard, brittle, mi- neral substance; which when rubbed, becomes elec- tric. It burns with a blue flame, and a disagreeable suffocating smell. The name of sulphur, seems to be applied to brim- stone, after it has undergone a refinement in this . ^ country; in the state in which the substance is im- ported, it is termed brimstone. Brimstone is found, sometimes pure, but generally combined with other substances. If united with metals, it is called pyrites. Dr. Watson has shewn, in a paper on lead-ore, in the Philosophical Transac- tions, that no less than seven hundred tons are annually dissipated in the various lead-mines of England, for want of a different mode of purifying the ores. It has lately been discovered, that sulphur is formed by a natural process in animals and vegetables, beginning to putrify. It is found on stable walls and in privies. It is also extracted from vegetables, as the dock-root, cochlearia, &c, M. Deyeux obtained it from the BRl 55 white of eggs. It has likewise been procured from horse-dung. The brimstone used in Great Britain, is generally brought from volcanic countries. It abounds in in- exhaustible quantities in Italy, and particularly the island of Sicily. The very first quality of Sicily brim- stone is that of the Prince of Trabia, loaded at Ly- cata : it is constantly two tarins higher than the com- mon sorts. The second sort is that of the Prince of Pantelaria, shipped at Palma, about one tarin dearer than common brimstone. The third sort in quality, is that of the Prince of Butera, shipped from Falco- naraor Lycata. Then comes the fabric of the Due of Monteleone, loaded at Fiume di Nero, followed by that of the Prince of Catholica, shipped from Sycu- liana. These are all the best sorts of brimstone. In Sicily, the brimstone is dug up by means of grooves, drove into the heart of the mountains; the mineral is brought up in small green lumps, and laid in large troughs lined with plaister. When the fire has heated them to the proper degree, the brimstone exudes through holes in the bottom, into wooden bowls placed under them. A more refined sort of brimstone, than any of the Sicilian fabrics, is brought in rolls from Leghorn. The goodness and purity of brimstone, is to be dis- tinguished by an uniform palish yellow colour, close texture, and small grain. Red or dark stripes are signs of inferior quality. When melted sulphur is gently heated, it flies off in a yellow powder, which is called flowers of sulphur, much used in medicine. A composition of nitre mixed with sulphur, is the ingredient for making oil of vitriol. Gunpowder is a mixture of sulphur, nitre, and charcoal. But a still more violent composition of which sulphur consti- tutes an ingredient, is fulminating powder, consisting of three parts of nitre, two of carbonate of potash, and one of sulphur. Sulphur is employed in medi- cine, both internally and externally. It is also used 56 BUG in several arts. By means of it, fine impressions of engraved stones are taken. It is used for whitening wool, silk, and many other matters, by exposing them to its vapour during its combustion. BRISTLES. (F. Soies ; G. Borsten; D. Bors- tds; 1. Setole; S. Cerdas, Setas ; P. Sedas, Cerdas ; DA. Burster; Sw. Borst; i J OL. Szezeciny ; R. Schts- chetina ; L. iSete. ) Bristles are a rigid glossy kind of hair, growing up- on the backs of swine, and much used by brash- makers, shoemakers, saddlers, and others. They are chiefly imported from Russia and Poland. The lat- ter pass under the name of Konigsberg bristles ; and amongst the former, the Ukraine bristles are most esteemed. BRONZE; see COPPER. * BUCKWHEAT. (F. Ble Sarrarin, Blenoir; G. Buchictizen, Heidekorn ; D. Boekiceit ; I. Grano Sa~ raceno, Faggina^ Fraina ; S. Trigo Saraceno, Trigo negro ; P. Trigo Saraceno ; DA. Boghvede ; Sw. Boh- vete; POL. Tat area ^ Gryka, Pohanca; R, Gretscha; L. Fagopyrum.) Buckwheat is produced by the polygonum fago- pvrum, which rises with an upright smooth branchy stem, from about a foot and a half to a yard high. The branches are terminated by clusters of whitish flowers, succeeded by large angular seeds. Buckwheat is frequently cultivated, both by way of fodder, cutting its stalks while young and green, to feed cattle; and for its grain, to feed pigeons, poul- try, hogs, &c. for which it affords excellent nourish- ment. Several writers who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century, consider buckwheat to be a plant, first introduced into Europe in their time, from Greece and the northern parts of Asia. After the BUG 57 middle of the said century, it had become the com- mon food of the poor in France. That buckwheat was cultivated in England about the year 1597, is proved by Gerard's Herbal. A new species of this grain has been made known of late years, under the name of Siberian buckwheat, which appears, by experience, to have considerable advantages over the former. It was brought from Tartary to Petersburg, in the beginning of the last century, and has thence been dispersed over all Europe. BUENOS AYHES HIDES. (F. Cuirs de Buenos Ayres ; G. Buenos Ayres Haute.} These are the hides of bull-oxen, dried in the hair, and imported from Buenos Ayres, a large country in South America, abounding in horned cattle. In such abundance are these animals there, that the hide alone is esteemed of any value. BUFF-SKINS ; Buffs. (F. Buffle, Peaux deBuf- fles; G. B uffelhil ate; D BuffeMeer, Buffels/iuiden; I. Bufalo, Cuojo di Bufalo; .S. Ante- P. Couro de Bufalo; DA. Bqffellader, Boffelhuder ; Sw. Bu/el- huder.} Buff, is a sort of leather, prepared from the skin of the buffalo ; which, dressed with oil, after the manner of the shamoy, makes what we call buff-skins. The principal manufactories of this article are in France and Germany, and it makes a very considerable arti- cle in the Levant trade. The skins of elks, oxen, and other like animals, when prepared in the buffalo manner, are likewise called buffs. Buff-leather is used for sword belts and for other purposes, where its exceeding thickness and firmness is required. BUGLES. (A. Glassperian ; D. Vennettiansc Paarlen; DA. Glasskomller ; F. Verroterie; 1. Con- taria; S.Alberios; P. Missanga.} Are small glass 5b BUT beads, imported chiefly from Venice, and other parts of Italy. They are of various colours; of which large quantities are exported to Africa, and there ex- changed for ivory, gum, bees- wax, &c. BULBS; Flower Roots. (G.' Blumenturebln : D. Bollen\ DA. Blomsterloger; F. Oignons de fteurs ; I. Bulbi ; S. Cebellos deflore ; P. Cebellos de /lore.} The importations of bulbs is chiefly from Holland. BULLION ; gold and silver in the mass. These metals are so called either when smelted from the na- tive ore, or melted down in bars or ingots ; -the chief importations into Europe are from South America. BURGUNDY PITCH; see PITCH. BURR STONES. These are chiefly imported from France, and are rough stones, used for making mill-stones in their natural state. BUTTER. (V.Beurre-, G. Butter ; D.Boter- I. Burro, Butiro ; S. Manteca ; P. Manteiga ; DA. Smbr ; Sw. Smor ; POL. Maslo ; R. Masslo Korowe; L. Butyrum.) Butter is the fat, oily, and inflammable part of the milk. Fresh butter, which has undergone no change, has scarcely any smell; its taste is mild and agree- able, it melts with a weak heat, and none of its prin- ciples are disengaged by the heat of boiling water. The trade in butter is very considerable ; some compute 50,000 tons annually consumed in London. The quantity of butter generally imported annually in the port of London, from York, Hull, Scarbo- rough, and Stockton, is about 115,000 firkins ; from Newcastle upon Tyne 15,700 firkins; and from the county of Suffolk 56,700 firkins. There are also annually brought to London, by land-carriage, about 75,000 firkins "of Cambridge butter; and about 30,000 CAL 59 firkins from all other parts of the kingdom. Large quantities of butter likewise, are constantly imported from Scotland, Ireland, and Holland. No butter is esteemed equal to that made in the county of Essex, well known by the name of Epping butter, in which at no time they mix much salt, though a little is absolutely necessary. In many parts of this kingdom, they colour their butter in winter, to make it appear like May butter. Divers abuses are committed, in the packing and salt- ing of butter, against which we have a statute express. c. CALAMINE. (F. Calcimine, Pierre calaminaire ; G. Galmeij ; D. Katamyn, Kalamynsteen ; I. Gialla- mina, Ze lamina, Pietra ca laminar is ; S. Calamina, Piedra calami nar ; P. C a lamina, Pedra calaminaria ; DA. Galmey ; Sw. Gallmeja ; POL. Galmaia, Gal- man ; R. Kamen kalaminctr, Galmeja ; L. Lapis ca- laminariS) Calamina, Cadmia.} Calami ne is the general ore of zinc, of a spungy substance, yet considerably heavy. It is, when most pure and perfect, of a pale brownish grey, and found in Saxony, Bohemia, and England. About the west- end of Mendip hills, in Somersetshire, lapis cala- minaris is to be met with in great plenty, lying near the surface of the earth. It is of several colours, some white, some inclining to red, some grey, and some blackish. Mixed with copper, lapis calaminaris, in virtue of the zinc it contains, makes brass. It is much used in medicine externally ; and should be chosen for that use, as heavy, soft, and friable, as it can be had, and least debased by other substances. CAMPHIRE. (F. Camphre- G. Kampker, D, Kamfcr; l.Canfora; S. Alcanfor, Can/or ; P. Al- camphor; DA. Kampher ; Sw.Aawi/b-; POL. jfifa/- /br ; R. Kamfora, Kanfora ; L. C amphora.} Camphire is a volatile concrete, belonging to the class of essential oils ; though camphire is always in a solid state. It is the produce of the Laurus Camphora, a tree which grows naturally in the woods of the western parts of Japan, and the adjacent isles ; but is now cultivated also in the isles of Sumatra and Borneo, and in China. We are in formed, that in China some of these trees are found above one hundred cubits in height, and so thick, that twenty persons cannot in- close them. The China and Japan camphire is al- most the only kind brought to Europe, and is inferior to that of Borneo and Sumatra. All parts of the camphire tree are impregnated with the essential oil, though the roatb contain most. It is extracted, by chopping the wood of the tree very small, laying it to steep in water, and distilling it. Pure camphire is very white, pellucid, somewhat unctuous to the touch, of a bitterish aromatic taste, and fragrant smell. It possesses considerable antisep- tic virtues, and is a good diaphoretic, for which pur- poses it is used in medicine. It is likewise employed ift fireworks, and several other arts, particularly in making varnishes. CAMWOOD : the fine red wood of Africa and the Brazils, chiefly used for making handles to knives and forks. CANTHARIDES. (F. Cantharides, Mouches d'Espagne; G. Spanische Fliegen; D. Spaansche Vliegen; I. Cantarelle; S. Cantaridas ; P. Cantari- das; DA. Spanske Finer; Sw. Spanska Flugor ; POL. Kantarjdy, Hiszpanskie Mucky ; R. Hischpanskie Muchi; L. Cantharides.) CAP 61 Cantharides differ from each other, in their size, shape, and colour. The largest are about an inch long, but others are not above three quarters of an inch. Some are of a pure azure colour, others of that of pure gold ; and others, again, have a mixture of gold and azure colours ; all very brilliant, and ex- tremely beautiful. These insects are more common in hot countries, such as Spain, Italy, and the South of France ; though they are to be met with in all parts of Europe, at some seasons of the year ; particularly among wheat and in meadows, upon the leaves of the ash, the poplar, the willow, the rose-tree, honeysuckle, lilac, wild cherry, &c. Such numbers of these insects are sometimes together in the air, that they appear like swarms of bees, and they have so disagreeable a smell, that it may be perceived a great way off, especially about sunset, though they are not seen at that time. This smell is a guide for those, who make it their business to catch them. Those that gather them, tie them in a bag or piece of linen cloth, that has been well worn ; upon which they are killed with the vapours of hot vinegar, and then dried in the sun, and kept in boxes. When dried, they are so light, that fifty of them will hardly weigh a dram. Those that are dry, fresh, and whole, are the best. The Sicilian cantharides, and particularly those of Mount ^Etna, are reckoned preferable to those of Spain. They are found there particularly on the pine and fig tree, the juice of which is supposed to impart to them a corrosive and abstersive quality. Cantharides taken inwardly as medicine, act as a stimulus upon the urinary passages, and should be used with great care. Outwardly, they are the basis of blistering-plaisters, by mixing their powder with some proper ointment. CAPERS. (F. Capres; G.Kappern; D. Kap- 62 CAR pers ; I. Cappari; S. Alcaparras ; P. Alcapparas; DA. Kapers, Kappers; Sw. Kapris, Capris ; POL. Kapary ; R. Kaperszu ; L. Capparis.) Capers are the pickled buds of the capparis spino- sa, a low shrub, generally growing out of the joints of old walls and the fissures of rocks, in most of the warm parts of Europe. Capers are imported into Great Britain, from dif- ferent parts of the Mediterranean ; the best from Tou- lon in France. Some small salt capers come from Majorca, and a few flat ones from about Lyons. Capers are chiefly used as a pickle in sauces, and are supposed to excite appetite and to assist digestion. In medicine, they are considered particularly useful as detergents and aperients, in obstructions of the liver and spleen. CARAWAY SEED. (F. Carvi, Cumin despres ; G.Kuemmel; D. Karwey, Veldkomyn; I. Carvi ; S. Alcaravea ; P. Alcaravia, Alchirivia, Chirivia; DA. Kummen, Dansk Kummen, Karve ; Sw. Kummin, Brodkumin, Karf; POL. Karuy, Kmin polny ; R. Dikii Tnnon ; L. Carvi.} The carum carvi plant, grows spontaneously in many parts of Great Britain ; but its seed is mostly imported for use, from Provence and Languedoc in France. Caraway is a small, narrow, longish seed, fur- rowed on the back ; of an aromatic smell, and warm pungent taste. It is used in biscuits, seed cakes, and confections ; incrusted with sugar as a sweet- meat, and distilled with spirituous liquors, for the sake of its flavour. CARBUNCLE. (F. Escarboucle; G.Karfimc- kel-stein ; D. Karbonkel ; I. Carbonchio ; S. Carbun- co, Carbunculo ; P. Carbunculo ; DA. Karbunkel ; Sw. Karbunkel; POL. Karbunkul ; R. Karbunkel; L. Carbunculus.) CAR 63 Carbuncle is a very elegant gem, of a deep red colour, with a mixture of scarlet. Its usual size is nearly a quarter of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter in its thickest parts. When held up against the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and becomes exactly of the co- lour of a burning charcoal; whence the propriety of the antients calling it anthrax. It bears the fire, unaltered. It is very rare, and only found in the East Indies. CARDAMOM. \ (F. Cardamomes- G. Karda- momlein ; D. Kardemomen ; I. Cardamomi ; S. Car- damomos ; P. Cardamomos ; DA. Cardamomer ; Sw. Kardemummor ; POL. Kardamom ; R. Kardamon ; L. Amomutn, Cardamomum.) This plant is a species of the same genus as the grains of paradise and ginger. It is little known in this country, except by its seeds, which are used as medicine, and in the kitchen. It is a native of In- dia, and divided into two sorts, cardamomum majus and minus. The first, when it comes to us, is a dried fruit or pod, about an inch long, containing under a thick skin, two rows of small triangular seeds of a warm aromatic flavour. The cardamomum minus is a fruit, scarcely half the length of the foregoing, but considerably stronger both in smell and taste. They are to be chosen large, new, sound, close shut in all parts, of a good colour, full of seeds, free from dust, and of a strong, agreeable smell. CARMINE. (F. Carmin; G. Karmin ; D. Kar- wryw ; I. Carminio ; S. Carmin ; P. Carmim; DA. Carmin; Sw. Carmin; POL. Karmin ; R. Karmin ; L. Carminium.) A very beautiful red colour, bordering upon purple. The manner of preparing it is kept a secret by the colour-makers, though there is no doubt that it is a preparation of cochineal. 64 CAS Carmine is used by woollen-drapers, to colour and hide defective places in scarlet cloth ; it is also used by miniature painters, and sometimes by painters in oil ; though rarely by the latter, on account of its very high price. CASSIA BUDS. (F. Fleurs de Casse ; G. Kas- siabluthe, Kassiablumen\ D. Kassiebloemen ; 1. Fiori- di Cassia ; S. Flor de arbol de Canela ; P. Flores de Cassia; DA. Cassieblomstre ; Sw. Cassiablomstcr ; L. Flores Cassite.) Cassia buds are the buds of the flowers of the lau- rus cassia, or cassia lignea tree. They are used by distillers in conjunction with cassia lignea, for pre- paring cinnamon-water ; and imported from different parts of the East Indies and China. CASSIA FISTULA ; Cassia in the Cane. (F. Cassia solutive, Casse en batons ou en canons. Cane- jicc, Cassejistule ; G. Kassia, Roehrenkassia, Purgier Kassia ; D. Kassie, Pyp/eassic, Rietltassie, Purgee- rende Kassie ; I. Cassia jistola\ S. Canq/istola^ Casia purgante, Casia fatola ; P. Cassia purgante, Cana- fislula; DA. Cassia, Roercassia ; Sw. Cassia, Rwr- cassia ; POL. Fistula ; R. Kassia ; L. Cassia- fistula.} This is the purgative fruit or pods of the cassia fistula, black or purging cassia, a tree originating from Egypt and both Indies, where it rises to the height of forty or fifty feet. The flowers are produced in long spikes at the end of the branches, and are succeeded by cylindrical pods, from one to two feet and upwards long, with a dark brown woody shell, divided into many cells by transverse partitions, each containing one or two oval, smooth, compressed, yellowish seeds, lodged in a blackish, soft, sweetish pulp, which is used in medicine. Those pods are best, that are fresh, full, and will not rattle when shaken. There are two sorts of this drug in the shops ; one brought from the East, the other from the West In- CAS 65 dies ; the canes or pods of the latter, are generally large, rough, thick-rinded, and the pulp nauseous ; those of the former are less, smoother, the pulp blacker, and of a sweeter taste. This is probably owing to a difference in soil and culture. In Ja- maica, the finest fruit is produced from trees grow- ing in a rich deep mould, in some warm and well sheltered vale. For using this fruit, the pulp is taken out of the pods and sifted ; though apothecaries use little of this kind, but what is old and boiled up with sugar to make it keep. CASSIA LIGNEA. (F. Cassia tignea, Casse en bois, Canelle de la Chine ; G. Cassia lignea, Kas- sienrinde ; D. Houtkassie, Moederkaneet ; I. Cas- siligna ; S. Casia lenosa, Casalignea ; P. Cassia lenhosa; DA. Moderkanecl ; Sw. Modercanel ; L. Cassia lignca.} The bark of laurus cassia, cassia lignea, or base cinnamon, is imported from different parts of the East Indies and from China ; particularly from Ti- mor, Java, Mindanao, and the Malabar coast. It has a very near resemblance to cinnamon, though distinguishable from it, by being of a more thick, red, and coarse appearance, and by its breaking short, and smooth, while the cinnamon breaks fibrous and shivery. It resembles cinnamon still more exactly, in its aromatic flavour, than in its external appear- ance ; and seems only to differ from it in being somewhat weaker, in abounding more with a vis- cous mucilaginous matter, and in being less astrin- gent. It frequently serves as a substitute for the more expensive article of cinnamon, particularly in medi- cine : as almost the whole of what is at present sold under the title of either simple or spirituous cinna- mon-water, is entirely prepared from cassia ; and not F 66 CAS even entirely from the bark, but from a mixture of the bark and buds. CASTOREUM. (F. Castoreum; G.Bibergeil; D. Beevergcil ; I. Castorio ; S. Castoreo ; P. Casio- reo\ DA. Bcevergel ; Sw. Biisvergiill; POL. Stroybo- bowry; R. Bobrowaja struja; L. Castoreum.") Castoreum was formerly believed to be the produce of the testicles of the beaver ; but later discoveries have shewn that it is contained in four bags situated in the lower belly of that animal. Two of these, which are called the superior, from being more elevated than the others, are filled with a soft, resinous, adhe- sive matter, mixed with small fibres, greyish without and yellow within, of a strong, disagreeable and pe- netrating scent, an acrid, bitterish, and nauseous taste, and very inflammable. This is the true casto- reum : it hardens in the air, and comes to us in round, brown, brittle, and friable balls, of a red liver- colour within. The inferior bags contain an unc- tuous liquor like honey, which in time becomes about the consistence of tallow, but its odour is ra- ther weaker and more disagreeable than that of the true castoreum. The best sort of castoreum is what comes from Russia; an inferior sort, brought from Dantzick, is generally fat and moist ; and the American casto- reum, which is the worst of all, is in longish thin balls. Castoreum is looked upon as one of the capital nervine and antihysteric medicines. CASTOR-OIL (F. Huile de Ricin ; G. Uncech- tes Palmoel, Ricinus-ocl ; I. Olio di Ricino ; S. Aceytt de Ricino, o Palma Christi; P. Oleo de Ricino ; L. Oleum Palmte Christi, Oleum Ricini.) Castor-oil is extracted from the kernel of the fruit, pfoduc&d by the ricinus Americanus, or oil-nut tree, CAV 67 which grows in many parts of America, and is now much cultivated in Jamaica. It is raised from the nut or seed, grows with a surprizing rapidity to the height of fifteen or sixteen feet, and seems to flourish most in gulleys, or near running water, in cool shady spots. The seeds heing freed from the husks or pods, which are gathered upon their turning brown, and when beginning to burst open, are first bruised in a mortar, afterwards tied up in a linen bag, and then thrown into a large pot, with a sufficient quan- tity of water (about eight gallons to one gallon of the seeds), and boiled till their oil has risen to the sur- face ; this is carefully skimmed, strained, and kept for use. One gallon of nuts will yield about one quart of oil. Thus prepared, it is entirely free from all acrimony, and will freely stay upon the stomach, when it rejects most other medicines. But when intended for medicinal use, the oil is more frequently cold-drawn, or extracted from the bruised seeds, by means of a hand-press ; though this is thought more acrimonious than what is prepared by coction. The cold-drawn oil is at first perfectly lim- pid, but, after being kept for some time, acquires a pale tincture, resembling Lisbon wine ; probably caused by the membrane which covers the kernels. This oil is most usually obtained in Great Britain from the seeds imported in barrels. It is not subject to contract rancidity, unless it is made from parched or roasted seeds, which are impregnated with an em- pyreuma. Castor-oil is used internally in medicine, as a gentle purgative, and externally for removing cramps, &c. CAVIARE. (F. Caviar, Carnal; G. Kaviar; D. Kavejaar ; I. Caviario, Caviale; S.Caviario-, P. Caviario ; DA. Caviar \ Sw. Caviar^ Kaviar ; POL. Ikra ; R. Ikra; L. Caviar ium.) Caviare is the spawn or roes of sturgeon ; it is ei- 68 CED ther salted, dried, and made into small cakes, or some- times in its natural state packed up in kegs. This sort of food is in great repute in Russia, on account of their three Lents. The sturgeon is found at the mouth of most of the rivers in Russia, particularly those which fall into the Caspian Sea. The sturgeon caught at the mouth of the Wolga, near Astrachan, is of a prodigious size ; and it is confidently affirmed, that one of their roes will weigh three-hundred pounds. There is a pretty large quantity of this commodity consumed in Italy; and they are well acquainted with it also, in France and England. CAY AN ; or Cayenne Pepper ; see GUINEA PEPPER. CEDAR- WOOD. (F. Cedre; G. Cederholz ; D. Ceder; I. Ccdro ; S. Cedro; P. Cedro ; DA. Ce- dertr(B\ Sw. Cedertraed; POL. Cedr ; R. Kedr ; L. Cedrus.} The Pin us Cedra, commonly called by us Cedar of Lebanon, and sometimes the Phoenician or Syrian Cedar, is a coniferous evergreen of the bigger sort, bearing large roundish cones of smooth scales, stand- ing erect, the leaves being small, narrow, and thick- set. Cedar-wood is reputed almost immortal and incor- ruptible : a prerogative which it owes chiefly to its bitter taste, which the worms cannot endure. If this tree abounded with us, it might have a prin- cipal share in our most superb edifices. The aroma- tic effluvia, constantly emitted from its wood, are said to purify the air, and make rooms wholesome. Chapels and places set apart for religious duties, being wainscoted with cedar-wood, inspire the wor- shippers with a more solemn awe. On account of the great durability of cedar- wood it was, that the an- CHE 69 tients used cedar tablets to write upon, especially for things of importance. A juice was also drawn from cedar, with which they smeared their books and writings, or other matters, to preserve them from rot- ting. In the temple of Apollo at Utica, there were cedar-trees near two-thousand years old; which yet were nothing to that beam of an oratory of Diana at Seguntum in Spain, said to have been brought thither two-hundred years before the destruction of Troy. From the account of the latest travellers to Mount Lebanon, it appears, there are but very few cedar- trees remaining there. They sometimes counterfeit cedar, by dying wood of a reddish hue: but the smell discovers the fraud, that of true cedar being very aromatic. In some places, the wood of the cajou-tree passes under the name of Cedar, on account of itsredd4sh colour, and aromatic smell. CERUSE; see WHITE LEAD. CHEESE. (F. Fromage; G. Kaese ; D. Kaas; I. Fromaggio, Cacio ; S. Queso ; P. Queijo ; DA. Ost ; Sw. Ost; POL. Ser ; R. Sur ; L. Caseus] Cheese is a kind of food, prepared of curdled milk, purged from the whey, and afterwards dried for use. Cheese differs in quality, according as it is made from new or skimmed milk ; from the curd which se- parates spontaneously on standing, or that which is more speedily produced by the addition of rennet. Cream, also, affords a kind of cheese, but quite fat and butyraceous, and which does not keep long. Every country has places noted for this commo- dity : thus Chester, Gloucester, and Stilton cheese, are famous in England. In Switzerland, there is a kind of medicated herb or green cheese, made by intimately mixing the juice of certain herbs with the curd, before it is formed into a cheese : of this kind 70 CHE is the Schabzieger cheese, made in the Canton of Claris in Switzerland. An Italian kind of cheese, called Parmesan cheese, is particularly famous all over Europe. It is known in Italy under the name of Lodi, a territory adjacent to the Parmesan, and abounding in excellent pasture. The good quali- ties of this cheese are, to be new, of a yellow taste, close, and without eyes. Holland furnishes several countries with a prodigious quantity of cheese. The Gouda and Edam cheeses have a great repute. The method of making Gloucester-cheese, in Eng- land, is as follows. The best Gloucester-cheese is made from new milk, and for every cheese, only one meal's milk ought to be used. This must be changed or turned with the rennet. When the milk is turned, the whey should be carefully.strained from the curd, and the latter put into the vat equally broken, taking care to put first a cheese-cloth under it. The vat is then taken to the press for two hours ; after which, it should be turned, to have a clean cloth put under it, and then turned back. It must then be pressed again, for six or eight hours ; when it should again be turned, and rubbed with salt. After this, it must be pressed a third time, for the space of twelve or fourteen hours more ; when, if any of the edges pro- ject, they should be pared off. It may then be put on a dry board, where it should be regularly turned every day. The quantity of cheese annually imported in Lon- don, is about 5,760 tons of Cheshire cheese ; thin cheese, from Hull and Gainsborough, 1,400 tons; from Suffolk, 980 ; and from Newbury, Abingdon, and other places, by barges, 2,400 tons. Cheese, when analysed chemically, appears to par- take much more of an animal nature than butter, or the milk from which it is made. Shaved thin, and properly treated with hot water, it forms a very strong cement, if mixed with quick-lime. As a food, phy- sicians condemn the too free use of it. When new, CHI 71 it is extremely difficult of digestion ; when old, it becomes acrid and hot, and is of a septic nature. Cheese made from the milk of sheep, digests sooner, than that from the milk of cows, but is fess nourish- ing ; that from the milk of goats digests sooner than either, bat is also the least nourishing. CHESNUTS (F. Chataigncs G. Kastanien ; D. Kastanien, Karstengen; I. Castagne \ S. Casta- nas; P. Castanhas; DA. Kastanier ; Sw. KaManier; POL. Kasztany ; R. Kaschtanu ; L. Casta?ieratensc. This is the species, most cultivated as food for cattle. The finest seed s;rows in this country ; but large quan- tities are brought to us from Germany, Holland, Bra- bant, Flandt rs, and the northern coast of France, as 76 CLO far as Bourdeaux. Amongst the foreign red seed, that coming from Brabant and Flanders seems to de- serve the preference, on account of its bright red co- lour, shaded with blue and yellow. White is generally dearer than red clover-seed. In purchasing clover-seed, particular attention should be paid to its being new, of a bright, lively colour ; the grains large, full, and heavy ; and the mass perfectly free from all seeds of weeds, and other extraneous bodies. CLOVES. (F. Clouxde GiroJJc; G. Geworznel- ken; D. Kruidnagelen, Geroffles ; I. Chiovi di Garo- fano, Garofani, Garojfoli ; S. Clavos de Especia^ Cla- villos; P. Cravos da India , Cravos g irofes ; DA. Ncl- liker, Krydenelliker; Sw. Kryddenegli kor ; POL. Gozdziki kramne ; R. Gwosdika; L. Cart/op/u/lla.} The caryophyllus aromaticus, or clove-tree, is a native of the Molucca Islands, particularly of Am- boyna, where it is principally cultivated. It resem- bles t^he birch-tree in appearance, and its bark is thin and smooth, like that of the beech. No verdure is ever seen under it. Its trunk, which is composed of an exceedingly hard wood, does not rise to any height,butdivides itself into several principal branches, the boughs of which are covered with leaves and flowers in the month of March. The leaves are al- ways placed opposite to each other, dotted, smooth, and not serrated; almost resembling in form and con- sistence those of the laurel. At the extremities of the branches, vast quantities of flowers are produced, which are first white, then green, and at last pretty red and hard. When they arrive at this degree of maturity, they are, properly speaking, cloves. As they dry, they assume a dark yellowish cast; and when gathered, become of a deep brown. The sea- son for gathering them, is from October to February. The boughs of the trees are then strongly shaken, or the cloves beaten down with long reeds. Large COB 77 cloths are spread to receive them, and they are after- wards exposed for a few days, upon hurdles, to the smoke of the bamboo-cane. This fumigation, to which the heat of a stove might perhaps be substi- tuted to advantage, is followed by drying the cloves in the sun. Those cloves, which are purposely left upon the tree, or which escape the notice of those who gather them, continue to grow, till they are about an inch in thickness; and jailing off, produce new plants, which do not bear in less than eight or nine years. The clove, to be in perfection, must be full-sized, heavy, oily, and easily broken ; of a fine smell, and hot aromatic taste ; so as almost to burn the throat. In the East Indies, and also in some parts of Europe, cloves are so much admired, as to be thought an in- dispensable ingredient in nearly every dish. They are put into food, liquors, wine, and enter likewise the composition of perfumes. In medicine, cloves possess, in an eminent degree, the general virtues of hot, stimulating aromatics. No part of any plant, contains so much oil, as cloves do. Cloves acquire weight by imbibing water ; which they will do at some considerable distance. For this reason the Dutch, after they have sold their cloves, hang them, before the weighing, over water, at about two feet distance from it. In Amboyna, the Dutch East-India Company had 500,000 clove trees, which produced more than a mil- lion pounds of cloves annually. COALS; see PIT-COALS. COBALT. (F. Cobalt; G. Kobalt; D.Kobald; I. Cobalto; S. Cobalto ; P. Cobalto ; DA. Kobold; Sw. Cobolt; POL. Kobolt; R. Kobolt; L. Cobal- tum.} What we have commonly under the name of co- balt, is only calx. Regulus of cobalt, or more pro- 78 C0(\ perly, pure cobalt itself in a metallic form, is a semi- metal of a reddish white colour, close-drained, so as to be easily reducible to powder, about 7- 7 of specific gravity, and forming itself into masses of a rieedle- iike texture, placed upon one another. The calx of cobalt has the property, that it can be melted into a blue glass, called smalts ; for which see under that head. When cobalt is first roasted and freed from the fo- reign mineral bodies, particularly bismuth and arse- nic, with which it is united, it is then well calcined, and sold either mixed or unmixed with fine sand, under the name of zaffer. It is of a grey colour, and zaffer therefore is an impure calx of cobalt. The solution of cobalt in aqua regia, has been long known as a sympathetic ink. Cobalt is found in Saxony, Sweden, Norway, and England; particularly in Somersetshire and Corn- wall ; but Saxony seems to be the only country where the working of the cobalt-mines is much attended to. It is principally exported thence, reduced into zaffer, to Holland ; where it is prepared into smalts. COCCULUS INDICUS, is the berry of an Ori- ental plant, a species of solanum, producing the fruit in clusters like grapes. These berries, are partly about the size of bay-berries, and partly about that of chick-peas; roundish, but hollowed-in a little towards the stalk, and approaching to a kidney-shape ; rough on the outside, and of a grey brownish or blackish colour. The fresher they are, the heavier: the older, the drier and lighter. This berry is principally em- ployed in ointments for destroying cutaneous insects, and in fishing. It is brought to us from Alexandria and other parts of the Levant ; also from the coast of Malabar. COCHINEAL. (F. Cochenilte ; G. Cochenille, $charlach-wurm ; D. Conche.mlje ; 1. Cocciniglla ; S. COC 79 i Grand; P. Cochenilha \ DA. Cochenille; Sw. Cochenille ; POL. Cochenillia ; R. Konssend ; L. CochineUa, Cocci-cactus.} The cochineal insect, to which we owe our beauti- ful scarlet and purple colours, has riot yet been found any where but in Mexico. It is asserted, from the testimony of the best wri- ters, that the nature of this colour was not known till the year 1692, when father Plumier Pomet gave an account of its being an animal; and that, before this period, the world knew nothing more of it, than that it was gathered from certain plants in Mexico ; on which account it was naturally supposed to be a seed. On searching into the originals, however, we find, that Acosta in 1530, and Herrera in 1601, had described it, as well as our modern naturalists. The cochineal is an insect much of the size and shape of a bug. It is bred upon the nopal, cactus, or Indian fig, a shrub common all over New Spain, about five feet high. Its stem is fleshy, large, flat- tened, downy, and covered with clusters of thorns. It branches out very much, and grows narrow, as well as its branches, at every point of ramification: this gives to each portion of the plant, thus made narrow, the form of an oval, thick, and thorny leaf. It has no other leaves but these. Its flowers scat- tered over the young stems, are succeeded by a fruit that is fit for eating, and resembles a fig. The cochineal insect, like all others, is of two sexes, but which are exceedingly dissimilar in their appear- ance. The female, which alone is valuable for its colour, has the eyes, mouth, and antennas, fixed so deep, and so concealed in the folds of the skin, that it is impossible to distinguish them without a micro- scope. From the first instant of its birth almost, it remains attached to one point of the plant, by a kind of trunk, and presents to the eye only an hemisphe- rical crust. This covering is changed twice in twenty- five days, and is sprinkled over with a white and thick 80 COC dust, which is immiscible with water. At this pe- riod, which is that of puberty, the male, which is smaller, more active, and more slightly made, issues out. of a farinaceous tube, by means of wings with which he is provided. He flutters over the immove- able females, fixes upon each of them, and soon perishes after fecundation. The male is very scarce, and one is said to be sufficient for three hundred fe- males or more. The bulk of the female afterwards visibly enlarges, till a drop of liquid, which escapes from under her, shews that the eggs, which are in great number, will soon make their appearance. The little insects burst their covering at the time of their birth, and soon spread themselves over the plant, to choose a favourable spot to fix upon. They particu- larly endeavour to shelter themselves from the east wind. Accordingly, the nopal, when viewed on that side, appears quite green, while, on the opposite side, it is full of the insects and white. The best method of keeping the nopal plantations in order, is to re-plant them every six years, by put- ting several pieces of the stems into cavities of some depth. They must be weeded frequently, but with precaution, in order not to disturb the insect. The cultivator must also take care, to get rid of the ani- mals that would destroy the plant, the most formida- ble of which is a caterpillar, which makes its way even through the inside of the plant, and attacks the insect from underneath. Eighteen months after the planting, small nests of twelve or fifteen females, ready to lay their eggs, are fixed upon the nopal, at certain distances. The little- ones which come out, attain their full growth in two months, which is the limited duration of their life. They are then gathered; and this operation is renewed every two months from October to May. This crop is to be gathered some days before the laying of the eggs, either to prevent the loss of the eggs, which are rich in colour, or to hinder the little-ones from fixing COC 81 upon a plant, which is already exhausted, and must be left to itself for a few months. Immediately before the rainy season comes on; in order to prevent the total destruction of the cochi- neals, which might be occasioned by the unwhole- someness of the air, the branches of the nopal, loaded with infant insects, are cut off. These branches are laid up in the houses, where they maintain their freshness, as all mucilaginous plants do. Here the cochineals thrive during the bad season. As soon as that is past, they are placed on the trees, where the vivifying freshness of the air soon makes them pro- pagate. The cochineal insect may, in some circumstances, be compared to the silk-worm, particularly in the way of depositing its eggs. The insects destined for this purpose, are taken at a proper time o,f their growth, and put into a box well closed, and lined with a coarse cloth ; arid in this confinement they lay their eggs and die. The box is kept close shut, till the time of placing the eggs on the nopal ; when, if any motion be perceived, it is a sufficient indication, that the animalcule has life, though the egg is so minute, as hardly to be perceived. When the cochineal is gathered from the nopal, it is put into pots of earthen-ware, where it is kilted and then packed in serrons. The Mexicans have three different ways of killing them: one by hot wa- ter, another by fire, and the. third by the rays of the sun ; whereof the latter seems to deserve the prefe- rence; and great precaution is requisite, in either method, to preserve the good colour. To the different ways of killing this insect, are owing the several gra- dations of the colour. The wild cochineal, a different species from the fine or mestique cochineal, which we have been speaking of, but cultivated in the same places, and on the same plant, does not require so much care and precaution ; it being a more hardy insect, and better able to en- 82 COC dure the injuries of the air. The crop of it is con- sequently less variable in the produce, and may be gathered all the year. This insect is less abundant in colour than the other; but as its produce is more cer- tain, and its price equivalent to two-thirds of that of the fine sort, it may be cultivated to advantage. This species is also found in Peru. Though the cochineal belongs to the animal king- dom, of all others the most likely to corrupt, yet it never spoils, if kept dry. This valuable production would probably succeed in different parts of Mexico: but hitherto scarcely any, besides the province of Oaxaca, has seriously at- tended to it. Each acre of nopal plants produces as much as two quintals of fine cochineal, with the at- tendance of one man. Exclusive of what is con- sumed by America and the Philippines, Europe re- ceives annually four thousand quintals of fine cochi- neal, two hundred of granilla, one hundred of cochi- neal dust, and three hundred of the wild cochineal. The principal countries where the cochineal insects are bred, are Oaxaca, Tlascala, Chulula, Nueva Gal- licia, and Chiapa, all in Mexico; and Kambato, Loja, and Tucuman, in Peru : but it is only in Oaxaca that they are gathered in large quantities, and form a branch of commerce. Their cultivation has been successfully attempted in the French part of St. Domingo. The cochineal, in the state in which it is brought to us, is in small bodies of an irregular figure, usually convex, ridged, and furrowed on one side, and con- cave on the other. Cochineal is highly valued, in every part of the world, for the incomparable beauty of its red colour, which it readily communicates to wool and silk, but with more difficulty to linen and cotton. It is prin- cipally used by dyers for preparing crimsons and scarlets. The red colour called carmine, is also made COC S3 from cochineal. In medicine, cochineal is used as a cardiac, sudorific, alexipharmic, and febrifuge. It is well known, that the cactus, or nopal plant, bears a succulent fruit or berry at the extremity of its leaves, filled with a juice of a delicate red colour, and agreeable taste. This juice is the natural food of the cochineal insect, which owes to it the value and pro- perty it possesses, as a red dye. Whence it follows, that the juice itself, if brought to a consistence, must yield a true and perfect colour, lively and brilliant as we find it in its natural state. Upon this hypothe- sis, Mr. David Riz, of Kingston in Jamaica, made ex- periments, to obtain from the plant artificially, what nature accomplished in the insect; and at length hap- pily succeeded, by inspissating the juice. After a number of experiments, he found one process, which communicated a crimson colour to silk and wool, superior to that given by cochineal. He carne to England ; and trials of the same were made, before a number of the principal dyers in and about London, at the museum of the Royal Society. He also found two other processes, which promised, with very little alteration in their manufactory, to afford the colour- making dyes of scarlet and purple. On a moderate calculation, it was found, that this colour would go farther than three times the quantity of cochineal; which he accounted for, by remarking, that there is a great part of the insect, as its skin, &c. which affords no dye ; but that the whole of his process was genu- ine colour, with little or no impurity. Notwithstanding the advantages that might be de- rived to the nation, from this gentleman's discovery, he met, on the whole, with very little encouragement to prosecute his manufacture; though the sums an- nually expended in the purchase of cochineal from the Spaniards, are very large, and thousands of acres, now waste in Jamaica, might be cultivated with this plant, with little trouble and expense, and a quantity obtained, answerable to the home-demand. 84 COC COCOA, CACAO. (F. Cacao,- G. Kakao; D, Kakau ; I. Cacao, Car.cao ; S. Cacao ; P. Cacao ; DA. Kakao; Sw. Kakao; POL. Kakaowy orzech; R. Kakao; L. Cacao.} Cocoa is the seed of the fruit of the Theobroma Cacao, or Cocoa- tree, growing particularly at Carac- cas, Marignan, the French islands, Surinam, &c. The most proper soil for the cocoa-tree, is a moist, rich, and deep earth. For the propagation of the plant, some of the largest, finest cods are selected, the nuts taken out, and thrown into water till they ap- pear just ready to sprout ; they are then put into the ground, and, in about eight or ten days' time, the plants will appear above the mould. The young plants are so susceptible of injuries from strong winds, a too hot sun, or great droughts, that they cannot be too well secured against such accidents. For this reason, the most sheltered situation must be chosen for them. In two years time, the plants having grown to the height of about five feet, will begin to flower; these first blossoms are always plucked off, that they may not impair the vigour of the trees. Their fruit is not allowed to remain for maturity, till the third year, and then only so much as seems proportionate to the strength of each tree. In the fourth year, they are permitted to bear a moderate crop. When planted in a good soil, and properly managed, they will con- tinue vigorous and fruitful for thirty years. They bear two crops a year; the greatest in December or January, the other in May; and from the time the flowers drop off, to the maturity of the fruit, is about four months. The time of maturity is known by the yellowness of the pods, and the rattling of the nuts or kernels when the pods are shaken. The latter are then plucked; and, after laying them in heaps for three or four days to sweat, the nuts are picked out, and leaving the pulp, if any remain upon them, they are exposed to the sun every day, for a month. It is best not to wash off the pulp, as it makes them keep COC 85 the longer. The pods contain from ten to twenty, and even thirty nuts. The produce of one tree, in good soil, is estimated at about twenty pounds weight of nuts, but the produce of a tree in poor soil, and under bad management, rarely exceeds eight pounds. Cocoa, to be good, ought to have a very brown and pretty even skin or peel, which when taken off, the kernel ought to appear full, plump, and shining, of a hazle-nut colour, very dark on the outside, and a little more reddish within, of a bitterish and astringent taste, without any greenish or musty savour, and not worm-eaten. It is one of the most oily fruits whicli nature produces, and has the advantage that, how old soever it be, it never grows rank, as all other fruits do, which have any analogy with this ; such as almonds, the kernels of pine-apples, pistachio-nuts, &c. The cocoa-tree once grew so plentifully in Jamaica, that the inhabitants flattered themselves, it would become the source of inexhaustible wealth to them. In 1671, there were sixty fine walks in bearing, and many new ones in cultivation ; but, some years afterwards, they were all destroyed at once, as it is said, by a blast, which pervaded the whole island ; so that they were never afterwards recovered; and at present, there are but very few; the greatest discouragement in going upon this article, being the extreme tenderness of the young plants, and the length of time they require to come to maturity. The best cocoa comes from Caraccas; but it is very seldom to be met with in this country. Cocoa is the chief ingredient for making chocolate, and is also of itself a wholesome nourishing food. COCO-NUTS. Cocos nuts. (F. Cocos; G. Ko- kos-nusse; D.- Kokosnooten^ Kalappusnooten ; I. Coc- chi\ S. Cocos; P. Cocos; DA. Kokosnoedder ; Sw. Rokosnoetter ; POL. Kokos ; R. Kokos ; L. Nuces Indica.} Coco-nuts are the fruit of the Cocos nucifera, a. tree 86 COC supposed to be a native of the Maldive and some de- sert islands in the East Indies,; and thence to have been transported to all the warm parts of America. This tree frequently rises sixty feet high. The body of the trunk, which generally leans to one side, oc- casioned, as is supposed, by the great weight of nuts it sustains when young, is the exact shape of an apo- thecary's large iron pestle, being of an equal thickness at top and at bottom, but somewhat smaller in the middle ; its colour is a pale brown throughout, and the bark smooth. The leaves, or branches, are often fourteen or fifteen feet long, about twenty-eight in number, winged, of a yellow colour, straight, and tapering. The pinnae, or partial leaves, are green; often three feet long next the trunk, but diminishing towards the extremity of the branches. The nuts, of the size and shape of a small melon, hang at the top of the trunk, in clusters of a dozen in each. The. pulp, which lines the inside of these nuts, supplies a wholesome kind of food, from which is expressed an oil, very sweet when fresh, and much used in India; but it contracts a bitter taste when kept long, and is then only fit for burning. The centre of the nut is filled with a clear, refresh- ing, sweetish kind of liquid; the quantity of it in a full-grown nut, being frequently a pint and upwards. This is a most cooling, wholesome beverage, in sultry climates. In old nuts, this fluid disappears, and changes into a hard kernel, which at last fills the whole inside, being as white as snow, and of the fla- vour of an 'almond ; this kernel serves for the propa- gation of the plant, and the Europeans grate it, to make a kind of almond-emulsion, from which they prepare currie soup and other palateable dishes. The shells of these nuts, being tipped with silver, are frequently used for drinking-bowls, sugar-cans, &c. The bark of the tree may be wrought into cord- age ; and the leaves into baskets, brooms, hammock in form of nets, mats, sacks, and other useful utensils COD 87 If the buds of the flowers be cut off, before they are perfectly unfolded, a white liquor runs from them, which is of a sweet taste while it continues fresh. It afterwards turns sour, and makes good vinegar. When distilled in its highest perfection, it produces a strong brandy; and, boiled with quicklime, yields a middling kind of sugar. COD-FISH. (F. Morue; G. Kabliau, Stock- fisch, Ba/calau; D. Kubeljaauw, Bakkeljaauw ; I. Baccala, Baccalarc ; S. Bacallao ; P. Bacalhao; DA. Kabliau, Skreitorsk, Bakeldu ; Sw. Kabeljo, Bakc- lau; L. Gadus Morhua.} The common cod is cinerous on the back and sides, and commonly spotted with yellow: its length does not exceed three feet, and is often less ; the belly is white : but. theyvary much, not only in the colour, but in shape, particularly that of the head. The side-- line is white, broad, and straight, till it reaches oppo- site the vent, when it bends towards the tail. The jaws are of an equal length, and at the end of the lower, is a small beard; the teeth are disposed in the palate, as well as in the jaws. Leewenhoek counted 9,384,000 eggs in a cod-fish of a middling size; a number that will baffle all the efforts of man to exter- minate. In our seas they begin to spawn in January, and deposit their eggs in rough ground, among rocks. Some continue in roe till the beginning of April. The cod is only found in the northern parts of the world ; it is an ocean-fish., and never met with in the Mediterranean Sea. The great rendezvous of the cod-fish is on the banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand-banks that lie off the coasts of Cape Bre- ton, Nova Scotia, and New England. They prefer those situations, by reason of the quantity of worms produced in these sandy bottoms, which tempt them to resort there for food. But another cause of the par- ticular attachment the fish have to these spots, is their vicinity to the Polar seas, whither they return to 88 COD spawn : there they deposit their roes in full security, but want of food forces them, as soon as the first more southern seas are open, to repair thither for subsist- ence. Some considerable quantity of cod-fish is taken at Greenland; a few also to the north of Ice- land ; but to the south and west they abound. They are also found to swarm on the coasts of Norway, in the Baltic, and off the Orkney and Western Isles; after which, their numbers decrease, in proportion as they advance towards the south ; when they seem quite to cease before they reach the mouth of the Straits of Gibraltar. Before the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater fisheries of cod were on the seas of Iceland, and off our Western Isles, which were the grand resort of ships from all the commercial nations ; but it seems that the greatest plenty was met with near Iceland. The English resorted thither before the year 1415: for we find that Henry V. was disposed to give satis- faction to the King of Denmark, for certain irregu- larities committed by his subjects on those seas. In the reign of Edward IV. the English were excluded from the fishery, by treaty. In later times, we find Queen Elizabeth condescending to ask permission to fish in those seas, from Christian IV. of Denmark. In the reign of her successor, however, we find no fewer than one hundred and fifty English ships em- ployed in the Iceland fishery; which indulgence might arise from the marriage of James, with a prin- cess of Denmark. Newfoundland was discovered, in 1497, by John Cabot, a Venetian ; but it was not till 1536, that the English discovered the great quantity of cod that might be caught on the coasts of this island ; and the spring following, some small vessels were fitted out, which came home with full cargoes. This fishery then gradually increased: so that, in 1615, we find two hundred and fifty English vessels employed in the cod fishery on these coasts, the lading of which COD 89 amounted to 15,000 tons. All these vessels had sailed from Europe ; and it was several years after only, that fixed habitations were formed in Newfoundland. The Spanish, French, and Bretons, formerly had much the advantage of the English, in all fisheries ; as appears by the state of that in the seas of Newfoundland, in the year 1578. Spaniards, 120 to 130 ships; being 5 to 6000 tons. Portuguese 50 3000 ditto. French & Bretons 150 7000 ditto. English, from 30 to 50. The French pretend to have frequented the coasts of Newfoundland, since the beginning of the sixteenth century. This period may be too .remote, but it is certain, that they frequented them before the year 1634-. All other nations besides. the English and French, are now excluded from this trade. The lat- ter formerly shared the dominion of Newfoundland with the English, but by the peace of Utrecht, the property of this island was confirmed to Great Britain, and the French only preserved the right of fishing in certain latitudes. The latter, however, by the advan- tage of Cape Breton, used to carry on such a benefi- cial fishery, as employed at least 1000 sails from 200 to 400 tons burthen, and 20,000 seamen; the produce of their labour being so great, that, in the year 1730, there was a computation made, of 220,000 quintals of cod-fish at Marseilles only, for a market; and it has been affirmed, that, one year with another, they cured above five millions of quintals. All this immense fishery is carried on by the hook and line only ; yet some of the more experienced fishers will take 350 to 400 cods a day. We have been informed, that they fish from the depth of six- teen to sixty fathoms, according to the inequality of the bank, which is represented as a vast mountain, under water, above 500 miles long, and almost 300 broad. Nearly 15,000 British seamen are employed in this fishery ; and it affords subsistence to a much more numerous body of people at home. 90 COD The best season for the cod-fishery, is from the be- ginning of February to the end of April; the fish, which in winter retire to the deepest water, coming then on the banks, and fattening extremely. What is caught from March to June, keeps well : but those taken in July, August, and September, when it is warm on the banks, are apt to spoil soon. About July, therefore, the vessels make the best of their way to the Caribbee islands, or the Roman Catholic states in Europe, every one using his efforts to be of the first at market. This branch of trade is carried on in two different ways; that which is called the wandering fishery, belongs to vessels which sail every year from Europe to Newfoundland : stationary fishery is that, carried on by Europeans who have settlements on these coasts, and is infinitely more profitable than the wan- dering fishery. There are two kinds of salt cod, the one called green or white, and the other dried or cured ; though it is all the same fish, only differently prepared. The most essential thing in the green cod-fishery, is to have three persons, who perfectly understand to open the fish, to cut off the heads, and to salt them. These operations are performed on-board ; the head being cut off, the belly opened, and the guts taken out, the salter ranges the fish in the bottom of the vessel, head to tail ; and, having thus made a layer thereof, a fa- thom or two square, he covers it with salt ; over this he lays another layer, which he covers as before ; taking care never to mix the fish of different days to- gether. When the fish have lain thus to drain three or four days, they are moved into another part of the vessel, and salted afresh : after which, they are no more touched. Sometimes they are put into barrels, for the conveniency of carriage. Green cod is chiefly caught in the Bay of Canada, on the great bank of Newfoundland, on the Isle of St. Peter, &c. In the fishing of dry cod, such vessels are generally chosen, COD 91 as have large holds; because this sort of fish incum- bers more than it burthens. As fast as the fish is taken, it is sent on shore, opened, and salted there. When they have taken salt, they are washed, and, to drain them again, laid in piles on a scaffold, and then on hurdles; turning them four times every twenty- four hours. When they begin to dry, they are Jaicl in heaps, to retain their warmth. At last they salt them over again, and lay them in huge piles; in which manner they remain, till they are carried on-board, where they are laid on branches of trees, disposed for that purpose in the bottom of the vessel, with mats all round, to prevent their contracting any moisture. The principal fishery for dried cod, is from Cape Rose to the Bay des Experts, along the coast of Placentia. These, though of the same kind with the green cod, are much smaller, and therefore fitter to keep ; as the salt penetrates more easily into them. This fishery, though scarcely half so much salt is spent, comes more expensive than the other, as taking up more time, and employing more hands. It is a well-attested phenomenon, that the cod- fishery is scarcely begun, before the sea becomes oily, grows calm, and the barks are seen floating upon the water, as upon a polished mirror. The same effect is produced by the oil which runs from a whale, when it is cut to pieces. Dr. Franklin, who made a series of experiments hereon, has ascertained, that a few drops of oil, the whole of which united would scarcely have filled a spoon, quieted the waves at more than a hundred toises distance, with a celerity of expansion as marvellous as its division. There are four kinds of commodities drawn from cod, namely, the tripes, the tongues, the roes, and the oil extracted from the liver. The tripes, tongues, and roes, are salted at the fishery, together with the fish, and made up in bar- rels : the oil is used in dressing leather. The Newfoundland cod-fish is more delicate, though not so white, as that found in the Northern 92 COF seas of Europe. The Greenland fish is particularly small and emaciated. The Scotch catch a small kind of cod on the coast of Buchan, which is highly prized, though very much like ling. They salt it, and dry it. in the sun upon rocks, and sometimes in the chimney ; but the greatest part of it is spent at home. Cods are also taken in large quantities along the British and Irish coasts; and they are caught in abundance on the Dogger's Bank off Holland, whence most of the fish come that supply the market at Billingsgate with fresh cod. COFFEE. (F. Cafe ; G. Kaffe ; D. Koffy ; I. Cafe; S. Cafe ; P. Caffe ; DA. 'Kaffe ; Sw. Koffe ; POL. Kawa ; R. Xofe; L. Cojfea, Cqff'ea.) There is but one species of the coffee-tree, supposed to be a native of Upper Ethiopia, where it has been known time immemorial, and is still cultivated with success. It is larger, rather longer, not so green, and almost as fragrant as that coming from Arabia, where it was first gathered, towards the close of the fifteenth century. The, Arabians say, that it is a native of Abyssinia ; and several travellers affirm, that they have seen it in great plenty in that country, where it produces berries not inferior in goodness to the coffee of Yemen. What renders this relation the more pro- bable is, that the fruit of the wild coffee-tree is in Arabia so bad, as to be unfit for use. The' coffee-tree, if left to itself, would rise to the height of sixteen or eighteen feet, but is generally stinted to five, for the conveniency of gathering the fruit. The main stem grows upright, and is covered with a light brown bark ; the branches are produced horizontally and opposite, crossing each other at every joint ; so that every side of the tree is usually gar- nished with them, and they form a sort of pyramid. The leaves also stand opposite, and when fully grown, are about four or five inches long, and two broad in COF 93 the middle. The flowers are produced in clusters at the root of the leaves, being tubulous and spreading open at the top ; they are of a pure white, and have a grateful odour. The fruit, which is the only use- ful part, resembles a cherry. It ripens from August to October, darkens in November, and is fit to gather in December ; but it ought never to be gathered, un- til the pulp is exhaled, and the coat is suffered to be- come thoroughly dry and shrivelled ; so that it ap- pears ready to drop off, and actually tails, on a slight touch. The best flavoured coffee is experienced to be collected from under the trees, where it has re- cently fallen, quite dry, black, and shrivelled. After being completely dried it is taken to the mill, where it is stripped of its first skin, and divided into two parts, being flat on one side, and convex on the other. From this machine it falls into a brass sieve, where the skin drops between the wires; after which, it is put into another machine, called the peeling- mill, which takes off the parchment, or the thin skin, that detaches itself from the berry in proportion as it dries. The parchment being removed, it is put into the winnowing-mill, which clears the coffee of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is afterwards put upon a table, where the broken berries, and any filth that may remain, are picked out by negroes ; after which, it is fit for sale. The coffee-tree particularly delights in hills and mountains, where its root is almost always dry, and its head frequently watered with gentle showers. In Arabia, the inhabitants of the highlands, plant other trees among their coffee-plants, in order to shade them; and, in the time of the intense heats, water them. In the West-India islands, the soil and cli- mate are so very different from that of Arabia, that the spot for the coffee-plantations cannot be chosen too dry, nor is the heat too great. This tree begins to yield fruit about the third year, but is not in full bearing till the fifth. It most delights in a gravelly 94 COF ground, and its roots, which seldom fail to strike be- tween stones, obtain nourishment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for thirty years. It flourishes only in those climates where the winters are exceedingly mild ; and then its blossoms appear in the months of December, January, and February ; and it bears in October or November. The coffee-shrub is principally cultivated in Ara- bia ; the isles of Java and Bourbon ; most of the West- India islands ; and in the Dutch settlements of Suri- nam, Berbice, Demarara, &c. on the continent of South America. The coffee of the East is more esteemed than that coming from the West Indies and America. Among the former, the Arabian or Moccha coffee stands first; then comes the Java, Cheribon, &c. ; and last, the Bourbon coffee. Among the West-Indian and Ame- rican growth, that of the French colonies is preferred to the British ; and the Dutch is the least esteemed of any. Of the French coffee, that of Martinico de- serves the preference. Good West-India coffee should be of a greenish colour, fresh, void of mouldy and other unpleasant smells, and in small berries, neither mixed with black, nor broken. East-India coffee is of a pale, and partly of a deep yellow co- lour ; the Moccha coffee having small beans ; and the Java in particular being of a large, lightish, yel- low berry. The quality of the British coffee is greatly deterio- rated, by not sufficient care being taken to keep it separate from sugar, rum, &c. as well in the West- Indies, as on-board the ships which bring it to Eu- rope. The berries, therefore, should never be laid to dry in houses, where sugars are curing, or rum is kept ; nor sent to Europe in ships freighted with rum, sugar, pimento, ginger, salt-fish, &c. ; as they are very subject to imbibe the flavour of these commodi- ties. The French, and most other foreigners greatly exceed us in this respect, as well as in their method COF 90 of cultivating and curing coffee ; and the greater price which the coffee of their produce gains, is owing, in a great degree, to their superior care and manage- ment. The growing in too moist, a soil is another cause, which, though it always increases the size of fruit and vegetables, greatly depreciates the quality of coffee in general, and is particularly the reason of the inferi- ority of the growth of Jamaica : the soil of which island is too luxuriant, rich, and moist, for this pro- duction, particularly the north side and midland parts. The berries there are large, and have a full pulp, which requires a long time to dry, and the weather arid atmosphere are too damp for the purpose ; so that the coffee brought thence, is frequently covered with a degree of mouldiness, and contracts a musty, disagreeable smell and taste. The drier the soil, and warmer the situation is, the better will be the berries; they will be smaller, have less pulp, and a superior flavour. It is true, that the trees planted in rich soils, yield commonly from twelve to sixteen ounces of coffee per plant, and sometimes as much as two pounds; and that, in dry soils, they scarcely furnish more than from six to eight ounces, which makes an immediate difference of one half in the weight. Now, in our markets, the greatest difference in the price, between small best-grown coffee, and that which is larger and of the worse kind, is from twenty to twenty- five per cent.; the planters, therefore, find it to their advantage to plant their trees in the richest soil. The origin of the drink made of coffee, is not well known. Some ascribe it to the Persians, from whom the use was learned about the fifteenth century, by Gemaleddin, Mufti of Aden, a city near the mouth of the Red Sea ; who first recommended it to his Dervises, with whom he spent the night in prayers. Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden. Hence it passed to Mecca, where first the devotees, and then the rest of the people took it. From Arabia 96 COF Felix it passed to Cairo. In 1511, Kahie Beg pro- hibited it, from a persuasion that it inebriated and in- clined to things forbidden. But Sultan Causou itn- O mediately after took off the prohibition, and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria and Constantinople. The Dervises declaimed against it from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of the number of things created by God for food. Accordingly, the Mufti ordered the coffee-houses to be shut ; but his successor declaring coffee not to be coal, they were again opened. During the war in Candia, the assem- blies ofnews-mongers making too free with state-af- fairs, the Grand Visier Cuproli suppressed the coffee- houses at Constantinople ; which suppression, though still on foot, does not prevent the public use of the liquor there. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France; and a Greek ser- vant, named Pasqua, brought to England, in 1662, by Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, to make his coffee, first set up the profession of coffee-man, and introduced the drink in. to this Island. The Arabian coffee is produced in the territory of Betelfagui, in a district of fifty leagues long, and fif- teen or twenty broad. The fruit is not every-where in equal perfection. That which grows on the higher grounds is smaller, greener, weighs heavier, and is generally preferred. It is computed that Arabia contains twelve mil- lions of inhabitants ; among the greatest number of whom, coffee is a highly favourite liquor. None but the rich citizens have the pleasure of tasting the berry itself. The common people are obliged to content themselves with the shell and the husk of this valua- ble production. These remains, so much despised, make a liquor of a pretty clear colour, which has the taste of coffee, without its bitterness and strength. These articles may be had at a low price at Betelfa- gui, which is the general market for them. Here, likewise, is fjold all the coffee which comes out of COL 97 the country by land : the rest is carried to Moccha, or to Jodda. . The Egyptians fetch it from the latter place, and all other nations from the former. The quantity of coffee exported from Arabia, maybe esti- mated from twelve to thirteen millions weight. The European companies take off a million and a half; the Persians, three and a half; the fleet from Suez, six and a half millions ; Indostan, the Maldives, and the Arabian colonies on the coast of Africa, fifty thousand pounds ; and the land caravans, a million. The su- periority of the Asiatic coffee must arise chiefly from its being cultivated in soils best appropriated to it; from its not being packed on-board ship with goods, the steams of which might impregnate and vitiate its flavour ; from the length of its voyage to the Euro- pean markets, and the greater age it acquires by this means, before it comes into the consumer's hands. Perhaps, one part of the excellence of the Moccha coffee arises from this circumstance. The East-India Company send a ship to Moccha once in two years : it is most probable, a part of the loading has been kept in that hot country, above a year ; it is six months before it arrives in England ; it may be six or twelve months more, before it comes into the consumer's hands'. Thus, between two and three years must in- tervene between its growth and consumption. For coffee-berries, some substitute peas, beans, rye, barley, oats, carrots, &c. which, when roasted, yield an oily matter, resembling coffee in flavour, but less agreeable. COLE-SEED ; see RAPE-SEED. COLOCYNTH, Coloquintida, Bitter Gourds. (F. Coloquintes ; G. Koloquinten ; D. Bitterappelen, Quintappelen ; I. Coloquintida ; S. Coloquintidas, Tueras, Calabacillas ; P. Coloquintidas, Cabacinhas; DA. Coloquinter; Sw. Coloquinter ; POL. Kolokwin- ti/da ; R. Kolozintii ; L. Colocyntidum poma.} H 98 COL Colocynth is the dried medullary part of a wild species of gourd or cucumber, the Cucumis Colocyn- fhis ; brought from Aleppo, and other parts of the East. It is a very strong irritating cathartic, commended also as an efficacious purgative and an alterative in chronical disorders. COLOPHONY. (F.Cofophonc; G. Geigenharz; D. Vioolhars ; \.Colofonio; S. Colofonia ; P. Colo- phonia ; DA. Fioliriharpix, Colophon'mm ; Sw. Fiol- kada. Harts; POL. Kalofonia ; R. Kanifol; L. Co- lophonium.) Colophony is black rosin or turpentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or, which is still bet- ter, the caput mortuum remaining 1 after the distilla- tion of the etherial oil, being further urged by a more intense and lonsr continued fire. To be good, it . must be shining and odoriferous, and, when thrown on the fire, should render a smoke like that of frank- incense. It receives its name from Colophon, a city of Ionia, because the best was formerly brought thence. This substance is found to warm, dry, soften, and ag- glutinate; it usually enters the composition ofplais- ters and unguents ; though it is also used by musi- cians, to rub the hairs of the bow for their violins. COLUMBO ROOT. (F. Racine dc Colo mho- G. Columbo-wurzel; D. Columbo wortel; I. Radice di Columbo ; S. Raiz de Columbo ; P. Raiz de Colum- ba; DA. Coluniborod ; Sw. Columborot ; L. Colitm- bo, Columbee radix.} This is an article newly introduced into medicine, the natural history of which is not yet well known. It derives its name from Columbo, a town in Ceylon, which supplies all India with it. The inhabitants of these countries have for a long time used it, in disor- ders of the stomach and bowels. They carry it about COP 99 with them, and take it, sliced and scraped, in Madeira wine. This root comes to us in circular pieces, which are from half an inch or an inch, to three inches in dia- meter ; and divided into frusta, which measure from one quarter of an inch to two inches. The sides are covered with a thick corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its external surface, but internally of a light yellow colour. On separating the surfaces of the transverse sections, the root is observed to consist of three laminte ; the cortical, the ligneous, and the medullary. All the thicker pieces have holes drilled through them, for the conveniency of drying. Co- lumbo-root has an aromatic smell, but is disagreeably bitter, and slightly pungent to the taste, somewhat resembling mustard-seed, when it has lost, by long- keeping, part of its essential oil. Yet though ungrate- ful to the taste ; when received into the stomach, it appears to be corroborant, antiseptic, sedative, and powerfully antiemetic. COPPER. (F.CttttT*; G.Kitpfer;T>.Coper; I. Rume ; S. Cobre ; P. Cobre ; DA. JKobbcr ; Sw. Kop- par ; POL. Miedz ; R. Mjed, Krasnoi mjed;^. Cuprum.} This is one of those metals, which from their de- structibility by fire, and contracting rust in the air, are called imperfect ; of these, however, it is one of the least imperfect and destructible. Its colour, when clean, is very brilliant ; but it is extremely liable to tarnish, and the goodness is judged by its being of a bright red. It has a disagreeable smell, very percep- tible on friction, or on being heated. Its taste is styptic and nauseous, but less perceptible than that of iron. Its tenacity, ductility, and hardness, are very considerable, and its elasticity superior to any other metal, except steel. Copper is found in the bowels of the earth, chiefly 100 COP in the following state. First, native copper ; then, mineralized by fixed air ; cupreous stones ; mine- ralized by sulphur ; dissolvedby vitriolic acid ; and in various other forms. Native copper; having the red colour, the mallea- bility, and all the other properties of the metal, is found in many places of Europe; particularly at St. Bell near Lyons, at Norberg in Sweden, and Newsol in Hungary; also in several parts of America. In very considerable quantities, it is found at Cape Li- zard, and atHuel Virgin, in the county of Cornwal. Some lumps of native copper have been found in the latter spot, that weighed from twenty to thirty pounds ; and in the month of March, 1785, there were no less than twenty-eight millions of pounds of rich copper- ore extracted from this mine. Among the ores of copper mineralized by fixed air, belong copper-ochre, mountain-green, mountain- blue, malachite, and azure of copper. Mountain- green is generally found in a loose and friable state, often mixed with calcareous earth, iron, and some arsemc. One hundred parts of the purest sort, con- tain seventy-two of copper, twenty-two of aerial acid, and six of water. The mountain-blue, is of a deep blue colour, sometimes formed in rhomboidal pris- matic crystals of a fine blue; in which case it is called azure of copper. The malachite is sufficiently hard to take a fine polish, and is therefore formed into toys of different kinds ; but as it is frequently porous and full of unequal cavities, the solid pieces of a certain size are reckoned valuable. The malachite looks like green jasper, but is less hard, and does not strike fire with steel. Among the cupreous stones deserve to be enume- rated, the turquoise, improperly called a stone, being the tooth of an animal, penetrated by the blue calx of copper, of a deeper or lighter blue, and susceptible of a fine polish ; also the lapis Armenius, which has cal- COP 101 careous earth or gypsum for its basis : it js used in painting, when ground to a fine powder, under the name of Bice. Copper mineralized by sulphur, is the richest of all the copper ores, affording from eighty to ninety per cent, of copper, ten or twelve of sulphur, and a small proportion of iron. Copper dissolved by the vitriolic acid. At Hern- grundt near Newsol in Upper Hungary, there are two springs, called the Old and New Ziment, so richly impregnated with copper dissolved by the vitriolic acid, that iron thrown into them is dissolved by the latter, and the copper precipitated in its metallic form, in the place of the iron. Some pits made pur- posely for this operation, are filled with the water of the s'prings, and old iron is thrown in, which, in twelve to twenty days, is taken out, and the copper scraped off. The metal thus procured, differs little from na- tive copper. One hundred tons of iron by this me- thod yield eighty-four to ninety tons of copper. By the like process, such quantities of copper have, of late years been obtained from some spring issuing from the celebrated copper-mines at Arklow, in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, that these springs are now of as much consequence as the mines themselves. One ton of iron there/ produces sixteen hundred- weights of fine copper, selling for ten pounds sterling a ton more, than the copper fluxed from the ore. There is in the Isle of Anglesey, a mountain called Parys, which abounds in copper-ore. This is one of the richest copper mines in the world. According to Pennant, it is certain, that the Romans were the first undertakers of these mines. But they were not pro- perly worked till the year 1768, when they discover- ed, at the depth of seven feet from the surface, the solid mineral, which proved to be that vast body, which has since been worked to such advantage, and is of unknown extent. Its thickness has been ascer- tained in some places to be twenty-four yards. The 102 COP works of the Parys mountain consist of two quarries ; the first called Monamine, the sole property of Lord Uxbridge ; the other called Parys mine, shared be- tween Lord Uxbridge and the Rev. Mr. Hughes. The Parys mine has furnished from five to ten thou- sand tons of copper per quarter, exclusive of what is procured from the springs containing copper dis- solved in vitriolic acid, which also here is the richest ore the mine contains. As the two mines employ nearly equal numbers of workmen, they probably afford about the same quantity of ore. The produce of these mines is exported from the port of Aml- coch. Besides these, there are other considerable copper- mines in Wales, as the Llandidno mines near Con- way ; the mines in Llanwrst vale, in North Wales; the hill of Llyanymynech, consisting of a range of from twenty to thirty shallow pits ; the mines near Pont Aberglaslyn, at the entrance by the south into Carnarvonshire ; and the mine on Snowden, near the village of Llanberris. The Ecton mine, on the estate of the Duke of De- vonshire, in Staffordshire, produces at least three hun- dred, and the mines in Cornwall no less than four thousand tons of copper per annum. Sweden is reckoned the richest of any country in copper-mines ; but the Swedish copper is inferior to the British. Copper is also brought from Norway and Japan. The Spaniards are plentifully supplied with this metal from New Spain, the island of Cuba, Porto Rico, and the kingdom of Chili, whence it comes over without further improvement than that of the first fusion, being formed by a mould into round cakes. This the Spaniards affirm to excel the Bar- bary copper, and insist that it equals that of Sweden and Hungary. Copper, when taken into the human body, acts as a violent emetic, and has been generally accounted poisonous. In order to prevent the pernicious effects COP 103 of this metal, the vessels made of it are generally co- vered with tin in the inside. Twenty-two to twenty- three pounds of tine tin, melted together with one- hundred weight of copper, makes bell-metal ; with a smaller proportion of tin, it forms bronze. Copper mixed with zinc, produces brass, princes-metal, pinch- beck or similor, Manheim gold, and other composi- tions, according to the proportion. COPPERAS ; Green vitriol. (F. Couperose verte G. Kupferwasner, Eisenvitriol ; D. Groenevi- triool, Yzervitriool ; I. Copparosa verde ; S. Vitriolo de Marte ; P. Caparroza verde; DA. Gront kobber- wand ; Sw. Grbn Victriol, Jernvitriol ; POL. Koper- was z zelaza ; R. Selenui kuparos ; L. Vitriolum niartis.} Copperas is a name given to the factitious green vitriol. The usual method of manufacturing it in this country from pyrites, is as follows. Pyrites are found in large quantity in the coal-mines of England, where most of the copperas is made. They are sul- phur united with any metal ; very heavy and hard substances, having a kind of brassy appearance, and hence they are called brasses by the workmen. A very large quantity of these is collected, and spread out upon a bed of stiff clay, to the depth of three feet. After being some time exposed to the air, the upper- most ones lose their metallic appearance, split, and %11 to powder. The heaps are thjen turned, the un- der-part uppermost, so as to expose fresh pyrites to the air. When they are all reduced to powder, (which generally requires three years) the liquor, which is formed by the rain-water running from such a large mass, becomes very acid, and has likewise a styptic vitriolic taste. It is now conveyed into large cisterns lined with clay, whence it is pumped into a very large flat vessel made of lead. This vessel, which contains about fifteen or twenty tons of liquor, is supported 104. COP' by cast-iron plates, about an inch thick, between which and the lead a bed of clay is interposed. The whole rests upon narrow arches of brick, under which the fire is placed. Along with the liquor, about half a ton or more of old iron is put into the evaporating vessel. The liquor, which is very far from being saturated with acid, acts upon the iron, and, by re- peated filling up as it evaporates, dissolves the whole quantity. By the time this quantity is dissolved, a pellicle is formed on the surface. The fire is then put out ; and, as such a large quantity of liquor does not admit of filtration, it is left to settle for a whole day, and then is let off by a cock, placed a little above the bottom of the evaporating vessel, so as to allow the impurities to remain behind. It is conveyed by wooden spouts to a large leaden cistern, five or six feet deep, sunk in the ground, and which is capable of containing the whole quantity of liquor. Here the copperas crystallizes on the sides, and on sticks put into the liquor. The crystallization usually takes up three weeks. The liquor is then pumped back into the evaporating-vessel, more iron and fresh li- quor from the pyrites are added, and a new solution takes place. There is copperas of England, Germany, Cyprus, Hungary, and Italy ; which only differ from each other in colour, richness, and perfection, being all the same mineral. White copperas is that of Germany ; which, be- fore whitening, is of a blueish green, clear and trans- parent. Copperas is used in dying, for procuring a black colour ; in tanning and dressing of leather ; and is an ingredient in making common ink. It likewise af- fords an oil, and a kind of Spanish brown for painters; and is used in medicine, as a corroborant. COR CORAL. (P.Corail; G. Korallen ; D . Koraa- ten; I. Corale ; S. Coral; P. Coral; DA. Koraller ; Sw. Koraller ; POL. Karaite, Koralii; R. Korallii ; L. Corallina.} The corals were formerly believed to be vegetable substances, hardened by the air. Those parts which were supposed to be the flowers, are now discovered to be insects inhabiting the coral. The organs of the animal are contained in the tubes, and the glandules are the extremities of its feet ; the milky liquor is the blood and juice. The animal inhabiting the coral is of the polype kind, and the coral has the same rela- tion to the polypes united to it, as there is between the shell of a snail and the snail itself. The coral grows in the caverns of the sea, exposed to eveiy injury ; and it grows sometimes perpendicu- larly downwards, sometimes horizontally, and some- times upwards. The colour is either red, white, or black ; the latter is the rarest. The principal coral-trade is fixed at Genoa, Leg- horn, Marseilles, and Messina. The coral-fishery is carried on in the Mediterranean, on the shores of Pro- vence, from Cape de la Couronne, to that of St. Tro- pez, about the isles of Majorca and Minorca, and on the coast of Sicily ; on the coasts of Africa, particu- larly in the Ethiopic Ocean, about Cape Negro, in the Persian Gulph, and the Red Sea. The immense banks of coral bordering and almost filling up the Arabic Gulph, rise sometimes ten fathoms above the surface of the sea ; and, beinsj soft underwater, and hence easily wrought, they are preferred to all other stones for the purpose of building. Very fine branchy coral is found along the coast, east of the city of Taranto. There was, some time back, such abun- dance of coral near these shores, that a boat's crew was once known to draw up, in one day, as much as sold for five-hundred ducats. The manner of fishing coral being nearly the same every where, it will suffice to mention the method 106 COR used by the company at Marseilles. Seven or eight men go in a boat, commanded by the patron or pro- prietor ; and when the net is thrown by the caster, the rest work the boat, and help to draw the net in. This is composed of two ratters of wood tied cross- wise, with leads fixed to them : to these they fasten a quantity of hemp, twisted loosely round, and inter- mingled with some loose netting. In this condition the machine is let down into the sea, and when the coral is pretty strongly embarrassed in the hemp and the nets, they draw it out with a rope, which they unwind according to the depth, and which sometimes requires half a dozen boats to draw. If this rope happen to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost. Before the fishers go to sea, they agree for the price of the coral, and the produce of the fishery is divided, on their return, into thirteen parts; of which the proprietor has four, the caster two, and the other six men one each ; the thirteenth belongs to the company for payment of the boat furnished them. CORDOVAN leather, a sort of leather brought to this country from Cordova in Spain, used in making boots and shoes; it is also imported from South America: it is leather made from the horse hide, and is often substituted for calfskins. CORIANDER. (F. Coriandre; G. Kor'tander; D. Koriander ; I. Coriandro, Curiandolo ; S. Cilan- tro, Culantro-y P. Coentro, Coriandro ; DA. Kori- ander ; Sw. Koriander ; POL. Koryander ; R. Ko- riander; I. Coriandrum sativum.) Coriander is an umbelliferous plant, producing pale, yellowish or brownish, striated, hemispherical seeds, which are joined by the flat sides, two together. It is annual, growing in abundance in the southern parts of Europe. These seeds, when fresh, have a very unpleasant COR 107 flavour, which however by drying is altered, and be- comes tolerably grateful. Their taste, in th-is dry state, is moderately warm and slightly pungent. Be- sides the confections made of coriander-seed, it is sometimes employed in medicine as a stomachic and carminative ; it is also used by brewers, both in Eng- land and Holland, to give a flavour to the strongest beer. They should be chosen new, sound and firm, of an aromatic smell and pleasant taste. CORK. (F. Liege ; G. Kofk D. Kork; I. Sug- hero,$uvero; S. Corcho ; P.Corlica; DA. Kork ; Sw. Korktra ; POL. Korck R. Korkowoe derewo ; L. Saber.] Cork is the bark of a species of oak, called Quer- cus Suber. It grows thirty or forty feet high, having a thick, rough, fungous, cleft bark. To take off this bark, they make an incision from the top to the bot- tom of the cork-tree, and at each extremity another round, perpendicular to the first. The old bark being detached for use, the tree still lives, and, in six or seven years, the succeeding young bark is again fit for use. The bark, when stripped from the tree, is piled up in a pond or ditch, and loaded with heavy stones to flat- ten it ; hence it is taken to be dried, and, when suf- ficiently dry, put in bales for carriage. The cork-tree is not injured by the operation of peeling off the bark ; for, if not performed, it splits and peels offfrom itself, being pushed up by another bark formed under- neath. The bark of cork is of some use in medicine, but the chief use of it is for making soles, heels, and stop- pers for bottles, &c. The Spaniards burn it, to make that kind of light black, we call Spanish black, used by painters. -They also line stone walls with cork, which not only renders them very warm, but corrects the moisture of the air. Cork is likewise used for making cork jackets for swimming. The cork-tree grows in great plenty in Spain and 108 COR Portugal, "and from these countries we receive the bark. It should be chosen in fine boards, all of a piece, of a moderate thickness, yellowish without and within, not full of knots, and even when cut. CORN. (F. Bleds, Grains ; G. Getreide, Korn ; D. Graanen, Koren; I. Grani, Biadi; S. Granos\ P. Graos ; DA. Korn; Sw. Sad, Spanmal ; POL. Zboze ; R. Ch/jeb ; L. Frumentitm.} Corn is a general name for several grains or seeds, used for the nutrimenf of man ; such as wheat, buck- wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, maize, lentils, pease, &c. ; for which see under the respective heads. Eu- rope, in every part of it, Egypt, the Cape of Good Hope, the coasts of Barbary, and some other cantons of Africa, with some parts of America cultivated by the Europeans, are the places which produce corn. Egypt and Sicily were formerly the most fertile of all other countries in corn. Poland, France, the coasts of the Black Sea, and North America, now with their superfluities supply a great part of Europe. The best method of preserving corn, is to move and air it frequently for the first six months: after that time, it will require less labour, if kept in a dry place. When the corn has been preserved from all impuri- ties for the space of two years, and has exhaled all its fires, it may be kept for fifty, or even a hupdred years, by lodging it in pits, covered with strong planks closely joined together : but the safer way is to cover the heap with quick lime, which should be dissolved by sprinkling it over with a small quantity of water: this causes the grains to shoot, to the depth of two or three fingers, and incloses them with an incrustation, through which neither air nor insects can penetrate. It has been computed with certainty, that the ba- lance paid by Britain for corn imported, after deduct- ing the value of exportation, stood thus : COR 109 In 1771, - - 105,200/. In 1773, - - 369, 820/. 1772, - - 84,400/. 1774, - - 1,022,230/. and considerably more in 177-5. Much larger sums than the above, have been ex- pended by Great Britain during the last war, for pur- chasing corn, and bounties on the importation of the same. CORNELIAN. (F. Cornaline, Sarde; G. Kar- neol ; D. Karneol', I. Cornalina; S. Cornerma; P. Come Una ^ Corneirina ; DA. Karneol; Sw. Karneol; POL. Sardyk ; R. Seredoli/c ; L. Carneolus, Sardus.) The cornelian is a precious stone, of which there are three kinds ; the red, the yellow, and the white. The red cornelian is very well known among us ; of a fine, compact, and close texture, glossy surface, and of all degrees of red, from the palest flesh-colour to the deepest blood red ; it is found in roundish or oval masses, much like our common pebbles. It is gene- rally free from spots, clouds, or variegations, but sometimes veined very beautifully with an extremely pale red or with white. The cornelian is tolerably hard, and capable of a very good polish. The antients have recommended it in medicine; but at present it is only used for seals, trinkets, &c. The finest cornelians are those of the East Indies ; but there are very handsome ones found in the rivers of Silesia and Bohemia; and we. have some not des- picable ones also in England. CORTEX SIMAROUB^E. (F. Simarovba; G. Ruhrwurzel', D. Roodenloop wortel ; I. Simaruba ; S. Simaruba ; P. Simaroba; DA. Simaruba; Sw. Si- maruba ; L. Cortex simaroubte.} Cortex Simaroubae is the bark of the root of a spe- cies of terebinthus, or birch-tree, not yet sufficiently described. This bark is thick, and transudes a clear transparent resin, very odoriferous, and resembling no COR mastich; it yields also a more fluid resin by incision, which has much the smell and appearance of turpen- tine. This article comes from Guiana, and is the most effectual remedy hitherto known in bloody-fluxes. CORTEX WINTERANUS, or Cortex Winteri. (F. Ecorce de Winter, Ecorce sans pareil ou sine pari; G. Wintersrmde, Awcrikanische gcwurzrinde ; D. Winter shark ; I. Scorza Ma^elanica ; S. Corteza Win- ter ana, o Magelanica ; P. Cane Ha de Winter; DA. Vintersbark ; Sw. Vintersbark ; L. Cortex Winteranus, vel Mao-el/amcus.) This is the bark of a tree, first brought from the Straits of Magellan, by Captain Winter, in his voyage with Sir Francis Drake. It is aromatic, and found of good use asainst the scurvy. It also invigorates the blood, and is carminative and stomachic. The bark of the Canella Alba, wild cinnamon, or bastard Cortex Winteranus, usually sold under the name of Cortex Winteranus, consists of two parts, the outer and inner; the outward bark is as thin as a milled shilling, of a whitish ash or grey colour, with light spots here and there interspersed upon it, and several shallow furrows of a darker colour, running variously through it, and making it rough; the in- ward bark is much thicker than cinnamon, and twice as thick as the outer coat, smooth and of a lighter complexion, of a much more biting and aromatic taste, somewhat like that of cloves, not glutinous like cinnamon, but dry and crumbling between the teeth. It is cured without any difficulty, by drying in the shade. What is taken from the branches, is thinner, and rather milder than that from the body of the tree; more nearly approaching to the true cinnamon. This bark very much resembles cassia lignea, and, though different in appearance from the true Cortex Winteranus, is yet so like it in taste and virtue, that it may very well serve as a substitute. COT ill COTTON-WOOL. (F. Colon en lame; G. Baumwolle ; D. Katoen, Boomwol*, I. Cotone, fiam- bagia\ S. Algodon ; P.Algodao; DA. -BowM/J; Sw. Bomull; POL. Baioelna ; R. Chlobtschataja bumaga; L. Gossypium^ Bombax.} Cotton- wool is a soft, downy substance, found on the gossypium or cotton-plant, which is of the shrubb % y kind, and, when full grown, resembles the raspberry- shrub. There are different species of gossypium, all of them natives of warmer climates. 1 . The common herbaceous cotton, which creeps along the ground, has yellow flowers, succeeded by large oval pods, fur- nished with seeds and cotton-wool. 2. The hairy American cotton has hairy stalks, two or three feet high. 3. The Barbadoes shrubby cotton has a shrubby stalk, branching four or five feet high. 4. The tree cotton has an upright woody stalk, branching six or eight feet high. The flowers and pods of the three latter species are like those of the first. The three species first enumerated, are annual; but the fourth is perennial, both in stalk and root; and the common herbaceous cotton, is the plant most gene- rally cultivated. The cotton-wool shrub is propagated by the seed, which in the West-India islands is sown in regular lines, about five feet asunder, at the latter end of September, or beginning of October; and at first but slightly covered, but after it springs up, and becomes a plant, the root is well moulded, and the ground hoe'd frequently. It grows from four to six feet high, and produces two crops annually, the first in eight and the second in twelve months, from the time of sowing; and the produce of each tree is about one pound weight. When the pods are come to maturity, they burst open, and disclose their seeds, intermixed with the flock or wool. When great part of the pods are thus expanded, the crop begins. The wool is picked, and afterwards cleared from the seeds by a 112 COT convenient machine, of very simple contrivance, called a gin, composed of two or three wooden rollers, ranged horizontally, 'close and parallel to each other, in a frame; at each extremity they are toothed, or channelled longitudinally, corresponding one with the other ; and the central roller being moved with a treadle, makes the other two revolve in a contrary direction. The cotton-wool is laid, in small quanti- ties at a time, upon these rollers, whilst they are in motion, and readily passing between them, drops into a sack, placed underneath to receive it, leaving the seeds behind, which are too large to pass with it. The wool thus discharged from the seeds, comes after- wards to be hand-picked, and cleansed thoroughly from any little particles of the pods, or other sub- stances which may be adhering to it. It is then stowed in large bags, where it is well trodden by a negro, whilst it is thrown in, that it may lie close and compact : and, the better to answer this purpose, some water is every now and then sprinkled upon the out- side of the bag. The weight of a marketable bag of West-India cotton, is usually three hundred pounds; and that weight per acre may be expected in the most productive plantations ; but for an average of rich and poor land, only two hundred and seventy pounds weight can be reckoned in Jamaica. The finest sort of cotton-wool comes from the island of Bourbon ; then follow the growths of the Brazils, Berbice, Surinam, Tobago, &c. That of Su- rat in the East Indies, is the most inferior kind. The Cyprus cotton-wool, on account of its white- ness, softness, and the length of its filaments, is ac- counted the best of the Levant cotton. They reckon it a good crop, when the produce of the whole island amounts to five thousand bags: under the govern- ment of the Venetians, it produced thirty thousand bags. No small quantity of cotton-wool is gathered in the Terra di Bari, and the districts of the cities of Tursi COW 113 and Gravina in the kingdom of Naples; but the best Neapolitan cotton-wool grows in the province of Lecce. The season for sowing the cotton-plant in the Le- vant and Italy, and particularly in the island of Cy- prus, is the month of April, or earlier. The ground for that purpose is prepared in the same manner as the corn-fields of Italy. Furrows being formed in the earth, the seeds are cast into them in a similar way with French beans. The young plants come up with two yawning lobes, exactly like the cotyledones of the common bean ; and as soon as they appear above ground, the weakest are pulled up, and none left but those w r hich are strong and vigorous. In the months of June and July, great care is taken to hoe the earth gently around them, and the crop is collected in the months of October and November. As some little time is requisite before the seed can be freed from its cover or husk, the first exportation does not take place till February or March, the year following. It is supposed that no fewer than 120,000 persons are constantly employed in Great Britain, in different branches of the manufacture of this single staple. COWRIES, Com, Cauris. (F. Cor is, Cauris, Bouges ; G. Kauris, Schneckenkopfe ; D. Kauris, Slangenhoofdjes ; I. Cori, Porccllanc ; S. Bucios, Si- queyes-, P. Bucios, Zinibos ; DA. Kauris; Sw. Kau- ris ; R. Kauris.} Cowries are small, and exceedingly white shells, brought from the Maldivia islands, and used as money in the greatest part of the East Indies, particularly in the states of the Great Mogul. These shells, though in all appearance a production of the sea, are how- ever found on land, and dug for pretty deep in the ground. The cowries are used also in the trade which the Europeans carry on along the coast of Guinea. The Dutch, for the most part, furnish such European na- 114 CUM tions, as trade for slaves, with cowries : and the vast quantities they sell will be no matter of surprise, when it is considered, that the French give sometimes eighty pounds weight of cowries for a negro ; and for gold, ivory, wax, and other commodities, in pro- portion. The negroes not only use the cowries for money, but also for collars and bracelets to adorn themselves. CREAM OF TARTAR. (G. Weimtein', D. Wynsternoom ; F. Crema de Tartar ; I. Crema di Tartaro.) Is a preparation of tartar, and comes to us from Italy. It is a gentle purge; attenuates and resolves tough humours ; and is good against obstructions of the viscera. CUBEBS. (F, Cubeb&s; G.Kubcbcn; D. Koebe- ben\ 1. Cubebi\ S. Cubebas ; P. Cobebas\ DA. Cu- beber ; Sw. Kobeber ; POL. Kubeby ; R. Kubebu; L. Cubeba.) Cubebs are small dried fruit, resembling a grain of pepper, but often somewhat longer, brought into Eu- rope from the island of Java, &c. They are to be chosen large, fresh, and sound. Cubebs are of an aromatic, though not very strong smell; acrid and pungent to the taste, though less so than pepper. They abound in a fine, thin, essential oil, which may be separated from them by distillation. Cubebs are used in the kitchen as well as in medi- cine. CUMMIN. (F. Cumin-, G. Kumin, Lunger Kum- mel; D. Komyn; I. Comino, Cutnino ; S. Comino ; P. Cuminho, Comin/ios ; DA. Kummen; Sw. Kum- wmi, Cumin. Spiskumin ; POL. Kmin, Kmin kramny ; R. Kmin, Timon ; L. Ci/minum, Cuminum semine longioreC] Cummin is an umbelliferous plant, resembling fen- CUR 115 nel, but much smaller. It is annual, a native of Egypt and Ethiopia, and cultivated in the islands of Sicily and Malta, whence we are supplied with the seeds, which are accounted good carminatives and stomachics; but their principal use is in external ap- plications. CURRANTS. (F. Raisins dc Corinthe ; G. Ko- riutlicn; D. Korenten, Krenten; I. Uve passe di Co- rinto ; S. Pasas de C or into ; P. Passas de Cor into; POL. Rozinki mete, drobne ; R. Korinka, Opock ; L. Passulce Cormthiacte.) By the name of currants, we not only understand the fruit of a species of grossularia, growing in our gardens, but particularly a smaller kind of dried black grapes, brought principally from Zante and Cephalo- nia. They were formerly imported also from the Morea, or isthmus of Corinth, whence their name currants or Corinths : this plantation, however, now produces no more, the Turks not allowing large ves- sels to enter the gulph, to take them off the hands of the cultivators. They gather the currants in the Archipelago in August, and dispose them in couches on the grpund till they dry ; then clean and lay them up in maga- zines, pouring them in at a hole, till the magazine is full: when they cling so fast together, by their own weight, that they are forced to be dug out with iron instruments. To cask them for exportation, they have people who grease their feet and legs, and tread them close, that they may keep the better. Zante annually produces a sufficiency to load five or six vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and the other islands one ; by far the greatest part being imported into England. Currants are also brought from the Lipari Islands ; but this kind is larger, and less esteemed, than those of the Zante and Cephalonia growth. 116 DAT Currants should be chosen small, new, and in large masses. When packed close, they will keep sound for two or three years. D DATES. (F. Dattes; G. Dattdn\ D. Dadels, Daayen-, I. Datteri; S. Datiles ; P. Tamaras ; DA. Dadeler ; Sw. Dadlar; POL. Daktyk; R. Finike\ L. Dactyli] The date is a fruit, somewhat in the shape of an acorn. It is composed of a thin, light, and glossy membrane, containing a fine, soft, and pulpy sub- stance, which is firm, sweet, and somewhat vinous to the taste, esculent and wholesome ; and within this is enclosed a solid, tough, and hard kernel, of a pale grey colour on the outside, and finely marbled within, like the nutmeg. This fruit is the produce of the Phoenix Dactylifera, or Date- tree ; a native of Africa, and the eastern countries, where it grows to the height of fifty, sixty, and one hundred feet. It is produced also in many parts of Europe, but never ripens perfectly there. The best are brought from Tunis; they are likewise very fine and good in Egypt, and in many parts of the East. The date-trees are planted in the neighbourhood of rivulets or waters; for they require much moisture. To propagate them, shoots of the best trees are taken, and planted at a small distance from one another. At the end of three or four years, these shoots begin to bear fruit; but this fruit is yet dry, without sweet- ness, and even without kernels; and they never reach the highest degree of perfection of which they are susceptible, till they are about fifteen to twenty DAT U7 years old. This tree is also propagated from seeds; but in that case never produces such good fruit, as when raised from shoots. Those dates are esteemed the best, which are large, soft, yellowish, with few or no wrinkles, and full of pulp; either of a good white throughout, or else reddish towards the surface, and white towards the kernels. Dates are preserved in three different ways; some pressed and dried, others pressed more moderately, and others not pressed at all, only moistened with the juice of other dates as they are packed up; which is done in baskets or skins. Those preserved in this last way, are much the best. In regard to their medicinal virtues, dates are said to strengthen the stomach and intestines ; they are also recommended in diseases of the breast, &c. In Upper Egypt, many families subsist almost en- tirely upon this fruit. The stones are as hard as horn, and nobody would imagine that any animal could eat them, but the Egyptians break, grind, and, for want of better food, give them to their camels to eat. In Barbary, they turn handsome beads for paternosters of these stones. Of the leaves they make baskets, or rather a kind of short bags, which are used in Turkey, on journeys and in the houses. In Egypt they make fly-flaps of them, and brushes to clean their sofas and clothes. The hard boughs they use for fences about their gardens, and cages to keep their poultry in. The trunk or stem, when split, is used for the same purposes, and also for timber and fire- wood. The web-like integument covering the tree, between the boughs, has threads, which run perpen- dicularly and horizontally crossing each other, in the same mariner as the cocoa-nut tree: this is of con- siderable use in Egypt, where they make all their ropes and rigging of the smaller vessels with it. It is esteemed strong and lasting. 118 DIA DEALS. (F. Planches; G. Dielen; D. Deelen; I. Tavole, Plane; S. Tobias; P. Taboinhas\ DA. Dceler ; Sw. Tiljor; POL. Tarcice ; H. Doski.} Deals are thin fir-planks, formed by sawing the trunk of a tree into a great many longitudinal divi- sions, of more or less thickness, according to the pur- poses they are intended to serve. A very good method of seasoning deals, is to throw them into salt water, as soon as they are sawed, and keep them there three or four days, frequently turn- ing them. Deals are imported into this country, from Chris- tiana, and other ports of Norway; from Dantzic and various parts of Prussia; and red and white wood deals, from St. Petersburg, Archangel, Narva, Me- mel, &c. Deals are sold, either by the piece, like Dantzic deals; or by the reduced or standard hundred, like the Russia and Memel deals ; or by the long hun- dred, of one hundred and twenty deals, like the Nor- way Deals. A standard, or reduced deal, is one inch and a half thick, eleven inches wide, and twelve feet long. A standard, or reduced hundred, is one hundred and twenty times that quantity. DIAMOND. (F. Diamant-, G. Diamant- D. Diamant, Demant ; I. Diamante; S. Diamante; P. Diamante; DA. Diamant \ Sw. Demant, Diamant; POL. Dijmant ; li. /l/ma$; L. Ada?nas.) This is the most valuable and hardest of all gems. It is, when pure, perfectly clear, and pellucid as the purest water ; and eminently distinguished from all other substances, by its vivid splendour, and the brightness of its reflections, never fouled by any ad- mixture of earthy or other coarse matter; susceptible of elegant tinges from metalline particles, giving fire with steel, not fermenting with acid menstruums. OIA 119 scarcely calculable by any degree of fire, and of one simple and permanent appearance in all lights. The finest diamonds are those of a complexion like a drop of pure water. If they be tinctured yellow, blue, green, or red, in a high degree, they are next in esteem; but if tinctured with these colours only in a low degree, the value of them is greatly diminished. There are also diamonds of other complexions; such as brown, resembling the brownest sugar candy ; or of a dark hue, like dusky iron. In the Philosophi- cal Commerce of Arts, we are even told of a black diamond. The first water in diamonds, means the greatest purity and perfection, like the purest water. When they fall short of this perfection, they are said to be of the second and third water, &c. till the stone may be properly called a coloured one. The diamond is extremely various in shape and size; being found in the greatest quantity very small, and the larger ones very seldom met with. The pro- per and determinate figure into which it must con- crete, when not impeded by any accident in its for- mation, is an inequilateral octohedron ; and often its several surfaces in this figure, are as bright as if po- lished by art. . The diamond is likewise often thrown into two other figures, both seeming also regular ones; "the one a prismatic columnar one of six angles, the other an oblong quadrilateral column, with two trun- cated ends. Besides these regular figures, it is every day found in numberless other misshapen forms. This gem is found only in the East Indies, and in Brasil in South America. In the East Indies there are two mines and two rivers, whence it is drawn. The mines are, that of Raolconda, in the province of Carnatica ; and that of Gani or Coulour, seven days' journey from Golconda eastwardly. The two rivers are that of Gonal, near the town of Soumelpour, in Bengal; and that of Succudan in the island of Borneo. Diamonds, like other gems, are divided into orien- tal and occidental ; the finest and hardest being called 120 DIT oriental, whether produced in the east or west; as the diamonds of Brasil equal the finest oriental ones. The art of cutting these precious stones, was in- vented in 1476', by Louis de Berquen, a native of Bruges. They are cut and polished by means of a mill, which turns a wheel of soft iron, sprinkled over with diamond-dust, mixed with oil of olives. The same dust, well ground, and diluted with water and vinegar, is used in the sawing of diamonds, which is performed with an iron or brass wire, as fine as a hair. The value of diamonds among jewellers is thus calculated. Supposing the value of a rough diamond to be two pounds per carat; to find the value of those of greater weight, they multiply the square of their weight by two: thus the value of a rough diamond weighing four carats, is equal 4x4x2 = 1 6 x2=32/. To find the value of wrought diamonds, they suppose half their weight lost in manufacturing them, and therefore multiply the square of double their weight by two; thus the value of a wrought diamond, weigh- ing three carats, is equal 6x6x2=36 x2=72/. The largest diamond ever known in the world, is that belonging to the King of Portugal, which was found in Brasil, and weighs 1680 carats, and accord- ing to the' above-mentioned calculation, is worth 5,644,800/. sterling, but has been valued by con- noisseurs at 224 millions sterling. The famous dia- mond, which adorns the sceptre of the Empress of Russia, weighs 779 carats. DITTANY, White Dittany, Fraxinella. (F.Frax- imlle, Diclame blanc ; G. Weisser Diptam ; D. Witte Diptam; \.Frassinella, Dittamo bianco; S. CJiitan, Dictamo bianco, Fresnillo; P. Fraxinello, Dictamo Iminco ; DA. Hviid Diptam r od ; Sw. Huit Diptan ; POL. Dyptan bialy ; R> Badun ; L. Fraxinella, Die- /((ttmus dibits.} This is a medicinal plant, reputed excellent against the bitings of venomous beasts, worms engendered in DRA 1S1 the human body, and the like. Its root, wherein all its virtue is lodged, is about the thickness of a finger, and is frequently divided into a number of little branches ; its colour is white, its taste bitter, and its smell strong, somewhat like the scent of a he-goat. It must be chosen white, both inside and outside, not fibrous, and well cleaned. There are several other kinds of dittany ; as the bastard dittany, and the wild dittany. DOWN. (F. Duvet; G. Dunen, Flaumfedern ; D. Dons; I. Puma mafta, Piumini ; S. Flojel, Plu- mazo ; P. Frouxel ; DA. Duun; Sw. Tjan ; POL. Puchy ; R. Puch ; L. Plumce.} Down, are the shortest, smoothest, softest, and most delicate feathers of birds, particularly geese, ducks, and swans ; growing on their neck and part of their stomach. Down is a commodity of most countries : but that in most repute, for fineness, lightness, and warmth, comes from Denmark, Sweden, and other northern countries. (See EDERDON.) Ostrich 9 s down, called otherwise ostrich's hair, and sometimes wool, is of two sorts; that called the fine of ostrich, is used by hatters, in the manufacture of common hats: and that called coarse of ostrich, serves for the making of list for fine white cloth. DRAGON'S-BLOOD. (F. Sang de dragon; G. Drachenblut; D. Draakenbloed ; I. Sangue dl drago; S. Sangro de drago ; P. Sangue de drago ; DA. Drageblod ; Sw. Drakblod ; POL. Smocza /crew; R. Drakonowa krow; L. Sftnguis draconis.) Dragon's-blood is a gummi-resinous substance, brought from the East Indies, either in oval droops wrapped up in flag leaves, or in large masses, com- posed of smaller tears. It is said to be obtained from the palmijuncus draco, the calamus rolang, the dra- 122 EDO cena draco, the pterocarpus draco, and several other vegetables. The writers on the materia medica, in general give the preference to the former, though the others are not unfrequently of equal goodness. The fine dra- gon's-blood of either sort, breaks smooth, free from any visible impurities, of a dark red colour; which changes, on being powdered, into an elegant bright crimson. Several artificial compositions, coloured with the true dragon's-blood, or brasil wood, are sometimes sold instead of this commoditv. Some of these dis- / solve like gums in water, others crackle in the fire, without proving inflammable ; whilst the genuine dragon's-blood melts, catches flame, and is not acted on by watery liquors. This drug in substance has no sensible smell or taste; when dissolved, it discovers some degree of warmth and pungency. Dragon's-blood is principally used as a pigment; in medicine, it is very rarely employed in the present practice. E. EBONY. (F. Bois d'Ebene; G. Eben/iolz -, D. Ebbenhout, Ebbehout; I. Ebano ; S. Ebano ; P. Ebano, Evano ; DA. Ebentrcee, Ebenholt ; Sw. Eben- trced, Ebo) holts POL. Heban ; R. Ebenowoe derewo ; L. Ebenus.) Ebony is an exceedingly hard and heavy kind of wood, susceptible of a very fine polish, and on that account used in mosaic and inlaid works, for toys, &c. It is of divers colours, most usually black, red, and green; produced chiefly in the island of Mada- gascar, and the Mauritius. EBO 123 Travellers give very different accounts of the tree that yields the black ebony ; some say that it is a sort of pnlm tree, others a cytisus, &c. M. Flacourt tells us, that it grows very high and big, its bark being black, and its leaves resembling those of the myrtle, of a deep, dusky, green colour. Black ebony is much preferred to that of other co- lours. The best is a jet black, free of veins and rind, very massive, astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. It yields an agreeable perfume, when laid on burning coals: when green, it readily takes fire, from the abundance of its fat. Green ebony, besides Madagascar and the Mauri- tius, likewise grows in the Antilles, especially in the isle of Tobago. The tree that yields it is very bushy; its leaves are smooth, and of a fine green colour. Be- neath its bark is a white rind, about two inches thick ; all under which, to the very heart, is a deep green, approaching towards a black, though sometimes streaked with yellow veins. Its use is not confined to inlaid work, it is likewise good in dying, as yield- ing a fine green tincture. Of red ebony, called also Grenadilla, we know lit- tle more than the name. Ebony is now less used than antiently, since the discovery of giving other hard woods a black colour. There is a sort of ebony coming from the West Indies, which is either black or white. This bears a flower resembling that of the English broom ; seldom rises above eighteen feet, and in the largest part of the stem, does not exceed five inches diameter. It is a fine timber wood, has a smooth even grain, which takes a good polish, and is very proper for bed-posts, and a variety of turnery ware : for which purposes the black is generally preferred, the heart of which is the complexion of jet. There is likewise a bastard ebony, growing in the West-India islands, called mountain ebony, which is of a dark brown. EIDER-DOWN, Ederdon, (F. Ederdon, Edrc- don, Egledon ; G. Eiderdunen ; D. Eiderdons ; I. Piumini del Nor te ; S. Ederdon, Edredon ; P. Edre- don; DA. Edderduun; Sw. Aderdun, Dun; POL. Puch bialozorowy ; R. Agatschii puch.} Eider-down, is a kind of very fine down, coming from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. It is the pro- duce of a species of wild-duck, called Eider. To collect this down, the inhabitants, at the risk of their lives, by means of cords, let themselves down the steepest precipices, where these birds have their nests. The down is made up in balls, about the size of a fist, and weighing from three to four pounds. It is so fine and soft, that if a ball be opened, and the down cautiously held over red-hot coals, to warm, it will completely fill a bed for two people. This costly article, when fine and picked, costs in Denmark, twelve shillings sterling the pound, and upwards. ELEPHANT'S TEETH ; see IVORY. EMERALD. (F. Emeraude; G.Smaragd; D. Smaragd, Esmeraud ; I. Smeraldo ; S. "Esmeralda ; P.Esmeralda; T^A.Smaragd; Svr.Smaragd; POL. Szmaragd ; R. Isumrud ; L. Smaragdus.) The emerald is a genus of precious-stones, of a green colour. Like other gems, this is divided into oriental and occidental. The oriental emerald, is of the hardness of the sapphire and ruby, and is second only to the diamond in lustre; it is very scarce, and at present only found in the kingdom of Cambay. The Ame- rican emerald is of the hardness of the garnet, and the European somewhat softer than that, yet consi- derably harder than crystal. The genuine emerald, in its most perfect state, is perhaps the most beautiful of all' the gems. It is EME 125 found of various sizes, but usually small ; great num- bers of the sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and some as large as a walnut. The emerald is of different figures, sometimes of a pebble-like form, but much more frequently of a co- lumnar one, resembling common crystal. The emeralds of the East Indies are evidently finer than those of any other part of the world ; but our jewellers seldom meeting with these, call the Ameri- can emeralds the oriental, and usually sell crystal, ac- cidentally tinged with green, under the name of the occidental emerald. EMERY, Emeril. (F. Emeril, Emeri; G.Schmer- gel; D. Ameril, Smergel ; I. Smeriglio, Smeregio ; S. Esmeril ', P.Esmeril; D A . Smergel ; Sw. Smir- irel ; POL. Szmergiel ; R. Nashdak; L. Smiris.) Emery is" a sort of metallic stone, of which three kinds are usually distinguished ; the Spanish, red, ami common emery. The first sort is found in the gold-mines of Peru, and being judged a kind of marcasite of that rich me- tal, is prohibited to be exported. The red emery is found in copper-mines, and the little there is of it in England, comes from Sweden and Denmark. The common emery is taken out of iron-mines, and almost the only sort used in England ; it is of a brownish colour, bordering a little on red, exceedingly hard, and in consequence difficult to pulverize. The English are the only people who have the art of reducing common emery into powder, and thus send it to their neighbours. Of the powder, the most sub- tile and impalpable is the best ; as to the stone, it should be chosen of a high colour, and as free of the rock as possible. The consumption of emery is very considerable among the armourers, cutlers, locksmiths, glaziers, lapidaries, masons, and other mechanics ; some of whom use it to polish and burnish iron and steel 126 ESS works; others, to cut and scallop glass, marble, and precious stones, which is done with emery paper. EPSOM SALT. (F. Sel # Epsom ; G. Epsom sa,lz\ D. Epsom zout ; I. Kale di Epsom ; S. Sal de Epsom-, P.Sal de Epsom ; DA. Epsom salt; Sw. Epsom salt.} Epsom salt is the result of a combination of the vitriolic acid, with the earthy substance called mag- nesia. The vitriolic acid is found combined with magnesia in great plenty, in the bitter liquor which remains after the crystallization of common salt. If this liquor be set by for some time in a leaden vessel, a large quantity of salt shoots, very much resembling Glauber's salt, and frequently sold in lieu of it. If, after the first crystallization of the bittern, the re- mainder be gently evaporated further, a fresh quan- tity of the same salt will shoot: and if the liquor be then hastily evaporated, a salt will still be crystal- lized ; but instead of large regular crystals, it will concrete into very small ones, having something of the appearance of snow when taken out of the liquid. This salt, shot into small crystals, is termed Epsom salt, from its being first produced from the purging water at Epsom in England. The bittern yielding this salt in such great plenty, these waters were soon neglected, as they afforded it but very sparingly. ESSENCES. (F. Essences; G. Essenzcn ; I. Es- senze; S. Esencias ; P. Essencias.) Essence, in chemistry, denotes the purest, most subtile, and balsamic part of a body ; extracted either by simple expression, or by means of fire, from fruits, flowers, and the like. Of these there are great varie- ties used on account of their agreeable smell and taste, by apothecaries, perfumers, and others. Those extracted by means of fire, with more propriety are to l^e counted among the essential oils. Essence of bergamot is a fragrant essence, extracted FEA 127 from a fruit which is produced by ingrafting a branch of lemon-tree, upon the stock of a bergamot pear. It is imported from Italy and Sicily, particularly from Reggio and Messina. This spirit is extracted, by paring off the rind of the fruit with a broad knife, pressing the peel between wooden pincers against a spunge, and as soon as the spunge is saturated, the volatile liquor is squeezed into a phial. Essence of orange, and essence of lemon, are pre- pared in a similar manner, and come from the same countries. The essences of lavender, .of thyme, of rosemary, of anise, of cloves, of cinnamon, &c. are obtained by means of fire. ESSENCE OF XEROLI ; see ORANGES. F. FEATHERS, Bed-feathers. (F. Plumes, Plumes a lit; G. Federn, Bettfedern; D.Bedveern, Pluimen; I. Piume; S.Plumas; P. Plumas; DA. Fiere, Sen- gejiere; Sw. Fjddrar ; PoL.Piora; R. Pera.) The feathers of birds make a considerable article of commerce, particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, peacock, goose, and other poultry ; for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of beds, and writing pens. (See QUILLS.) There are scarcely any birds, but what bed-feathers may be procured from, particularly those of the do- mestic kind ; yet swans, geese, and ducks, are those that furnish most, and the best. Geese are plucked three times a year; towards the end of May, -about Midsummer ) and at the latter end of August ; but chiefly when the feathers are ripe, that is, when they are perceived to fall off of them- 128 FEN selves. The feathers of dead birds are in the least esteem, on account of the blood imbibed by the quill; which putrifying, communicates an offensive smell to the feather, and takes some time to evaporate ; for which reason, live birds should not be stripped, till their feathers are ripe. Feathers are imported in this country, from Poland and Germany. They are divided into white, half grey, and grey, and valued accordingly. The best feathers should be white, downy, void of large stems, fresh, and sweet. Care should be taken that no sand be intermixed, which is frequently practised to in- crease the weight. Ostrich Feathers are dyed and dressed by the fea- ther-dressers, to serve as ornaments. They are a very costly article, brought to us from Africa, and particu- larly the coast of Barbary. See DOWN. FENNEL-SEED. (F. Fenouil ; G.Fenchelsamen; D. Venkel; I. Finocchio ; S. Hinojo; P. Funcho ; DA. Fennikel ; $w. Fiinkol; POL. Kopr wlowsky; R. Woloskoi Ukrop ; L. Fceniculum.) There are two very different sorts of anethum fceniculum, or fennel-seed ; the common and the sweet. The sweet fennel is annual, a native of the warmer climates, and cultivated in our gardens. We com- monly receive a supply from Germany, France, and other parts, superior to our own growth. Common fennel is perennial, a native of the southern parts of Europe, and cultivated in our gardens. The seeds of this species are warmer and more pungent, but less sweet, and of a less grateful flavour than those of the preceding. Fennel-seed enters into many officinal preparations, and is used in the kitchen, as well as for confectionery. Distilled waters, oil, and spirituous extracts, are also made of it. FIG 129 ^FENUGREEK. (F. Fenu-prec ; G. Bockshorn, Foenum graecum ; D. Bokshoornzaad ; I. Fie- nogreco ; S. Alforva, Atholva ; P. Alforvas, Feno- grego ; DA. Fonugriek ; Sw. Fenugrek ; L. Fcenum Grcecum.} This is a medicinal plant, thus called, because an- tiently brought from Greece ; though now cultivated in several parts of Europe. Its stem is about a foot high, its leaves small, and disposed somewhat like those of trefoil, yielding a little white flower, whence arises a long pointed pod, not unlike the horn of a bul- lock in shape ; the grain or seed is inclosed in this pod, which bears the name of the plant, is smaller than mustard-seed, very hard and solid, of a triangu- lar form, and a strong disagreeable smell ; being of a yellow gold colour when new, but turning ruddy or brown when kept. The good choice of it consists in being new, plump, and of a high gold colour. This seed is principally cultivated in France, and exported thence in considerable quantities. French dyers use it for the scarlet dye; and physi- cians order it in decoctions and cataplasms; given to cattle, particularly horses, it creates an appetite and fattens them. FIGS. (F. Figues -, G. Fclgen; D. Vygen\ I. Fichi ; S. Higos ; P. Figos ; DA. Figen ; Sw. Fikon; PoL.Fiki; R. Winnuajagodi ; L. Fid, Caricce.} Theficus carica> or fig-tree, has an upright stem, branching fifteen or twenty feet high, and garnished with large pahnated or hand shaped leaves. Of this there are several varieties ; as the common fig, a large, oblong, dark purplish, blue fruit, which ripens in August ; the brown, or chesnut fig, a large globu- lar, chesnut-coloured fruit, ripening in July and Au- gust ; the black, the green, and the brown Ischiafigs; the Malta fig ; the round brown Naples fig ; the long brown Naples fig ; the great blue fig ; the black Ge- noa fig. K 130 FLA Dried figs are a considerable article, amongst gro- ceries as well as medicaments. The best are those from Turkey ; the Faro or Sicily figs, are smaller and worth considerably less. Many figs are also brought from the South of France, where they prepare them in the following manner. The fruit is first dipped in scalding hot lye, made of the ashes of the fig-tree, and then dried in the sun. Hence these figs stick to the hands, and scour them like lixivial salts ; and for the same reason, they excite to stool, without griping. They are moderately nutri mental, grateful to the sto- mach, and easier to digest, than any other of the sweet fruits. FISH. (G.Fishe; D. Pucker; DA.Filk; F. Poisson; I.Pisei: S. Pescudos.) Innumerable are the various species of fish ; the commercial importations are however but very li- mited : the cod from Newfoundland and Norway, an- chovies from the Mediterranean, and sardanias from the island of that name, form nearly all that is drawn from foreign parts. FLAX. (F. Lin; G. Flacks; D. Vlasch- I. Lino-, S. Lino; P. Linho\ DA. //or, Hcerr ; Sw. Lin, //or; POL. Len ; R. Len, Lon ; It.Linum.) The flax-plant has a slender hollow stem, usually about two feet high. Its bark consists of fibres, much like those of hemp ; which being dressed and worked, are manufactured into linen. The ground for sowing flax seed upon, ought to be rich, neither too wet nor too dry, laid flat, and reduced to a fine garden-mould by much harrowing, and all stones and sods carried off. The time for sowing linseed, is from the middle of March to the end of April. Late-soxvn linseed may grow long, but the flax upon the stalk will be thin and poor. When the crop grows so short and branchy, as to FLA appear more valuable for seed than flax, it ought not to be pulled till it be thoroughly ripe; but if it grow long and not branchy, the seed should be disregarded, and all the attention given to the flax. In the last case, it ought to be pulled after the bloom has fallen, when the stalk begins to turn yellow ; and before the leaves fall, and the balls turn hard and sharp pointed. When the stalk is small, and carries few balls, the flax is fine ; but the stalk of coarse flax is gross, rank, branchy, and carries many balls. Few persons who have seen pulled flax, are igno- rant of the method of laying it in handfuls across each other; which gives the flax sufficient air, and keeps the handfuls separate and ready for the rippler. After pulling, the operation of rippling should by no means be neglected, whether the flax be regarded more than the seed, or the seed more than the flax. In the lat- ter case, it is a matter in course, to preserve and col- lect the seed ; but even in the former case it is neces- sary, as the balls, if put into the water with the flax, breed vermin there, and otherwise spoil the water. In Lincolnshire and Ireland, they think that rippling hurts the flax, and therefore, instead of it, they strike the balls against a stone. The flax being rippled, must then be watered, and a canal of standing soft water, deserves the preference for this operation. The water should be exposed to the sun, but the flax in it, protected from its rays by divots. The flax is sufficiently watered, when it feels soft to the gripe, and the hazle parts easily with the boon or show ; which last is then become brittle and looks whitish. When these signs are found, it fs taken out of the water, and spread thinly upon a dry ground of short heath or short grass, to dry. For the purpose of separating the boon, or core, from the flax, which is the bark of the plant, the stalks in small parcels are broke in a hand-machine, called 132 FLA the break ; and for clearing it of the broken boon, the flax is held over the stock, and struck or threshed with the scutcher. These methods of breaking and scutching the flax, beins: slow and verv laborious, a \j O > water-mill has been invented in Scotland, which makes great dispatch, but is generally complained of, as wasteful. The next operation that flax undergoes is heck- ling ; which consists in striking the flax upon the teeth of the heckle, and drawing it through the teeth. The principal sorts of flax imported into this coun- try are, St. Petersburg, Narva, Riga, Reval, Pernau, Liebau, Memel, Oberland, and Dutch flax. The St. Petersburg and Narva flax, are nearly of the same quality, and the latter but little inferior to the former. Both sorts come to us in bundles of twelve, nine, and six heads. The Riga flax seems to deserve the preference of any imported from the Baltic. It is the growth of the provinces of Marienburg, Druania, Thiesenhausen, and Lithuania. The best Marienburg is called sim- ply Marienburg (M), or Marienburg clean; the se- cond quality cut (CM) ; and the third, risten drey- band (RD) ; of the three other provinces, the first quality carries the name of rakitzer ; as Druania ra- kitzer (Dl),Thie8enfiausenrakitzer (TR),and Lithu- ania rakitzer (LR). The cut flax of these three pro- vinces, is the second quality, and to the third quality belong the badstub, and badstub cut (B and BG) ; the paternoster (PN) ; and hafs three band (MD). Badstub and paternoster, is the refuse of the rakitz flax, and the three band, again, the refuse of the for- mer sorts, and consequently very ordinary. The Reval and Pernau flax consists of Marienburg, cut, risten, hafs three band, and three band. The Liebau and Memel growths are distinguished by the denomination of four and three band. These FLO two sorts, as well as the Oberland flax, coming from Konigsberg, Elbing, &c. are little esteemed in the British markets. The Flanders, or Dutch flax, is well dressed, and of the finest quality ; whereof the fine thread and lace made in those countries, are the strongest evi- dence. The good and even quality of all flax coming from the Russian ports, proceeds from the institution of public bracks; that is to say, the flax passes the exa- mination of sworn inspectors, who do not suffer it to be shipped, if inferior to the usual quality of the mark, which it is to bear. Flax is much cultivated in Egypt, especially in the island of Delta, and near Damietta. A considerable quantity of it is yearly exported to Venice and Leg- horn. It is soft and good, but not better than the European. It grows very high in that country, and stems may be seen four feet high, and as thick as the common rush. It flowers in winter. The cloth they make of it is coarse and thin, and only purchased on account of its cheapness. FLAX-SEED ; see LINSEED. FLOUR. (V.Farine-, G. Mehl ; D.Meel; I. Farina-, S.Harina 4 , P.Farinha; DA.Meel; Sw. Mjol\ POL. Maka ; R. Muka ; L. Farina.) Meal is the powder of various sorts of grain, or pulse, ground : and flour the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground, and sifted from the bran. Wheat being very apt to get heated and damaged in long voyages ; the Americans to prevent this in- conveniency, and to diminish the expence of freight, reduce it. into flour, and send it to the European mar- kets, made up in barrels ; and this made a very impor- tant branch of commerce between them and Great Britain, during the last war. , 134- FRA The finest flour, particularly when stale or ill pre- pared, is most liable to be destroyed by a number of little animals, which are so small, that they can only be distinguished with a microscope. When they once have taken possession of a parcel of this valua- ble commodity, it is impossible to drive them out; and they increase so fast, that the only means of escaping a total loss, is to use it as soon as possible. The way to prevent their breeding in the flour, is to preserve it from clamp, as it cannot be kept too dry. FOSSIL BEZOAR, is a kind of figured stone, formed like the animal Bezoar, and supposed to have the same virtues. It is of a purple colour, the size of a walnut, and light. When broken, it is found to be an irony crust, containing in its hollow a fine greenish white earth, which is used, and not the shells. It is called Sicilian earth^ because the Fossil Bezoar is chiefly found in Sicily. FRANKFORT BLACK. (F. Noir d' Allemagne ; G. Frankfurter Schwarze, Kupferdruker Schwdrze ; I. Nero di Ger mania; S. Negro di Ger mania ; P. Negro di Ger mania.} This black is made of the lees of wine, burnt, washed in water, and ground in mills, together with ivory or peach-stones burnt. It is usually brought from Frankfort on the Mayn, Mentz, and Strasburg ; either in lumps or powder. That of France, on account of the difference in the lees of wine, is less valued than that of Germany. This black makes the principal ingredient in the rolling-press printers ink. FRANKINCENSE, Incense. (F. Encem^ Encens Jin ou male, Oliban ; G. Weihrauch ; D. Wisroole ; I. Incenso, Olibmw, S. Incienso, Incienso macho, FRA u/> Olibano ; P. Incenso, Tncenso macho, Olibano ; DA. Virog, Virak\ Sw. Veirauch, Virack ; POL. Kadzid- lo ; R. Lad on prostoi ; L. Thus, Olibanum.) Frankincense, or Olibanum, is a gummy resin, the product of the Juniperus Lycia; consisting of about equal parts of a gummy and resinous substance; the first soluble in water, and the other in rectified spirit. It is brought from Turkey and the East Indies, but is principally collected in both the Arabias, whence it is brought toJodda, the harbour of Mecca. It usually comes to us in drops or tears, like those of mastich, but larger: of a pale yellowish, and some- times reddish colour; a moderately warm pungent taste, and a strong, not very agreeable smell. When brought to us, it is so full of small stones, that one hundred and fifty pounds weight will not yield above fifty to seventy pounds of pure frankincense. The Arabians hold their own incense in no estima- tion, and make use only of that which comes from India. Probably the appellation of Arabian incense, among the antients, proceeds from the Arabians trad- ing in it, and conveying it from India to the ports of Egypt and Syria. The principal staple place for frankincense is Mar- seilles ; whence it chiefly goes to Russia, where it is used in making the Russian leather. A large quan- tity is likewise burnt by the Russians, and Roman- Catholics, in their churches. This article differs greatly in price and goodness. The best is in tears of a fragrant smell, pellucid, and of a yellowish white colour, brittle and easily pulve- rized. Of this quality, however, little is to be found in the common frankincense, and it is usually select- ed on purpose for the apothecaries' shops. The dealers count different sorts of this gum resin : namely, olibanum masculum, or the best frankincense, in large, round, palish-yellow pieces; olibanum 136 FUL mammosum, in soft, yellow, and rather long tears ; olibanum orobiBum, in small round grains ; olibanum manna thuris, or the broken dust ; and the Indian, or Moccha frankincense, which is the most impure of any. FRUIT, in natural history, signifies the last pro- duction of a tree or plant, for the propagation of its kind : in commerce, fruit denotes the production of a fruit-tree; as the apple, pear, plumb, peach, apri- cot, cherry, grape, orange, lemon, currant, raisin, fig, almond, olive, and others, both foreign and do- mestic. FULLERS' EARTH. (F. Terre d foulon-, G. Watkererde; D. Voldarde ; I. Terra da' purgaton '; S. Tier r a de batan ; P. Greda de Pizoerio ; DA. Val- kejord; Sw. Valklera, Valkjord; R. Schijffiernaja glina ; L. Terra fid lonuni .} The true fullers' earth of England, is a kind of clay, of a greyish ash-coloured brown, in all degrees; from very pale, to almost blacK, and it has generally something of a greenish cast. When dry, it feels as fat and slippery as soap, but is not wholly diffusible in water. When mixed with this fluid, it falls to pieces, either in large or smaller masses, so as to assume the appearance of curds. In the fire, it readily melts into a white or reddish frothy flag ; which in consequence of its internal vacuities, is then of a larger volume than it formerly was. In the mass, it breaks into ir- regular scaly pieces. The greatest quantity, and the finest earth of this kind in the world, is dug in the pits of Wavedon, near Woburn, in Bedfordshire. The Hampshire fullers' earth, is of a dusky brown, inclining to green, with veins of a feint yellow. Every fine clay that does not communicate a co- lour, is in general fit for the business of fulling ; even FUR 137 the excrements of hogs, mixed with human urine, are used for this purpose, in various woollen-manu- factories. The properties required in good fullers' earth are, that it shall carry off the oily impurities of the wool- len cloth, and at the same time thicken it, by causing the hairs or fibres to curl up. The best is composed of fine siliceous earth with clay, and a little calcare- ous earth. The real fullers' earth is found not only in England, but in Sweden, Crim Tartary, and Austrian Flanders. FURS, Fur skins. (F. Fourure ; G. Pelzwark> Rauchicark ; D. Bout, Boutwerk ; I. Pellice ; S. Pe- lesteria; P. Pelleteria; DA. Foeruark, Pelsvcrk ; Sw. Federwerk, Pelsverk; POL. Futro, Futromzna, Kos- macizna ; R. Machkaja ruchlad.) Before the discovery of Canada, the forests with which it was overrun, were little more than the ex- tensive haunt of wild beasts, which had multiplied prodigiously. The few men, who lived in those de- serts, having neither flocks of tame animals, nor any husbandry, fed and clothed themselves entirely with the wild beasts they destroyed. As soon as luxury had led us to make use of their skins, the natives waged a perpetual war against them ; which was the more active, as it procured them plenty, and a variety of gratifications, which they were unaccustomed to; and the more destructive, as they had adopted the use of our fire-arms. This caused a great quantity and prodigious variety of furs to be brought into the ports of Europe. We shall content ourselves with giving some account of those that are still in request. The OTTER is a voracious animal, which runs or swims along the banks of the lakes or rivers, com- monly lives upon fish, and when that fails, will feed upon grass, or the rind of aquatic plants. He is found in all those countries which abound in water and are temperate, but is more common and much 138 FUR larger in the northern parts of America, and his hair no-where else so black or so fine. He much resem- bles the beaver ; but the hair of the former is not half so long as that belonging to the latter, nor is the co- lour exactly the same ; for the hair of an otter, un- der the neck, stomach, and belly, is more greyish than that of the beaver, and it varies in many other respects. The POLE-CAT is in equal estimation with the ot- ter, among the Canadian huntsmen. There are three species of this animal; the first is the common pole- cat; the second is called the mink; and the third the stinking pole-Cat, because his urine, which he voids in his fright when pursued, is so offensive, that it in- fects the air to a great distance. Their hair is darker, more glossy, and more silky, than in Europe. The stinking pole-cat, also called skunk, has a long and shining fur, of a dirty white, mixed in some places with black; so that it appears to be shaded in parti- cular parts with black, without being either spotted or striped. The skin of the mink is blacker than that of^an otter, or almost any other creature ; " as black as a mink," being a proverbial expression in America. It is not, however, so valuable; though this greatly depends on the season in which it is taken. Its tail is entirely without hair. SQUIRRELS. There are five sorts of squirrels in North America; the red, the grey, the black, the variegated, and the flying. The two former are ex- actly the same as those of Europe; the black are somewhat larger, and, as to the, rest, differ from them only in colour. The variegated also resemble them in shape and figure, and are very beautiful ; being finely striped with white or grey, and sometimes with red or black. The American flying squirrel is much less than the European, being not above five inches long, and of a russet, grey, or ash colour on the back, and white on the tinder-parts. FUR 139 Even the RAT, in North America, is valuable for his skin. There are two sorts especially, whose skin is an article of trade. The one, which is called the opossum, is twice as large as an European rat. His hair is commonly of a silver grey, sometimes of a clear white. The female has a bag under her belly, in which, when pursued, she puts her young ones. The other, which is called the musk-rat, because his testicles contain musk, has all the characteristic qua- lities of the beaver, of which he seems to be a dimi- nutive ; and his skin is employed for the same pur- poses. The ERMINE, which is about the size of a squirrel, but not quite so long, has the same lively eyes and keen look ; and his motions are so quick, that the eye cannot follow them. The tip of his long and bushy tail, is as black as jet. His hair, which, in summer, is as yellow as gold, turns as white as snow in winter. This lively and light animal, is one of the beauties of Canada ; but, though smaller than the sable, is not so common. The MARTIN, is only to be met with in cold coun- tries, in the centre of the forests, far from all habita- tions. It is a beast of prey, and lives upon birds. Its fur is much esteemed, though far inferior to the spe- cies distinguished by the name of the sable. The whole body is covered with fur of a brownish sallow colour, and there are some in the more northern parts, which are black. The skins of the latter are of much greater value than the others ; and the finest among them are those that have the fur extending along the back, quite to the tip of the tail. The animal which the antients called LYNX, known in Siberia by the name of the Ounce, is only called the mid-cat in Canada, where it is smaller than in our hemisphere. This animal lives upon what game he can catch ; his flesh is known to be very white and well-flavoured, but he is hunted chiefly for the sake of his skin ; the hair of which is very long, and of a 140 FUR fine light grey, but less esteemed than that of the fox. The Fox is a carniverous and mischievous animal, a native of the frozen climates, where nature, afford- ing few vegetables, seems to compel all animals to eat one another. In warmer climates, he has lost much of his original beauty, and his fur is not so fine. In the north, it has remained long, soft, and full; sometimes white, sometimes brown, and often red or sandy. The finest of any, is that which is black ; but this is more scarce in Canada than in Muscovy, which lies further north, and is not so damp. There is a species of fox, found near the river Mississippi, having a fur of a fine silver grey, which is extremely beautiful. The BEAR, in a cold and severe climate, is most commonly black. As he is rather shy than fierce ; instead of a cavern, he chooses for his lurking-place the hollow rotten trunk of an old tree. There he fixes himself in winter, as high as he can climb, and seldom goes abroad in quest of food. He is forced out of his retreat, by its being set fire to; and as soon as he attempts to come down, he falls under a shower of arrows, before he can reach the ground. The In- dians feed upon his flesh, rub themselves with his grease, and clothe themselves with his skin. Bear- skins make a fur in great esteem, used in housings, on coach-boxes, &c. Of the skins of bears' cubs, are made gloves, muffs, and, in some countries, cloths. The WOLF. The wolves of North America are much smaller than those met with in other parts of the world. There are two kinds; one of a sallow colour, the other of a dun, inclining to black. The BEAVER is a harmless animal, and one which the savages hunt after with the greatest eagerness and cruelty. He is about three or four feet long, and weighs from forty to sixty pounds. His head, which he carries downwards, is like that of a rat, and his back raised in an arch above it, like that of a, mouse. FUR 141 He has webs at his hinder feet, with which he swims. The toes of his fore-feet are separate, and answer the purpose of hands; the tail, which is flat, oval, and covered with scales, he uses, to carry loads, and to work with ; he has four sharp incisors or cutting- teeth, Which serve him instead of carpenter's tools. It is the common want of subsistence and propaga- tion, that brings the beavers together in summer, to build their towns against winter ; and this is the time for attacking them. The beaver gradually decreases, and disappears in America, since the Europeans have been in quest of its skin. The skins vary, with the climate, both in colour and quality. In the same district, however, where the colonies of civilized bea- vers are found, there are some that are wild and soli- tary, called Earth- Beavers, many of which disclaim all communication with their natural element, and live entirely on land. Their coat is dirty, and the hair on their backs is worn off, by rubbing against the cave which they dig for their habitation. These wild beavers have not such sleek hair as those that live in societies; their furs are answerable to their manners. Beavers are found in America, from the thirtieth to the sixtieth degree of north latitude. There are but few towards the south ; but they increase in number, and grow darker, as we advance towards the north. In the territory of the Illinois, they are yellow and straw-coloured; higher up the country, they are of a light chesnut; to the north of Canada, of a dark ches- nut; and some are found that are quite black, which are reckoned the finest. Yet in this climate, the coldest that is inhabited by this species, some among the black tribes are quite white ; others, white speckled with grey; and sometimes with sandy spots on the rump. The value that is set upon them, depends upon the colour of their skins. Some of them are so little in esteem, that it is not thought worth while to kill them; but these are not commonly found. Beaver-skins are chiefly divided into three sorts; the 149 FUR new, the dry, and the fat. The new beaver, also called the white or Muscovy beaver, because it is generally exported to Russia, is that caught by the Indians in North America, in their winter hunting. It is the best for making fine fur, because it has lost none of its winter-hair by shedding. The dry beaver, sometimes called lean beaver, comes from the sum- mer-hunting, which is the time when these animals lose part of their hair. Though this sort of beaver be much inferior to the former, it may also be employed in furs, but is chiefly used in the manufacture of hats. The fat beaver, is that which has contracted a certain gross and oily humour, by the sweat exhaling from the body of the Indians, who wear it for some time. Though this sort be better than the dry beaver, yet it is used only for making hats. When the hair has been cut off from the beavers' skins, to be used in the manufacturing of hats, those skins are still employed by several workmen ; for in- stance, by the trunk-makers, for coverings; by the shoemakers, to put into slippers; and by turners, to make sieves for sifting grain and seeds. Besides these smaller furs, North America supplies us with skins of the deer, the mooze-deer, and the elk; the strong, soft, and warm skins of which ani- mals, make excellent garments, which are very light. The DEER of North America is higher and of a slimmer make than that of Europe. Its colour is of a deep fallow. The MOOZE-DEER is nearly about the size of the elk, and its horns almost as enormous as that animal's. Its tail is not above an inch long, and it has feet and legs like a camel. The hair of the mooze is a light grey, mixed with a blackish red. It is very elastic, for, though it be beaten ever so long, it will retain its original size. Its hide makes very good leather, be- ing thick and strong, yet soft and pliable. The ELK is shaped like a deer, but in bulk equal to a horse. Its hair, the colour of which is grey, and FUR 143 not unlike that of a camel, but of a more reddish cast, is nearly three inches in length, and as coarse as that of a horse. Its skin will dress as well as that of a buck. The fur-trade was the first which the Europeans carried on in Canada. It was begun by the French colony at Tadousac, a port situated thirty leagues below Quebec. About 1640, the town of Les Trois Rivieres, at the distance of twenty-five leagues above the capital, became a second mart. In process of time, all the fur- trade centered in Montreal. The number of Indians who resorted to that place, increased as the name of the French spread further. Whenever they returned with a fresh supply of furs, they always brought a new nation along with them. Thus, a kind of fair was opened, to which the several tribes of that vast continent resorted. The English grew jealous of this branch of wealth ; and the colony they had founded at New York, soon found means to divert the stream of this great circulation. They had infi- nite advantages, to give them the preference over their rivals the French ; so that they soon engrossed most of the trade, that had rendered Montreal so famous. The Hudson's Bay, is now the most considerable mart for the fur-trade. In 1670, the Hudson's Bay Company received a grant from Charles II. to carry on this trade exclusively. Throughout the whole of this extensive coast, there are only about a hundred soldiers, or factors, who live in four indifferent forts, of which York Fort is the principal. Their business is, to receive the furs, brought by the neighbouring savages, in exchange for merchandize. Though these skins be much more valuable than those found in more southern countries, yet they are cheaper. The savages give ten beaver-skins for a gun, two for a pound of powder, one for four pounds of lead, one for a hatchet, one for six knives, two for a pound of glass beads, six fora cloth coat, five for a petticoat. H4 FUS one for a pound of snuff, &c. As the beaver is the common measure of exchange, two otter-skins and three martins, are required instead of one beaver. The fur SEAL-SKIN, a species of which is caught on the coast of South Georgia, and of the islands near the Antipodes, was discovered, about the year 1796, to produce a fur nearly equal to the beaver, so as al- most to supersede the use of it. This discovery has been claimed by Mr. Thomas Chapman, who has established his pretensions before a committee of the House of Commons, where it was proved to be avail- able for the manufacture of hats, shawls, and even superfine cloths. Previous to this discovery, the fur seal-skin sold for little more than half a-crown, which is now sold from seven to thirty-two shillings per skin; and, in consequence of the increased value, more ships are fitted out for the southern fishery. The skins most esteemed, are those whose fur is glossy, and as free as possible from hair or grease. FUSTICK. (F. Bois jaune- G. Gelbholz; D. Geelhout, Stockvischhout ; I. Legno giallo; S. Palo amarillo ; P. Jataiba; DA. Guulhoft; Sw. Gelb- holts ; POL. Farbierskie drzewko ; R. Sheltoe derewe.) Fustick is a yellow r wood, that grows in all the Caribbee islands, in Brasil, and other parts. It is used in dying yellow. It makes one of the most valuable trees of the island of Jamaica ; the excel- lence of its timber considered, as well as its use in dying. Its fruit, in size, colour, and shape, resem- bles the white mulberry; it is in perfection in March and April. The leaves of this shrub bear some re- semblance to those of the elm-tree, but are some- thing smaller, and more green. Fustick is used for the dying of gold and olive colours ; which, however, are not durable. GAL G. GALANGAL. (F. Galanga; G. Galgant; D. Galinga; I. Galanga; S. Galanga; P. Galanga; DA. Galange; Sw. Galgarot; POL. Galgan, Kalkan\ R. Kalgan ; L. Galanga,} Galangal is the name of two roots, a greater and a smaller; of which the smaller is by far most esteemed. The lesser Galangal is a small and short root, of an irregular figure, and of the thickness of a man's little- finger, seldom met with more than an inch or two long. It should be chosen full and plump, of a bright colour, very firm and sound, and of an acrid and in- supportably hot taste. The larger Galangal is brought to us in pieces of two inches or more in length, and of nearly an inch in thickness, and has a much less acrid and pungent taste than the smaller kind. It is to be chosen in the largest, soundest, and heaviest pieces. The lesser Galangal is esteemed an excellent sto- machic, cephalic, cardiac, and uterine. The greater Galangal possesses the same virtues, but in a less degree. GALLS, Gall-Nuts. (F. Galles, Noix deGalles\ G. Gallapfel; D. Galnooten ; I. Galle, Galluzze; S.Agallas; P. Galhas, Bugalhos; DA. Galdcebler; Sw. Galliipplen ; POL. Galas; R. Tschernilnue orcs- chki ; L. Gallce.} Gall, in natural history, denotes any protuberance, or tumour, produced by the puncture of insects, on plants and trees of different kinds. These galls are of various forms and sizes, and no less different with regard to their internal structure. Some of them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow upon, whilst others are soft and spongy; the first being H6 GAM termed gall-nuts, and the latter berry-galls, or apple- galls. The general history of the gall is this. An insect of the fly-kind, is instructed^ by nature to take care for the safety of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody substance, where they will be defended from all injuries: she for this purpose wounds the leaves or tender branches of the tree ; and the lacerated ves- sels, discharging their contents, soon form tumours about the holes thus made. The external coat of this excrescence is dried by the air, and grows into a figure which bears some resemblance to the bow of an arch, or the roundness of a kernel. This little ball receives its nutriment, growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of the tree; and is what we call the gall- nut. The worm hatched under this vault, draws its subsistence from the gall, till it becomes a nymph ; from which state of existence it changes into a flyj and then disengages itself from its confinement. Oak-galls, put, in a very small quantity, into a solution of vitriol in water, 'though but a very weak one, give it a purple or violet colour : which, as it grows stronger, becomes black; and on this property depends the art of making our writing-ink, as also the art of dying, dressing leather, and other manu- factures. The best oak-galls come from Aleppo ; these are neither quite round nor smooth like the other sorts, but have several tubercles on the surface. Galls have an austere, styptic taste, without any smell : they are very strong astringents, and, as such, have been sometimes made use of, both internally and ex- ternally. GAMBOGE. (F. Gomwe gutte ; G. Gummigutt- I). Guile gom, Gutla gamba, Gitte gom ; I. Gomma- gutta; S. Oommagufa, Guta gamba; P. Gomarom, Ooma guta, Gutta gamba ; POL. Gummi gotta; GEN J47 R. Gnmmi gut ; L. Gummi guttie, Gutta gamba^ Oambogia.) Gamboge is a concreted vegetable juice, partly of a gummy, and partly of a resinous nature ; obtained from the cambogia gutta, a tree which is a native of India. It is chiefly brought to us in large cakes or rolls from Cambaja, in the East Indies. The best sort is of a deep yellow or orange colour, breaks shin- ing, and free from dross : it has no smell, and very little taste, unless kept in the mouth for some time, when it impresses a slight sense of acrimony. As a pigment, it makes a beautiful yellow water- colour, and is chiefly used for maps. Dr. Lewis says, that it makes a beautiful and durable citron yellow stain upon marble, whether rubbed in substance on the hot stone, or applied, as dragon's blood some- times is, in form of a spirituous tincture. When it is applied on cold marble, the stone is afterwards to be heated, to make the colour penetrate. As a medicine, gamboge evacuates powerfully both upwards and downwards, GENEVA, Gin. (F. Gencvre ; G. Genever , D. Genever.} There was formerly sold in the apothecaries* shops, a distilled spirituous water of juniper; but the vulgar being fond of it as a dram, the distillers supplanted the apothecaries, and sold it under the name of Geneva. The common kind, however, is not made from ju- niper berries, but from oil of turpentine. Two ounces of oil of turpentine, and three handfuls of bay-salt, are mixed with ten gallons of ordinary malt spirits, and drawn off by a gentle fire. To make the best kind, the distillers take three pounds of juniper ber- ries, ten gallons of proof-spirit, and four gallons of water, and draw it off by a gentle fire. The best geneva, called Hollands geneva, is im- ported from Holland, and is chiefly manufactured at 143 GIN Schiedam, a village near Rotterdam. It is supposed they use the same ingredients as prescribed in the last-mentioned recipe; only, instead of malt spirits, they use French brandies. They have also manufactories of geneva, at Os- tend, Antwerp, and other parts of Flanders and Bra- bant ; but the geneva of these countries is greatly inferior to that coming from Rotterdam, and worth nearly one-third less in this market. The geneva most in estimation, is that which is of a pale colour, and bears the nearest resemblance to water. GENTIAN. (F. Gentiane; G. Enzian, Gentian-, .Genliaan; I. Genziana; S. Jenciana ; P. Gen- ciana; DA. Entian, Sodrod; Sw. Bagsota\ POL. Goryczka ; R. Enzian ; L. Gentiana.} The gentiana lutea, or common gentian of the shops, is a plant that affects most places, but more commonly found in Burgundy, the Alps, Pvreneans, and the mountainous districts of Germany : and the roots, the only part used in medicine, are generally broughtto England from the latter country." They are of a yellowish brown colour, and a very bitter taste, sometimes as thick as the arm, but more commonly divided into branches, no bigger than the thumb of a man. They should be chosen dry, new, of a moderate thickness, and free from earth. That which is dried by the air, ought to be held as far pre- ferable to that dried in the oven ; and the two sorts are easily distinguished by the colour; the former being of a golden yellow within, and the latter some- what blackish. This root stands at the head of the stomachic bit- Infusions of gentian, flavoured with orano-e- peel, are sufficiently grateful. GINGER. (F. Gmgembre- G. Ingwer, Ir u. Gembe? ; 1. Zmzero, Zenzovero, Zinzibo, GIN U9 giovo; S. Jenjibre, Agengibre ; P. Gen^ibre ; DA Ingesaer; Sw. Ingefara ; POL. Jm&en R. Jubir'; L. Amomum zingiber.} Ginger is the dried root of the amomum zingiber, or ginger-plant, which is a native of the East, but also of the West India islands. The Indians who were found by the Europeans in .the American islands, most generally made use of it; but their consumption in this, as in every other article, was so small, that nature afforded them a sufficient quantity, without the assistance of cultivation. The usurpers grew passionately fond of this spice: they ate it in the morning to sharpen their appetite ; they served it up at table, preserved in different ways ;" they used it after meals to facilitate digestion, and at Was an an- tidote against the scurvy. The old world adopted the taste of the new, and this lasted, till the price of pepper, which had for a long time been extremely high, was reduced. Ginger then fell into a kind of contempt, and its culture was dropped almost every- where, except at Jamaica and Barbadoes. When the roots of the ginger-plant are jointed and spread in the ground, they put out many 'green, red- like stalks in the spring, which arise to the height of two feet and a half, with narrow leaves. The flower- stems are naked, ending with an oblong scaly spike. From each of these scales is produced a single blue flower. It attains its full height, and flowers about August or September, and fades about the close of the year. When the stalk is entirely withered, the roots are in the state proper for digging. This is generally performed in the months of January and February. After being dug, they are picked, cleansed and gradually seethed or scalded in boiling water ; they are then spread out, and exposed every day to the sun, till sufficiently dry, when they are packed in bags for the market : this is called black ginger. The manner of scalding the roots is as follows : a large pot or copper is fixed in the field, or some convenient 150 GIN place, and kept full of boiling water ; the picked gin- ger, being divided into small parcels, is laid in bas- kets, and plunged alternately in the water, where it is suffered to stay for a space of ten or fifteen minutes; it is then spread on a platform for drying ; but care is taken during the process, to change the water, as soon as it becomes much impregnated with the juices of the root. White ginger differs but little from the black sort; the difference arising wholly from the methods of curing. The white ginger is never scalded, but, in- stead of this easy process, the roots are picked, scraped, and washed, one at a time, and then dried; all which requiring much pains and time, and being- made more agreeable to the eye, the price of the white is much higher at market, though not supe- rior in its properties to the black. When the root is intended for a sugar-preserve, it is dug while tender, and full of juice; the stems at this time rarely exceed five or six inches in height; the root is carefully picked and washed, and afterwards scalded, till sufficiently tender: is is then put into cold water, and peeled and scraped gradually. This operation may last three or four days, during which it is commonly kept in water, and the water frequently shifted, as well for cleanliness, as to extract more of the native acrimony. After this preparation, it is laid in unglazed jars, and covered with a thin syrup, which in two or three days is shifted, and a richer put on, which is sometimes again removed for a third. In the year 1738, Jamaica exported 20,933 bags, and 817 casks of ginger, which is the greatest quan- tity ever shipped from it in one year. At present, the export is very small, the consumption of this article having very materially decreased, in Great Britain as well as in the foreign markets, to which it used to be re-exported. GLA 151 GINSENG. (F. Ginseng; G. Kraftwurzel, Gin- seng ; D. Ginseng, Ginseni ; I. Ginseng ; S. Jin-seng; P.Ginsaoi DA. Ginseng; Svv. Ginseng ; L. G Y w- sew.o 1 , Pana.1.) Ginseng is the root of a plant, growing upon the confines of Tartary and China, near the great wall; it is also found in Virginia, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Canada. It is like a small carrot, but not so taper at the end; sometimes single, sometimes di- vided into two branches. It has then some resem- blance to the inferior parts of man, whence it has ac- quired the name of ginseng in China, and that of - rentoguen among the Iroquois. The taste of the root is bitterish. Its stem, which is renewed every year, leaves as it falls off, an impression upon the neck of the root ; so that the number of these impressions indicate the age of the plant; and its value increases, in proportion to the age. The ginseng root, is generally allowed to be a strengthaner of the stomach, and a purifier of the blood. Its transparency is given to it, nearly by the same process which the orientalists employ" for the salop. This prepared ginseng is in such high esti- mation among the Chinese, that they never find it too dear. The government sends out ten thousand Tartar soldiers every year, to gather this plant ; and every one is obliged to bring home two ounces of the best ginseng gratis, and for the rest they are paid its weight in silver. GLAUBER'S SALT. (L. SahmrabUe Glauberi.) Is a neutral salt, which will be produced when the vitriolic acid is saturated with the salt of soda. It dissolves easily in water, and shoots into long and beautiful crystals, which contain a large quantity of water; in consequence of which, they undergo the aqueous fusion, when exposed to heat. This kind of GLU salt was, some years since, universally recommended as a purgative, and from its manifold virtues, was in- titled by its inventor sal mirabile ; but of late its use has much decreased in many places. ^, R C lle f rte >' G ' .ym; . Colla; S. Co/a; R Co/a, Co//a, Grife; DA. Lim, Lum-Svr.Lim; PoL.Kley; R. Kiel; L. Gluten. Colla,) Glue is a tenacious viscid matter, which serves as a cement, to bind or connect things together. The common or strong glue, is chiefly used by car- penters, joiners, cabinet-makers, &c. It is made of skins of animals, as oxen, cows, calves, sheep, &c. ; and the older the creature is, the better is the glue made of its hide. Indeed, whole skins are rarely used for this purpose, but only the shavings, parings, or scraps of them, or the feet, sinews, &c. That made of whole skins, however, is undoubtedly the best; as that made of sinews is the very worst. * In making glue of parings, they first keep them two or three days in water : then, washing them well out, they boil them to the consistence of a thick jelly which they pass, while hot, through ozier baskets, to separate the impurities from it; and then let it stand some time, to purify it further. When all the filth and ordures are settled to the bottom of the vessel, they melt and boil it a second time. They next pour t into flat frames or moulds, whence it is taken out pretty hard and solid, and cut into square pieces or cakes. They afterwards dry it in the wind, in a sort of coarse net; and at last string it, to finish its drying. Glue is considerably improved in quality, by keep- ing after it is made ; and it is of prime quality, if it swell considerably without melting, when steeped for three or four days, and then resumes its former dry- ness, when taken out of the water. Of this commodity there is a very large exporta- GOL tion from England : the English glue being univer- sally allowed to be the best in Europe ; partly from the excellency of the materials, and partly from the skill of the manufacturers. Next to this is the Flanders glue. In both countries it is made by the tanners. In France it is a separate trade, and the glue generally of an inferior quality. GOATS' HAIR. (F. Poll de Chtvre; G. Zie- gen-haar; I. Pelo di Capra; S. Pelote\ P. Pdo de Capra.} In Anatolia, the capital of which is Angora, they breed the finest goats in the world; and their hair, which is of a dazzling white, is almost as fine as silk, and nine inches in length. The mohair yarn is made of it, and it is worked into very fine stuffs, particu- larly camhlets. This hair is imported into England, from Smyrna and Aleppo. GOATS' SKINS; see SKINS. GOLD. (F. Or; G. Gold ; D. Goud; I. Oro, S. Oro; P.Owro; DA. Guld- Sw. Quid-, POL. Z/o- to ; R. Soloto\ L. Auram.) Gold is the most valuable, perfect, and indestruc- tible of all metals ; when pure, it is of a bright yellow colour. Platina excepted, it is also the heaviest of all known bodies, its gravity being to that of water, as 19,280 and 19,290 to one. Gold is unalterable by air or water. It never contracts rust, like other me- tals. The action of the fiercest furnace-fires occa- sions no alteration in it. Kunckel kept gold in a glass-house furnace for a month, without the loss of a single grain. Its ductility can be brought to such a degree, that, according to Cronstedt, one grain of it may be stretched out, so as to cover ninety-eight Swedish ells, equal to 63.66 English yards of silver wire. But Gallerius asserts, that a grain of gold may 154- GOL be stretched in such a manner, as to cover five hun- dred ells of wire. Its malleability is not inferior to its ductility. Magellan tells us, that its surface may be extended by the hammer 159,092 times. Europe is principally supplied with gold from Chili and Peru in South-Amertta. A smaller quantity is likewise imported from China, the island of Sumatra, and the coast of Africa. The principal gold-mines of Europe are those of Hungary, and, next to them, the mines of Saltzburg. The value of gold to that of silver, varies, as gold is more or less plentiful. It was antiently as twelve to one; and, in the times of Ccesar, as seven and a half to one, on account of the quantity of gold he brought to Home. Glauber, an eminent chemist, says, that there is not any sand or stone, but gold may be procured from, lime-stone only excepted: the misfortune is, that the expense of separating it much surmounts the profits. Gold is chiefly found in mines ; though there is some also found in the sand of rivers, which is in form of a dust, and called gold-dust. It is distinguished by the variously coloured substances wherewith it is mixed ^ but it is also found separate from any matrix. It is particularly dispersed through such masses of sand as are of a yellowish red, or violet colour ; and in this state it is so universally diffused through every kind of earth, that Bergman thinks it the most com- mon of all the metals, iron alone excepted. If one hundred pounds of sand contain twenty-four grains of gold, the separation is said to be worth attending to. In Africa, five pounds of sand often yield sixty- three grains of gold, or even more; and the heaviest sand, which is often black or red, contains the most. Gold is brought down with most of the large rivers, even those which do not take their rise in mountains where gold is found. Gold is soluble by aquaregia, being a composition GRA 155 of the nitrous and marine acids. This solution is corrosive. It gives a violet colour to the fingers, or any animal matter. If the solution be evaporated and cooled, yellow transparent crystals will be formed ; but if the evaporation be carried too far, the acids with which the gold is combined, may be driven from it by heat alone, and the gold will be left in the state of a yellow powder, called calx of gold. All the me- tallic bodies which dissolve in aqua regia, precipitate gold from it. Mercury and copper throw down the gold in its bright metallic form ; the other, in that of calx or powder. Vitriol of iron, though it precipitate gold, yet has no effect upon any other metal ; hence it affords an easy method of separating gold from all other metals. GRAIN; see CORN. GRAINS OF PARADISE, Grains of Guinea. (F. Graincs -de Paradis, Maniwuette, Maniquette, Malaguette ; G. Paradieskorner ; D. Guinces grein ; I. Melcghelta ; S. Mala-gueta, grana del paraiso ; P. Malaguetta de Gidne, Graa do paraizo ; DA. Para- diskorn ; Sw. Paradiskorn ; R. Raiskie ziarnka ; L. Amomum grana paradisi.) Ginger, cardamoms, and Grains of Paradise, are produced only by different species of the same genus of plants. The grain of Paradise species, is a native of the East Indies, -but grows also on the coast of Guinea. The fruit containing the grains, is about the size of a fig, divided into three cells, in each of which are con- tained two roots of small seeds, of a reddish brown colour without, and white within, like cardamoms, only larger. They are somewhat more grateful, and considerably more pungent than cardamoms. 166 GRA GRAN AXES, Garnets. (F. Grenats ; G. Grana- ten ; D. Granaaten\ I. Granati ; S. Granadas ; F. Granadas, Granates ; DA. Granater ; Sw. Granaler ; POL. Granatki; R. Granatnoi-kamen ; L. The granate is a genus of fossils, ranked among the siliceous earths; but, according to Magellan, analo- gous to gems. The two principal species are, the coarse-grained and the crystallized garnet. The coarse-grained garnet, is a heavy hard stone, crystallizing in form of polygonal balls, mostly of a red and reddish brown colour. It is found of a red- dish brown, and whitish or pale yellow, in different parts of Sweden. The crystallized garnet is reckoned among the pre- cious-stones ; but varying in colour, and the form of its crystals, more than any of them. Sometimes it is of a deep and dark red colour ; sometimes yellowish and purplish ; sometimes brown, black, or opaque. It is inferior both in lustre and hardness to the other gems. When pure, and free from blemishes, it is little inferior in appearance to the Oriental ruby, though only of a middling degree of hardness, between the sapphire and common crystal. It is found of va- rious sizes, from that of a pin's head to an inch in di- ameter. The most esteemed is the Syrian garnet, which is of a fine red, inclining to purple, very transparent, but less beautiful than the Oriental amethyst. Sometimes the garnets have a yellow colour ; in which case they obtain the name of hyacinths. Like other gems, they are divided into Oriental and Occi- dental ; though this means, in fact, nothing else but more or less valuable ; the finest stones being always called Oriental, wherever they come from. Some very fine ones are found in Bohemia ; they are also met with in Hungary, at Pyrna in Silesia, S. Sapho in the Canton of Bern, in Spain, and in Norway. GUI 157 GRANITE. (F. Gmnit; G. Granit ; D. Granit- steen ; I. Granito ; S. Granites; P. Granites ; DA. Granitsteen ; Sw. Granit, Grasten; L. Gra- m'fo.) The granite is a stone of great hardness, giving fire with steel, not fermenting with acids, and slowly and imperfectly calcinable in a great fire. There are three species of granite : 1. The hard white granite, with black spots, commonly called Moor-stone ; this is a very valuable kind, consisting of a beautiful congeries of very variously constructed coloured particles. It is much used for the steps of public buildings, and on other occasions, where great strength and hardness are required. 2. The hard red granite, variegated with black and white, and found in immense quantities in Arabia, and particularly' in Egypt, along the coast of the Red-Sea. 3. The pale whitish granite, variegated with black and yellow. GREEN VITRIOL; see COPPERAS. GUAJAC WOOD ; see LIGNUM VIT.E. GUINEA PEPPER. (L. Capsicum.) This genus of plants has various species, of which the capsicum tetragon um, commonly called bell-pep- per, produces fruit fit for pickling. The pods are from an inch, to an inch and a half, and two inches long ; very large, swelling, and wrinkled. They must be gathered before they arrive at their full size, while their rind is tender. To get out the seeds, they must be slit down on one side ; after which, they should be soaked two or three days in salt water, then taken out, drained, boiling vinegar poured on them, and closely stopped down for two months. Then, to make them green, they should be boiled ia the vinegar. They are the wholesomest, and best 158" GUM pickle in the world, and require no addition of any spice. The capsicum frutescens, commonly called Bar- bary pepper, is used for making cayan butter, cayenne pepper, or pepper-pots, chiefly used by the inhabi- tants of America, and esteemed by them as the best spice. The following is a recipe for making pepper- pot. Take the ripe seeds of this sort of capsicum, and dry them well in the sun ; then put them into an earthen or stone pot, mixing flour between every stratum of pods, and put them into an oven, after the baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly dried ; after which, they must be well cleansed from the flour, and reduced to a fine powder: to every ounce of this, add a pound of wheat flour, and as much leaven as is sufficient for the quantity intended. After this has been properly mixed and wrought, it should be made into small cakes and baked, then cut into small parts, and baked again, that they may be as hard and dry as biscuits; which, being powdered and sifted, is to be kept for use. This spice is pro- digiously hot and acrimonious, setting the mouth as it were on lire. GUM. (F. Gomme ; G. Gummi; T). Gom, Gom- me ; I. Gomma ; S. Gonta; P. Comma. Goma ; DA. Gummi; Sw. Gummi; POL. Gummi ; R. Gummi; L. GummL] Gum is a concreted vegetable juice, which tran- sudes through the bark of certain trees, and hardens upon the surface. The chemists allow only those to be properly gums, which are dissolvable in water ; those which dissolve only in spirits, they call resins; and those of a middle nature, gum-resins. GUM-AMMONIAC, is a concrete resinous substance, usually in large masses, composed of little lumps or tears of a milky colour, but, on being exposed to the -air, soon changes to a yellow hue. GUM 1<39 We have no certain account of the plant which pro- duces this juice; but the seeds usually found among the tears, resemble those of the umbelliferous class. It has been alleged, that it is an exudation of a (spe- cies of the ferula, growing in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior parts of Egypt : another species of which produces the assafostida. It is brought to Great Britain from the Red Sea, by some of the ships be- longing to the East-India Company, traclino- to those parts. Gum-Ammoniac has a nauseous sweet taste, fol- lowed by a bitter one, and a smell somewhat like that of galbanum. It is in some measure soluble in water and vinegar, with which it assumes the appearance of milk; but the resinous part, amounting to about one half, subsides ori standing. In medicine it is used as a deobstruent. GUM ANIME, is a kind of gum-resin, distinguished by the names of Oriental and Occidental. The Oriental, or Ethiopian gum-anime, is brought to us in large, dry, and solid masses of irregular" fi- gure, and very uncertain colour; sonie greenish, some reddish, some brown, and some of the colour of myrrh, but all moderately pellucid, of a tolerably compact texture, light and easily powdered, of a fra- grant smell, very inflammable, and of a resinous and somewhat bitter taste. This is the true gum-anime, and now very rare. The Occidental gum-anime, which now is univer- sally sold instead of the Oriental sort, is of a fine yellow whitish, or red colour, between frankincense and mastich ; and, in the purest pieces, transparent. It is moderately heavy, friable, and somewhat olea- ginous to the touch ; extremely fragrant, especially when burnt, and of resinous acrid and somewhat bitterish taste. It is brought to us from many parts of America, particularly New Spain and the Brasils. The Occidental gum exudes between the piincipal roots of the hymenaea, or locust-tree, and makes the 160 GUM finest varnish that is known, superior even to the Chi- nese lacca. It is likewise used as an article of the materia medica. It is not certain, whether the Ethio- pian Gum-anime comes from the same tree. GUM ARABIC, is thenameofagum, which distilsfrom a species of acacia, called Mimosa Nilotica, growing in Arabia and Egypt. It is very common among us, but little is to be met with genuine. That is account- ed the best, which is in largish white globular pieces, and almost of a white colour. This gum is gathered in vast quantities from the trees growing in Upper Egypt, and in Arabia Petraea, near the north bay of the Red Sea, and at the foot of Mount Sinai, whence they bring the gum Thus or frankincense, so called from Thur or Thor, a harbour in the north bay of the Red Sea, near Mount Sinai ; thereby distinguishing it from the gum-arabic, which is brought from Suez, another port of the Red Sea, not far from Cairo. These two gums, though coming from the same tree, are different, in so far as the gum Thus is more pellucid, white, or of no colour at all ; the gum-arabic is less pellucid, and more of a brown or dirty yellow colour. Some inferior gum-arabic is also brought from the East Indies. As an example of the nutritive quality of gum- arabic, the following instance may serve. The Abys- sinian caravans, on their journey to Cairo, in which they travel over terrible deserts, so that their progress is as uncertain, and depends as much on the weather, as a voyage at sea ; having, in 1750, consumed their provisions, when they had still two months to travel, were obliged to search for something among their merchandize, wherewith to support life in their dis- tress. In this extremity, they had recourse to gum- arabic; upon which, above one thousand persons lived for two months, and the caravan arrived safe at Cairo, without any great loss of people. Gum-arabic is one of the most considerable articles GUM lol of commerce that pass through Egypt. Every vear in the month of October, two or three small caravans oi the Arabs, from the neighbourhood of Par and Mount Sinai, arrive with about 70,000 pound weight of the gum. Those Arabs are very much in the way ebasing their goods, with an intermixture of extra- neous matters. Many caravans arrive from different parts of Africa in the months of June and July, with three different sorts of this same gum. A quantity comes also from Habbesch, by theVayof D Jidda and fcuez, which, though inferior in quality, passes ail into Jiurope, where annually 500,000 pounds weight of this article are imported. GUM BENJAMIN, or BENZOIN, is a brittle, brown- ten gum-resin, of an exceedingly fragrant smell ; it is obtained from the styrax benzoin, a tree which is a native of the East Indies, particularly of Siam and Sumatra. At the age of six years, or when its trunk acquires about seven or eight inches in diameter, it is deemed sufficient for affording the benzoin. The bark then cut through longitudinally, or somewhat ob- liquely at the origin of the principal lower branches, from which the drug exudes in a liquid state, and by exposure to the sun and air soon concretes; when it is scraped off from the bark with a knife or chissel he quantity of benzoin which one tree affords' never exceeds three pounds, nor are the trees found to sustain the effects of these annual incisions, longer than ten or twelve years. The benjoin which issues first trom the wounded bark is the purest ; bein^ soft extremely fragrant, and very white ; that which is less esteemed, is of a brownish colour, very hard, and mixed with various impurities. In Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the East, the coarser kinds of Ben- jamin are consumed for fumigating and perfuming the temples, and tor destroying insects. The benzoin commonly brought to us, is in lar^e brittle masses, composed partly of white, partly of yellowish or light brown. 162 GUM This resin has very little taste, impressing on the palate only a slight sweetness ; its smell, especially when rubbed or heated, is extremely fragrant and agreeable. Its principal nse is in perfumes, and as a cosmetic ; and it approaches much in virtue and fra- grance to storax and balsam of Tolti. GUM COPAL, is a gum of the resinous kind, brought from New Spain ; being the concrete juice of a tree, called rhus copallinum, which grows in these parts. It comes to us in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, and of different shades as to colour, from a light yellow to a deep brown. Some pieces are whitish and semi-transparent. To the smell, it is more agreeable than frankincense, but has not, in water, the solubility common . to gums; so that it is improperly called gum. It chiefly serves for making a beautiful transparent varnish, when dis- solved in linseed oil, and the solution diluted with spirit of turpentine. Gum-elastic ; see India-rubber. GUM GALBANUM, is a gum issuing from the stem of an umbelliferous plant, growing in Persia and many parts of Africa. The juice, as brought to us, is semipellucid, soft, and tenaceous, of a strong, and to some, unpleasant smell, and a bitterish warm taste. The better sort is in pale coloured masses, which, on being opened, ap- pear composed of clear white tears. Galbanum agrees in virtue with gum ammoniacum, but is generally accounted less efficacious in asth- mas, and more so in hysterical complaints. It is an ingredient in several officinal compositions. Gum Gamboge ; see Gamboge. GUM GUAJACUM, POCK WOOD GUM, improperly called a gum, is a solid, but very friable resin, much resembling common resin, except that it is of a dusky greenish hue, and sometimes of a reddish colour. It is very acrid and pungent to the taste, and, when burnt, of a fragrant smell. It is procured from the GUM 163 guajacum, or lignum-vitse tree, by jagging the body of the tree in May. It exudes copiously from the wounds, though gradually ; and when a quantity is found accumulated upon the several wounded trees, hardened by exposure to the air and sun, it is gathered and packed up for exportation. This gum has been suspected, sometimes, to have been sophisticated by the negroes, with the gum of the manchineal tree, to which it bears some similitude ; but it is easily dis- tinguished, by dissolving a little in spirit of wine, or rum. The true gum imparts a whitish or milky tinge ; but the manchineal gives a greenish cast : and this is still further distinguishable, by pouring a lit- tle of the same tincture into fair water, which takes from the guajacum, almost immediately, the com- plexion of milk. This gum is in demand for its virtues in venereal taints, rheumatisms, &c. Gum Lac ; see Lac. Gum Mastich ; see Mastich. Gum Myrrh ; see Myrrh, Gum Olibaniun ; see Frankincense. GUM OPOPANAX, is a gum-resin, of a tolerably firm texture, usually brought to us in granules or drops, and sometimes in large masses, formed by a number of these, connected by a quantity of substance of the same kind ; but these are usually loaded with extraneous matter, and greatly inferior to the pure loose kind. The drops or granules of the fine opopa- nax, are on the outside of a brownish red colour, and of a dusky yellowish or whitish colour within : they are of a somewhat unctuous appearance, smooth on the surface, and are to be chosen in clear pieces, and of a strong smell and acrid taste. This gum is obtained from the pastanaca opopa- nax, a plant which grows spontaneously in the warmer countries, and bears the cold of this. It is obtained by means of incisions made at the bottom of the stalk of the plant, whence the juice gradu- 161- GUM ally exudes ; and, by undergoing spontaneous con- cretion, assumes the appearance under which we have it imported from Turkey and the East Indies. Its virtues are those of an attenuating and aperient medicine. GUM SAGAPENUM. (D. DA. Sw. Sagapen; F. Gomme Segapin ; P. Sagapine.} A concrete juice brought from Alexandria, Cither in distinct drops or run together in lar^e masses. It is outwardly of a yellowish appearance, internally somewhat paler, and clear like an herb, grows soft on being handled, and sticks to the fingers : its taste is hot and biting, and the smell disagreeable : this gum is of considerable use in pharmacy. GUM SAND AHA c, is a dry and hard resin, usually met with in loose granules, of the bigness of a pea, a horse-bean, or larger; of a pale whitish yellow, trans- parent, and of a resinous smell ; brittle, very inflam- mable, of an acrid and aromatic taste, and diffusing a very pleasant smell when burning. It is produced from a species of the juniper, and the cedrus bacci- fera. It flows spontaneously from these trees in hot countries; but the natives promote its discharge, by making incisions in the bark. What is obtained from the cedar is more fragrant, especially when burnt; but.it is seldom to be met with separate, both being mixed together under the common name of Sandarac. Sandarac is used in medicine. A powder, called pounce, is also made of it; and, dissolved in oil of turpentine or linseed, or in spirit of wine, it is used as a varnish. GUM SEXEGAI,, is a gum extremely resembling gum arabic. It is brought to us from Egypt, and from the country through which the river Senegal runs, in loose or single drops, but these are usually much larger than those of the gum-arabic : sometimes it is of the bigness of an egg, and sometimes much larger ; the surface is very rough and wrinkled, and appears GUM 165 much less bright than the inner substance, where the masses are broken. It has no smell, and scarcely any taste. It is probably produced from a tree called by Dale, mimosa Senegal. The virtues of it are the same with those of the gum-arabic ; but it is rarely used in medicine, unless mixed with the latter : the dyers and other artificers consume the great quantities of it that are annually imported hither. The negroes dissolve it in milk, and in that state make it a principal ingredient in many of their dishes, and often feed- on it thus alone. Gum Thus; see Gum Arabic. GUM-TRAGACANTH, or GUM-DRAGON. The tra- gacanth-plant grows in the East Indies ; it has a thick short ligneous stalk, greatly branched out on every side. The young branches are woolly, and closely garnished with winged leaves, the foot-stalks of which terminate in acute thorns. The roots creep over the surface of the ground, and, when wounded, yield a gum, which is called tragacanth. The best sort ought to be clear and sweet ; the inferior sorts have a reddish cast. Gum-tragacanth possesses all the virtues ot gum- arabic, and in a higher degree. GUM HEDER. (G. Eplmbarz; D. Vulkttrs; Vandelscharf; F. Vesin hedere ou de laLienne; \ Gommecedera-, SP. Gomme Yedra\ P. Gommedera) This gum exudes from the iv^tree, whence it is col- lected by the peasants in Languedoc, Italy, and I ro- vence. When genuine, this gum is of a bright trans parent colour, deeper than hyacinth, and approachm to garnett ; when reduced to powder it is of a safli yellow, and its taste and smell are agreeably aromat the gum is of a caustic nature, and is therefore ployed as a depilatory. 1IA1 H. HAIR. Those small fine threads, that grow out of the skin of human beings, and most four-legged animals, are called hair; but upon the latter, they frequently bear the denomination of shag and wool. HUMAN HAIR ; (F. Cheveux ; G. Haare, Mcn- schcnhaar ; D. Hair; I. Capclii nniani ; S.Cabellos; P. Cabellos ; DA. Haar ; Sw. Har ; POL. Wlosy; R. Wolossii ; L. CapellL Human hair, makes a considerable article of com- merce, the goodness of which consists in its being neither too coarse, nor too slender. Flaxen hair is particularly valuable. The scarceness of white hair, has put the dealers in that commodity upon a method of reducing other colours thereto; which is done by spreading the hair to bleach on grass, like, linen ; and afterwards washing it out in lixivious water ; which ley, with the force of the sun and air, brings the hair to so perfect a whiteness, that the most experienced person may be deceived therein. There is also a method of dying hair with bismuth, which renders such white hair as borders too much upon the yellow, of a bright silver colour. Hair which does not curl or buckle naturally, is made to do so, by first boiling and then baking it. The hair of the growth of the northern countries, is valued much beyond that of the more southern ones: as Italy, Spain, and the South of France ; the latter being generally of a darker colour than the former. Great quantities of hair are imported in Great Britain, from France, Spain, Germany, and South America. There are many frauds in the hair-trade, human HEL 167 hair being frequently adulterated with the hair of camels, goats, and horses. HAIR OF ANIMALS; F. Poll; G. Haare von T/iieren ; D. Hair ; I. Pelo S. Pelo ; P. Pello ; DA. ffaar; Sw. Har ; R. Scherst. The hair of several animals also make an article of commerce; as horse, co\v, and ox, buffalo, camel, goats, elks, deer, beaver, hare, coney, &c. Hair used by upholsterers, ropemakers, sadlers, bricklayers, plasterers, hatters, &c. The hair of cattle, left to putrify on cornlands, proves a good manure. See Furs, Hides) Skins, Goatshair, Mohair. Camel-hair comes from several parts of Asia and Africa, and is fit, when spun, for the making of stuffs, or mixed with other hair, for making of hats, and particularly for pencils in painting. HELLEBORE. (F. Hellebore; G. Nieswurzi D. Niesi&ortel; I. Elleboro ; S. Vedeganibre\ P. Hellebore; DA. Nt/scrod ; Sw. Prustrot ; POL. Cic- mierzyca ; R. Tschemeriza ; L. Helleborm.} There are two sorts of hellebore, the black and white. Black hellebore, called in England, Christmas rose, has a dark-coloured root, furnished with abun- dance of little fibres ; its stem green, its leaves den- ted, and its flowers of a carnation hue. White hel- lebore, called in England, neesewort, has a whitish root, beset with fibres of the same colour ; its leaves being broad, at first green, and afterwards of a yel- lowish red. From the middle of the leaves rises a stem two or three feet high, which separates into branches, bearing a considerable number of small flowers, like stars. In each kind, the roots only arc used, which are to be chosen large and fair, furnished with big filaments: those of the white, tancoloured without, and white within ; and those of the black, blackish without, and brownish within; dry, clean, and of a sharp disagree- able taste. 168 HEM They act as purgatives ; but so violently, that they are now only retained for the farcy in horses, and for the scab in sheep: but the chief use of white helle- bore, is in form of a sternuatory powder. HEMP. (F. Chanvre; G. Hanf; D. ffennip, Kennip; I. Canape; S. Canamo ; P. Canhamo ; DA. Jffamp ; Sw. Hampa ; POL. Konop ; R. Konapli, Konopel: L. Cannabis.} The cannabis sativa, or hemp plant, is cultivated on account of its external filaments, which constitute the hemp, used for cordage, canvass, cloth, &c. and the. seeds abound with oil. This plant is annual ; it rises quick, into a tall, slender sort of shrub; its leaves, growing by fives or sixes from the same pedicle, are a littled jagged, and yield a strong smell, which affects the head. The culture and management of hemp, makes a considerable article in agriculture, requiring divers operations, as pulling, watering, beating, and swing- ling. It is sown in May, in a wasm, sandy, rich soil; and is of itself sufficient to destroy weeds, on any ground. The first season for pulling hemp is usually about the middle of August, when they begin to pull the male plants, called finable hemp. But the safer me- thod is to pull it a fortnight or three weeks later, when the male plants have fully shed their farina or dust, without which the seeds will prove only empty husks. At the second pulling, a little after Michael- mas, the female plants, called karle hemp, are taken out of the ground. This karle hemp is laid in the sun to dry, and then housed, for the seed to be thrashed out. The female hemp alone produces seed, to perpetuate the kind. The operations of harling, watering, breaking, swingling, and heckling hemp, are very much like those practised in the dressing of flax. The hemp imported in this country, chiefly comes HER 169 from Russia. Amongst' it, the Riga hemp deserves the preference, which according to the quality, is di- vided in rhyne, outshot, pass, and codilla hemp. Next follows the importation from St. Petersburg, consisting of clean, outshof, half-clean, and codilla. There is also an inferior kind of hemp coming from Konigsberg, and divided in rhyne and schoken hemp. The Italian, known in this country by the name of Bologna hemp, is of very prime quality, but comes too dear for the consumption of the northern parts of Europe. The best hemp should be clean, soft, tender, of long staple, and a sound palish yellow colour, neither green nor red. HERRINGS. (F. Harengs; G. Hermge- D. Haringen ; I. Annghe ; S. Arenques ; P. Arenques; D A. Sild; Sw.SV//; POL. Sledzie; R. Seldi.} The clupea harengus, or common herring, has the upper jaw furnished with a serrated mystache, and it is shorter than the under jaw ; the branchiostege membrane has eight rays ; a scaly serrated line runs along the belly, from the head to the tail. The name of herring, comes from the German heer, " an army/' to express their numbers. The meat of the herring is every where in great esteem, being fat, soft, and delicate, especially if it is dressed as soon as caught ; for then it is incomparably better than on the next clay. Herrings are found from the highest northern lati- tudes, yet known as low as the northern coasts of France. They are met with in vast shoals on the coast of America, as low as Carolina. In Chesapeak Bay is an annual inundation of those fish, which cover the shore in such quantities, as to become a nuisance. We find them again in the seas of Kamtschatka, and probably they reach Japan. The great winter ren- dezvous of the herring, is within the arctic circle : 170 HER there they continue for many months, in order to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning ; the seas within that space swarming with insect food in a far greater degree, than those of our warmer latitudes. This mighty army begins to put itself in motion in spring. They begin to appear off the Shetland Isles in April and May; these are only the forerunners of the grand shoal, which comes in June: and their O appearance is marked by certain signs, such as the numbers of birds, like gannets and others, which fol- low to prey upon them: but when the main body ap- proaches, its breadth and depth is such, as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It is divided into distinct columns of five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth ; and they drive the water before them, with a kind of rippling : sometimes they sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes, and then rise again to the surface ; and in fine weather reflect a variety of splendid colours, like a field of the most precious gems. The first check this army meets in its march south- ward, is from the Shetland isles, which divide it into two parts ; one wing takes to the east, the other to the western shores of Great Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their numbers ; the former proceeds towards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of herrings : they then pass through the British Chan- nel, and after that in a manner disappear. Those which take towards the west, after offering them- selves to the Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, proceeds to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a second interruption, and are obliged to make a second division : the one takes to the western side, and Is scarcely perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of the Atlantic*, but the other, that passes into the Irish sea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of most of the coasts that border on it. These brigades, as we may call them, which are thus HER 171 separated from the greater columns, are often capri- cious in their motions, and do not shew an invariable attachment to their haunts. This instinct of migration was given to t rino-s, that they might deposit their spawn in warmer seas, that would mature and vivify it more assuredly, than those of the frozen zone. It is not from detect of food that they set themselves in motion, for they come to us full of fat, and on their return are almost universally observed to be lean and miserable. W hat their food^is near the pole, we are not yet informed ; but in our seas, they feed much on the omscus man- nus, a crustaceous insect, and sometimes on their own fry. They are full of roe in the end of June, and con- tinue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when they deposit their spawn. The young herrings, be- o-in to approach the shores in July and August, and arc then from half an inch to two inches long. Thouu-h we have no particular authority for it, yet as very few youno- herrings are found in our seas during winter, it seems most certain, that they must return to their parental haunts beneath the ice. Some of the old herrings continue on our coast the whole 6 The Dutch are most extravagantly fond of this fish when it is pickled. A premium is given to the first buss that arrives in Holland, with a cargo of her- rhio-s There is as much joy among the inhabitants on!ts arrival, as the Egyptians shew on the first over- flowing of the Nile. Flanders had the honour of in- venting the art of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen,of Biverlet, near Sluys, hit on this useful expedient: from him was derived the name pickle. Beauklen died in 1397- The Emperor < held his memory in such veneration, for the service he did to mankind, as to do his tomb the honour of a visit. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, gives to 172 HER the Scots a knowledge of great antiquity in the her- ring fishery. It appears that the Dutch, as early as the year 836, were in the habit of purchasing salt fish from the natives; but these imposing upon the strangers, the Dutch learned the art, and took up the trade, afterwards of such immense emolument to them. Numerous have been the attempts, at different periods, by bounties to secure this treasure to our- selves, but without much success. This fishery is so valuable to the Dutch, that ac- cording to Sir William Monson, who lived in the reign of King James I. they vended annually, Lasts L. sterling. At Konigsberg, Elbing, Stet- tin and Dantzig, between 30 and 10,000 worth 620,000 In Denmark, Norway, Swe- den and Livonia, - - - 10,000 160,000 In Russia, 1,500 27,000 At Stade, Hamburg, Bremen and Embden, - - - - 6,000 100,000 In Germany, ----- 22,000 440,000 In the Spanish Netherlands, 9,000 160,000 At Rouen, .500 10,000 making together 89,000 1,517,000 at twelve barrels the last, containing twelve thousand herrings ; independent of a vast quantity consumed in Holland itself, to the amount of several hundred thousand pounds more. Herrings are cured either white or pickled, or they are cured red or smoked. For curing the white or pickled herring, one of the ship's crew appointed for this office, as soon as the fish are taken, cuts them open ; taking out the guts, and every thing but the milts and roes : then washing them in fresh water, they are left for the space of twelve or fifteen hours, in a strong brine, made of fresh water and sea salt. When taken out, they are well drained, and put in HID 173 barrels; taking care to dispose them evenly in layers, pressing them -well down, and strewing a layer of salt both at top and bottom. In the curing of red herrings, they lay them in brine as the pickled herring ; only they let them lie therein double the time, because they are to take all their salt here, whereas the other kind takes half its salt in the barrel. When taken out of the brine, they string them by the head on little wooden spits, and thus hang them in a kind of chimney, made for the purpose, exposing them to the smoke of brushwood until sufficiently smoked and dried; which commonly takes twenty -four hours. The goodness of red herrings consists in being large, fresh, fat, oily, suft, and pliable, their outside of a yellow gold colour, their roes or milts within them, and well salted, smoked, and barrelled. The white herrings cured by the Dutch, were, till lately, in the greatest repute. The goodness of this com- modity consists in its being fat, fleshy, firm, white, salted the same time it is taken, with good salt, and well barrelled. The Irish herrings, and principally those of Dublin, are scarcely inferior to the best her- rings of Rotterdam or Enchuysen. The Scotch her- ring is not so well prepared, gutted, salted, and bar- relled as the Dutch, and yet its taste is excellent. A considerable number of herrings are also fished on the coasts of England and Wales, particularly off Yar- mouth, and the coast of Cardigan ; but they are not so proper for exportation as the others ; the fish being too dry and fresh for the market. HIDES. (F. Peauj,\ Cuirs; G. Haute ; D.Hui- den ; I. Cuoia ; S. Pollejos^ Pieles; P. Pelles; DA. Under, Huuder ; Sw. Hudar ; POL. Skory ; R. Koshi.) Hides are the skins of beasts ; but the denomina- tion is particularly applied to those of large cattle, as .174 HID bullocks, cows, buffaloes, horses, &c. See SKINS; also BUENOS AYRES and BUFF HIDES. Raw hides are still a considerable object in the Egyptian and South American trade: about 80,000 hides of buffaloes, camels, cows, and oxen, are ex- ported yearly. Nearly 10,000 go to Marseilles, and a still greater number to Italy. The buffaloe hides being thicker and heavier than the others, are chiefly trans- ported to Syria. As the pastures of Lower Egypt are excellent, the hides of its cattle, in consequence of their being so well fed, arc of the very best quality. Great numbers of buffaloes are also in North Ame- rica. They are larger than an ox, and their head is so full of hair, that it falls over their eyes, and gives them a frightful look. There is a bunch on their back, which begins at the haunches, and increasing gradually to the shoulders, reaches on to the neck. The whole body is covered with long hair, or rather wool, of a dun or mouse colour, which is exceedingly valuable, especially that on the fore-part of the body ; being proper for the manufacture of various articles. The hide makes a considerable article of exports from South America. There are hides of several denominations, accord- ing to their state and quality. Raw or green hide, is that which has not under- gone any preparation ; being in the same condition as when taken off the carcase. There are also hides dried in the hair, and dry salted hides generally. Salted hide, is a green hide, seasoned with sea-salt and alum, or salt-petre, to prevent its corruption. Most of the hides imported from Holland and France, are so prepared. Tanned hides are further prepared by the tanner, by paring off the hair, and steeping them in pits of lime and tan. Curried hides, are those which, after tanning, have passed though the curriers' hands, and have thus re- ceived their last preparation, so as to be fit for use. HON 175 HONEY. (F. Mid; G. Honig; D. Honig, Ho- ning; I. Mele; S. Miel; P. Mel; DA. Honning ; Sw. Honing; POL. Mzorf ; R. Mec? ; L. Me/.) Honey is a sweet sort of juice, sucked from vege- tables by the bees, and reposited in their combs. Every swarm of bees consists of three different in- sects ; the queens or females-, the drones or males, and the working bees. The latter are by far the most numerous; they are neither male nor female ; and it is their business to gather the honey and wax. With regard to the honey, there arc parts in flowers, called the nectarium, foil of a sweet fluid; it is to these the bees resort, to gather the liquor, which afterwards becomes honey. They make use of their trunks, to conduct the fluid to their mouths, and from the gullet it falls into the first stomach, which, while it is filled with honey, is in shape like an ob- long bladder. When a bee has sufficiently filled its first stomach, it returns back to the hive, where it throws up the honey into a cell. There is reason to believe, that the honey does not return out of the body unchanged, because the first stomach is capable of contraction, in the same manner as that of ruminat- ing animals. Some of the honey-combs are always left open for common use, but many others are stopped up, till there is a necessity of opening them. Each of these are covered carefully with wax, so close, that the covers seem to be made at the same time. This practice tends to preserve the honey in the some de- gree of fluidity as they design it should have. In the frost of winter the bees are benumbed, and lie in heaps, as close to each other as possible. But as soon as it thaws, and especially when the sun shines, they are rouzed out of their lethargy. How- ever, with the return of their activity, they are also under necessity of returning to take nourishment. Hence the milder the winter is, the more honey they consume, and they are sometimes in danger of a fa- 1/6 HON mine. A very severe winter, and one that is too mild, are therefore equally dangerous. In France, a good swarm of bees, in two years, will yield nearly thirty pounds of honey ; and they are still more profitable, in countries that are covered with flowers the greatest, part of the year. There are two sorts of honey, the white and the yellow. The white or virgin honey, trickles out spontaneously from the comb. These they break, soon after they are made, and lay them upon hurdles or mats of osier, or on linen cloth, fastened at the four corners to as many posts, and then an excellent white honey will fall from the combs, and grow hard in a short time. Afterwards they put it into glazed earthen pots. Some press this honey out ; but then it is not so agreeable, for it will taste of the wax. The best sort of French virgin honey, is that of Lan- guedoc, called honey of Narbonne. It should be new, thick, granulated, of a clear transparent white colour, of a soft and somewhat aromatic smell, and of a sweet and lively taste. If it be very pure, it is al- most as hard as sugar-candy ; and what renders it so superior, are the many aromatic flowers which grow in those parts, and from which the bees gather their honey. It is always observable, that the honey made in mountainous countries, is more highly flavoured than that of low grounds. The honey made in the spring, is more esteemed than that gathered in the summer ; that of the summer, more than that of the autumn. There is also a preference given to that of young swarms. Yellow honey is obtained, by pressure, from all sorts of honey-combs, old as well as new ; and ev.en of those whence the virgin honey has been extracted. They break the combs, and heat them with a little water in basons or pots, keeping them continually stirring; then they put them into bags of thin linen cloth, and these they put in a press, to squeeze out the honey. The wax stays behind in the bag, though HOP 177 always some small particles of it pass through with the honey. Honey is the production of most countries; yet more abundant in the island of Candia, 'and in the greater part of the islands of the Archipelago, than any where else. The Sicilian honey seems to be particularly high-flavoured, and, in some parts of the island, even to surpass that of Minorca; which, no doubt, is owing to the quantity of aromatic plants with which that country is overspread. This honey is gathered three times in the year; in July, August, and October. It is found by the peasants, in the hollows of trees and rocks. The country of the lesser Hybla is still, as formerly, the part of the island that is most celebrated for this article. Considerable quantities of honey are produced by the wild bees in the woods of North America. The bee is an insect, supposed to have been carried from the old to the new world. The Indians, in North America, call it the English fly; and it is only found near the coasts. Their numbers are continu- ally increasing in those climates ; and their honey and wax become daily a more considerable branch of trade. To judge from Niebuhr's travels, great attention is paid in Egypt to the rearing of bees. Below Mansu- ra, he met on the Nile, twenty boats laden with bee- hives, which they were bringing up, to make honey on the .banks of the river : in each boat were two hundred hives; four thousand in all. The antients made much more use of honey than we do at present, because sugar was not then known; but in some cases, it is still preferred in medicine. HOPS. (F. Houblon ; G. Hop/en ; D. Hoppe ; I. Luppoli, Bruscandoli ; S. Oblou; P. Luparo, Lupulo; DA. Humle^ Humble; Sw. Humla; POL. Chmiel ; R. Chmel; L. Humulus, Lupulus.} Hops are of the reptile kind of plants; the flowers N 178 HOP of which form a principal ingredient in malt liquors. They are of a greenish yellow, resembling the flowers of the female elm, and grow in a kind of bunch ; they contain a blackish bitter grain, which is the seed of the hop. Neither the male nor female flower pf the hop- plant has any corolla; the cup of the former is com- posed of five leaves ; that of the latter, of only a sin- gle leaf, very large, and of an oval figure. They reckon four kinds of hops : 1 . The wild garlic hop; 2. The long and square hop; 3. The long white; and 4. The oval hop. The first of these is not worth cultivating. The second is a good hop, but, looking generally red towards the stalk, it will not fetch so good a price. The long white hop is the finest and most productive of all, arid will grow very well toge- ther with the oval hop. Hops delight in a deep, rich, light ground. Some plant them in March and April; but the month of October seems preferable, because they will then be strong and vigorous against summer. Plants about eight or ten inches 'long, with three or four joints or buds each, should be chosen. The land must be dug or plowed well, and laid very even. A thousand hills may be made in an acre of ground, and six or seven plants set on every hill. If planted in October, the plants may be covered over an inch deep: but in spring they must not be buried. Every winter or spring, the hops ought to be dressed ; which consists in pulling down the hills, and cutting away all the new and superfluous roots. The time for poling the hops, is when they appear above ground ; and to receive more of the sun's rays, they ought to lean towards the south. When the hops have got two or three feet above the ground, the next business is to tie them to the proper poles; two or three strings being sufficient fora pole. Hops blow in the latter end of July ; in the begin- ning of August they bell; and they are sometimes PIOR 179 ripe at the beginning of September, sometimes later. When theylDegin to change colour, are easily pulled to pieces, and their seeds look brown within them, they are ripe ; and they are then to be gathered as quickly as possible, for the least blast of wind will hurt them at this time. Care should be taken, to dry the hops as fast as they are picked; for, in lying undried, they are apt to heat and change colour. The drying of the hops is the most material part of their manufacture ; for if ill-dried, they lose their appearance and agreeable fla- vour. It is performed in a kiln ; or if the quantity be but small, they will dry better, by being laid thin upon a floor, and turning them often. Hops are packed either in bags or pockets ; the lat- ter are always higher in price than the former, partly on account of the better hops being generally packed in pockets, partly on account of the real tare or weight of the linen, which, in bags of two and a half cwt. weighs twenty-five, and in pockets of one and a half cwt. five pounds; whereas in trade there is no allow- ance made for tare. HORNS. (G. Des; Sw. Horn; D. Hoorn; F. Corne ; I. Cuerno.} A hard substance growing on the heads of quadru- peds. Horns make a considerable article in the arts and manufactures. Ox and cow horns, softened by the fire, serve to make lanthorns, combs, handles for knives, ink-horns, tobacco-boxes, &c. Those most esteemed are the mottled. They are sold, large and small together, 120 for one hundred. ISO JAL I. & J. JALAP. (F. Jalap ; G. Jalapwurzel \ D. Ja- lappe; I . Sciarappa ; S.Jalapa-, P. Jalappa \ DA. Jalaprod\ Sw. Jalaprof, Purggerrot ; POL. Jalapa; R. Jalap ; L. Jalappa.) Jalap is the root of the Convolvulus Jalappa. It derives its name from Xalapa, a town of Mexico, in the environs of which it grows plentifully. * It is also found among the sands of Vera-Cruz. This plant resembles, in appearance, the convolvulus of our hedges. Its stem is climbing, angular, arid covered with a slight down. Its leaves, alternately disposed, are rather large, sometimes entire and cordiforrn, some- times divided into several lobes, more or less distinct. The flower is campaniform, whitish on the outside, and of a dark purple within. Its root, which is the only part in use, is tuberose, large, lengthened out into the form of a French turnip, white on the inside, and full of a milky juice. The weight of the roots is from twelve to twenty pounds. They are cut into slices, in order to dry them. They then acquire a brown colour, and a resinous appearance. Their taste is rather acrid, and excites a nausea. The best Jalap is close, hard, weighty, not easily broken, inflammable, brown, and abounding mostly with black circular striae. Slices of bryony root, are said to be sometimes mixed with those of Jalap, but may easily be distinguished, by their whiter colour, and less compact texture. Jalap is an active and violent purgative, and is given only in small doses. There are seven thousand five hundred quintals of Jalap consumed annually in Europe; which cost 4.5,000/. sterling. JAS 181 JAPAN EARTH, Cachou. (F. Cachou,Terre du Japan-, G. Japanische Erde, Katcchu; D. Japaan- sche aarde ; I. Cacciu, Catto, Terra caitu, Terra Ja- ponica; DA. Japonishjord; Sw. Japanisk jord; L. Terra Japonica.) This is a medicinal and aromatic substance, of a dark purple colour; very austere upon the palate, seeming to melt, like bole, in the mouth, and leaving somewhat of a sweetish taste behind it. It is much esteemed asastrengthenerofthestomach, and sweet- ener of the breath, after having been reduced to an impalpable powder, and mixed with ambergris and gum-draganth, and so made up into pastils. The nature of this drug is not yet ascertained ; some giving it a place among medicinal earths, others reckoning it among gums, and others again consider- ing it a composition of several drugs. The best cachou should be of a dark red colour on the outside, and a clear red within, not burnt, and very glossy. JAPAN WOOD. (G. Japanholtz ; D. Japan- /tout; DA. Japanholtz; Sw. Jappan; F. Bois de Japan ; I. Legno de Japan; S.Japan; P. Japan.} A species of wood, similar in every respect to the Brasii wood, and employed for the same purposes. The tree which produces it, is found in South Ame- rica, Japan, and Cochin-China. The japan and Cyprus tree are more commonly met with in Japan than any other part, and are employed not only in the construction of edifices and ships, but in the lesser articles of cabinets, chests, and boxes. JASPER. (F.Jaspe; G.Jaspis; D. Jaspis; I. Diaspro ; S. Jaspe ; P. Jaspe ; D A. Jaspis ; Sw. Jas- pis ; POL. Jaspid kamien; R. Jaschma ; L,. Jaspis.) Jasper is a sort of precious-stone, chiefly opaque, but sometimes transparent in certain parts, not very 182 IND different from the agate, excepting that it is more soft, and does not take so good a polish. This stone is of various colours; as red, green, white with blue stripes, purple, &c. What is now most valued, is the green spotted with red. It is found in all parts of the East-Indies, likewise in America, and several parts of Europe. In Misniaand Bohemia, it is met with of a red colour, in such quan- tities, and such large pieces, that they manufacture it into images. JESUIT'S BARK ; see PERUVIAN BARK. JEW'S PITCH ; see BITUMEN JUDAICUM. ICELAND MOSS. (G. hlandisches Moos; D. Yslandich JMos ; DA. Islands Mos\ Y. Lichen ou Mousse d' Is land.} A species of lichen, or liverwort, which grows on many mountains in Iceland: it consists of erect leaves of about two inches high, of a stiff substance when dry, but soft and pliant when moist. INDIAN ARROW-ROOT; Maranta. It has a stalk and leaf, exactly like the plant called Indian shot; but the flower differs ; that of the latter being a beautiful scarlet, and that of the former milk white. The leaves fall in December, and the root is fit to dig in January. It is mealy, but may be kept perfectly sound for many years, as no insect will meddle with it. Indian arrow-root, of any opaque or dark particles, that will adhere to any metallic substance, rs not esteemed equal with that which is of a pure white. * INDIAN CORN, Maize. (F. Bled de Turquie ; G. Turkisch Korn, Mays ; D. Turksch koorn ; I. Gra~ no Turco o Sicilian^ Grano d' India; S. Trigo de Indias, Trigo de Turquia ; P. Trigo de Turquia ; DA. Turkish hvcde; Sw. Turkiskt hvede; R. Tureskoichljeb.} 1ND 183 Before the discovery of America, the Indians in New England, and many other parts of America, had no other vegetable besides the zea mays, or maize, for making their bread : and at this time, there is much of the bread of the country made of this corn. In Italy and Germany also, they cultivate maize as a food for the poor inhabitants. The ear of the maize yields a much- greater quan- tity of corn than any of our corn-ears; one ear or spike generally consisting of about six hundred grains, which are placed closely together in rows, to the number of eight or ten, and sometimes twelve. The grains are usually yellow, but sometimes they are red, blueish, greenish, or olive-coloured, and sometimes striped and variegated. There are three or four va- rieties of maize in different parts of America. That; of Virginia is very tall and robust, growing to seven or eight feet high; that of New England is shorter and lower ; and the Indians further up the country, have a still smaller sort in common use. The stalk of the maize is joined, like the sugar-cane ; it is very soft and juicy, and the juice is so sweet and saccha- rine, that a syrup, as sweet as that of sugar, has been often made of it ; and things sweetened with it, have been found not distinguishable from those done with sugar. It has not yet been tried, whether it will crystallize like sugar, but in all probability it will. The stalk of this plant, if cut up before too much dried, is an excellent winter fodder for cattle. The husks, about the ear, are usually separated from the rest, and make a particular sort of fodder, not inferior to our hay. To reduce the grain into flour, it is carefully parched in an oven, and then put into mortars, and sifted. The English have contrived in America, by mixing the flour into a stiff paste, either by itself, or with rye or wheat meal, fermenting it with leaven or yeast, and baking it in a hot oven, to make good bread of it. They have likewise found out a method 1S4 IND of making good beer, either of the bread, or by malt- ing the grain. INDIAN RUBBER, Lead Eater, Gum elastic. (F. Goimne elastique, Cuoutchou G. Gtimmi Elasti- cum; D. Veerkragtig hars ; I. Comma o Resina elas- tica; S. Resina elastica, Vie, Vice; P. Borracha, Re- sina do Para, -Resina elastica das borracJiinhas ; DA. fiergummi, Elastisk Gummi; Sw. Elastisk kada; L. Gummi elasticum.} The syringe tree, from which the resinous sub- stance, called gum elastic, is procured, has not yet been fully examined by the botanists ; the younger Linnaeus calls it Jatropha Elastica. It is a tree of moderate size, the trunk of which is smooth and yel- lowish, the leaves pretty large, the flowers white, and the fruit yellow and rather round, but angular; with- in it there are kernels as large as filberts, which have a bitter taste. This substance oozes out, under the form of vege- table milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is ga- thered chiefly in time of rain, because it then flows most abundantly. It first is white and viscous, after- wards becomes yellow, and lastly of a leaden colour, though rather blacker, which it always remains. The means employed to indurate and inspissate this juice, are kept a profound secret. Some affirm, that it thickens and hardens gradually, by being exposed to the air; and that as soon as it acquires a solid con- sistence, it manifests a very extraordinary degree of flexibility and elasticity. By means of moulds of clay, they give the juice any desired figure. They first spread it over the mould, and as fast as one layer is dry, another is added, till the vessel be of a proper thickness : the whole is then held over a strong smoak of vegetables, or fire, whereby it hardens into the tex- ture and appearance of leather; and before the finish- ing, while yet soft, it is capable of having any im- pression made on the outside, which remains ever 18 j after. When the whole is done, the inside mould is picked out. Among us, gum elastic is used, by surgeons, for injecting liquids, and by painters and others, for rub- bing out black-lead pencil marks, &c. Gum elastic may be dissolved in ether ; which solution daubed over moulds, is used among us, for making tubes, ca- theters, and other instruments. Dissolved in spirit of turpentine, and mixed with nut or linseed oil, it is fit for the purposes of varnish, or the like. The In- dians manufacture it into boots, bottles, flambeaux, a variety of figures for use and ornament, and also a kind of cloth. INDIGO. (F. Indigo; G. Indigo ; D. Indigo ; l.lndaco; S.Aml; P. Anil; DA. Indigo; Sw. In- digo ; POL. Indijch ; R. Krutik, Indigo ; L. Indigo.) Indigo is a blue dye, prepared from the leaves "and small branches of the Indigofera Tinctoria. This plant is a native of Indostan, and was first transplanted to Mexico, afterwards to the Antilles, and lastly to South Carolina, and Louisiana. It rises in a single ligneous brittle stem, about two feet high, covered with a grey, ash-coloured bark towards the bottom, green in the middle, and reddish at the extremity. The leaves, ranged in pairs around the stalk, are oval, smooth, soft to the touch, furrowed above, and of a deep green on the under side. At the extremity of each branch arise clusters of reddish flowers, suc- ceeded by a small rounded pod, full of cylindrical, shining, and brownish seeds, [t is commonly sown in spring, and moisture causes this plant to shoot up in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of about two months, when it begins to flower: it is then cut, and cut again at the end of every six weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lasts about two years, after which term it degenerates. It ought to be gathered in with great precaution, for fear' of makin^ the farina that lies on the leaves, and is very valuable^ fall off by shaking it. 186 IND The plant, when gathered, is first thrown into the steeping vat, till that is three parts full. A number of rails are then laid the whole length of the vat, and strongly wedged down, by means of timbers, which are made to press upon them, to prevent the plants from buoying up, when water is put upon them. The softest water answers best for the purpose, and as much is let in as the plants will imbibe, covering it with a surface of four or five inches. In this state it is left to ferment. In twenty-four hours it grows so hot, that no one can bear the hand in it; and if the process goes on well, it will bubble like water in a pot upon the fire, and shew a tinge of a very dusky blue. Great nicety is required in drawing off the vvater at the critical moment, for if drawn too soon, great part of the pulp will be lost: if too late, the whole may be spoiled. From the steeping-vat, the liquor is drawn off into the second vat, called the beater or mortar. It is then found impregnated with a very subtile earth, which alone constitutes the blue substance, and which must be separated from the useless salt of the plant; to effect which, the water is forcibly agitated, for the space of fifteen or twenty minutes, and if then it ap- pears curdled, or as if full of small grains, a quantity of clear lime- vvater is gradually let in, to augment and precipitate the colouring particles; the stirring and beating the liquor being still continued, until the grain by degrees passes from a greenish cast into a fine blue. If the dye should be agitated too long, the parts would form a new combination, and the salt re-acting on the dregs, would excite a second fermen- tation, which would alter the dye, spoil its colour, and make what is called burnt indigo. AVhen the dye has been sufficiently agitated, the dregs must be left to settle at the bottom of the tub, which they will do in eight or ten hours. The clear vvater is then very gently drawn off out of the beating vat, through the plug-holes, fixed for that purpose, a few inches above the bottom. IND 137 The blue dregs remaining at the bottom, having acquired the consistence of a thick muddy liquid, cocks are then opened, which draw it off into the third vat, called the settler. After it is still more cleared, of much superfluous water, in this last tub, it is then carefully strained through a horse-hair sieve, to render the indigo perfectly clean, and then put into coarse linen bags, eighteen inches long, and twelve wide, which, for the space of five or six hours, are suspended in the shade, to drain out the water. The mouths of the bags are then well fastened, and put into a press, to be entirely freed from any remains of water. The press is a box of five feet in length, two and a half in width, and two in depth, having holes at one end, to let off the drained water. In this press the indigo becomes a fine stiff paste, and when taken out of the bags, it is spread upon a plank, and cut into squares of two inches each, which are ranged under cover, in a free air, and when thoroughly dry, it is packed for exportation. Indigo maybe tried, by dissolving a little in a glass of water; if pure, it will mix equably with the li- quor, but if otherwise, it will separate, and fall to the bottom. By fire, the pure indigo will be entirely consumed, while the extraneous particles will re- main. The small, or dust of indigo, is most subject to adulteration. The principal faults in indigo arise; first, from too long a putrefaction in the steeping-vat, which gives it a black, dirty hue; secondly, from too little beating, and then it has a coarse grain, and a greenish colour; thirdly, from too much beating, which always imbues it with a black cast ; fourthly, from a mixture of the particles of lime, when the lime-water has not been sufficiently depurated, or when too large a quantity of this water has been let in, which renders it greyish and hard; fifthly, for want of lime-water, or when none is used, by which neglect it never comes to a due granulation, nor settles well, and deposits only an inconsiderable part of the substance. 188 IND The antients procured all their indigo from the East Indies ; but in modern times, the cultivation of it seems to be principally fixed, besides the East In- dies, in Mexico, St. Domingo, Louisiana, Carolina, &c. The indigo shrub is cultivated also through all Arabia, and several wild species thereof grow over that country. ^The Spanish indigo, known under the name of Guatimala, a province of Mexico, is the most perfect of all the different kinds of indigo; then comes the growth of Caraccas, a Spanish town in Terra Firma. The East India indigo stands next to it in goodness, and that coming from the British possessions is supe- rior to the productions of Manilla, Java, &c. After the East India indigo, follows the growth of St. Do- mingo, then that of Louisiana, and lastly the produce of Carolina. About the year 1620, only 350,000 Ibs. of indigo were computed to be consumed annually in Europe. In later times, Great Britain and Ireland alone, have consumed 800,000 Ibs. per annum, and were reckon- ed to pay France 200,000 1. stg. yearly, for what they bought from her. The face of this trade has now to- tally changed. Jamaica, about the year 1672, fur- nished a considerable supply of indigo, but a duty of 3s. 6d. per pound being laid on, the planters were obliged to drop it, and the French islands, particu- larly St. Domingo, supplied not only Great Britain, but the greater part of Europe. A wiser parliament, after the manufacture began to thrive in Carolina, took off the 1 duty, and granted a bounty of 6d. per pound, on all indigo raised in the American colonies, and imported into Great Britain ; so that about 1747 the Carolinians remitted about 200,000 Ibs. to Great Britain, and the culture of this production has since continued to increase. The culture of indigo has in later times been so wonderfully increased, and the quality so improved in the British East Indies, that now seven-eighths of all the indigo brought into the IPE 189 European market, come from the East Indies ; and is found in quality fully equal, and in some respects superior, to Spanish indigo. There are four descriptions of indigo, viz. blue, purple, violet, and copper. The best, or blue indigo, should be of a fine clean texture, and of a bright blue colour, especially when broken : it should also be very light and soft, should break easily, swim on water,and burn freely. Purple is known by the deepness of its colour, and should be free from sandy or pale pieces. Violet is of a dark colour, approaching to red ; the best has a rich appearance. Copper, or red indigo, is chiefly used in our own manufactories : very little is exported. The manner in which the Guatimala and Caraccas indigo is procured, is worthy of remark. In these beautiful countries, where every estate is from fifteen to twenty leagues in extent, a part of this large space is annually devoted to the culture of indigo. For this purpose, it is sufficient to burn the shrubs which cover the grounds, and carelessly to pass the plough once over them. This is done in the month of March, a season when jt very seldom rains in these delightful climates. A man on horseback then scat- ters the seed of the plant, in the same manner as we sow corn in Europe ; after which, no one pays any attention to this valuable production, till the time of gathering it. As great quantities of indigo are in this manner choaked by the weeds, the Spaniards accord- ingly gather less indigo from an extent of three or four leagues, than others do from a few acres of ground carefully managed ; and this indigo, though superior to any other, is not so perfect as it might be. Europe receives thereof annually about 6000 cwt. IPECACUANHA. (F. Ipecacuanha! G. Ame- rikanische Brechwurzel, Ruhrwurzel ; D. Braakworstel Roodenloopwortel ; I. Ipecoacanna; S. Ipecacuana ; 190 IRQ P. Cipo de camaraS) Ipecacuanha; DA. Brcekrod ; Sw. Krdkrot; L. Radix Ipecac uannce.'} Ipecacuanha is the root of a species of psychotria. Of this root there are principally two kinds, the one is ash coloured or grey, and brought from Peru ; the other is brown, and brought from the Brasils. The former is a small wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great variety of figures, with a small white woody fibre, that runs in the middle of each piece. The cortical part is compact, brittle, looks smooth and resinous upon breaking, has very little smell, and the taste is bitterish and subacrid. The brown sort is smaller, and somewhat more wrinkled than the former; of a brown or blackish colour without, and white within. The ash-coloured or grey ipecacuanha, is that usually preferred. A third sort, called the white ipecacuanha, from its colour, has also been distinguished. It is woody, has no wrinkles, and no perceptible bitterness in taste. This, though taken in a large dose, has scarcely any effect at all, and is therefore by some called bastard ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe about the middle of the last century ; but it did not come into general use till about the year 1686, and is now used as one of the safest emetics, and frequently pre- scribed in dysenteries. The roots of a kind of apocynium (dogs-bane), are too frequently sold instead of ipecacuanha; but if the marks above laid down, particularly the ash colour, brittleness, deep wrinkles, and bitterish taste, be carefully attended to, all mistakes may be pre- vented. IRON. (F.Fcr; G.Eisai; D. Yzer; l.Ferro; S. Hierro ; P. Ferro ; DA. lern ; Sw. lern; POL. Ze- lazo ; R. Sheleso ; L. Ferrum, Mars.) Iron is one of the hardest and most useful, as well mo 191 as the most plentiful metals ; of a livid whitish colour inclining to grey, susceptible of a fine polish, and ca- pable of having its hardness more increased or dimi- nished by chemical processes, than any other metal. Next to tin, it is the lightest of all metals, losing be- tween a seventh and eighth part of its weight, when immersed in water. When very pure, it may be drawn into wire, as fine as horse-hair ; but it is much less capable of being beaten into thin leaves, than the other metals, excepting only lead. Iron grows red- hot much sooner than any other metal, and this not only from the application "of actual fire, but likewise from strong hammering, friction, or other mechanic violence. It nevertheless melts with greater difficulty than any other metal, except manganese and platina. When perfectly malleable, it is not at all fusible by the heat of furnaces, without the addition or the im- mediate contact of burning fuel : all the common operations which communicate one of these quali- ties, deprive it at the same time of the other, as if fusibility and malleability were in this metal in- compatible. It is very generally diffused throughout the globe, being frequently found mixed with sand, clay, chalk, and being likewise the colouring matter of a great number of stones and earth. It is found also in the ashes of vegetables, and in the blood of animals, in such abundance, that some authors have attributed, both the colours of vegetables, and the vital fluid it- self, to the iron contained in them. In consequence of this abundance, the iron-ores are extremely numerous. It is found : 1. Native iron, in Siberia, Senegal, &c. 2. Calciform ores, composed of the blackish, blackish brown, brown, or red calx of the metal ; whereof there are a great many species, all mixed with different minerals. 3. The magnet, which is a muddy iron ore. 4. Magnetic sand; of this kind is the blackish sand of Virginia, producing above 60 per cent, in iron and steel. 5. 192 Ochres of different kinds ; here belong the blood- stone, found in great abundance in Galiicia, in Spain, and sold by the inhabitants for the burnishing of gold leaves ; various ochres are also used as paint Emerv, found in lai^e quantities in the islands c Jersev and Guernsey, and used in polishing glass and metals; for which purpose it must first be ground 7. Martial pyrites; to which belongs the blueish o-rey pyrites or marcasite, consisting of iron mineral- ized by sulphur and arsenic. 8. Native Prussian blue, consisting of clay mixed with iron, and colour edwith some unknown tinging substance, generally found in swampy grounds or bogs. 9. The terro- verte, or green-earth of Verona and Normandy : is used as a pigment, and contains iron in some un- known state, mixed with clay. Iron is employed in three different states having its peculiar properties. The first is cast iron ; the second wrought or malleable iron : and the third is called steel. According to Bergman, cast iron, which may be called unripe or raw iron, contains the smallest share of phlogiston : the malleable iron con- tains the greatest quantity ; and the steel a middling share between both. This last is called also pig-iron, and yetlin in England. The richest ores of iron, are the compact and po derous ; of a brownish, reddish brown, or red colour: some yielding no less than seventy or eighty percent. of iron. The British iron is made from three different kinds of ores. 1. From the iron ore called the Lancashire ore from the country where it is found in the greatest abundance. This ore is of a fibrous and lamellated texture, and of a dark purple. 2. The bog ore, which resembles a deep yellow ochry clay, and seems to b the deposition of some ferruginaceous rivulets, the currents of which had formerly been over the flat marshy plains, where it is found. 3. The iron stones; they do not resemble a metal in their external surface, IRQ 193 and lie often in beds of great extent, like other stony matters. The ores of iron are commonly calcined previously to the fusion, in order to render the masses soft enough to be easily broken into fragments of a con- venient size for melting. After the metal is duly prepared, it must be smelted in furnaces of large ca- pacities, from sixteen to twenty-five feet hieh, and ten to fourteen wide, below which is a square cavity v to contain the melted metal. Near the bottom is an aperture, for the insertion of the pipe of a large bel- lows, worked by water, or by other machines, that may produce a strong current of air. Two or more holes are left, ready to be occasionally opened at the bottom of the furnace, to permit at a proper time the scoria and the metal to flow out, as the process may require. Charcoal, or coke, with lighted brushwood, is first thrown in ; and when the inside of the furnace has acquired a strong ignition, the ore is thrown in by small quantities at a time, with more of the fuel. The ore gradually subsides in the hottest part of the furnace, where it becomes fused ; and the metallic parts being revived by the coal, pass through the scoria, and fall to the lower part or bottom of the furnace, where a passage is open for taking off the scum or dross. The metal now in strong fusion, is let out by a tap-hole, into furrows made of a bed of sand : the large mass, which sets in the main furrow, is called by the workmen a sow, and the lesser ones pigs of iron. Chimney-backs, stoves, garden-rollers, &c. are formed of this rough metal, taken out of the receiver with ladles, and cast into moulds made of fine sand. The best cast-iron is not at all malleable, and so hard, as perfectly to withstand the file; when bro- ken, it has the appearance of being composed of grain ; whereas forged, wrought, malleable, or bar iron, appears to consist of plates. Forged iron, has long been procured, by bringing a mass of cast iron o IRQ nearly to the melting point, and placing it under large hammers, to undergo violent and repeated compres- sions. Cast iron has also of late been brought into a malleable state, by passing it through rollers, instead of forging it. Indeed this seems to be a real improve- ment in the process. The squeezing it between the rollers, forces out the melted flags from the metallic pores, and brings its metallic fibres into complete contact. By- a few repetitions, of either the process with the hammers, or with the rollers, cast iron be- comes completely malleable, and is at length formed in to bars for sale. A still more simple process has recently been brought into use, for converting cast iron into forged : this is by heat alone. The cast iron is placed into an air furnace, and kept for several hours in a degree of heat, by which it is brought near to the fluid state. It is then allowed to cool gradually, and is found to be converted into forged iron. To explain this, it will be necessary to observe, that cast iron is brittle, be- cause it has not had the opportunity of crystallizing regularly. When it is exposed to cold, while fluid, the surface becoming solid, prevents the inner parts from expanding and arranging themselves into regular crystals. When cast iron is nearly brought to a melt- ing point, and continued for a sufficient time in that degree of heat, the particles have the opportunity of arranging themselves into that form of crystals by which forged iron is distinguished, and by which it possesses cohesion and all its properties. Iron is applied to numberless purposes in the arts and manufactures ; among others, it serves as the ba- sis of the fine blue pigment, called Berlin or Prussian blue. By cementation with inflammable matters, iron imbibes a larger quantity of phlogiston, and be- comes much harder, less malleable, and more fusible. It is then called steel. Generally speaking, the best iron is that, which is softest and toughest, and when it breaks, is of an even ISI 195 greyish colour, without any of those glittering specks, or any flaws or divisions like those seen in broken an- timony. There are several kinds of iron, which have pro- perties very different from one another ; as, English iron, which is coarse, hard, and brittle, fit for fire bars, and such uses. Swedish iron, which is a fine tough sort, will best endure the hammer, is softest to file, and in all respects the best to work upon. German iron, commonly called, in England, Doit square, be- cause brought thither from Dort, is wrought into bars of three quarters of an inch square; being a coarse iron, and only fit, for ordinary uses. Iron is principally imported into this country from Sweden and Russia ; a smaller quantity, but of supe- rior quality, from Sweden. The Russia iron comes from the port of St. Petersburg, and consists of as- sorted, and common bar iron. - The assorted iron is in squares and flats of particular dimensions. The common bars, are either old, or new sable iron, of va- rious fabrics; as Alex. Greg. Demidoffs, N. N. De- midofTs, Jacoloffs, &c. old sable; and Gurioffs, Twer- dichoffs, Gleboffs, &c. new sable iron. ISINGLASS. (F. Colle de Poisson ; G. Hausen- blase; D. Huisenblaas ; I. Cola di pesee; S. Col~pez, P. Cola de peixe ; DA. Huusblaas, Car lock ; Sw. Husblas ; POL. Klei-ryby, Karluk; R. Klei rubui, Karluk ; L. Ichthyocolta.} Isinglass is a preparation from fish, principally from that called Aw.?o, Linn, accipenser. The method of making isinglass, was long a secret in the hands of the Russians, but has lately been discovered, and the following account of it published by Humphrey Jack- son, Esq. in the 63d volume of the Philosophical Transactions. He says : " If what is commercially called long or short staple isinglass, be steeped a few hours in fair cold water, the entwisted membranes will expand, and re-assume their original beautiful 196 [1SI hue, and by a dexterous address, may be perfectly unfolded. By this operation, we find that isinglass is nothing more than certain membraneous parts of fishes, divested of their native mucosity, rolled and twisted into the form above-mentioned, and dried in the open air. " The sounds, or air-bladders of fresh-water fish in general, are preferred for this purpose, as being the most transparent, flexible, delicate substances. These constitute the finest sorts of isinglass; those called book and ordinary staple, are made of the intestines, and probably of the peritonaeum of the fish. The belluga yields the greatest quantity, as being the largest and most plentiful fish in the Muscovy rivers; but the sounds of all fresh-water fish yield, more or less, fine isinglass, particularly the smaller sorts, found in prodigious quantities in the Caspian Sea, and se- veral hundred miles beyond Astracan, in the Wolga, Yaik, Don, and even as far as Siberia. " Isinglass receives its different shapes in the fol- lowing manner. The parts of which it is composed, particularly the sounds, are taken from the fish while sweet and fresh, slit open, washed from their slimy sordes, divested of every thin membrane which en- velopes the sound, and then exposed to stiffen a little in the air. In this state, they are formed into rolls, about the thickness of a finger, and in length accord- ing to the size of the intended staple. A thin mem- brane is generally selected for the centre of the roll, round which the rest are folded' alternately, and about half an inch of each extremity of the roll are turned inwards. The due dimensions being thus obtained, the two ends of what is called short staple are pinned together, with a small wooden peg ; the middle of the roll is then pressed downwards, which gives it the resemblance of a heart-shape ; and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up in the air to dry. " The sounds which compose the long staple, an; longer than the former; but the operator lengthens ISI 197 this sort at pleasure, by interfolding the ends of one or more pieces of the sound with each other. The extremities are fastened with a peg, as the former ; but the middle part is bent more considerably down- wards ; and in order to preserve the shape of the three obtuse angles thus formed, a piece of round stick is fastened in each angle. In this state it is per- mitted to dry, long enough to retain its form, when the pegs and sticks are taken out, and the drying completed. " The membranes of the book sort, being thick and refractory, will not admit a similar formation ; the pieces therefore, after their sides are folded inwardly, are bent in the centre, in such manner, that the op- posite sides resemble the cover of a book, whence its name. " That called cake isinglass, is formed of the bits and fragments of the staple sorts, put into a flat metal- line pan, with very little water, and heated just enough, to make the parts cohere like a pancake, when it is dried." Isinglass is chiefly used for clarifying wine, malt liquors, cyder, coffee, &c. It is likewise reducible into jelly with alkaline liquors, and is also sometimes used in medicine. The peculiar shapes given to isinglass, might pro- bably be introduced originally with a view to conceal and disguise its real substance; but as the mask is now taken off, it cannot be doubted to answer every purport more effectually in its native state ; and the sounds of cod and ling, might prove valuable sub- stitutes for the isinglass imported from Russia. 198 JUN JUNIPER-BERRIES. (F. Bates de Genevre ; G. Wachhoider-Beeren ; D. Dambesien, Genever- bessen; I. Cocole *di ginepro ; S. Bay as de encbro \ P. Bagas de zimbro ; Y) A . Enebeer ; Sw. JEnbdr ; POL. Jalowiec iagody ; R. Moshshuchu ; L. Juniperi baccte.} Juniper-berries, are the fruit of the juniperus shrub. They have a strong, not disagreeable smell, and a warm, pungent, sweet taste ; which, if they are long chewed, or previously well bruised, is fol- lowed by a bitterish one. The pungency seems to reside in the bark ; the sweet in the juice ; the aro- matic flavour in the oily vesicles, spread through the substance of the pulp, and distinguishable even by the eye ; and the bitter in the seeds. The fresh ber- ries yield, on expression, a rich, sweet, honey-like, aromatic juice ; if previously pounded, so as to break the seeds, the juice proves- tart and bitter. They are to be chosen fresh, plump, and of a strong taste. These berries are useful carminatives and stoma- chics ; for which purposes a spirituous water, and essential oil are prepared from them. The liquor re- maining after the distillation of the oil, passed through a strainer, and gently exhaled to the consistence of a rob, proves likewise a medicine of great utility. In Germany, juniper berries are used frequently in the kitchen, and they also prepare a kind of wine from them. The Laplanders drink infusions of it, as we do tea and coffee. In the geneva manufactories, it is one of the principal ingredients. Juniper-berries are imported in this country from Germany and Italy. The whole juniper plant, has a strong aromatic smell. The wood when burnt, emits a fragrant odour, like incense. It is of a reddish colour, very hard and durable, and when large enough, is used in marquetry and veneering, and in making cups, cabinets, &c. The oil of juniper, mixed with that of nuts, makes an excellent varnish for pictures, wood work, and IVO 199 preserving iron from rusting. The resin, powdered and rubbed into paper, prevents the ink from sinking- through it, for which it is frequently used under the name of ponce. IVORY. (F. Ivoire; G.Elfenbein; D. Yvoor ; I. Avorio, Avolio; S. Marfol; P. Marftm; DA. _E/- fenbeen ; Sw. Elfenben ; POL. Sloniowa Kosc ; R. lost slonowja ; L. Ebur.) Ivory is a hard, solid substance, of white colour, and capable of a very good polish. It is the tusks or teeth of the elephant, and hollow from the base to a certain height; the cavity being filled up with a com- pact medullary substance, seeming to have a great number of glands in it. O Elephants' teeth are brought to us from the East Indies, and from the coast of Guinea. They are va- luable in proportion to their size ; those that weigh a cwt. or more, are the most costly ; the second class comprehends such as require two teeth to make a cwt. or more ; the third class, three to the cwt. or more. The Ceylon ivory, and that of the island of Achem, does not become yellow, as all other ivory does; for which reason the teeth of these places bear a larger price than those of the coast of Guinea. Among the wholesale dealers, this article is divided into elephants' teeth, properly so called, and schrivelli or schrivellos; whiejrf last consist of the smallest teeth and fragments. The grand consumption of this commodity is in making ornamental articles, mathematical instru- ments, eases, boxes, balls, combs, dice, and a great variety of toys. Ivory laid for twelve hours in aqua-fortis, and then three days in the juice of beets, will become so soft, that it may be worked into any form : strong vinegar will harden it again. 200 KER IVORY-BLACK. (F. Noir d'hoire; G. Elf el- bein-schicarz ; D. Fluweelzwart ; I. Nero d'avorio; S. Negro de marfil \ P. Negro de marjini; DA. Elfen- beensv&rfe ; Sw. Eifenbensvdrta.) Ivory-black is prepared from ivory, or bones burnt in a close vessel. This, when finely ground, forms a more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-biack ; but in the common methods of manufacturing, it is so much adulterated with charcoal-dust, and so grossly levigated, as to be unfit for use. K. KELP; see POTASHES. KERMES; KERMES GRAINS, SCARLET BER- RIES. (F. Kermes de Provence, Graines (Ftcarlate, Vermilion; G. Scharlach-Beeren ; D. Grem, Schar- lakenbessen ; I. Grana, Chermes, Cremese, Vermigli- one, Cocchi ; S. Gruna kermes, Grana de la coscoja, Vermellon; P. Graa, Alquermes, Kermes; DA. Ker- mesbcer ; Sw. Kcrmesb&r ; POL. Szarlatne jagody; R. Herri ; L. Grana chermes.) Kermes grains, are the produce of an insect, called coccus ilicis, which inhabits the quercns coccifera. It is found in the woods of Vauvert, Vandeman, and Narborine in France; but more abundantly in Valen- cia, Murcia, Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Estremadura, La Mancha, and other parts of Spain; also in the Le- vant and other countries. Both antients and moderns seem to have had very confused ideas concerning the origin and nature of the kermes ; but it is now ascertained, that -it is the body of an insect, a species of the cochineal, trans- KER 201 formed into a grain, berry, or husk, according to the course of nature. The progress of this transformation must be con- sidered at three different seasons. First in the begin- ning of March, an animalcule, no larger than a grain of millet, scarce able to crawl, is perceived sticking to the branches of the tree, where it fixes itself, and soon becomes immoveable: at this period it grows the most, and appears to swell and thrive by degrees, with the sustenance it draws in. At the second *stage, in April, its growth is completed; its shape is then round, and about the size of a pea; it has now acquired more strength, and seems to be covered with a dusty husk or capsule, full of reddish juice, not un- like discoloured blood. In its third state, towards the end of May, the husk seems to be replete with small eggs, less than the seed of a poppy. These are placed under the belly of the insect, in the nest of down that covers its body. It dies soon after this, though it still adheres to its position, shielding its progeny from the inclemency of the weather. In a good season, they multiply exceedingly, having from 1800 to 2000 eggs. The poor are then employed to gather the kerrnes, the women letting their nails grow for that purpose, in order to pick them off with greater facility. Those who buy the kermes to send to foreign parts, spread it on linen ; taking care to sprinkle it with vinegar, to kill the worms that are within. This produces a red dust, which in Spain is separated from the husk. Then they let it dry, passing it through a scarce, and make it up into bags; in the middle of each, its proportion of red dust put in a small leather bag. In the kingdom of Seville, they dry kermes on mats in the sun, stirring it about, and separating the red dust, which is the finest part, and being mixed with vinegar, goes by the name of pastel. The husks have but half the value of the dust. Kermes was a dye well known to the Greeks and 202 LAC Romans, and it was procured then chiefly from Asia arid Africa. In the middle ages, we meet with kermes under the name of vermiculus or vermiculum. Hence the French word vermeil, and its derivative vermilion; the latter of which originally signified the red dye of kermes, but is now used for any red paint, and also for fine pounded cinnabar. The kermes was known in Germany, as early as the twelfth century; but when the American cochineal, on the discovery of that country, came to Europe, the French and Spa- nish kermes were almost, and the German entirely forgotten. At present, the kermes is chiefly used on the coast, of Barbary, for dying red: principally at Tu- nis, for dying those scarlet caps so much used in the Levant. The Spanish kermes is preferred to the French. Kermes is also used in medicine. KID AND LAMBSKINS; see SKINS. LAC ; GUM-LAC. (F. Gommelacque ; G. Gum- mi lake; D. Gomlak ; I. Gommalacca ; S. Goma laca ; P. Laca em pdos ; DA. Gummilak; Sw. Gummilak; POL. Gumalaka ; II. Gummilak ; L. Gummi laccce.) The Coccus Lacca, or gum-lac animal, is a native of the East Indies. The head and trunk form one uniform, oval, compressed, red body, of the shape and magnitude of a very small louse, consisting of twelve transverse rings. Of this size it is, when it sallies forth from the womb of the parent, in November or December. By the middle of January they are all fixed in their proper situations, upon the succulent extremities of the young branches. Their edges an LAC 203 environed with a spissated, subpellucid liquid, which seems to glue them to the branch : it is the gradual accumulation of this liquid, which forms a complete cell for each insect, and is what is called gum-lac. About the middle of March, the cells are completely formed, and the insect is in appearance an oval, smooth, red bag, without life, about the size of a small cuchanical insect, emarginated at the obtuse end, and full of a beautiful red liquid. In October and No- vember we find about twenty or thirty oval eggs, or rather young grubs, within the red fluid of the mother. When this fluid is all expended, the young insects pierce a hole through the back of their mother, and walk off, leaving their exuviae behind, which is that white membranous substance, found in the empty cells of the stick-lac. These insects are the inhabitants of four trees : 1. The Ficus Religiosa, and 2. The Ficus Indica, Linnaei; 3. The Plaso, Hortus Malabarici; and 4. The Rhamnus Jujuba, Linnoei. The gum-lac of this country is principally found upon the uncultivated mountains on both sides the Ganges, where nature produces it in such abundance, that, were^ the consumption ten times greater, the market might be supplied with this minute insect. The best lac is of a deep red colour; if it be pale and pierced at the top, the value diminishes, because the insects have left their cells, and therefore can be of no use as a dye or colour ; but probably they are better for varnishes. Lac is used among us in various arts; being em- ployed in the ^preparation of spirit-varnishes, for the making of sealing-wax, and as a colouring material for dying scarlet. The colour given by lac is less beautiful, but more durable, than that given by cochi- neal. Lac is likewise employed for medicinal pur- poses, and stick-lac is the sort used. Besides the gum-lac, which is the cell of the insect, coloured red by its dead body contained in it, there is 2(H LAM the stick-lac, which is the white membranous sub- stance found in the empty cells, or the wax adhering to some of the small branches of the tree, being the exuviae of the young insect. This lac, when sepa- rated from the adhering sticks, and grossly powdered, is called seed-lac ; when the stick-lac is freed from impurities, by melting over a gentle fire, and formed into cakes, it is called lump-lac ; and, lastly, that called shell-lac^ is the cells liquified, and formed into thin transparent lamina?.' A red medicinal gum is procured by incision from the Plaso tree, so similar to the gum-lac, that it may readily be taken for the same substance. Hence it is probable, that those insects have little trouble in animalizing the sap of these trees, in the formation of their cells. LAMPBLACK. (F. Noir de Fumee ; G. Kim- TUSS; D. Zwartzel\ I. Nero difumo, Negro fumo; S. Negro de liumo ; P. Ferrugem de chammine ; DA. Konrog ; Sw. Kimrok\ POL. Sadz; R. Sasha ; L. Fuligo.} Lampblack is the finest of the soot blacks, and more used than any other,. Its preparation is dependent on the making of common rosin: the impure resinous juice, collected from incisions made in pine and fir trees, is boiled down with a little water, and strained whilst hot through a bag : the dregs and pieces of bark left in the strainer, are burnt in a low oven, from which the smoke is conveyed thro ugh a long passage, into a square chamber, having an opening on the top, on which a large sack made of thin woollen stuff is fixed ; the soot, or lampblack concretes partly in the chamber, from whence it is swept out once in two or three days, and partly in the sack, which is now and then gently struck upon, both for shaking down the soot, and for clearing the interstices betwixt the threads, so as to procure sufficient draught of air through it. In this manner lampblack is prepared at LAP 205 the turpentine houses in England, from the dregs and refuse of the resinous matters which are there manu- factured. LANGWORT; LUNG Moss. (G. Lungmmous; D. Longemos; DA. Longuemare; I. Palmonaire de Cliene; S. Palmanaria dos Carvalhos.) A plant, of which there are seven species. The most remarkable is the common spotted lungwort, or Jerusalem cowslip. It is a native of woods and shady places in Italy and Germany. The leaves are of a green colour spotted with white, and of a mucilagi- nous taste, without any smell. They are recom- mended in phtisis, ulcers of the lungs, &c. LAPIS ARMENUS; see COPPER. LAPIS CALAMINARIS; see CALAMINE. LAPIS LAZULI ; AZURE STONE. This is a very costly stone, of a blue colour, veined and spotted with white and yellow, of which is prepared the fine pig- ment called ultramarine. The real Lapis Lazuli is found in the mountains of that part of Tartary called Bucharia, which extends eastward from the Caspian Sea, and particularly at Kalab and Buduckschu. It is sent thence to the East Indies, and from the East Indies to Europe. As large pieces of a fine colour, and, pure, are scarce, even in that country, and as they are employed in making ornaments and toys, the rough stone itself is costly; and this high price is increased in the ultra- marine, by its laborious preparation ; though in later times the process has been rendered much easier. This stone, to be of good quality, and proper for making ultramarine, should be heavy, little mixed with rock, having veins of copper, and of a deep blue, inclining to that of fine indigo. Care should be taken, of its not being rubbed with oil of olives. 206 LEA which makes it appear of a deeper blue than it would naturally be; and this imposition may be discovered by breaking it, when, if the colour be found paler within than without, it is a sufficient sign that it has been falsified. Whether the azure stone is of a good quality, may be also known, by heating it in the fire till it reddens; which, far from changing its colour, gives it, on the contrary, a new lustre. There is a sort of lapis lazuli, very common in France, the colour of which inclines to green, being chiefly found in Provence ; but its quality is much inferior to that which comes from Tartary and India, being in no respect proper for the making of good ultramarine. LEAD. (F. Plomb\ G. Bid; D. Load, Loot; I. Piombo; S. Plomo ; P. Chumbo\ DA. Bly, Bh/e ; Sw. Ely ; POL. Olow ; R. Swinez ; L. Plumbum.} Lead is a pale, or livid-white metal, soon losing its brightness in the air, and contracting a blackish or greyish ash colour. It is the softest and most flexible of all metallic bodies ; but not ductile to any great degree, either in the form of wire or leaf; coming far short, in this respect, of all other metals. It has also the least tenacity of all metallic bodies: though it possesses a considerable specific gravity; losing, when immersed in water, between one-eleventh and one- twelfth of its weight. It is of all metals the most fusible, excepting only tin and bismuth. The plumbers cast thin sheets of lead upon a table or mould, covered with woollen, and above this, a linen cloth, without burning or scorching the cloths. The melted lead is received in a wooden case with- out a bottom; which, being drawn down the sloping table by a man on each side, leaves a sheet of its own width, and more or less thin, according to the greater or smaller celerity of its descent. For thick plates, the table is covered over with moistened sand, and the liquid metal conducted evenly over it by a wooden LEA 20? strike, which bears on a ledge at each side. Some have preferred, for mechanic uses, the milled lead, or flattened sheets. Lead is put up for sale either in pigs, bars, or sheets. The milled or sheet lead is the dearest, then follow the bars, and the pigs are the lowest sort. The principality of Wales, and some parts contigu- ous to it, have very considerable lead-mines: amongst them deserve to be enumerated the very rich mines in the neighbourhood of Holy well; the mine in Llanrwst Vale in North Wales; several lead-mines near the village of Llangynnog, amongst which, the mine called Craig-ymwyn yielded annually about four thousand tons, but, having been filled with wa- ter, has but lately been attempted to be drained again. The Styper Stones, a rocky tract between the high road from Shrewsbury to Bishopscastle, and the vale of Montgomery, have also very productive lead-mines. In the island of Anglesey, not three quarters of a yard beneath the common soil, is a bed of yellowish greasy clay, from one to four yards thick, containing lead- ore, and yielding from six hundred to one thousand pounds of lead per ton. Derbyshire, Flintshire, and Montgomerj'shire, are also very rich in lead-mines: and, on the whole, this metal is found in larger quan- tities in Great Britain than in any other country. Lead yields the dullest and weakest sound of all metallic bodies. Though this metal very soon loses its lustre, and tarnishes in the air, it resists much longer than cop- per or iron the combined action of air and water, and hence it is exceedingly useful for many purposes. When just become fluid, lead looks bright like quicksilver, but immediately contracts a variously- coloured pellicle on the surface If this be taken off, and the fire continued, a fresh pellicle will always be formed, till the metal is by degrees changed into a dusky powder or calx. The injection of a little fat, charcoal powder, or other inflammable matter, pre- 208 LEA vents this change, and readily revives the calx into lead again. For the preparation of black, white, red, and litharge of lead, see those respective heads. In Holland, and perhaps in other places, it has been customary to correct the most offensive expressed oils, as that of rape-seed, and rancid oil of almonds or olives, by impregnating them with lead. This dan- gerous abuse may be discovered, by mixing a little of that oil with a solution of orpiment, or liver of sul- phur, made in lime-water; for, on shaking them to- gether, and suffering them to rest, the oil, if it have any saturnine tint, will appear of an orange red, and, if pure, of a pale, yellowish one. A similar abuse is also practised with sour wines, which dissolve as much of the lead as communicates a sweetish taste. If a few drops of the just-mentioned test-liquor be put in a glass of the suspected wine, it will, if adul- terated with lead, exhibit a precipitation like a dark- coloured cloud, which is owing to the attachment of the lead to the sulphur in the orpiment. Lead unites with most other metals. It cannot, however, be united with iron : but if both be exposed to the fire in a proper vessel, the lead scorifies the iron, by seizing on its phlogiston; after which, it melts with the calx into a dark-coloured glass. This property which lead possesses, of reducing all the imperfect metals to glass, is the reason of its being used in the purification of gold and silver, neither of which can be touched by it, but remain pure in the bottom of the cupel. Lead is employed in making of various vessels, and frequently mixed with tin by the pewterers; a prac- tice, however, which is very dangerous. Lead, when taken in the human body, is produc- tive of various disorders, particularly a kind of dan- gerous cholic, terminating in a palsy; and as all the common earthenware is glazed with minium, the use of it cannot be supposed to be void of danger in all 209 cases. Fountains, or vessels of lead, which contain water, often communicate a noxious quality to it^ when suffered to remain long full. Its vapour is dan- gerous to the workmen who melt it, and the fumes falling upon the grass, render it poisonous to the cat- tle who eat it; the fish which inhabit the water near smelting-houses, soon die; nor is it safe for any ani- mal to drink it. Even the external use of lead in surgery, is not altogether safe. Certain it is, that all workmen who deal much in lead, are subject to the cholic above mentioned, from the habitual contact of the metal or its calces, even though they neither take it internally, nor are exposed to its fumes. LEATHER. (F. Cuir ; G. Leder; D. Lcder, Leer; I. Cuojd ; S. Cuero ; P. Couro, Coiro ; DA. Leader; Sw,Liider; POL. Rzemien\ R. Kosha ; L. Corium.) Leather is the tanned skin or hide of animals. The use of tanning is twofold ; first, to preserve the lea- ther from rotting; and then, to render it impervious to water. An infusion of any strongly astringent vegetable will serve to tan leather, so far as to prevent its rot- ting: and a considerable house in the tanning trade has recently tanned hides and skins without bark; and by some other chemical process is enabled to render them marketable leather in less than four months, skins particularly ; but if this vegetable does not contain a good deal of gum-resin, it will not an- swer for enabling it to keep out water; and hence it is that oak bark, which is more abundant in the gummy resinous part than any of our common indi- genous astringents, is preferred to all other substan- ces for the purpose of tanning. The tanners prepare their bark, by gently drying it on a kiln, and grinding it into a very coarse powder. They then either use it in the way of infusion, which is called ooze, or they strew the dry powder betweeri 210 LEA the layers of hides and skins, when these are laid away in the tan pits. The first operation of the tanner is, to cleanse his hides from all extraneous filth, and remove any re- mains of flesh or fat, which may have been left be- hind by the butcher. The hair is next to be taken off; and this is ac- complished, either by steeping the hides for a short time in a mixture of lime and water, or by rolling them up close, and piling them in heaps, where they quickly begin to heat and putrify. This hair being loosened, is scraped off, and the tanner proceeds to the operation called fleshing; which consists in a further scraping, with a particular kind of knife, con- trived for the purpose, and cutting away the jagged extremities and offal parts, such as the ears and nostrils. The raw leather is then put into an alkaline ley, in order to discharge the oil, and render its pores more capable of imbibing the ooze. The tanners of this country, generally make their ley of pigeon's dung ; but a more active one may be prepared from kelp, or potash; taking care, however, not to make it too strong of the ashes, nor to allow the leather to remain too long in the ley. The oil being sufficiently discharged, the leather is ready for the ooze, and at first is thrown into smaller holes, which are termed handlers, because the hides or skins, during this part of the process, are taken up, from time to time, and allowed to drain ; they continue to work the leather in those handlers, every now and then stirring it up with the utensil called a plunger, which is nothing more than a pole, with a knob at the end of it, until they think proper to lay it away oi> the vats. In these holes, which are the largest in the tan yard, the leather is spread out smoQth, whereas they toss it into the handlers at random, and between each layer of leather they sprinkle on some powdered bark, until the pit is filled LEA 211 by the leather and bark, thus laid in stratum super stratum: ooze is then poured on, to fill up the inter- stices, and the whole crowned with a sprinkling of bark. In this manner the leather is allowed to macerate, until the tanner sees that it is completely penetrated by the ooze; when this is accomplished, the manu- facture is finished, so far as relates to tanning ; since nothing now remains, but to dry the goods thoroughly, by hanging them up in airy lofts built for the pur- pose. Such in general is the process for tanning calf skins, and the lighter sorts of hides: but the large, thick, heavy hides, of which the strongest kind of sole leather is made, require to have their pores more thoroughly opened, before the ooze can sufficiently penetrate them. For this purpose, while the hides are in the putrescent state, from being allowed to heat in the manner already mentioned, and well soaked in an alkaline ley, they are thrown into a sour liquor, generally brewed from rye, in order that the efferves- cence which necessarily-ensues, may open the pores. It seems that the foreign tanners know nothing of this branch of the business; indeed their whole process, according to M. de la Lande, is slovenly, and even more tedious than our method, and makes but indif- ferent leather. When this operation is accomplished, the leather is put into the handlers, and worked in them for the re- quisite time, then laid away in the vats, and there left to macerate, until the tanning is found to be com- pletely finished, which, for this kind of leather, re- quires, from first to last, full two years. It is this tediousness of the process which enhances the value of leather; and the returns being so slow, the trade of tanning never can be carried on to ad- vantage, but by people of large capital. The quantity of leather butts annually exported from this country, to most parts of Europe, is very ' considerable. 212 LEM Under the denomination of tanned hides are com- prehended sole leather, and upper leather. Sole leather, consists of butts, backs, bends, clout leather, and crope soles. Butts are generally made of the largest ox or cow-hides, and are tanned whole, except the pates and tails. Backs are made from small, as much as from large hides, and slit down the back in two parts, for theconveniency of tanning and packing. Bends are cut off the best part of the hide, as the back, ribs, shoulders, and buttocks : so that out of one hide, there may be made six, eight, or ten bends. Clout leather are a small sort of bends. Crope soles are cut off the back of good upper lea- ther hides. Upper leather are roundings, rands, wombs, dip- pings, and heads; being only the thin part, or offal of the hides. LEMNIAN EARTH; see TERRA LEMNIA. LEMONS. (F. Citrons, Limons\ G. Limonen, Citroneni D. Limoenen, Citroencn; I. Limoni; S. Limones, Limoes; DA. Limoner, Citroncr ; Sw. Li- moner, Citroner ; POL. Limonii; R.Limon'U) L. Zz- monia.} The Citrus Lima, or Lemon-tree, has an upright smooth trunk, divided at the top into a branchy re- gular head; from twelve to fifteen feet high; large, oval, spear-shaped, pointed, slightly sawed leaves, on lineal footstalks; and many flowers from the sides of the branches, succeeded by large oval fruit, promi- nent at the top. The varieties are: the lemon-tree with sour fruit; with sweetish fruit; with very large fruit, called Imperial Lemon; with pear-shaped fruit; with furrowed fruit; with clustered fruit; with child- ing fruit: with whitish fruit; with tricolour striped fruit, &c. The flowering and fruit-setting season for the lemon-tree, is chiefly in June and July. It continues LIG 213 blowing, and setting fruit, for three months, when a full crop is set. The fruit is of a green colour first, turning yellow as it grows ripe. Its shape is almost oval, and divided into several cells, in which are lodged hard seeds, surrounded by a thick fleshy sub- stance, full of an acrid juice. The best lemons should be large, weighty, and of a thin rind. In the southern parts of France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy, there are forests full of lemon-trees, and a considerable trade is carried on in transporting them to all the northern parts of Europe. They are for that purpose wrapped in soft paper, and packed up in chests. The lemon yields a very agreeable acid juice, which, besides its common use, answers considerable purposes in medicine. The yellow peel of the lemon is an agreeable aromatic and excellent stomachic : it it also used by the confectioners to be candied. Con- siderable quantities of pickled lemons are annually shipped from the Mediterranean for the Baltic. The true, unadulterated oil, obtained from lemon peel, is very valuable. LIGNUM VITjE; GUAJACUM, POCKWOOD. (F. Ga'iac, Bois de Ga'iac, Bois saint ; G. Pockholz ; D. Pokhout ; I. GuajacO)Legnosanto\ S. Guayaco, Palo santo; P. Guaiaco, Pao sancto ; DA. Pohkentrae, Fransostrcce ; Sw. Pockenholts, Fransosenholts -, POL. Gwaiak ; R. Bakaut\ L. Guaiacum.) The Lignum-vitae tree is a native of the West In- dies, and the warmer parts of America ; there is also a species, a native of the Cape of Good Hope.. It is a large tree, rising, at its full growth, to the height of forty feet, and measuring from fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter, having a hard, brittle, brownish bark, not very thick. The wood is firm, solid, ponderous, very resinous, of a blackish yellow colour in the middle, and a hot aromatic taste. It is so hard, as to break the tools LIN which are employed in felling it, and is therefore sel- dom used as fire-wood, but is of great use to the sugar-planters, for making wheels and cogs to the sugar-mills. It is also frequently wrought into bowls, mortars, and other utensils. It is imported into England, in large pieces of four or five cwt. each, and, from its hardness and beauty, is in great demand for various articles in the turnery-ware, and for trucks of ship-blocks. The wood, gum, bark, fruit, and even the flowers of this plant, have been found to possess medicinal virtues. This wood was first introduced into Europe as a remedy for the venereal disease, whence the origin of the name Pockwood. In the choice of the wood, that which is the fresh- est, most ponderous, and of the darkest colour, is the best; and the largest pieces are to be preferred. LI N EN S . ( G. Linnen ; D . Lywant ; DA. Laerd; F. Toile ; I. Te/a ; S. Lienzo ; P. Panno de linho.} Linens are chiefly imported from Russia, Germany, and Holland. Various are the denominations; but the most important are the damask, tabling, towel- ling, ravenducks, Silesias, &c. ; of which articles, many are re-exported to the West Indies and South America. LINSEED ; LINTSEED, FLAX-SEED. (F. Lin, Graine de Lin ; G. Leinsaat ; D. Lynzaad; I. Lin- seine; S.Linaza; P. Linhaca ; DA. Horrfroe ; Sw. Linfro; POL. Siemie, Interne,. R. Semja lenjanoe; L. Lint Semen.} Linseed, is the seed of flax, and is either sowing or crushing seed : the former of a more clean and supe- rior quality to the latter, which is used for the oil- mills. The brighter in colour, the cleaner and heavier the seed is, the better. That which, when bruised, ap- pears of a light or yellowish green, and fresh in the heart, oily, and not dry, of sweet taste and smell, not LIQ 215 musty, may be depended upon as a good sowing seed. The flax being generally preferred, in this country, to the seed, as being more valuable; the latter is sa- crificed, and considerable quantities imported in con- sequence. Our crushing seed generally comes from Archan- gel, St. Petersburg, Riga, Konigsberg, and other ports of the Baltic. That coming from Konigsberg, is of the best sort, and the quality decreases in proportion as the ports lie further to the north. Of sowing seed, Dutch seed of the preceding year's growth is preferred. Riga sowing seed is also esteemed. LINSEED-OIL. (F. Huile de Lin ; G. Leinol- D.Lynoli; I. Olio dilino; S. Aceite de linaza ; P. Oleo de linhaca ; DA. Liinolie, Horrolie ; Sw. Linol- ja ; POL. Oley Iniany ; R. Lnjanoe masslo ; L. Ole- um lini.} This oil is obtained by expression from linseed ; it has most of the qualities of nut-oil, and is accord- ingly sometimes used instead thereof, by painters, printers, and for burning. In many parts, particu- larly in Poland, it is also used in the kitchen. That drawn without the assistance of fire, is of much esteem in medicine. LIQUORICE; SPANISH JUICE. (F. Rcglisse; G. Sussholzsaft ; D. Zoethout ; I. Pasta tiquirizia ; S. Regaliz, Orozuz; P. JRegoliz, R&goliz, Alcacuz; DA. Lakrizrod ; Sw. Lakritsrot ; POL. Lakrycia, Slodki korzen; l\. Koren soledJeoicoi ; L. Glycyrrhiza.) The glycyrrhiza, or common Liquorice-shrub, -has a long, thick, creeping root, striking several feet deep into the ground; an upright, firm, herbaceous, annual stalk, three or four feet high, garnished with winged leaves, of four or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by an odd one: and from the axillas, erect spikes of pale 216 LIQ blue flowers in July, succeeded by short smooth pods. The root of this plant is the useful part, being re- plete with a sweet, balsamic, pectoral juice, which is either extracted, or the wood sold in substance. It is much used in all compositions for coughs and dis-. orders of the stomach; but by far the greatest quan- tity is used by the brewers. The common liquorice is cultivated in most coun- tries of Europe, for the sake of its root : but in Spain and Italy, and particularly in Sicily and Calabria, it makes a considerable article of commerce with this country. In Calabria, liquorice is chiefly manufac- tured, and exported from Corigliano, Rossano, Cas- sano, and Palermo. The Calabria liquorice, on the whole, is preferable to that coming from Sicily, and the Italian paste to that coming from Spain. Liquo- rice always grows in great abundance in the Levant, and vast quantities of it are consumed there, in mak- ing a decoction, which is drunk cold in the summer, in the manner of sherbet. To prepare liquorice, the roots are boiled a long time in water, till the fluid has got a deep yellow tincture; and the water at length evaporated, till the remains acquire a consistency ; when they are formed into sticks, which are packed up with bay leaves, in the same order as we receive them. The boiling re- quires the utmost care and precaution, as the juice takes an unpleasant smell and flavour if burnt in the least degree. This paste is manufactured from the month of November till March, the warm season be- ing very unfavourable for it; so much so, that it is not adviseable to ship any in summer, as it easily runs into one mass in the boxes, and then is only to be sold for damaged liquorice. The round sticks are preferable to the flat ones; and the good quality is to be brittle, bright, without pores, and of a good fragrant smell. LOG 217 LITHARGE. (F. Litharge; G. Glcette- D. Ge- llt; I. Litargirio ; S. Almartaga, Litarjirio ; P. Al- martaga^ Lithargirio; DA. Gtod ; Sw. Glitt, Glette; POL. Gleyte, Gleta; R. Gr/e/; L. Lithargyros.} There are two kinds of litharge, the one natural, the other artificial. The natural is a mineral, some- times found in lead-mines ; reddish, scaly, brittle, and somewhat resembling white lead. But this kind is so scarce, that the artificial kind only is to be met with in commerce. If, instead of keeping the calx of lead in a continued moderate heat, as is done for the manufactory of red- lead, it be suddenly fused, the matter then puts on a foliated appearance, changing to a dull kind of brick colour when powdered, and is called litharge. Most of this substance is produced, by refining silver with lead ; and is of two kinds, red and white. These two sorts are distinguished by the names of litharge of gold, and litharge of silver. The most perfect is the former: the pale sort contains a consi- derable proportion of lead in its metallic state; and even the highest coloured litharge is seldom free from a little metallic lead, discoverable and separable, by melting the mass in a crucible ; when the lead sub- sides to the bottom. Litharge is used in the composition of plaisters, to give them a due consistence. Potters use it, to give a beautiful gloss to their ware; it is also used by painters, dyers, skinners, and glaziers. When mixed with wine, it gives it a bright sprightly colour, but renders it extremely unwholesome. LOGWOOD. (F. BOM de Campeche ; G. Blau- holz ; D. Kampcchehout ; I. Campeggio legno lauro ; S. Paolo de Campeche ; P. Pao de Campeche; DA. Blaaholt) CampcschefrtE ; Sw. Campeschetrd ; POL. Kampesza ; R. Kampetschkoe derewo ; L. H&mato- xylum.} Logwood grows naturally in the Bay of Campeachy, 218 LOG at Honduras, and other parts of the Spanish West Indies ; also in Jamaica ; and rises from sixteen to twenty-four feet high. The stems are generally crooked and very deformed, and seldom thicker than a man's thigh. For sending it to market, they are cut up in billets or junks, and sometimes the bark and white sap are chipped off, which is called chipt logwood. The most internal part of the wood, which is at first red, becomes black some time after the felling, and it is only this inner part of the tree, that yields a black and violet colour. The taste for these colours, which was perhaps more general two centuries ago, than it is at present, procured a considerable vent for this valuable wood. This trade was entirely in the hands of the Spaniards, till the settlement of the British at Jamaica. Among the number of pirates who were continually coming from this island, several went to cruise in the Bays of Campeachy and Honduras, and on the coasts of Jucatan, to intercept the vessels that sailed there. These plunderers were so little acquainted with the value of logwood, that when they found barks laden with it, they took away nothing but the iron utensils. One of them having carried off a large vessel, entirely loaded with logwood, brought it into the Thames, designing to equip it as a privateer, when contrary to his expectation, he sold at a very high price, the wood which he had thought to be of so little value, that he had always burnt it as fire-wood, during the voyage. After this discovery, the pirates who were not successful at sea, never failed to repair to the ri- ver of Champeton, in the Bay of Campeachy, where they took on board the piles of wood, which were always found ranged on the shore. The peace be- tween England and Spain, having put a stop to the depredations of these pirates, they went to settle be- tween Tabasco and the river Champeton, about Lake Triste, and in Beef Island. In 1675 their numbers LON 219 amounted two hundred and sixty. Being driven from here by the Spaniards, they took refuge in the Bay of Honduras, where they were joined by some freebooters of North America. In process of time they increased to fifteen hundred men, and they sold the logwood which they cut, to the people of Ja- maica, and to the English colonies in North America. This commerce, till then carried on by smugglers, and which occasioned much clamour, became law- ful in 1763. The liberty of cutting logwood was se- cured to Great Britain, but she was not permitted to raise forts. The wood which grows upon the dry soil at Cam- peachy, is much superior to that which is cut in the marshes of Honduras. The growth of Jamaica is in- ferior to either of them. Logwood is used in great quantities for dying pur- ple, but especially black colours. It is the material which adds blackness to the vitriol and gallbrown, and this black dye, though not of the most durable kind, is the most common. The logwood tree, seeds in April. The season for sowing the seed should not be too wet, otherwise it will rot in the ground. It was first propagated in the island of Jamaica, in the year 17 1*5, from some seed brought from the Bay of Campeachy, and there are now such quantities of it growing wild in the neigh- bourhood of Savannah la Mar, as to incommode the landholders extremely. The growth of this tree is so quick, that it will rise, in proper soils, to the height of ten feet in three years. Logwood ought to be chosen, in the largest, thick- est pieces, sound, and of a deep red colour. LONG PEPPER; see PEPPER. 20 MAC LUCERNE SEED. (F. Graine de Lucerne ; G. Luzerne-Saamen ; D. Luzerne zaad; I. Semenza diLucerna; S. Semilla deAlfalm; P. Semente de Luzerna; DA.Lucerncfro; Sw. Lucernefrb.) Lucerne is a plant, frequently cultivated in the manner of clover. Its leaves like the latter grow three at a joint, its stalks are erect, and after mow- ing, immediately spring up again from the stubble. It is made into hay, in the same manner as saint- foin, but should be mowed before it flowers. It makes the sweetest, and most fattening food in the world for cattle. LUMP LAC; see LAC. M. MACE. (F. Macis, Fleur d/e Muscade ; G. Mus- katbluthe ; D. Foelie, Foely, Muscaatblooin ; I. Mace; S. Macio ; P. Mads, Flor de noz moscada ; DA. Muskatblommer ; Sw. Muskottblomma ; POL. Muskatowy kwiat ; R. Muskatnoi zwet ; L. Macis.) Mace is a fleshy and fatty membraneous substance, which divides into filaments, laying under the green, and covering the ligneous shell of the nutmeg. When carefully taken off with a small knife, it has at first a beautiful red, but afterwards a darkish colour ; it is then laid to dry in the sun, for the space of a day, and afterwards removed to a place less exposed to his rays, where it remains for eight days, that it may soften a little. They then moisten it with sea water, to prevent it from drying too much, or from losing its oil. It is last of all put into small bags, and squeezed very close. The Banda isles produce about 1 00,000 Ibs. of mace. MAD 221 The mace has the same properties with the nut- meg, being of an astringent, drying nature. An oil is also extracted from mace, of various uses in me- dicine. MADDER. (F. Garance ; G. Krapp, Fterberrb- the ; D. Mee, Meekrap, Krap ; I. Robbia ; S. Granza, Rubia ; P. Granqa, Ruiva ; DA. Krap ; Sw. Krapp ; POL. Matzana\ R. Mariana, Krap ; L. Rubia tine- 1 torum.} Madder is a plant, with rough narrow leaves, set in form of a star, at the joints of the stalk. The root, which is the only part made use of, is long, slender, of a red colour, both on the outside and within, ex- cepting a whitish pith, which runs along the middle. For cultivating this plant, the ground is ploughed deep in autumn, and again in March : and then laid up in ridges, eighteen inches asunder, and about a foot high. About the beginning of April, they open the ground where old roots are planted, and take off all the side shoots, which extend themselves horizon- tally ; these they transplant immediately upon the new ridges ; at about a foot distance, where they remain two seasons ; and at Michaelmas, when the tops of the plants are decayed, they take up the roots. It is to be observed, that this method of planting in ridges, is only necessary in wet land, and that the rows are sometimes planted three feet, and the plants in the rows eighteen inches asunder. If all the hori- zontal roots are destroyed from time to time, it will cause the large, downright roots, to be much bigger, in which the goodness of this commodity chiefly consists. After the madder roots are taken up, they are kiln dried, and then reduced to powder, bya mill. Previous to the grinding, they are carefully assorted ; the finest roots peeled, make what is called crop, or fine mad- der, from the German krap ; good roots not peeled, 222 MAG make the ombro, unberaubt ; gamene or genuine, are all the inferior small roots ; the mulls consist of the refuse, peelings, &c. Madder, gives out its colour, both to water and rec- tified spirit: the watery tincture is of a dark, dull red ; the spirituous of a deep bright one. It imparts to woollen cloth, prepared with alum and tartar, a very durable, though not a very beautiful red dye. As it is the cheapest of all the red drugs that give a durable colour, it is the principal one commonly made use of, for ordinary stuffs. Sometimes its dye is heightened by the addition of brazilwood, and sometimes it is employed in conjunction with the dearer reds, as cochineal ; for demi-scarlets, and de- mi-crimsons. dfThe rubia peregrina, or Turkey madder root, is principally cultivated about Smyrna. It is always imported in its original state, as a root. Our dyers have tried, to order the Dutch madder from abroad, in the same state, but were not able to use it. The fine quality of madder is distinguished, by its being of a bright, lively, light colour, well ground, without any coarse parts, proceeding from the peel- ings. Fresh is always more valuable than old mad- der. It should be kept close, to prevent the access of air, as its virtue evaporates when exposed. Madder was formerly cultivated among us: but we are now entirely supplied with it from Holland, Ger- many, and France. MAGNESIA. (L. Magnesia alba.} Like all other earths, is no-where to be found in a state of purity ; nature presents it to us in the state of a salt, almost always combined with the sulphuric acid : it is by the decomposition of the sulphate of magnesia that this earth is usually obtained. Mag- nesia, when pure, is very light, white, and spungy. It first began to be known at Rome under the name of Count Falmas Powder, where it was offered as a MAH 223 remedy for all disorders. Its resemblance in many respects to calcareous earth, induced several at first to consider it as the same thing ; but Mr. Hoffman first proved it to be essentially different : this was afterwards discovered by Dr. Black of Edinburgh, and Margrac of Berlin, unknown to each other, under the name of calcined magnesia : the pure earth is much used in medicine where absorbents are indi- cated, and the carbonic acid might be detrimental. MAHOGANY. (F. Bois d' Acajou, Bois de Ma- hagony ; G. Mahoganyholz ; D. Mahognyhout ; I. Legno mogano ; S. Caoba, Caobana ; DA. Maha- goni ; Sw. Mahagony.} The swietenia mahagoni, or mahogany tree, is a native of the warmest parts of America, and grows also in the island of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and the Bahama islands. It abounded formerly in the low lands of Jamaica, but. is now found oilly on high hills, and places difficult of access. This tree grows tall and straight, rising often sixty feet from the spur to the limbs ; and is usually four feet in diameter. The foliage is a beautiful deep green, and the appearance made by the whole tree, so elegant, that none could be more ornamental for an avenue. The flowers are of a reddish or saffron colour ; and the fruit of an oval form, about the size of a turkey's egg. Some of them have reached to a monstrous size, exceeding one hundred feet in height. One was cut about thirty years since, in St. Eliza- beth's in Jamaica, which measured twelve feet in diameter, and cleared to the proprietor .5001. cur- rency. In felling these trees, the most beautiful part is commonly left behind. The negro workmen raise a scaffolding of four or five feet elevation from the ground, and hack up the trunk, which they cut up into balks. The part below, extending to the root, is not only of larger diameter, but of a closer texture than the other parts, most elegantly diversified with 224 MAH shades or clouds, or dotted like ermine, with black spots ; it takes the highest polish, with a singular lustre. This part is only to be come at, by digging below the spur, to the depth of two or three feet, and cutting it through ; which is so laborious an opera- tion, that few attempt it, except they are uncom- monly curious in the choice of their wood, or to serve a particular order. The mahogany tree thrives in most soils, but varies in texture and grain, according to the nature of the soil. On rocks, it is of a smaller size, but very hard and weighty, and of a close grain, and beautifully shaded ; while the produce of the low and richer lands, is observed to be more light and porous, of a paler colour and open grain ; and that of mixed soils to hold a medium between both. This constitutes the difference between the Jamaica wood, and that which is collected from the coast of Cuba and the Spanish Main ; the former is mostly found on rocky eminences ; the latter is cut in swampy soils, near the sea Coast. The superior value of the Jamaica wood, for beauty of colouring, firmness, and durabi- lity, may therefore be easily accounted for ; but as a large quantity of balks and planks, is brought from the Spanish American coasts to Jamaica, to be shipped from thence to Great Britain, the dealers are apt to confound all under the name of Jamaica wood, which in some measure hurts the credit of this sta- ple production. This wood is generally hard, takes a fine polish, and is found to answer better than any other sort, in all kinds of cabinet ware. It is a very strong timber, and was frequently used as such, in Jamaica, in former times. It is said to be used sometimes in shipbuild- ing; a purpose for which it would be remarkably adapted, if not too costly: being very durable, capa- ble of resisting gun shots, and burying the shots with-, out splintering. It was not till the commencement of the last cen- MAN 225 tu ry, that mahogany was imported into England, with the view of making household furniture of it. The carpenters in the beginning, found this wood much too hard for their tools, and it was some time, before this difficulty was overcome. MAIZE; see INDIAN CORN. MALACHITE; see COPPER. MANHEIM GOLD; see COPPER. MANNA. (F. Manne; G. Manna; D. Manna; I. Manna ; S. Mama, MangJa, Almangre ; P. Man- na; DA. Manna ; $w.Manfi&; POL. Manna; R. Manna ; L. Manna.} Manna is a gummous substance, obtained from the fraxinus ornus, a species of ash-tree, in the south- ern parts of Europe, particularly in Calabria, and Sicily. Towards the end of July, or about the beginning of August, during the season of the greatest heat, they make an incision in the bark, near to the root of the tree. A thick whitish liquor is discharged from the wound, which hardens in the sun ; when it is care- fully taken off, and gathered into chests. They re- new these incisions, every day during the season, ob- serving, however, only to round one side of the tree, the other side they reserve for the summer following. These trees never arrive at any considerable size, on account of their annual bleedings ; but they are said to last a century, yielding manna. Each tree produces about half a pound of gum a year. The best sort of manna, is in oblong pieces or flakes, moderately dry, friable, very light, of a whitish or pale yellow colour, and in some degree transpa- rent. The inferior kinds are moist, unctuous, and brown. All manna in Calabria belongs to the King, who Q 226 MAN gives it in farm to a set of contractors. To gather it, a certain number of countrymen are furnished by the feudatory, whose scanty wages are a poor compensa- tion for this involuntary service. The peasants are punished with the utmost severity, if detected in burning, destroying, or damaging any of these trees, that cause to them so much vexation ; and are sent to prison, if the smallest quantity of the juice be found in their houses. They may eat as much as they please, in the woods, and most of them take this phy- sic once a year. The best, and the greatest quantity of manna, comes from the island of Sicily. It consists of two sorts, the one called flakey, generally of more than double the value of the other, called manna in sorts. The principal places, where this drug is collected in Sicily, are Cinesi and Geraci. The denomination of Cinesi manna comprehends, not only the produce of Cinesi, but also of the villages of Capace, Carini, Fa- voretta, &c. so also Geraci manna, means not only, the Mannas collected at Geraci, but at Castelbuono, Cefalu, and S. Mauro: The best flakey manna, comes from Cinesi and Capace ; the very best from Cinesi. They reckon, that the four villages of Cinesi, Ca- pace, Carini, and Favoretta, produce on an average, above 1400 Sicilian Cantars manna, whereof four- fifths are in sorts, and the rest flakey. The four vil- lages of Geraci, Castelbuono, Cefalu, and S. Mauro, are reckoned to produce annually about one thousand cantars of manna in sorts, and twenty-five to thirty cantars flakes. A Sicilian cantar, is equal to 1961b. avoirdupois. The whole crop of Sicily manna, is generally bought by the merchants of Palermo, at the harvest, which begins in August, and ends in Octo- ber. The chief market for flakey manna, is at Leg- horn. The manna in sorts, generally goes to Mar- seilles, or the Levant. Tolpha manna, is inferior in value to the flakey, MAR 22? but more valuable, than manna in sorts. It bears its name from Tolpha, a place in the Roman ter- ritory. Manna, in medicine, proves a gentle laxative, ope- rating with great mildness. MARBLE. (F. Marbre; G. Marmor ; V. Mar- nier ; I. Marmo ; S. Mar mo I; P.Marmore; DA. Marmor; Sw. Marmor; POL. Marmur \ R. Mar- mor ; L. Marmor,} Marble is a kind of stone, found in great masses, and dug out of pits or quarries. It is of so hard, com- pact, and fine a texture, as readily to take a beautiful polish, and much used in ornaments of buildings ; as columns, statues, altars, tombs, chimney pieces,' ta- bles, and the like. There are infinite numbers of different kinds of marble. Some are of one simple colour, as white, or black ; others variegated with stains, clouds, waves, and veins : but all opaque, excepting the white, which cut into thin pieces, becomes transparent. Some under the genus of marble, comprehend also porphyry, granate, and alabaster. Marble is found in considerable quantities, in most of the mountainous parts of Europe. Derbyshire is that county of England, most abounding in this arti- cle. Near Kemlyn Bay, in the island of Anglesey, there is a quarry of beautiful marble, called Verde di Corsica, being common to this place, some parts of Italy, and Corsica. Its colours are green, black, white, and dull purple, irregularly disposed. Italy is that part of Europe which produces the most valua- ble marble, and in which its exportation makes a considerable branch of foreign commerce. The black and the milk white marble, coming from Carara, a town in the Duchy of Massa, are particularly esteemed. Bruce gives us a very particular account, of the source from whence were derived, those vast quanti- MAS ties of marble, granite, &c. found in Egypt. These he discovered, on his journey from Kenne to Cosseir, on the Red Sea. At Hamra, the porphyry mountains and quarries begin, in the latitude of nearly twenty- four degrees, continuing along the coast of the Red Sea, to about 22 deg. 30 min. when they are succeed- ed by marble mountains ; these again by others of alabaster, and these last by basaltic mountains ; some of the mountains appearing to be composed entirely of red, and others of screen marble. Near to Cosseir, he discovered the quarries, from whence the ancients obtained those immense quantities of marble, with which they constructed so many wonderful works. In four days, during which our author travelled, he says, that he had passed more marble, granite, porphyry, and jasper, than would'build Rome, Athens, Corinth, Syracuse, Memphis, Alexandria, and half a dozen such cities. The whole is situated on a ridge, with a descent to the east and west, by which means it might easily be conveyed, either to the Nile or Red Sea. MARMELADE. (D. DA. F. SP. Marmalada.) It is made of the quince, oranges, &c. ; that which is made of the quince is most esteemed. MASTICH. (F. Mastic \ G.Mastix; D. Mas- tik; I. Mastice; S. Almastiga % Almaciga ; P. Alma- cega; DA. Mastic ; $w.Mastix\ POL. Mastyks; II. Mastika ; L. Mastix.) Mastich or gum mastic, is gathered from the pis- tacia orientalis, or true mastich tree of the Levant. The bark of the tree is brown ; the leaves are com- posed of two or three pair of spear shaped lobes, ter- minated by an odd one. These turn of a brownish colour towards autumn, but continue all the year. This gum is in small granules, being white, clear, and sweet, if good ; though age makes it turn yel- lowish. There is also a kind of black mastich. MIL brought from Egypt, which serves to sophisticate camphor. Mastich is chiefly the product of Chios, an island in the Turkish Archipelago ; where the trees that yield it, are cultivated with as much care as the vines; and it brings in a yearly revenue of about 20001. ster- ling, to the Grand Seignior. Mastich is temperate in heat, and of a dry binding- quality. It is used in medicine, and jewellers mix it with turpentine and black ivory, and lay it under their diamonds, to give them a lustre. MATTS. (G. c^D. Molten -, DA. Matter-, F. Nattes ; I. Sluoje ; S. Estret/s; P. Esterras.) A texture usually formed of sedge flags or rushes. The mats justly entitled to rank as commercial com- modities, are those of Russia, of which we annually import large quantities from St. Petersburg!! and Archangel: they are generally of a tolerably close texture, and extremely durable. MERCURY; see QUICKSILVER. MILLET. (F.Millet, Mil; G. Hirse ; D. Geerst, Geers, Gierst; V.Miglio, Panicastrcllo; S. Mijo ; P. Mil/to, Painco ; DA; Hirse; Sw. Hirs ; POL. Proso ; R. Proszo ; L, Milium, Panicum milia- ceum.} Millet is a native of India, but is now commonly cultivated in many parts of Europe, as an esculent grain. It rises with a reedlike stalk, three or four feet high. The top of the stalk is terminated by a large loose panicle, which hangs on one side, having .a chaffy flower, which is succeeded by a small round seed. There are two varieties, one with white, and the other with black seeds ; but they do not differ in any other particular. This plant is greatly cultivated in the oriental countries, from whence it is annually brought to us. It is seldom cultivated in Britain, 230 MOL but in small gardens. It is used as an ingredient in puddings, and is by some people greatly esteemed. In this country the seeds ripen in August, when the plant must be cut down, and the seeds beaten out. It not protected from birds, they will devour it as soon as it begins to ripen. MINIUM ; see RED LEAD. MOHAIR, Moreen. (F. Moire; G. Mohr, Moor; D. Moor; I. Moerro ; S. M-ue, Muer ; P. Chama- lote, Melania; DA. Moor ; Sw. Moire ; POL. Mora; R. Obiir.) The Mohair goats are a variety of the common goats, being famous for their soft and silver white hairs, the like of which are not to be found in any place but Angora. This hair is commonly carried ready-spun to Europe, and being there woven into camlets and other manufactures, particularly by the English, is afterwards exported to all parts of the world, and even to those, whence the yam was ori- ginally brought. MOLASSES. (F. Si/rop de Sucre, Melasses ; G. Syrup ; D. Syroop ; I. Mielazzo di zucchero ; S. Miel de azucar, Chancaca ; P. Meltisso, Assucar liquido ; DA. Sirup; Sw.Sirapi R. Patoka sacharnaja.) Molasses, Molosses, or Melasses, are that gross fluid matter, remaining of sugar after refining ; and which no boiling will bring to a consistence more solid than that of syrup. Molasses are much used on the continent, for the preparation of tobacco, and also among poor people instead of sugar, as treacle. In England, molasses are chiefly used, for the pur- pose of distilling a spirit from it, which is dearer and superior to malt spirits. MOS MOSS ROCK ; the production of Denmark and Norway. It wears a custaceous appearance : the white, and most free from stoney particles, is most esteemed ; it is used in large quantities in the ma- nufacture of cudbear. A company, under the deno- mination of the CUDBEAR COMPANY, has been many years established in Peter-street, Westminster. It is used for dying various colours, as crimsons, garnetts, &c. Half a pound of cudbear is sufficient to dye a pound of cloth a good pompadour : several lighter shades may be done afterwards in the same liquor, without adding any more cudbear. Worstead re- quires a fourth more than cloth, and wool an half more. From a quarter to half an ounce of this cudbear to a pound of cloth is sufficient to wet out for blues. In either wetting out or rinsing,, it will be found to save about one-third of indigo used in the common way: the saving to the dyer is considerable, and the colour equally beautiful and permanent as if made with indigo, and wood alone. Cudbear dyes crim- sons and garnetts without any preparation : the co- lours are more beautiful, more durable, and cheaper than those made with woods. Cudbear will save considerably in cochineal, and is as fixed as grain alone. Cudbear dyes silk with or without prepara- tion, and the process is extremely simple ; ten to fourteen ounces to one pound of silk making an ex- ceeding hig;h colour. In dying silks or woollens, where the adherence of the cudbear is found incon- venient, putting it in a thin linen bag removes the objection, and it only requires a few minutes more boiling to make the cudbear throw out all its virtues. 232 MUS MOTHER OF PEARL. (F. Nacre \ G. Perl- mutter ; D. Paarlemoer ; I. Madreperla ; S. Madre de Per las, Concha de Nacar ; P. Madreperoia ; DA. Perlemor, Perlamoder ; Sw. Perlmo ; POL. Macica perlowa ; R. Shemtschuflinaja, rakowina; L. Bacca concha, Concha margaritifera.) Mother of Pearl, is the shell of the mytilus mar- garitiferus, or pearl-bearing mussel. It has the shell compressed and flat, nearly orbicular, the base trans- verse, and imbricated with dentated coats. It dwells in the ocean of either Indies. On the inside it is ex- quisitely polished, and of the whiteness and water of pearl itself. It has also the same lustre on the out- side, after the external laminae have been taken off, by aquafortis and the lapidary's mill. Mother of pearl is used in inlaid works, and in se- veral toys, &c. MOUNTAIN BLUE; see COPPER. MOUNTAIN GREEN; see COPPER. MUSK. (F. Mu.sc ; G. Bisam ; D. Muskus ; I. Muschio ; S. Almizcle ; P. Almiscar ; DA. Desmer ; iSw. Desman; POL. Pizmo ; R. Muscus ; L. Mos- chus.} Musk is a very strong-scented substance, found under the belly of the male, of a species of goat, called moschus mosciferus. After killing it, the peasants cut off the bag containing the musk. It is about the size of a hen's egg, and is situated nearer to the organs of generation, than the navel. In its original state, it is nothing more than putrid blood, which coagulates in this bag. The largest bladder cannot furnish above half an ounce of musk, gene- rally but little more than a quarter of an ounce. Musk affords such a strong smell, that it becomes disagreeable, if not kept at a distance, or weakened by the admixture of other substances. It is likewise MUS 233 so fixed and permanent, that at the end of several years, it seems to have lost no part of its activity. When it comes to us, it is dry with a kind of unc- tuosity, of a dark reddish brown, or rusty blackish colour, in small round grains, with very few hard black clots, and perfectly free from any sandy or other visible foreign matter. If chewed and rubbed with a knife on paper, it looks smooth, bright, yellowish, and free from bitterness. Laid on a red-hot iron, it catches flame, and burns almost entirely away, leav- ing only an exceeding small quantity of light greyish ashes : if any earthy substances have been mixed with the musk, the quantity of the residuum will readily discover them. The best and greatest quantities of musk, come from Thibet, from whence they are carried for sale to Patna, the chief town of Bengal. That which is pro- duced in Siberia, is inferior, having somewhat of the flavor of castor. It seems to be the produce of the musquash or musk-rat, a diminutive of the beaver, and is also to be met with in North America. Musk, besides its use as a perfume, is esteemed a medicine of great efficacy. MUSTARD-SEKD. (F. Graine do Moutarde; G. Senfsaat; D. Moslerd -, I. Mostarda, Senapa* S. Mostaza; P . Moatarda ; DA. Senep ; Sw. Senap ; POL. Gorrozijka; R. Gortschiza ; L. Sinapis.} Mustard is a plant, of which there are seventeen species, three of which are natives of Great Britain ; the sinapis alba, nigra, and arvensis. The alba, or white mustard, which is frequently cultivated asasallad herb, for winter and spring use, produces white seeds, used for making the sauce called mustard. The nigra, t>r common mustard, which is frequently found growing naturally, but is also cultivated in the fields, for its brown seed. The arvensis grows naturally on arable land, in- 231 MYR many parts of Great Britain. The seed of this, is commonly sold under the title of Durham mustard- seed. The white and brown mustard-seed, is mostly im- ported from Holland, though always inferior to the English growth. Brown seed is higher in value than the white, and is chiefly used for pickling. MYRRH; GUM MYRRH. (F. Mijrrhe ; G. Myrrhen ; D.Mirrhe; I. Mirra; S. Mirra ; P. Mlrra; DA. Myrre ; Sw. Myrlia ; POL. Mirra ; L, Mt/rrha.) Myrrh is a gummy resinous, concrete juice, ob- tained from an oriental tree, of which we have as yet no certain account. It is a native of Abexim in Ethiopia, and grows besides on the eastern shores of Arabia Felix, and on the coasts of the Indian ocean. The best gum myrrh is somewhat transparent, friable, in some degree unctuous to the touch, of an uniform brownish, or reddish yellow colour, a mode- rately strong not disagreeable smell, and a slightly pungent, very bitter taste. The inferior sorts are of a red^blackish, or black earthy colour, solid, and heavy. There are sometimes found among it, hard shining pieces, of a pale yellowish colour, resembling- gum arabic, of no taste and smell ; sometimes masses of bdellium, darker coloured, anddiffering from myrrh, both in taste and smell ; sometimes an unctuous gummy resin, of a moderately strong, somewhat un- grateful smell, and a bitterish very durable taste, obviously different from those of bdellium and myrrh. On account of these and other adultera- tions, great care is requisite in the choice !of this drug. To have the first and most perfect kind of myrrh, a young vigorous tree is selected, free from moss or any other plant adhering to the bark, and a deep in- cision made with a hatchet, above the first large NEW branches. What runs from this wound the first year, is myrrh of the first growth, and never plentiful. This operation is performed, some time after the rains have ceased. At each return of the season, the sap continues to run, in the course to which it has been accustomed ; but by the second year, the tree begins to rot at the place of the incision, so that the myrrh is of a secondary quality. That obtained from inci- sions near the roots, and in the trunks of old trees, is also of an inferior quality. Grand Cairo, is the great staple-place for the myrrh trade ; but by far more considerable quantities are brought from Arabia Felix, than from Ethiopia and Abyssinia; and the quality of the latter, distinguished also bv the name of Tro^lodite myrrh, was always " i i more valued. The medical effects of this aromatic bitter, are to warm and to strengthen. It seems now to be less used than in former times. N. NEPHRITIC WOOD. (G. Guesholtz ; D. Gravehout ; DA. Grenstree; F. Bois Nephretic.} A wood of very fine denze and compact texture, of a fine grain, brought to us from New Spain, in small blocks: it is to be chosen of a pale colour, sound and firm, and such as has not lost its acrid taste. This wood is a very good diuretic : it is also recommended in fevers, and obstructions of the viscera. NEWTRE SKINS, the skins of monkeys, of which large quantities are now imported from South America. 236 NUT NICARAGUA WOOD. (F. Bois de Sang, Bois de Nicarague ; G. Blutholz, Nikaragaholz ; D. Bio- edkout; 1. Legno sanguigno ; S. Palo desangre ; P Pdo sanguinho; DA. Bl&ddraee; Sw. Blodtrad.} Nicaragua wood, is a kind of dying wood, of a very bright red colour; brought from Nicaragua, a province in the Spanish America. NITRE; see SALTPETRE. NUTMEGS. (F. Noix de Muscatje; G. Mus- eatnusse ; D. MuskaatrwQten,, Nootemuskaat ; I. Nod muscade; S. Nuez mmcada ; P. Noz moscada; DA. Muskadnbdder ; Sw.Mushot; POL. Musza- towa galha ; R. Muskatnue orescliki ; L. A^w mos- chata.) The myristica moschata, or nutmeg tree, in its size and foliage, resembles the pear tree ; it attains the height of 30 feet, producing numerous branches, which rise together in stories: the bark of the trunk is of a reddish brown, but that of the young branches of a bright green colour ; the leaves are nearly elip- tical, pointed, undulated ; on the upper side of a bright green ; on the under, whitish. The flowers are small, and male and female upon separate trees; they are succeeded by the fruit, which is covered with an external green substance, similar in its form to that of the common walnut, but more fleshy and full of juice. This external covering, when grown ripe, acquires a deep yellow colour, and as it opens, dis- covers an internal membranous coat, of a beautiful red colour, which divides into filaments, and is known by the name of mace. This lies immediately over the thin and brittle shell that encloses the nutmeg. It is now necessary to gather the fruit, otherwise the mace would get loose, and the nutmeg would lose that oil which preserves it, and in which its excellence consists. NUT 237 It is nine months before the fruit comes to perfec- tion. After it is gathered, the outer rind is stripped off. The nuts are then carried home, and the mace carefully taken off with a small knife, after which they are for three days exposed to the sun, and then dried before a fire, till they emit a sound when they are shaken ; they then beat them with small sticks, in order to remove their ligneous shell, which flies off in pieces. These nuts are now divided in three parcels ; the first contains the largest and most beau- tiful, destined to be brought to Europe ; the second contains such as are reserved for the use of the inha- bitants ; and the third contains the smallest, which are irregular or unripe. The latter are burnt, and the former used for making oil. To prevent the nutmegs thus selected, from cor- rupting, they are plunged in a liquid of lime and salt-water; they are afterwards laid in heaps, where they heat, and lose their superfluous moisture by evaporation : when they are fit for being sent to Europe. The nutmeg differs in goodness, according to the age of the tree, the soil, the exposition, and method of culture. The round nutmeg is preferred to thai which is oblong ; and that fruit is more particularly esteemed, which is fresh, moist, heavy, of good smell, and an agreeable, though bitter flavor ; and which yields an oily juice upon being pricked. A congealed, oil is obtained by expression, from the nutmegs rejected at market ; there is also an oil distilled from them. The use of the nutmeg, both for culinary and medical purposes, has been known for many cen- turies. Nutmeg trees grow in several islands of the eastern ocean. The wood-pigeon of the Moluccas, is unin- tentionally a great planter of these trees, and disse- minates them in places, where the Dutch conceived it their interest, that they should be rooted out, orde- 238 OAK stroyed. The growth of this aromatic, therefore, now is chiefly confined to a few of the Banda islands, whereof Banda itself, Neira, and Pouloay produce S00,000lbs. of nutmegs annually. NUTS; see SMALL NUTS.' NUX VOMICA. (F.Noixvomiques; G. Kr. Ocs- ters ; I. Ostriche; S. Ostras ; P. Oslrass ; DA. Os- iers; Sw. Ostron ; I?OL. Ostrygi; R. Ustrizu; L. The oyster is a small, flat, shell fish, the fishery of which is carried on in a very considerable manner, in several places along the British and Irish coasts ; but more particularly in Wales, and the eastern part of England ; from whence they are sent to market, ei- ther fresh, or pickled in barrels. The Colchester oysters are particularly famous. They also take oysters on the coast of France, par- ticularly Concale Bay ; but they are so very poor, that they bring them over to England, to be fattened. The Dutch have likewise a few oysters ; but they, as well as the French, are obliged to have recourse to the English, for oysters of any delicacy. Oysters are in season, from the month of August all autumn and winter, till March, when they begin to spawn. PALM-OIL. (F. Huile de palme, Huile de Se- negal; G. Palmol ; D. Palm olie\ I. Olio di palma; S. Aceite de palma ; P. Oleo de palma ; DA. Palme- olie; Sw. Palm olja ; L. Oleum pa/mce vcrum.} This oil, is said to be the produce of the palma spi- nosa major ; the fruit or nuts of which are full of oil. It is obtained by boiling them in water, when the oleaginous particles rise to the surface, and are skim- med off, and strained for use. This tree grows in most parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The negroes are fond of the oil, which sometimes makes an ingredient in their food. It is s 258 PEA very efficacious by way of embrocation, for strains. or to discuss rheumatic aches, &c. PASTEL ; see KERMES. PEARL ASHES. (F. Perleasse, Cendres de Perle\ G. Perlasche; D. Paerelasch -, I. Cenere di Per la ; S. Cenizas de Per las ; P. Cinza de Perolas ; DA. Perlaske ; Sw. Perlaska.} Pearl ashes, are a kind of fixed alkaline salt. It is prepared by mixing the ashes of burnt wood with water, evaporating the clear ley, and calcining them for a considerable time in an oven moderately hot. The goodness of pearl ashes is distinguished by their strong body, and an uniform white appearance: and their value decreases, in proportion to the blue cast they have: blue, then, are the most inferior sort of pearl ashes. This article being subject to an adulte- ration, by the addition of common salt, the fraud can be discovered, by taking a small quantity of the sus- pected matter, and letting it lay to soften in the air, and then putting it in a shovel over the fire ; if it contains any common salt, a crackling and kind of slight explosion will take place, when the salt grows hot. Pearl ashes are chiefly prepared in Russia, Poland, Hungary, and North America ; they are much used in the manufacture of glass, also for bleaching, &c. The patent dated 2d April, 1791, granted to George Glenny. of Bromley-hill, in the county of Kent, Esq. for his method of obtaining from wood ashes, a much greater quantity than usual, of pearl and pot ashes, is as follows: that the common ashes produced by burning wood, must be completely calcined in a furnace; and if a small proportion of lime be sifted among the wood ashes, before they are put in the calcining furnace, it will prevent them from vitrify- ing ; but if they are at times stirred with an iron rake, PEA 259 or other proper instrument, during the process of cal- cination, that will answer the purpose of adding the lime; and when the ashes are calcined into a fine powder, the usual method may be pursued, but it is better to boil them in large vessels, especially in frosty weather. PEARLS. (F. Perks; G. Perlen ; D. Paarlen; \.Perle \ S.Perlas; P.Perolas; DA. Perler\ Sw. Parlor; POL. Perly ; R. Shemlschug ; L. Marga- rita.} Pearls are a hard, white, shining, usually roundish body, found in a testaceous fish resembling an oyster. The fish in which these are usually produced, is the East Indian pearl oyster, as it is commonly called. Besides this, the common oyster, the mus- cle, and several other shell-fish, produce a kind of pearl. All pearls are formed of the matter of the shell, and consist of a number of coats, spread with perfect re- gularity, one over another, like the several coats of an onion. They are said to proceed only from a distemper in the fish, analogous to the bezoars, and other stony concretions in several animals of other kinds. Though these ornaments are met with in all parts of the globe, the most esteemed have always been those of Asia, and the east coast of Africa. In the kingdom ot Madura, which lies on the east of Mala- bar, there are many pearl fisheries. Tutukurin or Tutucorin is the principal, if not the only city, on the fishery coast. At the time the Portuguese were masters in these parts, the pearl fishery in the Straits betwixt the island of Ceylon and the continent, was styled, by way of excellence, the fishery, and very de- servedly ; for though some prefer the pearls taken near the island of Baharen, in the Persian Gulf, and those likewise found on the coast of China at Hai- 260 PEA nan, yet the produce of these fisheries was very sel- dom superior to that alluded to. At present the pear) fishery, carried on in the strait between Ceylon and the Continent is so much exhausted, that it takes generally five or six years before a sufficient quantity of pearls is to be found. The pearls taken at Baharen, though not so white as those of China and Ceylon, are much larger than those of the latter place, and much more regularly shaped than the former. They are of a yellowish cast, but preserve their golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lose much of their lustre by keeping ; particularly in a hot climate. The shell of both these species, which is known by the name of Mother of Pearl, is used for various purposes. There are a variety of rivers in the Eastern Tartary, con- siderable for pearl-fishery, though defective in shape and colour. Many rivulets in Livonia produce pearls, almost equal in size to the oriental ones. In Scotland, especially to the northward, about Perth, as far as Loch-Tay, in all the rivers running from lakes, there are found muscles that have pearls of more than or- dinary merit, though seldom of large size ; but this fishery is at present exhausted. The American pearl fisheries are all in the gulph of Mexico, along the coast of Terra Firma. The greatest quantity, and the finest, both with regard to weight and water, are found about the island of Mar- guerites. There are also some small pearls in the South Sea, particularly in the Bay of Panama : but they are very inconsiderable. The West Indians knew the value of their pearls before the discovery of America ; and when the Spaniards arrived there, they found great quantities stored up ; but they were almost all imperfect, and their water yellow and smoky, because they used fire in opening the fish. There are two seasons for pearl fishing in the East Indies: the first is in March and April, and the last in August and September ; and the more rain there falls in the year, the more plentiful are these fisheries. PEA 261 As the oysters are usually firmly fastened to the rocks, the clivers commonly take iron rakes down in the sea to loosen them ; they also carry down with them a large net, in the manner of a sack, tied to the neck by a long cord, the other end of which is fasten- ed to the side of the bark. This net is to hold the oysters gathered from the rock, and the cord is to pull up the diver, when the bag is full, or when he wants air. He sometimes precipitates himself sixty feet under the water, and whatever depth he be, the light is so great, that he easily sees whatever passes in the sea. To his great consternation he sometimes per- ceives monstrous fishes, from which all his address, in mudding the water, &c. will not always save him, and this is one of the greatest dangers of the fishery. The best divers will keep under water near half an hour, and the rest do not stay less than a quarter. During this time, they hold their breath, without the use of oils or any other liquors. When they find themselves straitened, they pull the rope to be hove up in the air. On the shore they unload their barks, and lay the pearl fish in an infinite number of little pits, dug in the sand, raising heaps of sand over them ; and in this condition they are left, till the rain, wind, and sun, have obliged them to open, which soon kills them ; upon this the flesh rots and dries, and the pearls thus disengaged, fall into the pit on their taking out the shell. After clearing the pits, and cleaning and drying the pearls, they are passed through a kind of sieve, according to their sizes. Aleppo is the staple place of the East Indian pearls ; from thence they are transported to Leghorn, and then circulated through Europe. 262 PEP PEASE. (F. Pois; G.Erbsen; D. Erwten\\. Piselli, Bisi, Erbione ; S. Pesoles, Guisantes ; P. Evilhas, Hervilhas; DA. Aerter ; Sw. Aerter ; POL. Groc/i; R. Goroch; L. Pisce.} Pease are a kind of pulse, of several sorts; as white, yellow, green, and gray. They are also divided into boiling and hog pease. The former kind is proper for the food of man, and particularly serviceable as sea provision. PEPPER. (F.Poivre; G. Pfeffer ; D. Peper ; I. Pepe\ S. Pimienta; P. Pimenta ; D^.Peber; Sw. Peppar ; PoL.Pieprz; R. Perez; L. Piper.} Pepper is an aromatic berry of a hot dry quality, chiefly used in seasoning. There are three kinds of pepper, at present used in the shops, the black, the white, and the long pepper. Slack pepper is the fruit of the piper siriboa. This is a shrub rising into a stem, which requires a tree or prop to support it. The leaves, which have a strong smell and pungent taste, are of an oval shape, though terminating in a point. From the flower buds, which are white, are produced small berries, commonly ga- thered in October, and exposed to the sun for seven or eight days. This fruit, which was green at first, and afterwards red, assumes the appearance which black pepper has, when it comes to us. The largest, heaviest, and least shrivelled, is the best. The pepper plant flourishes in the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon ; and more "particularly on the Malabar coast. It is planted from shoots, which pro- duce no fruit till the end of three years, but bear so plentifully the three succeedingyears, thatsome plants yield from six to seven pounds of pepper. The shrub then declines so fast, that in twelve years time it ceases bearing. The common white pepper is factitious, being pre- pared from the black, in the following manner : they PER 263 steep this in sea-water, exposed to the heat of the sun for several days, till the rind or outer bark loosens ; they then take it out, and when it is half dry, rub it till the rind falls off; then they dry the white fruit, and the remains of the rind blow off like chaff. A great deal of the heat of the pepper is taken off by this process, so that the white kind is more fit for many purposes than the black. There is however a sort of native white pepper produced on a species of the same plant, which is much better than the fac- titious. The long pepper, is a dried fruit of an inch, or an inch and a half long, and about the thickness of a large goose-quill : it is of a brownish gray colour, cy- lindrical in figure, and said to be produced on a plant of the same genus. The people of the East Indies esteem pepper as a stomachic, and drink a strong infusion of it in water, .by way of creating an appetite. They have also a way of making a fiery spirit, of fermented fresh pepper with water, which they use for the same pur- poses. The piper amalgo or black pepper, and the piper inequale or long pepper of Jamaica, are indigenous. The whole plant of the former has the exact taste of the East India black pepper ; the fruit of the latter is similar to the East India long pepper. Both these plants, may perhaps, hereafter be deemed worthy of attention. Pepper that is sold ground, is very apt to be so- phisticated ; the black with burnt crusts of bread, &c. the white with beaten rice. PERNAMBUCCO WOOD ; see BRAZILWOOD. 264 PER PERUVIAN BARK. (F. Quinquina; G. China- rinde ; D. Kina, Quinquina', I. China, Chinacchina ; S. Quina, Quina-Quina, Corteza de Loja ; P. Quina, Quinquina; DA. Kina, China, Chinabark ; Sw. feberbarie, China ; POL. Kwinkwinna ; R. China, Chinchina; L. Quinquina, China, Cortex Peruvi- anus.) Bark is the produce of a tree called cinchona. Linnaeus describes two species : first the corymbifera, corymbbearing, or white Peruvian bark, with oblong lanceolate leaves, and axillary corymbs ; and second- ly, the officinalis, or coloured Peruvian bark, with el- liptic leaves, downy underneath, and the leaves of the corolla woolly. Both species are natives of Peru, where the trees attain the height of fifteen to twenty feet. The former particularly, abounds in the hilly parts of Quito, growing promiscuously in the forests, and is spontaneously propagated from its seeds. Both sorts have also been found in the province of Santa Fe. The bark has some odour, to most people not unpleasant, and very perceptible in the distilled water, in which floating globules, like essential oil, have been observed. Its taste is bitter and astrin- gent, accompanied with a degree of pungency, and leaving a considerably lasting impression on the tongue. According to some, the virtue of the bark, was first discovered by a Peruvian, who in his fits of the ague, taking the habit of seizing and sucking a branch of the tree, found himself thereby relieved, and at last cured. About the year 1640, the lady of the Spanish Viceroy, the Comitessa del Cinchon, was cured by the bark, which has therefore been called cortex or pulvis Comitessae Cinchona, Chinachina, or Chin- china, Kinakina or Kinkina, Quinaquina or Quin- quina ; and from the interest which the Cardinal de Lugo and the Jesuit fathers took in its distribution, it PER 265 lias been called cortex or pulvis Cardinalis de Lugo, Jesuiticus, Patrum, &c. On its first introduction into Europe, it was repro- bated by many eminent physicians ; and at different periods long after, it was considered a dangerous re- medy ; but its character in process of time, became very universally established. For a number of years, the bark which is rolled up into short thick quills, with a rough coat, and a bright cinnamon colour in the inside, which broke brittle, and was sound, had an aromatic flavor, a bitterish astringent taste, with a degree of aromatic warmth, was esteemed the best ; though some esteemed the large pieces as of equal goodness. During the time of the war before last, in the year 1779, the Hussar frigate took a Spanish ship, loaded principally with Peruvian bark, which was much larger, thicker, and of a deeper reddish colour, than the bark in common use. Soon after it was brought to London, it was tried in St. Bartholomew's, and other hospitals about town. In July, 1782, Dr. Wm. Saunders published an account of this red bark ; in which he says, that the small quill bark used in Eng- land, is either the bark of young trees, or of the twigs or branches of the old ones ; and that the large bark, called the red bark, from its deep colour, is the bark of the trunk of the old trees: and he mentions, as Mr. Ar- not, who himself gathered the bark from the trees in Peru ; and Mons. Condamine, that taking the bark from an old tree, effectually kills it ; but that most of the young trees which are barked, recover and con- tinue healthy; and that for these reasons, the Spa- niards now barked the younger trees for foreign mar- kets, though they still imported into Spain, some of the bark of the old trees, which they esteemed much more efficacious, than what was got from the young. Dr. Saunders himself thinks, that it is not only stronger and more resinous, but likewise more effica- cious and certain in its effects, than the common $66 PIL bark, and had cured many agues, after the other had failed. The pale bark is brought to MS in pieces of differ- ent sizes, either flat or quilled, and the powder is rather of a lighter colour than that of cinnamon. The red is generally in much larger, thicker, flattish pieces, but sometimes also in the form of quills, and its powder is reddish, like that of Armenian bole. As already observed, it is much more resinous, and pos- sesses the sensible qualities of the cinchona in a much higher degree than the other sorts. The red bark is heavy, firm, sound, and dry ; friable between the teeth, does not separate into fibres ; and breaks, not shivery, but short, close, and smooth. It consists of three layers ; the outer is thin, rugged, of a whitish brown colour, but frequently covered with mossy matter : the middle is thicker, more compact, darker coloured, very resinous, brittle, and yields first to the pestle : the inmost is more woody, fibrous, and of a brighter red. The Peruvian bark is prescribed for many dis- eases, chiefly as a powerful astringent, tonic, and an- tiseptic. PETROL, OIL OF PETRE, ROCK OIL. (F. Pe- trole ; G. Steinol\ D. Stecnoli ; \.Petroleo\ DA. Steenolje; Sw. Stenolja ; POL. Skalney oley ; R. Ka- mennoe masslo ; L. Petroleum.} Petrol is a mineral oil, supposed to issue out of the clefts of rocks, and found floating on the waters of certain springs. It differs by its liquidity only from bitumens, like esphattum, jet, &c. Hitherto there has been but little Petrol found, except in hot countries, as Persia, the southern provinces of France, and the Duchy of Modena in Italy, The naphta, which is either a liquid, or at least a very soft bitumen, is much the same with petrol. PILCtJARDS are fish, which have a general like- PIL 267 ness to the herring, but differ in some particulars very essentially. The body of the pilchard is less com- pressed than that of the herring, being thicker and rounder : the nose is shorter in proportion, and turns up, the under jaw is also shorter. The dorsal fin of the pilchard is placed exactly in the centre of gravity, so that when taken up by it, the body preserves an equilibrium ; whereas that of the herring dips at the head. The pilchard in general, is less than the her- ring, but it is fatter, or more full of oil. The pilchard appears in vast shoals off the Cornish coasts, about the middle of July, disappearing the be- ginning of winter. Their winter retreat and their motives for mm - ratinsr are the same with those of the o o herring. The approach of the pilchard is known by much the same signs as those that indicate the arrival of the herring. Persons called in Cornwall huers are placed in the cliffs to point out to the boats stationed off the land the course of the fish. The emoluments that accrue to the county of Corn- wall by the pilchard fishery are very considerable. But a small part of the pilchards, taken here, are con- sumed in the county, notwithstanding they are very delicious eating. The greatest part are salted, and placed together in large heaps, where they lie for se- veral days, under a pressure of large stone weights, by which means the fat and oil are drained from them in large quantities, into proper vessels ; then they pic- kle and press them into cases for exportation. Thou- sands are employed in catching and curing the fish, and the fishermen and merchants make large gains in sending them to Italy, Spain, and France. The poor are fed with the offals of the captures, and the land is manured with the refuse of the fish and fat. A con- siderable quantity of fish is also annually used for making pilchard-oil. The number of Pilchards exported yearly from the four ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St. 268 PIM lyes, according to an average of ten years, from 1747 to 1756 was, from Fowey - - 1,732 hhds. Falmouth - 14,63 If ditto Penzance and Mountsbay - 12,149| ditto St. Ives - 1,282 ditto Total 29,795 hhds. PIMENTO, ALLSPICE. (F. Piment; G. Pimen- to, Jamaica pfeffer \ D. Riement, Jamaica peptr ; I. Pepe garofanaio ; S. Pimienta de Jamaica ; P. Amo- ino, Pimcnta da Jamaica ; DA. Piment, Allehaande; Sw. Kryddpeppar ; POL. Pieprz z Jamaiki ; R. An- glinskoi perez ; L. Piper Jamaicense.) The pimento, allspice, of Jamaica pepper tree, myrtus pimenta, is a native of New Spain, and the West-India islands. In Jamaica it grows very plen- tifully, and delights in a hilly situation. It grows above thirty feet in height, and two in circumference, is very straight, and covered with a grayish, smooth, and shining bark. Its leaves, which have a pleasant smell, resemble in form and disposition those of the laurel ; and the branches in June, July, and August, put forth clusters of flowers, entirely similar to those of the common myrtle. The berries are generally gathered in July, while yet green ; for if they are suffered to remain till full ripe, they will not cure. They are when ripe of a dark purple colour, and full of a sweet pulp, which the birds devour greedily, and muting the seeds afterwards, propagate these trees in all parts of the woods. When gathered, they are laid on cloths, spread over terraced floors. During the first and second day, they are turned often, that the whole maybe more ex- posed to the sun, but when they begin to dry, they are frequently winnowed, still exposing them to the PIN 269 sun all day, and removing them under covers every evening, till they are sufficiently dried, which happens in ten or twelve days, and is known by the darkness of their complexion, and the rattling of the seeds ; they appear at this time wrinkled, and have changed from green to a very dark brown ; and in this state, being ready for the market, they are stowed in bags and casks. Some planters kiln-dry them with great success, and it seems indeed a most eligible method, where, from the abundance of the crop, dispatch and security against rain are very essential. As there is so great an affinity between this and the true clove, it has been proposed as worthy of trial, if the fruit, w r hen first formed, or the flowers picked off the tree, and dried, might not answer the same purpose as the Asiatic. The more odoriferous and small the berries are, the better they are reckon- ed. The leaves and bark of the tree, are full of aro- matic inflammable particles, for which reason the growers are extremely cautious, not to suffer any fire to be made near the walks, for if it once should catch the trees, they would consume with great fury. The berries have a resemblance in smell and taste to cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon, and pepper, or ra- ther a peculiar mixture, somewhat akin to them all ; whence their name of allspice. Pimento is chiefly imported into Britain from Ja- maica, where it is one of the staple articles. That growing in the Spanish dominions, is of a larger ber- ry, weaker aromatic flavor, and consequently inferior in quality. The quantity exported from Jamaica, may be estimated on an average, at two millions of pounds annually. PINCHBECK ; see COPPER. 270 PIS PISTACI A NUTS. (F. Pistaches ; G. Pistazien, Pistaschen; D. Pistasjes ; I. Pistacchi, Fastucchi-, S.Alfocigos ; P. Pisiacias, Fisticos ; DA. Pistacier, Pistaser ; Sw. Pistacier ; POL. Pislacye ; L. Pzs- Pistacia nuts are the fruit of the pistacia terebin- thus. This tree grows naturally in Arabia, Persia, and Syria, also in Sicily, whence the nuts are annual- ly brought to us. The fruit loses much of its beauty by drying, but improves perhaps in flavor. The tree when laden with clusters of the ripe smooth nuts, of a beautiful palish red colour, makes a fine appearance. It seldom exceeds thirty feet in height, and is often not more than twenty ; the trunk, which is propor- tionally short, is about three or three feet and a half in circumference. Some of these trees have male, and others female flowers, and some both male and female on the same tree. The female flowers come out in clusters from the sides of the branches ; they have no petals, but a large oval germen, supporting three re- flexed styles ; ad are succeeded by oval nuts. These nuts are moderately large, containing a kernel of a pale greenish colour, covered with an outer husk of different colours, from almost white to a red. They have a pleasant, sweet, unctuous taste, resembling that of almonds ; and they abound with a sweet and well tasted oil, which they yield in great abun- dance, on being pressed after bruising them. They are wholesome and nutritive, and in medicine are classed amongst the analeptics and restora- tives, PIT 271 PIT-COAL, STONE-COAL. (F. Charbom de terre ; G. Steinkohlen; D. Steenkoolen ; I. Carbo- ni fossili ; S. Carbones de tierra, Carbones de piedra; P. Carvoes de terra ou de pedra; DA. Steenkull ; Sw.Stenkol; R. Ugolje kamennoe ; L. Lithanthrax.} Pit-coal is a black, solid, compact, brittle, and in- flammable mass, of moderate hardness, lamellated structure, more or less shining, but seldom capable of a good polish, and does not melt when heated. It is commonly used for fuel, and according to Kirvvan, consists of petrol or asphaltum, intimately mixed with a small portion of earth, chiefly argillaceous, and fre- quently with pyrites. The inland coal trade, that is, carrying coals from Newcastle, Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent places, in the North of England, as also from the Frith of Edinburgh, and other neighbouring parts to the city of London, and the intermediate port towns, as well as to the North of Edinburgh and Newcastle, and up the Channel as high as Portsmouth west, em- ploys abundance of shipping and seamen ; insomuch, that in a time of urgent necessity, the coal naviga- tion alone, has been able to supply the government with a body of seamen for the royal navy, able to man a considerable fleet, at a very short notice. The produce of coals exported, which amounts to a very consideiiable sum annually, besides being pro- fitable to the owners, merchants, and mariners, is so much clear gain to the nation. The value also of this commodity as a conveniency of life, is a great consi- deration, and a multitude of manufactures could not be carried on, but by the help and cheapness of the best coals. Lastly, thousands of laborious people are employed in and about the mines, in conveying the coals to the ports and shipping them, in the wholesale and retail trade, &c. As to the use of the common fuel which we call coals, the Romans in Italy, seem to have been entire- 272 PIT lyjo-norant of it ; which is the more easily accounted for, as there are no beds of coals in the compass of Italy. But the primeval Britons appear to have used it. In the precincts of Manchester particularly, they could not have remained unapprised ofthe.com- bustible which surrounded them so abundantly ; the currents there bringing frequently down fragments of coals from the mountains. Not less than forty pieces of coals, and a quantity of slack, were discovered some time since, in the sand under the Roman road to Ribchester, when both were dug up at the con- struction of a house in Quay Street. These coals must have been lodged upon the spot, before the road of the Romans covered it. It seems therefore certain, that before the arrival of the Romans, the Britons were acquainted with the extensive beds of fuel, with which the precincts of Manchester are so happily stored. But for ages after the discovery, wood seems to have constituted the general firing of the nation, and would naturally continue so, as long as the fo- rests and thickets presented themselves so ready to the hand. In 852 a grant was made of some lands by the Abbey of Peterborough, under the reservation of cer- tain loans and payments in kind, to the monastery ; as sixty cart loads of wood, and twelve of pit-coal, &c. by which we see the quantity of coal was only one cart load, to five of wood. The first time we find coals publicly noticed, is in the reign of Henry III. who in the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of Newcastle, giving the inhabitants a license to dig coals. They were however not brought into com- mon use till the reign of Charles I. and were then sold about 17s. a chaldron. In some years after the restoration, there were about 200,000 chaldrons burnt in London : in 1670, about 270,000 ; at the revolu- tion, upwards of 300,000; and at present above 600,000 chaldrons are annually consumed. In Ire- land, though they have coal of their own, yet they an- PIT 273 nually import to the value of 30,0001. from England, and 12,0001. from Scotland. There are several other countries in Europe, which possess considerable coal mines ; as France, Brabant, Liege, Germany, and Sweden. Also on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean there has been coal dis- covered and wrought, in Newfoundland, Cape-Bre- ton, Canada, and some of the New England provinces. But in all these countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior to the British, and entirely unfit to be used in many manufactures ; so that they are obliged to import great quantities from Britain, for the use of their manufactures of iron, &c. If we consider coals according to their degree of inflammability, they are distinguishable in three kinds: 1. The least inflammable kind is that known by the name of Welsh coal, found in Wales; Kil- kenny coal, found near Kilkenny, in Ireland; and blind or deaf coal, found in many parts of Scotland and England. This coal takes a considerable degree of heat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly ignited, will burn a long time ; it remains in the fire in sepa- rate pieces, without sticking together or caking: it produces neither flame or smoak, and makes no cin- der, but burns to a white stony slag. It makes a hot glowing fire, like charcoals or cinders, and emits effluvia of a suffocating nature, which renders it unfit for burning in dwelling houses, its chief use being amongst maltsters, dyers, &c. for drying their com- modities. 2. Open burning coal, soon kindles, making a hot pleasant fire, but is soon consumed : it produces both smoak and flame in abundance ; but lies open in the fire and does not cake together, so as to form cinders, its surface being burnt to ashes before it is thorough- ly calcined in the midst ; from this it has its name of an open burning coal ; it burns to white, or light brown ashes. Of this kind is cannel-coal, jet, par- rot, splint, r.nd most of the coals in Scotland. T 574 3. Close burning coal, kindles very quickly, makes a very hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen, the very smallest culm making the finest cinders, which being thoroughly burnt, are porous and light, as a pumice stone; and when broke, are of a shining lead colour. It makes a more durable fire than any other coal, and finally turns to brown or reddish co- loured heavy ashes/ Of this kind are the Newcas- tle, and several other of the English coals, and the smithy coals of Scotland. The open burning and the close burning coal mixed together, make a more profitable fire for domestic uses than either of them separate. PITCH. (F. Poix ; G. Peek; D. Pek, Brai; I. Pece; S. Fez; P. Brea ; DA. Beg; Sw. Beek ; POL. Smola ; R. Smola gustaja ; L. fix.) Pitch is a tenacious, oily substance, drawn from pines and firs, and used in shipping, medicine, and various arts. It is tar inspissated, by boiling it over a slow fire. For further particulars, see Tar. PLATINA is the heaviest of all metals, its speci- fic gravity being to that of water, as twenty-three to one ; that of gold being only nineteen. Its colour is that of the purest silver. The very small globules of it are extremely malleable; but when many of these are collected, they can scarcely be so perfectly fused as to preserve the same degree of malleability. They are not affected by the magnet in the least, nor can they be dissolved in any simple menstruum, except- ing dephlogisticated marine acid. Platina however, as it is commonly met with, is mixed with many foreign substances, as gold, mercury, and blackish, ferruginous, sandy particles. In this state, it has the form of small grains, its plates of a bluish black, whose colour is intermediate betwixt those of silver and iron. The great specific gravity of platina, has rendered PLU it a very desirable matter for such as wish to adulte- rate the precious metals, and can procure the platina easily. This however can only be done in South America, where platina is met with in plenty. In Europe, the scarcity* of platina renders it a more va- luable object than even gold itself. Fears of this fraud have, undoubtedly, given occasion to the prohibition of exporting it from America. It is however not dif- ficult to discover the adulteration, by precipitation with green vitriol, which throws down the gold, and leaves the platina united with the menstruum : and by various other methods, but chiefly by its greater specific gravity. Platina has been remarkable, ever since 'its first discovery, for being the most infusible substance in the world. It has been kept in the most violent heat of a glass furnace for several days, without any alter- ation. This refractory metal was first melted with a large burning mirror. It has since been found capa- ble not only of fusion, but of vitrification, by the electric fire ; but De Lisle was the first, who was able to melt it with the heat of a common forge, when exposed to the blast of double bellows in a double crucible. It must be observed, however, that this fusion was not performed on common platina, but on such as had been dissolved in aqua-regia, and precipi- tated by means of sal ammoniac. This precipitate, or even crude platina, is fusible by the assistance of fluxes, as white glass, borax, and charcoal. PLUMS. (G. Getroeknete; DA. Drogue pru- nen ; F. Prunes se ehes ; I. Prune a sausine ; P. Passa Earnings.} Mire, usually called prunes, are the fruit of the plum tree dried in the sunshine, or in an oven: the best kind known are those large black ones imported from Bourdeaux: those most esteemed are the newest, and appear to have a silvery kind of dust on them. 276 POT PORPHYRY. (F. Porphyrei G. Perphyr; D. Porjiersleen; I. Porjido-, S. Porfido\ P. Porfido\ f)&. Porphyr; Sw. Porphyr; POL. Porfir\ R. Por- /?r ; L. rorphyrms lapis.} Porphyry includes those stones which contain ei- ther felt-spar, schoerl, quartz, or mica, with other species of crystallized stone, on a siliceous or calcare- ous ground. It is found of several different colours, as green, deep red, purple, black, dark brown, and gray. The Egyptian porphyry is a most elegant mass, of an extremely firm and compact structure, remarkably heavy, and of a fine strong purple, variegated more or less with pale red and white. In Upper Egypt, and in Arabia Petraea, the hard pale red porphyry is also found in surprising quantities : it is variegated with black, white, and green, takes a high polish, and emulates all the qualities of the oriental porphyry. The hard, red-lead coloured porphyry, variegated with black, white, and green, is a most beautiful and valuable substance. It has the hardness and all the other characters of the oriental porphyry, and even greatly excels it in brightness, beauty, and variega- tion of its colours. It is found in great quantities in the island of Minorca, and is well worth importing, being greatly superior to all the Italian marbles. PORTLAND STONE is a free-stone, found in Portland, a peninsula in Dorsetshire. It is mostly brought to London, for the structure of the finest edifices. St. Paul's church, in particular, was built therewith. POTASHES. (F. Potasse-, G. Pottasche ; D. Po- tds ; l.Potassa; S.Potassa; P. Potassa; DA. Pol- taske ; Sw. Potaska ; POL. Potasz; R. Potasch\ L. Cineres clavellati.)* Potashes are an impure fixed alkaline salt, of the colour of iron-stone, or paler. They are obtained POT 277 by burning birch or alder, by a slow fire, to ashes, and making them into a paste with water. This paste is plastered over a row of green pine and fir logs ; above that is laid transversely another row of the same, and that likewise is plastered over. In this way they continue building and plastering, till the pile be of considerable height. This pile is set on fire : and whenever the ashes begin to run, it is over- turned, and the melted ashes are beat with flexible sticks, so that they incrust the logs of wood, and be- come as hard as stone. This seems to be the method of making potashes in Sweden, Poland, &c. The Russia potashes are stronger, and, according to Sir Peter Warren, the best woods for making them are oak, ash, poplar, elm, hazle, and beech. They must be cut in winter, split, and stacked to dry. After twelve months in warm- open weather, the wood must be burnt on a brick hearth, by a slow fire, in a kiln or close place; the ashes must be sifted through two sieves, one finer than the other, and then put up in brick troughs, or wooden backs, covered with rain or river water, and must remain well mashed and in- corporated for five months. Brick furnaces, shaped like bakers' ovens, must be heated with a strong fire of oak or ash, burning night and day; and the pre- pared ashes must gradually be thrown on the fire, when they will run into metal like lead: the fire must not go out till the furnace is nigh filled with potashes. The ashes must then be broken, to be taken out, but the larger the pieces the better: they must be pre- served from the air in tight casks, the larger pieces by themselves, and the dust by. itself. Potashes are principally used by the soap-boiler, glass-maker, fuller, &c. The denomination of potashes is said to originate from their formerly having -been prepared or shipped in pots, to prevent their dissolving from the access, of air. 278 POT The greatest quantities of potashes come from Russia, Prussia, Poland, and North America. Kelp is a sort of ashes, made use of in many of the glass-works of this country, particularly for green glass. It is the calcined ashes of a plant, called by the same name; and, in some places, of sea-thongs or laces, a sort of thick-leaved fucus or sea-wrack. These ashes, like Barilla, contain the mineral alkali. The kelp-plant is thrown on the rocks and shores in great abundance, and in the summer months is raked together and dried, as hay in the sun and wind, and afterwards burnt to the ashes called kelp. The process of making it is thus: The rocks, which are dry at low-water, are the beds of great quantities of sea-weed, which is cut, carried to the beach, and dried ; a hollow is dug into the ground, three or four feet wide; round its margin are laid a row of stones, on which the sea-weed is placed, and set on fire within; and quantities of this fuel being continually heaped upon the circle, there is in the centre a per- petual flame, from which a liquid like melted metal drops into the hollow beneath ; when full, as it com- monly is before the close of the day, all heteroge- neous matter being removed, the kelp is wrought with iron rakes, and brought to an uniform consist- ence, in a state of fusion. When cool, it consolidates into a heavy, dark-coloured, alkaline substance, which undergoes in the glass-houses a second vitrifi- cation, and assumes a perfect transparency. The greatest quantity of kelp is prepared in the Scilly islands. POTATOES. (F. Pommes de terre ; G. Kartof- feln\ D. Aardappelen; \.Patatc, P o mi di terra \ S. Patatas manchegas ; P. Batatas de terra, Pomos de terra; DA. Patater, Jord&bler ; Sw. Potatos, Jord- paron ; R. Jabloki Semlenue, Kartoflu ; L. Tabera Virginiana esculen ta . ) Potatoes, it is generally thought, came originally PRU 279 from Nortli America. They were first, we are told, introduced into Ireland, in the year 1565, and thence into England. It was forty years after their introduc- tion, however, before they were much cultivated about London; and not before 1663 they came in general use. The utility of potatoes, as food for man and cattle, is well established. Instances of the amazing increase of potatoes are very numerous. In the Gentleman's Magazine for 17-57, we are told, that from one slice of a potatoe, planted by S. M'Hoy, near Tuam, in Ireland, there was a produce of nine hundred and sixty-five potatoes. This article is ex- ported to Gibraltar, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies. PRINCE'S METAL; see COPPER. PRUNES ; PRUNELLOES. (G. Prunellen ; D. Pruimellen; DA. Bruneller; Sw. Bruneller ; F. Prunes de Brignoles ; I. Susine di Brignola.) A sort of French prunes, of which large quantities are annually gathered in Provence. This fruit is very different from the common French prunes, and somewhat larger. PRUSSIAN BLUE; BERLIN BLUE. (F. Bleu de Prusse ; G. Berliner blau ; D. Berlyns blaauw ; I. Azzuro Prussiano, o di Berlino ; S. Azul de Prussia ; P. Azul de Alemanha, ou de Prussia; DA. Berliner- blaat ; Sw. Berliner blatt; R. La.sor Berlinskaja ; L. Cceruleum Berolinense.} Iron is the basis of the fine blue pigment, called, from the place where it was first discovered, Berlin, or Prussian blue. This colour was accidentally dis- covered, about the beginning of the last century, by a chemist of Berlin; who having successively thrown upon the ground several liquors from his laboratory, was much surprised to see it suddenly stained with a beautiful blue colour. Recollecting what liquors he 280 PUM had thrown out, and observing the same effects from a similar mixture, he prepared the blue for the use of painters ; who found that it might be substituted for ultramarine, and accordingly have used it ever since. The process of manufacturing this pigment, is by calcining a quantity of vegetable alkali with twice its weight of dried bullock's blood, until the blood be reduced to a perfect coal. This coal is boiled in water, the lixivium decanted, and poured into a solu- tion of one part of martial vitriol to six of alum, the lixivium and the solution both hot. The mixture will then acquire a very pale blue colour, and deposit as pale a precipitate. On adding more and more of a fresh solution of vitriol, the colour becomes deeper and deeper. In order to separate this precipitate, it is now filtrated, the next day washed till the water comes from it insipid, and the blue colour then gently dried. Prussian blue is nothing more than the iron of the vitriol, revived by the inflammable matter of the al- kaline lixivium, and perhaps a little brightened by the earth of alum. PUMICE-STONE. (F. Pierre-ponce-, G. Bim- stein\ D. Puimsteen; I. Pietra pomice ; S. Piedra pomez; P. Pedra pomes ; DA. Pimpsteen, Bimsteen ; Sw. Pimsten, Klasten, POL. Zuzcl kamienna ; R. Penza; L. Pumex.} The pumice-stone, though universally admitted to be the product of volcanic fire, is one of those bodies which have divided the opinions of naturalists. The Abbe Lazaro Spalanzani, who most minutely exa- mined this article, says, that the pumice fields, where the common pumice is found, consist of an aggrega- tion of numerous beds of strata of pumices, each bed not forming a distinct whole, but being a collection of balls of pumice, without adhesion ; from which he deduces, that they were thrown out by the volcano, in a state of fusion, and took a globose form in the PUM 281 air. They are of different sizes, from that of a nut to a foot and more in diameter. Though the ground colour of them all is white, in some it inclines to yellow, and in others to a gray. They swim in wa- ter, and do not give fire with steel. Their fracture is dry, and rou': POL. Rez, Zito; R. Rosch, Set, Jar ; L. Secale.} The secale cereale, or common rye, is a native of the island of Candia, and was introduced into the North of Europe and England many years aa;o. There 296 SAC are two varieties, the winter and spring rye. The winter rye, which is larger than the spring rye, is sown in autumn, at the same time with wheat. The spring rye, which is sown along with the oats, usually ripens as soon as the winter rye ; but the grain pro- duced being lighter, it is seldom sown, except where the autumnal crop has failed. Rye is commonly used for bread, either alone, or mixed with wheat. The consumption of this article is particularly great in Yorkshire and Scotland. Rye is frequently imported into Great Britain from Russia. Rye is subject to a disease, which the French call ergot, and the English horned rye. This commonly arises from a hot summer succeeding a rainy spring. Horned rye is such as suffers an irregular vegetation, in the middle substance between the grain and the leaf, producing an excrescence of a brownish colour, about an inch and a half long, and two tenths of an inch broad. Bread made of this kind of rye has a nauseous, acrid taste, and produces spasmodic and gangrenous disorders. Horned rye has been known to destroy sheep, dogs, poultry, &c. SACCHARUM SATURNI, SUGAR OF LEAD. (F. Sucre de Saturne; G. Bleyzucker ; D. Lood- f>uiker\ \.Zucchero di Salurno ; S. Azucar de Sa- turno ; P. Assucar de Saturno ; L. Saccharum Sa- turni.) To make this preparation of lead, boil ceruse with distilled vinegar, until the vinegar becomes suf- ficiently sweet ; then filter the vinegar through pa- per, and, after due evaporation, set it to crystallize. SAP 297 This is a very dangerous medicine for internal use, but is of great service externally. It is frequently imported from Germany. SAFFLOWER. (Y.Saffranon, Cartame, Saffron batard ; G. Sqfflor, Wilder Saffran ; D. Sqffloer, Floers, Basterd Saffran ; I. Zetffrone, Zafferano sara- cinesco ; S. Alazor, Azafran bastardo, Cartamo ; P. Acafroa, Azafrod, Cartamo, Fusaro ; DA. Safflor, Ucgte Saffran; Sw. Sajftor, Oagt Sajfran; POL. Szafran polny, Krokos ; 11. Polewoi, prostoi schafran; L. Carthamus tinctorius, Sajfranum.} Satflower is the florets of the flower of the cartha- mus tinctorius, a plant originally growing in Egypt, and some of the warm parts of Europe, and also in the Levant, whence great quantities are annually im- ported into Great Britain, for the purpose of making a yellow dye. The good quality of this commo- dity, is in a bright colour, of a saffron hue. If there happens to fall much rain, during the time the plants are in flower, or if the flowers are gathered with any moisture upon them, they change into a dark dirty yellow. The manner of preparing the safflowerin Egypt, is as follows : the flowers are gathered fresh, and pres- sed between two stones, to extract the crude juice, which is thrown away: they then are washed several times in spring water, which is brackish in Egypt, and by this the remaining acrid juice is carried away. When well pressed with the hands, they are put on the flat roofs of houses, and laid on mats, being now of a yellow colour. In the day time, they are cover- ed with rushes or straw, lest they should dry too fast, but at night they are uncovered and exposed to the air and dew. They are turned every now and then, and when dry, are changed into a deep yellow, and so packed and shipped for Europe. 298 SAP SAFFRON. (V.Safran-, G. Saffron; D. Saff- raan; I. Zaffcrano, Gruogo ; S. Azafran ; P.A^af- rao; D A . Saffra n ; Sw. Saffran ; POL. Szafran ; R. Schafran ; L. Crocus. ) Saffron is a bulbous plant, of which there are two species, one blowing in spring, and the other in au- tumn. The former, is merely esteemed on account of the beauty of its flowers ; the latter, is in blossom earlier than the green leaves appear, which remain during winter, and the flowers contain those small threads or filaments, used in medicine, and as a paint, and employed also for seasoning various kinds of food. It appears, that the medicinal use of this plant, has always continued among the orientals. The Euro- peans who adopted the medicine of the Greeks, sent to the Levant for saffron, until they learned the art of rearing it themselves ; and employed it very much, until they were made acquainted with the use of more beneficial articles. What in the ancient use of saffron is most discor- dant with our taste, is the employing it as a perfume. Not only were balls, theatres, and courts, through . which one wished to diffuse an agreeable smell, strewed with this plant, but it entered into the com- position of many vinous extracts, which retained the same scent ; and these costly smelling waters, were often made to flow in small streams, which spread abroad their much-admired odour. Luxurious peo- ple even moistened or filled with them all those things with which they were desirous of surprising their guests in an agreeable manner, or with which they ornamented their apartments. From saffron, with the addition of wax and other ingredients, the Greeks as well as the Romans prepared also scented salves, which they used in the same manner as our ancestors their balsams. In modern times, it does not appear that the smell of saffron was eyer much admired. SAG 299 That saffron was as much employed in seasoning dishes, as for a perfume, appears from the oldest works of cookery ; and its use in this respect has been long continued, and in many countries is still more preva- lent than physicians wish it to be. It may readily be supposed, that the great use made of this plant in cookery, must have induced people to attempt to cultivate it in Europe ; and it is probable that it was first introduced into Spain by the Arabs. From Spain it was, according to every appearance, carried afterwards into France. As to its introduc- tion into England, we are assured that a pilgrim brought from the Levant to England, under the reign of Edward III. the first root of saffron, which he had found rpeans to conceal in his staff, made hollow for that purpose. In the fifteenth and following century, the cultiva- tion of saffron, was so important an article in the European husbandry, that it was omitted by no writer on that subject. The saffron consumed at present in this country, comes from France and Spain. One million eight hundred thousand pounds of saffron are annually prepared in Egypt. The greater part of it goes to Marseilles and Italy, the rest to Syria and Arabia. The best saffron grows in the vi- cinity of Cairo ; that of Upper Egypt is not reckoned so good. SAGO. (F. Sagou ; G. Sago ; D. Sago; I. Sago ; S. Sago ; P. Sago ; DA. Sagogryn; Sw. Sa- go gryn.J The sago-tree, cycas circinalis, grows spontaneous- ly in the East Indies, and particularly in the Moluc- cas, and on the coast of Malabar. This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as it not only furnishes a considerable part of their constant bread, but also supplies them with a large article of trade. It runs up with a straight trunk to 300 SAL forty feet or more. The body contains a farinaceous substance, which they extract from it, and make into bread. The tree which seems to grow merely for the use of man, points out the meal, by a fine white powder, which covers its leaves, and is a certain indication of the maturity of the sago. The inhabitants then cut it down to the root, saw the body in small pieces, and after beating them in a mortar, pour water upon the mass ; this is left for some hours to settle. When fit, it is strained through a cloth, and the finer particles of the mealy substance running through with the wa- ter, the gross ones are left behind and thrown away. After the farinaceous part is sufficiently subsided, the water is poured off, and the meal being properly dried, is occasionally made into cakes, and baked. These cakes are said to eat nearly as well as wheaten bread, and are the support of the inhabitants, for three or four months in the year. The same meal, more firmly pulverized, and re- duced in granules, is what is called sago, which is sent into all parts of Europe, and sold in the shops as a great strengthener and restorative. There is a sort of sago brought from the West In- dies, but far inferior in quality to that coming from the East. It is supposed to be made from the pith or areca oleracea. SAL AMMONIAC. (F. Sel Ammoniac; G. Saliniak\ D. Sal Ammonidk ; I. Sale Ammoniaco ; S. Sal Ammoniaca ; P. Sal Ammoniaco ; DA. Sal- miak ; Sw. Salmiak ; POL. Salmiak, Salmoniak; R. Naschatur ; L. Sal Ammojiiacum.} Of this volatile salt there are two sorts, the ancient and modern. The ancient was a native salt, generated in those large inns or caravanseras, where the crowd of pilgrims, coming from the temple of Jupiter Am- mon, used to lodge. There, from the remarkably strong urine of their camels, arose a ^ ind of salt, denominated SAL 301 sometimes Ammoniac, from the temple, and some- times Cyreniac, from the Egyptian province Cyrene, in which the temple stood. Large quantities of a salt, nearly of the same na- ture, have been thrown out by Mount ^Etna. The modern sal ammoniac is entirely the produce of art. Marine acid, combined with volatile alkali, pro- duces the modern common sal ammoniac. The me- thod of making this salt was long unknown, and it was all imported from Egypt. Its composing parts, however, being once known, there was nothing left, in order to prepare it, but to procure them sufficiently c h ap, so as to afford sal ammoniac made in Britain at an equally low price with that imported from Egypt. The volatile alkali, is to be procured in plenty, from animal substances, or from soot ; and the low price of the vitriolic acid, made from sulphur, affords an easy method of decomposing sea-salt, and obtaining its acid at a cheap rate. A sal ammoniac work has been established a considerable time since, at Edinburgh, upon this principle. The art of sublimating sal ammoniac in Egypt, is as follows. As Egypt is without wood, its inhabi- tants are obliged to burn the dung of their domestic animals. The dung of asses and camels is chiefly used ; they mix it with cut straw, and of this mix- ture make cakes, which are dried in the sun. A soot, very rich in salts, is produced by the burning of these cakes, which is employed in the manufacture of sal ammoniac. The sublimation of this soot, is perform- ed in large bottles of thick glass, shaped like bombs, and put into a furnace, which is heated with dung. For three days and three nights, an equal heat is kept up, and that intense enough to vitrify the potters' earth, with which the bottles are coated, to make them resist the violence of the fire. The furnace is then suffered to cool, the bottles are broken, and the sal 302 SAL ammoniac taken out of their necks, into which it has been raised by sublimation. Sal ammoniac has the property of making tin unite very readily with iron and copper, and is therefore much used by coppersmiths, and in the manufactory of tinned iron. A solution of sal ammoniac has the property of dissolving resins. SALT. (F. Set; G. Salz; D. Zout ; I. Sale ; S. Sal; P.Sal; DA. Salt; Sw.Salt; POL. Sol; R. Sol ; L. Sal.} Salt is a mineral body, readily soluble in water, not inflammable, and tasting sharp or pungent upon the tongue. Alum, nitre, the different kinds of alkali, &c. are all salts ; but we limit ourselves here, to treat of ali- mentary salt, or muria. Alimentary salt is found under a variety of forms, in its different states; but is immediately distinguish- ed, by applying it to the tongue; and always assumes a cubic, pyramidal, or parallelepiped figure, after a re- gular crystallization. It is sustained in vast quanti- ties, in a liquid form, among sea-water, and that of salt-springs; but is also found solid in the bowels of the earth. The sea-water, in different parts of the world is very differently saturated with salt, some parts con- taining twice as much as others; but salt-springs are always much more so than any sea- water ; some containing as much nearly as they could be made to dissolve, and yielding- a brine, a pound of which affords near a quarter of a pound of salt. The com- mon run of sea-water, does not hold so much as one-fourth part of this quantity, some not one-eighth of it. Salt produced from the sea-water or salt-springs, of any part of the world, only differs in strength ; and the strength of salt, principally seems to depend upon SAL 30 J the method of preparing it. The quicker the liquor is evaporated, the weaker is the salt, which seems to proceed from part of the acid being raised and carried away with the water, when exposed to a violent fire. Salt obtained by coction, is therefore always much weaker than sea-salt obtained only by exposure to the rays of the sun. Of sea-salt there are two kinds, that which requires the heat of the sun to give it its consistence, called from its brown colour, bay salt; and that which re- ceives its consistence from the heat of the fire, called white salt. Low marshy grounds, disposed by nature for the reception of the sea-water, when the tide swells, and provided with banks and sluices to retain the same, are called a salt-marsh. These salt-marshes, the bottoms whereof they ram with a deal of care, are divided into several pits or basons, arid into these ba- sons, when the season is at hand, they let in the sea- water. The salt-season is from the middle of May to the end of August ; in which time, the days being long, and the sun rays strongest, the salt is raised and crystallized better than in any other season. The water is admitted to the height of about six inches, after first having let it rest and warm two or three days, in large reservoirs without the works, that it may come in lukewarm. The water admitted, the sluices are shut, and the rest of the work left to the wind and the sun. The surface of the water, thickens at first imperceptibly, and becomes at length covered over with a slight crust ; which hardening by the con- tinuance of the heat, is wholly converted into salt. When the salt has received its full crystallization, they break it with a pole, upon which it sinks to the bottom ; whence being- dragged out again, they leave it some time in little heaps, about the edge of the pit, to complete the drying; and at length in greater heaps, which they cover over with straw or rushes, to secure them from rain. Eight, ten, or at most fifteen days, having thus completed the process, they open 304 SAL the sluices, when the tide is rising, for a fresh stock of water, and gather the salt, till the season is over. Rainy weather is very pernicious to the work ; for rain water mixing in any quantity with the sea-water, renders it useless. The salt is brown, green, or red- dish, whejQ taken out of the pits, on account of the mud slime, always mixed with it. In some places they make it into white salt, by boiling it. The chief coasts for bay salt, are those of Bretagne, Saintonge, and the Pays d'Aunis, in France. Bay- salt is also made in Portugal, particularly at Setubal or St. Ubes. About four thousand tons of bay-salt are made annually at Porto Ferraio in. Italy ; large quantities also at Trapani in Sicily, and in various parts on the shores of the Mediterranean. Also in the Cape de Verd islands they prepare bay-salt, and particularly in the island of Tortuga, near the coast of Terra Firma, in America, which supplies the best part of North America. The white salt of Normandy is made by refining the bay-salt, but has this colour naturally, when taken out. of the pits. To make it, they gather a muddy sand on the flats of the shore, which the rising tide has covered, and impregnated with its waters for se- ven days. This sand being removed into pits for the purpose, discharges itself by degrees of all the water, which filtrates through some straw, wherewith the bottom of the pit is filled, and trickles into vessels, set on purpose to receive it; of which water they make the salt. The English and Dutch, and in times of war the Danes and Swedes, take most of the salts of Bretagne. That of Guerande is preferred by the English and Irish to all the rest, as the best and whitest. That of Bor- neuf, though browner and heavier, is most used in France and in the Baltic. The English and Dutch have frequently drove hard, in times of war, to do without the French salt, and to that end have endeavoured to supply their SAL wants from Spain, Portugal, and Italy ; but there is a disagreeable sharpness and serosity natural to them, which renders them not so fit for the salting of fish and flesh ; and they always eagerly return to the salts of Bretagne, as soon as any treaty has opened the commerce. . The process of obtaining 'salt from springs, by boil- ing or coction, is as follows. The boiling house is furnished with a furnace, and one or two large iron pans. The pan being filled with the liquor, a strong pitcoal fire is lighted, and when the water is luke- warm, some white of eggs, or blood of sheep or oxen, is thrown into it, and stirred about to clarify it ; and as the water gets hotter, the black frothy scum which arises, is taken off'. After boiling the liquor briskly about four hours, a pan of about fifteen inches depth, will begin to form crystals on its surface. The pan is then filled up a second time with fresh water, and this second filling is boiled down, in the same man- ner as the first, and so a third, and fourth ; but in the evaporation of the fourth, when the crystals begin to form themselves, they slacken the fire, and only keep the liquor simmering. In this heat they keep it all the while the salt is granulating, which is nine or ten hours. When the salt lays nearly dry, they rake it all together, into along heap, on one side of the pan, where it lies a while, to drain from the brine, and then is carried" to the storehouse. In this manner, the whole process is* performed in twenty-four hours. In some salt-works, they fill the pan seven times before they boil up the salt, and so make it out but once in two days. In the common way, of four boilings, with a pan of the usual size, containing one thousand three hundred gallons, they draw from fifteen to twenty bushels of salt every day, each bushel weighing fifty- six pounds. When the salt is carried into the storehouse, it is put up into drabs, which are partitions, like stalls for horses, lined at three sides and the bottom, with 306 SAL boards, and having a sliding board on the foreside, to draw up on occasion. The bottoms are made shelv- ing, being highest at the back, and gradually inclining forward. By this means, the brine remaining among the salt, easily separates and runs from it, and the salt in three or four days becomes sufficiently dry. In some places, they use long and conic wicker baskets, and in others wooden troughs, with holes in the bot- tom, for this purpose. What is called basket salt, is fine white salt, ob- tained from our salt-springs. It. is usually the weak- est of all salts. Brine springs, are fountains which flow with salt- water. Of these there are a good many, particularly in South Britain. At a place called Saltwater Haugh, near Butterpy, in the Bishopric of Durham, there are a multitude of salt-springs, which rise in the river Weare, for the space of about forty yards in length, and ten in breadth, but particularly one, out of a rock, which is so strong, that in a hot summer, the surface will be covered with pure white salt. Namptwich on the river Weever, and Northwich on the confluence of the Weever and the Dan, in Ches- hire, have very rich salt brines, the latter so much so, that they obtain six ounces of salt out of sixteen of water. That at Namptwich, according to the account of the people of the place, could be worked so, as to yield a sufficiency of salt for the whole king- dom. In Lancashire, the spring at Barton is also very rich. The fossile or rock salt, makes a considerable arti- cle of commerce. The mines of Wilisca in Poland, and those near Eperies in Hungary, are particularly famous. Their depth and capacity are surprising, and within them is found a kind of subterraneous repub- lic. The rocks of salt are hewn in form of great cy- linders ; the workmen using hammers, pickaxes, and chissels r as in stone quarries, to separate the several banks of stone. As soon as the massive pieces are SAL 307 got out of the quarry, they break them into fragments, fit to be thrown into the mill, where they are ground, and reduced into a coarse flour, which serves all the uses of sea-salt. The salt-mines of Catalonia in Spain, are found in the mountains of the Duchy of Cor- don na. The rock-salt exported from Liverpool, makes a considerable article of commerce, and goes principally to the Baltic. SALTPETRE, NITRE. (F. Saltpttre, Nitre ; G. Salpeter\ D. Salpeter ; I. Nitro, Salnitro; S. Nitro, Salitre ; P. Salitre; POL. Saletra, Salnitra ; R. Se- nitra; L. Nitrum.} Vegetable fixed alkali, combined with the nitrous acid, to the point of saturation, and an addition of some quick-lime, produces saltpetre. Saltpetre is made in great plenty in the more south- ern parts of Europe ; likewise in the southern parts of Persia, in China, the East Indies, and in North Ame- rica. In Podolia, in Poland, it is obtained from tu- muli or hillocks, which are the remains of former ha- bitations. In Spain it is said, the inhabitants extract it from the soil, after a crop of corn. In America it has been found in limestone grounds, in the floors of pigeon houses, tobacco houses, or the ruins of old stables. In Hanover it is got by collecting the rak- mrs of the streets, which are built of mud-walls; and O the peasants are directed by law to build mud- walls, with the dung and urine of animals and some straw. After they have stood for some time, and the vegeta- ble and animal substances are rotten, they afford a considerable quantity of nitre. In France it is ob- tained from accidental collections, as where loose earth has been exposed for some time to the contact of animal substances, like the grounds of stables, ruins of pigeon houses, sometimes from the mould upon the ground where dunghills have been laying. The general account is, that in the East Indies it is- 308 SAL obtained from the soil of certain districts, which are called saltpetre ground ; where the soil is very cold, barren, and unhealthy. To extract the salt, it is there only necessary to gather lar^e quantities of the im- pregnated earth, and to put them into a cavity, through which a great quantity of water is poured, which dissolves the nitre ; and the lixivium runs into an adjacent pit, out of which it is lifted, in order to be evaporated, and obtained in the form of crystals. In Germany and France, the saltpetre boilers go about in search of these materials, and when, on making a small essay, they find that they will turn to account, they put the earth or other materials into a large tub, pour water upon it, and let it stand so for several days. A cock is placed at the bottom of the tub, and to its inside opening some straw is applied, so that when the cock is opened, the lixivium filters through the straw, and is received in another tub, and from thence conveyed in a copper, and boiled to a pro- per consistence for crystallization. The crystals are at first brown and very impure, but by re- peated dissolution and crystallization, become white and pure. Saltpetre in general, therefore, is extracted from ar- tificial compounds or accidental mixtures, where ani- mal and vegetable substances have been fully putri- fied, by being exposed to the air, with any spongy or loose earth, especially of the calcareous kind ; open to the north or north-east winds, and more or less covered from the heat and rains. Cramer, an author of the greatest credit, informs us, that he made a lit- tle hut, with windows to admit the wind. In this he put a mixture of garden mould, the rubbish of lime, and putrid animal and vegetable substan-. He frequently moistened them with urine, and in a month or two found his composition very rich in saltpetre, yielding at least one eighth part of its weight. Saltpetre is of very extensive use in different arts, SAll being the principal ingredient in gunpowder, and serving as an excellent flux to other matters; whence its use in glass making. It is also possessed of a considerable antiseptic power; whence its use in pre- serving meat, to which it communicates a red colour. In medicine it is used as a diuretic, sedative, and cooler. Nitre is also used in the oil of vitriol manu- factories. SAPPHIRE. (F. Sap/iir ; G. Sapphir ; D. Saf- fiersteen-, \.Zaffiro; S.Sqfir; P. Sqjira ; DA. Sa- phir ; Sw.Saphir; POL. Szqfir ; R. Jachant ; L. Sapphirus.) The sapphire is a pellucid gem. which, in its finest state, is extremely beautiful and valuable, and infe- rior only to the diamond, in lustre, hardness, and price. Its proper colour is a pure blue : in the finest specimens it is of the deepest azure, and in others varies into paleness, in shades of all degrees, between that and a pure crystal brightness, without the least tinge of colour. This gem is distinguished into four sorts ; the blue, the white, the water, and the milk sapphire. This stone in its greatest perfection, is brought from the kingdom of Pegu in the East Indies ; always in shape of pebbles. Very fine sapphires also, partK pebble, partly crystal-shaped, and of all the shades of blue, come from Bisnagar, Conanor, Calicut, and the island of Ceylon. The occidental sapphires are from Silesia, Bohemia, and many other parts of Europe ; but they are greatly inferior in lustre and hardness to the oriental ones. SARDONYX, a precious stone, consisting of a mixture of the chalcedony and cornelian : it is some- times in strata, but at other times blended together. Two kinds are generally distinguished ; 1st. striped with red and white strata, which may be cut into ca- meo as well as the onyx ; 2d. White, with red dendri- 310 SAS tical figures, greatly resembling the Mocho stone, but with this difference, that the figures of the sardonyx are of a red colour, the other black. SARSAPARILLA. (F. Salsepareille ; G.Sassa- parille ; D. Sarzaparille ; I. Salsapariglia ; S. Zar- zaparilla ; P. Salsa-parilha ; DA. Sarsa-parille ; Sw. Sarsaparilla ; L. Sarsaparilla.} Sarsaparilla is the root of the smilax Sarsaparilla, a plant growing in America, and particularly abun- - dantly in Jamaica, whence we receive it. It has stems of the thickness of a man's finger; they are jointed, triangular, and beset with crooked spines- The leaves are alternate, smooth, and shining on the upper side. The flower is yellow, mixed with red. The fruit is a black berry, containing several brown seeds. The roots, which are about the size of a goose quill, run superficially under the surface of the ground. The gatherers have only to loosen the soil a little, and to draw out the long fibres with a wooden hook. In this manner they proceed, till the whole root is got out, It is then cleared of the mud, dried, and made into bundles, The sensible qualities of Sarsaparilla, are mucila- ginous and larinaceous ; and it is esteemed in medi- cine as a gentle sudorific, and powerful in attenuating the blood, when impeded by gross humours. SASSAFRAS. (F. Sassafras; G. Sassafrass; D. Sassafrass ; I. Sassafrasso ; S. Sasafras; P. Sassa- fraz, Salsafraz ; DA. Sassafras ; Sw. Sassafras ; POL. Sasafras ; R. Sasafras ; L. Sassafras.} The laurus sassafras, or sassafras tree, is a native of North America, and grows in the greatest perfec- tion in Florida. Its roots are even with the surface of the ground. Its trunk, which is very straight, without leaves, and not high, is covered with a thick and dirty bark, of an ash colour, and throws out at its summit some branches, which spread out on the SAT 311 coast. The leaves are disposed alternately, green on the upper, and white on the under surface, some- times divided into three lobes, sometimes entire, of different sizes, from three to six inches long, and near- ly as broad, with clusters of small yellowish flowers, succeeded by small blackish pendent berries, fixed to a red pedicle and to a calix of the same colour. The root of the sassafras has a fragrant smell, and a sweetish, aromatic, subacrid taste ; the bark tastes much stronger than any other part, and the small twigs stronger than the large pieces. It is a warm aperient and corroborant, and frequently employed with good success for purifying and sweetening the blood and juices. For these purposes, decoctions are made from the rasped root or bark. In America, the bark of this tree is used for dying worsted a fine lasting orange colour; some people also boil the peel of the root with the beer which they are brewing, because they believe it wholesome. The flowers are used instead of tea. The first Spaniards who settled in America, would probably have fallen a sacrifice to the venereal dis- ease, at least they would never have recovered from those dangerous fevers with which most of them were attacked on their arrival in Florida, had they not been taught by the Indians the use of the sassafras. This medicine, with many others, performing extra- ordinary cures in distant countries, seems to have lost almost all its efficacy in our climate. This is proba- bly owing to those climates being more favourable for perspiration, to the plant losing part of its strength during a long voyage, and particularly to the nature of the disease, the obstinacy of which increases in our hemisphere, and with our mode of living. ' SATIN WOOD, chiefly imported from Botany Bay. It is used for the most part by cabinet-makers, 312 SCA SAUNDERS, SANDERS. (F. Santal, Sandal: G. Sandelholz; D. Sandelhout\ I. Sandalo ; S.San- dalo ; P. Sandalo; DA. Sandelholt\ Sw.Sandel, POL. Cyndal; R. Sandal; L. Siwtalum.} Saunders is a hard odoriferous wood, the produce of the pterocarpus santalinus, brought from the East Indies. Of this there are three sorts ; the yellow, white, and red. The yellow or citrine saunders, is a beautiful wood, of the colour of lemon peel, of a smell resembling- a mixture of musk and roses, and of a somewhat acrid taste, with a slight bitterness. The white saunders resembles the yellow, and is of the same fragrant smell, and aromatic taste, but in a more remiss decree. Both these sorts should be o chosen sound, firm, heavy, and of a good smell when cut ; they should also be chosen in the block, and not cut into chips, as they usually are. The red saunders, is of a dense and compact tex- ture, remarkably heavy, and very hard. It is brought to us in logs of considerable length, the out part of which is of a dusky, and the inner of a blood red. It has but little smell and taste. Brazil wood is frequently sold for red saunders ; but the latter can principally be distinguished from the former, by its not giving any tinge to aque ous liquors, whereas brazil wood imparts its colour to water. These three kinds of wood enter into the matcria medica ; they are also used by the turners and cabi- net-makers, and the red by the dyers. SCAMMONY. (F. Scamonee ; G. Skammonie ; D. Skammoneum ; I. Scamonea ; S. Escamonea ; P. Escamonea; DA. Skammonium ; Sw. Scammonium; L. Scammoniuni.} Scammony is the produce of a species of convolvu- lus, or creeper plant, which grows wild in the vales between Nazareth and Mount Carmel. SEL 313 The scammony is prepared from the root and the stalk of the plant, and, when genuine, ought to be like a fine clear gum, of a darkish grey, light, and brittle ; and, in chewing, ought to yield a white milky froth. The best scammony is brought from Marasch, a town about four days journey from Aleppo, near the confines of Armenia. It is thence brought to Aleppo, in small skins, and by the merchants sent to London and Marseilles. It was formerly to be had very good from Mount Carmel, by way of Acra ; but at present, scarcely any comes from that place, as the Arabian inhabitants of the mountain have neg- lected to gather it, being more addicted to plunder than labour. Scammony is regularly used in the materia medica. as a purgative. SCARLET BERRIES ; see KEEMES. SEED LAC ; see LAC. SELTZER WATER, is a mineral water, which springs up at Lower Seltzer, a village in the Electo- rate of Triers, about ten miles from Frankfurth on the Mayne. This is a very useful medicinal water. It contains, according to some, a small portion of calcareous earth, a native mineral alkali, and acid, also nearly one-seventh of its bulk of fixed air ; which latter is more than is found in any other mineral water. This water was formerly imported in considerable quantities ; but, at present, almost all the seltzer wa- ter drunk in Great Britain, is artificial. This is more pleasant to the taste than the natural seltzer water ; as the saline particles, of a disagreeable taste, and which contribute nothing to its medicinal virtue, are left out of the composition. It is likewise consider- ably stronger. 314 SHE SENA, SENNA. (F. Sene, Sene enfeuilles ; G. Senna, Senesblatfer ; D. Senebladen\ I.Sena; S. Sew, Sena ; P. Sene, Senna; DA. Semsblader ; Sw. Sen- netsblader ; POL. Sene, Senna: R. Senetnue listu'i L. Senna folia.) The cassia senna, from which the sena leaf is taken, is a shrubby plant, cultivated in Persia and Syria, but particularly in Upper Egypt, and that part of Arabia which lies opposite to it. The leaves are of an oblong figure, sharp-pointed at the ends, about a quarter of an inch broad, and not a full inch in length, of a lively yellowish green colour, a faint, not disagreeable smell, and a subacrid, bitterish, nauseous taste. That which is called sena of Alexandria, grows in great abundance in the territory of Abu Arisen in Arabia. The Arabians sell it at Mecca and Jidda, whence it passes, by the way of Suez and Kahira, to Alexandria, and is thence imported into Europe. It is brought from the above countries dried, and picked from the stalks. Some inferior sorts are brought from Tripoli, and other places ; these may easily be distin- guished, by the shape and dimensions of the leaves being different from the good sena, of a fresh green colour, without any yellow cast. The senna Italica, or blunt-leaved sena, is a va- riety of the Alexandria species, which, by its cultiva- tion in the South of France, has been found to assume this change. It is less purgative than the pointed- leaved sena. Sena, in medicine, is a very useful cathartic. SHELL LAC : see LAC. SIL 315 SHUMAC. (F. Sumac, Roure, Roux ; G. Su- mach, Sc/tmack ; D. Sumak, Smak; I. Sommaco ; S.Zumaque; P. Sumagre, Cumagre ; DA. Smak, .Sumak; Svv. Sumach, Smack; POL. Garbarskie drzewko, Macznika ; R. Suma/c ; L. /?/is coria- riorum.) Theshumac plant is a myrtle leaved shrub, culti- vated in Sicily, Portugal, the South of Spain, and France. - The French shumac is very little esteemed, even by the dyers of that country. Sicily shumac is the best and most valuable. The leaves and flowers are stripped off the bush, dried, pounded to powder, and exported from Spain in skins, and from Sicily in bags. These plants are set in the shade of olive-trees, and remain in vigour about twenty years. The prime quality of Sicily shumac comes from Alcamo, and is shipped in the Gulph of Castellomare. Inferior sorts come from Carini, Calatafini, Montreale, Termini, &c. There are also some places on the southern coasts of the island producing shumac, but of an indifferent quality. The crop, in Sicily, is made in July and August. The goodness of shumac shews itself by its strong smell, fine greenish, lively colour, and by its being well ground, and free of stalks, though the Spanish shumac is never free of them. Shumac, on account of its astringent quality, is used for tanning Spanish and other fine sorts of leather. SICILIAN EARTH ; see FOSSIL BEZOAR. SILK. (F. Sole; G.Siede; D. Zyde, Zy ; I. Seta; S. Seda; P.Seda; DA.Silke; Sw.Silke; POL. Jedwab ; R. Schelk ; L. Sericum.} Silk is a very soft, fine, bright thread, the work of an insect called bombyx, or the silk-worm. S1L As the silk-worm is a native of China, the culture of the silk, in ancient times, was entirely confined to that country. Till the reign of Justinian, the silk- worm was unknown beyond the territories of China; but silk was introduced into Persia long before that period. After the conquest of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great, this valuable commodity was brought into Greece, and thence conveyed to Rome. The first of the Roman writers extant, by whom silk is mentioned, are Virgil and Horace ; but it is pro- bable that neither of them knew from what country it was obtained, nor how it was produced. Among the Romans, silk was deemed a dress too expensive and delicate for men, and was appropriated wholly to women of eminent rank and opulence. Aurelian complained, that a pound of silk was sold at Rome for twelve ounces of gold; and it is said, he refused to give his wife permission to wear it, on account of its exorbitant price. For several centuries, the Persians supplied the Roman Empire with the silks of China. Caravans traversed the whole latitude of Asia, in 243 days, from the Chinese ocean to the sea coasts of Syria, carrying this commodity. Sometimes it was con- veyed to the ports of Guzerat and Malabar, and thence transported by sea to the Persian Gulph. The Per- sians, with the usual rapacity of monopolists, raised the priceof silk tosuchan exorbitant height, that Justi- nian endeavoured, by means of his ally, the Christian Monarch of Abyssinia, to wrest some portion of the silk trade from the Persians. In this attempt he failed, but he obtained, in some measure, by an un- foreseen event, the object which he had in view. Two Persian monks having been employed as mis- sionaries in some of the Christian churches, which were established in -different parts of India, had pene- trated into the country of the Seres, or China. There they observed the labours of the silk-worm, and be- SIL 317 oame acquainted with all the arts of man in working up its productions into such a variety of elegant fa- brics. They repaired to Constantinople, to explain to the Emperor the discoveries they had made; and, encouraged by his liberal promises,* they undertook to bring to the capital a sufficient number of these won- derful insects, which they accomplished by conveying the eggs of the silk-worm in a hollow cane. \ast numbers of these insects were soon reared in different parts of Greece. Sicily afterwards under- took to breed silk-worms, with equal success ; and was imitated by several towns of Italy. In all these places extensive manufactories were established, and carried on with silk of domestic production. The demand for silk from the East diminished of course, and a considerable change took place in the nature of the commercial intercourse between Europe and India. The SILK-WORM is a species of caterpillar, which, like all others of the same class, undergoes a variety of changes, that, to persons who are not acquainted with objects of this kind, will appear to be not a little surprising. It is produced from a yellowish-coloured egg, about the size of a small pin's head, which has been laid by a greyish-coloured moth, vulgarly confounded with the butterfly. These eggs, in the" temperature of this climate, even in summer, may be prevented from hatching, if they be kept in a cool place; and when the food on which the worm is fed is in perfection, the eggs need only be exposed to the sun for a day or two, when they will be hatched with great facility. When the animal is first protruded from the egg, it is a small black worm, which is active in search of food. At this stage of his growth, the silk-worm re- quires to be fed with the youngest a/id most tender leaves. On these he will feed very freely for about eight days, during which period he increases in size to about a quarter of an inch in length. He is then 318 SIL attacked with his first sickness, which consists in a sort of lethargic sleep, for about three days continu- ance, during which time he refuses to eat, and changes his skin; preserving the same bulk. This sleep being over, he begins to eat again during five days, at which term he is grown to the size of full half an inch in length. After this follows a second, then a third, and a fourth sickness, in every respect like the former ; and after every sickness he feeds again for five days. At the time he is attacked by his fourth sickness, he is arrived at his full growth; and on recovering, he feeds once more during five days, with a most voracious appetite ; after which he disdains his food, becomes transparent, a little on the yellowish cast, and leaves his silky traces on the leaves where he passes. These signs denote that he is ready to begin his cocoon. Thus it appears that the whole duration of the life of the worm, in this state of his existence, in our climate, is usually about forty days ; twenty-eight of which days he takes food, and remains in his sick or torpid state about twelve: but it is to be observed, that warm weather shortens, and cold weather lengthens the periods of sickness. When the worm is come to full perfection, it searches about for a convenient place for forming its cocoon, and mounts upon any branches or twigs that are put in its way for that purpose. After about two days spent in this manner, it settles in its place, and forms the cocoon by winding the silk, which it draws from its bowels, round itself into an oblong roundish ball. During this operation it gradually loses the appearance of a worm, its length is much contracted, and its thickness augmented. By the time the web is finished, it is found to be transformed into an ob- long roundish ball, covered with a smooth shelly skin, and appears to be perfectly dead. In this state it remains for several days, entirely motionless, in the heart of the cocoon, after which it SIL 319 bursts, like an egg hatching, and from that comes forth a heavy, dull-looking moth, with wings, but these wings it never uses for flying. This creature forces its way through the silk covering which the worm had woven, goes immediately in quest of its mate, after which the female lays her eggs, and both male and female, xvithout tasting food in this stage of their existence, die in a very short time. The silk-worm, when at its full size, is from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and about half an inch in circumference. He is either of a milk or pearl colour, or blackish : these last are esteemed the best. His body is divided into seven rings, to each of which are joined two very short feet. He has a very small point, like a thorn, exactly above the anus. The substance which forms the silk is in his stomach, which is very long, wound up as it were upon two spindles, and surrounded with a gum, com- monly yellowish, sometimes white, but seldom green- ish. When the worm spins his cocoon, he winds off' a thread from each of his spindles, and joins them afterwards by means of two hooks, v/hich are placed in his mouth, so that the cocoon is formed of a dou- ble thread. Of silk-worms, as of most animals, there is a con- siderable variety of breeds, some of which are much more hardy, and possess qualities considerably dif- ferent from others. This is a particular of much im- portance to be adverted to, at the time of beginning to breed these creatures in any place. Though the silk-worm be a native of China, there is no doubt but it might be propagated in most parts of the temperate zones. The mulberry tree, upon the leaves of which it lives, is a hardy vegetable, bearing without injury even the winters of Siberia, and could without doubt be reared in Great Britain. Nature therefore has furnished us with every thing- necessary for the silk manufacture. The cocoons from which the silk is to be imme- 320 SIL diately wound, must be exposed to the heat of an oven, in order to kill the chrysalis or aurelia, which would otherwise eat its way through the cocoon, and render it useless. Good cocoons are small, strong, and firm, have a fine grain, both ends round, and they are free from spots. Of the bad cocoons there are six species : 1. The pointed cocoons, one extremity of which ends in a point : the silk which covers the point is weak, and soon breaks or tears. 2. The co- cdlons, which are bigger, but the contexture is weak. 3. The dupions, or double cocoons. 4. The soufftons, which have a loose contexture ; sometimes so loose that they are transparent. 6. The perforated cocoons, which have a hole atone end. 6. The bad choqucMe, which is composed of defective cocoons, spotted or rotten. The cocoons which are kept for breeding, are called royal cocoons. The largest and the best cocoons ought to be preserved for breeding, about an equal number of males and females, though one male will serve two or three females, if the time of their com- ing out of the cocoon answers. About twelve or fif- teen days after they begin to spin, the cocoons for breeding may be laid on sheets of white paper ; as about this time the moth opens for itself a passage through the end of the cocoon. When this female has laid her eggs, which on an average may amount to two hundred and fifty, they are spread upon paper, and hung up to dry in some cool place. The next operation is the winding of the silk ; be- fore which the cocoons must be prepared as follows. 1. Strip them of the waste silk that surrounds them, and which served to fasten them to the twigs. This burr is proper to stuff quilts, or other such uses; you may likewise spin it to make stockings, but they will be very coarse and ordinary. 2. You must sort your cocoons, separating them into different classes, in order to wind them apart. These classes are, the good white cocoons; the good SIL 321 cocoons of all the other colours ; tho dupions; the cocalons, among which are included the weak co- coons ; the good choquette ; and lastly, the bad cho- quette. In sorting the cocoons, you will always find some perforated cocoons among them, whose worm is already born; these you must set apart for fleuret. You will likewise find a few soufflons; but being- very few, they may be put among the bad choquette. The good cocoons, as well white as yellow, are the easiest to wind; those which require the greatest care and pains are the cocalons; you must wind them in cooler water than the others, and if you take care to give them to a good windster, you will have as good silk from them as the rest. You must likewise have careful windsters for the dupions and choquettes. These two species require hotter water than the com- mon cocoons. The cocoons produce a thread of very unequal length ; you may meet with some that yield more than one thousand two hundred and twenty ells, whilst others will scarcely afford two hundred elis. / In general you may calculate the production of a co- coon from five to six hundred ells in length. The silk imported into this country is the produce of Italy, Turkey, and the East Indies. The kingdom of Naples is computed to produce about eight hundred thousand pounds weight of silk annually, of which half is supposed to be worked at home, and the other half exported raw. The ex- portation of raw silk from the Calabrias, through the Custom-house, is about fifty-three thousand pounds; but perhaps double that quantity is smuggled out. The exportation of thrown silk, upon an average of many years, amounts to one hundred and forty-eight thousand two hundred and seventeen pounds. The red mulberry tree is invariably used as food for the si Ik worm in Calabria, and it is the opinion of the silk-workers, that worms fed with it produce a more compact, heavy silk, than those that live upon the 322 SIL leaves of the white one. This, however, seems to be- a prejudice, as the Chinese, Piedmontese, and Lan- guedocians prefer the white sort. In case of a blight among the mulberry trees, bramble tops have been found the best succedaneum. The silk-worm houses in Calabria, are mostly the property of reputable fa- milies in Reggio, who furnish rooms, leaves, eggs, and every necessary implement; take two-thirds of the profit, and leave the rest for the attendants. A succession of eggs is imported from Leghorn, and other places, to renew the breed, and by frequent changes keep up the quality of the silk. Silk is an important branch of the commerce of the island of Cyprus. The breeding of si Ik- worms here is not subject to the inconveniences arising from variations of the atmosphere, as it is in other parts. The finest and whitest silk is that produced in the environs of Famagusta and Carpassia. The orange and sulphur-coloured, come from Cythera, or the villages beyond the northern mountains: and that of a gold yellow colour, is produced in the territory of Paphos and the neighbouring country. That princi- pally esteemed in Europe is the white silk, with which a little of the orange and sulphur-coloured is sometimes mixed. Venice and Leghorn receive both, though the white silk has also there the preference. The island produces, on an average, twenty-five thou- sand bags of silk. It is not uncommon, in Cyprus, to receive commissions from Constantinople, Aleppo, and Egypt, for silk which is afterwards sent to Eu- rope, under the denominations of raw and thrown silk, from Bengal, China, Italy, and Turkey. SILVER. (F. Argent; G.Silber; D.Zilver-,1. Argento ; S. Plata ; P. Praia ; DA. Sblv ; Sw. Silf- ver ; POL. Srebro ; R. Serebro ; L. Argent um.) Silver, next to gold, is the most perfect, fixed, and ductile metal, and the whitest and most brilliant among them all. Its ductility and malleability is not SIL 323 greatly inferior to that of gold, as a grain of silver leaf measures somewhat more than fifty-one square inches; and the silver wire used for astronomical purposes measures only the seven hundred and fiftieth part of an inch in diameter; which is no more than half the thickness of the hair of the human head. It is harder and more elastic than lead, tin, or gold ; but less so than copper, platina, or iron. It is more destructible than gold, and is particularly acted upon by sulphu- reous vapours; hence its surface tarnishes in the air. Its specific gravity is to that of water nearly as eleven to one. Though silver is much more difficult to calcine than other metallic matters, yet it is capable of being converted, after a long time, into a white calx, which, treated in a violent fire, affords an olive-coloured glass. It is found in the earth. 1. Native, generally of the fineness of sixteen ca- rats. Most of the silver of Potosi in America, and of Kunsberg in Norway, is of this kind. 2. Native, alloyed with other metals, particularly with lead, which is said never to be found without some silver, though frequently in too small a quan- tity to defray the expense of separating it. The lead in only one of the smelting-houses at Holywell in Flintshire, produced no less than 3l2611bs. of silver, from the year 17-54* to 17-56, and from 1774 to 1776. There are some lead ores in England, which, though very poor in that metal, contain between three hun- dred and four hundred ounces of silver in a ton of lead. 3. Silver mineralized by various substances, as with sulphur, arsenic, copper, antimony, lead, &c. Silver combines in all proportions with copper, by which it is not deprived of its ductility, but rendered harder and more sonorous. It is on that account often used in bells. It is otherwise highly useful, on account of its indestructibility by fire and air, and its extreme ductility. Its fine colour renders it ex- SKI tremely proper for ornamental purposes, and it is ap- plied like gold on the surface of different bodies. It likewise enters the texture of rich silks ; but its most considerable use is that of being employed as money, of an inferior value to that of gold. In this case it is alloyed with one-twelfth part of copper. It is like- wise often employed in making household utensils of all kinds, for which purpose it is usually alloyed with one twenty-fourth of copper, which gives it a greater degree of hardness and coherence, without rendering it in the least noxious. .The most considerable silver mines are at Potosi in South America, Kunsberg in Norway, Annaberg in Austria, the Hartz, Saxony in general, Schemnitz in Hungary, &c. SIM1LOR; see COPPER. SKINS, Fells. (F. Peaux; G. Felle ; D. Vellen ; \.Pelli;-S. Pieles; P. Pelles; DA. Skind, Huder; S\v. S/cinn\ POL. Skory ; R. Koshii.) Skin is the membrane stripped off the animal, to be prepared by the tanner and others, and converted into leather, &c. The different sorts of skins brought from North America, for the use of the furrier, are enumerated under the- article Furs, the stag and roebuck ex- cepted. Kid and lamb skins come from Italy and Spain; they ought to be very large, and free from blemish, and require to be very carefully examined by the purchaser. Goat skins serve for morocco leather, and some- times for parchment, by which the real chamoisis is frequently counterfeited. The goats of Barbary and the Indies are esteemed the most beautiful of any called common goats. Goat skins are chiefly im- ported into England from Switzerland, Germany, Spain, &c. ; but large importations are made from SLA Hudson's Bay, Canada, and North America, of deer, buffalo, bear, and other skins. The Hudson's Bay Company are the chief importers of the fur skins. There are also newtre skins, or the skin of the monkey, of which large quantities are imported from South America, and used as furs. SLATE. (F. Ardoise; G. Schiefer; D. Arduin; I. Lavagna, Lastra ; S. Pizarra; P. Picarra, Ar- doisa- DA. Skifer; Sw. Skifver ; POL. Lupny ka- mien, Tesannoi kamen^ Tscherepiza ; L. Schistus Ar- desia.) Slate is a stone of a compact texture, and laminated structure, splitting into fine plates. There are lour species of slate. First, the whitish slate, being a soft friable stone, of a tolerably fine and close texture, considerably heavy, perfectly dull and destitute of brightness, variegated with a pale brown, or brownish yellow. This species is common in many counties of England, lying near the surface of the ground. It is comntonly used for covering houses. Secondly, the red slate* is of a very fine, elegant, and smooth surface, considerably heavy, and of a very beautiful pale purple, glittering all over with small glossy spangles. This kind of slate is very com- mon in the North of England, and is much valued as a strong and beautiful covering for houses. Thirdly, the common blue slate, is of a fine smooth texture and glossy surface, moderately heavy, and of a pale grayish blue. This is also very common in the northern parts of England, and is used in most places for the covering of houses. Fourthly, the friable, aluminous, black slate, being the Irish slate of the shops. It is common in many parts of Ireland, and is also found in some places in England. The island ofEusdale, one of the Hebrides, on tho west coast of Scotland, is entirely composed of slate, 326 SMA The stratum is thirty-six feet thick. About two mil- lions and a half of slates, at the rate of twenty shil- lings per thousand, are sold annually to England, Ca- nada, the West Indies, and Norway. They are gene- rally divided into scantlings and half scantlings. There are several slate quarries in Cornwall, Devon- shire, and Wales: The latter are generally preferred, the former being softer than the latter. Considerable quantities of coarse slates are found in many parts of Wales, particularly in a quarry near Llangynnog, in North Wales, which, from Novem- ber 1775 to November 1776, yielded 904,000 slates, sold at from six to twenty shillings per thousand. Port Penrhyn, half a mile from Bangor, is the grand repository of the slate procured from Lord Penrhyn's quarries, at Dolawen. SMALL NUTS; HAZEL NUTS. (F. Noisettes, Avelines ; G. Haselnusse; D. Hazelnootcn; I. Nocci- uole, Avellane ; S. Avellanas ; P.Avellaas; DA. Has- sel riodder ; Sw. Hassehtotter ; POL. Laskowy orzech ; R. Orechi ; L. Avellance.} These nuts are more nourishing than walnuts, but also harder to digest. To come to perfection, they require a dry season, and much rain will destroy them. Hence considerable quantities, and species superior to ours, are brought annually from Barcelona in Spain, from Sicily, and Naples. In the latter kingdom, the district of Avellino is almost covered with hazelnut bushes, which, in good years, bring in a profit of sixty thousand ducats. These bushes were originally imported into Italy from Pontus, and known among the Romans by the appellation of Nux Pontica, which, in process of time, was changed into that of Nux Avellana, from the place where they had been propagated with the greatest success. The pro- prietors plant them in rows, and, by dressing, form them into large bushes of many stems. Every year SMA 327 they refresh the roots with new earth, and prune off the straggling shoots with much attention. SMALTS. ((F. Azur d'Hollande-, G. Smalte Blaussel ; D. Smalt; 1. Smalto azzuro, Smalt ino ; S. Esmalte, Azul de Azur\ P. Esmalte\ DA. Smalt; Sw. Smalt; POL. Lazur ; R. Lasor; L. Smaltum.) Zaffer is an impure gray calx of cobalt, which is prepared by first roasting and freeing the cobalt from all foreign bodies ; after which it is well calcined, and sometimes mixed with fine sand. Zaffer, if mixed with siliceous earth and potashes, and exposed to a strong fire, melts into a kind of blue glass, called Smalts, which, when ground very fine, obtains the denomination of powder blue. Smalts are a most durable pigment, which perfectly withstands the fire, and is fit to produce every shade of blue. It is therefore employed in preference to any other colour, for tinging crystals, and for ena- melling ; for counterfeiting opaque and transparent precious stones, and for painting and varnishing real porcelain, earthen and potters* ware. The blue co- lour of this pigment inclines much to that of ultrama- rine, and in want of the latter article, or when too costly, it is indispensably necessary to the painter, for imitating the fine azure colour. The cheaper kind is employed to give a blueish tinge to new washed linen, though not without injury to the health, as well as to the linen. The preparation of this new colour may be reckoned among the most beneficial inventions of modern times. The principal reason why many authors think that the antients used smalts is, that various antiqui- ties, both of painting and enamel, have been disco- vered, in which a blue appears that gives ground for conjecturing it was produced by cobalt; particularly blue enamelled figures of Egyptian deities, the blue squares in mosaic work, likewise the fine blue colour that the Chinese and people of Japan gave to their 328 SMA porcelain, and the blue also seen on mummies, which, even after so many centuries, seems to have lost little or nothing of its beauty. But it has been proved by chemical experiments, that it is not only possible to give to glass and enamel a blue colour by means of iron, but that the before-mentioned antiquities shew not the smallest traces of cobalt. About the end of the fifteenth century, cobalt seems to have been dug up in great quantities in the mines on the borders of Saxony and Bohemia. The invention of making an useful blue glass from cobalt, seems to fall about the period of 1.540 and 1560. Christopher Schurer, a glass-maker at Flatten in Bo- hemia, is said to be the inventor of the art. As paint- ing in glass was then much cultivated in Holland, eight colour-mills were soon erected there, for which the cobalt was brought from Schneeberg, around which place colour-mills were afterwards also erected. At present the manufacture of smalts is almost en- tirely in the hands of the Dutch, who grind the Ger- man cobalt to great advantage. Azure, among painters, is an expression which at present signifies in general a fine blue colour, but was, formerly applied to lapis lazuli, called azure stone, and to the blue prepared from it, now called ultra- marine. But since a blue has been extracted from cobalt, custom has applied to it the name of azure, although it differs considerably from the former, and is incapable of being used for the same purpose, and particularly for painting in oil. The name of azure is generally applied to the blue glass made from the earth of cobalt and verifiable matters. This glass, which is called smalts when in masses, is called azure only 'when reduced to a fine powder. Several kinds of azure are distinguished, according to its degree of beauty, by the names of fine azure, powdered azure, and azure of four fires. In general, the more intense the colour, and the finer the powder, the more beau- tiful and dear it is. SOA 329 SNAKE-ROOT. (F. Contrayerva ; G. Amerika- nische, oder Peruanische Giftwurzel; D. Giflworiel ; I. Contra-erba; S. Contra -ycrba ; P. Contra-erva; DA. Giftrod ; Sw. Giftrot ; L. Contrayerva, Serpen- taria,) There are several species of this root, all supposed to be counter poisons. The Virginian snake-root has its leaves green and large, almost in figure of a heart; its fruit round; and its root, which is of a very strong aromatic smell, has at the bottom an infinite number of long, small filaments, representing a kind of beard. It was first brought into Europe by the English, from Virginia, where it is esteemed a sovereign remedy against the bite of the rattle-snake. SOAP; SOPE. (F. Savon; G. Seife ; D. Zeep ; I. Sapone; S. Jabon; P. Sabao ; DA. S and ended in 149 o, if appears. that the sugar-cane was known at that time in Hispa- niola. It may-be said that it was brought thither by Columbus ; but for this assertion we have found no direct evidence, and though we had direct evidence this would not prove that the suo;ar-cane was not an indigenous plant of the West Indies. There are a.u- SUG 339 thors of learning, who after investigating this subject with attention, do not hesitate to maintain, that it is a native both of the islands and of the continent of America. The sugar-cane, or sr.ccharum officinarum of bota- nists, is a jointed reed, commonly measuring, the flag part not included, from three feet and a half, to seven feet in height, but sometimes rising to twelve feet. When ripe it is of a fine straw colour, inclining to yellow, producing leaves or blades, the edges of which are finely and sharply serrated, and terminating in an arrow, decorated with a panicle. The joints in one stalk, are from forty to sixty in number, and the stalks rising from one root, are sometimes very numerous. The young root ascends from the earth, like the point of an arrow ; the shaft of which soon breaks, and the two first leaves, which had been inclosed within a quadruple sheath of seminal leaves, rise to a consi- derable height. As the cane is a rank succulent plant, it must re- quire a strong deep soil to bring it to perfection, per- haps indeed no soil can be too rich for this purpose. The soil which experience has found to be the most favourable to the cultivation of it in the West Indies, is the dark grey loam of St. Christopher's, which is so light and porous, as to be penetrable by the slight- est application of the hoe. The under stratum is gra- vel, from eight to twelve inches deep. Canes planted in particular spots in this island, have been known to yield eight thousand pounds of Muscovado sugar from a single acre. The average produce of the island, for a series of vears, has been sixteen thousand ho