* LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 Cto 
 
l&utal Science Series* 
 
 EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY 
 
 FARM POULTRY 
 
laural Science 
 
 THE SOIL. 
 
 THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. 
 
 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. 
 
 THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUTT-GFOWING. 
 
 BUSH-FRUITS. 
 
 FERTILIZERS. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. 
 
 THE FARMSTEAD. 
 
 RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING 
 
 FARM POULTRY. 
 
 THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 
 
FARM POULTRY 
 
 A POPULAR SKETCH OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 
 FOR THE FARMER AND AMATEUR 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE C. WATSON, M.S. 
 
 Professor of Agriculture in the Pennsylvania State College 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTJ 
 
 1903 / ' *r ruf F 
 
 All rights reserved ^^ o r 
 
w 
 
 -f 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1901 
 BY THE M ACM ILL AN COMPANY 
 
 Set up and electrotyped June, 1901 
 Reprinted February, 1903 
 
 pleasant 
 
 .1. HORACE MCPARLAND COMPANY 
 HARRISBUBG PENNSYLVANIA 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGES 
 
 POULTRY -RAISING AS A BUSINESS 1-11 
 
 Extent of business 2 
 
 Capital and land required 5 
 
 A variety of products 9 
 
 Products easy to market 10 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EGG BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN 12-38 
 
 Classification as to utility 12 
 
 General characteristics of egg breeds 15 
 
 Leghorn 23 
 
 Minorca 31 
 
 Andalusian 33 
 
 Spanish 34 
 
 Hamburg 35 
 
 Red Cap 38 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 MEAT BREEDS . 39-53 
 
 General characteristics 39 
 
 Brahma 45 
 
 Cochin 49 
 
 Langshan 51 
 
 Faverolle 52 
 
 (v) 
 
vi Content* 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 PAGES 
 
 GENERAL-PURPOSE FOWLS 54-73 
 
 General characteristics 54 
 
 Plymouth Rock 59 
 
 Wyandotte 63 
 
 Java 66 
 
 Dominique 67 
 
 Dorking 67 
 
 Houdan 70 
 
 Indian Game 70 
 
 Rhode Island Red . . 72 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 FANCY BREEDS 74-81 
 
 Polish 75 
 
 Game 77 
 
 Silky 78 
 
 Sultan 79 
 
 Frizzle 79 
 
 Rumpless 80 
 
 Bantam 81 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 BUILDINGS FOR FOWLS : LOCATION, PLANS AND CON- 
 STRUCTION 82-111 
 
 Location of buildings 82 
 
 Construction of houses 90 
 
 Size of building 94 
 
Contents vii 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PAGES 
 
 BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND YARDS . . . 112-130 
 
 Construction of perches 112 
 
 Nests 115 
 
 Drinking fountains 119 
 
 Yards and parks 124 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS 131-157 
 
 Selection ' 131 
 
 Selecting eggs 133 
 
 Heredity 140 
 
 Variation .... 141 
 
 In-and-in-breeding 144 
 
 Cross-breeding 147 
 
 Improvement of common fowls 153 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 FEEDING FOR EGGS AND FOR MEAT 158-186 
 
 Exercise 159 
 
 Quality of food 160 
 
 Forced feeding for eggs 160 
 
 Grain food 162 
 
 Green food 165 
 
 Meat food 168 
 
 Feeding for meat or fattening 181 
 
viii Contents 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 PAGES 
 
 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 187-207 
 
 Artificial incubation . 189 
 
 Selection of an incubator 191 
 
 Care of incubators 196 
 
 Brooders and brooder houses 198 
 
 Home-made brooders 205 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 FEEDING AND CARE OF LITTLE CHICKENS 208-221 
 
 Food 209 
 
 Exercise '. 213 
 
 Feeding troughs 215 
 
 Drinking fountains 217 
 
 Brooders 218 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 CAPONS AND BROILERS 222-236 
 
 Capon rearing 222 
 
 Preparing capons for market 231 
 
 Broilers 232 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 DUCKS AND GEESE 237-260 
 
 Ducks: General discussion ...... 237 
 
 Pekin 241 
 
 Aylesbury 242 
 
 Rouen 243 
 
 Black Cayuga 244 
 
Contents ix 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Ducks: Food and care 245 
 
 Geese : General discussion . 250 
 
 Toulouse 252 
 
 Embden ..." 254 
 
 African 255 
 
 Chinese 256 
 
 Geese: Food and care 257 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEA-FOWLS, PIGEONS 261-281 
 
 Turkeys: General discussion 261 
 
 Bronze 267 
 
 Narragansett 268 
 
 White Holland . . * 268 
 
 Buff 269 
 
 Slate 269 
 
 Black 269 
 
 Turkeys : General cave 270 
 
 Guineas 274 
 
 Pea-fowls 276 
 
 Pigeons . ' 277 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS ... 282-307 
 
 Dressing poultry 283 
 
 Packing and shipping . . 289 
 
 Shipping live poultry 297 
 
 Handling and shipping eggs 299 
 
 Preserving eggs .- 302 
 
Contents 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 AND ENEMIES 
 
 Lice 
 
 Mitef 
 Gapes 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES 308-329 
 
 * 308 
 
 Mites , 3]2 
 
 313 
 
 E "P 310 
 
 Cholera J^. 32Q 
 
 Other diseases 393 
 
 Enemies . 
 
 APPENDIX 
 IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS ....... 331 
 
*r THE 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 or 
 
 FARM POULTRY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 POULTRY - RAISING AS A BUSINESS 
 
 Now that the extent and importance of the 
 poultry industry is recognized by every one, and 
 particularly by those who have made the subject 
 a study, it is not "necessary, in this connection, 
 to enter into an extended discussion of the pres- 
 ent or possible usefulness of domesticated fowls. 
 It may be of interest, however, to note some of 
 the difficulties which hinder, if they do not en- 
 tirely prevent, the compilation of accurate statis- 
 tics of the value of the poultry and poultry 
 products of the United States. 
 
 When one attempts to compare poultry- raising 
 with other agricultural industries he is confronted 
 with more or less inaccurate data. Many, at first 
 thought, place the value of this industry far below 
 its true worth, and it will require but a moment's 
 reflection to understand why this is so. Both 
 the rural and suburban population look to the 
 domestic fowls for a little help each day in pro- 
 viding the table with wholesome and palatable 
 
 A (1) 
 
2 Farm Poultry 
 
 food. So general is the consumption of fowls and 
 of poultry products that some of them are found 
 among the constituents of almost every well-pre- 
 pared meal. As a large proportion of the poul- 
 try products go directly to supply the daily wants 
 of the producers' families, it is impossible to as- 
 certain with any degree of accuracy the amount 
 thus consumed. Very few records are kept by 
 the producers of either the fowls or eggs thus 
 consumed, and whenever statements are made for 
 the census-taker or others, the aggregate is much 
 more likely to be underestimated than exagger- 
 ated. Consequently published data are likely to 
 be more or less misleading, and to give far too 
 low a value to the industry. 
 
 The United States Census Report for 1890 
 gives the number of fowls and eggs produced 
 "on farms only" as follows: 
 
 Chickens 258,871,125 
 
 Turkeys ' 10,758,060 
 
 Geese 8,440,175 
 
 Ducks 7,544,080 
 
 Dozens of eggs 819,722,916 
 
 If the value of the chickens be estimated at 
 forty cents, the turkeys and geese at sixty cents 
 and the ducks at forty-five cents each, the total 
 amount of the three will equal $118,459,824. If 
 to this is added an estimated value of the eggs at 
 fifteen cents per dozen, which is more than three 
 
Value of Products 3 
 
 cents per dozen below the average price in New 
 York city for fresh eggs, the total will equal 
 $241,418,660, which is considerably more than 
 the total value of the coal, iron, and mineral oil 
 produced in the United States for the same 
 period. As these estimates apply only to the 
 products of farms and do not include the poul- 
 try products of villages and cities, it will be seen 
 that the total value of the whole product of the 
 country must far exceed the moderate estimates 
 given above. 
 
 LITTLE CAPITAL KEQUIKED 
 
 To a person contemplating a new enterprise or 
 the extension of a business already established, 
 one of the first questions to be solved is "What 
 will it cost?" It often happens that the original or 
 first cost of an enterprise, prevents persons of 
 moderate resources from making what in their 
 judgment would be a safe investment. Probably 
 there is no important branch of animal industry 
 that requires so little outlay in labor and money 
 as poultry-keeping. Unlike many enterprises, the 
 poultry business may be begun in a small way 
 and conducted successfully with the expenditure 
 of a very meager sura of money. In breeding 
 other kinds of pure-bred farm stock the first 
 cost necessarily must be considerable, particu- 
 
4 Farm Poultry 
 
 larly if worthy animals are used for foundation 
 stock. 
 
 A small beginning, which is often desirable in 
 order to give the preliminary training necessary 
 to final success, may be made with the resources 
 of an ordinary farm. This modest beginning 
 would not in any way interfere with the develop- 
 ment or extension of the business should cir- 
 cumstances and experience warrant such a course. 
 In this respect the poultry business furnishes a 
 marked contrast to some other lines of work, 
 particularly to those that require tools and ma- 
 chinery to place a finished product upon the 
 market. If the business be largely increased, 
 new and larger machines must be obtained in 
 order to produce with the greatest economy, and 
 consequently a sacrifice must be made in the 
 equipment of the original small plant. 
 
 To those about to make their first attempt in 
 poultry -keeping on an extensive scale, it may be 
 said that one of the safest ways, if not the only 
 sure way to success, is to start in a moderate way 
 and to delay long enough to learn the business 
 thoroughly before much is invested. Mistakes 
 will certainly be made and difficult problems will 
 present themselves for solution before success can 
 be attained in any extended way. Many have 
 made the experiment of investing considerable 
 money and labor before the business was even 
 
Causes of Failure 5 
 
 fairly well understood, and failure, or discour- 
 agement which often amounts to the same 
 thing has been the consequent result. 
 
 While failures due solely to inexperience are 
 in evidence most of the time, yet new recruits 
 are continually rushing forward to repeat the dis- 
 aster. This is without doubt due largely to the 
 desire on the part of many to accumulate money 
 rapidly and before they have time to pass through 
 the important apprenticeship of learning the busi- 
 ness. Undoubtedly many are tempted to go into 
 the poultry business on a somewhat extensive 
 scale because a few fowls are kept on many farms 
 seemingly with profit, and yet without much 
 care. The small flocks that have the run of 
 the farm may thrive with little care, but large 
 colonies demand close attention from one who has 
 passed the stage of a novice, if the greatest suc- 
 cess is to be attained. 
 
 COMPAKATIVELY LITTLE LAND NECESSAKY 
 
 Unless it is desirable to raise all, or nearly all, 
 of the grain which the fowls require, on the same 
 farms 011 which they are kept, comparatively lit- 
 tle land will be required. Especially is this true 
 with ducks and chickens. Turkeys, on account 
 of their roving nature, do best when given a wide 
 range. Laying hens, however, will do well when 
 
6 Farm Poultry 
 
 confined in a comparatively small yard or "run" 
 if the ground is kept clean by cultivation. Four 
 or five acres will afford ample space for eight 
 hundred hens if suitable arrangements are made 
 to keep them in moderately small flocks. This 
 amount of land will also provide ample space for 
 the rearing of the young required for the mainte- 
 nance of the flock. If the grain food be pur- 
 chased, very little land will be necessary, only 
 enough for the houses, yards and sufficient space 
 whereon to grow the green or succulent food. A 
 very small area will be sufficient on which to raise 
 the green food if the land be kept in a high state 
 of fertility. It is true that in some parts of 
 the year it will be advantageous to have a wide 
 range, if one can be provided. 
 
 Fowls, like other classes of live stock, require 
 more exercise while they are growing and devel- 
 oping, and do best in a large run or park, as 
 so much depends on a strong body and constitu- 
 tion when the period of greatest usefulness is 
 reached. It is of relatively more importance, 
 therefore, to have a large run for the young and 
 immature fowls than for the mature birds, which 
 latter are being maintained solely for the pro- 
 duction of eggs. Fattening fowls require com- 
 paratively little exercise, their health is not mate- 
 rially impaired by a short confinement, and more 
 rapid gain in weight is secured by confining them. 
 
Quick Profits 1 
 
 QUICK RETURNS FROM MONEY INVESTED 
 
 Of the various branches of animal industry 
 there is probably none that brings such quick 
 returns as poultry - keeping. It matters not 
 whether the poultry-raiser desires to produce 
 eggs, meat in the form of broilers, mature fowls, 
 or capons, the product is ready for market within 
 a comparatively short time. Even though the 
 slowest method be pursued, that of selecting 
 eggs for hatching, from which are to be reared 
 the fowls to produce eggs, there should be no 
 difficulty in producing for the market in from 
 five to eight months. 
 
 With other classes of live stock, not only is 
 a much longer time required in which to secure 
 returns, but also a greater money outlay at the 
 beginning. The fact that so little time is required 
 for the development of a paying business makes 
 poultry-keeping an attractive field for those 
 having little capital, and who must enter some 
 business that will bring quick returns. 
 
 MAY BE CONDUCTED BY PERSONS OF EITHER SEX 
 
 The fact that the poultry business requires lit- 
 tle land, few and inexpensive buildings and no 
 heavy and complicated machinery, makes it well 
 suited to persons of either sex who are unablo 
 
8 Farm Poultry 
 
 physically, or who do not desire, to perform 
 heavy manual labor or any work that requires 
 the outlay of considerable effort and strength. 
 
 Those who desire to work more or less out of 
 doors, and who are willing to attend regularly to 
 details, may find congenial employment and may 
 undertake to perform the necessary operations of 
 poultry-keeping without the feeling that they are 
 starting in a business for which they are not 
 fitted. It will frequently be noticed that success 
 in business is attained by those who for various 
 reasons are more or less unfitted for the work 
 which they have undertaken, and who conse- 
 quently achieve success through great persever- 
 ance alone and in the face of greater difficulties 
 than their competitors experience. 
 
 Many people of means and refined tastes have 
 profitably taken up the study and occupation of 
 poultry-keeping as a means of affording health- 
 ful out-of-door exercise, in order to regain failing 
 health or to afford a change and rest from pro- 
 fessional activity. Many women have become 
 expert breeders, or producers of various poultry 
 products and are recognized as authorities in their 
 respective lines of work. There is no branch of 
 animal industry that offers so many inducements 
 to women as some of the various branches of 
 poultry -keeping, particularly if they desire to 
 experiment in the production of new forms. 
 
Clio ice of Product 
 
 A GREAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 
 
 Quite unlike other lines of live-stock work, in 
 which only a few products are raised on the farm 
 ready for the market, poultry-keeping fortunately 
 offers to the poultryman arid farmer an oppor- 
 tunity to choose from a number of marketable 
 products those which he prefers to provide or 
 which in his judgment will most likely bring 
 pleasure or financial success. It is noticed that 
 circumstances are often such that certain lines 
 of poultry work can be conducted with greater 
 success than others, so that those who study 
 closely their own adaptabilities are enabled to 
 select at the outset the line of work that is likely 
 to prove the most satisfactory. 
 
 To carry out this idea somewhat further by 
 means of an illustration, it will readily be seen 
 that if a poultryman had a somewhat limited 
 space for fowls, including both buildings and 
 yards, so that it would be quite impossible to 
 keep to advantage more than a few hundred at 
 most, he should either devote his energy to the 
 production of fowls of high merit for breeding 
 purposes or confine himself to egg production. 
 The rearing of young fowls for market demands 
 more space both in and out of doors than a 
 business of the same magnitude in which egg 
 production is the chief object. The various 
 
10 Farm Poultry 
 
 classes of domestic hen, with turkeys, ducks, 
 geese, and pigeons, furnish a great variety of 
 products that find ready sale in the markets. 
 From these the farmer or poultryman may select 
 those that offer to him the greatest special induce- 
 ments. 
 
 PKODUCTS EASY TO MAEKET 
 
 With the modern facilities for rapid transpor- 
 tation, the various poultry products may be sent 
 to market hundreds of miles distant and be 
 placed before the consumer in excellent condi- 
 tion. Eggs only a few days old may be served 
 as food after being shipped hundreds of miles 
 by express. 
 
 While the best products may be sent long dis- 
 tances by express with profit, the poorer ones 
 seldom pay for the extra cost of rapid transit. 
 Superior products create new demands. Since 
 more attention is now paid to poultry -raising in 
 this country than was given to the industry but a 
 few years ago, many highly prized special articles 
 have been produced which find a ready market 
 at remunerative prices in nearly all of the large 
 cities. As better products are placed on the 
 market, and as people of means become aware 
 of this fact, the demand for a good article soon 
 becomes as strong and constant as that for the 
 
SMI and Profit 11 
 
 cheaper and more staple articles. As soon as 
 a worthy article is produced regularly, customers 
 are ready to purchase. The best on the market 
 is usually sold first. Better work with poultry 
 will eventually insure better products, which find 
 ready sales and, in turn, create new demands. 
 It should be the aim of each person who is about 
 to enter the poultry business, to produce the best 
 which the market affords. The greatest skill is 
 required to furnish the best, but articles which 
 are produced with great skill and a thorough 
 knowledge of the business, usually yield the 
 greatest profits. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 EGG BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN 
 
 AGRICULTURISTS may, for convenience, classify 
 fowls as to their useful qualities as 
 
 Egg Breeds, General -Purpose Breeds, 
 
 Meat Breeds, Fancy Breeds. 
 
 While this classification gives considerable 
 information, in a general way, yet it should not 
 be inferred that the distinctions between these 
 classes are constant or very pronounced. In 
 other words, a classification that is based on 
 utility does not make use of positive character- 
 istics. The distinctions are relative and therefore 
 quite variable, as the usefulness of any breed will 
 depend to a large extent upon various conditions, 
 as food, care, climate, etc. Again, the so-called 
 general -purpose fowls form a connecting link be- 
 tween those which are most highly esteemed as 
 egg-producers and the heavy, clumsy Asiatic fowls, 
 whose most useful quality is the production of 
 large bodies that are highly valued for table use. 
 From the nature of the classification and the varia- 
 tion of the fowls from the standpoint of usefulness, 
 
 (12) 
 
Classification 13 
 
 it will readily be seen that different breeders may 
 honestly differ as to the exact position of certain 
 breeds. 
 
 To further illustrate, what would be recognized 
 as a meat breed by one breeder might by another 
 be placed among the general -purpose fowls on 
 account of its good laying qualities. As we find 
 all grades of domesticated cattle, from the heavy 
 strictly beef type on the one hand, whose useful- 
 ness lies in meat production alone, to the dairy cow 
 on the other hand, whose tendency toward milk 
 production is so strong that she can with difficulty 
 be induced to lay on enough flesh to look well, so 
 do we find many intermediate grades of fowls, 
 from the large, massive form noted for the pro- 
 duction of flesh to the small nervous fowl so 
 famed for egg production. The inexperienced 
 person will find more or less confusion on account 
 of this faulty classification, and mistakes are to 
 be expected, and these will be corrected only by 
 study and observation. 
 
 As these terms are current and are likely to 
 be used in the future, a brief discussion of them 
 may aid in arriving at a better understanding of 
 the points at issue. 
 
 The egg breeds include all the small or medium- 
 sized fowls that have a strong tendency toward egg 
 production. They are generally poor sitters, at 
 least while young, of a nervous temperament, being 
 
14 Farm Poultry 
 
 easily frightened, and more readily take to flight 
 than do the other breeds that are noted for utility. 
 The Leghorns, Spanish, Minorcas, and Hamburgs 
 are good representatives of this class. 
 
 The meat breeds are larger than the egg or 
 the general -purpose breeds. The largest breeds 
 of fowls are represented in this class. They are 
 generally considered to be poor layers except, pos- 
 sibly, in a few cases where the pullets are fairly 
 good layers. They are heavy-bodied, slow-moving 
 fowls, of gentle disposition, and are persistent 
 sitters. The Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans 
 are representative breeds of this class. 
 
 The general- purpose breeds, as the term indi- 
 cates, include those fowls that are of fair size and 
 furnish a good quality of meat when it is properly 
 prepared. They will also produce a good quantity 
 of eggs when kept under favorable conditions for 
 egg production. The Plymouth Eocks and Wyan- 
 dottes are familiar breeds of this class. 
 
 The fancy breeds include those fowls that are 
 reared on account of their peculiar or pleasing ap- 
 pearance, and are not bred exclusively for utility. 
 While many of the so-called fancy breeds may 
 serve a useful purpose in furnishing eggs and 
 meat, they cannot successfully compete with other 
 classes when usefulness alone is considered. The 
 Polish and Bantams may be taken as familiar 
 representatives. 
 
Egg Breeds Described 15 
 
 GENEKAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SIZE OF EGG BREEDS 
 
 While those breeds and varieties of fowls that 
 may be classed as distinctively egg producers vary 
 somewhat in size and form, yet they differ so ma- 
 terially from the general-purpose and meat breeds 
 that they may well be placed by themselves if for 
 no other reason than the one distinguishing char- 
 acteristic of size. Almost without exception the 
 noted egg- producing breeds are small or medium 
 in size and possessed of a neat, trim appearance, 
 which gives them an air of activity. They are 
 also somewhat longer-legged in proportion to their 
 size than the meat breeds, yet those having the 
 most robust constitution do not appear to be small 
 or long-legged. 
 
 While mature fowls of some of the heaviest 
 breeds of this class should weigh from six to eight 
 pounds, yet the weight is seldom mentioned in de- 
 scriptions. This is undoubtedly due to the fact 
 that egg production is the chief consideration, re- 
 gardless of the weight of the fowl. 
 
 The specific purpose for which these fowls are 
 reared being egg production, the breeder does 
 not care to sacrifice this product for increased 
 meat production, except as increased vigor in the 
 individual is likely to bring an increase in size, 
 a subject that is discussed somewhat fully in the 
 chapter on breeding. 
 
16 Farm Poultry 
 
 Disposition. Almost without exception, a ner- 
 vous, active disposition is characteristic of the 
 various varieties of fowls which are noted for 
 egg-production. They are naturally quick, alert, 
 easily frightened, and when once thoroughly 
 aroused fly almost with the ease of wild birds. 
 On account of this activity, they like a wide 
 range and ordinarily do best when not closely 
 confined. Many varieties, however, thrive well 
 when kept within inclosures, if the confinement 
 is not too rigorous. 
 
 Whenever inclosures are provided to restrict 
 their range, careful handling is necessary in order 
 that the practice of using their wings as a means 
 of locomotion may be avoided as far as possible. 
 Habit, when once acquired, is not easily changed; 
 consequently breeders find it difficult to correct 
 the annoying tendency to fly on slight provocation 
 when the habit is well formed. Many a fine fowl 
 has suffered the death penalty for continually 
 flying over inclosures. Whenever a few fowls of 
 a flock or pen have acquired the habit of flying 
 over the inclosures or fences, a reasonable modi- 
 fication of the inclosure to correct the evil rarely 
 suffices. It has been said with much aptness 
 that "Egg breeds of fowls, like honey bees, re- 
 quire slow movements and careful handling from 
 the attendant for success, while hasty movements 
 bring annoyance and disaster," 
 
Early Maturity of Egg Breeds 17 
 
 All fowls may become gentle and tame by 
 continued careful handling, so that the charac- 
 teristic alertness of the egg breeds need not pre- 
 vent the jtise of these types, even though tame 
 fowls are required. Leghorn and Minorca hens 
 have frequently been seen to perch on a basket 
 carried on the arm of an attendant who was en- 
 tering the pen or yard, in order that they might 
 secure the first morsel of a coveted food. This 
 degree of familiarity is attained only by continued 
 thoughtfulness and gentleness on the part of the 
 attendant. 
 
 Early maturity. The noted egg breeds are 
 classed among the earliest maturing fowls. In 
 fact, they almost form a class by themselves if 
 judged from a standpoint of development. Early 
 in life they assume the appearance of miniature 
 adults, both in general outline or conformation 
 and in the growth of plumage. 
 
 The early feathering greatly enhances the prob- 
 ability of the young chick living to reach matur- 
 ity. Other things being equal, the more rapidly 
 the young chick "feathers out" the more hardy it 
 becomes. The time when a young fowl is growing 
 feathers rapidly is always a delicate period in its 
 existence. It is well known by those who keep 
 song birds in cages that the moulting period is a 
 trying one for their pets. As these songsters in 
 the moulting period are producing feathers, which 
 
18 Farm Poultry 
 
 make great demands on their systems, their con- 
 dition is very similar to that of the young fowl 
 that is producing feathers for protection at the 
 expense of its physical organization. It is diffi- 
 cult if not impossible for a fowl having a weak 
 constitution to produce feathers rapidly. 
 
 While all egg breeds are not of equal hardiness 
 in this respect, yet as a class they pass rapidly 
 through the most delicate periods of infancy, 
 which goes a long way toward placing them as 
 the most hardy of fowls. The individuals of egg 
 breeds develop combs and wattles early in life, 
 which still further give them the appearance of 
 small adults. At no time do they appear so ill 
 proportioned and awkward as do the good sized 
 though undeveloped young of the larger breeds. 
 
 Poor sitters. All noted egg-producing fowls 
 are poor and uncertain sitters. The term "non- 
 sitters " has frequently been used to designate va- 
 rious breeds of fowls possessed of a marked ten- 
 dency toward egg production at the expense of a 
 disposition to incubate. 
 
 Breeders have long been trying to further de- 
 velop the tendency of egg , production that is 
 inherent in all the Mediterranean fowls, which 
 has resulted in producing an exclusively egg-pro- 
 ducing machine. The marked development in 
 egg production in this class of fowls has been 
 accomplished at the expense of other desirable 
 
Unreliable Incubators 19 
 
 qualities. In other words, the whole energy of 
 the fowl is devoted to the one particular pur- 
 pose of producing eggs. So far has this been 
 carried that breeders are now seeking to breed 
 fowls having stronger constitutions, that this 
 specialization may be carried to a still greater 
 extreme. 
 
 The tendency toward egg production has be- 
 come so great that the hen has comparatively little 
 desire to rear young and otherwise exercise her ma- 
 ternal instincts. Almost without exception, those 
 breeds of fowls that are noted especially for egg 
 production cannot be depended upon for natural 
 incubation if any considerable number of fowls are 
 to be reared. Breeders are therefore compelled to 
 resort to artificial incubation, or to keep largely if 
 not wholly, for incubation, some fowls of another 
 breed, whose maternal instincts make them good 
 mothers. Occasionally individuals of the egg 
 breeds become "broody" and under favorable con- 
 ditions prove to be persistent sitters, but too fre- 
 quently the desire to incubate is but a fickle one and 
 indulged in at the expense of the owner who sup- 
 plies the "sitting of eggs." As the hens become 
 older the tendency to incubate becomes stronger. 
 While these fowls are extremely poor sitters, yet 
 so long as they continue to incubate, though it 
 be somewhat rarely, the term "non-sitters" cannot 
 strictly be applied to them, 
 
20 Farm Poultry 
 
 Good foragers. These egg breeds rank among 
 the most active and industrious fowls, as many 
 a good housewife can testify whose cherished 
 flower garden has undergone a system of sur- 
 face culture instituted by a Leghorn hen. All 
 the noted egg producers are very alert, and 
 are well suited to foraging, and may obtain a 
 considerable portion of their living if a wide 
 range is provided. They are not only active, 
 but seem to be constantly on the lookout for 
 food. It is true that often, under otherwise fa- 
 vorable conditions, they seem to endure close 
 confinement very well. This is undoubtedly due 
 to the fact that they are hardy and will stand 
 more or less abuse and still maintain a thrifty 
 appearance. They thrive in spite of confinement, 
 not because of it. The most skilful breeders, 
 who are unable to give their fowls the desired 
 run or yard, almost invariably provide means 
 for giving the fowls exercise, which may be done 
 by requiring them to scratch among litter for 
 their food. This will in a degree modify the evil 
 of close confinement. 
 
 There is not the least doubt that many fowls 
 that are now kept in close confinement would 
 be more healthy, give a larger percentage of 
 fertile eggs, and in the end prove much more 
 profitable if greater freedom could be afforded 
 them. 
 
Warm Quarters Required 21 
 
 Sensitiveness to cold. All of the noted egg 
 breeds have large combs and wattles, which 
 make them sensitive to low temperatures. Some 
 of the breeds having extremely large combs and 
 wattles are so liable to have them frosted in the 
 colder latitudes that warm quarters must be pro- 
 vided if the production of eggs in the winter 
 time is a requisite. Theory and practice agree 
 that a lower degree of temperature will be en- 
 dured without serious results if the quarters oc- 
 cupied by the fowls are free from drafts. 
 
 Breeders have sought to remedy this some- 
 what serious objection by breeding "rose -combs," 
 that are not so readily frozen. In practice this 
 is found to be only a partial remedy, as the wat- 
 tles, when extremely large, are almost as sensi- 
 tive to cold as the large, thin, upright combs. 
 
 The egg breeds are much closer feathered than 
 the fleshy Asiatics (Brahmas, Cochins and Lang- 
 shans), which endure low temperatures so well. 
 The thicker coat of fluffy feathers of the Asiatics 
 undoubtedly forms a thicker dead air space than 
 do the thinner and more compact coats of the 
 egg breeds. The comparatively long and naked 
 shanks, large combs and wattles, with a compact 
 coat of feathers, ill prepare the latter to withstand 
 the severity of the northern winter when more or 
 less exposed by the neglect or indifference too 
 often accorded the fowls on the average farm. 
 
22 Farm Poultry 
 
 It should not be inferred, however, that these 
 fowls are not suited to the northern, central and 
 New England states, for they are the best winter 
 layers when warm and comfortable quarters are 
 provided. Even when more or less neglected they 
 may still prove to be wholly satisfactory as winter 
 layers on account of their hardiness and their 
 great natural tendency to produce eggs. The very 
 fact that they do so well under comparative ne- 
 glect is one of the chief reasons for such unsat- 
 isfactory results in poultry - keeping : fowls that 
 will live with little care are likely to receive 
 little care. It often happens that the most deli- 
 cate breeds receive the most care. 
 
 BREEDS AND VARIETIES 
 
 The most noted egg breeds now reared in the 
 United States include the so-called Mediterranean 
 fowls, which comprise the following breeds: Leg- 
 horn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian, and Span- 
 ish. To these should be added the Hamburg, 
 Red Cap, Houdan, and perhaps some others. 
 Some of these breeds are further subdivided into 
 numerous varieties which partake of the same 
 general form and disposition but differ greatly in 
 color of plumage. 
 
 In producing so great a variety in plumage as 
 seen m the numerous varieties of some breeds, 
 
Breeds and Varieties 23 
 
 notably the Leghorn, foreign blood has been in- 
 troduced which has modified, to some extent, the 
 laying propensities. At first thought the prac- 
 tice of introducing the blood of an alien breed in 
 the formation of a new variety of an egg breed 
 would be condemned; but when it is once well 
 understood that crossing within certain limits 
 brings increased vigor to the progeny, it may be 
 seen that for egg production alone the new va- 
 riety, which is given a little more robustness, 
 may be made to produce as many eggs by a pro- 
 cess of moderately-forced feeding as the some- 
 what more delicate pure breed whose inherent 
 tendency to egg production may be a little 
 stronger. 
 
 Leghorn. This is one of the Mediterranean 
 breeds whose name is supposed to have been de- 
 rived from the city of Leghorn in Italy, whence 
 they are thought to have been brought to Amer- 
 ica. The early history of the breed is now more or 
 less obscure, and this is due, no doubt, in a large 
 degree, to the fact that they were unpopular for 
 many years after they were introduced into this 
 country. Although they are credited with being 
 introduced in the early part of the nineteenth 
 century, it was not until after the middle of the 
 century that they attracted much attention. As 
 the popular animals and crops are most written 
 about, it is not strange that a more or less un- 
 
24 Farm Poultry 
 
 popular breed should pass for nearly half a cen- 
 tury with comparatively slight notice. Since the 
 introduction of the Leghorns, however, they have 
 been considerably changed and bred to that degree 
 of perfection that has designated them an Amer- 
 
 
 Fig. 1. A White Leghorn cockerel. 
 
 icanized, if not an American breed. In the early 
 history of these fowls in this country they were 
 spoken of as being of various colors yet all par- 
 taking of the same general nature, and were 
 recognized as belonging to the same breed. The 
 
Varieties 
 
 25 
 
 different varieties that are now recognized had 
 not then been formed. 
 
 All varieties of Leghorns are comparatively 
 small in size, and consequently are not well 
 
 Fig. 2. White Leghorns. 
 
 suited to those who depend largely upon their 
 fowls for the supply of fresh meat for the table. 
 They are active and do not fatten so readily 
 under ordinary conditions as larger and less 
 
26 Farm Poultry 
 
 active breeds. These fowls are hardy, and all 
 varieties are good layers, most of them being 
 extremely prolific. 
 
 The fact of their being hardy in all stages of 
 development, as well as extremely good layers, 
 fits them for the farm, where a considerable 
 revenue is expected from the sale of eggs and 
 where comparatively little importance is placed 
 on the production of meat. They are noted for 
 laying early in life ; frequently early-hatched pul- 
 lets lay at five months of age and under favora- 
 ble conditions will lay well throughout the winter 
 and summer months. Many records of more than 
 two hundred eggs per year from single birds are 
 known, and even large flocks have produced two 
 hundred eggs per hen in a single year. 
 
 The Leghorns are comparatively light eaters 
 and are somewhat less expensive to raise to ma- 
 turity than larger and heavier -bodied fowls. All 
 varieties of Leghorns are active and do best if 
 given wide liberty and if permitted to take much 
 exercise in search of food. 
 
 The varieties of the Leghorn breed are: 
 
 White, Rose-comb Brown, 
 
 Rose-comb White, Buff, 
 
 Black, Silver Duckwing. 
 
 Brown, 
 
 All varieties except the Rose -comb White and 
 the Rose -comb Brown have large single combs, 
 
Varieties 27 
 
 which, in the males, should be thin, firm and 
 erect. In the females they should fall gracefully 
 to one side, particularly during the laying period. 
 
 Fig. 3. Buff Leghorn cockerel (3- size). 
 
 The White and the Brown varieties are older than 
 the others and are usually selected when egg pro- 
 duction is the sole object. Some of the new varie- 
 ties have not been bred pure long enough to become 
 thoroughly fixed in their distinctive characteristics. 
 
28 Farm Poultry 
 
 There is practically no difference between the 
 White and the Brown varieties in the number of 
 eggs produced. The White, however, lays some- 
 what larger eggs than the Brown, and the shells 
 are of a purer white; that is, the shells of the 
 Brown Leghorn are a little tinted, although they 
 pass for white eggs. The color of the shells is 
 of minor importance, although it is recognized 
 as one of the fancy points when highest priced 
 eggs are produced. In some markets white eggs 
 sell for the highest prices ; in other markets brown 
 eggs are preferred. Under ordinary conditions 
 the difference in the color will be of little or 
 no value. If, however, the poultryman desires 
 to produce the highest -priced eggs some atten- 
 tion should be given to the color and other char- 
 acteristics which go to make up uniformity of 
 product. 
 
 It needs no argument to sustain the assertion 
 that, other things being equal, those fowls that 
 lay the largest eggs are to be preferred. At 
 first thought it may appear to be of more impor- 
 tance to those who aim to produce eggs for their 
 own table than to those who produce eggs for 
 the market to be sold by the dozen. It should 
 not be forgotten, however, that continued success 
 in any business requires the business man to sat- 
 isfy his customers. He should aim, therefore, to 
 produce good -sized eggs, which will not only be 
 
Size of Eggs 29 
 
 acceptable as to quality , but also as to weight. 
 It will be evident to all that those fowls which 
 lay the greatest weight of eggs during the year 
 will be the most economical for the farmer to 
 keep to supply the wants of his own table. The 
 difference in expense of keeping fowls which lay 
 
 Fig. 4. Buff Leghorn pullet (one-sixth size). 
 
 different sized eggs is not commensurate with the 
 difference in the value of the product. This sub- 
 ject will be given a fuller discussion in another 
 chapter. 
 
 It is asserted that some of the other and newer 
 varieties of Leghorns are equally as good egg 
 producers as the White and the Brown varieties. 
 
30 Farm Poultry 
 
 However, the majority of practical poultrymen 
 who have selected a variety of the Leghorns and 
 have entered into the business of egg production 
 for profit select either the White or the Brown 
 variety. 
 
 Fig. 5. Single-comb Brown Leghorn hen (two-thirteenths size). 
 
 Fowls of a solid color, like the White or the 
 Black variety of the Leghorn breed, often prove 
 most satisfactory in the hands of a poultryman 
 whose primary object is to produce eggs, and 
 whose secondary object is to sell his surplus stock 
 for breeding purposes at something more than 
 the price which dressed poultry brings in the 
 market. The reason for this is readily seen when 
 we consider that old fowls must be disposed of 
 and be replaced by younger and more vigorous 
 
Selling Surplus Stock 31 
 
 stock. Such stock may frequently be sold and 
 used for breeders after having served a period 
 of forced egg production, provided it represents 
 fairly well the type of fowls to which it belongs. 
 Fowls are more likely to represent a type in 
 color if they are solid -colored than if the plu- 
 mage is distinguished by various markings, as 
 seen in many of the useful breeds. In other 
 words, the poultryman finds it much easier to 
 develop the one point of egg production than to 
 breed for plumage and develop for egg produc- 
 tion at the same time. One important principle 
 in stock breeding should not be forgotten, that 
 it is much easier to develop one useful quality 
 to its greatest perfection than to develop two 
 qualities which are not closely correlated. Con- 
 sequently, it is found much easier to produce 
 strong, robust fowls of a solid color for egg pro- 
 duction than to produce equally as good birds 
 of a colored variety, for both exhibition and use- 
 ful qualities. 
 
 Minorca. This breed is thought to have been 
 introduced into England from the island of Mi- 
 norca, in the Mediterranean sea, and it is said 
 by some poultry authorities to be the progenitor 
 of the White -faced Black Spanish breed. These 
 are the heaviest of the Mediterranean fowls. The 
 cock should weigh 8 pounds and the hen 6%. 
 They have the great laying tendencies of the 
 
32 Farm Poultry 
 
 fowls of this class. Lewis Wright, writing of Eng- 
 lish fowls, places them second on the list of 
 egg producers. The Minorcas have two varieties, 
 the White and the Black. In appearance they 
 resemble the Leghorns, although they have larger 
 
 Fig. 6. Black Minorca cockerel (one-seventh size). 
 
 combs and wattles. The solid color is in their 
 favor, although there is a tendency toward white 
 in the primaries of the Black variety. They have 
 not been so popular for egg production as the 
 Leghorns, although they are coming more into 
 popular favor. The eggs of this breed are large 
 
Minorcas 33 
 
 and white. They average about eight to the pound. 
 As Americans prefer fowls having yellow skin and 
 shanks, the Minorcas are therefore placed at a 
 disadvantage, as their skin is white and the shanks 
 and feet of a dark, leaden color approaching black. 
 
 Fig. 7. Black Minorca hen (one-seventh size). 
 
 Andalusian. This breed is thought to be na- 
 tive to Andalusia, a province in the southern 
 part of Spain. It is a large, hardy breed of 
 the Mediterranean class. These fowls have not 
 been popular in the United States, partly owing, 
 no doubt, to the color of their skin and shanks. 
 The skin is white and the shanks and toes are 
 
34 Farm Poultry 
 
 slaty blue. For farm purposes they are consid- 
 ered about the same as the Minorcas. There is 
 only one variety of this breed. The plumage 
 is of a bluish gray or dove color, approaching 
 black on the back. They do not breed so true 
 to color as some of the other breeds of this class. 
 They are excellent layers, but are not supplant- 
 ing the Leghorns for this purpose. They are 
 classed with the non-sitters, but have a somewhat 
 greater tendency to incubate than Leghorns do. 
 
 Spanish. Now known as the White -faced 
 Black Spanish. This breed has been bred pure for 
 a great many years in England. It is called the 
 oldest of the non-sitting varieties. There seems 
 to be no doubt in the minds of many authorities 
 that this Spanish breed came from some of the 
 Mediterranean countries, and probably from Spain. 
 The fowls are somewhat longer- legged in propor- 
 tion to the size of the body than the other breeds 
 of this class. They are glossy black throughout, 
 without any white or gray feathers. The shanks 
 and toes are dark in color, leaden blue approach- 
 ing black. The Spanish is not as hardy as the 
 other breeds mentioned, particularly when imma- 
 ture and subjected to more or less dampness. The 
 chickens do not feather as rapidly as the Leghorns 
 and are considered more delicate. On account, no 
 doubt, of the somewhat more delicate constitution, 
 the eggs are more or less infertile, and breeders 
 
35 
 
 consequently are forced to keep a somewhat smaller 
 number of females with one male than with other 
 breeds of fowls noted for egg production. Breed- 
 ers have attempted, and succeeded in a large meas- 
 ure, in developing more fancy points with the 
 White -faced Black Spanish than with other noted 
 egg breeds of a solid color. This breeding for 
 fancy points is thought to have weakened the con- 
 stitution considerably. On account of the develop- 
 ment of these fancy points, some practical poultry- 
 keepers are inclined to consider the Spanish as a 
 fancy breed rather than to class it among the most 
 useful ones. While they will undoubtedly produce 
 a good supply of eggs under favorable conditions, 
 yet the fact remains that few if any practical poul- 
 trymen select them solely for egg production. 
 The white face is a distinguishing feature of this 
 fowl, as the white of the face and the ear lobe 
 form a continuous smooth, white surface extending 
 down as far as the wattles. They have large, 
 single combs. For farm purposes they should be 
 placed after the Leghorns, Minorcas, and Andalu- 
 sians. 
 
 Hamburg. The Hamburgs have long been 
 known as prolific egg producers. This class con- 
 sists of two breeds, the Hamburgs and Eed Caps. 
 Of the former there are six varieties, and of the 
 latter but one. The Hamburg breed was intro- 
 duced into England from Holland or North Grer- 
 
36 Farm Poultry 
 
 many, and eventually took the name of the noted 
 seaport, Hamburg, although they were known at 
 that time, and for many years after their intro- 
 duction into Great Britain, as the "Dutch every- 
 day layers," or "everlasting layers." They are 
 small, active fowls, and are recognized as being 
 extremely good layers if kept under favorable 
 conditions. It is said that when properly kept 
 they- will equal the Leghorns in egg production, 
 although as a matter of fact comparatively few 
 poultrymen select Hamburgs in preference to the 
 Mediterranean fowls when egg production is the 
 sole, or even the chief, object. They are quite as 
 difficult to keep in confinement as any of the 
 Mediterraneans, being small, light, and easily 
 frightened. Their tendency to fly makes it diffi- 
 cult to keep them in the yards or runs. Of all 
 breeds, probably there is none that likes a wide 
 range better than the Hamburgs. Their eggs are 
 small and white, being somewhat smaller than 
 those of the Leghorns. The recognized varieties 
 are: 
 
 Golden -spangled, Golden-penciled, White, 
 
 Silver- spangled, Silver-penciled, Black. 
 
 All varieties have blue, or leaden-blue, shanks 
 and toes except, possibly, the Black, which may 
 have dark, leaden-blue or black shanks and toes. 
 All have rose combs, which terminate in a spike 
 or point at the rear. This point is usually some- 
 
37 
 
 what elevated, and is one of the characteristic 
 features of the Hamburg comb. When these 
 fowls are entered for competition at shows or ex- 
 hibitions there is no weight qualification. Their 
 small size makes them unprofitable as table 
 
 Fig. 8. Silver Spangled Hamburg cock. 
 
 fowls; then, too, the color of their shanks and 
 skin is against them for table use. The chickens 
 are not noted for their vigor, and it is said that 
 both old and young are likely to suffer from want 
 of cleanliness more than any other egg breed, 
 with the possible exception of the White-faced 
 Black Spanish. Wright says they do not stand 
 crowding well, and that "where six Brahmas 
 could be kept, four Hamburgs are quite enough." 
 
38 Farm Poultry 
 
 Red Cap. This is recognized as a distinct 
 breed, yet the fowls resemble the Hamburgs in 
 many respects. They are somewhat larger than 
 the Hamburgs, and compare with them in size 
 much as the Minorcas compare with the Leg- 
 horns. They are quite hardy, and are extremely 
 good layers. They have large rose combs, which 
 have a tendency to grow somewhat irregular. 
 This makes them difficult to breed for exhibition 
 purposes. They have slate-colored shanks. The 
 plumage is red and black. Cocks should weigh 
 7%, hen 6%, cockerel 6, and pullet 5 pounds. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 MEAT BREEDS 
 
 THOSE breeds that are reared especially for 
 the production of meat, either for home consump- 
 tion or for the market, are good- sized, compactly 
 built fowls, probably of Asiatic origin. They 
 are much heavier than those that are reared es- 
 pecially for egg production and differ from them 
 almost as much in general outline as they do in 
 size and weight. It should be borne in mind 
 that the term "meat breeds," as used in this 
 volume, refers chiefly to those breeds whose 
 greatest usefulness is in the production of meat. 
 While the quality of the flesh of these fowls 
 may not exceed, or even equal, the flesh of some 
 other breeds, yet on account of their large size 
 they are especially prized for table use under cer- 
 tain conditions. As a good-sized roast of meat 
 is preferred to a small one, so large fowls are 
 preferred for certain methods of cooking. Cer- 
 tain it is that large fowls are usually served to 
 better advantage than small ones. 
 
 As a rule the noted meat breeds are larger, 
 more compact and "blocky" than the Mediter- 
 
 (39) 
 
40 Farm Poultry 
 
 raneans. They are broader and deeper in body, 
 fuller in breast and have shorter necks arid legs. 
 While some of the intermediate, or general -pur- 
 pose fowls, as they are sometimes called, are 
 reared wholly for their flesh, they should not be 
 classified with the distinctively meat breeds. 
 The latter fowls produce, under favorable con- 
 ditions, a good number of eggs, which, together 
 with their size, warrants placing them in the 
 intermediate. class, which may be called general- 
 purpose breeds, for convenience of discussion. 
 Whatever may be said of those fowls noted for 
 meat production will apply only in part to the 
 smaller general -purpose fowls, so far as they 
 enter into competition for meat production. As 
 a matter of fact, many of the so-called general - 
 purpose fowls are reared extensively for meat 
 production, but they are nevertheless of a different 
 type from the large, heavy, phlegmatic breeds, 
 whose greatest usefulness is in the production of 
 large, plump bodies, most highly prized for table 
 use. These meat breeds form a class by them- 
 selves even when the fowls are considered from 
 the standpoint of weight only. 
 
 Disposition. Without exception all the noted 
 meat breeds are slow and more or less sluggish 
 in movement and are not easily frightened. They 
 become very tame and gentle with careful treat- 
 ment and do not show a dislike to handling, as 
 
Quiet Fowls 41 
 
 do some of the smaller and more nervous breeds. 
 They are not well calculated to seek their own 
 living, even though a wide range be provided. 
 They have little desire to roam far from 
 home unless compelled to do so in search of 
 food. Even then their slow and, in many cases, 
 awkward movements totally unfit them for for- 
 aging for insects and other foods which nature 
 provides, in competition with more active breeds. 
 Preeminently, they are fowls which should be fed, 
 rather than allowed to shift for themselves. As 
 the more active, nervous Mediterraneans illustrate 
 an ideal fowl for foraging, so the heavy, clumsy, 
 phlegmatic meat breeds represent the opposite 
 extreme, or that of gentleness and docility. 
 
 Easily confined. If only the heavy-bodied 
 fowls are to be reared on farms where all fowls 
 are to be kept within inclosures, comparatively 
 low fences will suffice. When mature, fowls of 
 the heaviest breeds rarely fly from the ground, 
 and are satisfied with comparatively low perches. 
 On account of their gentle dispositions they make 
 most excellent "lawn fowls," and may be given 
 liberty without fear of trespassing on the holdings 
 of a near-by neighbor. In the minds of many, a 
 few fowls on the back lawn during certain por- 
 tions of the year add to the attractiveness of the 
 surroundings and bring pleasure to the owner, 
 who delights in the freedom of his birds. This 
 
42 Farm Poultry 
 
 is particularly true if he is assured that these 
 birds, which, in a sense, have become pets, are 
 quite certain not to annoy either the members 
 of his own household or his neighbors. There 
 are probably no breeds of fowls so well suited 
 to have the liberties of a small farm or lot as 
 these slow-moving Asiatics. 
 
 Laying qualities. The laying qualities of these 
 fowls are considerably below the average, and, as 
 a rule, are not to be compared with those of the 
 more active fowls which originated in the coun- 
 tries bordering on the Mediterranean. 
 
 The useful qualities of animals reach the high- 
 est state of development when one quality* is de- 
 veloped at the expense of others. Experience has 
 shown, as already stated (p. 31), that it has not 
 been possible to develop in the same individual or 
 breed two or more useful qualities to the highest 
 stage of perfection. The two most highly prized 
 useful qualities in our domesticated fowls are meat 
 and egg production. When one is unusually well 
 developed the other is lessened in value or impor- 
 tance, so that both are never developed to the great- 
 est extent in one individual. Admirable illustra- 
 tions are seen in the development of animals that 
 are highly prized for the production of meat or of 
 milk. In no instance has the best milker been 
 most highly prized for meat production. A similar 
 condition exists in the poultry world. While the 
 
Meat Breeds as Egg Producers 43 
 
 breeding of fowls solely for egg production, or for 
 meat production, has reached a high state of per- 
 fection, yet these two qualities are not brought to 
 the highest stage of perfection in one individual. 
 As the development of either is chiefly a matter 
 of food and constitutional vigor, the greatest and 
 most perfect result is reached when the energies 
 of the individual are deflected chiefly in one direc- 
 tion. With both animals and plants, it is a good 
 maxim to "breed, for one thing at a time." 
 
 While some breeds or varieties of large fowls, 
 notably the Light Brahmas, are good winter layers 
 while young, yet it is not to be inferred from 
 any records these fowls may have made that they 
 are equal to some of the Mediterranean breeds as 
 economical egg-producing machines, when the en- 
 tire life of the fowl is taken into consideration. 
 The modern poultryman regards his fowls much 
 as a manufacturer regards his machine, and, in 
 either case, the machine that will run at its fullest 
 capacity for the longest period, other things be- 
 ing equal, will bring to the owner the most profit. 
 While poultry -keepers may rightly consider their 
 fowls as machines for the production of meat 
 and eggs, yet it should be understood that it is 
 not only desirable, but necessary, that the suc- 
 cessful poultryman regard his flock from a stand- 
 point other than a purely business one. It is 
 necessary to the most successful poultry busi- 
 
44 Farm Poultry 
 
 ness that the poultrynian love his fowls. Unless 
 the live stock owner has a love for the animals 
 under his charge, and which is entirely distinct 
 from the purpose for which he is breeding them, 
 he is not likely to study their necessities and 
 comforts. 
 
 The distinctive meat breeds include all of the 
 Asiatics, namely, the Brahmas, Cochins and 
 Langsharis. Of the Brahmas, there are two va- 
 rieties, the Light and the Dark. The Cochins are 
 represented by four varieties, Buff, Partridge, 
 White, and Black; while the Langshans have but 
 two varieties, Black and White . 
 
 Late maturity. It is well understood that in 
 the development of animal life large size is not 
 conducive to early maturity. Thus, heavy meat 
 breeds require a much longer time in. which to 
 reach maturity than do the smaller, more ac- 
 tive fowls. On this account the chicks are 
 considered somewhat more delicate. This is be- 
 cause they require a much longer time while 
 passing the early and critical periods of their 
 existence. Little chickens are more delicate than 
 mature fowls; consequently, the longer the time 
 required to pass through the juvenile period the 
 more difficult they are to rear. On the other 
 hand, the little chicks are well suited to with- 
 stand the hardships of early life if they are 
 kept dry and clean. The young of some varieties 
 
Origin of Brahmas 45 
 
 are much better protected with down and feathers 
 than others. 
 
 BKAHMAS 
 
 These are frequently called the leading breed 
 of the Asiatics. Light Brahmas, particularly, 
 have long been popular with many poultry -keep- 
 
 Fig. 9. A flock of Light Brahmas. 
 
 ers throughout the country. The origin of these 
 fowls is somewhat obscure. Wright and others 
 think that they probably have descended from 
 the fowls of India, while Tegetmeier asserts that 
 this breed was probably formed in America. 
 
 A distinctive feature of the Brahmas is the 
 comb, which is known as the pea -comb. It is 
 unlike either the rose- or the single comb. The 
 pea -comb has been described as the union of 
 three single combs, joined at the front, rear and 
 
46 Farm Poultry 
 
 base, the middle comb being somewhat larger 
 than the other two. Each comb should have 
 distinct serrations. 
 
 The Brahmas are large fowls, in fact, the 
 largest variety known is the Light Brahma. The 
 Light Brahma cock should weigh 12 and the hen 
 
 Fig. 10. Dark Brahma cock (one-eighth size). 
 
 9% pounds. The Dark Brahmas are a pound 
 lighter. The Brahmas have yellow skin and 
 shanks, and the outsides of the shanks are feath- 
 ered. Leg -feathering is undoubtedly a protec- 
 tion during the severe winter weather, but it is 
 somewhat objectionable, as the majority of con- 
 sumers prefer a clean -legged fowl. 
 
Characteristics of Brahmas 
 
 47 
 
 The young birds do not "feather out" so rap- 
 idly as the young of the Mediterraneans, and 
 consequently are ill-looking while young on ac- 
 count of their partially naked appearance. Some- 
 times this partial nakedness continues throughout 
 
 Fig. 11. Dark Brahma hen (one-seventh size). 
 
 a considerable period of their growth. Some 
 farmers object to Brahmas on account of this 
 slow feathering, but this characteristic cannot de- 
 tract materially from their usefulness. 
 
 When not injured by breeding for fancy points, 
 as sometimes is done in the production of fowls 
 for exhibition, the pullets make good winter layers. 
 
48 Farm Poultry 
 
 For egg production, however, they should not 
 be kept longer than two years. If the pullets 
 are early hatched and mature reasonably early, 
 for Brahmas, they should not be kept longer than 
 one complete season of usefulness if egg produc- 
 tion is an important essential. 
 
 The Dark Brahmas are not considered to be as 
 good layers as the Light variety, and are quite 
 as difficult to breed true to color. The Dark 
 Brahmas have somewhat delicate feather mark- 
 ings which are difficult to produce with that 
 degree of excellence necessary for exhibition 
 purposes. 
 
 The Brahmas are good sitters, in fact sit too 
 much for general -purpose fowls, and are consid- 
 ered too heavy to sit on eggs of light-weight fowls. 
 All Asiatics lay buff-colored eggs. Some of them 
 are much darker than others. The Brahmas are 
 "good growers" and make excellent table fowls. 
 They are fairly hardy and gain rapidly in weight. 
 The meat is of fair quality, but does not equal 
 that of the Dorking or Game. The Dark Brahmas 
 are not quite so popular as the Light, which is no 
 doubt due to the superior egg production of the 
 latter. Brahmas do well in small runs or yards. 
 When liberally fed the Brahmas have a tendency 
 to become too fat for laying and for breeding 
 purposes. Excessive fatness not only causes fewer 
 eggs, but a larger proportion of infertile ones. 
 
Useful Qualities of Cochins 49 
 
 COCHINS 
 
 The Cochins were introduced into England from 
 China about 1843, when the ports of China were 
 opened to European traders. They are a pound 
 lighter than the Light Brahmas. They are dis- 
 
 Fig. 12. Buff Cochin cock (one-eighth size), 
 
 tinctively table .fowls. The hens are good sitters, 
 easily handled, and are slow and awkward in 
 movement. The young are fairly hardy after the 
 chickens once get a good start. They grow fast 
 and furnish a good quantity of meat, but not of 
 the best quality. They are considered indifferent 
 layers. These fowls are gentle and tame, very 
 
50 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 peaceable, seldom quarrel and stand confinement 
 well. They do well where others would not thrive 
 for lack of exercise. 
 
 The Buff Cochins are as pure buff as any of 
 the buff breeds. This variety is the most popular 
 of the Cochins. The fowls have an abundance 
 
 SIT: 
 
 Fig. 13. Buff Cochin hen (one-seventh size). 
 
 of fluffy feathers which enable them to with- 
 stand severe cold weather. Their shanks are well 
 feathered on the outer side. The middle and 
 outer toes are also feathered, while the inner 
 toes are entirely naked. They have small, single, 
 upright combs. They are much admired by those 
 who delight in large, gentle, slow-moving fowls. 
 
Langshans Described 51 
 
 LANGSHANS 
 
 Langshans are natives of northern China and 
 were introduced into England about a quarter of 
 a century ago. They have not been bred to a 
 great extent in America until the last few years. 
 They endure severe weather well, and are said 
 to be good winter layers. It is also said that the 
 tendency to incubate is not so great as in the 
 Cochins. The cock should weigh 10 and the 
 hen 7 pounds. The Langshans are the small- 
 est and most active of the Asiatics, and more 
 nearly approach the general -purpose fowl than do 
 the other Orientals. They have white skin and 
 dark shanks, while the others have yellow skin 
 arid yellow shanks. The quality of the flesh is 
 considered excellent, being fine-grained for such 
 large fowls. They are better foragers than the 
 Cochins and Brahmas . They are somewhat longer- 
 legged than the Brahmas and Cochins, and con- 
 sequently appear taller in proportion to their size. 
 Their leg feathering is less than that of the other 
 Asiatics. 
 
 Langshans are steadily gaining in popularity, 
 although they will probably never become so popu- 
 lar as the general -purpose breeds unless they 
 undergo a marked modification. They are pre- 
 ferred by some because they are more active 
 than either the Brahmas or Cochins, 
 
52 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 FAVEKOLLE 
 
 This is a class of cross-bred fowls, not being 
 a distinct breed, but serving a useful purpose as 
 meat producers. It has supplanted the Houdan 
 and other French breeds in some parts of France, 
 
 Fig. 14. Faverolle cock (one-eighth size). 
 
 where the production of good- sized young birds 
 for the Paris market is the chief aim. 
 
 The Faverolles were produced by crossing the 
 following breeds: Cochin, Brahma, Dorking, and 
 Houdan. They are bearded and sometimes have 
 a crest, frequently have five toes, and show white 
 skin and light- colored shanks. The shanks are 
 
53 
 
 Faverolles 
 
 usually feathered unless the Dorking blood pre- 
 dominates, in which case they are frequently bare. 
 For early-rearing and quick -growing chickens that 
 produce tender and juicy flesh, the Faverolles 
 are highly prized where they are best known. It 
 
 jj^ 
 
 Fig. 15. Faverolle hen (one-sixth size)., 
 
 is undoubtedly true that the flesh of the mature 
 birds is somewhat coarse and undesirable. While 
 these fowls may become a well-established breed 
 and may be highly prized for the fine quality of 
 their meat, it is doubtful if they ever become 
 popular in America as farm fowls. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 GENERAL - PURPOSE FO IV LS 
 
 As the name indicates, the general -purpose 
 breeds include such fowls as may profitably bo 
 kept on the farm for the production of both meat 
 and eggs, particularly under the conditions that 
 require natural incubation. They are adapted to 
 common and general conditions. It should not 
 be forgotten that the term "general -purpose" is 
 relative and is not intended to express exact con- 
 ditions. It is impossible to make definite class- 
 ifications of the various breeds of fowls, as some 
 breeds in the hands of skilled poultrymen may 
 prove profitable, while in the hands of an unskilled 
 person they would not compare favorably with many 
 other breeds that really are less productive. Fowls 
 of all breeds and varieties lay eggs, and the flesh of 
 all fowls furnishes good and wholesome food, yet all 
 breeds are not equally desirable for these purposes. 
 
 Farmers, from the fact that they are somewhat 
 isolated, require fowls that are noted for utility 
 along more than one line of production. They 
 look not only for a fairly good egg production, but 
 also for a body of considerable size that will fur- 
 
 (54) 
 
"Requirements of Farmers 55 
 
 nish a good quantity of meat of first-class quality 
 for table use. Both eggs and meat are of the 
 highest importance for the practical farmer, for 
 upon his poultry he depends to a greater extent 
 than he himself is aware. The quality of the 
 meat, as well as its quantity, is to be considered. 
 Not only does the farmer demand meat when the 
 fowls are mature, but the meat of fowls of all 
 ages after the young reach the broiler stage must 
 be of good quality. It is vitally important, also, 
 that the fowls produce the greatest quantity and 
 best quality of meat from the food consumed ; 
 for some fowls eat much and produce relatively 
 little. Good layers are also required, especially 
 during the winter months. Steady winter layers 
 are demanded by the farmer quite as much as by 
 the poultryman whose business it is to produce 
 eggs for the market. Most farmers do not expect 
 to consume all the product of the poultry yard 
 at home. If eggs are produced in good num- 
 bers during the cold weather, a high price is 
 usually realized for them. A greater price is real- 
 ized from winter eggs than from those produced 
 during the spring and summer months when fowls 
 lay most abundantly. It is also desired that the 
 farm hen should become "broody," incubate and 
 prove a good mother for her young. Many farm- 
 ers do not feel that they can afford to be bur- 
 dened with the extra care and study which the 
 
56 Farm Poultry 
 
 successful operation of the modern incubator 
 would incur. They therefore depend upon the 
 natural instincts of the fowls to provide incuba- 
 tors and brooders. Some of the more noted 
 characteristics of the general -purpose fowls are 
 discussed in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Size. These fowls are usually of medium size; 
 that is, they rarely represent either extreme, al- 
 though the largest breed the Light Brahmas 
 may, under exceptionally favorable conditions, 
 prove to be fairly good farm fowls. The general- 
 purpose fowls, as a rule, have blocky, compact 
 bodies, which is one of the requisites for meat 
 production. They are rarely long-legged. They 
 are most economical feeders; that is, they make 
 a good growth for the food consumed. 
 
 Disposition. Gentleness is one of the charac- 
 teristics of these breeds. The fowls are not easily 
 frightened, and are more easily confined than 
 the breeds which are noted for egg produc- 
 tion alone. They rarely attempt to use their 
 wings in order to escape from inclosures of me- 
 dium height. While they may become wild and 
 easily frightened by improper management, yet 
 with proper care they become quite as docile 
 and tame as is consistent with ease of manage- 
 ment and profit. They occupy a medium position 
 between the Mediterraneans and the Asiatics as 
 regards size, egg production, and docility. . 
 
Useful Qualities 57 
 
 Early maturity. These fowls are hardy, grow 
 quickly and pass through the delicate stages of 
 early life rapidly. They closely resemble the most 
 hardy of the noted egg breeds in this respect. 
 They are considered to be hardy at all stages, 
 which is an important point for farm poultry. 
 The many cares of busy farm life during the 
 growing seasons of the year sometimes prevent 
 giving the fowls the close attention which the 
 more delicate breeds require in order that they 
 may be brought safely to a stronger stage of 
 development. Hardiness at all stages of de- 
 velopment is, therefore, an important character- 
 istic of farm poultry. Early maturity produces 
 early -laying pullets. The so-called general -pur- 
 pose breeds mature early and frequently produce 
 pullets that will lay at five months of age. 
 Early -hatched pullets, as a rule, will lay at an 
 earlier -age than those hatched later in the sea- 
 son. The early- hatched fowls generally grow 
 most rapidly and reach maturity in the shortest 
 time. Early -hatched fowls are usually preferred 
 for breeding as well as for utility. 
 
 Good sitters and good brooders. While these 
 fowls are not as persistent sitters as the Asiatics, 
 yet they may be depended upon for natural in- 
 cubation, particularly if the hens are kept until 
 they are two or three years old. They make ex- 
 cellent mothers, as they care for their young 
 
58 Farm 
 
 excellently and have a great abundance of fluffy 
 feathers, which enable them to do their brood- 
 ing well. They are probably somewhat better 
 sitters and brooders than the extremely heavy 
 fowls. Fewer eggs are likely to be broken by 
 these careful birds than by the larger and more 
 clumsy kinds. 
 
 Good for agers. These fowls are good fora- 
 gers, considering their size. While they are not 
 inclined to roam as far as some of the lighter 
 and more active breeds, yet they are well calcu- 
 lated to seek their own living when an oppor- 
 tunity is afforded them. The young fowls will 
 roam a considerable distance for insects and green 
 food, and in this respect they occupy a medium 
 position between the active, nervous breeds and 
 the heavy Asiatics, approaching more nearly the 
 former than the latter. 
 
 Endure cold weather well. The compact body 
 and medium- sized combs and wattles enable 
 the general -purpose fowls to withstand the 
 severe weather of the winters. While a frosted 
 comb may occasionally result, yet they are not 
 nearly so liable to injury by freezing as are the 
 more noted egg breeds. They have a somewhat 
 thicker coat of feathers and more fluff than the 
 Mediterraneans. The thick coat of feathers gives 
 them a much better protection than a thin one, 
 for the reason that the air space inclosed by 
 
Plymouth Rocks 59 
 
 a thick coat is considerably greater than that 
 inclosed by a thin one. While they do not 
 equal the Asiatics in this respect, yet they are 
 sufficiently protected to withstand the rigors of 
 the northern winters. 
 
 BARKED PLYMOUTH KOCK 
 
 This variety probably originated in Massa- 
 chusetts something more than forty years ago. 
 It is said to have sprung from the cross of a 
 Dominique cock and a Black Java hen. The 
 Barred Plymouth Rocks combine largely the qual- 
 ities of both these breeds. They more nearly 
 approach the Java in size, but retain many of 
 the good qualities of the Dominique. While they 
 do not have the color of either parent, yet they 
 more nearly approach that of the Dominique. 
 These fowls approach the Asiatics in size, the 
 Leghorns in egg production, and constitute one 
 of the most useful varieties. They also produce 
 flesh of an excellent quality. It is maintained 
 by some breeders of Plymouth Rocks that the 
 quality of the flesh approaches that of the Dork- 
 ing. They are blocky fowls, have large, full, 
 plump, well-proportioned bodies, yellow shanks 
 and skin. The flesh is of good texture and 
 flavor. The cock weighs 9%, the hen 7%, 
 cockerel 8, pullet 6% pounds. They are early 
 
60 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 maturing, considering their size, are good layers, 
 hardy both as little chicks and mature fowls. 
 They are excellent mothers, kind and persistent 
 sitters. The laying capacity is considerably above 
 
 Fig. 16. Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel, six months old 
 (one-seventh size). 
 
 the average of fowls. Authentic records are re- 
 ported of more than two hundred and thirty 
 eggs per year from single birds. The pullets make 
 excellent winter layers, but for greatest egg pro- 
 duction in the winter time fowls should not be 
 
 
Plymouth Rocks 61 
 
 kept longer than two years. They are easily 
 kept in confinement and are adapted to nearly 
 all climates. Probably no breed better combines 
 these two qualities egg - production and the 
 yielding of a large amount of good meat for 
 the table. 
 
 Fig. 17. Barred Plymouth Rock hen (one-seventh size). 
 BUFF AND WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK 
 
 The other varieties of the Plymouth Eocks 
 are the Buff and the White. In a general way, 
 what has been said of the Barred Plymouth 
 Eocks will apply to all varieties of this breed, 
 although these newer varieties are not quite so 
 well fixed as the Barred, It is asserted, how- 
 
62 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 ever, that the White Plymouth Rocks originated 
 as an off-shoot from the Barred Plymouth Rocks 
 early in the history of the latter.* The Plymouth 
 Rock form predominates in all varieties, and the 
 solid colors have the advantage of the Barred 
 
 Fig. 18. Buff Plymouth Rock cockerel (one-seventh size). 
 
 in mating, as often, with the Barred, the best 
 formed fowl will be objectionable on account of 
 some imperfection in color, so that it must be 
 discarded from the breeding-pen if characteristic 
 colors are desired. 
 
 * w Barred and White Plymouth Rocks," by Wallace, 
 
Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes 63 
 
 The White variety is preferred by poultrymen 
 who rear young fowls for market. White fowls 
 present a better appearance when dressed than 
 colored ones do, particularly if the fowls are not 
 in the most perfect condition. Immature fowls 
 of all breeds and varieties have more or less 
 undeveloped feathers, the removal of which, in 
 colored varieties, leaves a discoloration beneath 
 the skin. On this account, young birds of a 
 white variety that are dressed for the market 
 present a better appearance than equally as good 
 birds of a colored variety. As long as attrac- 
 tive appearance is a desired quality in dressed 
 fowls, white varieties will be preferred. 
 
 Each of the three varieties has medium-sized 
 single combs. In size, the combs and wattles 
 occupy a medium position between the Cochins 
 and the Mediterraneans. The eggs of each va- 
 riety are buff in color, but vary considerably in 
 shade. 
 
 WYANDOTTE 
 
 The Wyandottes are not so old as the Plymouth 
 Rocks. When first introduced, they came at 
 once into popular favor, and are now crowding 
 the Plymouth Rocks for supremacy as the best 
 general - purpose fowls. They were recognized by 
 the American Poultry Association as a distinct 
 breed in 1883. Previous to that time they were 
 
64 Farm Poultry 
 
 known and sold as American Sebrights, Excel- 
 siors, Ambrights, etc. They are a little smaller 
 than the Plymouth Rocks, the cock weighing 
 8%, hen 6%, cockerel 7%, pullet 5% pounds. 
 They have yellow skin and shanks. As pro- 
 ducers of broilers to weigh two pounds apiece 
 they are highly esteemed. The hens are excel- 
 lent sitters and make good mothers. In this re- 
 spect they closely resemble the Plymouth Eocks. 
 The Wyandottes have a neat and trim appearance, 
 are good-sized, produce excellent flesh, and have 
 a gentle disposition. They are generally called 
 handsome fowls. In appearance, they are some- 
 what neater than the Plymouth Eocks. In ful- 
 filling the demands of the farmer for the eco- 
 nomical production of both eggs and meat the 
 Wyandottes are not wanting. Joseph Wallace 
 says, "It should not be claimed that the Wyan- 
 dottes, in quality and quantity of breast meat, 
 equal the Dorking, Houdan or Gi-ame." Neither 
 do they equal the Leghorns or the Minorcas in 
 egg -production, yet they are excellent general- 
 purpose fowls. They are called good layers and 
 bear confinement well. They are hardy, both as 
 mature fowls and when young. They have a 
 low rose-comb, which makes them well suited to 
 a cold country. They are well feathered and 
 attractive in appearance. 
 
 The object of the originators of this breed 
 
Wyandottes 65 
 
 was to obtain a compact, blocky, clean-legged 
 fowl of good size, one particularly deep in the 
 breast, that should produce a good number of 
 eggs. The results fully meet these various re- 
 quirements. The flesh is of a superior quality, 
 being tender and juicy. The proportion of bone 
 
 
 Fig. 19. A pair of White Wyandottes, young (one-eighth size). 
 
 to the total weight of dressed fowl is compara- 
 tively small. There are five varieties : the Silver, 
 White, Black, Buff, and Golden. The White is 
 perhaps the most popular of any of the varieties. 
 They are easier to breed to feather, being pure 
 white throughout. However, each variety has 
 many ardent admirers. All varieties are without 
 doubt most useful farm fowls. 
 
66 Farm Poultry 
 
 JAVA 
 
 Javas are one of the valuable, useful breeds 
 of this country. They are said to have originated 
 in Missouri something more than forty years ago. 
 It is asserted that they have been bred pure longer 
 than any of the recently formed breeds. Javas 
 are noted for their good size, being the same size 
 as the Plymouth Rocks, and are quick maturing. 
 They are of two varieties, the Black and the 
 Mottled. It is said that, when cooked, the meat 
 of the Black variety does not present the objec- 
 tionable dark color of some other black breeds. 
 They are good layers, perfectly hardy, and are 
 easily reared, endure confinement well, and are 
 easily kept in inclosures. It is said that the fowls 
 breed quite as true as any of the breeds of this 
 class. They are good winter layers, and the 
 chicks make good broilers at an early age. They 
 are not raised as extensively as some other breeds 
 of this class. They are becoming more popular, 
 yet in this respect are still far behind the Ply- 
 mouth Rocks and the Wyandottes. The Black 
 variety has been the most popular. This variety 
 is rich black throughout, with a metallic luster. 
 They have single combs, their shanks and toes 
 are free from feathers but are nearly black in 
 color. The Javas may be recommended as use- 
 ful farm fowls. 
 
Dominiques and Dorkings 67 
 
 DOMINIQUE 
 
 Dominiques are about the size of the Wyan- 
 dottes, and are compact and hardy. This is one 
 of the oldest American breeds. The origin is 
 obscure. The general color is a grayish white, 
 with yellow shanks, somewhat like the Plymouth 
 Rocks, yet the fowls are lighter in color. For a 
 time they were unpopular, but are now receiving 
 attention and are apparently coming into favor. 
 They endure confinement well. It is said of 
 them that they change little by in-and-in-breed- 
 ing. It is also asserted that they suffer com- 
 paratively little from uncleanliness. They have 
 rose -combs, and endure cold weather well. They 
 are excellent table fowls, good mothers, good 
 foragers, mature early, and are a most useful 
 farm breed. 
 
 DOKKING 
 
 The Dorking is preeminently an English breed. 
 The fowls approach the ideal for general purposes. 
 They are fairly hardy if kept dry, although some- 
 what delicate if subjected to dampness, particu- 
 larly in cold weather. This is, without doubt, 
 one of the oldest of domesticated breeds. It 
 is said by some authorities that the fowls were 
 taken to England by the Romans. They are low, 
 heavy -bodied fowls, with single combs. A dis- 
 
68 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 tinguishing mark of the Dorking is the fifth toe. 
 They are good layers, persistent and careful sit- 
 ters and good mothers. They are excellent farm 
 fowls, especially prized for the table. Their 
 flesh is light-colored and of fine texture. Some 
 even hold that the flesh of the Dorking is supe- 
 rior to that of the Game. American breeders 
 
 Fig. 20. Colored Dorking hen, English, (one-eighth size). 
 
 prize the Dorkings highly for quality of flesh, 
 and also for the small proportion of bone. They 
 are especially noted for a broad, deep breast, and 
 the breast meat is distinctly fine in quality. They 
 fatten easily, and stand confinement fairly well, 
 although a wide range in dry weather suits them 
 best. It is said that the hens remain longer with 
 the chickens than do the hens of most breeds. 
 
 
Dorkings 
 
 69 
 
 The fifth toe is objected to by some breeders. 
 It is at least a superfluous organ so far as use- 
 fulness is concerned. It is, however, one of the 
 prominent characteristics of the Dorking. Some 
 
 Fig. 21. Flock of Dorkings, Acle, England. 
 
 English writers, notably Wright, assert that those 
 varieties of fowls which have five toes are more 
 afflicted with bruised feet "Bumblefoot" than 
 are other varieties. 
 
70 Farm Poultry 
 
 HOUDAN 
 
 The Houdan is without doubt the most popular 
 of French varieties that are bred in the United 
 States. The other French breeds are the Creve- 
 coeur, the La Fleche, and the Faverolles. The 
 latter are new fowls and are practically unknown 
 in this country (see p. 52). The Houdans rank 
 among the useful fowls and are noted for the 
 production of a goodly number of eggs, and, at 
 the same time, furnish a moderate quantity of 
 fine flesh. The cock should weigh 7 and the 
 hen 6 pounds. Wright says of them : "Better 
 table fowls are none, the laying powers are 
 great, the chickens fledge and grow faster than 
 almost any breed, and the eggs are invariably 
 prolific." 
 
 The Houdans are crested, bearded, and have 
 the characteristic fifth toe. Notwithstanding these 
 objectionable characteristics, they are reared to 
 some extent for their useful qualities, but are not 
 nearly so popular as the Plymouth Rocks and 
 Wyandottes. 
 
 INDIAN GAME 
 
 These are hardy and most excellent table 
 fowls. They are considered profitable general- 
 purpose fowls; are fairly good layers, mature rap- 
 idly and are unexcelled for quality of flesh. The 
 
Indian Games 71 
 
 hens are good sitters and excellent mothers. All 
 Games are close feathered and muscular, which 
 gives them a firm and compact feeling to the 
 touch. They weigh very heavily for their appar- 
 ent size. The thighs of Games are well-devel- 
 
 Fig. 22. Indian Game cock (one-ninth size). 
 
 oped and appear prominent. The Indian Games 
 are represented by two varieties the Cornish and 
 the White and are most highly prized as gen- 
 eral-purpose birds. For general farm use they 
 are not so desirable as some of the other breeds 
 discussed in this class. The cock weighs 9 
 pounds and the hen 6% pounds. 
 
72 Farm Poultry 
 
 They are considerably more pugnacious than 
 the other breeds mentioned in this chapter and 
 in certain localities are highly prized on this ac- 
 count. It is said that they suffer less from at- 
 tacks of hawks than most other breeds. 
 
 Fig. 23. Indian Game hen (one-sixth size). 
 KHODE ISLAND KED 
 
 The Rhode Island Reds are considered to be val- 
 uable general -purpose fowls. They are somewhat 
 smaller than the Plymouth Rocks. A reliable 
 breeder* who raises them for utility says : "They 
 
 *C. J. Hampton, Cosad, N. Y. 
 
Rhode Island Reds 
 
 73 
 
 are smaller, more active, and mature earlier than 
 the Plymouth Rocks. I think them to be excellent 
 layers. In a word, they occupy the middle ground 
 between the Leghorns and Plymouth Rocks. 
 They are hardy, prolific, and furnish a good qual- 
 ity of meat." They do not appear to have so 
 uniform color as is desired, but, without doubt, 
 a more uniform color will be obtained within a 
 few years. As yet the Rhode Island Reds have 
 not been recognized as a distinct breed by the 
 American Poultry Association. They are, how- 
 ever, highly prized as useful farm fowls by many 
 breeders. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 FANCY BREEDS 
 
 WHILE the breeds discussed in this arbitrary 
 class are more or less useful, yet they are less 
 adaptable as farm fowls than those mentioned as 
 egg or general-purpose breeds. Fowls of these 
 breeds will undoubtedly lay a good number of 
 eggs under favorable circumstances, and will pro- 
 duce flesh that is excellent for food, yet they are all 
 less important for the furnishing of the useful prod- 
 ucts than are the varieties mentioned in previous 
 chapters. This class of fancy breeds includes 
 great variety as to size, form and color. Some 
 of the breeds, in the hands of skilful poultrymen, 
 would prove quite satisfactory as general-purpose 
 fowls, yet, in the hands of the farmer, under 
 ordinary farm conditions, they are of minor value. 
 
 Nearly all kinds of fowls may be greatly im- 
 proved by skilful breeding and management, and 
 undoubtedly these so-called fancy breeds could 
 be improved as to useful qualities if given food 
 and management conducive to that end. The 
 fact remains, nevertheless, that the same skill and 
 care transferred to other breeds will give much 
 
 (74) 
 
Useful Qualities of Fancy Breeds 75 
 
 greater returns in useful products than can be 
 secured from these breeds whose energies have 
 been expended in developing a variety of charac- 
 teristics that are highly prized for exhibition pur- 
 poses but have little value toward the production 
 of eggs and meat. 
 
 POLISH 
 
 It is generally conceded that the name Polish, 
 or Poland, has no connection with the coun- 
 try of that name. Charles Darwin says that 
 probably the name was given on account of their 
 elevated crest or poll just back of the nostrils on 
 the top of the head, where there is an elevation 
 in the bony structure. These fowls have been 
 bred for many years. It is said that they have 
 a known history extending as far back as the 
 sixteenth century. They were introduced into 
 England about 1835. They are generally con- 
 sidered handsome fowls, but are not noted for 
 hardiness. They certainly cannot hold their own 
 in a promiscuous flock. When bred in small 
 flocks and given extra care they are said to pay 
 very well. They are only fair layers of small 
 white eggs. They cannot withstand wet weather 
 well, and require extra care in time of snow or 
 rain. 
 
 The very large crests, which obstruct their 
 sight to some extent, make them a somewhat easy 
 
76 Farm Poultry 
 
 prey to hawks in localities where these enemies 
 are numerous. In stormy weather the crests are 
 liable to become wet and to cause inconvenience 
 to the fowls, as well as to make them more 
 liable to take cold. On account of their delicacy, 
 small size, and moderate egg production, they are 
 designated a fancy breed. 
 
 They endure confinement quite well if kept in 
 dry and clean houses and yards. Their flesh is 
 esteemed for its fine quality. If one desires a 
 few handsome fowls, and is willing to give them 
 extra care, they will probably prove satisfactory, 
 but they are not practical for the poultry keeper 
 who desires to realize the largest profit from the 
 production of eggs or meat. 
 
 Both sexes have large and handsome crests. 
 The comb of Polish fowls is peculiar in form and 
 differs materially from the combs of the breeds 
 previously described. It is V-shaped or branched 
 in form, and is often nearly, or quite, hidden by 
 the crest. 
 
 The American Poultry Association recognizes 
 eight varieties of Polish fowls, namely: 
 
 Bearded Golden, Golden, 
 
 Bearded Silver, Silver, 
 
 Bearded White, White, 
 
 Buff Laced, White-crested Black. 
 
 The shanks of all varieties are of a slate or 
 bluish color and the skin is white. Probably the 
 
Description of Games 77 
 
 Silver, Golden, and White-crested Black are the 
 most popular varieties. 
 
 GAME 
 
 The varieties of Games are especially noted 
 for the production of flesh of fine quality. Some 
 varieties are sometimes recommended as farm 
 fowls, but on account of their pugnacious dis- 
 position and their deficiency in egg production it 
 is extremely doubtful whether they will prove as 
 useful as the breeds discussed under the head 
 of general-purpose fowls (Chap. IV). 
 
 For convenience of discussion, Games are usu- 
 ally divided into two fairly well-defined classes, the 
 Pit Games and the Exhibition Games. The Amer- 
 ican Poultry Association still further divides the 
 Exhibition Games into two classes and makes a 
 class of "Oriental Games.' 7 
 
 The Pit Games usually are not placed among 
 the standard varieties, yet their general char- 
 acteristics are quite as distinct as are those of 
 the so-called standard breeds. Pit Games are 
 short -legged, compact, stout fowls, with an abun- 
 dance of tail feathers. They are hardy and ma- 
 ture early, but do not produce eggs in sufficient 
 number to meet the requirements of the farmer. 
 
 Exhibition Games are taller and not so com- 
 pact or strong as the Pits and are bred mostly 
 
78 Farm Poultry 
 
 for exhibition purposes. They are among the 
 most popular of exhibition or fancy fowls. The 
 classes of these fowls are usually well filled at the 
 large poultry shows and fairs. They are called 
 good sitters and good mothers, traits which, in 
 general, are common to all Games. There are 
 eight recognized varieties of the Exhibition Games, 
 and of these the Black-breasted Red and the 
 Brown Red are probably the most popular. 
 
 Of the Oriental Games, the Cornish arid the 
 White Indian Games are bred most. These aie 
 fine -looking fowls. They are much heavier than 
 the Pit or Exhibition Games. They are particu- 
 larly strong in the shoulders and thighs. They 
 are full in the breast and are highly esteemed 
 for food. The Malay and the Sumatra Games are 
 other breeds of this class, but are not as popular 
 as the Cornish and the White. The Games of 
 this class are sometimes used to cross on other 
 fowls for the purpose of infusing vigor and of 
 improving the quality of the flesh. 
 
 SILKY 
 
 The Silkies are not bred to any extent in this 
 country, although in England they are in consider- 
 able favor. Their great peculiarity is that their 
 feathers are not webbed, and when in good con- 
 dition present a fluffy, loose appearance. Stand- 
 
Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles 79 
 
 ing well out from the body in all directions, the 
 plumage causes them to appear much heavier 
 than they really are. They are compactly -built 
 birds, and are reared chiefly for their odd appear- 
 ance, and for hatching the eggs of other breeds. 
 They are said to make good mothers for tender 
 little chickens on account of their light weight 
 and soft, downy feathers. They have irregular 
 rose-combs of a dark color. The comb and face 
 present a dark, purplish appearance, in marked 
 contrast to other varieties of fowls. 
 
 SULTAN 
 
 Sultans were taken into England from Turkey 
 about fifty years ago. They were not brought to 
 America until many years later. On account of 
 their crest they somewhat resemble the Polish, 
 particularly the Bearded Polish. Their shanks 
 and toes are heavily feathered. They are reared 
 chiefly for their peculiar appearance. No particu- 
 lar claim is made as to usefulness. They thrive 
 well in small inclosures, and are gentle and readily 
 become pets. 
 
 FRIZZLE 
 
 Frizzles are peculiar fowls, and are reared wholly 
 for their unique appearance, their feathers curving 
 upward and backward at the ends. The curve is 
 
80 Farm Poultry 
 
 most pronounced in the hackle feathers and feath- 
 ers of the back. Any color is recognized. Single 
 combs are preferred. The chief requisite of Friz- 
 zles is that the feathers turn upward and toward 
 the head. On account of this peculiarity of the 
 feathers, they do not well withstand unfavorable 
 weather. They should not be classed among the 
 most useful breeds. They are not bred exten- 
 sively. Without doubt they might be made more 
 useful than they now are should skilful breed- 
 ers give them some attention. However, the fact 
 that they are not prepared to withstand the hard- 
 ships that more useful breeds endure will tend to 
 prevent them from becoming other than fancy 
 fowls. 
 
 THE KUMPLESS FOWLS 
 
 These are distinguished by the entire absence 
 of a tail. In fact, that part of the body which 
 in other breeds produces the tail is almost as 
 smooth and even as the breast. These fowls are 
 of various colors. While they have been bred 
 for many years, yet no one has succeeded in 
 establishing a well -fixed variety. The Rumpless 
 fowls have been bred for many years on farms 
 in New York and Pennsylvania as general -pur- 
 pose fowls, although they have never become very 
 popular. 
 
Description of Bantams 81 
 
 BANTAM 
 
 The Bantams are purely fancy or ornamental 
 breeds. There are many varieties. While some 
 breeders maintain that they can be profitably kept 
 for eggs and for the table, yet on account of their 
 diminutive size they cannot compete with the 
 larger breeds. As ponies represent the chil- 
 dren's horse and are in a way ornamental, so do 
 the Bantams occupy a similar position among 
 fowls. They are often reared as children's pets 
 and undoubtedly afford a great deal of pleasure 
 for both young and old. Among the most com- 
 mon and popular varieties of Bantams may be 
 mentioned the Black, White, Bun , and Partridge 
 Cochin; Dark and Light Brahma; Golden and 
 Silver Sebright ; White-crested and White Pol- 
 ish; Buff L'aced, Japanese, and many varieties 
 of Games. Probably the Golden and the Silver 
 Sebright and the Buff Cochin are quite as pop- 
 ular as any. 
 
 For exhibition purposes the plumage and form 
 of these miniature representatives correspond 
 closely to the varieties of larger fowls. Small 
 size is preferred. There seems to be a marked 
 tendency on the part of some varieties of Ban- 
 tams to revert to the larger fowls from which 
 they were derived. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 BUILDINGS FOB FOWLS: LOCATION, PLANS AND 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
 THE location of poultry houses is often thought 
 to be of minor importance when compared with 
 the location of other farm buildings. This may be 
 true when but few fowls are to be kept for the 
 sole purpose of supplying the home table, but 
 the profit derived from keeping these few fowls is 
 frequently very much less than it would be if the 
 same tfare and thought were given them that is 
 devoted to other farm stock. 
 
 LOCATION OF BUILDINGS 
 
 In selecting a site for poultry houses and 
 yards, three important points should be con- 
 stantly borne in mind: (1) health of the fowls, 
 (2) convenience of the attendant, and (3) liabil- 
 ity to vermin and other poultry enemies. 
 
 Health of the foivls. As cleanliness and free- 
 dom from moisture are two highly essential con- 
 ditions of successful poultry- keeping, the natural 
 surroundings which strongly influence them should 
 
 (82) 
 
 
Necessity for Thorough Drainage 83 
 
 receive first consideration. A dry, porous soil not 
 only insures a suitable yard or run, whenever the 
 weather is favorable for the fowls to take out- 
 of-door exercise, but also controls to some ex- 
 tent the amount of moisture in the buildings. If 
 the highest degree of success is to be attained, 
 cleanliness and freedom from moisture must be 
 secured. Partial success or entire failure is un- 
 doubtedly more frequently due to filthy houses 
 and yards, together with dampness, than to any 
 other causes. Particularly is this true with those 
 whose chief interests lie in other directions, and 
 who, consequently, more or less neglect their 
 smaller poultry interests during certain portions 
 of the year. If it is desired to keep poultry on 
 heavy or wet soils, the land should be thoroughly 
 underdrained. The removal of the surplus water 
 from the yards or runs very much lessens the 
 labor of keeping them clean, particularly during 
 the growing season. During the summer months 
 a yard or run of loose sand or gravelly soil will 
 require comparatively little labor to keep it clean, 
 while a similar one on a heavy and impervious 
 clay will demand continual attention, and even 
 this will not always suffice to keep the yards in 
 a satisfactory condition. A heavy soil not only 
 retains nearly all of the droppings on the surface, 
 bat by retarding the percolation in times of fre- 
 quent rains soon gives a coating of filth. This 
 
84 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 is particularly true of those parts of the yard most 
 frequented by the fowls. 
 
 A slightly raised elevation is to be preferred, 
 particularly if the ground slopes gently on all 
 sides from the building. This will insure good 
 surface drainage in times of heavy showers and 
 
 Fig. 24. A poultry house Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
 
 whenever the ground is frozen. While a some- 
 what light or porous soil that is naturally well 
 underdrained is to be preferred, it should not be 
 inferred that success may not be attained on 
 somewhat heavier soils if they are thoroughly 
 underdrained. Any good potato soil that is nat- 
 urally well drained will not be objectionable on 
 account of excessive moisture. 
 
Sunshine Desirable 
 
 85 
 
 Another important consideration is the admis- 
 sion to the houses and yards of abundant sun- 
 shine. Fowls, like other classes of live stock, 
 do not thrive so well when deprived of sunshine. 
 This is particularly true of laying fowls during 
 the cold winter months. The houses, yards or 
 runs should be so planned, if possible, as to give 
 
 CRUSHLO 
 SHELLS 
 
 NESTS UNDER BOARDS 
 
 PERCHES 
 
 | 
 
 Fig. 25. Ground plan of poultry house Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
 
 them a southern or southeastern exposure (Figs. 
 24, 25) . Many buildings for domesticated animals 
 are so constructed that they do not admit sufficient 
 light and air for the best health of the occupants. 
 It has been found by experience that animals 
 have a somewhat whiter skin and present a 
 somewhat more delicate appearance when de- 
 prived of direct sunlight than when they are 
 
86 Farm Poultry 
 
 permitted to bask in the sunshine at will. This 
 is frequently noticed in dairy cows, in which a 
 yellow skin is so highly prized. 
 
 Poultrymen turn to good advantage all the 
 sunshine they can secure in the winter time in 
 order to maintain a high standard of vigor and 
 to stimulate egg -production. It is an advan- 
 tage to have the yard on the south side of the 
 house, in order that the fowls may have the ben- 
 efit of the first dry ground in the early spring. 
 It frequently occurs in localities where snow is 
 more or less abundant that the ground on the 
 south side of the building will be dry many days 
 before that on the north side is entirely free from 
 frost and dampness. The relative location of 
 the house and yard is, therefore, of sufficient 
 importance to demand one's best thought and 
 care in planning. 
 
 Convenience. The poultry business, if prop- 
 erly conducted, necessitates close attention to 
 many details, each one, perhaps, somewhat in- 
 significant in itself, yet of so much importance 
 when considered in the aggregate that success or 
 failure may depend on its performance or neg- 
 lect. In a general way, the labor is not con- 
 sidered heavy or burdensome, but constant vigi- 
 lance and attention are necessary. The mere 
 fact that there are many small details requiring 
 attention, demands that convenient houses and 
 
Convenience of Appliances 87 
 
 yards be built, since a little inconvenience each 
 day, or perhaps several times a day, will, in 
 time, create an unnecessary expense of consid- 
 erable magnitude. Economy of labor requires 
 convenience of appliances, and nowhere is this 
 better illustrated than in the poultry business. 
 It should also be borne in mind that whenever 
 labor may be performed conveniently it is less 
 likely to be neglected than when it is performed 
 with difficulty. While one should not enter into 
 the poultry business with the thought of neglect- 
 ing any of its details, or to plan for any but 
 thorough work, yet, knowing the shortcomings 
 of human operations and tendencies, one will 
 fail to make the most of his opportunities if he 
 does not consider the inclinations of those who 
 are expected to perform the work. To do the 
 work thoroughly will require a little attention 
 several times a day. The fowls must be fed and 
 watered, houses must be kept clean and other 
 attentions given. In nearly all kinds of agricul- 
 tural work the labor account is one of the great- 
 est items of expense in conducting the business. 
 A convenient arrangement of houses is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 26. The attendant may go from 
 one house to another, passing through each pen 
 without going through yards, which would neces- 
 sitate opening and closing gates. It should be 
 observed that each house is provided with two 
 
88 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 
 
 
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 9 
 
 GC 
 
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 9 
 
 * 2 Rods 
 
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 "^O- _ M1LV-& 
 
 Q LJniic.^ l-^ 
 
 
 Fig. 26. A good plan for poultry houses and yards. Each house 
 will accommodate 80 or 100 fowls. The yards are planted with fruit trees. 
 
 doors, in order that the poultryman may enter 
 one and pass out at the other in less time than 
 would be required if but one door were provided. 
 This arrangement, however, may not be found to 
 be applicable on many farms, particularly where 
 but one small house is needed. 
 
 Vermin, etc. Rats and mice often become seri- 
 ous pests in poultry houses, particularly if grain is 
 
Enemies of Poultry 89 
 
 kept in these buildings. For the same reason, it 
 is generally best to locate the poultry houses some 
 distance from other farm buildings, particularly 
 from those in which grain is stored. Every farmer 
 well knows how difficult it is to store grain for 
 any considerable length of time and keep it en- 
 tirely free from these pests. While convenience 
 of access is of prime importance, yet often 
 it is best to make a slight sacrifice of labor in 
 order to secure the greatest freedom from rats 
 and mice. Isolated buildings will probably give 
 the greatest satisfaction in the end. Mice will 
 probably not be troublesome in poultry houses 
 unless grain is stored in these buildings, but rats 
 are likely to give more or less trouble, particularly 
 in brooder houses and in pens or yards frequented 
 by young chickens. 
 
 In some localities crows, hawks, skunks and 
 other poultry enemies give some trouble, and 
 one must plan to meet these annoyances ac- 
 cording to his best judgment. It may be neces- 
 sary in some cases to cover entirely small yards, 
 in which young chickens are kept, with netting, 
 in order to protect them properly from hawks 
 and crows. A covered run for little chickens is 
 described in the chapter on feeding. Skunks 
 may be excluded by proper fencing. Wherever 
 vermin are numerous enough to give serious an- 
 noyance, all possible ingenuity should be exer- 
 
90 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 cised to exclude them before resorting to destruc- 
 tion by poison. While poison may sometimes be 
 safely used, the danger of poisoning the fowls 
 and other domestic animals is so great that one 
 is not warranted in using it except as a last 
 resort. 
 
 CONSTKUCTION OF HOUSES 
 
 In designing poultry houses, the form is nec- 
 essarily one of the first points to be determined. 
 While the design is under consideration, the 
 essentials of a farm poultry house should be 
 
 Fig. 27. A double house Pennsylvania State College. 
 
 continually kept in mind. The chief essentials 
 may be enumerated as warmth, dryness, light 
 and cheapness. In order to assure proper light- 
 ing, it is often found necessary to deviate some- 
 
Forms of Houses 91 
 
 what from the form that would give the greatest 
 warmth for the least cost. In all poultry houses 
 in which fowls are confined during the cold win- 
 ter months, some provision should be made to 
 
 incurs 
 =& 
 
 J I I I I I I I I 
 
 Fig. 28. Ground plau of double houoo Pennsylvania State College. 
 
 admit sunlight on the floor, where the fowls 
 may congregate. In order to accomplish this to 
 the best advantage, it is necessary to have a con- 
 siderable frontage toward the south or southeast. 
 During December, January and February it is 
 most difficult, yet most essential, to have the di- 
 rect sunlight. Square or octagon houses inclose 
 the most space for the money expended, and 
 also give opportunity for warm houses, which 
 may be constructed cheaply, but in order to se- 
 cure sunlight it is necessary to build the house 
 considerably longer than wide. For economy, 
 it is also desirable to build a house longer 
 than is necessary for one pen or flock of fowls. 
 A long and comparatively narrow house, with 
 light partitions constructed largely of netting, 
 may be erected for considerably less expense than 
 
92 Farm Poultry 
 
 two or more separate houses having the same 
 capacity. That is, it is much cheaper to con- 
 struct a partition across a narrow poultry house 
 than to construct two end walls. Then, too, ad- 
 joining poultry pens, connected by an easy swing- 
 ing door, are more convenient for the attendant 
 than two separate houses. The arrangement of 
 having two or more pens in one building is of 
 the utmost importance where warm houses must 
 be provided to guard against frosted combs and 
 wattles. See Figs. 27 and 28. 
 
 In constructing poultry houses, the material 
 to be used and the manner of building will de- 
 pend largely upon the material at hand. In one 
 locality certain materials may be comparatively 
 cheap, while in other localities the same articles 
 may be relatively more expensive than other ma- 
 terial equally suitable for the purpose. In select- 
 ing material, it should be borne in mind that the 
 building is to provide a warm, dry, well -venti- 
 lated, well -lighted home for the fowls. If these 
 requirements are satisfactorily complied with, it 
 will be necessary to provide roof and side walls 
 that are impervious to moisture and relatively 
 poor conductors of heat. Suitable arrangements 
 for ventilating and lighting the building must be 
 provided, and some provision should be made to 
 exeJude the moisture from beneath, particularly 
 if the soil is damp. 
 
Fig. 29. Poultry houses West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 Fig. 30. Poultry houses and yards Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
 
94 Farm Poultry 
 
 Size of building. The size of the building 
 required will depend largely upon the number of 
 fowls to be kept. While fowls of some breeds 
 require more room than the same number of in- 
 dividuals of other breeds, yet the number is of 
 more importance than the breed in determin- 
 ing the size of the building. The noted egg 
 breeds are much more active than the heavier, 
 slow -moving breeds, and therefore require quite 
 as much room, although in weight they are far 
 inferior. 
 
 The ^climate will determine to a considerable 
 extent the size of the buildings. If the climate 
 is mild so that it is not necessary to keep the 
 fowls confined within doors much of the time, 
 smaller houses will suffice than in colder latitudes 
 where the fowls are kept in the house for weeks 
 at a time. In the latitude of New 7 York city and 
 farther north, where fowls are expected to be 
 kept within doors a considerable portion of the 
 year, five square feet of floor space per fowl will 
 suffice for most breeds, and it will be none too 
 much for best results. This may be taken as 
 a general rule when the house is to be kept in 
 good condition as regards cleanliness and venti- 
 lation. If the houses are to be more or less 
 neglected, considerably more space should be 
 provided. 
 
 It is somewhat more difficult to give a good 
 
Ventilation 
 
 95 
 
 working rule as regards air space or cubical con- 
 tents of the building. Under good average con- 
 ditions, 8 or 10 cubic feet per pound of live 
 weight will perhaps be quite satisfactory. The 
 amount of air space, of course, will depend upon 
 the ventilation, and also upon the sources of con- 
 tamination, aside from the fowls themselves. If 
 
 Fig. 31. Poultry houses Cornell University. 
 
 manure is allowed to accumulate and the litter 
 becomes damp, the air will become impure. 
 Other things being equal, it will become im- 
 pure sooner in small houses than in large ones. 
 The above rule as regards air space has given 
 good satisfaction under favorable conditions and 
 may be used in the absence of more definite infor- 
 mation derived from actual experience. 
 
96 Farm Poultry 
 
 Foundation. When permanent houses are to 
 be built, it is undoubtedly most economical, in 
 the long run, to erect them on foundations made 
 of brick, stone or concrete. Such foundations 
 should extend into the ground below the frost 
 line, should be vermin -proof, and so constructed 
 as to exclude drafts of air. Some provision 
 should be made to give thorough ventilation 
 during the warm seasons of the year, if the 
 floor and its supports are to be constructed of 
 wood. 
 
 It is not safe to inclose wooden floor supports 
 with solid walls of masonry on account of the 
 liability of "dry rot" to destroy the supports 
 and even to ruin the floor. A free ventilation 
 should be provided by means of openings in the 
 foundation walls of all buildings when the floors 
 are placed within a few feet of the ground. 
 
 When wooden floors are constructed near the 
 ground, it is essential to arrange the foundation 
 walls so that rats cannot gain access underneath 
 the floor. This may be readily accomplished by 
 covering windows or openings in the walls with 
 fine-meshed wire screens. Close-fitting blinds may 
 be used to close the windows and prevent draft 
 underneath the house during the colder part of 
 the year. If suitable stones are at hand for the 
 construction of foundation walls they undoubtedly 
 may be used to good advantage. When neither 
 
Concrete Walls 97 
 
 brick nor stone is readily available the founda- 
 tion walls may be made of grout or concrete, 
 provided small stone or gravel can be readily 
 obtained. On many farms small field stones, 
 which prove a hindrance to cultivation, may be 
 used to good advantage. 
 
 Walls of this description may be constructed 
 without the aid of skilled labor and at a very 
 moderate expense. In order to construct such 
 walls satisfactorily, it is necessary to dig narrow 
 trenches below the frost line. A simple and 
 effective manner of proceeding is as follows: 
 drive rows of stakes into the ground, one row 
 on each side of the trench, and nail boards on 
 the inside of the stakes. The boards are used to 
 hold the concrete in place until the cement hard- 
 ens. Old, rough or uneven boards may be used, 
 except for the top ones, which should have the 
 upper edges straight. The upper boards should 
 be placed level, as they will determine the top 
 of the wall. The stakes which hold the boards 
 should be firm enough to withstand the pressure 
 of the stones and cement without yielding very 
 much. If the ground is so hard that stakes 
 cannot be driven readily, tall stakes may be used 
 and supported by fastening the tops together as 
 shown in Fig. 32. Place a few layers of stone 
 in the bottom of the trench, then put on some 
 thin cement, and pound down by means of a 
 
98 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 light pounder. This operation should be repeated 
 until the desired height is reached. The top 
 may be smoothed off with a ditching spade or 
 trowel, using the top board as a guide. 
 
 The wall should be left until the cement is 
 hard, when the building may be placed upon it. 
 
 JTl 
 
 Fig. 32." Method of constructing a concrete wall. 
 
 The boards at the side may be removed at any 
 time after the cement becomes hard. If old 
 boards have been used at the bottom it will not 
 pay to remove them. A concrete wall of this 
 kind may be constructed of cheap material and 
 with ordinary farm labor. 
 
 Side walls. The side walls of poultry houses 
 are usually built of wood, which is- a compara- 
 
Kinds of Side Walls 99 
 
 lively cheap material and is a poor conductor 
 of heat. The side walls are constructed in va- 
 rious ways. For convenience of discussion the 
 various kinds of walls may be placed under two 
 heads: solid walls and hollow walls. In cold 
 countries the hollow walls, or those with a dead 
 air space, are to be preferred, because of then- 
 greater warmth and freedom from moisture. In 
 moderate or warm climates solid walls will un- 
 doubtedly answer every purpose. 
 
 For latitudes south of New York, solid walls, 
 constructed of one or two thicknesses of inch 
 boards, will prove quite satisfactory, particularly 
 in the hands of the skilled poultryman. The 
 amateur will undoubtedly prefer the hollow 
 walls, as imperfect appliances and buildings are 
 greater hindrances to him than they would be to 
 the skilled and experienced man. Buildings with 
 hollow side walls are cooler in summer, warmer in 
 winter, and are not so likely to be covered with 
 frost in severe weather as solid walls, particularly 
 if the solid wall consists of but one or two thick- 
 nesses of boards. If the side walls and roof 
 become more or less frosted in severe weather, 
 dampness results whenever the temperature mod- 
 erates sufficiently to melt the frost. A cheap and 
 efficient wall for the sides and ends of the build- 
 ing may be constructed of two thicknesses of rough 
 inch lumber. Both thicknesses of this siding 
 
100 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 -Tar "Paper. 
 
 should be put on vertically, with a good quality 
 of tarred building paper between. When walls 
 of this nature are con- 
 structed, it is best to nail 
 on the inner siding first. 
 On the outside of these 
 boards put a coat of the 
 tarred paper in such a 
 manner that the whole sur- 
 face is thoroughly covered, 
 providing for a liberal lap 
 wherever the edges meet. Fig 33< 
 
 The object of this tarred Method of building a 
 building paper is to pre- 
 vent drafts of air from 
 penetrating the side walls. 
 See Fig. 33. The boards 
 of the outside covering 
 should be put over the 
 building paper in such a 
 way that they will break 
 joints with Cemenv 
 
 the inner ^oken stone 
 boarding. 
 
 If boards of a uniform width 
 can be selected for this pur- 
 pose, the ease of breaking 
 joints will be greatly increased. A wall of this 
 thickness of inch boards, with building paper, 
 
 poultry house with 
 
 solid side walls, ce- 
 ment floor, and a roof 
 that is impervious to 
 wind. 
 
Hollow Side Walls 
 
 101 
 
 constructed as previously described, will prove 
 satisfactory under ordinary conditions. It should 
 be remembered, however, that these walls will be 
 covered somewhat with frost in severe weather, 
 particularly if the houses are well filled with fowls. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Method of constructing a poultry 
 house with a hollow side wall 
 and a dead air space between 
 ceiling and roof. 
 
 A hollow wall may be constructed at about the 
 same expense as the solid wall just described. 
 One method of constructing a cheap and effi- 
 cient poultry house having hollow side walls is 
 shown in Fig. 34. The sill may be of 2x8 or 2x6 
 scantling, laid flat on the foundation wall. A 2x2 
 scantling or strip is nailed on top of the sill, at 
 
102 Farm Poultry 
 
 its outer edge. This gives the width of the space 
 or hollow in the side walls. The plate may be 
 constructed of a 2x3 or 2x4 scantling, placed 
 edgewise. The boards which constitute the side 
 walls are nailed to the sides of the plate and 
 to the sides of the strip which was nailed to the 
 top of the sill. Rough lumber may be used for 
 the side walls, if strict economy is desired. The 
 inner boarding should be nailed on first and cov- 
 ered on the outside with tarred building paper. 
 This paper will be within the wall when it is 
 completed. It is preferable to fasten the paper 
 in place by means of thin strips, laths, pieces of 
 thin boards, etc., rather than to depend wholly 
 on the heads of tacks or nails. The outside board- 
 ing may now be put on, and the cracks between the 
 boards covered with inexpensive battens, if they 
 are secured with small nails at frequent intervals. 
 If cheapness is of considerable importance, the 
 ordinary building laths may be used, and will 
 answer the purpose admirably, although some- 
 what heavier battens will be more durable. A 
 mistake is sometimes made in selecting heavy 
 battens which will not draw down by nailing as 
 well as lighter ones. The battens on the outside 
 boarding and the tarred building paper on the 
 inside boarding make two coverings, each of 
 which is impervious to wind, with an air space 
 between them. 
 
Economy of Roof Construction 
 
 103 
 
 Eoofs. Various kinds of material are used in 
 the construction of roofs for poultry houses, al- 
 though shingles are more generally employed than 
 anything else. Tin, steel, and various kinds of 
 roofing paper are used, although they are more 
 or less objectionable on account of the great heat 
 
 T 
 
 96 Sq.Ft. 
 
 Fig. 35. Cross section of a poultry house with a gable roof, 96 square feet. 
 
 radiated in the building during the hot summer 
 months. 
 
 Roofs of various forms are constructed. The 
 gable and lean-to or shed roofs are used most. 
 A shed roof may be constructed with a trifle 
 less labor than a gable roof, yet it is not nearly 
 so economical in the matter of space as the latter. 
 At first thought a shed roof may seem to include 
 
104 Farm Poultry 
 
 the most space, but upon closer analysis it will 
 be found that the gable roof, other things being 
 equal, includes considerably more space. To 
 further illustrate, we will suppose that boards 
 twelve feet long are to be used for the side walls 
 in constructing a house twelve feet wide, the roof 
 to be one -third pitch. If the gable form be used 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Cross section of a 
 poultry house with 
 a shed roof, 72 
 square feet. 
 
 the building would then have side walls six feet 
 high, and the area included in cross section would 
 be 96 square feet. See Fig. 35. 
 
 If the shed form of roof be used and the same 
 material as described above for side walls, but 72 
 feet in cross section would be included. See Fig. 
 36. It is undoubtedly true that the shed roof may 
 be constructed at a trifle less expense for labor 
 
Method of Preventing Drafts 105 
 
 than the gable roof, although it will be found 
 necessary to use somewhat heavier rafters than 
 would suffice for the gable roof. 
 
 Whatever form of roof be used, it should be so 
 constructed that it will effectually exclude all drafts 
 of air. Shingled roofs, as ordinarily constructed, do 
 not sufficiently exclude drafts. In order to make 
 such roofs satisfactory it is necessary to cover 
 the roof boards with building paper before the 
 shingles are laid, or to provide 'an inner ceiling 
 for the poultry house. Either of these will ex- 
 clude the drafts, but both are more or less ob- 
 jectionable. Each one must choose what seems 
 to him to be the lesser of the two evils. The 
 building paper underneath the shingles prevents 
 the shingles from drying as readily as they other- 
 wise would, and, consequently, materially short- 
 ens the life of the roof. Experience has taught 
 that the shingled roofs that dry quickest last 
 longest. The ceiling on the inside of the ordi- 
 nary shingled roofs is objectionable on account 
 of the additional expense. 
 
 Floors. Some successful poultry keepers pre- 
 fer earth floors to artificial ones, but as these are 
 somewhat more difficult to keep clean many prefer 
 an artificial floor constructed of wood or cement. 
 Wooden floors are generally used, although they 
 are somewhat more expensive to construct, and 
 it is often necessary to replace them every few 
 
106 Farm Poultry 
 
 years. The "submerged cement floor" undoubt- 
 edly approaches the ideal. In constructing this 
 floor the ground should be slightly excavated so 
 that the top of the cement floor when finished 
 will be a trifle lower than that desired for the 
 fowls. The cement may be placed directly on 
 the ground if the earth is firm. If the earth is 
 not firm it should be further excavated and filled 
 with stone, which should be thoroughly pounded 
 before applying the cement. See Fig. 33. After 
 the cement hardens, sand or gravel may be used 
 to cover it to a depth of from one to three 
 inches. Some poultrymen prefer to place the 
 cement floor somewhat higher than the surface of 
 the ground in order to secure good drainage, de- 
 pending on litter to protect the fowls from coming 
 in contact with the cement when the weather is 
 cold. A cement floor properly constructed is a 
 most excellent protection against rats and mice. 
 Windows. For the colder latitudes, windows 
 should not be large, nor more than one to every 
 ten feet in length for a house twelve feet wide. 
 These should be placed on the south side and 
 at such distance from the floor as to allow the 
 greatest possible amount of sunshine to fall upon 
 the floor during the cold winter months. Of 
 course the size and form of the windows will 
 determine largely their location, but if ordinary 
 windows, having from four to eight lights of a 
 
Windoivs 107 
 
 size not larger than 8x10 inches, are used, it will 
 be found very satisfactory to place them about six- 
 teen or eighteen inches from the floor. At noon, 
 during the shortest days of the year, in the lati- 
 tude of New York city, the sun's rays make about 
 the same angle with the horizon as that of a quar- 
 ter pitch roof; that is, an object one foot high 
 would cast a shadow two feet long. Then, if the 
 bottom of the window be placed eighteen inches 
 from the floor, the sunshine on the floor will be 
 three feet from the side of the building in which 
 the window is placed. In cold latitudes it is a 
 common and somewhat serious mistake to use 
 more windows than are absolutely needed for the 
 health and convenience of the fowls. While sun- 
 light is desirable, many windows make the build- 
 ing cold, unless they are covered with shutters or 
 heavy curtains, during the severest weather. It 
 has been found that windows radiate about four 
 times as much heat as the same area of side walls 
 in average well -constructed dwelling houses. If 
 warm houses are desire.d large window surface 
 should be avoided. A coat of whitewash on the 
 interior will aid materially in making the build- 
 ing light. 
 
 Sliding windows are preferred on many ac- 
 counts to those that open by means of hinges. 
 They can be partially opened for ventilation in 
 warm weather, and during the extreme heat of 
 
108 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 summer they may be left entirely open. The 
 opening should be covered with poultry netting 
 to confine the fowls, and if the mesh is fine 
 
 Fig. 37. Window of poultry house protected by a wooden shutter 
 for summer use. 
 
 enough to exclude the English sparrow, annoy- 
 ance is sometimes avoided. 
 
 Comparatively cheap window shades may be 
 
/ ^g>f THE ^V 
 
 ( UNIVERSITY 1 
 
 Windows and Ventilators ^J 109 
 
 made of thin matched lumber nailed together so 
 as to make a solid shutter. This shade or shut- 
 ter may be hinged to the side of the poultry 
 house just above the window with loose hinges, 
 the lower edge supported by a wire, as shown in 
 Fig. 37. Such shades exclude the sun and serve 
 as a protection from the heat during the warm- 
 est part of the year when the windows are left 
 open. The loose hinges permit of easy removal 
 for winter storage. 
 
 Ventilation. During the warm weather the 
 open windows will afford sufficient ventilation, 
 but during the colder months some means of ven- 
 tilating the building should be provided, aside 
 from that afforded by the doors and windows. 
 Many ventilators have been planned for poultry 
 houses, but all ventilators that are in continu- 
 ous operation either give too much ventilation 
 during the coldest weather or not enough during 
 the warm, still days. As a rule, they furnish 
 too much ventilation during the cold nights, 
 and not enough during the sunny part of the 
 day. Any system of ventilation that will fully 
 meet the requirements of the busy farmer or 
 poultryman must be simple and readily con- 
 trolled by the attendant. Ventilators are not 
 needed in the severest weather, but during the 
 warm days of spring and whenever the tempera- 
 ture is above the freezing point during the winter 
 
110 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 and early spring, some ventilation should be 
 given. Farmers and poultry men should aim to 
 ventilate their poultry houses as they ventilate 
 their own sleeping apartments. Little or no 
 ventilation is needed at night during the severest 
 weather, but during the day, when the fowls are 
 more or less actively engaged in scratching in 
 the litter, the house should be ventilated just as 
 
 Fig. 38. A good ventilator. 
 
 regularly as a sleeping apartment should be aired 
 when not occupied or when the occupant is ac- 
 tively engaged in light manual labor. Houses 
 with single walls will become quite frosty on 
 the inside during the severest weather, and this 
 will cause more or less dampness whenever the 
 temperature is sufficiently high to thaw the frost 
 from the walls and roof. At this time ventilation 
 is most needed and may be supplied by placing 
 
Ventilators 111 
 
 a N ventilator in the highest part of the roof, 
 which will permit the heated air to escape. It 
 is rarely necessary to provide special means for 
 cold air to enter, as there is usually a sufficient 
 number of cracks about doors and windows to 
 admit cold air if means be provided for the lighter 
 air to escape. Fig. 38 illustrates the construc- 
 tion of a cheap and effective ventilator. This 
 may be readily closed and opened by means of 
 cords or chains as the attendant passes through 
 the house. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND TARDS 
 
 Perches. While the construction of the perches 
 is perhaps of less importance than many other 
 details of a well-equipped poultry house, yet one 
 should be able to give a reason for construct- 
 ing each part of the house in a particular way, 
 and it will be necessary to give considerable 
 thought to the planning and arrangement of 
 minor features. In the construction of perches 
 two objects should be kept in mind: (1) the 
 perches should be convenient for the fowls and 
 (2) so arranged that the droppings may be read- 
 ily caught without falling to the floor or soiling 
 the litter. For heavy- bodied fowls the perches 
 should not be more than 2% or 3 feet from the 
 floor, and all should be of the same height. 
 Many fowls prefer to perch far above the ground 
 in order, without doubt, to be more secure from 
 their enemies. It may be accepted as natural 
 for fowls to perch at a considerable distance 
 from the ground in order that they may be better 
 protected from skunks, minks, foxes, etc. In the 
 poultry house, from which these enemies are ex- 
 
 (112) 
 
Construction of Perches 113 
 
 eluded, however, low perches are considered just 
 as safe and much better for heavy-bodied fowls. 
 More or less clumsy, heavy-bodied fowls ascend 
 to high perches with difficulty, and are likely to 
 be injured in alighting from any considerable 
 elevation. Convenient ladders or walks may be 
 constructed, which will enable the fowls to ap- 
 proach the perches without great effort, but there 
 are always times when clumsy fowls will attempt 
 to fly to the floor, although injury to themselves 
 may result. Leghorns and other egg breeds may 
 safely perch somewhat higher than the Asiatics, 
 and if the buildings are well constructed this 
 may be an advantage in cold weather, as the 
 fowls will undoubtedly find it somewhat warmer 
 on high perches than on low ones. Only mov- 
 able perches should be constructed. A 2 x 3 
 scantling set edgewise, with the upper corners 
 rounded, answers every purpose and makes a 
 satisfactory perch. Poles or narrow boards may 
 be used, but whatever material is selected the 
 perches should be so constructed that they will 
 be firm and will not tip or rock when fowls 
 alight on them. A small scantling is easy to 
 secure firmly and also to clean and to disin- 
 fect. Underneath the perches a smooth platform 
 should always be placed to catch the droppings, 
 This is recommended for two reasons: first, it 
 is much easier to keep the house clean and free 
 
114 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 from objectionable odors if the droppings are 
 easily removed; and, second, the droppings are 
 valuable as a fertilizer and should not be mixed 
 with the litter on the floor. The distance from 
 the perch to the platform will depend somewhat 
 on the size of the fowls and on the implement 
 
 Fig. 39. Movable perches with board platform underneath to catch droppings. 
 
 used in removing the droppings. It will also 
 depend on the form of platform constructed. 
 
 The distance between the perches and a level 
 platform should not be great enough to permit 
 the fowls to walk on the platform underneath the 
 perches. If a broad iron shovel with a tolerably 
 straight handle is used, the perches need not be 
 more than from five to eight inches from a level 
 
Perches and Nests 115 
 
 platform. It is desirable to have the platform 
 some distance from the floor, in order that the 
 fowls may occupy the floor space underneath the 
 platform. This will permit the construction of 
 perches, and, at the same time, will allow the 
 fowls to use all of the floor space. The perches 
 may be supported by brackets secured to the 
 side wall, as shown in Fig. 39. 
 
 Nests. In the construction of nests in poultry 
 houses, at least three points should constantly be 
 kept in mind. First, the nest should be situated 
 in a place which is more or less dark; second, 
 it should be readily accessible to the fowls from 
 more than one side; and, third, it should be 
 constructed in such a way that it can be readily 
 seen, easily cleaned, and thoroughly disinfected. 
 Since it is important to give the fowls as much 
 floor space as possible, it is usually best to have 
 the nest attached in some manner to the side or 
 end walls of the building. In a general way it 
 may be said that the number of fowls which a 
 poultry house will accommodate depends on the 
 floor space and air space which the house con- 
 tains. Anything, therefore, that unnecessarily 
 occupies floor space will diminish the capacity 
 of the house. Various plans of arranging nests 
 have been adopted, and it is difficult and probably 
 impossible to say which is the best. Each has 
 advantages and disadvantages. A somewhat sim- 
 
116 Farm Poultry 
 
 pie and easy plan of arranging nests when the 
 perches are placed not more than 2% or 3 feet 
 from the floor, is as follows: underneath the 
 platform, which should always be underneath the 
 perches, as described above, the nests are placed 
 in a row on the floor. From the front edge of 
 the platform to the floor, in front of the nests, 
 a tight board partition is constructed. This board 
 partition is opened by means of a long door, 
 hinged either at the top or bottom. In either 
 case the lower edge of the door should be about 
 level with the top of the nests. A small open- 
 ing at one end of the door will admit fowls 
 to the nests. This arrangement secures dark- 
 ness for the nests, plenty of room for the 
 fowls to approach the nests from two or three 
 sides, and the nests are readily accessible for 
 cleaning, gathering eggs, etc. Some of the dis- 
 advantages of this plan are that the nests oc- 
 cupy considerable floor space and the fowls are 
 sometimes inclined to deposit their eggs on the 
 floor back of the nests. It is desirable to arrange 
 the nests so that they may be approached from 
 more than one side for the following reason: in 
 flocks of fowls of any considerable size there 
 are usually individuals more or less aggressive in 
 character, that seem to delight in exercising their 
 mastery over others; such birds, when seeking 
 a nest, will almost invariably drive others off 
 
Nests, and Egg -eating 
 
 117 
 
 the nests rather than take equally as conve- 
 nient a nest which is unoccupied. If the nests 
 can be approached from only one side, one hen 
 in trying to drive the other off, which she will 
 eventually accomplish, will force the occupant 
 to spring from the nest suddenly. This may 
 
 Fig. 40. Perches and nests, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 cau.se the eggs to be thrown violently to one side, 
 and often a broken egg is the result. 
 
 The vice of egg- eating is undoubtedly largely 
 caused by eggs being broken accidentally, or by 
 frozen eggs. If the nests can be placed in partial 
 darkness, the habit of egg-eating should be reduced 
 
118 Farm Poultry 
 
 to a minimum. While it may not suffice to cure the 
 habit when once well formed, yet it should pre- 
 vent, in a large measure, the development of this 
 vice. It is the duty of those constructing poultry 
 houses to arrange them so that this vice, together 
 with other undesirable features of poultry-keeping, 
 may be avoided so far as possible. Another ar- 
 rangement of nests, in which they are attached 
 to the side or end walls, and therefore do not 
 occupy floor space, is recommended by many 
 practical poultry-keepers. 
 
 It is important to arrange the nests so that 
 they may be readily cleaned and disinfected, for 
 it is well known that if the perches and nests of 
 the fowls can be kept free from mites, or so- 
 called summer lice, the fowls themselves will be 
 entirely free from them. If the nest boxes, 
 therefore, are movable and can readily be taken 
 out of doors for thorough cleaning it will be 
 found somewhat easier to keep them entirely free 
 from these pests than if stationary nests -are 
 used, and it will certainly be easier to exter- 
 minate them should they once gain a foothold. 
 
 Nests of Leghorns, Hamburgs, and Minorcas 
 may be constructed of boards, six inches wide, 
 making boxes 8x10 inches in the clear. The 
 American breeds and Asiatics should have some- 
 what larger nests . 
 
 Fine hay is satisfactory for nest material and 
 
Nests, and Drinking Fountains 119 
 
 excelsior answers the purpose admirably. Sea- 
 grass, so extensively used in packing china and 
 crockery, is an excellent material. Whatever ma- 
 terial is used, it should be such as will not easily 
 stain the eggs. An egg when first laid is moist, and 
 if the nest material staijis or gives up its coloring 
 matter readily, the egg is likely to be more or less 
 stained, particularly if it has a white shell. If 
 the nests are placed side by side, the partitions 
 should extend two inches or more above the nest 
 material to prevent the fowls from attempting to 
 draw the eggs from one nest to another, and, in 
 so doing, cause the eggs to roll back and be 
 broken. 
 
 Drinking fountains. It is of tne utmost im- 
 portance that fowls be supplied with pure water. 
 This is one of the somewhat difficult problems 
 that every poultry man has to meet. It 
 is difficult to keep the water dishes 
 clean, particularly when the fowls are 
 confined in the houses, as they are dur- 
 ing the severe winter months. Scratch- 
 ing in the litter will cause more 
 or less dirt to enter the drink- 
 ing dishes, and usually such 
 
 , c , , , Fig. 41. A simple drinking 
 
 lowls are ted sort rood once a fountain; a bottle or jug 
 day at least, and this food will used as a reservoir - 
 also enter the drinking dishes to some extent when 
 the fowls drink after eating. There are a number 
 
120 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 of patented drinking fountains on the market, 
 many of which are automatic and keep a small 
 supply of water constantly before the fowls. 
 Under favorable conditions these fountaios will, 
 undoubtedly, prove very satisfactory. Under ad- 
 verse conditions, however, 
 some of them have not 
 given satisfaction, for the 
 reason that they are diffi- 
 cult to clean. If the foun- 
 tain becomes tainted, as it 
 is very likely to do in warm 
 weather, it is not so readily 
 cleaned as a simple tin or 
 earthed dish. Drink- 
 ing fountains that are 
 not readily cleaned are 
 obj ectionable . Many 
 automatic fountains are 
 constructed on the principle of the student lamp, 
 which permits a small quantity of liquid to pass 
 from the reservoir whenever a bubble of air is 
 permitted to enter it. The inverted jug or bottle, 
 with its opening placed in a shallow dish, illus- 
 trates the principle. See Fig. 41. An improved 
 arrangement is seen in Fig. 42. The reservoir is 
 supported between two uprights and so arranged 
 that it may revolve for convenience in filling. 
 Another arrangement, which has given satisfa - 
 
 Fig. 42. An improved drinking fountain 
 with a revolving reservoir. 
 
Drinking Fountains 
 
 121 
 
 tion in the hands of successful poultrymen, may 
 be constructed as follows (Fig. 43) : an ordinary 
 shallow milk pan is placed on a block or shallow 
 box, the top of which is four or five inches from 
 the floor. The water or milk to be drunk by the 
 fowls is placed in this pan. Over the pan is 
 placed a board cover supported on pieces of lath 
 about eight inches long nailed to the cover so 
 that they are about two inches apart, the lower 
 ends resting on the box which forms the support 
 of the pan. In order to drink from the pan, it is 
 necessary for the fowls to insert their heads be- 
 tween these pieces of lath. The cover over the 
 pan and the strips of lath at the sides prevent the 
 poultry from fouling 
 the water in any man- 
 ner except in the act 
 of drinking. When 
 drinking pans of ^ 
 this kind are used, 
 it is very easy to 
 cleanse and scald 
 them with hot 
 water as occasion demands. This arrangement 
 can be carried a little further by placing a pan 
 or, what would be still better, a long, narrow 
 dish, something like a tin bread -tray, on a low 
 shelf a few inches from the floor and hinging the 
 cover to one side of the poultry house so that 
 
 Fig. 43. A shallow milk pan used as a 
 water basin, and protected with a board 
 cover having supports of laths. 
 
122 Farm Poultry 
 
 it can be tipped up in front for the removal of 
 the dish or for filling it with water. See Fig. 44. 
 Whatever arrangement is made for furnishing 
 water for the fowls, it should comply with these 
 conditions : (1) the drinking pan must be so 
 constructed that it may be easily and thoroughly 
 
 Fig. 44. A protected water basin. 
 
 cleansed; (2) fowls should have access to pure 
 water at all times. 
 
 Dust boxes. It is not only desirable, but nec- 
 essary, to provide dust boxes for the fowls if they 
 are to be kept reasonably free from body-lice. 
 This is particularly true during the winter months. 
 During the summer, if the fowls have a more or 
 less wide range, dusty places will be found out of 
 doors wherein they may take dust baths. During 
 the late fall, winter and early spring, conveniences 
 should be supplied the fowls within doors, wherein 
 
Dust Baths 
 
 123 
 
 they may wallow in the dust. A comparatively 
 small box will answer for a flock of a dozen or 
 twenty hens if the attendant will see that the box 
 is kept well filled with dry dust and free from 
 litter and other coarse material. If these boxes 
 can be so placed that they receive some sunshine 
 on bright days it will be found easier to keep the 
 
 Fig. 45. Combined house and scratching shed, an excellent plan. 
 Rhode Island Agricultural College. 
 
 dust dry, and fowls prefer them so located rather 
 than in some dark corner. Fine road dust pro- 
 cured during the hot, dry weather of July and 
 August from a much -traveled highway has no 
 superior for this purpose. Probably there is no 
 way in which the poultryman can better combat 
 the body -lice than by providing dust boxes for 
 his fowls. It is true that the fowls may be kept 
 comparatively free from these pests by the occa- 
 sional use of insecticides dusted thoroughly among 
 
124 Farm Poultry 
 
 the feathers of the various parts of the body, but 
 as this method necessitates the handling of each 
 bird several times during the season most farmers 
 will prefer to have the fowls use the dust bath. 
 If an insecticide, as powdered sulfur or insect 
 powder, is used, it should be dusted through the 
 feathers next to the skin, preferably in the even- 
 ing when the fowls are quiet and on the perches, 
 in order that the material may remain in the 
 feathers for several hours. 
 
 Yards and parks. The question of confining 
 fowls is perhaps somewhat undecided in the 
 minds of many farmers. Because the fowls of 
 a comparatively small flock, when given their 
 liberty or the run of the farm, thrive well and 
 produce many eggs with very little attention on 
 the part of the owner, it should not be inferred 
 that large flocks will prove equally satisfactory 
 under similar conditions. While a few fowls 
 may be given the run of the farm without caus- 
 ing very much annoyance, large flocks would be 
 objectionable for many reasons. 
 
 Each individual must decide for himself whether 
 he will permit his fowls to have the run of the 
 farm or whether he will confine them in pens or 
 yards. Generally speaking, it is far better to 
 confine the fowls within suitable inclosures. The 
 owner then has control of the conditions and is 
 more nearly master of the situation than it is 
 
Yards and Park$ 
 
 125 
 
 possible for him to be when his fowls are given 
 full liberty. Those who provide yards or runs 
 for the fowls do not all agree as to the be^t 
 method. There are two systems in use, each 
 possessing its own advantages, and each hav- 
 ing warm adherents. One system or plan pro- 
 vides comparatively small areas for small- or 
 medium -sized flocks; the other fences large areas 
 
 Fig. 46. Poultry house and yard. 
 Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 for large flocks or masses. It is undoubtedly 
 best for each beginner to learn what he can of 
 the experience of others and then to select the 
 plan that best meets his own requirements. 
 
 Undoubtedly there is no best method of con- 
 structing yards or runs for fowls. What may 
 answer the purpose admirably for one would be 
 quite unsuited to the conditions of another. The 
 yards should be so constructed that they best 
 
126 Farm Poultry 
 
 meet the natural as well as the artificial conditions 
 under which the fowls are to be kept. Figs. 47 
 and 48 illustrate a way of constructing poultry 
 houses and adjoining yards for moderate -sized 
 flocks. This system has been used satisfactorily 
 by successful poultrymen on comparatively level 
 land. It is particularly advantageous when small 
 yards are to be used that will require thorough 
 cultivation. Whatever may be the form or size 
 of the yard, it should be borne in mind that the 
 first requisite is cleanliness, that part of the 
 yard nearest the poultry house undoubtedly 
 requiring frequent cultivation. The ideal con- 
 dition is to have one part of the yard in perma- 
 nent grass and another part well cultivated. If 
 a rocky or rough piece of land, more or less 
 woody, is near at hand, there is no reason why 
 this may not profitably form a part of the poultry 
 run or yard. Poultry yards accommodating fifty 
 hens should inclose about sixteen square rods. 
 If fifty fowls are kept confined in the house and 
 yard throughout the year, as described above, it 
 will be necessary to have a considerable part 
 of the yard thoroughly cultivated in order to 
 keep it clean. 
 
 The expense of constructing and maintaining 
 poultry fences is considerable, and the plan 
 to be preferred is the one that will give the 
 greatest satisfaction with the least amount of 
 
Yards 
 
 127 
 
 fence. If the yards are to be cultivated, it will 
 be found advantageous to have them long and 
 comparatively narrow. A yard two rods wide 
 and eight rods long is convenient to cultivate, 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 Poultry houses and yards of C. H. Wyckoff, Groton, N. Y. 
 
 and is very satisfactory for other reasons. As 
 it is found most convenient to have several pens 
 in one house, it is therefore convenient to have 
 several poultry yards side by side, one fence 
 forming the boundary of two yards. See Fig. 26, 
 
128 Farm Poultry 
 
 Provision should be made for two-horse cultiva- 
 tion, for sometimes yards will need to be plowed. 
 The yards may be inclosed by either picket or 
 wire fences. Whether the fences be entirely of 
 wood or of wire netting, they should not be less 
 than seven feet high, if egg breeds are to be 
 confined. In either case, it is well to have a wide 
 board placed at the bottom. Sometimes it is 
 desirable to confine comparatively small chickens 
 in these yards. Boards at least a foot wide at 
 the bottom will be very satisfactory, if the re- 
 mainder of the fence is constructed of the ordi- 
 nary two-inch mesh poultry netting. Should the 
 boards be omitted, the lower part of the fence 
 should be formed of netting having a mesh 
 smaller than two inches. 
 
 It is undoubtedly best to provide some shade 
 for the fowls. For this purpose fruit trees have 
 given entire satisfaction. Plum trees are especially 
 recommended for poultry yards. One of the great- 
 est difficulties experienced in raising plums is 
 caused by the attacks of the curculio. It has been 
 found by trial that plums grown within the poultry 
 yard are much less liable to injury by this insect 
 than those grown under similar conditions outside 
 of the yards. If several poultry yards are arranged 
 side by side, the owner may provide for a plum 
 orchard by planting a row of plum trees through 
 the middle of each yard. The following varieties 
 
Yards and Plum Trees 129 
 
 of plums have been especially recommended for 
 this purpose: 
 
 Lombard, Burbank, 
 
 Bradsbaw, Coe Golden Drop. 
 
 Peter Yellow Gage, 
 
 There is no reason why an apple orchard 
 may not form a poultry yard to good advantage. 
 Particularly would this be true if the orchard 
 were kept under thorough cultivation, a practice 
 which is now so strongly recommended by the 
 most advanced orchardists. The whole orchard 
 may be inclosed with the poultry fence and the 
 fowls given the run of it. If thought advisable, 
 simple, temporary yards may be provided for the 
 various flocks during a part of the year, when it 
 is desired to keep them separate. At other times 
 all of the flocks may be given the run of the 
 entire orchard. 
 
 When the fowls have once become accustomed 
 to their house or home they will give the owner 
 very little trouble by perching elsewhere, even 
 though they be given the opportunity to do so. 
 Whenever small yards are used, it will be found 
 desirable to place the young birds or pullets in 
 their permanent yards, if possible to do so. Ma- 
 ture fowls, when moved from one pen to another, 
 are more likely to fly over the inclosure than if 
 kept throughout the season in the yard they have 
 learned to recognize as home. It has frequently 
 
130 Farm Poultry 
 
 been noticed that Leghorn and Minorca hens will 
 remain peaceably in the yard in which they have 
 been reared, but if moved to other yards will give 
 the owner more or less trouble by flying over 
 the fences, although the latter may be as high 
 as seven feet. 
 
 In latitudes where it is not necessary to provide 
 warm houses for protection against freezing, many 
 
 Fig, 49. Poultry houses and yards 
 West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 small portable houses in a field of considerable 
 size are preferred to more pretentious stationary 
 houses with permanent yards. It is true that 
 the labor of the attendant in feeding is some- 
 what increased, but considerable labor is saved 
 in cleaning and cultivating the land by merely 
 moving the buildings a short distance. The 
 houses are usually constructed on rude and in- 
 expensive runners, and are moved from place 
 to place by means of horses. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS 
 
 As a dairyman would make a serious mistake 
 in selecting cattle for his dairy if he should draw 
 from any but the noted dairy breeds, so the poul- 
 tryman or farmer would make an equally serious 
 mistake if fowls were chosen that were not spe- 
 cially adapted to his purposes. The ultimate suc- 
 cess of a business depends largely on the skill of 
 the manager in selecting the proper agents or 
 machines to do the work. If inferior agents are 
 used to produce a merchantable article, either the 
 article produced is not first-class or the* cost of 
 production is not reduced to a minimum. In 
 either case the producer is not able to compete 
 successfully with those who have a better equip- 
 ment. 
 
 SELECTION 
 
 The importance of choosing a suitable breed 
 or variety for a special purpose is likely to be 
 underestimated. Apparently the same importance 
 is not given to differences between the useful 
 breeds of fowls, that is recognized between the 
 
 (131) 
 
132 Farm Poultry 
 
 different breeds of cattle and horses. In reality 
 as great differences exist. The importance of a 
 proper selection is still further emphasized when 
 the conditions under which the fowls are to be 
 kept are taken into consideration. Some fowls 
 will thrive fairly well under conditions that would 
 not prove adequate for the profitable maintenance 
 of others. Too often a particular variety is se- 
 lected for farm use because some fine-looking or 
 profitable flock has been seen which has created 
 a desire in the. mind of the visitor to possess a 
 similar flock. This is sometimes done without 
 considering the special purposes for which these 
 fowls are to be kept, and perhaps without taking 
 into account the conditions under which the flock 
 is to be maintained, even though these conditions 
 differ materially from those under which the ad- 
 mired flock existed. 
 
 The great variety of fowls now bred in this 
 country offers to the poultryman and farmer a 
 wide field for selection. It must be borne in 
 mind that of this great variety all are not equally 
 well adapted to various purposes of utility. While 
 a certain breed may give entire satisfaction in the 
 hands of one poultry-keeper, another may find 
 these fowls quite unsatisfactory because he is un- 
 able to give them the necessary care and to pro- 
 vide the conditions under which they thrive best. 
 It may happen, therefore, that under a somewhat 
 
Improving Fowls ilirongh Selection 133 
 
 careless management the most noted egg-breeds 
 may not prove the most satisfactory for egg pro- 
 duction. The capabilities of the fowls and the 
 conditions under which they are to be kept should 
 both be taken into consideration before fowls are 
 selected for a special purpose. 
 
 The wide-awake, progressive poultryman will 
 ever be watchful to improve his fowls for the 
 purpose in view, after procuring those that seem 
 best adapted to his wants. He must not be 
 content with merely choosing a proper flock. 
 Selection should go on year after year, and the 
 fowls be continually improved for the purpose 
 for which they are kept and under the existing 
 conditions. 
 
 Selecting eggs. The method on many farms of 
 selecting eggs for hatching is entirely faulty, and 
 often leads directly to deterioration rather than 
 improvement. In the improvement of fowls for 
 egg production the choice should be made ac- 
 cording to the number of eggs laid. Just as the 
 dairyman values his cows by the number of 
 pounds of butter fat produced, so should the 
 poultryman and farmer value the laying hen by 
 the number of eggs put forth annually. As it is 
 difficult, and, under the usual conditions, impos- 
 sible to ascertain the number of eggs laid by 
 each fowl in a farmer's flock, he is forced to 
 resort to other methods of determining which are 
 
134 Farm Poultry 
 
 the desirable and which are the undesirable fowls. 
 Frequently farmers take for hatching fine well- 
 formed eggs that have just been gathered from 
 a promiscuous flock. This method of selecting 
 eggs is entirely wrong, and should be avoided 
 as far as possible. In the spring all, or nearly 
 all, hens are laying. The hen which did not lay 
 at all during the winter will probably lay during 
 March, April, and perhaps May. The hen that 
 has been laying during the winter will probably 
 not lay as many eggs in the spring months as 
 the poorer hen that failed to lay during the 
 severe cold weather. Consequently eggs collected 
 at random from a general flock will consist 
 largely of those laid by the poorest-laying hens 
 of the whole flock. It is unnecessary to discuss 
 this subject further in order to show that this 
 kind of selection for egg production tends toward 
 deterioration, yet many persons undoubtedly pur- 
 sue just this course without fully knowing its 
 evil tendencies. 
 
 Whenever it is convenient to do so, a few of 
 the best-laying hens should be placed by them- 
 selves in order that their eggs alone may be used 
 for hatching. If it is impossible to select fowls 
 for breeding purposes from the records of egg 
 production, which is the true test of the laying 
 hen, the owner must resort to other methods. 
 One of the best substitutes for actual perform- 
 
Determining Breeding Stock 135 
 
 ance undoubtedly is to select for strength and 
 vigor of constitution. It is well understood that 
 if the animal machine is not strong it will prob- 
 ably be unable to perform the greatest service. 
 It is well known that the best layers are strong, 
 large -bodied, vigorous fowls. They are known 
 to have strong constitutions. 
 
 If breeders are to select for vigor, they can 
 do no better, perhaps, than to make the choice 
 at the moulting period. Strong, vigorous fowls 
 pass through the moulting period very much more 
 rapidly than do those having a weak constitution. 
 The robust hen that lays a large number of eggs 
 during the year will pass through the moulting 
 period quickly, and will hardly stop laying, while 
 the one having a weak constitution will be a long 
 time in producing a new coat of feathers, and will 
 not lay for many weeks. The experienced poul- 
 tryman, therefore, finds this period in the life of 
 the fowl a most excellent one in which to make 
 his selection. The fact that the bird with a 
 strong constitution is the most profitable for egg 
 production, may explain why the fowls of poul- 
 trymen who make a specialty of egg production 
 average larger than the fowls of those who breed 
 for exhibition. Almost without exception, the 
 average size of fowls of flocks specially noted for 
 egg laying is considerably larger than the average 
 size of fowls of the pure-bred stock of that breed. 
 
136 Farm Poultry 
 
 As a good- sized body and a deep and broad 
 breast are indicative of a strong constitution, so 
 are they the requisites of a good laying hen. 
 
 If one is compelled to make a selection for 
 egg production solely from the general conforma- 
 tion or appearance of the fowl, he should select 
 deep, long -bodied birds. Those having a short 
 underline, circular in outline, should be dis- 
 carded. The feeding capacity of the hen is im- 
 portant, for those that are able to digest and 
 assimilate large quantities of food are vigorous 
 fowls and consequently can produce eggs in 
 abundance. 
 
 Americans look . t very much closer to the color 
 and feather markings than do the English. So 
 far as meat and egg production are concerned, 
 the English, without doubt, have the advantage. 
 As shown in a previous chapter, it is undoubtedly 
 much more difficult to develop two unrelated char- 
 acteristics to the highest state of perfection than 
 to develop a single characteristic. The English- 
 man, therefore, who seeks egg production without 
 special regard to the color of the plumage, finds 
 it easier to reach the highest state of perfection 
 than does the American who desires to breed 
 fowls for egg production and, at the same time, 
 have them true to feather. 
 
 If one must select fowls for exhibition pur- 
 poses and breed them for fancy points, it will 
 
Egg Production and Fertility of Eggs 137 
 
 undoubtedly be best to choose some solid-colored 
 breed or variety whose tendency to depart from 
 the standard color is not strong. It should not 
 be inferred that all solid-colored fowls are easy 
 to breed true to color ; in fact, some of the so- 
 called solid colors, notably the buffs, are the 
 most difficult to breed to perfection. 
 
 The question of securing fertile eggs for in- 
 cubation is one that always gives breeders more 
 or less concern. Some breeders are more suc- 
 cessful than others in securing fertile eggs, and 
 apparently all breeders are more successful dur- 
 ing some seasons than others. Some breeds of 
 fowls are noted for producing fertile eggs, while 
 others are generally recognized as inferior in this 
 respect. The freedom given the fowls of a flock, 
 the vigor of the individuals, and the number of 
 males, very largely determine the fertility. Pul- 
 lets' eggs are generally not selected for hatching. 
 It is thought that they are not so likely to be 
 fertile, and will not produce as strong and vigor- 
 ous chickens as hens' eggs. 
 
 Those who have had experience in operating 
 incubators know that all fertile eggs will not 
 hatch. There seem to be all grades of fertility, 
 from the egg having a vigorous germ that will 
 produce a strong, healthy chicken, to that having 
 a weak germ and is practically an infertile egg. 
 As the two extremes are united by various 
 
138 Farm Poultry 
 
 intermediate grades, it is impossible to draw a 
 definite line of separation which shall divide the 
 fertile from the infertile ones. 
 
 Fresh eggs are to be preferred for hatching, 
 although good hatches from eggs that were kept 
 several weeks are reported. Eggs are sometimes 
 sent long distances and still retain their vitality 
 sufficiently to produce a good number of strong 
 chicks. The following is quoted from an experi- 
 ment station publication : * " Where the incubator 
 is placed in a room whose temperature is reason- 
 ably even and is properly managed, a high per- 
 centage of hatch may be expected only (a) when 
 the hens have plenty of exercise, (6) when the 
 eggs are freshly laid." 
 
 After the male is removed, the eggs are 
 thought to be fertile for a few days, "from four 
 to fourteen days" is given by some authors. The 
 following gives the results of definite observa- 
 tions :f "On the farm of the Ohio State Univer- 
 sity 40 Leghorn hens which had previously been 
 kept without males were placed in pens with the 
 male birds February 18, and the percentage of 
 fertile eggs observed for nine days after mating. 
 This increased regularly from 0, on the day of 
 mating, to 95 per cent on the eighth day after 
 mating. July 1 the males were removed from the 
 
 * Bulletin No. 158, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 t Agricultural Student I (1894), in Experiment Station Record. 
 
Influence of Males on Egg Production 139 
 
 pens. The fertility of the eggs was apparently not 
 materially affected until the twelfth day after 
 removing the roosters. . . . Unfortunately the 
 eggs were only saved fifteen days, and hence 
 it is not shown how long hens must be removed 
 from the male before all the eggs become in- 
 fertile." 
 
 For the greatest production of eggs, males are 
 not required except for the breeding pen. Many 
 poultrymen who have made a specialty of egg 
 production and have won for themselves a repu- 
 tation in this direction, have found by experi- 
 ence that males are of no use in the laying pen, 
 and are often a positive injury when only eggs for 
 food are desired. Tests that have been made at 
 experiment stations to determine the influence of 
 males on egg production, tend to show that the 
 practice of poultrymen in excluding males is most 
 advantageous. The following paragraph is taken 
 from an experiment station bulletin : * 
 
 "A pen of pullets kept without a male pro- 
 duced eggs at about 30 per cent less cost than 
 an exactly similar pen with which a cockerel 
 was kept. ... In each of the two pens with- 
 out male birds some pullets had begun to lay 
 from one to two months earlier than any in the 
 corresponding pens in which male birds were 
 kept." 
 
 * Bulletin No. 57, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
1 4 'J Fa rm Poult ry 
 
 BREEDING 
 
 Heredity. Since the earliest times of which 
 any authentic records have been preserved, owners 
 of live stock have made attempts to improve the 
 animals under their charge by the art of breed- 
 ing. Accounts state that the ancients recognized 
 the principle in breeding that "like begets like," 
 and depended on it quite as much as on any other 
 principle. It is on this principle that the poul- 
 tryman and stock owner depend for the perpetu- 
 ation of species, breeds and varieties. In this 
 principle is recognized the law which, within 
 certain limits, makes offspring like their parents. 
 The development of this theory no doubt came 
 from a close observation of domesticated animals. 
 Had only wild animals been observed, it is likely 
 that the similarity of offspring to parents would 
 have been taken as a matter of course, and what 
 is now known as the law of heredity would have 
 been studied comparatively little. 
 
 Poultry breeders recognize the law that off- 
 spring resemble their parents within certain limits, 
 and depend upon this law more than upon any 
 other as the foundation upon which the improve- 
 ment by breeding depends. If it were not for 
 the law of heredity, selection would be practically 
 of no value. If strong, hearty, vigorous parents, 
 which are noted for their useful qualities, were 
 
The Transmission of Characters 141 
 
 unable to transmit their desirable traits, it might 
 be quite as profitable to breed from the most use- 
 less of animals. In other words, the value of 
 selection depends upon the ability of the parent 
 to impress its own characteristics upon its off- 
 spring. That characteristics are transmitted to a 
 
 Fig. 50. Breeding and exhibition house and runs 
 Rhode Island Agricultural College. 
 
 certainty, within certain limits, is evident to all. 
 A description of the characteristics of one man 
 will apply to nearly all men. 
 
 Variation. It has long been recognized that 
 there is a tendency to vary within certain limits, 
 and that this tendency is always present in all 
 classes of animals, whether wild or domesticated. 
 The fact that wild birds and animals possess 
 sufficient individuality to make them readily rec- 
 ognizable by each other is adequate proof that 
 these animals are not precisely alike in all re- 
 spects. We readily distinguish the differences 
 
142 Farm Poultry 
 
 between individual members of our herds and 
 flocks, although all members of a flock or herd 
 may have sprung from the mating of two indi- 
 viduals, and therefore have the same lineage- 
 It is more difficult to observe the differences 
 in wild birds and animals, yet such differences 
 exist sufficiently to show that the law of variation 
 is universal and constant in its action. It has 
 been said that "no two animals are exactly alike 
 in all respects." 
 
 The tendency to vary is transmitted from par- 
 ents to progeny in the same way that other pecu- 
 liarities are transmitted. This has often been 
 of the greatest importance in the improvement of 
 fowls, mammals and plants. Breeders who are 
 trying to improve their stock are continually en- 
 deavoring to bring the law of heredity into force 
 so far as desirable characteristics are concerned, 
 and as continually striving to prevent the opera- 
 tion of the law so far as undesirable character- 
 istics are concerned. 
 
 The fact that animals vary permits of an indi- 
 vidual being an improvement on its parents. If 
 this individual is allowed to transmit its good 
 characteristics, improvement may be attained. 
 Without progressive variation breeders could not 
 secure improvement. Probably all they could 
 do would be to prevent deterioration. 
 
 If a breeder is trying to improve his flock, he 
 
The Law of Variation 
 
 143 
 
 looks closely for those individuals that show the 
 greatest tendency to vary. These individuals he 
 selects for breeding stock. He finds that their 
 young vary considerably. They do not closely 
 resemble each other, nor do they closely resemble 
 their parents. If an abundance of good food and 
 congenial surroundings be provided, he may ex- 
 pect, in the course of a few generations, that some 
 
 Fig. 51. An inclosed scratching shed, an excellent plan 
 Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 individuals will show a marked tendency to vary 
 in the direction of improvement. By judicious 
 mating, some or all of the desired improvements 
 may be transmitted and rendered permanent. 
 The improvement of breeds consists essentially in 
 fixing the desired variations. 
 
 Poultrymen usually look to the male for the 
 greatest tendency to vary.* Consequently in many 
 
 * "Heredity," by Wm. H. Brooks. 
 
144 Farm Poultry 
 
 improvements and in the development of many 
 new breeds, the male leads. As a rule, the males 
 of a breed or variety differ more from one another 
 than the females differ from each other. The 
 young more nearly resemble the female than they 
 do the male. It is also observed that the organs 
 most highly developed in the male differ more 
 than do the organs which are most highly devel- 
 oped in the female, that is, the comb, wattles, 
 and tail, which are most highly developed in 
 the male, differ more than those parts which are 
 most highly developed in the female. The im- 
 provement of domesticated fowls depends upon 
 the transmission of desired characteristics which 
 have been produced through the action of this law 
 or fact of variation. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding. This term is often used 
 in a rather loose sense to indicate the breeding 
 together of animals which aje more or less closely 
 related. It is generally used, however, to indi- 
 cate the breeding together of animals that are 
 closely related for several successive generations ; 
 and in this sense it is used in this discussion. As 
 breeders have not agreed on an exact definition of 
 in -and -in -breeding, there is a considerable differ- 
 ence of opinion as to just what the term implies. 
 Some breeders hold that the term implies only the 
 mating of animals of the closest relationship, 
 while others strenuously maintain that more dis- 
 
In -and- in - Breedin g 145 
 
 tant relationship should be included. It is held 
 by some that breeding together animals which 
 have a more distant degree of relationship than 
 that known in the human family as aunt and 
 nephew or uncle and niece, should not be recog- 
 nized as coming within the meaning of this term. 
 On the other hand, others are emphatic in in- 
 cluding more remote relationship. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding has played a most important 
 part in the formation of breeds and also in the 
 improvement of breeds that were well established. 
 As variation and selection enable the breeder to 
 produce individuals of superior merit, he will 
 naturally try to perpetuate this superiority arid 
 to reap the advantages of it through successive 
 generations in his herd or flock. This has been 
 made possible through in -and -in -breeding. Al- 
 most without exception marked improvement is 
 first noted in one or two animals. If the progeny 
 of these animals are bred to each other or to one 
 of their parents, the young resulting from this 
 mating will contain a much larger percentage of 
 the " blood " of the animal in which the improve- 
 ment was noted than could be obtained in any 
 other way. Consequently the chances that the 
 improvement will be transmitted are consider- 
 ably enhanced. 
 
 In other words, in -and -in -breeding enables the 
 breeder to accumulate or " pile up " the blood of 
 
146 Farm Poultry 
 
 a superior animal in the descendants of this valu- 
 able individual. To make use of an illustration, 
 it may be supposed that A and B represent two 
 animals of the same breed and that A is of su- 
 perior merit. If these animals are mated, the 
 blood of the progeny will be represented by one- 
 half A and one-half B. If A be bred to one of 
 the progeny, the blood of the offspring of the last 
 union will be represented by three-fourths A and 
 one-fourth B. This practice may be repeated in 
 succeeding generations and would be accepted 
 by all as in -and -in -breeding. As the percentage 
 of blood is increased the chances that the im- 
 provement will be perpetuated are also increased. 
 
 While in -and -in -breeding serves a most useful 
 purpose, under certain conditions, it should not 
 be forgotten that it may also cause deterioration 
 in various ways. A commonly accepted belief is, 
 that the practice of in- and -in -breeding may re- 
 sult in a reduced constitution, may weaken the 
 mental vigor, reduce the size of the individuals 
 and make them less prolific. Many instances 
 might be cited to show that any one or all of 
 these evils may accrue from in-and-in-breeding, 
 and it is also true that any one or all of these 
 evils will not be produced to a certainty by this 
 practice. 
 
 It is recognized that both good and evil re- 
 sults may follow the practice of in-breeding, 
 
Selecting for In -and -in -Breeding 147 
 
 but it is not generally accepted that the good 
 or evil results are in proportion to the degree 
 of relationship between the animals mated. If 
 in-breeding is to be practiced, the degree of re- 
 lationship should not be the determining factor. 
 A more rational selection is based on the indi- 
 vidual merits of the animals to be mated. When 
 related individuals are to be bred together, the 
 selection should be made on the suitability of 
 the animals to each other and not wholly on the 
 degree of relationship. 
 
 The safety with which in-and-in-breeding may 
 be practiced will depend largely on the skill that 
 is used in selecting the related animals that 
 are to be mated, and on the extent to which 
 the practice is carried. The skilful breeder will 
 be able to derive many benefits, and will cease 
 the practice before positive injuries accrue. It 
 may safely be asserted, as a general, rule, that 
 promiscuous or indiscriminate in-and-in-breeding 
 should not be practiced. 
 
 Farmers sometimes select from their young 
 fowls the best cockerel to head the flock the 
 next year, and hold that as long as they are 
 breeding from their best stock, improvement should 
 follow. In so doing, they perhaps forget that the 
 weaknesses are all quite as likely to be multiplied 
 in the progeny as the desired characteristics. 
 
 Cross-breeding. This may be defined as breed- 
 
148 Farm Poultry 
 
 ing together animals of two distinct breeds. For 
 many years cross-breeding was a favorite method, 
 and probably became popular because of the 
 frequently observed fact that increased vigor 
 was imparted by it. During the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, animals were frequently cross-bred, which, 
 undoubtedly, produced in the progeny a plasticity 
 of constitution and well prepared them for the 
 hands of skilful breeders who later attempted 
 to improve them. 
 
 Crossing does not always bring improvement, 
 although there seems to be a somewhat preva- 
 lent idea that such improvement necessarily re- 
 sults. While certain breeds may be crossed and 
 will thus produce increased vigor in the progeny, 
 yet there is frequently a tendency to reversion. 
 That is, the progeny will resemble a remote an- 
 cestor, perhaps one of the original breeds from 
 which the improved animals were descended. 
 Charles Darwin bred a Black Spanish and a 
 White Silky together and in the second gener- 
 ation secured a fowl that very much resembled 
 the wild Jungle Fowl of India, from which domes- 
 ticated fowls are supposed to have descended. 
 
 Whenever a cross is made between individuals 
 of distinct and well-established breeds, reversion 
 is most likely to occur. That is, the blood of 
 certain distinct breeds does not blend well. It is 
 said that a well-established white breed crossed 
 
Dangers of Cross -Breeding 149 
 
 upon a black one that is equally as well estab- 
 lished, is quite as likely to produce copper -col- 
 ored chicks as black or white, or a mixture of 
 the two. There seems to be a greater tendency 
 to reversion whenever violent crosses are made. 
 
 There is a somewhat prevalent idea that if 
 a fowl that has certain good qualities be crossed 
 on one having other good qualities, the offspring 
 will have the good qualities of both. This is 
 a most serious mistake. In fact, the poor quali- 
 ties of both parents are even more likely to be 
 seen in the offspring than are the good qualities 
 of both. Some authorities state that the poor 
 qualities of both parents are more likely to be 
 seen in the offspring than the good qualities of 
 either. 
 
 At the present time there is much controversy 
 over the influence of a preceding sire on the 
 offspring. Some breeders hold that in mammals 
 if a pure -bred female becomes pregnant by a 
 mongrel she is forever after incapable of bear- 
 ing pure -bred offspring. Poultry men, however, 
 do not hold such extreme views. It is doubtful 
 whether it has been clearly shown that the breed- 
 ing qualities of a pure -bred hen have been in- 
 jured by a previous mating. 
 
 Cross-breeding has rendered a great service 
 in the formation of new breeds. The Plymouth 
 Rocks and Wyandottes are familiar examples of 
 
150 Farm Poultry 
 
 breeds formed by crossing well-established breeds. 
 It is of doubtful economy to cross pure -bred 
 fowls of well-established races, except for special 
 purposes which will rarely be of service to the 
 general farmer. It may happen that skilled poul- 
 trymen will find it to their advantage to cross 
 distinct breeds for the production of a specialty 
 which has become quite famous. Successful 
 practices of this kind are comparatively few, 
 and are of foremost interest to the specialist. 
 Whenever pure breeds are crossed it is for the 
 production of a merchantable product, and the 
 use of these fowls for the production of pure- 
 bred stock is therefore lost. 
 
 Breed pure-bred stock. The question is fre- 
 quently asked whether it will pay to breed pure- 
 bred stock. If the answer is made candidly and 
 honestly it must be given as both affirmative 
 and negative. It certainly will pay to breed 
 pure-bred stock if proper food, care and man- 
 agement be given. It probably will not pay the 
 average farmer to invest in expensive pure-bred 
 stock and to keep this stock in the way in 
 which the fowls of mixed breeding are generally 
 kept throughout the country. As the pure -bred 
 stock had received superior advantages in order 
 to bring it to its greatest usefulness, so must it 
 receive advantages which the common stock of 
 the country does not receive if it is to remain 
 
Common and Pure -Bred Stock Compared 151 
 
 superior. In other words, the common stock 
 of mixed breeding throughout the country is 
 practically equal to the thoroughbred stock that 
 is kept under the same conditions for any con- 
 siderable length of time. If neglect and im- 
 proper feeding are not to enter into the problem, 
 the pure- bred stock will, undoubtedly, give by 
 far the best satisfaction. The grain dealer finds 
 that a certain variety of grain is hardy and is 
 recognized as "sure," that is, it rarely fails to 
 bring a reasonable crop, yet under the most 
 favorable conditions would not produce a maxi- 
 mum crop. Under the most favorable conditions 
 other varieties may outyield this hardy one, but 
 under adverse conditions would not be able to 
 withstand the severe test endured by it. So we 
 find pure-bred stock, in some respects, resem- 
 bles the improved and more productive but less 
 hardy varieties of grain. Under the most favor- 
 able conditions the pure breeds will, undoubtedly, 
 prove mo't remunerative. Under adverse con- 
 ditions, where hardiness is the all -important con- 
 sideration, the useful qualities cannot remain so 
 highly developed. 
 
 It is frequently said that if pure-bred stock 
 is good for anything it should prove superior in 
 the same conditions under which common stock 
 is usually kept; but the owner of the common 
 stock says that he does not believe in pam- 
 
152 Farm Poultry 
 
 pering his fowls. This is a serious mistake, 
 and one that frequently prevents the true ap- 
 preciation of improved breeds. It should not be 
 forgotten that the best of improved breeds have 
 reached their superiority through years of skilful 
 feeding and breeding. Food has always played 
 an important part in the formation and improve- 
 ment of all noted useful breeds. Abundant feed- 
 ing and good care have produced an organization 
 that is capable of digesting and assimilating large 
 quantities of food and turning it to good account. 
 That is, the machine is an economical one and 
 strong enough to do much work. The farmer 
 who invests in pure -bred stock and gives it 
 the same treatment that has maintained for 
 years an indifferent lot of fowls, finds the im- 
 proved stock satisfactory at first, but succeeding 
 generations become more and more unsatisfac- 
 tory until they reach the level of the common 
 stock, which was the highest standard that his 
 care and feeding could maintain. Such breed- 
 ers stoutly maintain that it does not pay to 
 breed pure-bred stock. 
 
 Improved breeds are the best, and should be 
 selected whenever it is possible to give them 
 proper food and care. While they may not prove 
 greatly superior under adverse conditions, yet they 
 respond so much more quickly to improved con- 
 ditions that those who are able to care properly 
 
Of 
 
 
 Improving Common Stock - 153 
 
 for their fowls will derive much greater profit 
 from the best than from the ordinary. Improved 
 breeds are most remunerative when an abun- 
 dance of suitable food is provided, and the fowls 
 are given care conducive to the particular, pur- 
 pose for which they are kept. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF COMMON FOWLS 
 
 If it is desired to improve the fowls of the 
 farm without the outlay of any considerable time 
 or money except that which is to be given in 
 providing better food and environment, perhaps 
 the most satisfactory way is to use a pure-bred 
 male. This method enables the farmer or poul- 
 tryman to change at once one -half of his breed- 
 ing flock to pure-bred stock so far as influence 
 on the progeny is concerned. From the breeders' 
 standpoint the male constitutes one-half of the 
 flock, and under the average existing conditions 
 this will probably be a fair statement of the 
 male's influence. Undoubtedly there are many 
 instances in which the male's influence is very 
 much greater than the combined influence of all 
 the females of the flock. Instances of this kind 
 are more likely to be seen when the male is a 
 well-formed, strong, vigorous bird, from equally 
 well -formed, strong, pure-bred ancestors. If 
 these conditions have existed for several genera- 
 
154 Farm Poultry 
 
 tions, the importance of the male is all the more 
 marked. 
 
 If the females are of mixed or no particular 
 breeding, their influence is likely to be far less 
 than that of the male. So it may be safely said 
 that the influence of a strong, vigorous, pure-bred 
 male, introduced into a flock of females of mixed 
 breeding, will be at least equal to that of all 
 the females in a transmission of parental char- 
 acteristics. The progeny from a well-bred male 
 and females of mixed breeding are generally 
 quite uniform in form and color. Many a farm- 
 er's boy has been delighted with the* sudden 
 improvement of a flock of fowls by the intro- 
 duction of a pure-bred male. In fact, many of 
 them have found that the progeny of this breed- 
 ing have proved to be the most desirable fowls 
 for the farm. Some of them, to their sorrow, 
 have tried to maintain the fine appearance and 
 highly useful qualities of these fowls by selecting 
 breeding stock from the general flock. Conse- 
 quently, the next generation was less satisfactory 
 and the third and fourth were disappointing. 
 This condition has been most noticeable when 
 the pure-bred male and the more or less indiffer- 
 ent females have represented quite marked dif- 
 ferences in type. Instead of selecting a male 
 from the general flock, another pure-bred male 
 of the same breed as the first should have been 
 
Grading Up 155 
 
 secured. This process is known in stock-breed- 
 ing as "grading up." The larger the proportion 
 of pure-bred blood the higher the grade. 
 
 A rational method of improving a flock of 
 fowls is first to choose with great care the breed 
 for the purpose; from this breed pick a strong, 
 vigorous, pure-bred male, and mate him with 
 the best hen; from the progeny of this mating 
 select the best females, to place with another 
 vigorous, pure-bred male of the same breed as 
 the first. This operation should be repeated each 
 year, and eventually the fowls will have all the 
 characteristics of pure-bred fowls. The yearly 
 choice of a pure-bred male should be continued. 
 
 It is undoubtedly best to breed from unrelated 
 stock so far as possible. It may also be safely 
 said that if the greatest improvement is to be 
 made, only mature fowls should be used for breed- 
 ing purposes. Particularly is this true with the 
 females of egg breeds. Pullets are not so desir- 
 able as hens for breeding purposes. Continued 
 breeding from immature stock has a tendency 
 to weaken the constitution and to reduce the size. 
 If it is necessary to use pullets they should, as 
 a rule, be mated with mature males. On the 
 other hand, it is frequently desirable to mate hens 
 with cockerels. 
 
 Breed useful fowls. It is the object of the 
 farmer to breed useful fowls. While the indi- 
 
156 Farm Poultry 
 
 viduals may not possess the requisite fancy 
 points to win prizes at exhibitions, yet these 
 same individuals should be noted for usefulness. 
 The most noted flocks for egg production, those 
 that have gained a national reputation, have 
 been selected and improved for this one particu- 
 lar quality to the exclusion of fancy points, on 
 which so much importance is placed at the 
 great poultry exhibitions. In the early history 
 of these flocks, the surplus birds were not largely 
 sold for breeding purposes. The reputation of 
 these flocks had not been established, and because 
 the birds did not possess the prize-winning fancy 
 points, the demand for them was' not equal to 
 the supply. In later years, when the reputation 
 of these flocks became well known, the surplus 
 stock found ready sale at remunerative prices, 
 solely because of their usefulness. While farm 
 stock should receive recognition at agricultural 
 fairs, yet it will be shown at a disadvantage when 
 placed in competition with the fanciers' fowls, 
 which are bred largely for exhibition. The farm- 
 er's stock should be selected and maintained 
 for the profit of eggs and meat, rather than for 
 the profit which the fowls may bring when sold 
 for breeding stock. It is quite possible that 
 many farmers may sell breeding stock at remu- 
 nerative prices, although the main object should 
 not be to produce birds for this purpose. When- 
 
Selection and Improvement 157 
 
 ever one depends on the sale of fowls for breed- 
 ing purposes for profit, it becomes necessary to 
 enter into competition with other breeders at the 
 great poultry shows, This necessitates a depart- 
 ure from the purpose for which farm fowls are 
 kept. 
 
 Farmers and others who maintain flocks for 
 usefulness should not forget the importance of 
 selection. Remember that all improvement is 
 largely due to selection, and that after the flock 
 is well established it can be further improved 
 for the purposes for which the breeds are kept 
 by rigorous selection, skilful breeding and im- 
 proved feeding. It is possible for every farmer 
 to improve any breed of fowls for his purpose. 
 This of course implies productiveness under cer- 
 tain conditions. A breed of fowls, or a flock 
 of fowls of a distinct breed, may be brought to 
 a high state of perfection by a poultryman, con- 
 sidering the conditions under which he keeps 
 them, and under more favorable conditions they 
 may be still further improved. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 FEEDING FOR EGGS AND FOR MEAT 
 
 THE successful poultry -keeper recognizes that 
 all kinds of wholesome poultry food which the 
 market affords are not equally well suited to his 
 fowls which he keeps for the production of either 
 eggs or meat. He lays great stress on the care- 
 ful selection of food for the making of special 
 products. 
 
 FEEDING FOR EGGS 
 
 If one desires to feed economically for egg 
 production, and has learned little or nothing from 
 experience, a most valuable lesson may be learned 
 from nature. It will be observed that those fowls 
 which are more or less neglected, and, conse- 
 quently, not so far removed from the natural 
 state, lay most abundantly in the spring. In 
 this respect, then, the poultry-keeper may profit- 
 ably aim, so far as it lies within his power, to 
 prolong the spring throughout the year. In the 
 spring these fowls are at liberty to roam at will 
 and to find abundant green food in the tender 
 
 (158) 
 

 Food and Exercise 159 
 
 shoots of grass and other plants. They find 
 meat food in the form of insects, worms and 
 other low forms of animal life. These, with 
 grain in some form, make a most perfect food 
 for laying hens. If the grain food is not sup- 
 plied to them by the poultry -keeper, they may 
 still find it in the form of seeds of various 
 plants. In other words, it should be the aim 
 of the poultry -keeper to supply the food and 
 conditions which tend to produce eggs most 
 abundantly. While it is true that the physical 
 organization of fowls is such that they will be 
 unable to maintain throughout the year the abun- 
 dant supply of eggs of the springtime, yet this 
 will be most nearly approached if the conditions 
 are springlike the year round. 
 
 Exercise. In the spring season the fowls that 
 are given free range obtain abundant exercise. 
 It is important to provide exercise for all noted 
 egg breeds, as these fowls are active in dispo- 
 sition. Close confinement without exercise is 
 not conducive to the best results, although the 
 quality and quantity of food provided may be 
 most excellent. While exercise is required for 
 egg production, it is not desirable when the fin- 
 est quality of meat is sought, particularly during 
 the last of the fattening period, so that what 
 may be said of exercise for egg production 
 should not be applied to fattening fowls. 
 
160 Farm Poultry 
 
 Quality of food. It has been clearly shown by 
 experiments that the food consumed by laying 
 hens affects the flavor of the eggs. In extreme 
 cases, not only is the flavor of the food imparted, 
 but the odor as well. Onions* have been fed 
 to fowls in sufficient quantity to impart a decided 
 flavor and odor to the eggs. So marked was the 
 result, that persons wholly unacquainted with the 
 experiment had no difficulty in distinguishing 
 these eggs from those which were laid by hens 
 fed a normal ration. 
 
 The mere fact that food influences the flavor 
 of eggs in extreme cases, is a sufficient reason 
 for the poultryman to reject all food that is not 
 strictly wholesome. It has not been determined 
 to what extent the ordinary poultry foods in- 
 fluence the flavor; but tainted food should not 
 be permitted to enter into the composition of 
 the ration. If food of high and objectionable 
 flavor imparts its peculiar taste and odor to the 
 egg, it is not safe for those who desire to pro- 
 duce a prime article to run unnecessary risks in 
 feeding doubtful food. Pure, wholesome food is 
 so abundant and cheap that there is no excuse 
 for a questionable practice. 
 
 Forced feeding for eggs. It is maintained by 
 some authorities that, when hens are given a 
 
 * From unpublished results of experiments conducted by the author, 
 at Cornell University. 
 
Moderate Feeding 161 
 
 course of forced feeding for egg production, their 
 period of usefulness is materially shortened. This 
 no doubt will be true in many instances, when 
 the fowls have been injudiciously fed. Experi- 
 ence has shown that it is possible with ordinarily 
 vigorous animals to carry the forcing process so 
 far that many individuals will be permanently in- 
 jured. These cases, however, should be consid- 
 ered as extreme and do not come within the 
 province of judicious feeding. The injury done 
 to dairy animals by forced feeding is undoubt- 
 edly chiefly due to the injudicious feeding of un- 
 natural foods. The injury is associated mostly 
 with the digestive functions. It is quite possible 
 to injure the digestion of laying hens by a sys- 
 tem of forced feeding. 
 
 Egg production is a reproductive function, and 
 in this respect differs somewhat from milk pro- 
 duction in the dairy cow. To what extent this 
 reproductive function may be injured by feeding 
 has not been fully determined. It has been ob- 
 served many times that after a year of forced egg 
 production the number of eggs laid has been 
 somewhat decreased; that is, it is possible, by 
 means of extra food and care, to induce fowls 
 to lay more eggs than would be produced under 
 good average conditions; but it is not possible 
 to keep up the highest degree of egg production 
 through two or three successive years. It is, 
 
162 Farm Poultry 
 
 therefore, the practice of many poultryrnen to 
 keep only young birds for egg production and 
 to force them for this product. When the hens 
 have served a period of forced egg laying, they 
 are replaced by younger fowls. This method 
 will necessitate keeping older fowls as breeding- 
 stock, which is in accord with the most .approved 
 practice. 
 
 Corn. Of. the grain foods that are usually 
 supplied to farm poultry, corn has been, and still 
 is, the most popular. This, no doubt, is largely 
 due to the abundance of this grain arid to its 
 relative cheapness. If the fowls are somewhat 
 closely confined, a corn ration is found to be 
 somewhat too fattening for most satisfactory re- 
 sults, particularly when fed to general -purpose 
 fowls. If this grain is supplied to the noted egg 
 breeds that have a wide range, much more sat- 
 isfactory results are likely to be obtained. It 
 should be the aim of the poultryman to feed 
 considerable grain in such manner as will not 
 cause the fowls to become excessively fat. Fat 
 fowls, as a rule, do not lay so abundantly as do 
 those in moderate flesh. When corn is fed to 
 laying hens that have opportunity to take plenty 
 of - exercise and to secure for themselves insects 
 and green food, much better results will be ob- 
 tained than when it is fed to the same kind of 
 fowls closely confined. Experiments have shown 
 
Value of Corn as a Food 163 
 
 that a clear corn ration, given to closely confined 
 Leghorn hens, has resulted in a marked decrease 
 in egg production and is sometimes accompanied 
 by feather pulling. Feather pulling usually in- 
 dicates a faulty ration. The fowls have a crav- 
 ing for something not supplied to them, and 
 resort to feather eating to obtain it. 
 
 Experiments have clearly shown that food has 
 a great influence on the color of the yolk of the 
 egg. Corn will give deep yellow or highly 
 colored yolks. Clear corn arid water, the feeding 
 of which would be considered an extreme case, 
 will produce yolks which are objectionable to 
 many consumers on account of the extremely high 
 color. Fairly high-colored yolks are generally 
 preferred, and a moderate amount of corn in the 
 ration can be depended upon to produce the de- 
 sired color. 
 
 The greatest economy in feeding fowls will 
 depend largely upon the ability of the feeder to 
 make the best use of corn. In supplying food 
 for domesticated fowls, it should be remembered 
 that three kinds of constituents should be pres- 
 ent, in tolerably well -fixed proportions, if the 
 desired results are to be obtained most economi- 
 cally. These constituents are mineral, nitroge- 
 nous and carbonaceous. Corn is deficient in both 
 mineral and nitrogenous matter. So, whenever 
 corn forms a considerable proportion of the daily 
 
164 Farm Poultry 
 
 ration, these deficiencies should be supplied in 
 some acceptable form. Animal meal, cut bone, 
 animal charcoal and bone ash are all used for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Wheat. Wheat is preferred to corn by many 
 because it is not quite so fattening, and is, there- 
 fore, a somewhat safer food in the hands of the 
 unskilled feeder. On account of the low price of 
 wheat in recent years, it is becoming a very com- 
 mon poultry food. Wheat, when fed alone, pro- 
 duces eggs having much lighter - colored yolks 
 than are produced by a corn ration. Wheat 
 alone has somewhat too wide a nutritive ratio 
 for best results. This grain should be supple- 
 mented by some meat food or skimmed milk in 
 order that the proportion of protein may be ma- 
 terially increased. Wheat should not form all of 
 the grain ration of laying hens, but when mixed 
 with other grains it is most highly prized. 
 
 Buckwheat. Buckwheat, like wheat, when fed 
 alone, has too wide a nutritive ratio and pro- 
 duces white flesh and light-colored yolks. These 
 are objectionable features to most Americans, but 
 in some large cities the foreign population pre- 
 fers white skin and light-colored flesh. This 
 grain has never been so popular as a poultry food 
 in the United States as corn or wheat. 
 
 Oats. Oats are considered a most excellent 
 food and perhaps come nearer the ideal than 
 
Grains and Succulent Food 165 
 
 any other single grain, particularly if the hull 
 or outer covering is removed. This hull, being 
 tough and woody and quite indigestible, is not 
 relished by the fowls, although some fowls will 
 learn to eat whole oats. Oats also tend to give 
 the fowl light-colored flesh and light-colored skin. 
 On this account oats are not recommended for a 
 finishing food, unless skin and shanks of a light 
 color are desired. 
 
 Linseed meal. A little linseed meal in the 
 ground food serves a most valuable purpose, 
 particularly at the moulting period. "Hens hav- 
 ing linseed meal moulted nearly all at the same 
 time, earlier in the season, and more rapidly." * 
 
 Green food in general. When fowls are some- 
 what closely confined in yards or pens, it will 
 be necessary to supply some kind of green food 
 in order to obtain the greatest production of 
 eggs. This should be given them throughout 
 the year. The question of how to supply the 
 best food at the least cost is one that each 
 poultry -keeper must decide largely for himself. 
 It will probably make very little difference what 
 kind of green food is supplied, provided that it 
 is relished by the fowls. If the runs or yards are 
 large, so that fresh grass may be supplied to 
 them during the summer months, little or no 
 other green food will be required. 
 
 * Bulletin No. 39, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
J66 Farm Poultry 
 
 Clover, etc. Clover cut during the early spring 
 is perhaps one of the cheapest and best of foods. 
 It is nitrogenous and is readily eaten when cut 
 fine in a fodder -cutter. If clover is frequently 
 mowed, a good quality of green food may be 
 obtained nearly all summer, particularly in sea- 
 sons of abundant rainfall. Should the supply of 
 clover be limited, or the season prove an unusu- 
 ally dry one, other legumes may provide a satis- 
 factory substitute. Alfalfa will answer the pur- 
 pose well if fed to the fowls in a fresh condition. 
 A small plot, if well established, will afford a 
 great quantity of green food if it is frequently 
 mowed. Young alfalfa is tender and is relished 
 by the fowls, but when it approaches the blossom- 
 ing stage it becomes more woody and is not so 
 valuable. Canada field peas are sometimes grown 
 for this purpose, and the peas, if fed whole while 
 in a tender and crisp condition, are eaten readily 
 by the fowls. 
 
 Beets (Mangel - wurzels] . These beets make 
 an excellent green food for the winter months. 
 As they are easily raised and will maintain their 
 fresh condition in an ordinary root cellar during 
 the winter months, they fulfil many of the re- 
 quirements of a practical poultry food. They 
 may be fed by simply splitting the root length- 
 wise with a large knife. If given to the fowls 
 in this form, they will pick out the crisp fresh 
 
Succulent Food 
 
 167 
 
 pulp from the cut surface. Root -cutters are on 
 the market which cut beets in fine shreds some- 
 what resembling earthworms in form. See Fig. 52. 
 These shreds are eaten readily. Under ordinary 
 conditions fowls should have, once a day, about 
 all the green food they will eat. The form in 
 which the beets are offered is 
 not important, provided they 
 are consumed while in a 
 clean, fresh condition. Un- 
 less the pieces of roots be 
 small enough for the fowls to 
 swallow them, large pieces 
 like half a beet are prefer- 
 able. When beets are fed 
 from an open trough, in 
 pieces of the size usually 
 made by ordinary root -cut- 
 ters, many pieces are likely 
 to be scattered in the litter 
 and more or less soiled be- 
 fore eaten, if eaten at all. Either very small, 
 or large and practically immovable pieces, are 
 preferred. 
 
 Cabbage. Cabbage is relished by fowls, and 
 is highly prized as a poultry food by many 
 experienced poultrymen. Cabbage, like beets, 
 should be fed in a fresh condition. It is the 
 practice of some poultry -keepers to suspend 
 
 Fig. 52. A vegetable-cutter. 
 
168 Farm Poultry 
 
 heads of cabbage within reach of the fowls and 
 permit them to partake ad libitum. 
 
 Rape, etc. Rape, sea kale, and other plants 
 of the cabbage family, which are noted for their 
 crisp stems and leaves, furnish excellent green 
 poultry food. Dwarf Essex rape may be sown 
 in narrow rows and given horse cultivation. 
 When the leaves are large enough to furnish 
 considerable food, they may be picked and fed 
 to the fowls. If hand-picking is objectionable, 
 the leaves may be cut with a sickle or scythe. 
 If cut a few inches from the ground, a second or 
 third crop will often be produced from one seed- 
 ing. 
 
 Clover ~hay. If green food is not at hand for 
 winter feeding, a good substitute may be found 
 in steamed clover hay, particularly if it is mixed 
 with the soft or ground grain food. It is import- 
 ant to have this hay finely cut. If a steamer 
 is not at hand, the hay may be satisfactorily 
 treated by putting it in a tight vessel and pour- 
 ing on boiling water sufficient to moisten all the 
 cut hay, permitting it to remain tightly covered 
 over night. 
 
 Meat foods. Poultrymen find it to their ad- 
 vantage to imitate the natural food of the fowls 
 and to furnish some meat food. Fowls that are 
 given a wide range in the summer time feed 
 largely on insects and earthworms; but during 
 
Meat Food 
 
 169 
 
 the winter months, and when fowls are confined 
 in comparatively small houses and yards, it will 
 be best to feed meat in some form. "Vegetable 
 foods, even though furnishing equal amounts of 
 all nutrients and in the proportions considered 
 suitable, are shown to be much inferior to animal 
 foods furnishing the same 
 amounts of nutrients and in 
 the same proportions." * 
 
 Fresh bones, which may be 
 obtained from meat markets, 
 if finely cut with bone-cutters 
 (Figs. 53, 54), make one of 
 the best, if not the best, of 
 meat foods for laying hens. 
 This is also excellent for little 
 chickens. Many poultrymen, 
 however, cannot depend upon 
 the local meat markets for 
 their supply, particularly dur- 
 ing the warm weather. After the bones have 
 become tainted they should be rejected as un- 
 fit for poultry food. When fresh bones can- 
 not be obtained, animal meal may be relied on 
 for satisfactory results. Only meal that is guar- 
 anteed wholesome should be procured. A good 
 quality will generally contain about 10 per cent 
 of nitrogen. This meal should be dry enough 
 
 * Eighth Annual Report, Mass. Hatch Experiment Station. 
 
 Fig. 53. A bone-cutter. 
 
170 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 Fig. 54. Another style of bone- 
 cutter. 
 
 to keep well for several seasons if necessity 
 requires. 
 
 Canned meat foods, specially prepared for 
 poultry, are on the market. These give satisfac- 
 tory results under ordi- 
 nary conditions, but are 
 usually found to be some- 
 what more expensive than 
 the animal meals. Some 
 of the so-called poultry 
 meat foods that are pre- 
 served in tin cans, consist 
 largely of liver. 
 
 Skim milk. Skim milk 
 may be substituted, 
 wholly or in part, for meat food without a marked 
 decrease in egg production, provided the proper 
 grain ration is given. In order to substitute milk 
 entirely for meat, it will probably be necessary 
 to give the fowls milk to drink instead of water 
 and to mix soft food with the milk. If milk be 
 depended upon entirely to take the place of meat, 
 somewhat greater okill will probably be required 
 in feeding than if a good quality of animal meal 
 is fed. 
 
 Grit. It is necessary that fowls be supplied 
 with some kind of grit, which is used in the giz- 
 zard for grinding the food. Fowls at all ages, 
 from the little chicken just hatched to the mature 
 
Kinds of Grit 171 
 
 fowl, require grit if hard food is given them. 
 When soft food alone is supplied, little or no 
 grit will be required. During the summer months, 
 when fowls have a large range, they are usually 
 able to find sufficient grit for themselves. Small 
 pieces of stone, cinders, etc., are eaten. Crushed 
 limestone and crushed granite also answer the 
 purpose admirably when it is necessary to supply 
 grit artificially. Crushed granite, on account of 
 its excessive hardness, is more durable than pieces 
 of softer material. There are many poultry supply 
 houses that keep crushed granite in various sizes, 
 suitable for all kinds of poultry. Crushed oyster 
 shells will also furnish material for grinding the 
 food, although they are not recommended solely 
 for this purpose. 
 
 "Long or sharp splinters of glass or dry bone 
 should be avoided. The size of particles of grit 
 had, for hens, better be larger than that of a 
 kernel of wheat and should be smaller than that 
 of a kernel of corn. An unlimited supply of 
 pounded glass has been attended with no bad 
 result when the food and other grit available 
 to the fowls contained an abundance of lime, 
 but, when the food was deficient in lime and no 
 other grit was attainable, hens ate an injuriously 
 large amount of glass." * 
 
 Lime. Many experiments and also chemical 
 
 * Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
172 Farm Poultry 
 
 analyses of foods and of eggs show that there is 
 not sufficient lime consumed by the fowls, in 
 ordinary poultry foods, to form the shells of eggs 
 produced by laying hens, particularly when they 
 are producing eggs most abundantly. It is there- 
 fore necessary to supply lime, in some form, to 
 laying hens. Crushed oyster shells are recom- 
 mended for this purpose. It is found to be sat- 
 isfactory to place the crushed shells before the 
 fowls in such a manner that they may eat the 
 amount needed, and it is usually safe to rely 
 on the judgment of the fowls in this respect. 
 Some poultrymen, however, mix crushed oyster 
 shells with the soft food in addition to the supply 
 which should be kept before them all the time. 
 "The feeding of oyster shells during the laying 
 season, when they can be cheaply obtained, 
 is recommended. One pound will contain lime 
 enough for the shells of about seven dozens of 
 eggs. Fine gravel containing limestone will prob- 
 ably as well supply the deficiency of lime existing 
 in most foods, but the use of some sharper grit 
 with it may be of advantage."* 
 
 Salt. A little salt is undoubtedly beneficial and 
 necessary, but it is poisonous if taken in large 
 quantities. Instances are frequently reported of 
 fowls being injured by eating salt. They are 
 undoubtedly frequently misled in eating it, sup- 
 
 * Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
Amount of Salt Necessary 173 
 
 posing that they are eating grit. Eock salt is 
 particularly dangerous on this account. Some 
 instances have been known of fowls being poi- 
 soned by eating salt fish which had been care- 
 lessly thrown where they could gain access to 
 it. When fowls have a wide range they eat 
 grass, insects, and many other things that already 
 furnish salt in some quantity. This may explain 
 why it is not necessary to feed salt under these 
 conditions. 
 
 Experiments made at the New York Agricultural 
 Experiment Station showed that salt was not in- 
 jurious in quantities below .063 ounce per day for 
 each hen (that is, nearly one -half pint per day for 
 100 hens) . The following, taken from Bulletin No. 
 39, gives results of the experiment: "The number 
 of eggs laid during this trial is of no great signifi- 
 cance, as it was about the end of the laying sea- 
 son and the hens were old; but, inasmuch as the 
 yield of eggs was twice as great from the hens 
 having salt, while it was mixed with the food, it 
 would appear that not enoigh was fed to very 
 injuriously affect egg production. The salt used 
 was ordinary barrel salt, although not coarse. 
 Should rock salt be exposed, or salt that contained 
 large crystals or fragments as large as the par- 
 ticles of gravel and grit eaten by hens, it would 
 of course not take long for a fatal amount to be 
 3 wallowed. For mature fowls it is probable that 
 
174 Farm Poultry 
 
 salt at the rate of one ounce per day for 100 fowls 
 could, under ordinary conditions, be fed without 
 injury." 
 
 Sulfur. Sulfur is generally recognized as a 
 blood purifier but should not be fed in any con- 
 siderable quantity unless its action is well under- 
 stood and precautions are taken to guard against 
 any undesirable results. It is generally recognized 
 that fowls take cold easily when fed sulfur. 
 
 Pepper. Pepper is sometimes given to fowls 
 suffering from cold or in the first stages of roup. 
 It is the general opinion, however, that it is 
 not necessary to feed it if the proper conditions 
 are maintained. 
 
 How to feed. If those who have the responsi- 
 bility of providing food for fowls and other stock 
 will bear in mind that food is given for a two- 
 fold purpose, it will help them to appreciate the 
 importance of a bountiful supply of the proper 
 kind. Food sustains the physical organization of 
 the fowl and furnishes material for a useful prod- 
 uct in the form of eggs or meat, or both. It 
 may also be considered largely as the basis of 
 improvement in breeds and varieties, and is often 
 spoken of as the cause, and breed as the effect. 
 While this may not be strictly true in all cases, 
 yet all authorities believe that food has been a 
 most potent factor in the improvement of breeds 
 if not the chief cause. 
 
Food and Egy Production 175 
 
 The profit in feeding comes from the food 
 consumed in excess of that required for the 
 maintenance of the body. If the individual 
 makes good use of the food consumed, that 
 which is not required for maintenance should 
 be directed chiefly toward the production of mer- 
 chantable articles. It should not be held, how- 
 ever, that all of the food consumed in excess of 
 that required to maintain the body may be devoted 
 to the production of eggs or meat. As the ration 
 is increased, the work required of the fowls to 
 digest and assimilate this food is also increased. 
 So no matter whether the animal be a hen or a 
 cow, the physical organization is required to do 
 more work on a full ration than on a light one, 
 and food is required to supply energy for this 
 increased work. 
 
 There is little danger of overfeeding laying- 
 hens if the proper- kind of food is given. The 
 difficulty lies in not being able to secure fowls 
 that are sufficiently strong to digest and assimi- 
 late enough food to give the greatest profit. A 
 strong tendency toward egg laying, a vigorous 
 constitution, and an abundance of suitable food, 
 are three prime essentials for profitable egg pro- 
 duction. Other things being equal, those fowls 
 that are able to digest and assimilate the largest 
 quantities of food will prove the most profitable. 
 
 It is the practice of the most successful 
 
176 Farm Poultry 
 
 poultrymen to feed a part of the daily grain 
 ration ground, and moistened with either milk or 
 .watei'. It is held to be more economical to do 
 a part of the grinding by steam or water power 
 than to require it all to be done within the body 
 of the fowl. In other words, water or some 
 other power is thought to be cheaper than the 
 muscular power of the laying hen. It is true 
 that the hen is required to take considerable ex- 
 ercise, but this* exercise does not materially aid 
 in grinding the food. V 
 
 Some experiments have been made which tend 
 to show that there is considerable to be gained 
 in feeding ground or soft food. The following 
 is taken from an experiment station publica- 
 tion:* "Two pens of laying hens, one of a large 
 and the other of a small breed, having a ration 
 the grain of "which was whole, ate during their 
 second year somewhat more food at a little 
 greater cost than two similar pens having a 
 ration in which half the grain was ground arid 
 moistened. 
 
 "Cochin hens having the whole grain ration 
 laid much better than those having the ground 
 grain, although neither lot laid at a profitable 
 rate during the second year. Leghorn hens 
 having a ration in which the grain was whole 
 consumed on the average for two years over 20 
 
 * Bulletin No. 106, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
Ground Food 177 
 
 per cent more food for the same egg production 
 than did similar hens having half the grain in 
 their ration ground and moistened. The hens 
 having whole grain had on the average for two 
 years 6.4 pounds of water -free food for every 
 pound of eggs produced. Those having ground 
 grain had on the average for two years 5.3 
 pounds of water -free food for every pound of 
 eggs produced." 
 
 Poultrymen do not agree as to the time of 
 day when the soft food should be fed. Some 
 hold that such food should be given in the 
 morning, for the reason that the fowls have been 
 on the perches during the night and have largely 
 digested the food which was consumed the day 
 before, and consequently have comparatively 
 empty crops and digestive organs. In order that 
 the morning meal may be rapidly and easily di- 
 gested they feed only ground and moistened 
 grain. They also hold that, if the fowls are to 
 be fed three times a day, whole grain should 
 be fed at noon and at night. Other careful 
 observers maintain that whole grain should 
 be given in the morning and that the ground 
 food should be given at noon. It is probably 
 more important to feed a part of the grain food 
 in a ground or soft condition than it is to feed 
 this food at any particular time of day. 
 
 All poultrymen believe that it is important to 
 
178 Farm Poultry 
 
 give the laying hens considerable exercise, par- 
 ticularly during the winter months, and when they 
 are more or less closely confined. This may be 
 accomplished, in part, by requiring them to 
 scratch in the litter for their grain food. 
 
 Equal parts of corn and oats ground, mixed 
 with an equal weight of wheat bran and fine 
 middlings, make an excellent soft food when 
 
 Fig. 55. Feed trough protected by a revolving rod. 
 
 moistened with milk or water. That is, the 
 bran and fine middlings together constitute one- 
 half the weight of the ration. The proportion of 
 bran and fine -middlings may be varied somewhat. 
 If the mixture appears too sticky, less middlings 
 and more bran should be used. It is usually 
 preferred thoroughly wet; that is, enough milk 
 or water should be added to the ground grain 
 to wet all of the grain after it is thoroughly 
 stirred. It will be necessary to feed this food in 
 
Ground Food and Feeding Troughs 179 
 
 troughs. Considerable ingenuity has been exer- 
 cised in devising convenient troughs that will 
 keep the food clean. A swinging trough, or one 
 protected by an easy -turning rod, as shown in 
 the illustrations, will answer . the purpose very 
 well. See Figs. 55 and 56. Any safe and con- 
 venient arrangement that will prevent the fowls 
 from perching on the sides of the troughs, will 
 meet the requirements of a satisfactory device. 
 
 Fig. 56. A swinging feed trough. 
 
 Many poultrymen prefer to feed animal meal 
 in this soft food. From one to two pounds of 
 animal meal per day should suffice for twenty- 
 five hens, particularly if milk is used to moisten 
 the ground grain. A little linseed meal, which 
 is particularly valuable during the moulting pe- 
 riod, may also be added. Horsemen have long 
 known that when animals are shedding their 
 coats, a little linseed meal added to their ration 
 hastens the shedding of the old coat and gives 
 more luster to the new, and so poultrymen find 
 that a little of this meal during the moulting 
 
180 Farm Poultry 
 
 period aids in the production of the new coat of 
 feathers. 
 
 The whole grain should be fed once or twice a 
 day and scattered in the litter during the cold 
 months or whenever the fowls do not have ample 
 opportunity to take exercise out of doors. This 
 grain may be scattered in the litter at noon and 
 given in such quantity that the fowls will eat 
 it up clean. In fact, they should not be given 
 quite all they want to eat. They should be made 
 to scratch over the litter and pick out the last 
 kernels. At night, about an hour before they go 
 on the perches, the last meal of the day may be 
 given them. This should be given in such quan- 
 tities that it will all be consumed and still afford 
 the fowls about all they care to eat. In other 
 words, they should go on the perches at night 
 with full crops. During the night they have 
 nothing to do except to digest and assimilate 
 the evening meal. 
 
 Litter. Straw, either cut or whole, makes a 
 good litter for poultry houses for both winter and 
 summer. Hay may also be used for this purpose 
 if it is more convenient or cheaper than straw. 
 Buckwheat hulls are preferred by many on ac- 
 count of cheapness. In the vicinity of mills, 
 where large quantities of buckwheat are floured, 
 buckwheat hulls may be obtained cheaply. 
 Shredded corn fodder makes satisfactory litter, 
 
Food and Exercise 181 
 
 although it is somewhat more expensive and 
 answers the purpose no better than straw. Dur- 
 ing the winter months, the floor of the poultry 
 house should be covered to a depth of a few 
 inches with some kind of litter. This litter 
 should be changed whenever it becomes soiled 
 or damp. 
 
 FEEDING FOR MEAT OR FATTENING 
 
 Feeding fowls for meat production may prop- 
 erly be discussed under two rather distinct heads 
 so far as exercise is concerned: fattening ma- 
 ture fowls, and feeding young growing fowls that 
 are to be sent to the market when a few months 
 old. Mature fowls will require little or no ex- 
 ercise during the process of fattening, while 
 young fowls that are growing rapidly will re- 
 quire considerable exercise in order to keep them 
 in a healthy and vigorous condition, except per- 
 haps for a short time during the last of the 
 fattening period, which is sometimes called "the 
 finishing." 
 
 Whenever a choice quality of meat is to be 
 produced, little or no exercise should be given 
 for a few weeks immediately preceding the kill- 
 ing. When the fowl is shut up or closely con- 
 fined, the muscles soften and the flesh becomes 
 more tender. It is conceded by those who most 
 
182 Farm Poultry 
 
 highly prize tender flesh that close confinement, 
 without exercise, greatly improves the quality. 
 It is also true that fowls under these conditions 
 take on fat rapidly if the close confinement is not 
 continued too long. Little exercise with plenty 
 of pure air and an abundance of soft food, are 
 among the chief essentials for economical fatten- 
 ing. If it is desired to fatten fowls as quickly 
 as possible, the ration should consist largely of 
 corn. Ground oats, wheat, buckwheat, and bar- 
 ley may also be used to some extent. A variety 
 of foods undoubtedly will serve a good purpose 
 in maintaining a good appetite somewhat longer 
 than could be maintained with but one or two 
 kinds of grain. After fowls have been kept for 
 some time on soft food, whole grain cannot form 
 a considerable portion of their ration without a 
 loss. The organs for grinding and digesting hard 
 food have been so long in disuse that they are 
 quite unfitted to perform the office required of 
 them when hard or whole grain is provided. 
 
 The kind of food and the form in which it is 
 to be given will depend somewhat on the kind of 
 fowls. Some successful poultrymen, who make a 
 specialty of young fowls of fine quality, are ac- 
 customed to feed animal meal in such proportion 
 that it will form 10 to 20 per cent of the total 
 ration. No one would think of using so large a 
 proportion of animal meal in compounding a ra- 
 
 
Uniformity in Size Desirable 183 
 
 tion for fattening matured fowls. In one case, the 
 object is to produce large quantities of tender 
 flesh; in the other, to improve the quality of the 
 flesh by confinement, and to induce the fowls to 
 fatten readily. 
 
 Separate the sexes. The sexes should be sep- 
 arated before the fattening period begins. It is 
 always advisable to have the individuals as nearly 
 uniform as possible as regards age and size. Un- 
 even flocks are not nearly so satisfactory to feed 
 as uniform ones and are quite as unsatisfactory to 
 sell, particularly if they are sent to market alive. 
 
 If it is desired to fatten cocks or cockerels 
 that show a disposition to fight, they should be 
 confined in coops which are provided with slat 
 bottoms or bottoms made of poles near enough 
 together so that the fowls cannot drop between 
 them . These coops should be placed at some dis- 
 tance from the ground, so that the droppings will 
 not foul them. While attempts may be made to 
 fight, yet as one or both of the combatants will 
 almost surely step between the slats the combat 
 will not be carried far. 
 
 Cramming. The English and French resort to 
 the system of forced feeding, known as cramming, 
 for the production of the choicest poultry for the 
 London and Paris markets. The English learned 
 this process from the French, and now carry it 
 on to a large extent in some parts of southern 
 
184 Farm Poultry 
 
 England. The Heathfield district in Sussex 
 county, England, is noted for the large quan- 
 tities of poultry that are fattened for the London 
 markets by this process. Young birds four or five 
 months old are placed in coops, which are raised 
 about three feet from the ground. These coops 
 have slat sides and bottoms and are protected 
 
 Fig. 57. An English method of arranging coops, where 
 cramming is practiced. 
 
 from the weather by a roof. Each coop is large 
 enough to hold comfortably four or five birds. 
 See Fig. 57. For the first ten days after placing 
 the fowls in the coops, they are fed twice a day 
 soft food from little troughs suspended within 
 easy reach. After they have eaten all they will, 
 the troughs are removed and no food is offered 
 until the next meal. The food consists largely of 
 ground oats, with the hulls removed, and ground 
 
 
Cramming 
 
 185 
 
 y 
 
 -$jgmmmi4& 
 
 barley. To this is added a little tallow so that 
 each fowl may receive about a teaspoonful a day. 
 The fowls are fed in this manner for about ten 
 days, at the end of which time they will not eat 
 so much on account of loss of appetite. They 
 are then fattened 
 by the cramming 
 process, the food 
 being forced into 
 the crop by means 
 of a machine. 
 Fig. 58 illustrates 
 a cramming ma- 
 chine similar to 
 those used in the 
 great poultry dis- 
 tricts of England. 
 The food is mixed 
 with milk or water 
 to the consistency 
 of thick porridge; 
 that is, just about 
 as thick as it will pour well. This is placed in 
 a receptacle or hopper in the machine and is 
 forced through a rubber tube into the crop of the 
 chicken. This tube is forced down the chicken's 
 neck and a light pressure on a lever with the foot 
 forces the food, while the hand on the outside of 
 the crop will detect the proper quantity. Men 
 
 Fig. 58. An English cramming machine. 
 
186 Farm Poultry 
 
 operating this machine become very skilful. A 
 good operator can feed thirty dozen fowls per 
 hour. This cramming process is continued for 
 about ten days, when the fowls are dressed and 
 sent to market. During the major part of the fat- 
 tening season the coops are placed out of doors. 
 See Fig. 57. When the weather becomes too cool, 
 indoor coops are used. 
 
 Before fowls are placed in fattening pens they 
 should be given a thorough dressing of sulfur or 
 some other insecticide to kill the vermin. This is 
 particularly essential, as the fowls kept in coops 
 have no opportunity to combat these pests. Lay- 
 ing hens and other fowls should be provided with 
 dust baths, but when fowls are placed in close 
 confinement for fattening, it is not feasible to 
 provide baths. Cleanliness is of the utmost im- 
 portance for these confined fowls. The coops or 
 cages of fattening fowls should not be allowed to 
 become filthy, neither should they be too hot in 
 summer or too cool in winter. 
 
 The French and English use oats and buck- 
 wheat largely as fattening foods. They prefer 
 fowls having light- colored flesh, with white skin. 
 Americans prefer yellow skin and flesh. Corn is, 
 therefore, to be preferred in this country as a 
 fattening food to wheat, barley, or buckwheat. It 
 not only produces the desired product but is the 
 cheapest food that the market affords. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 
 
 WHETHER it is best to use incubators on 
 farms where only small flocks of fowls are kept, 
 is often a difficult question to decide, particu- 
 larly for those who are familiar with only the 
 natural method of incubation. As the adoption 
 of modern methods includes not only the pur- 
 chase of an incubator and a brooder to care 
 for the young fowls, but also carries with it a 
 marked change in their management, it is a ques- 
 tion of considerable importance. 
 
 INCUBATORS 
 
 Before an incubator is purchased for the 
 farm, it should be understood that it will be 
 necessary to devote more time and labor to its 
 management than is usually given to natural in- 
 cubation. Even the most successful and experi- 
 enced poultrymen feel that there is yet much for 
 them to learn, in order to accomplish the best 
 results with modern appliances for hatching and 
 rearing the various kinds of farm poultry. The 
 
 (187) 
 
188 Farm Poultry 
 
 successful management of incubators requires 
 close attention and the best thought of the 
 operator. In other words, it is a business that 
 should be thoroughly learned. It should not be 
 entered into with the idea that it is a simpler 
 or easier method of hatching eggs than the older 
 and rather slow method of natural incubation. 
 
 If only small flocks, consisting of from fifty to 
 one hundred fowls, are to be kept, probably it 
 will not pay the farmer who expects but a small 
 cash revenue from his fowls to attempt artificial 
 incubation. Particularly is this true if his fowls 
 belong to one of the so-called general -purpose 
 breeds. On the other hand, if it is desired to 
 keep a larger flock which consists principally or 
 entirely of one of the distinctively egg breeds, it 
 undoubtedly will be best in the end if the art of 
 artificial incubation is thoroughly learned. The 
 natural processes of incubation are too slow to 
 meet the demands of the modern poultry -keeper 
 who is extensively engaged in the business. 
 When one undertakes to produce eggs exclu- 
 sively and desires as many as possible in the 
 winter, pullets will, of course, be largely kept 
 for this purpose, and these cannot be depended 
 on for natural incubation. Under these con- 
 ditions, it will be advisable to resort to the use 
 of incuba.tors and brooders, by means of which 
 the flock can be maintained. It would be quite 
 
Incubation 189 
 
 impossible for the poultrymen of modern times 
 to maintain large flocks of young birds for egg 
 production and rear chickens by the natural 
 method. 
 
 AKTIFICIAL INCUBATION 
 
 The art of hatching eggs by means of arti- 
 ficial heat has been known for a long time. 
 Early travelers in Egypt gave accounts of ovens 
 that were used for hatching the eggs of ducks, 
 geese, and chickens. Heat was supplied by fer- 
 menting manure. Remains of these ovens are 
 said to have been seen in comparatively recent 
 times. It is said that the French became inter- 
 ested in artificial incubation as early as the fif- 
 teenth century, but not until the latter part of 
 the eighteenth century was use made of hot 
 water as a means of conveying heat for artificial 
 incubation. From this time until the middle of 
 the nineteenth century, comparatively little ad- 
 vancement was made in the construction of incu- 
 bators. Since 1870 many improvements have 
 been made and a large number of incubators 
 have been placed on the market. 
 
 In the manufacture of the modern incubator, 
 the idea has been largely to imitate nature. As 
 the hen applies heat above the egg, so nearly all 
 incubators apply heat to the egg -chamber from 
 above. In natural incubation the hen provides 
 
190 Farm Poultry 
 
 a nest or shallow receptacle for the eggs, usually 
 on the ground. After laying a number of eggs, 
 the hen becomes "broody" and commences to sit, 
 or incubate. At this time the under part of the 
 hen's body is more abundantly supplied with 
 blood than during the laying or moulting pe- 
 riods. In other words, what is known as the 
 organ of incubation, or plexus, most fully de- 
 velops at this time. This consists of a network 
 of arterial blood-vessels, near the surface of the 
 body, which bring greater heat to the eggs than 
 would otherwise be supplied. In order to per- 
 fect systems of artificial incubation, many per- 
 sons have made a close study of the natural 
 method and have been led to adopt some devices 
 or practices which were accidental or necessary 
 to the hen, but not essential to perfect incu- 
 bation. The fact that hens sometimes leave the 
 nest in the early morning to search for food, 
 when the grass is still wet with dew, and upon 
 returning moisten their eggs with their wet 
 feathers, has led some to sprinkle the eggs at 
 various periods during the process of incubation. 
 This, however, has been shown to be unnec- 
 essary, except possibly in localities where the air 
 is very dry. Poultrymen have also learned by 
 close observation that, in the nest, particularly 
 as the period of incubation advances, the eggs 
 are arranged mostly with the large end upper- 
 
Incubation and Incubators 191 
 
 most or toward the outer side of the nest. This 
 is probably due to the form of the nest and the 
 fact that the small end of the egg is heavier in 
 proportion to its size than the large end; that 
 is, the center of gravity approaches the small 
 end, which is, as incubation progresses, due to 
 the development of the air-chamber in the large 
 end. The fact that the eggs are arranged with 
 the large end uppermost, has led some persons 
 to place the eggs in the incubator trays in a 
 similar position. Without doubt, the position of 
 the eggs does not have any particular influence 
 on the hatching. 
 
 Many tests have been made to determine the 
 actual temperature of eggs when natural incu- 
 bation is taking place. These tests show a con- 
 siderable variation until the ninth or tenth day. 
 Until this time the eggs seldom reach 100.* 
 Although the temperature of the fowl is usually 
 above 106, yet the temperature of the eggs is 
 seldom raised above 103, owing to the fact that 
 heat is applied only on one side. 
 
 Selection of an incubator. An inexperienced 
 person should exercise the same care and judg- 
 ment in selecting an incubator that would be 
 exercised when purchasing a mowing machine or 
 other expensive implement. It is no longer 
 thought that one particular kind of mowing 
 
 *" Incubation and Its Natural Laws," Cyphers. 
 
192 
 
 Farm Poultry 
 
 machine is far superior to all others. Sim- 
 ilarly, it may be said that there are many 
 good incubators on the market. A well-made 
 machine, similar to those in use by successful 
 
 Fig. 59. One hundred-and-eighty-egg incubaior. 
 
 poultrymen, will probably give satisfaction after 
 the business is once thoroughly learned. It should 
 be remembered that machines do not think, and 
 that the good judgment of the operator is one 
 of the most important essentials in artificial in- 
 cubation. While incubators are often placed 
 before the public with somewhat flaring an- 
 
Care of Incubators 
 
 193 
 
 nouncements, stating that the operation of the 
 machine is most simple, it should not be for- 
 gotten that the most successful operators are 
 those who have given the business their best 
 
 Fig. 60. One-hundrecl-egg incubator. 
 
 thought and attention throughout a long ex- 
 perience . 
 
 While there is much to be learned about arti- 
 ficial incubation, yet the beginner cannot afford 
 to ignore the knowledge which has been gained 
 by the experience of others. Manufacturers of 
 incubators have studied their own machines more 
 
 M 
 
194 Farm Poultry 
 
 or less carefully and are, therefore, able to give 
 some valuable information. Those who are about 
 to invest in an incubator should make the most 
 of the information given by manufacturers and 
 others, and expect to learn many valuable lessons 
 by their own experience. 
 
 Placing the incubator. On many farms it is 
 not easy to prepare a suitable place for an in- 
 cubator.. In selecting a location four essentials 
 should be kept in mind, namely, ventilation, even 
 temperature of room, convenience, and freedom 
 from danger of fire. Most incubators are heated 
 by lamps, and if they are placed in a small 
 room, considerable ventilation will be required 
 in order to keep the air pure. 
 
 An even temperature is of considerable im- 
 portance, although some tests with modern in- 
 cubators tend to show that the best hatches do 
 not necessarily result from the most uniform 
 temperature of the egg chamber. Uniform tem- 
 perature is desired, however, and is easiest to 
 maintain when the temperature of the room in 
 which the incubator is placed varies least. 
 
 It is important that the incubator be placed 
 in a room in which the air is in a normal con- 
 dition, that is, neither too dry nor saturated 
 with moisture. The ideal condition as to purity 
 will approximate the air out-of-doors where 
 there is a free circulation. The air should also 
 
Incubator Rooms 195 
 
 contain at least a moderate amount of mois- 
 ture. The amount of moisture in the atmos- 
 phere should control, to some extent, the venti- 
 lation of the incubator. It is desirable that a 
 considerable proportion of the moisture of the 
 egg be evaporated during the process of incuba- 
 tion. If the air is very dry a little ventilation 
 will be sufficient to secure the desired evapora- 
 tion, while a moist atmosphere would require 
 much more ventilation to secure the same result. 
 The moist air of a wet cellar, which contains 
 decaying fruit and vegetables, is not suited to 
 incubation. 
 
 Whenever kerosene oil lamps are kept contin- 
 ually burning for weeks at a time, as they are 
 in incubators, there is some danger from fire. 
 It is true that the modern incubator lamps are 
 well adapted to the purpose, but the element of 
 danger from fire cannot be said to be wholly 
 eliminated so long as these lamps are permitted 
 to burn in wooden buildings without the watch- 
 fulness of an attendant. 
 
 The convenience of an incubator room is prob- 
 ably one of the least of the essentials, yet it is 
 of so much importance that it should not be 
 wholly overlooked. Everything considered, prob- 
 ably a dry, airy cellar or half- basement will make 
 the most desirable location for an incubator on 
 the farm. Many incubator rooms have been con- 
 
196 Farm Poultry 
 
 structed in excavations which were sufficiently 
 deep to permit of most of the room being below 
 the surface of the ground. See Figs. 61 and 62. 
 This method will undoubtedly secure an even 
 temperature, but the room is likely to be venti- 
 lated with difficulty unless special provisions are 
 made. During the warm days of spring and early 
 
 Fig. 61. Au incubator house Rhode Island Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 summer it is somewhat difficult to ventilate a 
 basement without causing drafts, which would 
 interfere with the lamps and prevent them from 
 burning steadily. An incubator room should be 
 comparatively free from drafts. 
 
 Care of incubators. Incubators should receive 
 the same care and careful adjustment that are 
 given to other delicate machines. The accurate 
 working of the incubator will depend very largely 
 
Running the Incubator 
 
 197 
 
 on the treatment it receives from the operator 
 or attendant. Whoever has charge of an incuba- 
 tor should plan to give it a careful inspection at 
 regular intervals. It should not be necessary, 
 however, to visit an incubator oftener than twice 
 a day. It is always well for the beginner to run 
 tho incubator for a few days before filling it with 
 
 Fig. 62. An incubator building with poultry house attached- 
 Cornell University. 
 
 eggs, in order that it may be properly adjusted, 
 and also to give the operator a little experience 
 before risking loss. 
 
 After the machine is adjusted and the atten- 
 dant has gained some knowledge of operating it, 
 the eggs may be put in, although it is well to 
 place them in a warm room for a few hours 
 previous, to prevent so great a change in the 
 temperature of the incubator as would result from 
 
198 Farm Poultry 
 
 the use of cold eggs. It will be of some advan- 
 tage to the beginner to keep temperature records 
 of the machine by means of both an incubator 
 thermometer and a registering thermometer. 
 These records will sometimes be of value in reg- 
 ulating the machine for subsequent hatches. 
 
 BBOODEES 
 
 If artificial incubation is employed, some 
 provision must be made for the care of the 
 little chickens as soon as they leave the incuba- 
 tor. Various kinds of machines have been de- 
 vised for this purpose, which vary considerably 
 in regard to efficiency, but some kind of an 
 artificial brooder must be provided. From the 
 great variety of brooders on the market the 
 farmer or poultryman has an opportunity to make 
 a selection according to his wants and best judg- 
 ment. Brooders vary greatly in size, as some of 
 the smaller ones accommodate no more than fifty 
 chickens, while the larger ones are devised to 
 furnish accommodations for many hundreds of 
 young fowls. For convenience, we may separate 
 the various kinds of brooders into two classes. 
 These classes represent two entirely different 
 systems of furnishing heat and providing for 
 the comforts of the little chickens. One class 
 supplies heat by means of hot water pipes. See 
 
Fig. OH. House for brooders and incubators; also breeding pens- 
 New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 tig. W. Brooder house Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 ' 
 
 Fig. 65. A small brooder house Cornell University.J 
 
200 Farm Poultry 
 
 Fig. 66. Brooders of this kind are capable of 
 extension and of providing heat for many hun- 
 dreds of young chickens. The other system is 
 represented fairly well by small portable brood- 
 ers, which supply heat by radiation from hot air 
 
 Fig. 66. Hot water pipe brooders, covers of three lifted, man raising 
 the fourth New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 or from hot water tanks. These are usually 
 heated by small oil lamps or by gas jets. The 
 pipe system is most extensively used by poultry- 
 men who rear fowls on a somewhat extensive 
 scale. One fire, producing the heat for many 
 hundred chickens, gives to this system an ad- 
 vantage over the smaller brooders which require 
 
Essentials of a Good Brooder 201 
 
 a separate lamp for each small flock. Oil lamps 
 require close attention, and even then they are 
 likely to give more or less trouble by some im- 
 perfection in the burner or deposit of soot or 
 carbon in some parts of the flue, which may 
 lead to overheating and, in some cases, may 
 produce disastrous results. Brooders, and even 
 poultry houses, have been set on fire by careless 
 or improper handling of brooder lamps. 
 
 Some of the most important requisites of a 
 good brooder may be enumerated as follows: 
 
 1. Capable of maintaining a proper tempera- 
 
 ture. 
 
 2. Be easily cleaned. 
 
 3. Provide good ventilation. 
 
 4. Of such form that all the chickens may 
 
 readily be seen. 
 
 5. Must be dry. 
 
 6. Economical of heat. 
 
 7. Easy of construction. 
 
 (1) A satisfactory brooder must maintain a 
 proper temperature for delicate little chickens. 
 It will be necessary to maintain an even tem- 
 perature, from 90 to 100, for the first week. 
 After that a somewhat lower temperature will 
 be required. Breeds of fowls that feather early 
 in life do not require so high a temperature 
 in the brooder after two or three weeks. The 
 temperature should always be so high that the 
 
202 Farm Poultry 
 
 chickens are not inclined to huddle together to 
 keep warm. Huddling indicates that the tem- 
 perature is too low for best results. The amateur 
 
 Fig. 67. An outdoor brooder. 
 
 poultry man finds it difficult to overcome the ten- 
 dency toward bowel disorders in little chickens. 
 One of the potent causes of these disorders is a 
 cold brooder or frequent chills. 
 
 (2) A brooder should be easily cleaned. There 
 are several reasons for this. The labor of clean- 
 ing is an important item. The time occupied is 
 frequently of considerable importance, and then, 
 if the brooder is not readily cleaned, it is 
 much more likely to be neglected, particularly 
 during the busiest seasons of the year. A brooder 
 should be so constructed that it may be swept 
 clean, preferably with an ordinary broom. The 
 floor should be kept littered, so that all the 
 manure may be readily swept out. As filth and 
 
Essentials of a Good Brooder 203 
 
 dampness are two great causes of failure with 
 the amateur poultry man, it is of the greatest 
 importance that poultry houses and brooders be 
 kept as clean as possible. 
 
 (3) The air in a brooder will become foul if 
 not changed frequently. Usually, when suffi- 
 cient heat is supplied to give proper temperature, 
 ventilation is also secured; but occasionally the 
 source of heat is barely sufficient .to maintain the 
 required temperature with the least possible ven- 
 tilation. Then, in order to keep the chickens 
 warm, ventilation must be cut off. Pure air 
 should be supplied at all times. It should be 
 remembered that little chickens have a high tem- 
 
 Fig. 68. An out-of-door brooder. 
 
 perature, that they breathe rapidly, and that the 
 supply of pure air is of the greatest importance 
 to them. 
 
 (4) It is important to have the brooder so 
 
204 Farm Poultry 
 
 arranged that all the chickens may readily be 
 seen by the attendant. If dark and inconvenient 
 corners are permitted to exist, weak chickens 
 find these nooks a place of refuge, and may es- 
 cape the attention of the attendant. As it is 
 important that all of the chickens be seen at 
 each feeding, the ease of thorough inspection 
 is of considerable importance in the care of 
 brooders. 
 
 (5) A brooder must be dry. At no time in 
 the life of the hen is she so sensitive to mois- 
 ture as in the early stages of her existence. 
 All parts of the brooder should be kept dry and 
 clean. Whenever the floor of the brooder becomes 
 moist, some means should be taken at once to cor- 
 rect the evil. There should be sufficient bottom 
 heat or enough heat near the floor to keep it dry. 
 Too much bottom heat is objected to by many 
 poultrymen. A somewhat popular belief is held 
 that bottom heat, if considerable, is likely to pro- 
 duce what is known as "leg weakness." 
 
 (6) It is of some importance to have a brooder 
 that is economical of heat, or, in other words, 
 one that makes good use of the fuel consumed. 
 The provision of fuel is an item of expense. 
 
 (7) It is of considerable importance that the 
 brooder be simply constructed. Machines that 
 are more or less difficult to build are necessarily 
 more expensive than those that are easy of con- 
 
Brooders 205 
 
 struction. Then, too, some parts of the appliance 
 may require renewal, and if the brooder is easy 
 of construction the farmer or poultryman may 
 readily perform the labor which otherwise would 
 require an additional expense in sending the ma- 
 chine to the factory for repairs. 
 
 The amateur should bear in mind that it is 
 necessary for each person to learn the business for 
 himself by study and experience, that there are no 
 hard and fast rules for the selection and operation 
 of the various kinds of brooders. One person 
 may succeed well with a brooder that would prove 
 unsatisfactory in the hands of another. One per- 
 son may learn how best to operate a particular 
 machine, and, from his study of the condition 
 of the brooder and chickens, soon learn how to 
 remedy the most serious difficulties, whereas 
 another, through a lack of sufficient knowledge 
 of that particular brooder, would fail to secure 
 the essentials in rearing young fowls. There are 
 many brooders that are capable of producing good 
 results if the proper attention be given them; 
 but the manner of caring for the young, which 
 find in them a home, is of greater relative impor- 
 tance than the particular construction of the ma- 
 chine. 
 
 Home-made brooders. It is often desirable and 
 sometimes necessary to construct at home a con- 
 siderable portion of the appliances used in the 
 
206 Farm Poultry 
 
 modern poultry yard. Sometimes material is at 
 hand that may be turned to good advantage in the 
 construction of machines. It sometimes hap- 
 pens that more chickens are hatched than were 
 provided for and an extra brooder is needed for 
 the emergency. 
 
 Satisfactory brooders may be made at home, at 
 a small expense for materials, by any one who is 
 
 Fig. 69. A home-made brooder in cross-section. 
 
 able to work well with the most common of car- 
 penters' tools. Dry goods boxes may be utilized to 
 good advantage. If a part of a large dry goods box 
 is placed bottom upwards so that the bottom will 
 form a level floor about a foot from the ground, a 
 good foundation for a cheap brooder is established. 
 In the center of this a square or circular opening 
 is cut, into which is fitted a box of tin which is also 
 placed bottom up. A straight- sided tin bucket or 
 pail may be used instead of the tin box. If the 
 former is used, a circular opening should be made 
 
Home Made Brooders 207 
 
 to fit the pail. In the bottom of this pail (which 
 is bottom upwards) should be fitted a small tube 
 of iron or tin to carry off the smoke and gases 
 from the lamp which is placed underneath. On 
 the top of the tin box or pail is placed a cover of 
 light boards which supports woolen or felt cur- 
 tains. The illustration (Fig. 69), which shows 
 an indoor brooder in cross section, may aid in 
 the proper understanding of this device. 
 
 The chickens should be confined by a board 
 railing for several days, after which they may 
 be given an opportunity to take more exercise 
 than would be permitted within the brooder. 
 Little chickens should have a chance to return 
 to the brooder whenever they desire to do so. 
 The illustration shows a board railing, in section, 
 which will effectually confine the chickens until 
 they require more exercise than the brooder will 
 permit. There is also shown an approach which 
 will provide a means by which the chicks may 
 easily enter and leave the brooder, provided a 
 suitable opening be made in the board railing. 
 The curtains mentioned above prevent the heat 
 from escaping, and provide warm, comfortable 
 compartments for the chicks. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 FEEDING AND CARE OF LITTLE CHICKENS 
 
 IN rearing fowls it will be found that the at- 
 tention given to little chickens and the manner 
 of feeding them are of the greatest importance. 
 While it is difficult and probably impossible to 
 satisfactorily discuss care and feeding separately, 
 yet it may safely be said that care and attention 
 are quite as important as the selection of food. 
 
 One successful poultry -feeder may find it to 
 his advantage to make use of certain foods, while 
 these same foods in the hands of others may be 
 so misused that disappointment will surely result. 
 To further illustrate, one successful poultrymari 
 may insist that comparatively little of certain 
 kinds of grains should be fed. Other success- 
 ful feeders may make a most satisfactory use 
 of these objectionable grains. It is for each 
 one to learn for himself how to feed to the best 
 advantage those foods which are at hand, and 
 to learn how to supplement them with others 
 if they do not form the desired combination of 
 themselves. In preparing food for little chick- 
 ens, it will be well to remember that they are 
 
 (208) 
 
Food for Little Chickens 209 
 
 delicate organisms and require careful handling 
 and suitable food, particularly during the first 
 few days of their existence, or until they become 
 strong enough to seek food for themselves. 
 
 FOOD 
 
 The little chickens will require no food for the 
 first twenty-four or forty- eight hours after hatch- 
 ing. A mistake is often made in feeding them 
 frequently before the system requires food. The 
 close observer will readily determine by the action 
 of the chickens when food is required. The first 
 food should be of such a character that it may 
 be readily digested without the aid of grit; con- 
 sequently, soft food is preferred. ' Stale bread 
 sopped in milk makes a most excellent food 
 for newly hatched chickens. An experienced 
 poultryman will recognize that there is no best 
 food for little chickens. There are many good 
 kinds, if fed judiciously. Again, it may be said 
 that the manner of feeding is of the utmost im- 
 portance, and that the attendant who fails to 
 study closely the condition and wants of the 
 little chickens will fail to reach the best results. 
 While stale bread dipped in milk makes an 
 excellent food, yet it may be so treated as to be 
 quite unfit for use. It should be allowed to drain, 
 after dipping, so that the bread is only thor- 
 
210 Farm Poultry 
 
 oughly moistened. In this condition, if finely 
 crumbled, it makes a most satisfactory food. On 
 the other hand, bread that is fresh and not per- 
 fectly baked will be quite too sloppy, if saturated 
 with milk, to prove satisfactory. Ground grain 
 may be mixed with milk and fed to good advan- 
 tage. If this grain is mixed some time before it 
 is to be given, it will become more thoroughly 
 soaked and will be in a much softer condition 
 than if fed immediately after preparing. This is 
 thought to be of considerable importance by per- 
 sons who have had years of experience in the 
 preparation of food for little chickens. It prob- 
 ably will not matter materially whether the milk 
 is sweet or sour. Sour milk is thought by many 
 of the most successful poultry- raisers to be equally 
 as desirable as sweet milk. Some, however, pre- 
 fer to use chiefly the curd of sour milk in mixing 
 the soft food. 
 
 Corn meal, wheat bran, ground oats (with 
 the hulls removed), coarse middlings and other 
 ground grains may be used to good advantage, 
 if fed judiciously. It is not best to give the 
 little chick all it can possibly eat and then re- 
 quire it to become ravenously hungry before the 
 next feeding. Under natural conditions the young 
 chickens are seeking food during a large portion 
 of the day and at no time are they completely 
 gorged. A little food at frequent intervals un- 
 
Food for Little Chickens 211 
 
 doubtedly is best. If they are given food in 
 suitable quantities, feeding from five to seven 
 times per day will be found to be none too often 
 for young chicks. As they become older it will 
 not be necessary to feed so often. The following 
 is quoted from an experiment station publication : * 
 "If skim milk be added to the ration fed to 
 young chickens it will increase the consumption 
 of other foods given. The great increase in aver- 
 age gain was coincident with the periods when 
 the greatest amount of skim milk was consumed. 
 Skim milk is especially valuable as a food for 
 young chickens during the hot dry weather; and 
 becomes of less importance as the chickens grow 
 older and che weather becomes cooler." 
 
 Ground grain is preferred to whole or cracked 
 grain, and should constitute the chief part of the 
 daily ration. Practical poultry men and experi- 
 menters are fairly well agreed on this point. The 
 following illustrates : t "A ration consisting mostly 
 of ordinary ground grain foods and containing no 
 whole grain was more profitably fed to chicks 
 than another ration consisting mostly of whole 
 grain and containing no ground grain. ... In 
 every trial more food was eaten when the ground 
 grain was fed than when the whole grain was 
 fed." 
 
 * Summary of Bulletin No. 71, Purdue University Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 t Bulletin No. 126, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
212 Farm Poultry 
 
 In addition to the grain given to the chickens, 
 it will be necessary to provide some animal food. 
 Various mixtures of grain foods have been com- 
 pared to mixtures of grain and animal meal, 
 but the latter have given the better results. The 
 domesticated hen seems to thrive best, in all 
 stages of existence, on a ration which consists in 
 part of animal food. "A ration in which about 
 two -fifths of the protein was supplied by animal 
 food was much more profitably fed to chicks 
 than another ration supplying an equal amount 
 of protein, mostly from vegetable sources, but 
 supplemented by skim milk curd."* 
 
 Experiments have demonstrated clearly that the 
 ordinary grain foods, as usually fed, do not contain 
 sufficient ash to permit the most rapid develop- 
 ment of the young. The following briefly states 
 the results of somewhat extended experiments at 
 the New York Agricultural Experiment Station : t 
 " Of two rations which contained practically the 
 same proportions of the ordinarily considered 
 groups of constituents, but different amounts of 
 mineral matter, one wholly of vegetable origin 
 proved much inferior for growing chicks to the 
 other ration, higher in ash content, containing 
 animal food. When the deficiency of mineral 
 matter was made good by the addition of bone 
 
 * Bulletin No. 149, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 t Summary of Bulletin No. 171, 
 
Food and Exercise 213 
 
 ash, the vegetable food ration for chicks equaled 
 or so'mewhat surpassed in efficiency the corre- 
 sponding ration in which three-eighths of the 
 protein was derived from animal food." 
 
 Hard-boiled eggs mixed with ground grain, and 
 perhaps a little milk, make a most excellent food. 
 This is frequently fed with satisfactory results dur- 
 ing the first few days of the chick's existence. 
 Infertile eggs which are taken out of the incubator 
 whenever the eggs are tested, if properly prepared, 
 will furnish an excellent food for little chickens. 
 These boiled eggs should be crumbled or chopped 
 fine and may be fed alone or mixed with softened 
 ground grain. 
 
 Corn may form a considerable portion of the 
 ration for young fowls that are growing rapidly. 
 Granulated oats make an excellent food for chick- 
 ens after they are several days old. . These oats 
 may be placed in receptacles of such a character 
 that the food may be readily accessible at all 
 times and yet will not be soiled by tramping. 
 
 EXEKCISE 
 
 It is of the utmost importance to provide a run 
 or yard for young chickens. They require much 
 exercise, and unless provision is made for this, 
 it cannot be expected that the most satisfactory 
 growth and development will be made. 
 
214 Farm Poultry 
 
 The young of all animals are active and will 
 take constant exercise if opportunity is given. 
 Particularly is this true of the young of fowls. 
 They are not only inclined to range freely on 
 their own account, but under natural conditions 
 the mother, wandering from place to place in 
 
 Fig. 70. Chicken coop Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 search of food, compels the young to take a 
 greater amount of daily exercise than they would 
 if left wholly to themselves. Perhaps the reader, 
 if he is a farmer, will be surprised to recall how 
 far from home he has seen the old hen with her 
 brood of little chicks. 
 
 It is essential also that they be kept in a dry 
 
Car? of Little Chickens 215 
 
 place, either on a floor or a dry soil. Young 
 chickens should never be permitted to run on 
 moist land, particularly if it is allowed to become 
 filthy. Many chickens that are hardy when kept 
 dry prove tender when compelled to occupy quar- 
 ters that are more or less damp. There are sev- 
 eral breeds of poultry that cannot endure damp- 
 ness, though ^hardy to a satisfactory degree when 
 provided with warm and dry quarters. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that the attendant 
 or feeder is responsible for the health and general 
 condition of the chickens, quite as much as the 
 food which they consume. Skilful feeders, by 
 noting carefully the wants and conditions of the 
 chickens as regards thrift, are able to determine 
 how best to feed and to accomplish satisfactory 
 results with food that would prove entirely un- 
 satisfactory with a little neglect or indifference 
 on the part of the feeder. 
 
 FEEDING TKOUGHS 
 
 It is necessary to provide feeding troughs for 
 little chickens in order to prevent them from 
 tramping on the food; for if the food be placed 
 on the floor of the brooder or poultry house, it 
 soon becomes soiled and unfit for consumption. 
 A simple and efficient feeding trough may be 
 made by tacking a strip of tin about 3X inches 
 
216 Farm Poultry 
 
 wide along the edge of a half -inch board so that 
 the tin projects about an inch and a half on either 
 side of the board. Bend the tin so as to form a 
 shallow trough on each side of the board, then 
 fasten the board to blocks which will hold it edge- 
 
 Fig. 71. A feeding trough for little chickens. 
 
 wise and raise it from one to two inches from the 
 floor. (See Fig. 71.) The trough may be from one 
 to three feet long. It is within easy reach of the 
 chickens and so narrow that they cannot stand 
 upon the edges. Food placed in such feeding 
 troughs may be kept clean until wholly consumed. 
 
 GKIT 
 
 Grit should be placed before chickens not later 
 than the second day after they commence to eat. 
 Coarse sand will answer the purpose very well for 
 young chickens. Finely crushed stone or pulver- 
 ized cinders will suffice if coarse sand or prepared 
 grit is not at hand. As nature does not provide 
 grit in the digestive organs of the newly hatched 
 chicken, it is necessary to furnish this grit in order 
 
Supply of Drinking Water 217 
 
 that the chick may grind its first hard food. As 
 nature provides nourishment for a chicken for a 
 day or two after it is hatched, grit is not absolutely 
 needed until the third or fourth day, provided the 
 first food is quite soft. 
 
 DKINKING FOUNTAINS 
 
 One of the difficult problems that the amateur 
 poultryman has to solve is how best to keep pure 
 drinking water continually before the little chick- 
 
 Fig. 72. A movable coop, showing a good device. 
 
 ens. Small chickens drink frequently, and as their 
 little beaks are sometimes more or less loaded with 
 soft food, which is deposited in the drinking foun- 
 tain whenever the beak becomes wet, the question 
 of how to keep the water pure is not an easy one 
 to solve. As it is necessary to keep the drinking 
 
218 Farm Poultry 
 
 fountain at a warm temperature, it soon becomes 
 tainted and, unless given frequent attention, will 
 emit a disagreeable odor. This condition must 
 not be allowed to exist, for all food and water 
 consumed by the fowls, particularly the young, 
 should be free from taint. There is no greater 
 stumbling block to the novice than the lack of 
 cleanliness. 
 
 Many automatic fountains will keep water before 
 the chickens, but they are frequently difficult to 
 cleanse if they once become tainted. Nothing 
 less than frequent scalding with steam or boiling 
 water will answer the purpose. Any drinking foun- 
 tain that is constructed of glass, that will not 
 bear such temperatures, is objectionable. Tin or 
 earthenware is preferred on account of the ease 
 of cleansing. A drinking fountain made on the 
 same principle as the one with a revolving reser- 
 voir, described in a previous chapter (page 120), 
 will prove very satisfactory. An empty tomato 
 can and a shallow saucer will answer every pur- 
 pose. These may be readily cleansed and are 
 convenient. 
 
 BKOODEKS 
 
 Brooders require constant care to keep them 
 clean and to see that no part becomes wet, which 
 will frequently happen if water dishes are placed 
 within the machine. Cleanliness must be insisted 
 
The Care of Brooders 219 
 
 on. The temperature at which the brooder 
 should be kept will depend largely upon the 
 age of the chickens. It should be warm enough 
 so that the chickens will not huddle together to 
 keep warm, and of course, should be cool enough 
 for the greatest comfort. Bowel disorders are fre- 
 quently caused by exposure and improper brooder 
 temperatures. The person who makes his chick- 
 ens the most comfortable will probably succeed 
 best with the brooder. 
 
 The following conclusions in regard to im- 
 proper feeding and brooder conditions are given 
 by the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment 
 Station:* "Post-mortem examination showed that 
 the diseases may be classified under four heads. 
 Disorders ascribable : 
 
 "A. To heredity or to environment during period 
 of incubation. (Recent experiments have 
 demonstrated that successive alternate 
 periods of heat and cold during incubation 
 are responsible for a very large proportion 
 of abnormalities.) Thirty-three per cent 
 of the chicks examined showed more or less 
 trouble under this head. 
 
 "B. To mechanical causes, e. g., overcrowding 
 in the brooders, resulting in death by 
 suffocation, trampling, etc. 
 
 * Bulletin No. 61, p. 53. 
 
220 Farm Poultry 
 
 "C. To imperfect sanitation, lack of ventilation, 
 sunlight, etc.; e. g., tuberculosis flourishes 
 in dark, poorly ventilated brooders. Fif- 
 teen and one -tenth per cent of the post- 
 mortems showed more or less evidence of 
 tuberculosis. 
 
 "D. To improperly balanced ration, i. e., im- 
 proper feeding. For the continued main- 
 tenance of health there must be a definite 
 proportion between the amount of carbo- 
 hydrates (starch, sugar, etc.), fats and the 
 nitrogen -containing proteins. A ration 
 wholly vegetable is almost certain to con- 
 tain a too low percentage of nitrogen, 
 while a ration exclusively animal is very 
 sure to be deficient in carbohydrates. As 
 a result of improper food, digestive dis- 
 orders soon appear, either in the liver and 
 gall bladder, or in the intestines. Of the 
 chicks examined, 75.7 per cent had abnor- 
 mal livers; 38.6 per cent had various forms 
 of intestinal disorders." 
 
 "In conclusion, special attention is called to the 
 following facts, confirmed by experiments:* 
 
 "1. Careful external and internal examination 
 (such as any one can readily make) of the dead 
 chick will usually disclose the cause of death. The 
 necessary remedies are usually not difficult, to find. 
 
 *Bulletin No. 61, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 59. 
 
Causes of Death 221 
 
 "2. Death from overcrowding, suffocation and 
 trampling can be readily corrected. It is more 
 frequent than is generally suspected. 
 
 "3. For guarding against tuberculosis, give the 
 interior of the brooders all the sun and air pos- 
 sible on pleasant days. 
 
 "4. Trouble of the liver and gall bladder are 
 usually easily recognizable from the green stains. 
 For correcting this, feed more animal food. The 
 use of the proper proportion of animal food will 
 pay a handsome profit through decreased mortality 
 and increased weight of the chicks. In feeding 
 bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature 
 spend practically all their waking hours in search 
 of food, and that they do not fill their crops in 
 ten minutes every two hours. Feeding should be, 
 as far as the time of the attendant renders profit- 
 able, a continuous process, but by no means a 
 continuous gorge. 
 
 "5. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently result from feed- 
 ing a too large proportion of animal food, and are 
 often brought on by cold, exposure, etc. 
 
 "6. If the yolk is present in considerable quan- 
 tity in chicks a week old, or if more than 1 or 
 2 per cent of deformed chicks appears, look to 
 the better regulation of the incubators or to the 
 health of the breeding pens." 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 CAPONS AND BROILERS 
 
 THEKE is a question in the minds of many 
 persons whether caponizing is really as profitable 
 as it is often represented to be. The profits 
 of capon rearing that are frequently given in 
 captivating accounts are often very misleading. 
 While it is true that these most favorable reports 
 are well within the range of possibilities, yet 
 many of them far exceed the probable returns of 
 earnest and well-directed efforts of beginners. 
 One of the first questions which should be de- 
 cided as regards capon rearing, is the profit which 
 this enterprise will probably yield; in other 
 words, will caponizing pay? Without doubt this 
 question should be answered both affirmatively 
 and negatively. When capon rearing is compared 
 with some of the most productive lines of poultry 
 work conducted at this time by the most skilful 
 operators, it probably will not make a very favor- 
 able showing. On the other hand, the profits 
 from fine capons which have been prepared by 
 the expert will undoubtedly compare favorably 
 with results obtained in other directions. If the 
 
 (222) 
 
Capons and Broilers 223 
 
 prices which capons bring are to be compared 
 with those of the choicest broilers, one would be 
 led to believe that broiler raising would be the 
 more profitable. 
 
 It should be borne in mind, however, that it is 
 quite possible to make good capons of fowls that 
 at no time in their existence would have sold for 
 the highest prices as broilers. Broiler raising, like 
 the rearing of early or "hothouse" lambs, requires 
 great skill. Those who do not understand how 
 to secure these choice products, may make good 
 capons from fowls that would not answer the re- 
 quirements of the higher priced broilers. 
 
 In rearing broilers, it is impossible to bring all 
 the birds to the desired condition that is, all will 
 not be as good as the best. The poorer birds may 
 be retained on the farm and prepared for the 
 capon market. When the profits which choice 
 capons bring are compared with the profits of 
 rearing mature fowls that are sold for meat, a 
 most excellent showing will be made. The ques- 
 tion, then, whether capons will pay, depends 
 largely on the point of view. Sometimes capons 
 undoubtedly can be made to pay well, and the 
 rearing of them should be encouraged under cer- 
 tain conditions. 
 
 To those who have had no experience in the 
 rearing of capons, and to whom, perhaps, the 
 word is almost a new one, it may be stated that 
 
224 Farm Poultry 
 
 they are castrated males. The operation is per- 
 formed in order that the fowls may grow larger, 
 become more gentle, and fatten more readily than 
 they would otherwise. The operation, if success- 
 fully performed, changes the nature of the indi- 
 vidual to a marked degree. The change brought 
 about by this operation on the fowls is quite as 
 great as that caused by a similar operation upon 
 other classes of farm stock, if not even greater 
 than that. The birds lose their activity, which 
 is a potent factor in easy fattening. They grow 
 considerably larger than they otherwise would 
 and appear much more gentle and consequently 
 thrive well in close confinement. 
 
 As the bodies of capons are large, their heads 
 appear somewhat out of proportion, that is, the 
 comb and wattles do not develop, which makes the 
 head appear small. The flesh of capons is espe- 
 cially prized. The muscles are tender, the birds 
 fatten readily, and their large size makes them 
 especially desirable for certain methods of cook- 
 ing. The largest capons sell for the highest price. 
 In order to reach the highest profit, capons should 
 be large and fat and not more than ten or eleven 
 months of age. If they are kept until a later 
 age, the meat becomes somewhat coarse and is 
 not so desirable. While early chickens are most 
 highly prized for broilers, the later ones may be 
 turned to a good account for the capon market. 
 
Caponizing 
 
 225 
 
 The question is sometimes asked, with all se- 
 riousness, whether the operation is not sufficiently 
 painful to condemn the practice. Without doubt 
 considerable pain is involved, but no more than in 
 a similar operation which is performed so gener- 
 
 Fig. 73. Wigmore's caponizing set. 
 
 ally on other classes of farm stock, and the pain 
 is probably less than in those cases. 
 
 That capons are regularly quoted in markets 
 of many cities shows that there is sufficient de- 
 mand for them to warrant poultry men in giving 
 considerable attention to their production, particu- 
 
226 Farm Poultry 
 
 larly if they are so situated that fowls which 
 would otherwise bring low prices can be turned 
 to this use to a good advantage. The regular 
 quotations also indicate that a considerable num- 
 ber of poultrymen find capon rearing a fairly prof- 
 itable branch of the poultry business. Were 
 this not true, poultrymen would cease to rear 
 them and their presence in the markets of so 
 many cities would be unknown. 
 
 It is not difficult to learn how to perform suc- 
 cessfully the operation of caponizing fowls of the 
 proper age, but some persons are naturally 
 more deft in finger manipulation than others and 
 are able to perform delicate operations neatly and 
 rapidly. In districts in which large numbers of 
 capons are reared, professionals are usually en- 
 gaged by capon rearers to perform operations on 
 large numbers of fowls at one time. They go 
 about the country doing the work more satisfac- 
 torily and more rapidly than the owners could do 
 it for themselves, and, as they have become so 
 expert, they are enabled to perform the operation 
 for a very small sum and still make good wages. 
 From two to four cents per head usually pays 
 for a skilful operator. Any one who is at all 
 deft may perform the work by merely following 
 the directions furnished by the manufacturers of 
 caponizing instruments. Comparatively few farm- 
 ers, however, will become expert if they operate 
 
Capons and Caponizing 227 
 
 only upon their own fowls. " While the novice 
 might, and probably would, spend a half hour 
 upon the first bird, and then possibly produce a 
 slip, experts will do scores each hour during the 
 whole day. One very sure and rapid worker 
 caponized one bird per minute for three hours 
 in succession, his day's work being 450, of which 
 not one per cent died."* 
 
 All breeds of fowls are not equally well suited 
 to the production of capons. The Black Lang- 
 shans are generally especially recommended for 
 this purpose. On the other hand, Indian Games 
 should be avoided. Plymouth Rocks answer the 
 purpose very well. Langshan and Plymouth 
 Rock crosses are especially prized. They make 
 large, fine -looking birds, fatten readily and are 
 easily operated upon. Brahmas, of course, grow 
 to the largest size, and may prove to be most 
 profitable birds for this purpose. They are not, 
 however, so good for the beginner, on account 
 of the somewhat greater difficulty in performing 
 the operation. Commission men do not state that 
 there is much, if any, difference in the value of 
 capons from the different breeds of fowls; that 
 is, it is not recognized that some breeds produce 
 capons decidedly superior to those of other breeds. 
 Large -sized birds that are fat bring the highest 
 prices. 
 
 # Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 171, 
 
228 Farm Poultry 
 
 It is recommended that the fowls should be 
 operated upon when they have attained the weight 
 of about two pounds. Some poultrymen recom- 
 mend that the operation be performed a little 
 earlier in life, while others are very successful 
 in operating upon birds that are somewhat older. 
 Without doubt the best time will depend some- 
 what upon the condition of the bird. If the 
 fowls are growthy and thin, a somewhat lighter 
 weight will suffice than if the fowls are very 
 plump. In a general way, authorities on capon- 
 izing recommend that the operation be performed 
 when the fowls are from 1% to 2% pounds in 
 weight. 
 
 Chickens to be operated upon should be fasted 
 from twelve to twenty -four hours, and in some 
 cases even forty- eight hours is recommended. 
 It is suggested not only to withhold food, but, 
 during a considerable period of the fasting, to 
 withhold water as well. Fowls are fasted in 
 order to empty the digestive organs and to de- 
 plete somewhat the quantity of blood, and 
 thereby reduce the danger of rupturing the 
 blood-vessels while performing the operation. 
 One great danger is in the liability of rupturing 
 the arteries which are situated very near the 
 organs that are to be removed. When it is 
 borne in mind that the abdominal cavity is 
 opened and that the intestines are pushed asido 
 
Canonizing 
 
 229 
 
 in order to perform the operation successfully, 
 it will readily be seen how essential it is to have 
 the bowels as nearly empty as possible, and, at 
 the same time, to deplete the quantity of blood 
 in the blood-vessels so far as the good health of 
 the fowl will permit. One objection that is fre- 
 quently made to caponizing is, that good light 
 is required, particularly if the operator is not the 
 most skilled. Clear days when the sun shines 
 brightly are preferred. 
 It frequently happens 
 that fowls may be 
 fasted for the opera- 
 tion and cloudy 
 weather prevail. This 
 should be sufficient 
 
 CaUSe tO prevent the FI S . 74. Caponizing table, showing cords 
 
 novice from proceed- and weights used to hold ihe fowls - 
 ing further until clear weather comes. In such 
 an event, it will be necessary, to keep the fowls 
 on very light rations of soft food until the prom- 
 ise of clear weather is near at hand. Experienced 
 operators are not hindered so much by improper 
 light as are the inexperienced, yet all deem the 
 brightest light desirable. 
 
 The head-reflector used by physicians in per- 
 forming delicate operations upon the throat, is 
 used by some operators, and is found to work 
 successfully with artificial light. Expert oper- 
 
230 Farm Poultry 
 
 ators are enabled to werk with the reflector with 
 almost as much ease and satisfaction as in bright 
 sunlight. This reflector consists of a mirror fas- 
 tened to the head by a band in such a manner 
 that the mirror can be turned to any desired 
 angle to throw the light into the cavity, and 
 to show the location of the organs to be re- 
 moved, as well as the place of the near-by veins 
 and arteries. 
 
 " When to make capons and the time to sell. 
 Judging from these results and a study of the 
 markets the best chance to profit by the produc- 
 tion of capons would be in caponizing late chicks 
 that ordinarily would be fit for market as broilers 
 or roasters when the prices are the lowest, and 
 too old to sell as tender chickens in January and 
 February. Cockerels that were hatched in June, 
 July or August, especially if of the large early- 
 maturing kind like Plymouth Rocks and Wyan- 
 dottes crossed on Brahmas or Langshans, castrated 
 in September, October and November, and mar- 
 keted in March, April, May and June, when they 
 would have reached their best, would be the most 
 profitable and bring the highest price. Such 
 birds are often sold alive by the pound very low 
 in the city markets or by those who have no room 
 to winter them. Farmers who have cheap food, 
 who are far from shipping points, and therefore 
 kill and ship all at one time in cold weather, 
 
Marketing Ccqwns 231 
 
 might profitably make capons of all roosters. 
 Those who keep birds until maturity for their 
 own table should do the same. There will be 
 little gained by caponizing birds in May or June 
 if they are to be marketed by Christmas, as the 
 birds have not sufficient time to fill out."* 
 
 Preparing capons for market. "Capons, like 
 other fowls, should be fasted twenty -four hours 
 before killing, that the crop may be empty and 
 therefore need not be removed. The head, the 
 distinguishing mark of a capon, has a particu- 
 larly long and pointed appearance and should 
 always be left on. They should be bled by cut- 
 ting inside the mouth or throat. The neck and 
 saddle feathers are unusually large and fine ; these 
 and the small size of the tail distinguish a capon 
 from any other fowl; therefore they are left on, 
 as well as the feathers on the leg from the hock 
 joint half way up the thigh and those on the 
 outer joints of the wings. The breast, back, the 
 wings next to the body and the upper part of 
 the thighs are picked clean. They should be 
 dry-picked without tearing the skin, and the head, 
 mouth, shanks and feet washed clean. Care 
 should be taken to remove all clotted blood from 
 the mouth. Capons for the New York markets 
 should be sent undrawn. Some Boston dealers 
 receive them undrawn. They should be packed 
 
 * Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
232 Farm Poultry 
 
 in boxes or flour barrels washed clean and lined 
 with white wrapping paper. Neatness and at- 
 tractive appearance are everything where quick 
 sales and best prices are to be secured."* 
 
 BROILERS 
 
 Broilers are young, plump and fat chickens 
 which have been forced to make the greatest pos- 
 sible weight during the few weeks of their exist- 
 ence. Broiler rearing may be regarded as one of 
 the specialties of the poultry business and one that 
 does not appeal particularly to the farmer who 
 keeps his fowls under what may be called good 
 average conditions. If a farmer who keeps from 
 fifty to one hundred and fifty hens should produce 
 a few good broilers, the extra expense and trouble 
 of preparing them for market and of marketing 
 them would make serious inroads on the profits. 
 
 Great skill is required to bring this work to its 
 highest perfection; consequently those who are 
 prepared to raise a considerable number of fowls 
 for this purpose are -more likely to become expert 
 than are those whose chief interests lie along other 
 lines of work. On this account the production 
 of broilers for the markets of the large cities is 
 chiefly in the hands of comparatively few, who 
 may be called specialists. These men make 
 
 * Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
Broilers 233 
 
 broiler rearing a business, and learn how to per- 
 form the various operations in the best mariner 
 and with the greatest exactness. 
 
 If one is contemplating the production of broil- 
 ers on a somewhat extensive scale, he should not 
 depend upon written directions for his guidance, 
 but should make a thorough inspection of the 
 markets, in order to learn what kind of a product 
 the market demands. He should also visit one or 
 more broiler farms, where these birds are success- 
 fully reared in large numbers. The experience of 
 practical men is the safest guide. 
 
 As broilers are often placed upon the market 
 when they weigh less than two pounds per pair, 
 the skill in feeding little chickens and the care of 
 the brooder become of the utmost importance. 
 Light-weight winter broilers may be regarded as 
 strictly brooder chickens. The light-weight broil- 
 ers, when in demand, sell for the highest prices. 
 Skill is of more relative importance in the produc- 
 tion of young high-priced meat than in the pro- 
 duction of mature fowls or those which more nearly 
 approach maturity. 
 
 While the cost of food is of less relative im- 
 portance in the production of young fowls for the 
 market than in the production of older ones, yet it 
 should be remembered that the cost of food per 
 pound of gain in live weight increases as the 
 period from birth or hatching is increased. This 
 
234 Farm Poultry 
 
 cost continues to increase until a period is reached 
 when the food consumed produces no gain, that 
 is, until the fowls cease to increase in size and 
 weight. If the production of flesh is considered 
 from a standpoint of food alone, the young fowls 
 are the most profitable. When the cost of hatch- 
 ing and the value of the eggs are taken into 
 account, the youngest product may not be the 
 most profitable to the producer. It is for each 
 breeder to determine for himself at what age he 
 can sell with the greatest profit. Young fowls will 
 undoubtedly be selected, but, as a few weeks' 
 growth often changes considerably the value per 
 pound, fine discriminations must be made if one is 
 to become expert. 
 
 The question is frequently asked, "Will it pay 
 to raise broilers!" It will undoubtedly pay the 
 right kind of people to enter into the business on 
 a somewhat large scale; yet no one, no matter 
 how enthusiastic he maybe, should attempt broiler 
 rearing on a large scale without experience and 
 considerable capital. The chief essential to suc- 
 cess is a good knowledge of the business. If this 
 cannot be learned from the experience of others, 
 it should be learned from personal experience, 
 beginning in a small way at first and advancing 
 as judgment seems to warrant. 
 
 Many poultry raisers about Hammonton, New 
 Jersey, find it profitable to produce broilers for 
 
Broilers 235 
 
 the New York and Philadelphia markets during 
 a portion of the year. Throughout the winter 
 and spring this work pays them best. In the 
 summer other lines of work largely occupy their 
 attention. Broilers are reared more for home 
 consumption on the farms in some parts of the 
 country than others. The South depends more 
 on these young fowls than the North. 
 
 Dry, sandy or gravelly soils are specially prized 
 for broiler rearing. Cleanliness and freedom from 
 moisture are requisites to success. These con- 
 ditions are more easily maintained on light, por- 
 ous soils than on heavy ones. Keep the chickens 
 dry and clean and give them plenty of wholesome, 
 easily digested food. Corn meal, wheat bran, 
 ground oats with the hulls removed, and hard- 
 boiled eggs may make the bulk of the ration. 
 These should be fed after thoroughly soaking or 
 scalding. Some meat food and some green food 
 should not be neglected. Baked foods are rec- 
 ommended and are undoubtedly safe. For further 
 discussion of foods, see chapter on feeding little 
 chickens (Chapter XI). Those who make a 
 study of the foods used by successful poultry- 
 raisers soon learn that there is no best food, but 
 many foods are excellent if fed with judgment. 
 
 Various breeds of fowls are used for broilers, 
 one of the favorites being the Wyandotte. Many 
 prefer to use crosses, on account of the vigor and 
 
236 Farm Poultry 
 
 hardiness of the chicks. Heavy breeds are usually 
 crossed on the smaller, quick -maturing ones. 
 These crosses have suitable size and they mature 
 early. 
 
 Broiler - rearing and egg production go well 
 together. Experienced broiler raisers who have 
 a good knowledge of the business are able to 
 produce eggs that will give better and more even 
 lots of chickens than those that are purchased 
 from farmers who, perhaps, keep fowls of many 
 different breeds. The ultimate success will de- 
 pend largely on the fertility of the eggs and on 
 the kind of fowls that produced them. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 DUCKS AND GEESE 
 
 THE American farmer too often thinks of "poul- 
 try" as comprising only "hens and chickens." The 
 term really covers all kinds of domesticated birds 
 including those grown for pets or for mere fancy. 
 With the more diversified agriculture of the 
 future, other species than hens must come into 
 greater prominence. 
 
 DUCKS GENEKAL DISCUSSION 
 
 While ducks have been reared on farms for a 
 great many years, yet a large proportion of the 
 business of duck -rearing is now in the hands 
 of specialists who conduct it on an extensive 
 scale. A considerable proportion of the duck 
 products of farm 3, where only small flocks are 
 maintained, is consumed at home and does not 
 affect the general market. The rearing of the 
 so-called "green ducks" for market has provided 
 a profitable occupation for many extensive duck 
 raisers. Comparatively few farmers enter into the 
 business of duck -raising extensively. Ducks are 
 
 (237) 
 
238 Farm Poultry 
 
 usually kept in moderate -sized flocks, that roam 
 at will over a considerable portion of the prem- 
 ises. When reared under these conditions, the 
 ducks frequently prove beneficial in the destruc- 
 tion of various insect pests. They will travel 
 long distances, and in their rambles are con- 
 tinually on the lookout for food; both vegetable 
 and animal life are greedily consumed. Ducks 
 may become, under certain conditions, quite as 
 destructive to farm crops as chickens, although 
 if streams or wet fields are included within their 
 range a considerable portion of their time is 
 given to hunting food in these places. 
 
 Those who enter into duck -raising extensively 
 rear the fowls almost exclusively for meat. The 
 eggs produced by extensive duck raisers are not 
 put on the market as food to any great extent, in 
 competition with eggs that are produced cheaper 
 by the noted egg breeds of hens. Ducks can 
 seldom successfully compete with hens for egg 
 production. 
 
 Many farmers prefer, for various reasons, to 
 keep ducks rather than hens. It is well known 
 that ducks are comparatively free from disease 
 and are not nearly so likely to be troubled with 
 vermin as hens. This is of considerable im- 
 portance on many farms where the fowls are not 
 given much care and attention. 
 
 Ducks are much more easily confined than 
 
IHick Rearing 239 
 
 hens. A fence two or three feet high should 
 suffice for them under all ordinary conditions, 
 particularly for those breeds which are the most 
 profitable for farm use. It is true that some of 
 the less profitable breeds, so far as meat pro- 
 duction is concerned, are able to use their wings 
 to good advantage and are quite as troublesome 
 to keep within inclosures as Mediterranean fowls. 
 Another reason why farmers frequently prefer 
 ducks to hens, is that the young grow much 
 more rapidly. Those who make a practice of 
 fattening young ducks for the market, expect to 
 secure birds that will weigh four and one half 
 or five pounds at nine or ten weeks of age, while 
 good chickens would weigh only about half as 
 much. 
 
 Ducks are adapted to the various parts of the 
 country where chickens thrive well. They may 
 be reared under a great variety of conditions as 
 regards climate and exposure. Because ducks, 
 in a state of nature, select shallow water or 
 marshy land as their feeding ground and largely 
 prefer bodies of water to dry land, it is thought 
 by many that streams or ponds are necessary 
 for the successful rearing of domesticated kinds. 
 However, many of the most successful duck 
 raisers, who produce large numbers of young 
 birds for the market, do not depend on streams 
 or ponds of water for their fowls. It is true 
 
240 Farm Poultry 
 
 that the plumage of both young and old birds 
 will be kept in a somewhat cleaner condition if 
 the ducks have access to ponds or streams, but 
 this is a matter of minor importance in the rear- 
 ing of ducks for the market. Some hold that 
 
 Fig. 75. White Pekin drake, young (one-eighth size). 
 
 if the breeding ducks have access to water, a 
 larger proportion of fertile eggs is secured. 
 Other breeders, however, are able to conduct 
 their business satisfactorily without such water, 
 and consequently it may be said that the value 
 of ponds or running water for breeding ducks 
 may be somewhat questionable. 
 
Kinds of Ducks 241 
 
 DUCKS BREEDS 
 
 Nine breeds of ducks are described in the 
 American Standard of Perfection; viz., the Pekin, 
 Aylesbury, Rouen, Cayuga, Muscovy, East In- 
 dian, Call, Crested, and Indian Runner. Of these, 
 the first four may be mentioned as the profitable 
 
 
 Fig. 76. White Pekin duck, young (one-ninth size). 
 
 breeds for farm use. While the Muscovy ducks 
 are the largest, yet they are not the most profit- 
 able for farmers. The East Indian and Call 
 ducks are too small to be most profitable. They 
 have not been bred for eggs or meat and are 
 considered as fancy fowls. They occupy a similar 
 position among ducks to that which bantams 
 occupy among chickens. 
 
 Pekin. The White Pekins undoubtedly occupy 
 
242 Farm Poultry 
 
 a foremost position as to popularity. Without 
 doubt a larger number of White Pekins are reared 
 for market than of any other breed. They are 
 pure white, large, and are excellent layers. They 
 are considered hardy and are easily reared. They 
 mature early and are especially prized for the 
 production of young birds for market. When 
 walking they assume a more upright position than 
 do the ducks of most other breeds. The Pekins 
 are largely reared by extensive duck raisers who 
 make a specialty of the so-called "green ducks"; 
 that is, young birds that will weigh about five 
 pounds apiece when not more than ten weeks 
 old. The standard weight for Pekins is eight 
 pounds for the drake and seven for the duck. 
 
 Aylesbury. The Aylesburys probably rank 
 next to the Pekins in popularity. In general 
 appearance they closely resemble the Pekins, but 
 may be distinguished by their carriage. The 
 Aylesburys are a pound heavier than the Pekins. 
 They have the power of adapting themselves 
 readily to the various conditions under which 
 ducks are reared. They are considered even 
 more hardy and prolific than the Pekins. Some 
 practical duck raisers sometimes introduce an 
 Aylesbury cross on their Pekin stock to increase 
 vigor and prolificacy. For market purposes the 
 white breeds (Pekin and Aylesbury) are pre- 
 ferred to the colored ones, because white young 
 
Kinds of Ducks 243 
 
 birds present a better appearance when dressed 
 than do those of colored breeds. 
 
 Rouen. The Eouens are especially prized as 
 table fowls.. As producers of fine-grained, deli- 
 cate flesh, these fowls are not surpassed by any of 
 the so-called useful farm breeds. The Eouens 
 resemble the wild Mallards in color, the resem- 
 
 Fig. 77. Rouen drake (one-eighth size). 
 
 blance between the drakes being most marked. 
 The Eouens are hardy, prolific, and of gentle dis- 
 position. Young birds may be kept in rather 
 large flocks without the danger of stampeding 
 that is so troublesome with the Pekins. While 
 the standard weight for the Eouens is a pound 
 heavier than that for Pekins, yet it is thought 
 that they do not grow as rapidly as the latter. 
 Extensive duck raisers prefer the Pekins or 
 
244 Farm Poultry 
 
 Aylesburys on account of their quick growth. 
 However, the Rouens are most excellent farm 
 fowls and are highly prized on account of their 
 hardiness, prolificacy, and gentle disposition. 
 They are about the size of the Aylesburys. 
 
 Black Cayuga. The Black Cayugas are rec- 
 ognized as a distinctively American breed. It is 
 
 Fig. 78. Rouen duck (one-eighth size). 
 
 asserted by some that the Cayugas grow as rapidly 
 and mature as early as the Pekins, but those 
 who are extensively engaged in rearing ducks 
 invariably choose one of the white breeds. The 
 Cayugas are profitable farm ducks. They thrive 
 well in rather close confinement, are hardy, gentle, 
 and do not care to wander so far from home 
 as some other breeds. The standard weight for 
 these is the same as for the Pekins. 
 
Breeds and Care 245 
 
 Muscovy ducks. These are the largest of any 
 of the breeds mentioned, but for various rea- 
 sons are not such profitable farm fowls as others. 
 When compared with the Pekins or Rouen s, 
 the Muscovies are not as good layers. They 
 are not so easily confined. Muscovy ducks are 
 often troublesome in the poultry yard on account 
 of their disposition to attack other fowls, both 
 young and old. 
 
 Call ducks. Call ducks are bred chiefly for 
 exhibition purposes. The gray Call ducks are 
 sometimes bred for decoys and are used by sports- 
 men to lure wild ducks within shooting distances. 
 They are not recommended as profitable farm 
 fowls. 
 
 DUCKS FOOD AND CAKE 
 
 The natural food of the duck differs in some 
 respects from that of the hen. While ducks, 
 like hens, eat a great variety of food, yet because 
 the duck is not possessed of a distinct crop the 
 food is passed more directly to the digestive or- 
 gans and does not undergo so complete a soften- 
 ing process as that consumed by the hen. It is, 
 therefore, of the utmost importance that the food 
 be consumed in a soft condition. In nature the 
 duck gathers a large proportion of its food from 
 streams, ponds, or marshy places. This food 
 consists of the young growing shoots and roots 
 
246 
 
 Farm Poultry' 
 
 of water plants, snails and the larvae of va- 
 rious water insects, together with small fish 
 and other aquatic life. Those who have made a 
 success of rearing ducks on an extended scale 
 have learned a valuable lesson from nature and 
 give to their young, growing ducks very little or 
 
 Fig. 79. View on Wm. H. Truslow's duck farm, East Stroudsburg, Pa., 
 showing arrangement of yards and manner of supplying water. 
 
 no hard food. While a considerable portion of 
 the ration will consist of grain, it is ground and 
 moistened with water or milk and fed in a soft 
 condition. 
 
 It is important in duck-rearing to secure the 
 greatest degree of cleanliness, although this is 
 somewhat more difficult than with hens. Where 
 
Yards and Pens 
 
 ducks are kept in confinement in comparatively 
 small pens or yards, it will sometimes be found 
 impossible to prevent the runs from becoming 
 foul, though occasional cultivation will aid ma- 
 terially in keeping the yards clean and in pro- 
 
 ng. 80. Another view on Mr. Tmslow's duck farm, showing the trad 
 on which a car of feed is pushed from pen to pen at feeding time. 
 
 viding a sanitary home for the occupants. Poul- 
 trymen use various disinfectants and absorbents 
 in the yards in order to keep them as clean as 
 possible. Yards that are not in use all the 
 year should be planted to some crop if an oppor- 
 tunity is afforded. Those poultrymen who make 
 
248 Farm Poultry 
 
 a specialty of producing young ducks for the 
 market make a practice of sowing the yards and 
 runs to some quick -growing crop as soon as the 
 yards are vacant. Rye is often used for this 
 purpose. During the rearing season, gypsum, 
 sawdust, sifted coal ashes, and other absorbents 
 are freely used in those parts of the yards that 
 are most frequented by the ducks. 
 
 Young ducks should be fed from a shallow 
 trough, which should be kept as clean as possible. 
 See Fig. 81. Pure water and clean yards are 
 prominent essentials in successful duck -rearing. 
 
 It is true that ducks 
 will make small ponds 
 and stream s muddy 
 and more or less filthy 
 
 Fig. 81. A shallow feeding trough. 
 
 when they have access 
 
 to them, yet those that are confined in yards 
 without a running stream should be supplied with 
 pure drinking water. 
 
 If the young ducks do not have opportunity 
 to obtain for themselves green and animal food, 
 it should be supplied to them. Specialists fre- 
 quently feed young, rapidly-growing ducks a 
 ration that consists of 10 or 20 per cent animal 
 meal. Eations which contain considerable ani- 
 mal meal have proved superior to a purely vege- 
 table diet. "Rations containing animal food 
 proved very much superior for ducklings to ra- 
 
Foods and Feeding 
 
 249 
 
 tions of vegetable origin which had, according 
 to the ordinary methods of estimation, practi- 
 cally the same nutritive value. A ration of vege- 
 table food supplemented by bone ash proved much 
 inferior to another ration of 
 similar ' composition,' in which 
 three -eighths of the protein came 
 from animal food." * 
 
 Fig. 82. A V-shaped water trough. 
 
 Fig. 83. A shallow water trough. 
 
 If the ducklings are confined in comparatively 
 small yards, it is best to provide some shade 
 for them, particularly during the hottest months. 
 Green food fed to ducks confined in yards should 
 be cut fine in a feed-cutter. Almost any green 
 succulent food will be readily eaten. Rye, clover, 
 alfalfa, Canada field peas, and corn make excel- 
 lent food if finely cut. Ducks will readily eat 
 the plant, stalk and all, in this condition, while 
 
 * Summary of Bulletin No. 171, New York Experiment Station. 
 
250 Farm Poultry 
 
 chickens will select the leaves and other tender 
 parts and reject the more woody portions of the 
 stalks. The green material may be fed alone 
 or mixed with the moistened ground food. The 
 latter may consist of wheat bran, corn meal and 
 ground oats, the hulls of the oats having been 
 removed. Various kinds of ground grains may 
 be employed, although those mentioned are used 
 most by experienced men. 
 
 Ducklings of some breeds appear to be quite 
 fearless in some respects, yet under other condi- 
 tions they are easily frightened, and, if a consid- 
 erable number are kept in one yard or pen, the 
 injury done by "stampeding" is sometimes con- 
 siderable. Pekin ducklings are particularly liable 
 to injury from this cause. Some extensive duck 
 raisers make a practice of lighting artificially 
 that part of the yard occupied by the fowls dur- 
 ing the night as a partial safeguard against 
 this trouble. 
 
 GEESE GENEKAL DISCUSSION 
 
 The rearing of geese is not so extensive a 
 business as that of raising ducks. The condi- 
 tions requisite for the successful raising of geese 
 are very different from those for ducks. The 
 rearing of geese is not in the hands of a com- 
 paratively few extensive raisers. Geese are still 
 
Rearing Geese 251 
 
 raised on many farms in comparatively small 
 flocks. The fact that geese require very much 
 more room than ducks has probably been an 
 important factor in keeping the business of rear- 
 ing them in the hands of farmers who go into 
 the enterprise in a moderate way. While ducks 
 are frequently reared successfully without water, 
 except as it may be necessary for drinking, yet 
 geese thrive best where ponds or streams are pro- 
 vided. While ducks may thrive under practically 
 the same conditions as geese, yet the conditions 
 under which geese do best are not necessary for 
 successful duck - raising. Fields which are not 
 suitable for cultivation on account of springs or 
 streams make good pastures for geese. A com- 
 paratively low springy or marshy land may be 
 used to good advantage if some part of the run 
 is comparatively high and dry. Geese do not 
 thrive so well in large flocks as ducks do. There 
 seems to be a somewhat general law which may 
 be applied to all farm stock as regards the size of 
 flocks or herds. The smaller animals, as a rule, 
 thrive much better in large flocks than do the 
 larger breeds or varieties. It is true that large 
 herds of cattle are maintained on some of the 
 great cattle ranches in the prairie countries, fcut^ 
 an almost unlimited range is given them. 
 
 Geese do not require a great deal of attention. 
 After the young are a week or so old, they are 
 
252 Farm Poultry 
 
 able to care for themselves largely, if a good 
 range is given. The food of geese is largely 
 grass, although insects and other low forms of 
 animal life are eaten readily and are essential. 
 
 GEESE BREEDS 
 
 The most common breeds of the pure -bred 
 geese are the Toulouse, African, Embden, Chinese, 
 Canada or Wild, and Egyptian. Many geese 
 throughout the country are of no particular 
 breed. It is probable that these geese have 
 descended from those imported by settlers at 
 an early date in the history of the country. In 
 some instances improved breeds have been 
 crossed on these common or mongrel geese, but 
 many flocks are still . maintained that are of no 
 particular breed, neither color nor conformation 
 indicating that they contain any considerable 
 proportion of blood of improved kinds. 
 
 Toulouse. The Toulouse geese are large, 
 massive, and probably attain a greater weight 
 than those of any other breed. I. K. Felch 
 states* that geese of sixty pounds weight per 
 pair have been exhibited in American exhi- 
 bitions. 
 
 "Toulouse geese usually lay more eggs in a 
 season than Embden or African geese, but not as 
 
 * Poultry Culture," p. 404. 
 
Breeds of Geese 
 
 253 
 
 many as the best China geese. They are nearer 
 non- sitting than any other variety, but some in- 
 dividuals make good mothers. The goslings are 
 greenish yellow in color, generally hardy and vig- 
 orous. They are quiet and peaceable, and more 
 easily confined by stone fences than other breeds, 
 
 Fig. 84. A pair of gray Toulouse geese. From United States Department 
 of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard. \ 
 
 and would be more likely to be contented in close 
 quarters. Toulouse geese are gray in color, with 
 a square, massive body, carried fairly horizontal, 
 the abdominal pouch, or loose folds of skin be- 
 tween and behind the legs, almost or quite 
 touching the ground."* 
 
 It is often difficult to distinguish the sexes, 
 
 * Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
254 Farm Poultry 
 
 as the gander and goose have exactly the same 
 color and the same feathering. The standard 
 weight given by the American Standard of Per- 
 fection is twenty pounds for the adult male and 
 eighteen pounds for the adult female. 
 
 Embden. The Embdens very much resemble 
 the Toulouse in general form ; they are, however, 
 
 Fig. 85. Gray wild goose. From United States Department of Agriculture, 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard. 
 
 pure white throughout, which enables one readily 
 to distinguish one breed from the other. The 
 Embdens do not have the great abdominal pouch 
 of the Toulouse, although it is sometimes dis- 
 tinctly developed. "These geese are inclined to 
 lay a little earlier than the Toulouse, and their 
 eggs average a trifle heavier, but they do not 
 lay quite as many eggs, and are much more per- 
 
Breeds of Geese 
 
 255 
 
 sistent sitters. They make excellent mothers. The 
 goslings when hatched are of a rich yellow color, 
 which changes to white as the quill feathers grow. 
 They are generally hardy and grow rapidly." * 
 
 African. "Gray African geese are by many 
 raisers considered the most profitable of all 
 geese to keep. They grow the heaviest in the 
 
 Fig. 86. A pair of gray African geese. From United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard. 
 
 shortest space of time, and are ready for market 
 in ten weeks, weighing at that age between eight 
 and ten pounds. They are very much like the 
 Pekin duck in this respect, and as compared 
 with other geese give the most satisfactory re- 
 turns for the least labor and time spent in 
 growing them." t 
 
 * Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 t Farmers' Bulletin No. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
256 Farm Poultry 
 
 The African geese are called good layers, and 
 are especially prized as table fowls. The flesh 
 is good flavored and not so coarse fibered as the 
 Toulouse. The young are hardy and grow rap- 
 idly. The voice and notes of the African goose 
 resemble those of the China goose quite as much 
 as those of the Toulouse or Embden. 
 
 Fig. 87. Wild and African cross. From United States Department of 
 Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. Howard. 
 
 Chinese. Individuals of this breed are several 
 pounds smaller than those of the breeds previ- 
 ously described. They are highly prized for 
 the quality of their flesh and are recognized as 
 excellent layers. Their lack of size, however, 
 has made them unpopular except for exhibition 
 purposes. 
 
Food Natural and Artificial 
 
 257 
 
 GEESE FOOD AND CARE 
 
 The first food for young goslings in nature is 
 grass, and breeders prefer to provide this for the 
 young of the domesticated geese. Grass at pas- 
 ture is recommended. Moistened corn meal is 
 also recommended. Grit in the form of sand 
 or fine gravel should be provided. Cooked vege- 
 tables make an excellent food and may be fed 
 in the form of a mash. Bran, middlings, and 
 corn meal, mixed with cooked vegetables, are 
 highly recommended. As with ducks and chick- 
 ens, it has been found best to give some animal 
 food. Animal meal mixed with the moistened 
 corn meal is recommended for young geese by 
 many breeders. The food of breeding geese 
 should consist chiefly of natural food gathered 
 from the pasture. Insects, snails, and other 
 animal life are then consumed. If animal food 
 is not abundant, it may be supplied artificially 
 to good advantage in the form of animal meal. 
 It is essential to permit breeding geese to roam 
 at will over areas of considerable size. For 
 fattening geese, it is a general practice to con- 
 fine them somewhat closely in order to prevent 
 them from taking too much exercise. Europeans, 
 who have become so noted for fattening geese, 
 take great .pains to keep them quiet. Every 
 precaution should be taken to avoid any dis- 
 
 Q 
 
258 Farm Poultry 
 
 turbance of the flock. Corn meal may form 
 the larger portion of the daily ration for fatten- 
 ing geese. Meat scrap may enter into the ration 
 up to one -fifth of the total amount, for immature 
 fowls. 
 
 Pate de foie gras.In. districts where the pro- 
 duction of "pate de foie gras" has developed 
 into an industry, particularly about Strasburg, 
 Germany, the geese are confined in individual 
 stalls so closely that they are compelled to re- 
 main in a sitting or standing posture. The stalls 
 are narrow, so that the birds are not even per- 
 mitted to turn around. They are removed from 
 this stall twice each day and fed, by the cram- 
 ming process, whole Indian corn that has been 
 thoroughly soaked. The corn is forced into the 
 mouth by hand and pushed into the throat by 
 the finger and is worked down the neck by rub- 
 bing externally. The geese are given plenty of 
 pure water and grit in the form of fine gravel. 
 The close confinement and abundance of corn 
 cause the livers to grow abnormally large, some- 
 times weighing as much as three pounds each. 
 
 It is said that expert feeders will produce 
 large livers in over 80 per cent of the geese fed. 
 The livers when prepared are known commer- 
 gially as "pate de foie gras," and are esteemed 
 a great delicacy. The feeders who sell livers to 
 those who prepare them for the trade sometimes 
 
: 
 
 Buildings 259 
 
 receive as much as $1.50 per pound. In some 
 districts, it is reported that great stress is laid 
 on the grit which is furnished these fattening 
 geese. Small pieces of antimony ore are said to 
 be highly prized for this purpose. In some places 
 the geese are suspended in nets, which prevent 
 them from taking exercise. 
 
 Houses. Geese require inexpensive and small 
 houses. Comparatively rude and simple struc- 
 tures answer every purpose. Simple shelter from 
 the storm is all that is necessary during the 
 larger part of the year. While they require 
 larger houses than ducks, and do not stand 
 crowding to so great an extent, yet the buildings 
 need not be expensive. Geese will require about 
 the same space in the building per pound of 
 live weight as ducks, but being much larger, 
 require larger buildings for the same number of 
 fowls. 
 
 Laying qualities. Geese are long-lived. It is 
 stated on good authority that they frequently 
 live from thirty to fifty years, and individuals 
 have lived to be more than a hundred years 
 old. The females retain their breeding qualities 
 through life, yet it is recommended to keep only 
 young ganders. Those from three to five years 
 of age are preferred. Geese are good sitters and 
 make good mothers. In this respect they still 
 retain well their natural instincts. Under ordi- 
 
260 Farm Poultry 
 
 nary conditions, a goose will lay from twelve to 
 twenty eggs before incubation. If the eggs be 
 removed from the nest, two or three sittings of 
 eggs may be produced by one female before in- 
 cubation will be persisted in. Usually it is rec- 
 ommended not to attempt to secure more than 
 three sittings from one female before she is per- 
 mitted to incubate. In practice, the first eggs 
 are usually set under hens, the goose hatching- 
 the eggs that are laid last. 
 
 Geese frequently begin laying early in the 
 spring, sometimes as early as February. Many 
 instances have been noted where the laying com- 
 menced in the late fall or early winter, but would 
 not continue through the winter. In such in- 
 stances the laying would begin again in the 
 spring. 
 
 The period of incubation is stated by various 
 authors to be from twenty -eight to thirty -one 
 days, which without doubt will represent the limits 
 under ordinary conditions. When eggs are placed 
 under hens they are not covered quite so well as 
 when placed under the mother goose, and incuba- 
 tion therefore may be delayed a little. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEAFOWLS, PIGEONS 
 
 OF the species of poultry aside from the hen, 
 ducks and geese, none has risen to great popu- 
 larity in North America except the turkey. The 
 various kinds of pheasants and peafowls are 
 grown more for fancy than for profit. At all 
 events, they are not to be considered as impor- 
 tant farm fowls. 
 
 TURKEYS 
 
 The wild turkey is a native of North America 
 and still abounds in the natural forests of Penn- 
 sylvania, Virginia and other Atlantic states. It 
 is also found in Tennessee and Kentucky and is 
 abundant in some of the western states, but its 
 principal home in the eastern United States at 
 the present time is in the mountainous regions of 
 the Atlantic states. Like many other species of 
 game it is rapidly disappearing, due to the great 
 changes made by man in his onward march 
 of civilization. Man is a great disturbing force 
 of nature's equilibrium when he removes the for- 
 ests in order to prepare the land for cultiva- 
 
 (261) 
 
262 Farm Poultry 
 
 tion. He not only destroys the home of the 
 game by removing the woods but causes frequent 
 forest fires, which are destructive at the brood- 
 ing season. Probably the number of Wild turkeys 
 is diminishing, yet, owing to their shy nature, 
 they are not likely to become entirely extinct for 
 many years. 
 
 The wild turkeys that are now found in the 
 forests of North America are those which have 
 been strong enough to withstand the unfavorable 
 conditions to which they have been subjected and 
 which have escaped their natural enemies. In 
 other words, they furnish a most excellent illus- 
 tration of the "survival of the fittest." Persons 
 who have had experience in breeding wild tur- 
 keys in confinement are convinced that they will 
 do well and retain good breeding qualities on less 
 food than will be required to keep domesticated 
 turkeys in the same condition. 
 
 Wild turkeys appear to be somewhat taller in 
 proportion to their weight than domesticated ones. 
 "They thrive and keep in good condition on less 
 food than the domestic turkey. Their slender, 
 alert appearance is striking to the most careless 
 observer. Their breadth of shoulder, deep chest 
 and firm step are noticeable when they are com- 
 pared with the domestic turkey. The head is 
 small in proportion to the body, and has a clean, 
 game -like appearance. The eyes are large, bright 
 
Wild Turkeys 263 
 
 hazel, and full of intelligence and suspicion . . . 
 Gobblers, when full grown, are about four feet 
 high and weigh, according to the section of the 
 country they are taken in, from 15 to 20 pounds 
 each. They do not get their full growth until the 
 end of the third year, and increase in weight and 
 beauty for several years after that. Gobblers 
 weighing 36 and 40 pounds have often been shot. 
 . . . Wild gobblers mate later and the hens lay 
 later than domestic turkeys. The flesh of wild 
 birds is of excellent flavor and is more delicate 
 and juicy than that of domestic turkeys." * 
 
 The Ehode Island Experiment Station speaks 
 as follows of wild turkey crosses :f "Where 
 wild turkeys are plenty, crosses between wild and 
 domestic birds frequently occur without design on 
 the part of the owner of the latter. Scores of 
 cases are recorded where a wild gobbler from the 
 woods has taken possession of a flock of common 
 turkeys, sometimes after first battling with and 
 killing the domestic gobbler. The results of such 
 a cross in almost every ca^e have been so satis- 
 factory that such matings are much desired by 
 turkey raisers in those sections, and young wild 
 birds are caught for this purpose and brought up 
 with common young turkeys. Very often nests 
 of wild turkey eggs are found in the woods and 
 
 * Bulletin 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 116. 
 tSarae, p. 119. 
 
264 Farm Poultry 
 
 hatched on the farm. These domesticated wild 
 birds usually persist in roosting separate from the 
 others, generally in the woods or on the top of 
 a house or barn. When raised from the egg they 
 become more gentle and fearless than the domestic 
 turkey, but if chased or frightened they recover 
 their wild habits very quickly. Wild turkey 
 crosses are hardier and healthier than common 
 turkeys and rarely have disease. Half-blood hens 
 are generally too wild, but half-blood gobblers 
 are not as wild and are suitable for crossing with 
 domestic hens. A small proportion of wild blood 
 improves the size, form, and 1 general appearance, 
 as well as the vigor, without being a disadvantage 
 in any way. A quarter- wild cross is better for 
 practical breeding than a pure wild or half wild 
 bird. Half -wild crosses do well if allowed a large 
 range, but are not well suited to woody lands or as 
 easily kept on small places as the domestic turkey. 
 
 "Wild turkey hens under domestication and 
 wild first- cross hens often disappear in the spring 
 and are not seen until fall, when they usually 
 return to their own home with a brood of nearly 
 full-grown turkeys. Half-blood mothers make 
 their young too wild. Half-bloods reared by 
 domestic turkey hens are not much inclined to 
 stray. Quarter -bloods under certain conditions 
 may be as wild as the wild bird of the woods. 
 
 "The flock of half -wild birds reared at the Sta- 
 
Wild Turkey Crosses 265 
 
 tion this season was very tame and unsuspicious 
 until several were snared for exhibition at the 
 Kingston Fair. Since then they have been so shy 
 that we were unable to secure another lot. They 
 take flight immediately if a suspicious movement 
 is made. They will be more easily caught later 
 in the season. The wild blood gives the cross an 
 astonishing ability to care for themselves. It is 
 apt to have the strongest influence in breeding. 
 If first crosses are bred together the stock resem- 
 bles the pure wild, and after several generations 
 cannot be distinguished from the pure wild by 
 good judges. The older the bird grows the more 
 he shows the wild blood. Crosses have much of 
 the superior game flavor of the wild and com- 
 mand a higher price for the table. 
 
 "Some wild bronze crosses that are half and 
 three-quarters wild blood are as large as the pure 
 bronze turkeys. Several years' crossing, however, 
 with the selection of the largest for breeding each 
 season, gives the greatest size."* 
 
 Domesticated turkeys partake largely of the 
 nature of the wild stock from which they have 
 descended. Many of the domesticated flocks 
 have been crossed on the domesticated fowl within 
 recent years. 
 
 Turkeys that are commonly reared for profit 
 on farms are of a roving disposition and do not 
 
 * Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
266 Farm Poultry 
 
 thrive well when closely confined. On this 
 account, they are not suited to rearing in large 
 numbers on small areas. Owners of small farms 
 or village lots, therefore, are practically debarred 
 from rearing large numbers of turkeys, particu- 
 larly if they are to be kept from trespassing 
 on the holdings of their neighbors. While the 
 mother turkey with her brood may be confined in 
 very limited areas for a time during the brooding 
 season, yet as the young become older and are 
 prepared to seek their own living, they thrive 
 much better if close restrictions are not enforced. 
 Whoever attempts to rear turkeys in consider- 
 able numbers should therefore plan to give them 
 a wide range, particularly during the latter part 
 of their growth. They are not able to adapt 
 themselves to artificial conditions as well as chick- 
 ens or ducks or even geese. 
 
 In North America there are two distinct species 
 of native turkeys; one inhabits the United States 
 and Mexico, the other is found in Honduras. The 
 latter is sometimes spoken of as the ocellated 
 turkey. The former has been separated into sev- 
 eral varieties, the best known of which are the 
 Mexican turkey, from which the common domes- 
 ticated turkey is descended, and the wild turkey 
 of the eastern United States. The Mexican form 
 is somewhat smaller than the wild form of the 
 eastern United States. 
 
Description of Varieties 
 TUKKEYS VABIETIES 
 
 267 
 
 The recognized varieties of the domestic turkey 
 are the Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Buff, 
 Slate, and Black. 
 
 The Bronze. The Bronze is the largest variety. 
 The American Standard of Perfection gives the 
 
 Fig. 88. Bronze turkey, male. 
 
 standard weights for this turkey, adult male 36 
 pounds, adult female 20 pounds. The origin of 
 the variety is obscure. Some authorities main- 
 tain that it was formed by crossing the North 
 American wild on the domesticated Black. The 
 wandering disposition of the Bronze is thought 
 
268 Farm Poultry 
 
 to be due to a comparatively recent infusion of 
 wild blood. This is unquestionably the most 
 .popular variety, owing largely, no doubt, to its 
 great size. Breeders and judges of turkeys lay 
 great stress on the size of the Bronze. Correct 
 plumage is not sufficient to redeem an exhibition 
 bird if it lacks in size. (Fig. 88.) 
 
 Narragansett. This variety takes its name 
 from Narragansett Bay in Ehode Island. This 
 state has long been noted for the large numbers 
 and excellence of the turkeys which it has pro- 
 duced. The reputation of the Rhode Island tur- 
 keys was made largely when the Narragansetts 
 were chiefly reared. In more recent years the 
 Bronze has supplanted the Narragansetts to a 
 considerable extent, which was due to the greater 
 size of the former, although the latter are not 
 small turkeys. The Standard gives the weight 
 for Narragansetts as 30 pounds for the cock and 
 18 for the hen. They are of a gray color, al- 
 though some bronze luster is seen on the wings. 
 They have plump, thick -set bodies and grow 
 rapidly. They mature early and do not roam so 
 far as the Bronze. 
 
 The White Holland. This variety is some- 
 times known as the White Turkey. It is not so 
 popular as some other kinds, yet in a few local- 
 ities it is a favorite. Many breeders who have 
 had an opportunity to compare this turkey with 
 
Description of Varieties 269 
 
 others assert that it is one of the most profit- 
 able kinds. The White Hollands grow rapidly 
 and attain a heavy weight at an early age. 
 
 " The White Hollands are perhaps the best lay- 
 ers among turkeys. It is sometimes reckoned as 
 a fault that few hens want to hatch early in the 
 season, and a large number of eggs and no broody 
 hens is not an uncommon occurrence. ... I 
 believe them to be good turkeys and worthy of 
 the best efforts of the breeders and farmers in 
 general, and think no one need be seriously dis- 
 appointed in them if he goes ahead properly and 
 knows what he is doing." * The standard weight 
 for White Hollands is given for cock 26 pounds 
 and hen 16 pounds. 
 
 Buff turkey. The Buff variety is thought by 
 many to be the most beautiful of turkeys. It is 
 not known how the variety originated, although 
 it was probably produced by crossing. The Buffs 
 are a little heavier than the White Hollands and 
 are profitable fowls. 
 
 Slate turkey. The Slate turkeys in many re- 
 spects are very much like the Buffs. The color 
 is thought by many to be the chief difference. 
 They are fine -looking fowls and are to be recom- 
 mended as profitable for the farm. 
 
 Black turkey. This is an old variety. It has 
 been bred in England for a long time. "In 
 
 *Geo. Enty, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them" Myrick, p. 28. 
 
270 Farm Poultry 
 
 certain parts of England it was, until quite 
 recently, the favorite variety, and is known there 
 as the Black Norfolk." * 
 
 TURKEYS GENERAL CARE 
 
 At no time in, the life of the turkey does its 
 wild nature assert itself more than at the laying 
 season. The domesticated turkey hen still loves 
 secrecy as regards her nesting place. Half- 
 wild turkeys, when given their liberty, have 
 frequently eluded all attempts on the part of 
 watchers to follow them and to locate their nests. 
 Many successful turkey raisers who do not keep 
 the breeding fowls confined within large in- 
 closures provide nesting places for them in more 
 or less secluded places. An empty barrel turned 
 on its side or pieces of wide boards nailed together 
 so that a low roof is formed over a nest on the 
 ground answer the purpose. As a good turkey 
 hen will lay more eggs than she can cover well 
 at one sitting, it is customary to remove the eggs 
 from the nest daily and to place the first laid 
 under broody hens. The last eggs should be given 
 the turkey hen to hatch. 
 
 Some attempts have been made to rear tur- 
 keys by means of artificial incubators and brood- 
 ers, but in many instances the results have been 
 
 *H. S, Babcock, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Thera"-Myrick, p. 22. 
 
Breeding Stock 271 
 
 far from satisfactory. Most turkey raisers depend 
 upon natural methods of incubation and brood- 
 ing. Turkey eggs hatch in twenty- eight days. 
 
 Selection of breeding stock. Many farmers un- 
 doubtedly make mistakes in selecting young and 
 immature birds for breeding stock. Experienced 
 turkey raisers insist on breeding from mature and 
 well-tried birds. If a hen proves to be a good 
 breeder and a careful mother she should be kept as 
 long as she proves profitable. The young of mature 
 parents are thought to be considerably stronger than 
 those of immature fowls. Two- or three -year old 
 toms are sometimes preferred to older ones on ac- 
 count of the great weight which older birds attain. 
 
 "Mr. Grinnell, who lives on a farm near the 
 Experiment Station, raises from 50 to 60 turkeys 
 every season. Others in his neighborhood have 
 poor success. He does not believe in changing 
 gobblers when a good one has been secured. 
 When he gets one that sires good stock he keeps 
 him as long as he is good for anything. The 
 one he now has is four years old. The hens are 
 also kept as long as they live. . . . One hen that 
 he has had for five years was said to have been 
 eight. years old when he bought her. She still 
 lays from two to three litters of eggs each season, 
 and her turkeys are larger than the others. "* 
 
 Care and food for the young. Newly hatched 
 
 * Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
272 Farm Poultry 
 
 poults are very delicate and require close atten- 
 tion on the part of the attendant. First of all, 
 they must be kept dry. Wet or damp quarters 
 should be avoided. A dry, porous soil is consid- 
 ered much more satisfactory than a heavy one, 
 though the latter be underdrained. "Young tur- 
 keys should not be out in heavy showers until 
 their backs are well covered with feathers. If 
 they get wet they may die from chill unless put 
 in a warm room to dry. Black or red pepper 
 and ginger in the food or drinking water aid 
 them to overcome a chill, and are of great value 
 on cold or damp days and are a preventive of 
 bowel troubles in both old and young turkeys."* 
 
 For the first few weeks the young should be 
 kept in dry places and not permitted to travel 
 through tall grass when it is wet. During the 
 warm and dry parts of the day they may be 
 given a run on short grass or cultivated land. 
 Many poultrymen prefer placing the hen in a 
 large, airy coop and giving the young a free 
 run, rather than to confine the young and give the 
 hen her freedom. In either case it is advisable 
 to restrict the run of the young for a few days. 
 It should not be omitted to move the coops 
 frequently, that the young may be brooded on 
 fresh ground. 
 
 The first food should be soft and easily di- 
 
 * Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
Food for Young Fowls 
 
 273 
 
 gestible. Most turkey raisers highly recommend 
 hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. This is a most 
 excellent food, but should be fed in moderation 
 and in connection with other soft foods. Stale 
 bread dipped in milk and allowed to drain until 
 it becomes dry enough to crumble is a most ex- 
 cellent first food. This may be fed until the 
 
 Fig. 89. Turkey house - Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 young are several days old. It should be borne 
 in mind that the bread, or any other food for 
 that matter, should not be fed in a sloppy or 
 very moist condition. Coarse bread baked for the 
 purpose, if softened with milk, is highly prized. 
 Scalded bran and corn meal to which some finely 
 chopped hard-boiled eggs have been added is 
 relished, and is a satisfactory food. As the poults 
 become older, they may be fed bran, Indian meal 
 
 R 
 
274 Farm Poultry 
 
 and ground oats (the hulls removed) which have 
 been thoroughly soaked. Freshly moistened meal 
 foods are not equal to the same food that has 
 become thoroughly softened by soaking or scald- 
 ing. Thick sour milk or curd may. be mixed with 
 the soft foods to good advantage. 
 
 When the birds are beginning to "feather out," 
 cracked corn may be 'added to the ration. Some 
 successful poultry raisers, however, - recommend 
 soaking the cracked corn at first. Later in the 
 season whole corn may be fed. Old corn is pre- 
 ferred to new. 
 
 GUINEA FOWLS 
 
 Under ordinary farm conditions the domes- 
 ticated guineas can hardly be called profitable 
 farm fowls. Tney lay fairly well during the sum- 
 mer time if given a wide range, but owing to 
 the disposition of the hen to hide her nest the 
 eggs are often entirely lost. Many instances are 
 known in which the hen has secreted her nest 
 and continued to lay until it became well filled, 
 when it would be abandoned for another. This 
 in turn might be left to the same fate as the 
 first. Instances are known of three nests being 
 well filled with eggs before the hen showed any 
 disposition to incubate. 
 
 Objections have been made to the fowl on 
 account of its sharp, screeching voice. It is true 
 
Guineas 
 
 275 
 
 that guineas make more noise than chickens and 
 that their voices are somewhat piercing, yet they 
 are not objectionable to most people unless the 
 poultry yard and other places frequented by them 
 are very near the dwelling house. The writer 
 has heard several farmers express a liking for 
 
 Fig. 90. "A guinea hen (one-sixth size). 
 
 these birds because they are " rather noisy." 
 They are "company." Like geese, guineas are 
 inclined to give an alarm if the poultry yard is 
 molested. 
 
 Guineas like a wide range. They prefer to 
 perch far from the ground preferably in trees 
 although they will not infrequently perch with 
 
276 Farm Poultry 
 
 hens in poultry houses during severe weather, 
 if given an opportunity to do so. Guineas are 
 naturally shy and are easily frightened, although 
 they may become tame with kind and careful 
 treatment. They are not specially prized for the 
 quality of their flesh, although in some parts of 
 the United States young fowls are considered a 
 delicacy. 
 
 PEAFOWLS 
 
 Peafowls are reared in small numbers by those 
 who delight in seeing the most gorgeous plumage 
 of domesticated fowls. They are not reared for 
 their flesh nor for egg production. It is recorded,* 
 however, that in the reign of Henry VI of Eng- 
 land, peacocks were highly esteemed as a deli- 
 cacy. In some respects peafowls are quite as near 
 the wild forms from which they have descended 
 as any species of domesticated fowls. They delight 
 in perching at a great distance from the ground 
 and frequently fly to the roofs of tall farm build- 
 ings. They fly easily and gracefully. 
 
 The male or cock bird is by far the most gor- 
 geous of farm fowls. Peafowls are reared almost 
 wholly on account of the proud and brilliant 
 appearance of the male. The brilliant coloring 
 of the head and neck feathers and his large and 
 beautiful tail, make him a source of delight to 
 
 #Book of Poultry," Wright, p. 531, 
 
Peafowls and Pigeons 277 
 
 children and an interesting bird to adults. The 
 hen is modest appearing and unattractive in color- 
 ing. The cock is generally troublesome in the 
 poultry yard on account of his disposition to kill 
 other kinds of poultry, particularly young chick- 
 ens and ducks. Cocks have been known to attack 
 mature fowls and even children and adults. The 
 male does not acquire his most brilliant and per- 
 fect plumage until he is more than three years of 
 age. The peacock is disliked by some on ac- 
 count of his loud screeching voice, which he is 
 inclined to use freely. 
 
 PIGEONS 
 
 While pigeons are not usually mentioned among 
 the various kinds of profitable farm stock, yet 
 the possibilities of profitable returns are so great 
 that a somewhat full discussion of pigeon-rearing 
 is warranted. However, only a short discussion 
 will be devoted to the business as yielding money 
 returns on the investment. To lovers of animal 
 life, pigeon -rearing offers a most fascinating field, 
 particularly to the boys and girls who delight 
 in caring for stock that they may call their own. 
 Many a farm boy has become interested in ani- 
 mal life and has learned many things which have 
 been of great use to him in after years, that he 
 acquired by caring for and studying the needs of 
 
278 Farm Poultry 
 
 pets which had been given wholly to his charge. 
 Farm boys become dissatisfied with the farm 
 and decide to leave it chiefly for two reasons 
 because they are not interested in farm life and 
 work, and because they have not been taught 
 how to make quick returns and good profits for 
 the money invested. The rearing of pigeons will 
 often afford satisfactory first lessons and may re- 
 veal possibilities that will be sufficiently enticing 
 when considered from a standpoint of income 
 alone. Interest in animal life, particularly those 
 forms that are easily handled and controlled, serves 
 a most useful purpose in leading the young mind 
 along profitable channels of development. Inter- 
 est in pigeon -rearing cannot fail to develop to 
 some extent the powers of observation. Other 
 things being equal, the boy who sees most will 
 have the best understanding of the subject in 
 question. So long as knowledge is power, then 
 those who are the closest observers will not only 
 understand best the matter under consideration 
 but will be best prepared to meet the greater 
 problems that each individual is required, sooner 
 or later, to solve for himself. 
 
 The care of pigeons may be given almost 
 wholly to quite young boys and girls, if a few 
 simple directions for feeding and care be under- 
 stood and a suitable home be provided for the 
 birds. On mos't farms only a small money out- 
 
Pigeon Hearing 
 
 279 
 
 lay will be required and very little trouble is 
 necessary to prepare comfortable quarters for 
 breeding pigeons, particularly if the young be 
 sold as squabs. 
 
 "The shelters for squab breeders should not 
 be too cold, although the experienced can raise 
 them in almost any old shell of a building, as 
 
 Fig. 91. Pigeon cote and aviary Rhode Island Agricultural College. 
 
 far north as New York city. The fittings are 
 only nests, perches and drinking and bath foun- 
 tains, a space of two square feet of floor being 
 counted to each bird, with never less than twice 
 as much room in the flight yards, in the open air. 
 The flight spaces are best enclosed by inch-mesh 
 wire net, as this excludes sparrows, which are 
 arrant thieves and fighters. The netting usually 
 rians overhead, to the highest point of the roof."* 
 
 *" Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 140. 
 
280 Farm Poultry 
 
 A fine quality of squabs finds a ready market 
 in the great cities. They are quoted from about 
 50 cents to $3.75 per dozen, and frequently the 
 expert producers obtain nearly twice this amount. 
 For the money outlay squab-raising offers a tempt- 
 ing field for those who are willing to give atten- 
 tion to the many little things. To those who are 
 not willing to observe closely the needs of the 
 birds and to use good judgment in meeting these 
 demands, pigeon -raising will probably prove un- 
 satisfactory, affording neither pleasure nor profit. 
 The negligent or careless person should not enter 
 into the poultry business, since success depends 
 on the many minor things which cannot be neg- 
 lected. Squab -rearing may be made very profit- 
 able if "eternal vigilance," the price of success, 
 be given. 
 
 Most of the squabs that are now sold in the 
 markets of the large cities average from one- 
 half pound to three-quarters of a pound each, 
 while the choicest birds may weigh nearly twice 
 as much.* Many experienced squab raisers pre- 
 fer a cross of Runts and Homers for fine birds. 
 The mother should be a IJomer, as these birds 
 are better breeders and better mothers than the 
 Eunts. 
 
 The health of pigeons should receive close 
 attention. They should be given an opportunity 
 
 *" Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 142. 
 

 Squab Rearing 
 
 281 
 
 to bathe, and such conditions should be provided 
 as will produce the strongest and most vigorous 
 squabs. 
 
 A variety of grains is usually fed. Cracked 
 corn, wheat, hulled oats, millet, hemp, and other 
 small seeds are much used. As light-colored 
 squabs are preferred, cracked corn is a favorite 
 food. Pigeons are particularly fond of salt. 
 Many pigeon raisers keep a supply of salt ac- 
 cessible to the birds at all times. As the old 
 birds feed the squabs, it is essential that the 
 parents be well fed. A clean sanded floor is an 
 excellent place for feeding the old birds 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 PREPARING AND MARKETING POULTRY PRODUCTS 
 
 THOSE who are preparing poultry for market 
 should constantly bear in mind that it is of the 
 utmost importance to have the products reach 
 the market in the most perfect condition. Flesh 
 that is clean and bright always presents a more 
 attractive appearance than that which is discol- 
 ored. Fowls are sometimes discolored as the 
 result of improper methods of -packing and ship- 
 ping. Careless packing and rough handling, 
 the latter too often given by the employees 
 of railroads and express companies frequently 
 cause a good article to reach the market in a poor 
 condition, and it therefore brings a low price. 
 It is the privilege of every shipper to prepare his 
 fowls in such a manner that they may reach the 
 market in as inviting condition as possible. The 
 best appearing fowls always sell at a higher price 
 than equally as good stock that has been im- 
 properly prepared or is untidy. Commission men 
 state that properly prepared meat will readily 
 sell for twice as much as an equally good article 
 that is poorly arranged and uninviting. 
 
 (282) 
 
Preparing Poultry for Market 283 
 
 DKESSING POULTKY 
 
 Those who have taken the trouble to study 
 the conditions of the markets in the great cities 
 say, without hesitation, that the good stock is 
 sold first and that the poor and indifferent be- 
 comes a drug on the market. New York com- 
 mission men are quite positive in the conviction 
 that shippers who are able to prepare their 
 product in uniformly fine order readily acquire a 
 reputation among buyers, enabling them to se- 
 cure a somewhat higher price than the same 
 stock would bring if prepared in an indifferent 
 manner. 
 
 In order to arrange products for market in 
 the best possible manner, it is necessary to study 
 the details of killing, dressing and packing, which 
 will enable the producer to send not only those 
 articles which the market demands, but to send 
 them in the best possible condition. Fowls should 
 not be fed for some time before killing. At 
 least twelve hours, and in many cases twenty -four 
 hours, should elapse after the last feeding before 
 the killing takes place. At any rate, the crops 
 of the chickens should become entirely empty. 
 Some cities have passed ordinances prohibiting 
 the selling of dressed fowls whose crops are not 
 free from food. In such markets the law makes 
 it imperative that solid food should be withheld 
 
284 Farm, Poultry 
 
 long enough before killing to permit the crops 
 to become entirely empty. 
 
 If for any reason a few fowls should gain 
 access to food just before killing time, and it 
 is not desirable to retain them longer on the 
 farm, they may be killed and dressed with the 
 rest, and after picking, a short clean-cut incision 
 may be made through the skin, which will per- 
 mit the removal of the crop. An incision should 
 be made in the crop, the crop turned inside 
 out, thoroughly cleaned and returned. The 
 practice of removing grain from the crop by 
 forcing it out through the mouth by external 
 pressure is not recommended; in fact, it is 
 condemned in positive terms by dealers. While 
 in some instances it may be possible to empty 
 the crop without breaking the skin, yet it will 
 be necessary to use sufficient force in many cases 
 'to cause discoloration. 
 
 There are two methods used in preparing 
 dressed fowls for market. These are known as 
 dry -picking and scalding. It may be stated in 
 a general way that the finest quality of chickens 
 and turkeys commands higher prices when dry- 
 picked. On the other hand, lean or thin poul- 
 try does not present so good an appearance 
 as when scalded and "plumped," as will be 
 explained later, and therefore does not sell so 
 well. Ducks and geese are usually scalded, 
 
Killing and Picking 285 
 
 with the exception of young, fat ducks, which are 
 known on the market as "green ducks." These 
 are usually dry -picked. 
 
 Killing. Those who are required to perform 
 the operation of killing fowls should bear in 
 mind that it is desirable to remove all the blood 
 from the body that can be withdrawn, and to 
 cause the fowl to suffer as little pain as possible. 
 In other words, the operator should be as hu- 
 mane as circumstances will allow. He may, at 
 the same time, prepare his birds in the best pos- 
 sible manner. 
 
 All kinds of fowls are recommended to be 
 killed by cutting through the roof of the mouth. 
 This will cut through an artery, which will cause 
 the blood to flow freely. A sharp -pointed knife 
 should be used for this purpose, which should 
 pierce the base of the brain; it will cause death 
 at once. It is said by experts that a fowl 
 may be killed so quickly that the blood will not 
 flow as freely as desired and that the feathers 
 will be removed with more difficulty, especially 
 if dry -picking is practiced. The ideal condition 
 is to have the knife enter the brain and par- 
 alyze the fowl, and while in this condition to 
 have it bleed to death. If the fowl becomes 
 paralyzed the muscles are relaxed and the 
 feathers are easily removed. Too much stress 
 catniot be laid on the importance of thorough 
 
286 , Farm Poultry 
 
 bleeding. Americans prefer to have all flesh free 
 from blood. The keeping quality is thought to 
 be considerably enhanced by thorough bleeding. 
 In all the operations of killing and picking, care 
 should be taken to avoid bruising the flesh, 
 tearing the skin or breaking the bones. 
 
 It is customary to suspend fowls by the feet 
 before they are killed. In the case of heavy 
 fowls they should be so suspended that they will 
 not strike each other with their wings when flop- 
 ping, or strike their wings against any hard 
 object. Fowls bleed best when suspended head 
 downward at the time of killing. 
 
 Dry -picking. Immediately after killing, the 
 feathers should be removed carefully and cleanly. 
 Dressed fowls should be sent to market, if pos- 
 sible, without the skin being broken at any 
 place. It is usually customary to commence pick- 
 ing immediately after sticking. "Green ducks" 
 and broilers are usually picked while the bleed- 
 ing is taking place. As soon as the incision is 
 made with the knife, the birds are stunned by 
 a blow on the head and then picking com- 
 mences at once. It is essential in dry- picking 
 to remove the feathers as soon as possible after 
 the birds are killed. 
 
 When fowls are picked dry, to be shipped in 
 cold weather, they should be hung in a cool place 
 until thoroughly cold before they are packed. 
 
Dry -picking and Scalding 287 
 
 Poultry should not be packed until all of the ani- 
 mal heat has disappeared. A cool place is pref- 
 erable to one so cold that the flesh will freeze 
 quickly. If the skin is wet when the fowls are 
 packed, they are likely to present a more or less 
 discolored appearance when offered for sale. 
 When dry-picked fowls are to be packed in ice 
 for hot weather shipment, they may be plunged 
 in cold water for a short time immediately after 
 picking and then placed in a tank of ice water 
 and left for several hours. Some extensive duck 
 raisers make a practice of leaving the picked 
 ducks in cold water over night. Either ice water 
 or cold spring water may be used for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Young fowls, especially ducks, that have 
 many pin feathers are sometimes prepared by 
 shaving with a sharp knife after the feathers 
 are removed. This removes the projecting parts 
 of the pin feathers and will help to place the 
 fowl in the best possible condition for market. 
 Of course white birds are much preferred on 
 this account to colored ones. The English use 
 a short, thin-bladed knife in removing the pin 
 feathers. This operation is called "stubbing," 
 and is generally performed by women and chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Scalding. When birds are scalded they should 
 be immersed in hot water immediately after they 
 
288 Farm Poultry 
 
 are through bleeding. The water should be a 
 little below the boiling point. It is recommended 
 to immerse the birds thoroughly in the water 
 three or four times, lifting them out between each 
 immersion in order to give them a little airing. 
 Immediately after scalding, chickens and turkeys 
 should be picked clean, and care be taken not 
 to break the skin. The skin of young fat fowls 
 is more likely to tear than that of older ones. 
 As these birds are the most valuable, it is neces- 
 sary to exercise the greatest care and skill in 
 preparing them. After scalding ducks and geese, 
 it is recommended to wrap them in a cloth for 
 about two minutes, in order that the down may 
 be more readily removed with the feathers. 
 
 Plumping. Commission men recommend that 
 scalded poultry be "plumped" after picking. That 
 is, after the fowls are carefully picked, they should 
 be dipped in hot water for a few seconds. This 
 water should be about the same temperature as 
 that used for scalding, perhaps not quite so warm. 
 Then they are removed and placed at once in 
 cold water, where they should remain from fif- 
 teen to twenty minutes. If fowls that are scalded 
 and "plumped" in this manner are to be shipped 
 dry, they should be hung up until the skin be- 
 comes thoroughly dry. If they are to be packed 
 in ice for warm weather shipment they may 
 be placed in cold water for several hours, when 
 
Preparing for Shipment 289 
 
 they will be ready to pack. It is not necessary 
 to dry the fowls when they are to be packed 
 in ice. 
 
 In scalding fowls, care should be taken not 
 to leave them in the water too long. Over- scald- 
 ing will cause the outer surface of the skin to 
 peel off, and, consequently, they will not present 
 a good appearance. If they are under -scalded, 
 the feathers cannot be removed so readily, and 
 salesmen find that they do not appear so well 
 when exposed for sale. 
 
 PACKING AND SHIPPING 
 
 If the fowls are to be packed dry for cool 
 weather shipment, neat packages that are clean, 
 and as light as will carry the contents safely, are 
 to be preferred. Uniform packages are preferred 
 to various kinds of rough boxes. Clean barrels 
 or neatly prepared cases should be used. It is 
 recommended to use cases or boxes for turkeys 
 and geese, and barrels for chickens. In pack- 
 ing poultry, it is customary to use clean, dry 
 wheat or rye straw. The straw should be free 
 from chaff, and hand- threshed is preferred to 
 that which has been threshed by a machine. 
 A layer of straw should be placed in the bottom 
 of the package, and then alternate layers of poul- 
 try and straw until the package is full. Heavy 
 
290 Farm Poultry 
 
 paper is placed by some poultry shippers between 
 the poultry and the sides of the package. 
 
 All fowls should be perfectly clean and dry 
 before packing. If there is any moisture or blood 
 about the head it should be removed with a cloth. 
 If a fowl is inclined to bleed a little at the mouth, 
 the mouth should be thoroughly wiped out arid 
 a little cotton inserted to absorb any liquid that 
 might otherwise cause discoloration. 
 
 Packing in ice. Large barrels are usually em- 
 ployed for this purpose. If sugar barrels are used, 
 they should be thoroughly washed, preferably 
 with hot water, to remove all traces of sugar. 
 Expert packers place a layer of cracked ice in 
 the bottom of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, 
 then another layer of ice, and so on until the 
 barrel is full. After the top layer of poultry is 
 in place, there should be a layer of cracked ice 
 placed on top. On this layer spread a piece of 
 burlap which is sufficiently large to cover well 
 the top of the barrel. On this burlap some 
 cracked ice may be placed and on top of all a 
 large piece of ice. Over all place another piece 
 of burlap. This may be held in place by driv- 
 ing the top hoop on over the burlap. 
 
 It is recommended to place the fowls heads 
 outward, backs up and the feet toward the middle 
 of the barrel. That is, the fowls as placed in 
 the barrel should slope from the center toward 
 
Packing for Shipment 291 
 
 the staves. This will cause the ice as it melts 
 to work from the center toward the outside of 
 the barrel. In transit the ice nearest to the out- 
 side of the barrel will melt first. It is, therefore, 
 of considerable importance to have those parts of 
 the fowls nearest to the outside of the barrel 
 cooled by the ice which is in the center of the 
 barrel. The water and ice from the center will 
 continually work toward the outside. 
 
 Frozen poultry. Poultry is frequently shipped 
 during cold weather in a frozen condition. Com- 
 mission men recommend that only the best quality 
 of poultry should be shipped in this manner. 
 Only dry -picked fowls should be selected for 
 freezing. When poultry is frozen by natural 
 out-of-door temperature, cases may be filled when 
 the fowls are thoroughly frozen and the tem- 
 perature is low. It is not necessary to use ice 
 in packing when frozen fowls are shipped. Poul- 
 try that is frozen solid may be kept for a long 
 time, even for months, provided it does not thaw 
 out. 
 
 Marking packages. If dressed poultry is sent 
 to middlemen, each package should be marked 
 with the name and address of the commission 
 man and also with the name and address of 
 the sender. It is also well to mark on each 
 package its contents, whether chickens, fowls, 
 turkeys, ducks or geese, and the number of birds 
 
292 Farm Poultry 
 
 or gross weight. It. should not be neglected to 
 forward advice by mail, giving a correct statement 
 of all goods sent. If inferior or second quality 
 fowls are shipped, it is always best to state to 
 the commission man the contents of the pack- 
 age and also the quality. If a poor quality of 
 goods is sent, he is sure to find it out, and it 
 may save him considerable annoyance if he knows 
 what the package contains before it is opened. 
 
 Time of shipment. When poultry or eggs are 
 sent to commission men, it should be borne in 
 mind that these products, if for immediate sale, 
 should reach them in the middle or early part of 
 the week. Many commission men sell very little 
 after Friday noon. In a general way, it may be 
 stated that Saturday is retailers' day; that the 
 retailers are supposed to have their stock on hand 
 before Saturday, and that they do not go to the 
 commission men for their supplies during that 
 day. Shipments are often made so that they 
 reach their destination late in the week and are, 
 therefore, carried over until the beginning of 
 the next week. 
 
 English and German methods. The English 
 method of preparing fowls for market is, in many 
 respects, very different from that in vogue in 
 the United States, and undoubtedly would not 
 be acceptable to the most, fastidious in this coun- 
 try, who have become accustomed to other meth- 
 
European Methods 293 
 
 ods of dressing and marketing fowls. The Eng- 
 lish method of preparing young fowls for market, 
 which have been fattened by the cramming pro- 
 cess and which afford a most delicate flesh, is 
 to kill them without bleeding. While in the 
 United States great stress is laid on removing 
 as much blood as possible from the body, the 
 English prefer not to have the fowl bled at all. 
 The operator holds the fowl with his left hand 
 and grasps the head with his right. He gives a 
 forcible, forward pull with his right hand, hold- 
 ing the head at right angles to the neck. He 
 uses enough force to dislocate the neck just be- 
 low the head. This kills the fowl at once and 
 frequently causes considerable blood to settle in 
 the neck, although no blood leaves the body. 
 When dry -picking is practiced the fowls are 
 picked at once after the neck is dislocated. Pick- 
 ers become very expert in dry-picking fowls. As 
 the hand moves back and forth over the body 
 the feathers gradually disappear, and in less time 
 than it requires to describe the operation prop- 
 erly an expert picker will have the feathers 
 removed from a good specimen. While the Eng- 
 lish do not meet our requirements as regards 
 the drawing of blood, yet in some respects they 
 take more pains in preparing the birds for market 
 than Americans do. 
 
 As soon as the birds are picked, they are fre- 
 
294 Farm Poultry 
 
 quently placed on what is known as a "forming 
 machine," prepared for the purpose and weighted, 
 in order to make the bodies appear plump. The 
 legs are folded underneath the body, which gives 
 a plumper appearance. Before the fowls are 
 placed on the machine the breast bone is some- 
 times broken down, though not always. The 
 stern of the fowl is pressed firmly against a 
 smooth, hard object in order to give it a flattened 
 appearance. This appearance is still further in- 
 creased by the use of the machine on which the 
 fowls are placed. They are left on the shelves 
 until cool. Sometimes, however, they are sent to 
 a near-by market before the animal heat has left 
 the body. The English method of preparing 
 fowls for market has some advantages over that 
 in use in the United States. There is no doubt 
 that fowls will appear plumper when cooled 
 on a "forming machine," after the English fash- 
 ion, than when hung up by the feet to cool ac- 
 cording to the almost universal custom in America. 
 The "forming machine,"* see Fig. 92, is made 
 by arranging conveniently a series of shelves so 
 that each shelf has a backboard placed at nearly 
 a right angle to it. The shelves slope backward 
 somewhat, which keeps the fowls which are placed 
 upon them snugly in the angle formed by the shelf 
 and the backboard. The width of the shelf is 
 
 Fattening Fowls," E. Cobb. 
 
The "Forming Machine" 
 
 295 
 
 determined somewhat by the size of the fowls 
 to be placed upon it. Those who are extensively 
 engaged in fattening fowls have different sizes 
 of "forming machines." For medium-sized 
 chickens, shelves about seven inches wide are 
 used. The English become very skilful in using 
 the machine to the best advantage. The opera- 
 
 Fig. 92. An English "forming machine," which is used to give a plump 
 appearance to dressed chickens. 
 
 tion of preparing the fowls by the use of this 
 machine may be briefly described as follows: 
 They first squeeze out any matter from the vent, 
 then grasp the bird, back uppermost, with both 
 hands. The thumbs are placed on the back with 
 the fingers clasping the legs, which are bent 
 underneath the body. While held in this position 
 
296 Farm Poultry 
 
 the bird is jammed against a smooth wall or 
 post, which forces the "parson's nose" upward 
 so that it points above the back. During this 
 operation the body is held firmly, but care is 
 taken not to mar the skin. The bird is placed 
 carefully in the machine so that the "parson's 
 
 Fig. 93. A capon as prepared for 
 the English market by use of a 
 "forming machine." From "Fat- 
 tening Fowls," by Cobb. 
 
 nose" is held straight up against the backboard, 
 the head and neck hanging over the front of the 
 shelf. When the shelf is filled with birds, that 
 are tightly packed side by side, a board about 
 four inches wide is placed on the fowls and 
 heavily weighted. They are left in this position 
 until cold. See Fig. 93. 
 
Shipping Live Poultry 297 
 
 The English frequently break down the breast 
 bone of young fowls that are not very fat, in order 
 to give them a plumper appearance. This may 
 be done by grasping the fowl with both hands 
 and pressing with the thumbs on the breast until 
 the bone, or the structure which supports it, 
 breaks and leaves the fowl with a less prominent 
 breast. The Germans frequently break down 
 the breast bone of chickens and ducks by strik- 
 ing a smart blow on the most prominent part 
 of the bone with a smooth, well-rounded paddle. 
 
 SHIPPING LIVE POULTKY 
 
 When live poultry is shipped long distances 
 to market, it should be placed in coops which are 
 high enough to permit the fowls to stand erect. 
 It is also an advantage, and will give' comfort to 
 the occupants of the coop, if the top is made 
 of slats which are far enough apart so that they 
 may straighten up and pass their heads between 
 the slats. 
 
 Shipping crates or coops should be as light as 
 is consistent with the requisite strength. Large 
 and heavy crates are awkward to handle and 
 are expensive to transport. Large coops on many 
 accounts are not so desirable as small ones, par- 
 ticularly if they are well filled with heavy fowls. 
 It should be borne in mind that these shipping 
 
298 Farm Poultry 
 
 crates or coops are required to be handled quickly, 
 and if they are heavy, rougher usage is given 
 them than would be given to smaller ones. These 
 coops are usually sent by express, and the em- 
 ployees of the express companies find it neces- 
 sary to work rapidly and often are prevented 
 from handling the coops carefully. 
 
 If large coops are used, they should have 
 one or more partitions across them so that the 
 fowls will not all be thrown to one side, if for 
 any reason the coop becomes tilted. When tilted, 
 large coops without partitions cause great dis- 
 comfort to the occupants on the lower side of 
 the coop, and in many cases if the coop remains 
 tipped for any considerable time, death may re- 
 sult from suffocation. 
 
 It is important that the fowls of a crate or 
 coop should be uniform; that is, the sexes should 
 not be shipped in the same division of a crate 
 and young fowls should not be sent with old 
 ones. It frequently happens that a commission 
 man or dealer can find ready sale for a uniform 
 lot of fowls but is unable to dispose of a mixed 
 lot. It is often inconvenient, if not impossible, 
 for him to sort and grade them, consequently 
 the fowls are sold at a sacrifice. Middlemen 
 and dealers of the great cities are busy and are 
 accustomed to do a great deal of business in 
 a short time. They do not have the time and 
 
Shipping Live Poultry and Eggs 299 
 
 conveniences for the grading that should be done 
 before the fowls are placed in the shipping 
 crates. They want things ready. 
 
 HANDLING EGGS 
 
 Eggs that are not perfectly clean should not 
 be sent to market. Indifferent or careless poul- 
 trymen permit the nests to become fouled, and 
 many eggs are not clean .when gathered. Eggs 
 may be stained from nest material, and they are 
 sometimes colored with blood, particularly the 
 first eggs of pullets. Stains of various kinds 
 may be readily removed with a moistened cloth 
 on which has been dusted a little cooking soda. 
 Poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs 
 are particular to send clean eggs to market, 
 and also take considerable 
 pains to ship only those 
 of uniform size and color. 
 Uniformity is of great im- 
 portance when the highest 
 prices are to be secured. 
 As a fruit-grower recog- 
 nizes that a few large Fig. 94. 
 
 i i i *j_i A convenient egg-carrier. 
 
 apples when mixed with 
 
 those of medium size do positive injury, so far 
 as the market value is concerned, so expert egg 
 producers recognize that a few large eggs mixed 
 
300 Farm Poultry 
 
 with those of average size detract from the ap- 
 pearance, and, consequently, from the market 
 value. The purchaser is attracted by uniform- 
 ity. If he sees that all the eggs on top of 
 the crate are of uniform size, color, and shape, 
 he naturally expects uniformity throughout. On 
 the other hand, if he finds that they are of all 
 sizes, he cannot expect uniformity in the lower 
 layers. If one's flock consists of pure-bred stock, 
 the eggs should be fairly uniform in shape and 
 color and also in size, although large eggs and 
 abnormally small ones will occasionally appear; 
 these may be kept for home consumption or the 
 local market. 
 
 Much has been said about marketing eggs in 
 a strictly fresh condition. Those who have had 
 years of experience, and have established a repu- 
 tation that has become almost national, are con- 
 vinced that the market will not distinguish be- 
 tween an egg one day old and one four days old. 
 An egg four or five days old is in a perfectly 
 fresh condition, if it has had good treatment. 
 If it has been subjected to the heat of an incu- 
 bator for that length of time, it would not be 
 fresh. Eggs may be sent to market hundreds 
 of miles by express and placed in the hands of 
 the consumer when not more than a few days 
 old. Whenever a poultryman who aims to pro- 
 duce the finest quality of eggs desires to estab- 
 
Shipping Eggs 
 
 301 
 
 lish a reputation for himself, it will probably be 
 necessary for Mm, at first, to send his eggs 
 under a guaranty that they were produced by 
 his own flock, and that he knows them to be 
 strictly first-class in every respect. 
 
 Shipping cases. Eggs are usually sent to 
 market in shipping crates which are constructed 
 specially for this purpose. The standard size 
 crate holds thirty 
 dozens. See Fig. 
 95. These crates, 
 or shipping cases, 
 contain trays which 
 fit into the outer 
 case, one above the 
 other. The trays are 
 divided by paste- 
 board partitions into many separate compart- 
 ments, each compartment holding one egg. 
 Some shipping cases have wire springs instead 
 of the pasteboard partitions to hold the eggs. 
 The English prefer what is known as the 
 Irish shipping case. This consists of a case 
 not unlike a small dry goods box. In this is 
 placed a layer of sea grass similar to that used 
 in packing china and glassware. The grass 
 is placed in the form of a shallow hen's nest. 
 This is filled with eggs. On these is placed 
 another layer of sea grass and another layer of 
 
 Pig. 95. A thirty-dozen egg-shipping case. 
 
302 Farm Poultry 
 
 eggs, the layers of eggs and sea grass alternating 
 until the case is nearly full. More sea grass is 
 then put on and the cover fastened by nails or 
 screws. While this case is preferred by the Eng- 
 lish, it is doubtful whether it would be sufficient 
 to withstand the rough usage given by the Ameri- 
 can express companies and freight lines. 
 
 Many commission men prefer to have eggs 
 shipped to them in barrels, packed in dry fine- 
 cut clean wheat or rye straw. A barrel will 
 hold about seventy dozen, if properly packed. 
 
 PRESERVING EGGS 
 
 During the spring and early summer months, 
 when a large proportion of the hens that are 
 kept on farms are laying, the price of eggs is 
 frequently very low, particularly in local markets 
 where most of the farm eggs are sold. In such 
 times many eggs are preserved until late fall, 
 when the price is usually the highest. Many 
 persons make a business of preserving eggs in 
 order to reap the benefit of the advance in price ; 
 others preserve them in times of plenty for 
 home consumption when the hens are not lay- 
 ing. Many others would attempt to keep them 
 if they but knew of a simple and safe way of 
 preserving them. To such persons it may be 
 said that there is no well-known way of keeping 
 
 
Egg Preservatives 303 
 
 eggs absolutely fresh for any considerable length 
 of time. There are several methods, however, 
 that are sufficiently satisfactory to warrant the 
 preservation of eggs both for the market and for 
 home use. Preserved eggs are thought to be 
 injured by cold sooner than fiesh ones. The fol- 
 lowing gives the results of experiments made in 
 Germany with various preservatives:* 
 
 "The Berliner Markthallenzeitung reports about 
 experiments made for the purpose of securing the 
 most rational method of preserving eggs. . . . 
 Twenty methods were selected for these experi- 
 ments. In the first days of July, four hundred 
 fresh eggs were prepared according to these 
 methods (twenty eggs for each method), to be 
 opened for use at the end of the month of Feb- 
 ruary. . . . After eight months of preservation 
 the eggs were opened for use, and the twenty 
 different methods employed gave the most hetero- 
 geneous results: . . . 
 
 1. Eggs put for preservation in salt water were all bad. 
 
 2. Eggs wrapped in paper, 80 per cent bad. 
 
 3. Eggs preserved in a solution of salicylic acid and glycerin, 
 
 80 per cent bad. 
 
 4. Eggs rubbed with salt, 70 per cent bad. 
 
 5. Eggs preserved in bran, 70 per cent bad. 
 
 6. Eggs provided with a cover of paraffin, 70 per cent bad. 
 
 7. Eggs varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic 
 
 acid, 70 per cent bad. 
 
 * United State* Consular Reports, Dec., 1897, pp. 563, 564. Thieriot. 
 
304 Farm Poultry 
 
 8. Eggs put in boiling water for twelve to fifteen seconds, 
 
 50 per cent bad. 
 
 9. Eggs treated with a solution of alum, 50 per cent bad. 
 
 10. Eggs put in a solution of salicylic acid, 50 per cent bad. 
 
 11. Eggs varnished with_water-glass (wasserglas), 40 per cent 
 
 bad. 
 
 12. Eggs varnished with collodion, 40 per cent bad. 
 
 13. Eggs covered with lac, 40 per cent bad. 
 
 14. Eggs varnished with sward, 20 per cent bad. 
 
 15. Eggs preserved in ashes of wood, 20 per cent bad. 
 
 16. Eggs treated with boric acid and water-glass, 20 per cent 
 
 bad. 
 
 17. Eggs treated with manganate of potassa, 20 per cent bad. 
 
 18. Eggs varnished with vaseline, all good. 
 
 19. Eggs preserved in lime-water, all good. 
 
 20. Eggs preserved in a solution of water-glass, all good. 
 
 "The last three methods are consequently to be 
 considered the best ones, especially the preserva- 
 tion in a solution of water-glass, as varnishing the 
 eggs with vaseline takes too much time, and the 
 treatment with lime-water sometimes commun- 
 icates to the eggs a disagreeable odor and 
 taste." 
 
 Water-glass .* "We tried the keeping of eggs 
 with sodium silicate (water-glass) with good re- 
 sults. Sodium silicate is a compound containing 
 silicon, sodium and oxygen in the proportion of 
 one, two and three respectively. It can be pur- 
 chased from druggists in the form of a semi-fluid 
 resembling thick sugar syrup, for which it might 
 easily be mistaken. 
 
 *24th Annual Report Ontario Agricultural College, pp. 193, 194. 
 
Egg Preservatives 305 
 
 "An experiment was conducted in our depart- 
 ment for the purpose of determining the most 
 effective degree of concentration. The result of 
 the experiment is of considerable importance, 
 inasmuch as the cost of the mixture may be 
 greatly reduced without destroying its value. 
 
 "On the 27th of May, we took twelve dozen 
 eggs, all known to be peifectly fresh, and pre- 
 pared the following solutions: 
 
 No. 1. One part of water-glass in the semi-fluid form to ten 
 
 parts water. 
 No. 2. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to fifteen 
 
 parts water. 
 No. 3. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to twenty 
 
 parts water. 
 
 "The first solution was found to be too strong, 
 as it caused the eggs to float. The second was 
 all right in this respect. The third, though much 
 weaker, gave perfect satisfaction. We divided 
 the eggs into three lots of four dozen each, and 
 put one lot into each solution. We tested them 
 from time to time, and in every case found them 
 perfectly fresh; and, on breaking, we noticed that 
 the yolk stood up exactly as in new-laid eggs, 
 and did not show the slightest tendency towards 
 decay. 
 
 "We tested one -half dozen from each solution 
 on the first of December, and could not detect 
 any difference in the appearance or quality in 
 
306 Farm Poultry 
 
 the eggs out of the different solutions, all being 
 perfectly fresh after being in the solution six 
 months. . . 
 
 "In order to use water-glass successfully, the 
 following plan should be adopted: Take one part 
 by measure of water-glass, say one gallon, and 
 twenty parts by measure of water that has been 
 boiled (twenty gallons), and allow the water to 
 cool; then place the water-glass and water in a 
 vessel; stir the ingredients well together; put the 
 eggs into the tub or vat in which they are to 
 be kept, and pour the solution over them until 
 the topmost layer is completely covered. The 
 reason for boiling the water is to kill any putre- 
 factive germs which may be in the water at the 
 time. If water-glass is purchased by the cwt., 
 it should be procured for $2.50 to $3 per cwt. 
 (112 Ibs.). 
 
 "So far as we know this is the best solution yet 
 tried for the preservation of eggs. When taken 
 out of it the eggs have the appearance of fresh- 
 laid eggs, and when they are broken the yolk 
 stands up exactly as in new-laid eggs, without 
 showing the slightest tendency toward decay. 
 It is first necessary, before boiling eggs that have 
 been kept in this solution, as in lime pickle, to 
 puncture the shell with a needle, otherwise the 
 shell will crack as soon as placed in hot water, 
 owing to the pores of the shell being closed." 
 
Egg Preservatives 307 
 
 Lime-water. A. most satisfactory lime-water 
 preservative may be made of the following in- 
 gredients : 
 
 X bu. fresh quicklime. 
 15 Ibs. salt. 
 % Ib. cream of tartar. 
 40 gallons of water. 
 
 Slake the lime thoroughly and add the water 
 and salt. Stir it well. Dissolve the cream of 
 tartar in a little water and add to the whole. Stir 
 well. Let the solution stand until it is fully 
 settled. Remove the clear liquid by dipping or by 
 means of a siphon. Place the liquid in a cask or 
 tank and put in the eggs. It is desirable to keep 
 the eggs in a cool place that has an even tem- 
 perature. Have at least one and one -half inches 
 of the liquid above the eggs. New oak casks 
 should not be used on account of the liability to 
 color the eggs. 
 
 Cold storage. Eggs that are kept in large 
 quantities by dealers are placed chiefly in cold 
 storage. A low, even temperature is maintained 
 by the use of ice, or by means of ice machines. 
 Ice machines have largely superseded the use 
 of 'natural ice in large establishments. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES 
 
 ONLY an exhaustive treatise by an expert can 
 properly discuss the many diseases of domestic 
 fowls. Many of the troubles are insidious and 
 are not yet well understood. However, a few 
 general hints on the more common diseases, and 
 a discussion of some of the parasites, may be 
 valuable to those who have not the time or in- 
 clination to study the subject in detail. The one 
 paramount safeguard against disease is thorough 
 cleanliness; then avoid introducing infected fowls. 
 
 LICE 
 
 Various kinds of domesticated fowls and wild 
 birds are infested with parasites that are known 
 under the popular name of "lice." There are 
 several species of lice which infest chickens. 
 Some kinds are found only on a certain class 
 of poultry, while others are sometimes found on 
 more than one kind. There are at least four 
 species which are very troublesome to chicken 
 raisers, particularly to those who do not keep 
 
 (308) 
 
Lice and Filth 309 
 
 their poultry -yards and houses in a cleanly con- 
 dition. Filth and dampness seem to favor the 
 propagation of these pests. Fowls are naturally 
 cleanly, particularly those that have their liberty 
 and, consequently, live under conditions nearest 
 the natural ones. Weak fowls are always more 
 likely to be troubled with lice than are strong, 
 healthy, vigorous ones. Many years ago it was 
 thought that filth and dampness produced lice. 
 Lice can be produced only by the introduction of 
 an infected bird or by placing the bird 'in in- 
 fected quarters. The life history of these para- 
 sites is so well known that it is not thought 
 possible for them to be introduced in any other 
 way. The species of lice which infest chickens 
 vary considerably as to their shape and size, yet 
 in their habits they closely resemble each other. 
 They are very small insects, varying from one- 
 fifth to less than one - fiftieth of an inch in 
 length. These parasites rarely pierce the skin 
 and suck the blood, as do mites and fleas. 
 They cause much annoyance by crawling over 
 the surface, and sometimes they bite the skin 
 in a way that causes considerable irritation and 
 perhaps some inflammation. When fowls are 
 once infested they may become unthrifty and 
 unprofitable if not given proper care. It has 
 been estimated that a single pair of lice may pro- 
 duce, through the quickly successive generations 
 
310 Farm Poultry 
 
 which would be reared within three months, 
 more than 100,000 individuals. As the weaker 
 fowls of the flock are most likely to be infested, 
 lice are often detected by the unthrifty condition 
 of such birds. Upon examination, large numbers 
 of these lice may be seen crawling over the skin 
 underneath the feathers. They will likely be 
 most prevalent on those parts which the fowl 
 cannot reach with the bill. 
 
 Remedies. Fowls may be effectually treated 
 in several ways. Substances may be put upon 
 the bird which will poison the lice, or the pests 
 may be driven off by making the fowl an uncon- 
 genial home for them, or they may be killed by 
 the application of substances, like oil, which 
 stop the breathing pores and thus cause them 
 to die of suffocation. The last plan is prefer- 
 able in the case of young chickens and weak 
 fowls. Little chickens when but a few days 
 old are frequently infested with lice from the 
 mother or from the surroundings. As these little 
 chickens are delicate, a few lice will cause 
 serious trouble. In this case, it is usually advis- 
 able to place a few drops of oil on the head 
 and perhaps on the wings and throat of each 
 chicken. Sweet oil or lard oil may be used. 
 Other oils of about the same consistency may 
 answer the purpose quite as well. Older fowls 
 should be given an opportunity to take dust 
 
Remedies' 311 
 
 baths. This is nature's method and is effectual 
 if the fowls will bathe thoroughly. Many of the 
 heavier fowls, however, do not care to take dust 
 baths frequently, nor to do the work thoroughly 
 whan they undertake it; consequently it is fre- 
 quently necessary to use artificial methods to kill 
 or drive away the lice, when they once become 
 well established on adult fowls. Powdered sul- 
 fur -or fresh insect powder dusted well among 
 the feathers is found to be efficient. Fowls are 
 sometimes placed in comparatively tight boxes 
 with their heads protruding through close-fitting 
 openings, the box then being filled with sulfur 
 fumes for several minutes. This is said to com- 
 pletely destroy the pests and in no way to injure 
 the fowls. 
 
 When poultry houses become infested with lice 
 a complete cleansing of the building is required. 
 Movable fixtures should be taken 'out and the 
 walls thoroughly washed and cleansed. The in- 
 terior should be freshly whitewashed or sprayed 
 with chlorides or other efficient insecticides. 
 Kerosene emulsion is effective if the spraying is 
 thoroughly done. Some modern spraying ma- 
 chines are so constructed that kerosene oil may 
 be mixed with water in a fine spray to answer 
 every purpose. This method is easier than to 
 apply the kerosene in the form of a soap emul- 
 sion. 
 
312 Farm Poultry 
 
 MITES 
 
 These parasites are frequently called "lice," 
 although they are entirely different from the ani- 
 mals described under that name. Mites are 
 usually smaller than lice. The red poultry mite 
 is one of the greatest pests. It is frequently 
 called the "summer louse" and is found in great 
 numbers in the poultry house and other places 
 frequented by fowls in the summer time. It 
 is frequently seen about cracks and crevices, 
 underneath and about the perches, and also in 
 the nests, particularly those of sitting hens. It 
 multiplies rapidly, so that if a few have been 
 introduced into a poultry house, the place may 
 become overrun within a short time. 
 
 The habit of these pests is very different from 
 that of lice. The mites breed in cracks and 
 chinks about the perches and nests and go on 
 the body of the fowls at night to feed. They 
 pierce the skin and fill themselves with blood. 
 Though they are small, each insect can remove 
 an appreciable amount of blood. The fowl not 
 only suffers from the loss of blood but is dis- 
 turbed during the night when it should have per- 
 fect rest and be free from annoyance. Sitting 
 hens are so much annoyed that they are com- 
 pelled to leave the nests in order to relieve 
 themselves of the parasites. If the nests and 
 
Miles Gapes 313 
 
 perches, and the cracks and crevices about them, 
 are kept free from the pests the fowls will not 
 be disturbed. Free use of kerosene oil or kero- 
 sene emulsion about the nests and perches will 
 usually suffice. Some manufacturers have taken 
 advantage of the habit of these pests and con- 
 struct perches which will not permit them to 
 pass from the places of concealment about the 
 poultry house to the body of the fowl, each perch 
 being supported by means of slender iron sup- 
 ports, the bases of which are placed in small 
 cups filled with oil. 
 
 A little care and watchfulness on the part of 
 the poultry attendant to keep the poultry house 
 entirely free from mites will protect the fowls 
 from these pests. 
 
 GAPES 
 
 Gapes sometimes destroys large numbers of 
 small chickens; in fact, on some farms during 
 certain seasons it seems almost impossible to rear 
 broods of young chickens that are entirely free 
 from it, particularly if the young chickens are 
 kept under the ordinary conditions. It is well 
 known that gapes is caused by a small worm 
 known as Syngamws trachealis. This worm is of 
 a reddish color and varies in length from three- 
 eighths to three -fourths of an inch. The two sexes 
 are united, which fact has given rise to the name 
 
314 ' Farm Poultry 
 
 of "branched worm." On account of its color it is 
 also sometimes known as the "red worm." It is 
 stated that the male is always attached to the 
 female, the former being the smaller of the two. 
 These worms are found in the windpipe or trachea 
 of the chickens, where they are attached to the 
 membranous lining of this air -passage. They 
 are nourished by sucking the blood of the fowl 
 and cause considerable irritation and inflamma- 
 tion, particularly if the chickens are weak. The 
 stronger and more robust undoubtedly are con- 
 siderably inconvenienced, but the attacks are not 
 severe enough to prevent them from making 
 a fairly good growth. It is stated, on good 
 authority, that as many as thirty or forty of 
 these worms have been found in a single chicken. 
 
 Dr. H. D. Walker, Newburgh, N. Y., states that 
 the earthworm is the natural host of this pest. 
 Chickens, robins and other birds have become 
 infested with the gape worm by feeding them 
 infested earthworms. Comparatively few gape 
 worms are sufficient to destroy the life of weak 
 young chickens. Many more, however, would 
 not necessarily destroy a vigorous bird, either 
 young or adult. These worms are frequently dis- 
 lodged by coughing or sneezing. When they are 
 thrown out in this manner other fowls may eat 
 them and in turn become infected. 
 
 Remedies. Keep little chickens in a dry place 
 
Gape -worm 315 
 
 and away from infected ground. As the weak 
 fowls are likely to succumb first, it is of the 
 utmost importance that the brood be kept in as 
 healthy and vigorous condition as possible. 
 
 It is recommended to dislodge the worms by 
 introducing into the trachea a horsehair, doubled 
 so as to form a loop, then give it several turns, 
 and slowly withdraw it. As the loop is with- 
 drawn the dislodged worms may be removed 
 or coughed up by the fowl. This operation re- 
 peated several times will frequently give relief 
 to aggravated cases. Other good authorities 
 recommend the introduction of a feather which 
 has been moistened with turpentine. The tur- 
 pentine will cause the dislodgment of the worms 
 and the chickens will sneeze or cough them up. 
 
 Some practical poultry-keepers recommend 
 placing an infested brood in a barrel or com- 
 paratively tight box and dusting in the com- 
 partment a considerable quantity of fine air- 
 slaked lime. The infested chickens will be re- 
 quired to breathe the air heavily laden with this 
 fine lime, which will cause the dislodgment of 
 many of the worms. While this treatment is 
 rather severe and may cause the death of some 
 of the weakest of the birds, yet it will some- 
 times prove efficacious in saving the larger pro- 
 portion of a brood which otherwise might suc- 
 cumb. 
 
316 Farm Poultry 
 
 Preventive measures are more satisfactory than 
 remedial ones. Keep the chickens in a dry place 
 and in as healthy and vigorous a condition as 
 possible, and away from sources of contamina- 
 tion. 
 
 KOUP 
 
 Roup is a common disease among farm poul- 
 try and one that often causes serious loss. When 
 roup is permitted to remain in a flock unchecked, 
 the loss from death alone may be considerable, 
 and the loss occasioned by many sick birds which 
 are for a long time thoroughly incapacitated for 
 usefulness may be quite as great. Roup is con- 
 sidered contagious by the most eminent authori- 
 ties. It passes from one fowl to another of the 
 same flock, and may be carried from one flock 
 to another by the introduction of infected birds. 
 It has been considered by some as being pro- 
 duced by unfavorable conditions. This is not 
 strictly true. Undoubtedly unsanitary conditions 
 are potent factors in the development of the dis- 
 ease when the fowls are once exposed. Tender 
 fowls, or those requiring particularly good care, 
 are more susceptible to roup than are the more 
 healthy or robust. The introduction of the spe- 
 cific organism of the disease is necessary for its 
 development; hence it is a communicable disease. 
 
 Symptoms. Among the first symptoms that 
 
Eoup 317 
 
 will be noticed is a thin, watery discharge from 
 the nostrils, followed by obstructed breathing. A 
 few cases of harsh breathing that had not pre- 
 viously been manifest should be looked upon with 
 suspicion. These cases may be readily detected 
 by passing through the poultry house in the 
 evening when all is quiet. In the later stages of 
 the disease the watery discharge at the nostrils 
 becomes thicker and more sticky, which causes 
 frequent sneezing in order to prevent the air- 
 passages from becoming completely closed. 
 
 Dr. D. E. Salmon says* that the inflammation 
 extends, as the disease advances, from the mem- 
 brane of the nasal cavities to those of other 
 connecting passages. As the orbital space which 
 surrounds the eye connects with the nasal pas- 
 sage, this is frequently involved. The mem- 
 brane of the orbital cavity becomes inflamed and 
 swollen, and in severe cases apparently forces 
 the eye from its socket. The sides of the head 
 become unduly swollen and the fowl frequently 
 becomes entirely blind, the birds presenting a 
 most unsightly appearance. Breathing is per- 
 formed with difficulty, and a thick discharge, at 
 this time, may escape from the nostrils. Death 
 frequently follows after these serious symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. Prevent healthy birds from be- 
 coming contaminated by removing them to clean 
 
 *"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 32-34. 
 
318 Farm Poultry 
 
 quarters, or by the removal of the sick birds and 
 thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting the poultry 
 house. Give wholesome and easily digested food 
 and keep the fowls in as healthy and vigorous 
 condition as possible. Antiseptic solutions are 
 to be injected into the nostrils and on the roof 
 of the mouth. If large swellings have appeared 
 which are filled with' cheesy pus, this should be 
 removed and these cavities be injected with an- 
 tiseptics. The following solutions are recom- 
 mended : 
 
 1. Two per cent solution of creoline. 
 
 2. Two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 
 
 3. Peroxide of hydrogen and water, equal parts. 
 
 4. One grain of permanganate of potash to an 
 
 ounce of water. 
 
 5. Kerosene oil mixed with equal parts of lard 
 
 or olive oil. Some poultrymen recommend 
 the use of pure kerosene oil, a drop in 
 each nostril of the infected fowl. 
 
 When diphtheritic roup develops, white patches 
 are frequently seen on the roof of the mouth 
 and on the connecting air -passages. Later these 
 patches become more or less yellow. Dr. Sal- 
 mon also says* that the sick birds should be 
 placed in clean, warm, well -ventilated quarters, 
 where they can be readily examined and where 
 they will not be exposed to drafts of air. In 
 
 *Tbe Diseases of Poultry," pp. 224, 225. 
 
Treatment for Roup 319 
 
 other words, these quarters should be most favor- 
 able for invalids. He recommends the applica- 
 tion, to the diphtheritic spots in the mouth and 
 eyes, of a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid in 
 water or a 2 per cent solution of creoline, and that 
 some of the same should be injected in small 
 quantities into the nostrils. The removal of this 
 diphtheritic membrane is recommended if it can 
 be accomplished without bleeding. Tincture of 
 iodine has been applied to the diseased parts 
 successfully. Boric acid, 15 grains to an ounce 
 of water, may be applied to the roof of the 
 mouth, nostrils and eyes. This application is 
 often made with benefit, and is considered safe. 
 Dr. Salmon further recommends the use of chlo- 
 rate of potassium and salicylic acid in the fol- 
 lowing proportions: 2 grains of salicylic acid and 
 35 grains of chlorate in one ounce of water, to 
 which may be added 1 ounce of glycerine. This 
 should be applied two or three times a day on 
 the diphtheritic spots and may be given internally 
 in doses of about a teaspoonful to adult fowls. 
 
 " Disinfect thoroughly by sprinkling the walls of 
 the building and the ground frequented by the 
 diseased fowls with carbolic acid water (1% 
 ounces of carbolic acid to a quart of water). 
 Wash feeding troughs, water dishes, etc., with 
 the same solution. Cover the earth with straw 
 or boards and keep the fowls perfectly dry. 
 
320 Farm Poultry 
 
 "Mix with the soft food several hours before 
 feeding, as a curative and a preventive, a pinch 
 of the following mixture for each fowl: 
 
 Hyposulfite of soda 50 grams 
 
 Salicylate of soda 50 ' ' 
 
 Pulverized yellow gentian 200 ' ' 
 
 Pulverized ginger 200 " 
 
 Pulverized sulfate of iron 100 ' ' 
 
 "Give sulfate of iron in the drinking water, 
 1% grams to a quart of water."* 
 
 CHOLERA 
 
 Dr. Salmon states t that fowl cholera attacks 
 chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, pigeons, and in 
 fact all varieties of domesticated fowls. The 
 infection often takes place through drinking 
 water, or partaking of food that is contaminated 
 by the excrement of sick birds. It is possible 
 for fowls to be infected through wounds or by 
 means of the germs which may be inhaled in the 
 form of dust. He further states that the disease 
 is generally brought in by the introduction of in- 
 fected birds or with eggs that have been pur- 
 chased for hatching. This disease may be com- 
 municated to mice and rabbits by inoculation. 
 
 Symptoms. "The symptoms of American fowl 
 cholera were first described by Dr. Salmon in 
 
 *" Journal D'Agriculture Pratique," 1895, Tome 2, pp. 913, 914. 
 tThe Diseases of Poultry," pp. 233, 234. 
 
Cholera 321 
 
 1880. They include the voiding of feces, of 
 which the part that is normally white is yel- 
 low. The white part of the feces is excreted by 
 the kidneys, and the yellow discoloration of this 
 excrement is usually the first indication of dis- 
 ease. Shortly thereafter the droppings become 
 thin and fluid, and they are voided frequently 
 and enveloped by a layer of thin mucus. The 
 fowl becomes depressed; it stands still or assumes 
 a sitting posture, goes into a sunny, warm place, 
 if possible. The plumage becomes ruffled, the 
 head is drawn down, the comb becomes pale 
 and bloodless, and the appetite is depressed or 
 lost. The depression and torpidity of the fowl 
 increase until it seems to become unconscious. 
 . . . The bird then becomes thin and weak, 
 and sometimes passes into a stupor and dies. 
 In other cases, it may have convulsions prior to 
 death."* 
 
 Treatment. "The treatment of individual 
 fowls afflicted with such a highly contagious dis- 
 ease as true fowl cholera is not to be recom- 
 mended, because, in the first place, so long as 
 the infected fowl remains around there is danger 
 that its poisonous products may be carried to 
 healthy birds; secondly, there is little chance of 
 curing it and it is hardly worth while to try. 
 
 *" Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Pearson & Warren, Bulletin 
 No. 17, Pa. State Dept. Agr. 
 
 U 
 
322 Farm Poultry 
 
 "The important point in this connection is the 
 prevention of disease, and fowl cholera can usu- 
 ally be stopped by preventing the introduction 
 of fowls suffering from it, or that come from 
 infected localities. If the disease is once intro- 
 duced the most stringent measures should be 
 enforced as regards cleanliness, disinfection, and 
 the total destruction of the carcasses of the dead 
 birds. The birds that are still healthy should be 
 removed from the flock and placed in a whole- 
 some locality. The droppings from the diseased 
 fowls should be burned or thoroughly disinfected 
 by mixing with a 10 per cent solution of sul- 
 furic acid or with a quantity of lime equal in 
 amount to the manure. The building should be 
 disinfected by cleaning it very thoroughly, flush- 
 ing the floor with a saturated solution of cop- 
 peras and spraying the interior with a 5 per cent 
 solution of carbolic acid, followed by whitewash- 
 ing. If the pens and runs can be abandoned 
 for a year and grass or crops grown in them, 
 this is the best plan, but if it is not possible to 
 do this, they should be cleaned with as great 
 thoroughness as possible and slaked lime scat- 
 tered over the surface of the earth, which should 
 be plowed. 
 
 "It should be remembered that the germs of 
 fowl cholera may be carried in the feathers, so 
 that a perfectly healthy fowl, coming from a 
 
Scaly Legs 323 
 
 diseased flock, may carry the disease to another 
 flock a long distance away. These germs may 
 also be carried on the shoes and clothing of per- 
 sons ; by vermin, as rats or mice, or they may 
 become attached to light objects, such as leaves, 
 and be carried long distances by the wind. If 
 the disease exists among the fowls along the 
 watercourse, those lower down the stream may 
 receive the germs with their water supply. So, 
 whenever this disease prevails in a locality, one 
 cannot guard his fowls too carefully." * 
 
 SCALY LEGS 
 
 This disease is caused by a parasite somewhat 
 similar to that of the mange of the cat and dog. 
 The disease is considered to be contagious, though 
 it does not spread rapidly. It is most frequently 
 noticed in old fowls of the heavy breeds, as of 
 the Asiatic types. Ducks and geese are not 
 affected with this trouble. 
 
 Treatment. Soak with oil. Sweet oil or lard 
 oil mixed with kerosene is recommended. Kero- 
 sene alone is sometimes applied with most excel- 
 lent results. However, it is a somewhat harsher 
 treatment than is necessary. Those who keep on 
 hand a stock solution of kerosene emulsion may 
 
 # "Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Bulletin No. 17, Pa. State 
 Dept. Agr. 
 
324 Farm Poultry 
 
 find this a most excellent remedy for scaly legs. 
 It should be applied thoroughly. A few appli- 
 cations are usually sufficient. If thorough work 
 is to be accomplished the poultry houses should 
 be disinfected. 
 
 FKEEZING 
 
 Valuable fowls sometimes die from frosted 
 combs and wattles. Remedial measures are not 
 so satisfactory as preventive ones. The most 
 that can be done is to give good nursing. If 
 the fowls are discovered to be frosted before the 
 organs affected have thawed out, the frost should 
 be removed by applications of cold water or snow. 
 The gradual thawing of the frozen parts may 
 sometimes save them. After thawing has taken 
 place, the parts should be smeared with grease, 
 vaseline or cosmoline. It is thought to be advan- 
 tageous to keep the fowls in a fairly cool room. 
 
 BUMBLE FOOT 
 
 Bumble foot is caused by bruises on the bottom 
 of the feet. These bruises are sometimes fol- 
 lowed by swellings which suppurate and become 
 greatly enlarged if they are not lanced and the 
 pus permitted to escape. Causes which produce 
 bruises should be removed. Heavy fowls that 
 are required to fly from rather high perches and 
 
Egg- and Feather -eating 325 
 
 to alight on hard and uneven surfaces are liable 
 to suffer from bumble foot. In serious cases it 
 is advisable to inclose the feet in little bags filled 
 with poultice in order to induce free suppuration. 
 If the pus is not permitted to escape, it becomes 
 cheesy and finally dries sufficiently to form a hard 
 mass, which produces a permanent enlargement. 
 
 EGG- EATING 
 
 This habit sometimes becomes a most serious 
 vice in the poultry yard. It spreads from fowl 
 to fowl. Fowls become very fond of eggs when 
 they once learn to eat them. The habit usually 
 starts through accident, either by eggs being 
 broken or frozen. If eggs are not permitted 
 to freeze in the poultry house, and care is taken 
 to prevent their being broken, the habit is not 
 likely to be contracted. As soon as it is dis- 
 covered that a fowl has the habit well formed 
 this fowl should be removed from the others be- 
 fore the habit is spread. Unless the bird is a 
 specially valuable one, it is often advisable to 
 inflict the death penalty. 
 
 FEATHER - EATING 
 
 Feather -eating, like egg-eating, may become a 
 most objectionable habit. Fowls of active breeds 
 
326 Farm Poultry 
 
 that are closely confined are more likely to learn 
 feather -eating or feather -pulling than those that 
 are given wide range and plenty of wholesome 
 food. Close confinement with improper ration 
 will often lead to this vice. When once the habit 
 is well formed it may become most troublesome. 
 Fowls pluck the feathers from each other. Those 
 on the back at the root of the tail or high up 
 on the breast are likely to be plucked first. If 
 but few fowls have learned the habit, it is some- 
 times recommended to file the beak so that the 
 front and sides will not close tightly. This will 
 prevent the bird from pulling feathers but will 
 permit it to eat ordinary food readily. When sev- 
 eral fowls of a flock have but slightly contracted 
 the habit, a wide range with change of diet, in- 
 cluding plenty of animal food, will usually suffice 
 t3 correct the evil. Above all, permit the fowls 
 tD take plenty of exercise. 
 
 DIAKKHCEA 
 
 Diarrhoea is caused by some irritation of the 
 digestive system. Depression and loss of appe- 
 tite frequently precede it. If the diarrhcea is 
 at all serious the excrement may be mixed with 
 mucus or blood. Fowls suffering from this 
 disease should be placed in comfortable quarters 
 and given clean, wholesome food that is easily 
 
Diarrhoea 327 
 
 digested. Foods of gelatinous nature, like cooked 
 linseed meal, are specially recommended. Some 
 poultrymen place a high value on charcoal which 
 has been broken into small pieces, about the size 
 of a kernel of corn. This is placed before them 
 and left to the judgment of the fowls to eat 
 what is needed. A few drops of laudanum is 
 recommended in severe cases. 
 
 SALT POISONING 
 
 Salt in small doses, as before stated, is very 
 beneficial, but large quantities may produce death. 
 It is stated on good authority that one-half an 
 ounce to one ounce is fatal to a chicken. Salt 
 fish and some salt meats, and the brine in which 
 meats have been preserved, are specially dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 Whites of eggs and the liquor of boiled flax- 
 seed are recommended as remedies. Laudanum 
 and finely powdered chalk in water, together or 
 singly, may sometimes be given with good effect. 
 Laudanum is especially valuable when consider- 
 able pain is manifest. 
 
 EATS 
 
 Eats sometimes become very troublesome in 
 poultry houses, and the question of their extermi- 
 
328 'Farm Poultry 
 
 nation is often a most perplexing one. Precau- 
 tionary measures are usually the most satisfactory. 
 If the buildings are so constructed that rats can- 
 not burrow under them, the battle is largely won. 
 If, however, the rats find suitable homes about 
 poultry houses, and cannot be driven out by 
 ordinary methods, much annoyance and often 
 severe loss may result. When traps and cats 
 will not suffice, more extreme measures must be 
 adopted. Sometimes it is advisable to remove 
 the fowls temporarily and hunt the rats by 
 means of ferrets. In some cases it may be 
 necessary to resort to poisoning. In a gen- 
 eral way it may be stated that animals should 
 not be poisoned except in extreme cases. The 
 author has on several occasions found it neces- 
 sary to use poison to rid the premises of these 
 pests. A little strychnine was placed in each of 
 many small pieces of cheese. These little pieces 
 were dropped into the rat holes and other 
 places frequented by the vermin, care being 
 taken in every case to cover the holes with 
 boards so that the fowls would be prevented 
 from gaining access to the poison. While the 
 fowls were not killed or in any way injured by 
 this method of killing rats, the practice is always 
 accompanied with more or less danger, particu- 
 larly as it is necessary to place the poison near 
 places frequented by the fowls. 
 
Hawks, Crows, Me. 329 
 
 HAWKS, CHOWS, ETC. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to protect the yards 
 and runs from the depredations of these chicken 
 thieves. Crows sometimes become so bold that 
 they are serious pests in yards where little 
 chickens are given their liberty. Covering the 
 yard with wire netting is a perfect protection. 
 If there are bushes in the yard, under which 
 the fowls may hide, the depredations will be 
 much lessened. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 SOME IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS 
 
 BOOKS 
 
 AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION. American Poultry Associa- 
 tion. Published by the Association. 
 
 AMERICAN STANDARD POULTRY BOOK. John Taggart. Published 
 by Wm. L. Allison, New York. 
 
 BOOK OF POULTRY. L. Wright. Published by Cassell & Co., 
 London. 
 
 BURNHAM'S NEW POULTRY BOOK. Geo. P. Burnham. Published 
 by Lee & Shepard, Boston. 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY. -Dr. D. E. Salmon. Published by Geo. 
 E. Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. 
 
 DOMESTIC POULTRY BOOK. T. B. Miner. Published by American 
 News Company, New York. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BOOK OF DOMESTIC POULTRY. Martin Doyle. Pub- 
 lished by Porter & Coats, Philadelphia. 
 
 LLOYD'S MODERN POULTRY BOOK. W. B. Lloyd. Published by 
 Howard & Wilson Publishing Company, Chicago. 
 
 NEW EGG FARM. H. H. Stoddard. Published by Orange Judd 
 Company, New York. 
 
 PEOPLE'S PRACTICAL POULTRY BOOK. W. M. Lewis. Published 
 by Excelsior Publishing House, New York. 
 
 PIGEONS, THEIR STRUCTURE, VARIETIES, HABITS AND MANAGE- 
 MENT. Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Published by Boutledge & Sons, 
 London. 
 
 POCKET MONEY POULTRY. Myra V. Norys. Published by Geo. 
 E. Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. 
 
 (331) 
 
332 Appendix 
 
 POULTRY BOOK. Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Published by Routledge 
 
 & Sons, London. 
 POULTRY CULTURE. I. K. Felch. Published by Donohue, Hen- 
 
 neberry & Co., Chicago. 
 PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPER. L. Wright. Published by Orange 
 
 Judd Company, New York. 
 PROFITABLE POULTRY KEEPING. Stephen Beale. Published by 
 
 Eoutledge & Sons, London. 
 PROFITS IN POULTRY. Orange Judd Company. Published by 
 
 Orange Judd Company, New York. 
 SHEEP, SWINE AND POULTRY. Robert Jennings. Published by 
 
 Keystone Publishing Company, Philadelphia. 
 TURKEYS, AND How TO GROW THEM. Herbert Myrick. Published 
 
 by Orange Judd Company, New York. 
 
 PAMPHLETS AND BULLETINS 
 
 ANDALUSIAN FOWLS. L. C. Verrey. Published by The Fanciers' 
 Gazette, London. 
 
 ANIMAL FOOD FOR POULTRY. Bulletin No. 171, New York Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. Published by the New York 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 
 
 BARRED AND WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCKS. Joseph Wallace. Pub- 
 lished by Ferris Publishing Company, Albany, N. Y. 
 
 CAPONS AND CAPONIZINQ. Bulletin No. 31, Oregon Agricultural 
 Experiment- Station. Published by the Oregon Agricultural 
 Experiment Station, Corvallis, Ore. 
 
 CAPONS AND CAPONIZING. Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. Published by the Rhode Island 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 
 
 CAPONS FOR PROFIT. T. Greiner. Published by the Author, La 
 Salle, N. Y. 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF POULTRY. Pearson and Warren, Bul- 
 letin No. 17. Published by Pennsylvania State Department 
 of Agriculture, Hairisburg, Pa. 
 
 DUCK CULTURE. James Rankin. Published by the Author, 
 South Easton, Mass. 
 
Appendix 333 
 
 DUCKS AND GEESE. G. E. Howard, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. 
 Published by Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 ECONOMY OF USING ANIMAL FOOD IN POULTRY FEEDING. Bulletin 
 No. 149. Published by New York Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Geneva, N. Y. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH GEESE. Eighth Annual Report. Published 
 by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kings- 
 ton, R. I. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH TURKEYS. Sixth Annual Report. Published 
 by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kings- 
 ton, R. I. 
 
 FATTENING FOWLS. Ernest Cobb. Published by The Feathered 
 World, London. 
 
 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH LAYING HENS. Bulletin No. 90. 
 Published by New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Geneva, N. Y. 
 
 FOWLS: CARE AND FEEDING. G. C. Watson, Farmers' Bulletin 
 No. 41. Published by United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 GAPEWORMS OF FOWLS. H. D. Walker. Published by the Author, 
 Newburg, N. Y. 
 
 GOOSE BREEDING. Tenth Annual Report. Published by Rhode 
 Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 
 
 HAMBURGS UP TO DATE. Charles Holt. Published by The 
 Feathered World, London. 
 
 INCUBATION AND ITS NATURAL LAWS. C. A. Cyphers. Published 
 by the Author, Way land, N. Y. 
 
 INDIAN GAME FOWL. G. T. Whitefield. Published by The Fan- 
 ciers' Gazette, London. 
 
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF TURKEYS. Seventh Annual Report. 
 Published by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Kingston, R. I. 
 
 POULTRY KEEPING FOR PROFIT. Bulletin No. 130. Published 
 by North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West 
 Raleigh, N. C. 
 
 PARASITES OF POULTRY. Bulletin No. 131. Published by North 
 Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C. 
 
334 Appendix 
 
 STANDARD VARIETIES OF CHICKENS. G. E. Howard, Farmers' 
 Bulletin No. 64. Published by United States Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 TURKEYS. Bulletin No. 25. Published by Rhode Island Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 
 
 TAPEWORMS OF POULTRY. Dr. D. E. Salmon, Bulletin No. 12. 
 Published by Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 WYANDOTTES. Joseph Wallace. Published by Ferris Publishing 
 Company, Albany, N. Y. 
 
INDEX 
 
 African geese, 255. 
 
 Air space necessary, 95. 
 
 Alien blood, introduction of, 23. 
 
 Amount of land required, 6. 
 
 Andalusians. as farm fowls, 34; descrip- 
 tion of, 34. 
 
 Animal and vegetable nitrogen com- 
 pared, 169. 
 
 Animal and vegetable food for chickens, 
 212. 
 
 Animal and vegetable food for young 
 clucks, 248. 
 
 Animal meal, 169; how fed, 179. 
 
 Arrangement of houses, 87. 
 
 Artificial incubation, 189. 
 
 Asiatics, 44. 
 
 Automatic drinking fountains, 218. 
 
 Aylesbury ducks, 242. 
 
 Bantams, description of. 81; varieties 
 of, 81. 
 
 Barred Plymouth Rocks, 59 ; laying 
 qualities of, 60; useful qualities of, 59. 
 
 Beets, 166. 
 
 Best products most remunerative, 10. 
 
 Black Cayuga ducks, 244. 
 
 Black turkeys, 269. 
 
 Boiled eggs for little chickens, 213. 
 
 Brahmas, 45; description of, 46; varie- 
 ties of, 45. 
 
 Breed useful fowls, 155. 
 
 Breeding and improvement, 131. 
 
 Breeds classified as to utility, 12 ; egg, 
 13 ; fancy, 14, 74 ; for broilers, 235 ; 
 for capons, 227 ; formed by crossing, 
 149 ; general purpose, 14 ; meat, 14, 
 39; of geese, 252. 
 
 Broiler, description of, 232; rearers as 
 specialists, 232; rearing and egg pro- 
 duction, 236. 
 
 Broilers, food for, 235; profits from 
 rearing, 234; size of, 233; skill re- 
 quired in producing, 232; time to sell, 
 233. 
 
 Bronze turkeys, 267. 
 
 Brooder chicks, attack by diarrhoea, 
 221 ; diseased livers in, 221. 
 
 Brooder houses, 199. 
 
 Brooders, 198; care of, 218; essentials 
 of, 201 ; home-made, 205 : kinds of, 
 198; must be dry, 204; outdoor, 202. 
 
 Brown and White Leghorns compared, 
 28. 
 
 Buckwheat, 164. 
 
 Buildings, location of, 82. 
 
 Buff Cochins, 50. 
 
 Buff Plymouth Rocks, 61. 
 
 Buff turkeys, 269. 
 
 Buildings, size of, 94. 
 
 Bumble foot, causes of, 324. 
 
 Business of rearing fowls, 1. 
 
 Cabbage, 167. 
 
 Call ducks, 245. 
 
 Canned meat foods, 170. 
 
 Capital required, 3. 
 
 Capon-rearing, 222; profits of, 223. 
 
 Caponizing, good light necessary, 229; 
 instruments for, 225; operation 'of, 
 226; preparing fowls for, 228, 231; size 
 of fowls for, 228; time for, 230; use of 
 reflectors in, 230. 
 
 Capons, breeds for, 227; description of, 
 224; preparing for market, 231. 
 
 (335) 
 
336 
 
 Index 
 
 Care of incubators, 196. 
 
 Care of young turkeys, 272. 
 
 Causes of bumble foot, 324; gapes, 313; 
 roup, 316; scaly legs, 323; variation, 
 142. 
 
 Cement floors, construction of, 106. 
 
 Characteristics of Cochins, 49; egg 
 breeds, 15. 
 
 Chickens, animal food for, 212; death 
 of, from suffocation, 221; death of, 
 from tuberculosis, 221; diseases of, 
 219; drinking fountains for, 217; ex- 
 ercise for, 213; feeding, 208; first food 
 for, 210; food for, 209; frequency of 
 feeding, 211; grit for, 216; ground 
 grain for, 211; ha d-boiled eggs for, 
 213; little, must be kept dry, 215; 
 mineral matter for, 212; number of, 
 in the United States, 2. 
 
 Chinese geese, 256. 
 
 Cholera, 320; symptoms of, 320; treat- 
 ment for, 321. 
 
 Classes of game fowls, 77. 
 
 Classification of fowls faulty, 12. 
 
 Cleanliness essential in duck-rearing, 
 246. 
 
 Clover as a green food, 166. 
 
 Clover hay, as a poultry food, 168; how 
 prepared, 168; how fed, 166. 
 
 Cochins, characteristics of, 49. 
 
 Cold storage for eggs, 307. 
 
 Color of yolk, affected by food, 163. 
 
 Common fowls, improvement of, 153. 
 
 Common stock compared to pure-bred 
 stock, 151. 
 
 Concrete walls, 97. 
 
 Construction of perches, 113; cement 
 floors, 106; fences, 128; hollow side 
 walls, 101; houses, 90; solid side walls, 
 100; ventilators, 110; wooden floors, 
 96. 
 
 Convenience saves labor, 86. 
 
 Corn, as a food for laying hens, 162. 
 
 Cramming, arrangement of coops for, 
 185; description of, 183; food for, 
 184. 
 
 Cross-breeding, 147; dangers of, 148; 
 
 improvements due to, 148. 
 Crows, protection from, 329. 
 Cubical contents of house, 95. 
 
 Danger from hawks and crows, 89. 
 
 Danger from vermin, 89. 
 
 Dangers of cross-breeding, 148; forced 
 feeding, 161; in-and-in-breeding, 140; 
 stampeding, 250. 
 
 Dark Brahmas and Light Brahmas 
 compared, 48. 
 
 Description of Andalusians. 33; Ban- 
 tams, 81; Brahmas, 46; broilers, 232; 
 capons, 224; cramming, 183; Domi- 
 niques, 67; Dorkings, 67; Faverolles, 
 52; Frizzles, 79; Hamburgs, 35; Hou- 
 dans, ^70; Javas, 66; Langshans, 51 ; 
 Minorcas, 31; Mites, 312; Polish, 75; 
 Red Caps, 38; Rumpless fowls, 80: 
 Silkies, 79; Spanish fowls, 34; Sul- 
 tans, 79; Water-glass, 305; Wyan- 
 dottes, 64. 
 
 Diarrhoea, remedies for, 326. 
 
 Discussion of incubators, 187. 
 
 Diseased livers in brooder chicks, 221. 
 
 Diseases of chickens, 219. 
 
 Diseases and enemies of poultry, 308. 
 
 Disinfect fattening fowls, 186. 
 
 Disinfection of nests, 118. 
 
 Disposition of egg breeds, 16 ; gen- 
 eral-purpose fowls, 56; meat breeds, 
 40. 
 
 Dominiques, description of, 67. 
 
 Dorkings, description of, 67; useful 
 qualities of, 68. 
 
 Dozens of eggs produced on farms, 2. 
 
 Drainage, thorough, 83. 
 
 Drinking fountains, 119. 
 
 Drinking fountains, automatic, 218; for 
 little chickens, 217. 
 
 Dry-picking fowls, 286. 
 
 Dry soils for broiler rearing, 235. 
 
 Dry yards for little chickens, 215. 
 
 Duck rearing, cleanliness essential to, 
 246. 
 
 
Index 
 
 Ducks, Aylesbury, 242; Black Cayuga, 
 244; Call, 245; easily confined, 239; 
 free from disease, 238 ; general dis- 
 cussion of, 237; green food for, 249; 
 grow rapidly, 239 ; Muscovy, 245 ; 
 natural food of, 245 ; number of in 
 the United States, 2 ; Pekin, 241 ; 
 ponds or streams not necessary for, 
 239; reared mostly for meat, 238; 
 Rouen, 243; varieties of, 241; water 
 troughs for, 249; young, animal food 
 for, 248; young, grain food for, 250. 
 
 Dust baths necessary, 124. 
 
 Dust boxes, 122. 
 
 Easiest to develop one characteristic,31. 
 
 Easy to market poultry products, 10. 
 
 Egg breeds, 13; characteristics of, 15; 
 close feathered, 21 ; disposition of, 
 16; early maturing, 17; easily fright- 
 ened, 16; good foragers, 20; inclined 
 to take exercise, 20; poor sitters, 18; 
 sensitive to cold, 21; size of, 15. 
 
 Egg eating, 117, 325. 
 
 Egg production and broiler rearing, 236. 
 
 Egg production and fancy points, 136. 
 
 Egg production and size of fowls, 135. 
 
 Egg production and vigor of fowl, 136. 
 
 Egg production, influenced by males, 
 139. 
 
 Eggs, cold storage for, 307; feeding for, 
 158; fertility of, 137, 138; fresh, 138; 
 marketing fresh, 300 ; methods of 
 preserving, 303 ; preserving, 302; pre- 
 serving in lime water, 307; produced 
 on farms, 2; selection of for hatch- 
 ing, 133 ; shipping cases for, 301 ; 
 sorting, 299. 
 
 Embden geese, 254. 
 
 Enemies and diseases of poultry, 308. 
 
 English methods of killing, 292. 
 
 Essentials of a brooder, 201. 
 
 Essentials of houses, 90. 
 
 Exercise for little chickens, 213 ; im- 
 portance of, 159; required, 6. 
 
 Exhibition games, 77. 
 
 Failures due to inexperience, 5. 
 Fancy breeds, 14, 74; description of, 74. 
 Fancy points and egg production, 136. 
 Fattening, 181 ; cockerels, 183 ; foods 
 
 for, 182. 
 
 Fattening fowls require little exer- 
 cise, 181. 
 Fattening fowls should be disinfected, 
 
 186. 
 
 Fattening geese, 257. 
 Faulty classification of fowls, 12. 
 Faulty method of selecting eggs, 134. 
 Faverolles, description of, 52. 
 Feather eating, 325. 
 
 Feeding for eggs and for meat, 158; for 
 meat, 181 ; in litter, 180 ; little 
 chickens, 208 ; manner of, 174 ; 
 troughs, 179 ; troughs for little 
 chickens, 215. 
 
 Fences, construction of, 128. 
 Fertile eggs, 137. 
 Fertility of eggs, 138. 
 First food for little chickens, 210. 
 Flavor of eggs affected ty food, 160. 
 Flocks, size of, 5. 
 Floor space necessary, 94. 
 Floors, 105. 
 
 Food a basis of improvement, 152; af- 
 fects flavor of eggs, 160; deficient in 
 lime, 172; for broilers, 235; for cram- 
 ming, 184; for fattening, 182; for gos- 
 lings, 257; for little chickens, 209; for 
 pigeons, 281; for young turkeys, 271; 
 green, 165; natural, 158; the cause of 
 improvement, 174. 
 Foods, meat, 168; soft, 176. 
 Forced feeding, dangers of, 161. 
 Forced feeding for eggs, 160. 
 Form of house, 91; roof, 103; yard, 127. 
 Forming machine, 294; method of us- 
 ing, 295. 
 
 Foundation of house, 96. 
 
 Fowls, breeding and improvement of, 
 
 131; classification of, 12; dry-picking, 
 
 286; general-purpose, 54; guinea, 274; 
 
 health of, 82; improvement of, 31; 
 
338 
 
 Index 
 
 killing, 285; Mediterranean, 18; pack- 
 ing and shipping, 289; plumping, 288; 
 preparing for market, 282; require 
 exercise, 6; scalding, 287; selection 
 of, 131. 
 
 Fresh eggs, 138. 
 
 Frizzles, description of, 79. 
 
 Frozen parts, treatment for, 324. 
 
 Frozen poultry, 291. 
 
 Fruit trees for yard, 129. 
 
 Gable roof, 103. 
 
 Game, classes of, 77. 
 
 Games, exhibition, 77; oriental, 78; 
 pit, 77. 
 
 Gapes, causes of, 313; remedies for, 314. 
 
 Geese, African, 255 ; breeds of, 232; 
 Chinese, 256; Embden, 254; fattening, 
 257; general discussion, 250; houses 
 for, 259; incubation of, 260; laying 
 qualities of, 259; number of, 2; suit- 
 able runs for, 251; Toulouse, 252. 
 
 General discussion of ducks, 237; of 
 geese, 250. 
 
 General -purpose breeds, 14; fowls, 54; 
 are good foragers, 58; are good sit- 
 ters, 57; disposition of, 56; early ma- 
 turing, 57; endure cold weather, 58; 
 size of, 56; useful qualities of, 55. 
 
 Good products may be sent long dis- 
 tances, 10. 
 
 Goslings, food for, 257. 
 
 Grain, how fed, 180. 
 
 Grains, mixture of, 178. 
 
 Green food for young ducks, 249. 
 
 Green food, general discussion of, 165. 
 
 Grit for little chickens, 216; various 
 kinds of, 170. 
 
 Ground grain for little chicks, 211. 
 
 Guinea fowls, 274; nature of, 275; 
 habits of, 275. 
 
 Habits of pea-fowls, 277. 
 
 Hamburgs, description of, 35; varieties 
 
 of, 36. 
 Hawks and crows, danger from, 89. 
 
 Health of fowls, 82. 
 
 Heat radiated by windows, 107. 
 
 Heredity, law of, 140. 
 
 History of Leghorns, 23. 
 
 Hollow side walls, construction of, 101; 
 material for, 102. 
 
 Home-made brooders, 205. 
 
 Houdans, description of, 70. 
 
 House, cubical content of, 95; form of, 
 91; foundation for, 96. 
 
 Houses, arrangement of, 87; construc- 
 tion of, 90; essentials of, 90; for geese, 
 259; portable, 130. 
 
 Importance of exercise, 159; in-and-in- 
 breeding, 145; sunshine, 85. 
 
 Improvement and breeding, 131 ; of com- 
 mon fowls, 153; through selection, 
 157; of fowls, 31; due to cross-breed- 
 ing, 148. 
 
 Incubation, artificial, 189; of geese, 260; 
 natural, 190. 
 
 Incubator house, 196. 
 
 Incubator room, even temperature de- 
 sirable, 196. 
 
 Incubator rooms, 194; ventilation of, 
 196. 
 
 Incubators, 191; care of, 196; discussion 
 of, 187. 
 
 In-and-in-breeding, dangers of, 146; de- 
 nned, 144; importance of, 145. 
 
 Inexperience, cause of failures, 5. 
 
 Influence of male and female com- 
 pared, 153. 
 
 Influence of males on egg production, 
 139. 
 
 Indian games, 70. 
 
 Instruments for caponizing, 225. 
 
 Introduction of alien blood in Leg- 
 horns, 23. 
 
 Javas, description of, 66; useful quali- 
 ties of, 66; varieties of, 66. 
 
 Killing fowls, 285; English method of, 
 292. 
 
Index 
 
 339 
 
 Kinds of litter, 180. 
 
 Knowledge of the business essential, 4. 
 
 Labor caused by inconvenience, 86. 
 
 Land, amount of required, 5. 
 
 Langshans, description of, 51. 
 
 Large eggs preferred, 28. 
 
 Law of heredity, 140. 
 
 Law of variation, 141. 
 
 Laying qualities of Barred Plymouth 
 
 Rocks, 60; of geese, 259; of meat 
 
 breeds, 42. 
 
 Leghorn eggs, color of, 28. 
 Leghorns, description of, 23; egg pro- 
 duction of, 26; size of, 25; varieties 
 
 of, 26. 
 Lice, 308; description of, 309; remedies 
 
 for, 310. 
 Light Brahmas and Dark Brahmas 
 
 compared, 48. 
 Lime, necessary, 172. 
 Lime water for preserving eggs, 307. 
 Linseed meal, 165; for moulting hens, 
 
 165. 
 
 Litter, kinds of, 180. 
 Live poultry, crates for shipping, 298; 
 
 shipping, 297. 
 Location of buildings, 82; yards, 86. 
 
 Machine, forming, 294. 
 
 Male and female, comparative influence 
 of, 153. 
 
 Males and egg production, 139. 
 
 Mangel-wurzels, 166. 
 
 Manner of feeding, 174. 
 
 Marketing fresh eggs, 300. 
 
 Marking packages, 291. 
 
 Material for dust baths, 123 ; hollow 
 side walls, 102; for nests, 119; for side 
 walls, 92. 
 
 Meat breeds, 14, 39; are poor foragers, 
 41; as lawn fowls, 41; as winter lay- 
 ers, 43; disposition of, 40; easily con- 
 fined, 41 ; late maturing, 44; laying 
 qualities of, 42; size of, 39. 
 
 Meat, feeding for, 181. 
 
 Meat foods, 168; canned, 170. 
 
 Mediterranean fowls, 18, 22. 
 
 Method of preserving eggs, 303. 
 
 Milk for little chickens, 210. 
 
 Mineral matter for little chickens, 212. 
 
 Minorcas, description of, 31. 
 
 Mites, description of, 312 ; remedies 
 
 for, 313. 
 
 Money invested yields quick returns, 7. 
 Moulting and egg production, 115. 
 Muscovy ducks, 245. 
 
 Narraganseft turkeys, 268. 
 
 Natural food of ducks, 245; of fowls, 158. 
 
 Natural incubation, 190. 
 
 Necessary air space per fowl, 95. 
 
 Nest material, 119. 
 
 Nests, disinfection of, 118; for turkeys, 
 271; requisites of, 115; size of, 118. 
 
 Number of .chickens in the United 
 States, 2; ducks in the United States, 
 2; geese in the United States, 2; tur- 
 keys in the United States, 2. 
 
 Oats, as a food, 165 ; produces light - 
 
 colored flesh, 165. 
 Operation of caponizing, 226. 
 Oriental Games, 78. 
 
 Origin of Barred Plymouth Rocks, 59. 
 Outdoor brooders, 202. 
 
 Packages, marking, 291. 
 
 Packing and shipping fowls, 289; poul- 
 try in ice, 290. 
 
 Parks and yards, 124. 
 
 Pate de foie gras, 258. 
 
 Pea-comb, 45. 
 
 Pea-fowls, 276; habits of, 277. 
 
 Pekin ducks, 241. 
 
 Pepper, 174. 
 
 Perches, construction of, 113; situation 
 of, 112. 
 
 Pigeons, 277; food for, 281; profit from 
 rearing, 278. 
 
 Pit Games, 77. 
 
 Plumping fowls, 288. 
 
340 
 
 Index 
 
 Plum trees for the poultry yard, 128. 
 
 Plums, varieties of, 129. 
 
 Poisoning from salt, 327. 
 
 Poisoning rats, 328. 
 
 Polish, description of, 75 ; fowls not 
 hardy, 76; varieties of, 76. 
 
 Portable houses, 130. 
 
 Poultry business suited to either sex, 8; 
 cases. for shipping, 289; diseases and 
 enemies of, 308; frozen, 291; in apple 
 orchards, 129; packing in ice for ship- 
 ment, 290; raising as a business, 1; 
 shipping alive, 297; statistics unre- 
 liable, 2; time to ship, 292; value of, 2. 
 
 Preparation of fowls for caponiziug, 
 228. 
 
 Preparing capons for market, 231 ; 
 fowls for market, 282. 
 
 Preserving eggs, 302. 
 
 Production of pate de foi gras, 258. 
 
 Products easy to market, 10; variety 
 of, 9. 
 
 Profit in feeding, 175. 
 
 Profits from rearing broilers, 234; from 
 rearing pigeons, 278; capon rearing, 
 223. 
 
 Protected water basins, 121. 
 
 Pure air necessary, 195. 
 
 Pure-bred stock, advantages due to, 
 150; compared to common stock, 151. 
 
 Quality of food, 160. 
 
 Quick returns from money invested, 7. 
 
 Raised elevation preferred, 84. 
 
 Raising poultry as a business, 1. 
 
 Rape as a green food, 168; preparation 
 
 of, 168. 
 
 Rats, poisoning, 328. 
 Rearing capons, 222; squabs, 279. 
 Red Caps, description of, 38. 
 Remedies for diarrhoea, 326; for gapes, 
 
 314; for lice, 310; for mites, 313. 
 Requisites for success, 4; of a good 
 
 nest, 115. 
 Rhode Island Reds, 72, 
 
 /Roof, gable, 103; impervious to wind, 
 
 105; shed, 104; form of, 103. 
 Rooms for incubators, 194. 
 Root-cutters, 167. 
 Rouen ducks, 243. 
 j Roup, causes of, 316; symptoms of, 316; 
 
 treatment for, 317. 
 Rumpless fowls, described, 80. 
 Runs, suitable for geese, 251. 
 
 Salt, beneficial, 172 ; poisoning, 327; 
 poisonous, 173. 
 
 Scalding fowls, 287. 
 
 Scaly legs, cause of, 323; treatment for, 
 323. 
 
 Selecting eggs, 133; turkeys for breed- 
 ing, 269. 
 
 Selection and improvement, 157. 
 
 Selection of an incubator, 191; of fowls, 
 131. 
 
 Separate the sexes in fattening pens, 
 183. 
 
 Shallow pans as drinking fountains, 
 
 121. 
 | Shed roof, 104. 
 
 Shipping eases for eggs, 301 ; dressed 
 fowls, 289; live poultry, 297. 
 
 Shutters, window, 108. 
 
 Side walls, material for, 92; solid, 99; 
 wooden, 98. 
 
 Silkies, description of, 79. 
 
 Site, should be raised, 84. 
 
 Situation of perches, 112; of windows, 
 107; of yards, 127. 
 
 Size of fowls and egg production, 135; 
 of broilers, 233 ; of building, 94 ; of 
 egg breeds, 15; of flocks, 5; of fowls 
 for caponizing, 228 ; of general -pur- 
 pose fowls, 56 ; of Leghorns, 25 ; of 
 meat breeds, 39 ; of squabs, 280 ; of 
 yards, 126. 
 
 Skim milk, 170. 
 
 Slate turkeys, 269. 
 
 Soft -foods, 176; most profitable, 176. 
 
 Solid side walls, 99 ; construction of, 
 100. 
 
Index 
 
 341 
 
 Sorting eggs, 299. 
 
 Sour milk for little chickens, 210. 
 
 Spanish as farm fowls, 35; description 
 
 of, 34. 
 Squabs, rearing of, 279 ; size of, 280 ; 
 
 varieties of pigeons for, 280. 
 Stampeding, dangers of, 250. 
 Statistics, unreliable, 2. 
 Stock, pure bred, 150. 
 Sulfur, 174. 
 
 Sultans, description of, 79. 
 Sunshine important, 85. 
 Superior products create new demands, 
 
 10. 
 
 Symptoms of cholera, 320; of roup, 31G. 
 Syngamus trachealis, 313. 
 
 Thorough drainage necessary, 83. 
 
 Time to caponize, 230; to sell broilers, 
 233. 
 
 Toulouse geese, 252. 
 
 Treatmentforcholera, 321. 
 
 Treatment for frozen parts, 324; roup, 
 317; scaly legs, 323. 
 
 Troughs, feeding, 179; for little chick- 
 ens, 215. 
 
 Tuberculosis in brooder chicks, 221. 
 
 Turkeys, 261; Black, 269; Bronze, 267; 
 Buff, 269; care of young, 272; food 
 for young, 271; Narragansett, 268; 
 nests for, 271; number of in the 
 United States, 2; selecting for breed- 
 ing, 269; slate, 269; varieties of, 267; 
 White Holland, 268; wild, 261. 
 
 Useful fowls, 155. 
 
 Useful qualities of Barred Plymouth 
 Rocks, 59; Dorkings, 68; general-pur- 
 pose fowls, 55; Indian games, 72; 
 Javas, 66; Rhode Island Reds, 72. 
 
 Utility as a basis of classification, 12. 
 
 Value of eggs produced on farms in the 
 United States, 3; poultry in the United 
 States, 2. 
 
 Variation, causes of, 142; law of, 141. 
 
 Varieties of Bantams, 81; Brahmas, 
 45; Hamburgs, 36; Javas, 66; Leg- 
 horns, 26; plums recommended, 129; 
 Polish, 76; turkeys, 267; wild turkeys, 
 2C6; Wyandottes, 65; products, 9. 
 
 Vegetable and animal nitrogen com- 
 pared, 169. 
 
 Ventilation, 109. 
 
 Ventilators, construction of, 110. 
 
 Vermin, danger from, 89. 
 
 Vigor and egg production, 136. 
 
 Vigorous fowls, most profitable, 175. 
 
 Walls, concrete, 97; side, material for, 
 92; side, wooden, 98. 
 
 Water basins, 121. 
 
 Water-glass, 305. 
 
 Water troughs for ducks, 249. 
 
 Weight of wild turkeys, 263. 
 
 Wheat as a poultry food, 164. 
 
 White and brown Leghorns compared, 
 28; white fowls preferred, 63; Holland 
 turkeys, 268; Plymouth Rocks, 61. 
 
 Wild turkeys, 261; crosses of, 263; varie- 
 ties of, 266; weight of, 263. 
 
 Window shutters, 108. 
 
 Windows, 106; radiate heat, 107; situa- 
 tion of, 107. 
 
 Winter layers, 22. 
 
 Wooden floors, 105; construction of, 96. 
 
 Wyandottes, description of, 64; varie- 
 ties of, 65. 
 
 Yards and parks, 124; forms of, 127; 
 
 location of, 86; situation of, 127; size 
 
 of, 126. 
 
 Yolk, color of, affected by food, 163. 
 Young ducks, grain food for, 250. 
 

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T 
 
 WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY 
 
 HE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: 
 
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 standard teacher's book. The present book is the handsomest 
 elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations 
 illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural 
 Botany is being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere 
 laboratory work of the old kind: the pupil is taught to see things 
 as they grow and behave. The pupil who goes through this book 
 will understand the meaning of the plants which he sees day 
 by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust teaching of botany. 
 It cares little for science for science' sake, but its point of view 
 is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided into four 
 parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the plant 
 itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute 
 structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and de- 
 scriptions of 300 common species). The introduction contains 
 ad vice to teachers. The book is brand new from start to 
 finish. 
 
 "An exceedingly attractive text-book." Educational Review. 
 "It is a school book of the modern methods." The Dial. 
 
 "It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for indi- 
 vidual use." The Outlook. 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK 
 
T 
 
 WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY 
 
 HE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN 
 HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of 
 
 Cornell University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, 
 and many expert cultivators and botanists. 
 
 4 VOLS. OVER 28OO ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS - CLOTH OCTAVO 
 $20.00 NET PER SET. HALF MOROCCO, S32.OO NET PER SET 
 
 This great work comprises directions for the cul- 
 tivation of horticultural crops and original descrip- 
 tions of all the species of fruits, vegetables, flowers 
 and ornamental plants known to be in the market in 
 the United States and Canada. "It has the unique 
 distinction of presenting' for the first time, in a care- 
 fully arranged and perfectly accessible form, the best 
 knowledge of the best specialists in America upon 
 gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, 
 and the like, as well as exact botanical information. 
 . . . The contributors are eminent cultivators or 
 specialists, and the arrangement is very systematic, 
 clear and convenient for ready reference." 
 
 "We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish to place 
 on his sheit' beside his Nicholson and his London, and for such users of it a 
 too advanced nomenclature would have been confusing to the last degree. 
 With the safe names here given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. 
 There is a growing impatience with much of the controversy concerning 
 revision of names of organisms, whether of plants or animals. Those in- 
 vestigators who are busied with the ecolog'cal aspects of organisms, and 
 also those who are chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the 
 arts of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of organisms 
 under examination only so far as these aid in recognition and identification. 
 To introduce unnecessary confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey 
 has avoided the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and edit- 
 ing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful ; . . . a work worthy 
 of ranking by the side of the Century Dictionary." The Nation. 
 
 This work is sold only by subscription, and terms and 
 further information may be had of the publishers. 
 
 THE MACMIL COMPANY 
 
 No. 66 Fifth Avenue ' y NEW YORK 
 
UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 MAB 14