A: A^ : : 1 '■ 4 5 5 9 6 1 ■^■m K<--:..fJ;% STATE OF NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION TRENTON The Teaching of Geography, History and Civics JUNE 1917 I c ii«AY 6 1929 : l^.J Southern Branch' of the University of California Los Angeles Form L-1 i 5 0,3 I •sojg pjoiXBo Hi}|l!i|ijlij: HfciKAKY, tUOS ANGELF-S, CALIF. STATE OF NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION TRENTON The Teaching of Geography, History and Civics JUNE 1917 \j J., jk. TRENTON, N. J. MacCbkujsh & QuiGLET Co., State Printers 1917 CONTENTS PAGE Foreword 5 Introduction 9 Summary of course of study 18 Part I — Geography Grades II to IV — Introductory 23 Course of study 28 Grade II 28 Supplementary and reference books 30 Grade III 30 Supplementary and reference books 35 Grade IV 35 Supplementary and reference books 41 Grades V to VII — Suggested time allotment 43 Grade V — North America with special stress upon United States and New Jersey 45 North America 48 United States 51 New Jersey 53 Application of certain principles of geography 54 Supplementary and reference books 61 Grade VI — Continents of Eastern Hemisphere 63 Europe 64 i Asia 73 Africa 77 Australia and New Zealand 78 Supplementary and reference books 79 Grade VII — South America, Mexico, Central America, Canada, etc. . . 81 South America 81 Mexico 89 Central America 90 Canada 90 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland 92 Principles of geography 92 World review 97 Supplementary and reference books 102 Part II — History and Civics as Social Studies P\indamental principles to observe in all instruction in primary grades 103 Grade II problems 108 Supplementary and reference books 109 (3) 4 Page Grade III problems 110 Supplementary and reference booka 115 Grade rv problems 115 History 116 Civics 122 Supplementary and Teference books 123 Grade V 124 History 124 Civics 132 Supplementary and reference books 140 Grade VI 141 History 141 Civics 14C Supplementary and reference books 147 Grade VII 148 History 148 Civics 168 Supplementarj' and reference booka 168 Grade VIII 169 History 169 Civics 174 Supplementary and reference books 168 Appendices A. Reference books 177 B. Lesson plans 179 Geography 179 Grade V 179 Grade VI 183 Grade VII 187 History 196 Grade V 196 Grade VII 199 Grade VIII 206 Civics— Grade VIII 21i FOREWORD This monograph discusses the teaching of History, Geography and Civics in the elementary schools. It contains a course of study in each of these subjects. While these are treated separately, they are all parts of the one general subject, Social Studies. An attempt has been made to establish a relationship between the three. These subjects are of great value. They are, after Reading, among the most useful in the common school curriculum. They have a direct relation to good citizenship — the great purpose of the schools — as few other subjects have. Their study is neces- sary if we recognize the importance of man's relation to his fellows. They furnish abundant life, which is not their sole practical value but is a part of their value. They are full of interest and content as no other subjects are, literature alone excepted. They furnish resources for the use of leisure time. (If "^ well taught, they inspire patriotism, appreciation of one's country, and recognition of one's obligation to serve it. 1 They cultivate, if well taught, tolerance, imagination and judgment. They make large demands upon the teacher. The wider her reading, the more she has studied, the more she has traveled, the larger her vision, so much the better teacher will she be, pro- vided she does not talk too much in recitations — the temptation of the teacher, particularly in these subjects. If she knows how to get work from pupils, if she has a positive enthusiasm for the worth of geography, history and civics, and can make this enthusiasm contagious, the results of her teaching can be no other than to make some community and neighborhood of the future a better community and neighborhood for men, women and children to live in because she has been a teacher there. It is generally recognized that the selection of teaching ma- terial for these subjects is difficult. (Their range is so wide, their content is increasing so constantly, their relation to the needs of everyday life is so intimate, that selection of material requires great discrimination as to what is most worth while for boys and girls. ] Many subjects desirable for instruction must be omitted. It would not be possible to find any two persons who (5) would agree upon this selection of material. This monograph in this respect is the consensus of opinion, not only of the mem- bers of this Department, but of a number of teachers in the state whose opinion has l>een sought. In planning this course of study the ages and capabilities of children have been taken into account. They are not men and women. Many topics desirable in themselves must be left for high school instruction or for subsequent study. One difficulty in planning a course of study for an entire state consists in the fact that there is a great diversity of text- books in use — a fact not without merit in itself. The grade by grade treatment must therefore be set forth by topics or subjects which any modern textbook should contain. It has not been possible to refer to pages in books. Indeed it is often desirable that lessons should be set by topics, by the use of the blackboard^ and by consulting the tables of contents and indices. The teacher should make the children intelligent and quick users of tables of contents and indices. It would be a great mistake to attempt to teach to children with equal thoroughness all within the given textbooks in these subjects. It cannot be done nor is it desirable that it should be done. The preparation of no other pamphlet issued by the Depart- ment has involved so much time and effort as this one. It has been the work chiefly of Mr. Zenos E. Scott, Assistant Com- missioner in charge of Elementary Schools. He has had the advice, counsel and help of many teachers throughout tlie state. It is not practicable to name all these persons, but among them are the following who have made contributions. Don C. Bliss, Sui^erintendent of Schools, Montclair Charles B. Boyer, Superintendent of Schools, Atlantic City E. C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, East Orange Marion G. Clark, Head of Department of History, State Normal School, Newark David B. Corson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark Warren N. Drum, Superintendent of Schools, Millville Sarah A. Dynes, Department of History, State Normal School^ Trenton H. W. Foster, Supervising Principal. South Orange Christopher Gregory, Superintendent of Schools, Long Branch Ella Huntting, Instructor in Geography, State Normal School, Montclair Amos E. Kraybill, Superintendent of Schools, Asbury Park Ebenezer Mackey, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton J. Cayce Morrison, Supervising Principal, Chatham A. B. Poland, Superintendent of Schools, Newark Paul R. Radcliffe, Supervising Principal, Red Bank Susan E. Riley, Department of Geography, State Normal School, Trenton J. J. Savitz, Superintendent of Schools, Westfield W. E. Stark, Supervising Principal, Hackensack Florence E. Stryker, Head of Department of History, State Normal School, Montclair Jolin R. Wilson, Superintendent of Schools, Paterson Many of the County Superintendents and Helping Teachers of the State This help has been invaluable and it is a pleasure to record our appreciation of the services rendered. CaIvVIn N. Kendall Commissioner of Bdtication THE TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND CIVICS INTRODUCTION Geography, History and Civics _are subjects that have much to do with the social side of life. As social subjects they furnish material which may be so used that those who study them care- fully may be better able to live in right relationship with estab- iished social customs and practices. This monograph is not so much an effort to show the way in which these subjects may be correlated as it is an attempt to show the necessity of teaching them as different phases of the same social subject. There is one large question which these subjects attempt to answer: how does man manage to live and populate the earth? This may be broken up into many lesser questions which tend to emphasize particular aspects of the subject. For example, why should a farmer study soils? why does a merchant insure his goods? why should a fifth grade pupil learn where cotton is grown ? why should all children learn how to make change ? how does man control the forces of nature? how does climate affect plant life? how has cotton growing affected life in the South? how does moisture affect man's chances for a livelihood? how does man's action affect his neighbor? how did man come to need law? how does honest living make for good citizenship? Any or all of these problems have to do with some phase of maiVs activities in his efforts to live upon the eaxtlL. In concrete form these questions are of interest to elementary school children ; in more abstract form they are of interest to the more mature. All these questions center about the topics : ( i ) the earth as the home of man, and (2) the efforts of man to make a home on earth. The need, then, is not to teach the separate subjects, geography, history and civics, as subjects to be correlated, but rather to teach the fundamental conception — man in his efforts to live on the earth, as shown through geography, history and civics. If this manner of approach is correct, it is of utmost importance for the supervisor and the teacher to think through (9) 10 these subjects in the light of this large organization and to be prepared to teach boys and girls how to live in a social way by using the material found in geography, history and civics. We are, then, to see man, first, as a changing creature affected by his environment, and second, as an actor, a living force affecting his environment. TEACHING POSSIBILITIES The subjects geography, history and civics are richer in con- tent than any other group of subjects in the elementary school curriculum. They must be taught in such a way, therefore, that boys and girls will obtain from them attitudes of mind, controls in their daily lives. For example, heroes and leaders are to fur- nish stimulus for individual ambition and develop reverence for men and women who are carrying heavy burdens and discharging great responsibilities. Through geography they must obtain a feeling for industry and labor, a sense of responsibility for right use and conservation of natural resources. In comparison with the attainment of such attitudes, the mastery of the facts of these subjects zvill akuays be of small value. It is impossible to accom- plish what is indicated in the foregoing unless the teacher has interest in her work, unless her scholarship, her love for children and for the subject matter are used as more important factors than textbooks or a given course of study. MINIMUM ESSENTIALS FOR THE TEACHER Before beginning a lesson the teacher shouid jiave : 1. A definite idea of what she expects to accomplish in that lesson, and of the importance of the given lesson in connection with all the lessons to be taught on a given topic. 2. A thorough, concise knowledge or mastery of the lesson, so that she may teach zvithont a textbook. 3. The successive steps planned, the large questions thought out, in order to reach the desired results. 4. The apparatus for teaching at hand and ready for use — modeling table, maps, globe, colored crayon, reference material and textbooks. 5. Assignment made so definite and clear that pupils will be stimulated to do their best work. II 6. A determination to conduct the recitation in such a way that the pupils will have opportunities for exercise of their emotional and volitional natures. 7. A still more firm resolution to have the attention of all members of the class and not only of a few. USE OF BOOKS In each of these subjects the teacher should have several reci- tations during the year when the whole point of the recitation wonid be to teach the pupil how to use the book, and to encourage him to refer to it when studying other subjects. In such recita- tions the pupils should have their books open and follow the directions of the teacher, or of the monitors from the class whom she might appoint, referring to table of contents to understand how the text organized a given subject, consulting the references that are found on certain pages, referring to the index, and referring to maps, charts, and pictures. In fact, much of the recitation work should be conducted with pupils' books open before them. In each case the teacher should lead the way in showing the pupils how to make use of the textbook. The text- book should be considered as a tool. Its table of contents, index, maps, pictures, references, should be thought of as keys to help unlock its mines of information. METHOD OF ASSIGNMENT In making assignments the teacher must bear in mind that not all parts of th^ textbook are to be used. The material in the textbook should be used only as a guide which indicates how information and help may be obtained. Therefore, assignments should seldom be made page by page. On the other hand, assign- ments should ahuays be made with reference to the way in which a given paragraph, a part of a page, a map, a picture, will help to answer the problem under consideration. This means that the pupils and teacher must work out in some detail what they want to accompHsh before an assignment is made. The assign- ment for the following recitation should as a rule be made at the beginning of the recitation. Sufficient time should he taken in making this assignment to insure that the pupils understand what is zvanted of them, how they are to attack the problem, what material they are to u~se in securing an answer, and the type of response thai is expected of them. 12 \ SECXTBINO PXTPn. COOPEHATION AMD INITIATIVE No subjects in our school course offer better possibilities of securing pupil cooperation and initiative than geography, history and civics. In each subject, beginning as early as the third grade, the pupils should be taught to challenge each other's opinions and expressions. In this regard they should be taught to talk politely and intelligently, giving the reasons for their criticism of a given individual's work. If this principle is carried out, by the time the pupils reach the sixth and seventh grades they will have developed initiative and resourcefulness enough to keep them ever alert when anyone else is reciting or when they themselves are reading. There is no better way to teach a pupil to sense the values of what he hears or reads than through stimulating geography, history and civics teaching. Pupil initiative is in- creased a hundredfold when teachers give pupils the opportunity to help make the assignment, to help find the points that ought to be worked over in class. Therefore, pupils in the fourth or fifth grade should begin to help the teacher select subject matter which will assist them in satisfying their wants. The pupils should ask questions in each recitation. If they have the habit of asking as many questions in school as they do at home and on the playground, the teacher may feel sure that she is succeed- ing. The cooperation which they practice, the responsibility which they share, as indicated above, will be no small factors in furnishing them controls for living. AIMS IN GEOGEAPHT TEACHING To do the best work in any subject a teacher must understand the general aims of that subject plus the specific aims of its smaller units. This does not ignore the fact that children vary with respect both to their abilities and to the stages in their development; but it does emphasize the fact that the given sub- ject matter itself presents certain facts and principles which in themselves teach definite truths. The general aims of geography as taught in the elementary school are at least three. 1. Earth adapted to man. Geography attempts to show the child that the earth is suitable for man's habitation. For ex- ^ \ ample, man must have food, shelter and clothing, and he should also have an opportunity to work at a regular occupation, and a chance for recreation and leisure. It is true that he could live 13 if he had only food, clothing and shelter, but he would not advance rapidly in civilization. Therefore geography must con- sider the questions of man's chance for an occupation and his chance for leisure as well as the three necessities generally named. Geography should be studied in such a way as to bring out the facts that certain sections of the earth yield more and better food than others, that certain sections offer better oppor- tunities for city building than others, that certain places offer better facilities for transportation than others, that certain occu- pations are more profitably carried on in some places than in others — all these illustrate to the child that the earth is a suitable place where man may live. Since geography must deal with the facts of the earth and the many people on the earth in their influence upon one another, it is necessary to study man as a being who toils, and as a being who enjoys both toil and leisure. 2. Useful ideas of location. Geography should be so taught that the child may get certain definite ideas concerning the loca- tion, the character and the significance of important places or regions on the earth's surface. In the case of our own State, New Jersey, the child should know its location with respect to the other eastern states; how its location determines its climate; the location of the most important cities of the state; the loca- tion of certain great areas that are especially suitable for the development of large industries, e. g., potato growing sections, dairying sections, manufacturing and shipping sections. 3. Interdependence of man. A third aim of geography is to show that man must work intelligently if he is to get the most out of his opportunities here, for he is dependent upon such things as climate, soil, and the like, and also upon the coopera- tion of his fellow man. The child can understand, for example, that the pencil which he uses in school is the product of the labor of many different men; that the book which he reads is the result of the work of many, many people. When he sees that so many different persons have each had a definite part in the making of the pencil or the book, he can begin to realize what is meant by the interdependence of man. One of the chief aims of geography is to teach the general interdependence of mankind. When the teacher is conscious of these three general aims that are within the subject matter itself, she can appreciate the ^4 fact that her task is to utilize the ability of the pupil to the best advantage possible in order that he may interpret the earth through the study of geography. The teacher is then better fitted to go with the child in his experience of observing nature. She is more ready to give him opportunity to use his imagination and to rememl^er such facts as have a definite meaning to him ; more ready to direct his reasoning ability in dealing with the main causal relations that come up in the study of geography; more ready to direct his emotional and volitional response when he is dealing with the human problems of making the soil yield a sustenance, of carrying on transportation in the best way and at the least cost ; more ready, in short, to help him to become an active, intelligent and cooperating being on earth. AIMS m HISTORY TEACHING The subject matter of history is so rich in its record of struggles, of the growth of government, of ambitions of men and countries, of ideals and attitudes of mind of the world's great leaders, of stages in civilization, that its aims must be definitely fixed if it is to be presented adequately. History teach- ing should center around the following important objectives. 1. Useful information. The child should become familiar with important history facts in order that he may understand our country's growth and may have a fund of information w^hich will make him an intelligent participant in the life of his com- munity. For example, everyone should have a knowledge of the motives of the nations that settled America. A knowledge of the financial conditions of our country at the time of the for- mation of the Union would enable a pupil to better appreciate the worth of such a man as Hamilton. These two illustrations indicate relative values in judging items of information. The first — the motives of the nations that settled America — is of such scope that it represents an historical truth, in fact, a principle. It would take careful organization of the work of a week to make the idea stand out clear. The idea or principle gained would need to be used over and over again in interpreting other movements in American history. The second topic — the financial conditions of our country at the time of the formation of the Union — is of value not so much for its relation to big movements in history as for 15 the importance it attaches to great leaders. The first topic would need direct study for three or four days; the second should be mastered in one or two recitations. 2. Political and civic ideals. History continually sets forth political and civic ideals. An important aim, then, is that of active citizenship. For example, a sixth grade pupil can be made to see that if he is to be a valuable young citizen he must be willing to obey the laws of his community, he must honor the great men of his country. As he grows older he should put more and more meaning into such experience because of his increasing appreciation of the history of his country. On the basis of this element alone, American history is justified as a required subject in the elementary school curriculum. 3. Appreciation of national leaders. Efficient history teach- ing aims to develop an appreciation of the heroes, heroines and leaders in our national life. To this end the heroes, heroines and leaders must be shown to be real men and women who struggled and conquered in their efforts to help build up our country. When boys and girls get from reading and studying history a keen appreciation of the lives of Washington, Lincoln, Adams, Jefferson, etc., they have obtained that which will help them to be better Americans. Our country means "Opportunity" to an increasing number of people each year. We should strive to lead our boys and girls to realize the great blessings that come to them because they are Americans, and the great advantages and opportunities that are theirs if they are law-abiding, true American citizens. 4. National solidarity. History teaching also aims to show that men are dependent upon one another if any great move- ment is to be made successful ; that nations must respect the rights of other countries and must work for the common good of their subjects and one another if they are to add a positive value to civilization. For example, in teaching why our early colonists had to unite, the greatest value is gained if the pupil sees that in order to be successful, men had to depend on one another. He can see the dependence of one nation upon another in the work of Perry in opening the ports of Japan to our trade, or in the laws governing immigration to the United States, in the enforcement of which several other nations cooperate v^th us. i6 AIMS IN CIVIO TEACHING Civics is not a subject in itself but is rather one aspect of the subject of history. Since its ultimate use is to encourage good habits of living in the community and state, its aims must be carefully considered. At least five general purposes have been worked out so far in this new emphasis toward habits of good citizenship. 1. Responsibility to society. Civics aims to present to the child such facts as will cause him to realize that he is a respon- sible member of a group in society; that he has more or less direct connections with several groups. For example, he can easily see that he is a responsible member of his class in history ; he can easily see that he is a member of the class with which he studies, a member of the elementary school of which his class is a part, perhaps a member of a baseball team representing his school in a group of schools of equal rank. In any such case, civics shows him that if he is to be helpful he must take an active part. 2. Union of home and school. Civics aims to reach beyond the immediate classroom or school to which a child goes, and to show that the school and the home have very much in common. 3. Right attitude of mind. As historical facts gave the child a fund of information which tended to make him an intelligent citizen, so civics tends to give him an attitude of mind, a mode of behavior, which will start him on the road to right action. Civics not only teaches the divisions of government and their functions, but it also prepares the young child to begin the correct exercise of his powers and his initiative in becoming a factor in that government. 4. Habits of truthfulness, obedience to law, cooperation, service to state. Civics aims to provide opportunities for active partici- pation in such experiences as will give motives for habits of truthfulness, of obedience to law and order, of happy coopera- tion, of neatness, and of service to the community and state. 5. Love of country. Civics also aims to develop a permanent and enthusiastic love and loyalty for the United States. Children should recognize the obligation they owe to their country. They should be made ready to ofifer their wealth, their best efforts, their lives, for the furtherance of the ideals of their country. Civics rightly taught assists history in this important work. These aims in geography, history and civics should be studied carefully by all teachers in the elementary schools. Those teachers who are to give instruction in these subjects should be able to put such intelligent meaning into the aims that their teaching will be constantly influenced by these large ideals. // the teacher has a clear vision as to the nature of the children whom she is to teach, if she sees what part the given subjects are to have in furnishing controls for these children, if she teaches ivith these aims in the foreground, she is utilising the subject matter in such a way that it will help her pupils to grow into more socially efficient boys and girls. 2 GEOG i8 ^ 3 o, O o o X o s cS 01 (0 o "H. a 3 > 5* -3 o 0) O J3 ■Ji (D tJ3 d 3 *-> J3 2 a, to g •2 S S a! .i: -a "a S ft 3 bo a 3 m 3 0;^ Eh > O CO U. o u Qi O o > % (S ft J3 3 ■2 ^ ^-g bo 60 -O C 01 M 00 s ft^ o ^ ft 1 OS u 3 O 3 _s ^ "^^ ■a ^_> t*-! o i 03 5; 05 rt 01 T3 ■» 5 s S CO a •::; 01 ft 3 2 « 0} > 0) ^ 03 CO 0) a 0) a o ° 1 IK ^ Is M S CD o 'o u as ■«-J a ft o ■■5 ^ a M .2 o -5 SO *-> 3 ;-! 03 3 on CQ "3 a ft 05 2 ^ ft o O •3 ii a ,£3 « 3 en CQ o •a i; 3 -a CQ ^ ca 3 I OS 0. 3 < H-i 03 3 03 03 03 0) CJ a) a 03 UJ 0> 03 a 0> '2 3 c 01 ^ ;^ 03 ft rt 0) b£ iJ 11 -3 n a c! 3 a C3 2 > a ■I.J a (V 9 0) bC CO 0) ■>-> »4 B -a bO "O 3 ^ S 03 m 3 ■^ g d g bO <>-i a m ^ be a be 3 ->-> iS 03 3 _o '% 3 V •a 1 3 o3 y !»0 .2 a ft ^ 3 s Q> ^ '^ cd ^ 03 cfl -o _^ ,— , a ^ 3 "3 be 03 0) *-> 3 c? 3 3 a cd _2 0) 3 Q) a o3 3 CO 3 1-1 CO 03 0) CQ l-H 3 "a a C3 0) Of ft 3 3 -a !3 3 -u 03 en a (13 0) ft >» Hi H i9 o ti a OS o la *j ed ;-■ (J o •a 'H. a a s as (D OT "Zj a b£ 3 OQ ■^ *J 0) to O a 3 a) nS ''"^ ^^ H — 5 rt o -o m d b£ CD a A 2 --3 •^ 3 fl -S « s- 2 > « "" .2 "a S ts «, s t: St) 3 C =M O S3 O .ti "ii 02 (h >, •O ^ OJ o a CO 3 « 5t •-s 2 >> & a 3 " 1=' '^ - 0) 3 5= -a ir • t- ^ D< 2 -=• -c ^-€ ^ S o 05 O 4> ^ 3 U cd +j ^ •=3 r o t. a o Q) © — a> 7: a> 03 2 o w -c 2* "O 03 5* '^i "« 5 *^ « 5? ^ 3 to m © a 3 © © a 4h © j3 a 03 2 a © © •-5 © q-i a 3 a 03 r-* ^ !)-l ^ >i © ID ■'^ t< © 4h -c *3 ■i-j d ■a; >> S 2 a © > -a 03 -^ a 2^ 03 OS © ^ o a O O S ^ 5 a o ^ OJ u m a ® S d 3 © © "" o3 -O *^ a 01 o " a O 3 © f3 S -"5 o3 ^ a 2 W -I ^^ "" S tn ^ ~ © a 03 (c d o © o ''O t4 © S 3 5 I" CO o -. do C a) S 1-. fc. tu "O 03 © -• o ^ "^ *^ ,0 2* ^ 03 3 M .2 a o 2 Cq d -^ Si o3 © © a j3 5 2 2 M 2 o d ,w © .2 © M 03 -3 M « 2 H W ^ © o © o a a I S rt CQ a fl -M O « d OJ *>" a .2 d © I & ° ^ © "O ra »H (D -III' o a « g © o fl a . 5 "^ a © a 1-* rt -t-> a *© © © © id a 'rCi; a g S s .2 o .s -S w !3 a — . o S > © d •*-' o g 03 'C © O ^ a 3 "" m 03 ■Ci. © ^ 3 © ■Cl. s Z -3 © 3 •^ a as ~a 03 03 © I CS 03 © -3 -^ s < © d j:^ ja r: -«-> «J t^ t-i +j ^ il 2 a 03 ^ © +J "3 -rt © « a ^ o 03 3 a -3 o o o a © eS 01 © M -- t, o " a — • fc^ © be ^ ri © © '-' tf Z 20 ^ O c. «6 o, p . d S-o V 9 © o *■> b /^ CD ci V O ■!-> a -^(j) 00 o J3 o a-*j 3) "> . 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While his rate of mental expansion is rapid, yet his beginning work is one of getting sense impressions. His ability to make sense impressions over into ideas is limited both by the nature of his mind and by the materials with which he must work. With this thought definitely in mind, during these early grades our teaching procedure with respect to geography, history and civics must necessarily change. We must no longer expect a partially finished product in information getting, but we must expect and demand an attitude of mind which reaches out a-nd wants to get information. Much of our common practice in geography has been such that the young child dealing with a textbook in this subject, in grade III or IV, for example, necessarily gains a few unrelated facts. The textbook has presented isolated facts ; the teacher perforce has stressed them. Again, this method of presentation has neglected the concrete, the tangible in the subject, and also the child who is to do the experimenting. Such neglect has been unfortunate, for it has ignored what the childish mind wanted and has forced it to take a thing which it could not use, namely, unrelated information, which had little value for sense impression, imagination or child enthusiasm. If the pupil in the primary grades is to be interested in Nature and to learn about her through geography, he must do it by having a first hand touch with her. Our teaching, then, must break away from the idea of textbook information in grades III and IV and utilize exercises which deal with particular concrete earth experiences — those in which the child can take a real, active part. Such procedure eliminates the possibility of continually (23) 24 repeating facts in the fourth grade that were gone over in the third. The use of objects in nature, of pictures and lantern shdes, offers the child more chance for imaginative experience than any amount of textbook reading. Too often it has been the practice in our history work to give the pupil in the fourth grade a condensed textbook. As a rule, the whole field of American history is gone over in this way during the fourth year. The fifth year work repeats the pro- cess. In too many cases the sixth grade again repeats the process, although here a textbook a little less condensed is used. Thus by the time the child has reached the age when he ought to under- :^tand history and have a love for it, all his interest and enthusiasm are gone because the facts that he learned in the early grades do not increase in value as he grows older. There is little wonder that he has a distaste for history. In order to change this pro- cedure our work must be recast in accordance with what the child needs for his immediate use, plus what we, as teachers, know society is to demand of him in the future. ECONOMY OF TIME In order that our elementary grades may use the most im- portant parts of the subjects already established in our curriculum and make provision for the new phases of work that are being added, it is necessary for the teachers to present these subjects according to their relative values. For example, in grades I to IV the work in the elementary schools could be so done that much time would be released for primary hand-work. Approxi- mately six recitations a week of 15 to 25 minutes each ought to be sufficient for geography and civics in these grades. This arrangement gives an opportunity for the primary grades to l)e more directly responsible for the industrial activities of the children. The teaching of geography, history and civics will be enhanced, for very much of the hand-work can center around practical work in these subjects. For example, work in geography offers many opportunities for pupils to make paper cuttings, pai^er folding and sand models to represent objects talked about. Industrial work in history and civics offers opportunities for home building, settlement representation and implement modeling. 25 CONCRETE IN GEOGRAPHY In keeping with the foregoing principles, the work in geog- raphy in grades II to IV must be concrete, not in particular isolated facts but in the material presented. For example, the idea "spring" must be presented to the child through the green grass, the blooming violet, the budding Easter lily. The idea "need for shelter and clothing'' must be presented to him through the- playhouse as he makes it, the reed hut or leather moccasin or woolen coat. He must get the idea "hill" through his molding at the sand table, or through his experience in climbing a knoll in the school yard, or better still, in his excursion up a slope in the field. His idea of "trade" in the early grades must develop through trade experience in the school and home, through visits to shops, through educational moving pictures, or through pic- tures in the textbooks and mounted pictures from the library which show trade routes, men at work in the trades, ships, rail- way trains, auto trucks, carts, etc. Such teaching makes the text- book a tool in the hands of the teacher ; makes parts of the text- book in the hands of the pupil a tool through the use of which he gets sensing experiences. It is not advisable to use a textbook in history and civics in these grades. Biographical books and books presenting histor}- in story form can be used as supplementary reading material. In geography also no textbook should be used until the fourth grade is reached. In this grade an elementary textbook should be put into the hands of the pupil. Simple geographical readers and books describing child life in other lands can be used to advantage as supplementary reading material. One function of these supplementary books is to give the children enjoyment through reading about how other children live. Such teaching makes tangible environment yield material upon which the child builds his geographical exi)erience. GENERAL MAP READING One of the most important results of geography teaching should l:>e an increased use of maps and an appreciation of their value as source material. By the time a child reaches the fifth grade he should have the ability to read from an ordinary map direction, distance, and, to a certain extent, surface features. 26 Children should be taught to tell directions on the earth's surface before any map is presented to them. A north-south line should be drawn on the schoolroom floor and staked out on the sciiool grounds by marking the shadow of some vertical object at noon, by using a comi>ass, or by using a watch as a comi)ass as explained in the Boy Scout Manual. The pupils sliould be trained in telling i>eople how to go to different places in the vicinity by naming directions in which one should travel to reach the places. They should gain a knowledge of distance by finding out how long it takes them to walk to places a mile away from the school. Pupils should learn the distance of certain points one- fourth mile, one-half mile and one mile distant from the school by measuring such distances with their bicycles. Children understand maps better if they make simple ones for themselves. The simplest forms to begin with are floor-plans of the schoolroom, or sand table plans of the school grounds. At first no other attempt at scale should be made than would be made in a drawing lesson. Later a simple scale may be used if care is taken not to outrun the children's arithmetical abilities. In the fourth grade the teacher may conduct excursions of short distances in each of the four cardinal directions and let the children map the routes followed.- Here relative distance may l)e judged by pacing. In this work the teacher should not overestimate the value of the finished map nor forget that her chief concern is to teach children to read maps that others have made. A rough sketch by which the child can explain to others how to reach liis home from the school is of more value than a finished map drawn to an exact scale but meaningless to the child, KEADINO OF LOCAL HAPS Each teacher should make a map of the district in which the school is situated. The first maps may be crude but should have on them a north-south line and a scale of miles. A child should be taught to look first for the north-south line and to hold his map so that north on the map corresponds with that direction in the schoolroom. As he reads on this map the direction of differ- ent places from the school he may be asked to point to them. When wall maps are used they should, if possible, be placed on the north wall so that the directions may correspond as closely with reality as possible. 27 A child should learn early that meridians and parallels are north-south and east-west lines commonly placed on maps to tell directions and that the north is usually at the top and the east at the right hand of a wall map as he faces it. It is well occasionally to show a map with much curved parallels or meridians, or one where north is not represented at the top, so that he may learn how directions are read on such maps. EXERCISES ON LOCAL MAPS 1. In what directions and on what streets would you walk tO' reach : the nearest fire engine house, your own home, the post- office, etc. 2. Mark on a strip of cardboard a scale of miles similar to the one at the bottom of your map. With this scale find places one mile from your home. Find the distance from the school or from your home of places mentioned in exercise i. MAPS AVAILABLE FOE HOME GEOGEAPHT WORK Large scale topographical maps of the State may be obtained for twenty-five cents from the New Jersey Department of Con- servation and Development at Trenton. These maps are large enough to be placed on the wall for study. Children should be encouraged to find the distance and direction from the school to nearby towns. The brown contour lines on these maps will not confuse children if they are shown how well-known hills and valleys and steep and gentle slopes are represented. They may be given problems to answer from the map such as to find roads that avoid hills, roads that go over steep slopes, points where the best views may be obtained, etc. THE TANGIBLE IN HISTORY To be tangible in history in the early grades a fact must give life to the child \vho is studying. It must have a somewhat immediate practical value. For example, the story of Paul Revere's ride may furnish a basis for classroom dramatization. Again, stories of the lives of the heroes studied should be given from the child's point of view. Facts must, to some degree, point the way toward future values. The discredited notion presented by the "Culture Epoch Theory" would seek to drive all children through the same 28 racial experience. Voung children need no mare racial exi>eri- ence than do older children. What they do need, however, is a chance to utilize their individual capacities in finding something in history that is immediately usable to them. Our first tash, then, is to proznde stories and biographies that are iiiteresting because they abound in experiences that children can understand. For example, the ba\'hood of Washington is the part of his life that is of value to young boys. If this thought is kept uppermost in grades I to IV history will not tire children. They will simply be experiencing a knowledge of how people act, and to the degree to which these people can act vigorously and present themsehes as living men and women, young children can interpret them. THE USABLE IN CIVICS To make civics worth while in grades II to IV the teacher must center the work around the actions of the children in the schoolroom, on the playground and in the home. Centering the work about these activities will force the child to see that he is a responsible member of the community group and that he is taking part in its activities. The usable in civics then becomes the actual experience of children, interpreted with immediate surroundings in view and weighed in terms of the immediate, plus what other people have done under similar conditions. COURSE OF STUDY GRADE 11 Time allotment, two recitations a week. Familiar objects of nature Changes in seasons Simple phenomena of nature Nature poems The work in geography in grade II should emphasize the seasonal changes; the familiar objects of nature, such as birds, bees, flowers, vegetables, domestic animals; and some of the phenomena of nature, such as water, snow, ice, sunshine and wind. The pupils of this grade can get a child's concept of nature if they are allowed to have first-hand experience with interesting objects found by them or by the teacher. 29 In putting this into practice the teacher may approach the subject by talking- informally with her pupils about a flower or insect found on the way to school. In following up such a lesson an opportunity is afforded for making a collection by the pupils of the class or the school. For example, there are splen- did opportunities, in both the city and the country, for the hatching of tadpoles, for collections of cocoons, old bird's nests, and a few of the common flowers. This concrete work in ob- taining first-hand experience with nature gives the teacher the best possible connection for vital English work. Each collection made, each excursion taken, each specimen studied, should be used as a basis for oral English in the second grade. All these things furnish excellent sources for child observa- tion, for discussion and for thought work. The material col- lected by the children can be organized by the teacher in the way that best suits her immediate purpose. If she lives in the country the fields and woods will furnish an abundance of material. If she is in the town she will have recourse to the parks or the greenhouses. She is to hold this idea in mind — that her chief purpose is to get her children awakened to some of the interesting things of nature which are immediately around them. In studying the great changes that take place in nature during fall, winter, spring and summer the teacher is to show how they affect life outside and inside the schoolroom. For example, October's weather could be taught through the goldenrod, the colored leaf, the withered grass; the winter season could be taught through the frosted window-pane, the snow-storm and snow flurry, the slippery street, the frozen stream, the rough frozen ground. Spring and summer could he handled in a similar way, so that at all times the pupils would make their own connection between some of the earth facts immediately around them and the great changes which are going on within nature. The important thing to remember is the fact that the children are to make the observations, the children are to give the interpretations. Second grade children should learn a few poems adapted to the different seasons. The poems should be used in the nature work as well as for the opening exercises and special days. Most good supplementary readers contain many selections which are helpful nature study material. For example, simple lessons 30 that deal with the snow-storm, the summer clouds, the song birds, the farm animals, the oj)en country, are usable for the nature study lessons. If they are so utilized by the teacher the child will find a keen interest in nature. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUf>|LS AND TEACHER GHADES n AND III Andrews, Jane. Seven Little Sisters. Ginn, Boston Dutton, M. B. World at Work Series. American Book Co. N. Y. Peary, Josephine. The Snow Baby. Stokes, N. Y. Perkins, L, F. The Dutch Twins. Houghton, Boston Perkins, L. F. The Japanese Twins. Houghton, Boston Schwartz, J. A. Five Little Strangers. American Book Co. N. Y. Smith, IVl. E. E. Eskimo Stories. Rand McNally, Chicago Smith, IVl. E. E. Holland Stories. Rand McNally, Chicago GRADE III Time allotment, three recitations a week. Seasonal changes Interesting objects of nature Location applied to immediate environment Simple map making Weather observations Experimentation with seed germination and plant growing Excursions Needs for food, clothing and shelter Type studies Poems In grade III a continuation of the method suggested under grade II is recommended. In this grade the children can put more meaning into the seasonal changes. They have had more illustrative reading material on the topic. They are able also to continue the study of the plants and animals around them with more interest, both because they are older and because their other school work has given them more usable material. Third year pupils, in both country and town, should be able to collect specimens which will form a basis for much of their discussion in geography and nature work. This same material should also serve as a basis for subject matter in simple but wide-awake oral and written English. 31 The idea of location as applied to the child's immediate en- vironment is an added topic in third grade assignment. This work may begin with a study of objects in the schoolroom. The points of the compass, how to locate objects in the room, how to show location on the board, are things to be taught. As a second step the pupils should study their school building with reference to its distance and its direction from their home and from other important points in the community. In teaching distance, location and community environment the third grade teacher should make provision for some definite measuring and for some simple map and floor-plan making. Ideas of distance can be gained by measuring length and breadth of schoolroom, school building, school garden and school yard. Maps of these rooms, houses and yards should be drawn. Work of this kind should be given in relation to the subject matter throughout the term and taught in connection with arithmetic. A discussion of the questions regarding directions and loca- tion which are raised by measuring and by map making offers a still better opportunity for pupils to reinforce their former ideas of nature, for now they can begin to locate the trees, the flowers, the plants that they have been studying. They can begin to find the home of the butterfly, the frog, or the chip- munk in terms of directions and location on the maps they have made. SUGGESTIONS Model village on sand-table, including houses, garages, stores, school, fire department, police department, postoffice. municipal buildings, railroad station, and any local industry, such as fac- tory, shipbuilding, milling, mining, etc. The third grade teacher can find opportunity for experiment- ing wath facts concerning weather observations, moisture and soil fertility. In making weather observations the members of the class should note certain definite things such as temperature, direction of winds, clouds, degrees of dampness before and after rain. The teacher could perform simple experiments such as showing the way in which moisture collects on grass, leaves, w-indow-panes. If the class has a vegetable or flower garden there is excellent opportunity to show how rich soil makes for rapid growth and for vigor and health of plants. If the school has no garden window Ixjxes can l>e used, or corn, beans, wheat or rye can be planted in the several small cups. 32 This work can be reinforced by a trip to the field, where pupils can find rocks, pebbles, sand, clay and loam. In all excursions the teacher should have a definite purpose. She should make a preliminary visit and find out the best ways of accomplishing lier purix)se. Such work establishes a foundation for useful observation and at the same time shows some of the changes that take place in making soils productive. SUGGESir^TE EXPEBIMENTS Experiment 1. Place the same amount of water in two dishes of the same size and shape, in different parts of the room, one where it is warm and the other where it is cool. Watch the change. Evaporation from both, but more from one than from the other. It disappears in a form too fine to be seen. Call it vapor. Observe same in pools, sponges, clothes on the line, etc. Experiment 2. Place a small pan of water over an alcohol lamp. Observe that a cloud is soon seen above the water. Hold a cold plate in the cloud; drops form. Heat the plate and observe that the water disappears. Observe clouds rising from walks, roof, etc., on a warm day after a shower; steam ascending from the tea-kettle; moisture on the windows ; frost on a cold day. Experiment 3. Place two glasses in the room, one filled with ice water and the other with tepid water. Observe on which the moisture collects. Fonnation of dew. Why does frost form on a window? Experiment 4. Set a tin cup of water out of doors on a very cold day. Watch the ice crystals shoot across. Water freezes first at the top; if there is wind, the crystals become broken and form rough ice. What happens to a glass or pitcher if water is allowed to freeze in it? Experiment 5. Place a piece of ice out of doors on the north side of the house on a cold day. Observe evaporation. Little heat, slow evaporation; great heat, rapid evaporation. Measure rainfall and snowfall. Place a tin pan in an open space and measure depth of rainfall. Use the same pan after a heavy snowfall, and press it squarely down so as to take up the depth of snowfall, then melt it and compare with rainfall. These experiments should help the child account for dew, frost, ice, clouds, fogs. 33 Impress: sun gives heat; heat causes water to change to vapor; vapor rises, cools and forms clouds; clouds give rain if met by cooler wind; snow, if met by a very cold wind; hail, if rain begins to fall and passes through very cold winds. Lessons upon forms of water should be given as opportunity occurs for observation. Experiments upon vapor should precede and be well understood. In the third grade opportunity should be offered for the child to appreciate his own need for food, clothing and shelter. Through his study of the needs of plants and animals he is enabled to form some judgment respecting his own needs. With a definite project, for example, centering around the cowboy, the Indian, the Eskimo, the story of Robinson Crusoe, or life in a boys' camp, there is opportunity to make this geographical ma- terial real to the child of this grade. The cowboy, for example, can be made a real person to the pupils. He needs food, clothing and shelter, and works in order that he may satisfy these needs. In doing this work he is an interesting person to study. He takes care of the animals placed in his charge. The animals fur- nish food and clothing for boys and girls in both country and town. Other occupations are also brought in through a study of the cowboy. The child who is clinching his geography informa- tion through a study of such definite projects is gaining some conception of the whole field of geography. Robinson Crusoe is an account of the adventures of one who is forced to live for many years wholly removed from the society of others and apart from the comforts and conveniences of civilization, and who finally, after years of successful single- handed struggle with nature, returns to his home. The story teaches, indirectly, that civilization is the result of the effort which man has put forth in advancing evolution, his progress being marked by the steps from a natural to a more or less developed state. The story of Robinson Crusoe epitomizes, in a way, the history of the struggle of the race as a whole. Crusoe overcomes slowly, but persistently, the forces of nature. He uses the raw materials found about him to promote his well-being. By thought and undiscouraged effort he provides himself with food, clothing, shelter, all of which are necessary to life and which aid moral and spiritual development. His successive occupations may 3 GEOG 34 enable the child to appreciate somewhat the development ot civilization. Robinson Crusoe is house builder, carpenter, farmer, stock-raiser, doctor, basket-maker, hatter, miller, baker, boat- builder, tailor and teacher. It is obvious why he is not a mer- chant. The uselessness of money or gold to one in his circum- stances should be pointed out. The relation of Robinson Crusoe and Friday illustrate man's dependence upon man, which results in the organization of society, and which shows the need of language as a means of communication. Moreover, it is a story of moral heroism, a story of one who was rarely discouraged or disheartened under very trying or adverse circumstances. While it is true that children of this grade cannot appreciate, as adults can, the value of unfailing cheerfulness, of self-reliance, of persistence and bravery, yet these qualities in Robinson Crusoe should not be overlooked by the teacher. The story should be told or read to pupils with certain omis- sions, such as references to the savage practices of cannibals. In the beginning of the story the home and the kindness of the parents should be made vivid in order that the contrast later may be more effective. His life upon the island, however, should receive most attention. Some of the story should be reproduced orally in the children's best English. Occasionally there should be a short written exer- cise upon an assigned topic. Pupils should be encouraged to make, at home or in scho(3l, various utensils or tools used by Robinson Crusoe, as the anchor, raft, ladder, chair, table, spade, all of which show incidentally man's dependence u[X>n man. Compare his home with ours. Show how he built his house ; how he lighted it. One such project is suggested as a minimum. If pupils study in detail how the cowboy does his work, or how the Indian needs food, clothing and shelter, that is the right kind of geography for this grade. Four months spent upon a single project sJwurs better "pedagogy" than four projects per month. The suggestions concerning the use in the second grade of certain kinds of poems and prose material are even more appli- cable to third grade work. Stories of some length, which show the experience of children in different lands, can also be utilized. 35 Such stories should be selected, not to follow out the Culture Epoch Theory, but simply to give opportunities for varied journeys and geography experiences for eight year old children. In the work outlined there is neither time nor place for "deiinition geography." Pupils and teachers are observing, sensing and experiencing real facts in nature which will not only serve to satisfy their present desire for activity, but will furnish the necessary material for arriving at useful generalizations in the higher grades and for discovering the more imix)rtant under- lying principles of geography. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADES HI AND IV Baldwin, James. Old Stories of the East. American Book Co. N. Y. Burgess, T. W, Mother Westwind's Children. Little, Brown, Boston Carpenter, F. G. Around the world with Children. American Book Co. N. Y. Carroll, C. F. Around the World Series. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Chance, L. M. Little folks of Many Lands. Ginn, Boston Dutton, M. B. In Field and Pasture. American Book Co. N. Y. George, M. M. Little Journey Series. Flanagan, Chicago. See also list at end of Grade II GRADE IV Time allotment, four recitations a week. Elementarv text- books in hands of pupils. Objects of nature Weather records Excursions Extended interpretation of globe World geography, emphasizing the interrelation of peoples, the needs of different peoples, chief occupations, influences affecting mankind (minimum requirement — two projects carried out in some detail) Type study on occupation, industries, products APPARATTTS NEEDED BY TEACHER Map of Xew Jersey and local county Map of United States Map of North America Map of World Globe, 1 2-inch 36 Sand-table (made by carpenter or manual training pupils) Supplementary geographical readers From a study of his immediate environment the pupil's horizon broadens until it includes the school district, the county, the state and finally the nation and the world. The children of the fourth grade should continue at first hand their study of nature. Much of their work, then, in the fourth grade ought to be a continuation of that suggested for the third year. Here they can study objects of nature around them in a more detailed way. They can make closer observations, collect more specimens, and talk over their excursions in a more ade- quate way than in the previous grade. Weather records of the different months may be kept by differ- ent groups of pupils. The teacher and the class should work out a plan calling for certain things to be noted. For example, a chart could be made which would show number of cloudy days, number of sunny days, highest temperature, lowest temperature, time of sunrise (earliest and latest), time of sunset (earliest and latest), time of new moon, time of full moon, kinds of birds seen, varieties of wild flowers gathered. Excursions should be made to fields and woods. Definite pur- poses to be accomplished must be in the mind of the teacher before the excursions are undertaken. She should visit the places beforehand and find the answers to the questions that she will raise. If an industry such as a truck farm or a manufac- turing plant is examined, it should be studied through the number of people employed, the raw materials used, the products made, the help the industry gives to the community. To make this work valuable the teacher should plan for several lessons. The ideas gained in a study of local geography furnish the basis for world geography. Therefore a constant connection must be made between the local environment and the needs of the world at large. For example, the pupils can see that a local manu- facturing plant depends upon the Pittsburg coal region for its coal, upon New Jersey clay beds for its clay, and upon steam- ships and railroads for transportation. In studying the shape of the earth let the approach be through imaginary journeys made by children in search of necessary articles of food ; through journeys made by people who have traveled around the world, e. g., by tracing on the globe the -h7 route traversed by Magellan ; or through class construction work wherein the rotundity of the earth is emphasized. This could be followed by further use of the globe. Whatever devices the teacher uses she succeeds only when she and her pupils have imagined the earth as a ball, turning in space. Attempts at explaining how the ball hangs in space are not as successful as attempts at objective illustration and attempts at image making. If the teacher suspends a 12-inch globe before her pupils, and then suggests that they close their eyes and imagine it is the earth hanging in space, she has begun aright. When we realize that children can learn to imagine just as they learn to think we shall be better able to furnish them with material for growth in imagination, and at the same time we shall be more patient in allowing time for this growth. Such presentation as has been suggested makes a splendid introduction to the study of day and night, causes of seasons, relation of moon to earth, relation of sun to earth. With this as a beginning, the content of subject matter for the fourth grade should be broadened so that the pupils will study more than the geography of their immediate locality. The work should progress from facts that are personal and familiar to the children to those which are less obvious and more im- personal. In this way, with a textbook which has been written for fourth grade children, the study of world geography should be continued through the study of home geography. Let the study of the district, the county, the state, the nation, the world, begin with something with which the child is already familiar. The need for good roads, for schooling, for protection, for government, for food, clothing, shelter and fuel furnishes the live approach to a study of world geography. In taking up any one of the following necessities — flour, meat, butter, cotton, wool, silk, fuels, lumber, bricks, it should be traced to its source, and a study made of the simpler elements of its production, the means and route by which it is brought to the community, and the method of distribution. Such a study makes direct applica- tions of the chief occupations of man. The teacher should see to it that the products selected in the work as a whole introduce the children to the various continents and the several heat belts, for a summary of the work should include a knowledge of the distribution of the heat belts as a preparation for the continental 38 work of the higher grades. However, the emphasis in this grade is not to be on the continents of the world but on the kind of people who are in the world, their needs, their chief occupations, their interrelationship. In extent this would be called world geography because it would deal with the most important ele- ments that affect mankind. In content it would hold to the facts of the world that have meaning to children of nine and ten years of age. Fourth grade pupils are citizens of a prosperous state. Many of the other states in the union help to make their state pros- perous. Many of the other countries produce articles that are used here in New Jersey. Many of the articles made in New Jersey are needed in other parts of the world. These fourth grade children have needs to be satisfied, the study of which will give them the geography that they can iise. For example, all children need light weight clothes in summer and heavier weight clothes in winter. In studying this need as a problem of world- wide geography, the pupils should find three or four important places in the United States or in foreign countries which furnish the raw materials for clothing. In a very elementary way these pupils should study how the goods were transported from the place of manufacture to the store, how the raw material was brought to the factory, how the raw material ^vas produced. Incidentally they have studied in a very elementary way, loca- tion, climate, occupation, ways of living, commerce and indus- tries of given countries. By selecting a few of the articles which are among their needs, these children may make intelligent excursions into the field of geography, and if the work is handled rightly tliey will learn enough world geography for fourth grade children. As to method of teaching, these children would have con- tinual opportunities for observation and experimentation with some facts of geography which directly concern their immediate lives or the life in the community, so presented that they would constantly be forced to use intelligent imagination in each day's lesson. The teaching should be so controlled that their ex- panding sense impressions will form a basis for the logical thinking which they are capable of doing at this stage of their development. The work of this grade, as well as that of the third, neces- sitates the use of the sand table, and of plasticine, or clay, for 39 modeWng. It also necessitates a constant use of the globe, of j>aper and cardboard constructions, and of some rough map drawing, so that the ideas of the children may be made vivid and clear. It necessitates a knowledge of directions and important locations. Since the textbook is in the hands of the children, it must be used as a source of information. It must also be used as a means by which the teacher shows the pupils from day to day how to get meaning fromi its pictures, and how to interpret pages of geography material. The teacher could use various devices in carrying out the work indicated. She could, for example, take the "journey method," and show how the need of clothing changes as man shifts his place of living. She could take the same journey method and show how hardships increased as man traveled from a well-developed country to one more and more rough and rugged. Such procedure makes it difficult to itsc mere fact questions and answers in fourth grade geography, but easy to connect and use meaningful facts. The poorest kind of geography teaching in these lozver grades is the old type of ''fact and definiiion geography." The best kind of geography teaching is that which causes the child to observe, to handle, to sense geography ma- terials, and to utilize his experiences in such a zvay that he be- comes increasingly interested in the zvorld about him. This paves the way through immediate interests of the child for an intelligent study of the political aspect of geography which fol- lows in the succeeding grades. TYPE STXTDT Agriculture is suggested for study as a type of fundamental ocaipation. Fourth grade children can understand much about this occupation if they trace back to the soil some of the simple articles which they use daily. For example, bread is a food necessity. The problem is to find what occupations have helped in preparing it for the table. In a class composed of country children the approach would be through the grain growing which would include preparation of ground, sowing of seed and germi- nation. Plants require heat, light and moisture. In this connec- tion the pupils should make a brief study of soils suitable for wheat growing, and a study of amount of moisture, of tempera- ture, of time of ripening, harv-esting and threshing. In takings up the marketing of the wheat product, these pupils should have 40 first-hand experience as to cost, price of wheat, and purposes to which elevators are put. If a flour mill is in the vicinity a trip should be made to it so that the children may understand some- thing of the way in which the hull of the wheat is separated from the heart, and may see what part becomes bran and what flour. Transportation and commerce become centers of study when the children are finding out how the flour reached the baker. The factors in this transportation will evidently be the wagon or truck, and the railroad, steamboat or barge. If the flour returns direct to the farmer the factors will be his team or truck, and a dirt, gravel or macadam road. When the flour has reached the baker, the problem becomes one of finding out some of the ways of bread making. A visit to the bakery, a trip to a neighboring kitchen, or a recitation in the school kitchen offers an opportunity to understand the cost of the change into bread. There is still left the question of delivery to the home. If the class is composed of town or city children the approach should be made through the loaf of bread on the table and lead i back to the marketing and growing of the wheat. The pupils will see how the industries are related, and why it will pay them to understand the occupation in which so many people are engaged. In carrying out such a plan of study only the important related occupations can be stressed. If these related occupations are really studied in connection with the problem to be solved great interest can be aroused. As a minimum requirement for fourth year work each class should cover in detail, as illustrated in the work upon the study of bread as a food necessity, any two of the following topics : corn, wool or cotton, meat, coal, lumber. If a few such projects are carried out carefully each one will furnish live material for several weeks' work. The result will be a fund of useful information about important subjects, a knowledge of world geography sufficient for fourth grade chil- dren, and an awakened interest in the study of methods of selecting and organizing geography material. ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS The following additional problems are suggested as material from which the teacher who has an especially strong class may 41 select. Each project illustrates how subject matter in the school- room is related to life outside. Preparation of peaches for market Preparation of cranberries for market Preparation of apples for market Marketing of milk Preservation of meat, vegetables, fruits Manufacture of clothing Materials used for shelter SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER 6BADE rV Allen, N. B. Industrial Studies: United States. Ginn, Boston Carpenter, F. G. Industrial Readers. (How the World is Fed. How the World is Clothed. How the World is Housed.) American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. North America. American Book Co. N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. How we are Clothed. Macmillan, N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. How we are Fed. Macmillan, N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. How we are Sheltered. Macmillan, N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. How we Travel. Macmillan, N. Y. Chance, L. M. Little Folks of Many Lands. Ginn, Boston Jackman, W. S. Field Work in Nature Study. Flanagan, Chicago Keller, A. G. & Bishop, A. L. Commercial and Industrial Geography. Ginn, Boston Mansfield, B, L. Our Little Dutch Cousins. L. C. Page, Boston Shillig, E. E. The Four Wonders (Cotton, Wool, Linen, Silk). Rand McNally, Chicago Wade, M. H. Our Little Brown Cousins. L. C. Page, Boston See also lists at end of Grades II and III 1 GRADES V TO VII SUGGESTIVE TIME ALLOTMENT GRADE y North America with Special Reference to United States and New Jersey North America — 38 weeks General surface features, climatic conditions, people, occupations and products of continent — 2 weeks Regions of the United States — 3 weeks Groups of states — 2C weeks Possessions of United States — 3 weeks Review of New Jersey — 4 weeks GRADE VI Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia EJiirope — 19 weeks The continent as a whole — 2 weeks Kinds of people and relation to us — 3 days Location, size, relief, drainage, climate — 2 days Resources — agricultural, mining, fishing, manufacturing — 1 week Great Britain — 5 weeks Relation of people to us — history, government, trade, lan- guage, literature — 1 week Location, size, relief, drainage, climate — 3 days Resources of country and occupations of the people — 2 weeks Colonies and Ireland — 1 week Cities — 2 days Germany — 2 weeks France — 2 weeks Austria Hungarj' — 1 week Belgium and Holland — 1 week Russia — 2 weeks Norway. Sweden and Denmark — 1 week Spain and Portugal — 2 days Italy — 1 week Switzerland — 3 days Greece — 3 days Balkan States — 2 days Asia — 8 weeks Continent study — 1 week Turkish Empire — 3 days Japanese Empire — 2 weeks (43) 44 China — 1 week Indian Empire and Ceylon — 1 week Asiatic Russia — 1 week Indo China and Malay Peninsula — 2 days Arabia, Persia, Afghanistan — 3 days Islands — 2 days Africa — 4 weeks Australia and New Zealand — 3 weeks Review of Eastern hemisphere with special reference to Europe — 4 weeks GRADE vn South America, Mexico, Central America, Canada, Etc. South America — 10 weeks Continent study — 2 weeks Brazil — 2 weeks Argentina — 2 weeks Chile — 2 weeks Uruf^uay and Paraguay — 2 days Venezuela and Guianas — 3 days Other countries — 1 week Mexico and Central America — 3 weeks Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland — 4 weeks Principles of geography — 2 weeks World review — 19 weeks GRADE V NORTH AMERICA WITH SPECIAL STRESS UPON UNITED STATES AND NEW JERSEY SUGGESTED TIME ALLOTMENT First Half General surface features, climatic conditions, people, occupations and products — 2 weeks Regions of United States — 3 weeks New England, Middle Atlantic and Central states — 14 weeks Second Half Southern and Western states — 12 weeks Possessions of United States — 3 weeks Review of Middle Atlantic states with special reference to New Jersey — 4 weeks TEACHING IIIATEB.IALS AND AFFAB.ATTJS KEEDED Globe Maps of world, North America, United States, New Jersey, local county, Europe. South America Elementary g-eography texts Geographical readers Blackboard maps of United States and New Jersey The children of this grade have reached such a stage in their development that they are ready to use a textbook in geography as a tool of knowledge. The textbook, then, ought to be one of the sources from which they prepare their work. // it is i(sed in this way they zvill not read it page by page but ivill use topic headings, indices, tables of contents or suggested outlines, as guides to tell them zuhere they can find information upon the problems on zvhich they are at ivork. For example, in such a problem as, "\\^hy is New Jersey the manufacturer of clay products?" the pupils will find the page or pages that tell of New Jersey industries. They will refer to maps to note location of clay beds, and manufactories using clay. They will also need to look up the imports and exports of New Jersey to see what effect the clay industry has upon trade. Special articles in newspapers and magazines which deal with Us) 46 cla\- and clay products will l>e a i>art of the regular work. A small exhibit .>f articles manufactured from clay may furnish a basis for part of the study. The teacher will use the geography material, both that within the book and that to be found in newspai>er, magazine, field, hill, stream and school yard, as material to be studied and talked about, rather than as so much "mass material" to be gotten over. If the pupils have begun the habit of study by the time they start this work, now is the real chance to increase that habit of study. Making teaching material. In order that teaching may carry over with the least waste of time and effort, it is recommended wherever practicable that pupils and teacher construct very much illustrative material and many devices, collect informational data, and keep all this in good condition for future use. In studying how corn is raised and some of the uses to which it is put, pupils and teacher should collect samples of ears o* corn, grains of corn, stalk, blades and simple corn products such as starch, hominy, meal, cornflakes. These samples of com and corn products should be kept for several weeks. Some could be kept for a year or more. Pictures showing corn cultivation, facilities for transportation, processes of manufacturing corn products, could be collected and mounted. These mounted pictures should be cataloged by the children and filed in cases made by the boys. During this study, articles on corn culture, corn products, and the principal uses of corn could be collected from papers and magazines. These articles should be mounted on cardboard and cataloged under appropriate headings. All this material should be a regular part of schoolroom equipment, and should be kept from year to year. If pupils are interested in the Panama Canal, as to why it was built, how it was built, and the returns that it is bringing us, a similar plan could be followed, the value of which is quite appar- ent. Articles that were written at the time of the treaty with Colombia, articles and pictures showing the canal in process of construction, and articles and pictures portraying trade advan- tages could be collected, mounted and cataloged for regular class- room work. This material should be in such form that pupils who are studying a given project could find interesting and valu- able help. If such devices were followed, teachers would soon have certain permanent collections that would be regular "teach- 47 ing tools." They would soon become as familiar with them and their use as is a carpenter with his necessary equipment. In all grammar grades a deliinite time should be set apart for history classes to collect and mount pictures which aid in inter- preting history: to collect and arrange (preferably by mounting on thin cardboard) articles from newspapers and magazhies; to construct simple costumes and equipment. The use of all of these will make history more real and vital to children. The pictures and articles should be cataloged by pupils and kept within easy access. The collection may be considered the property of a given class or room and may be loaned to other rooms or schools. The principle involved in making and cataloging such equip- ment is, if applied to a system of schools, even more stimulating and economical. For example, in a given building of sixteen teachers, during one term four rooms could collect pictures show- ing life in other lands; four could collect useful articles grown or manufactured in the community; four, interesting objects of nature, and four, material on such a topic as "How to be a good farmer." \\^hen the collections were finished they would become the joint property of all different rooms, to be used regularly in class work. Having added to the general benefit of the school as a whole, the dififerent rooms would be more enthusiastic the following year in planning work along a new line. Reading- world maps. For grades below the fourth the globe is the best representation of the earth's surface, but in the upi'>er grades a map, on which the class can see at a glance the relative positions of continents and oceans, is necessary. For reading directions the Mercator map of the world is best, but the shapes of the continents may best be shown on separate continent maps and their relative sizes on a globe. Teaching wall and floor maps. It is very important that pupils in the grammar grades be trained in reading wall and floor maps. Many times during a term's work a pupil, or group of pupils, should from the map tell to the class the geography of the country under consideration. A pointer should always be used in this work. The pupils should constantly refer to the reading material in the geography which explains any special point indicated on the map. and more important still, the pupils — not the teacher — should do the talkinsf. A test of this would be 48 the ability of a pupil to talk for fifteen minutes interestingly and to the point from the map of New Jersey. Reading: surface features on continent maps. Various ways of representing relief forms on maps have been attempted. Not even from an excellent model does the average child gain un- assisted even a fairly correct idea of the surface features of a continent. When asked to illustrate with clay or sand his ideas of the western highland of North America the average child will model an impossibly high, steep and narrow ridge set down on a perfectly flat plain represented at sea level. Clear images may be obtained by pictures issued by various railroads to show the scenic attractions of their routes. The teacher should take imaginary journeys across the country with the class, discussing the advantages of different routes. Pictures should be supple- mented by good descriptions and should be studied in connection with the best physical maps to be obtained. Occasionally a child should be asked to describe from looking at the map the surface features of some region of which he has not seen pictures, but the ability to read the appearance of a landscape from a physical map is something that comes slowly to most people. The teacher must hold in mind the fact that this is the only opportunity that many of the boys and girls of this grade will have to study North America and the United States under school- room conditions. Many pupils who are over-age will leave school at the end of this grade. Especial effort must be made to get these boys and girls acquainted with the geography of their country. One guiding principle, then, is that the year should create in the pupils such a lasting interest in the more important facts of the earth that geography will help them all through their lives. Teacher and pupils will find solutions to the prob- lems set forth in assignment, through textbook, contact with nature, articles of industry, and supplementary reading from magazines, history and geography readers. NORTH AMERICA Four weeks should be spent upon the continent of North America as a whole. This study should give the pupil a knowl- edge of the important physical features of the continent, its location with regard to other continents, its climatic conditions, and its regional parts, and also a beginning basis for the more detailed study of the United States. 49 In studying even such a large unit as our continent the work need not be lifeless and formal, but can be taken up in such a way that the pupil's interest is used. The continent is our con- tinent and it do€s possess a history which the children can under- stand. For example, the continent is divided into certain great regions with respect to surface features. The eastern coastal plain, the eastern highland section, the central plain, the western highland section, the northern plain — each and all of these geography facts may have interest for the child if he can see that by learn- ing such facts he is getting valuable information about his continent. These great surface features and climatic conditions can be tied up with occupations of people, products, transportation and possible development of regions studied. It is important to keep in mind the fact that the child is to sense the general geographical facts of North America. As soon as he has sensed these facts, he is ready to begin a study of the United States. OXriLINE OF WORK ON NORTH AMERICA The outline of North America is given as a guide for the teacher in organizing and presenting her work. By whatever means she approaches the study of the continent of North America — through its industries, food, climate, occupations, important environment, needs to be satisfied — this outline is a center about which these things are to be grouped. She should use postcards, pictures, lantern slides, newspaper clippings, relief maps and whatever other illustrative material will best suit her purpose. STUDY OF THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA 1. Location, size and relief. The location of this continent should be taught with reference to the hemisphere in which it is placed, the zones in which it lies, and its relation to the other continents. In discussing the size of the continent the whole emphasis is upon its relative size in comparison with the other continents. The problem of relief deals with location, extent and influence of, first, the highlands, and second, the lowlands. 4 GEOG 50 2. Climate, in dealing with the climate the teacher is to pre- sent temperature as to variations in different sections and different altitudes; its effect upon plant and animal life, industries and people; rainfall as to source, variations in the amount of precipi- tation, influence upon plant and animal life, industries and people. 3. Drainage. Drainage might be discussed with reference to highlands or lowlands. By stressing the rivers, lakes and seas as the important agents in drainage, the teacher has a better chance to show how these factors affect the vegetable, animal and human life on the continent. Under these the teacher may focus the discussion on tlie important variations, on the relation between animal and vegetable life and their relation to climate and soil, and on forest and agriculture sections in their relation „ to drainage by means of river and streams. i 4. Occupations of people. Here the work should be so organ- ized that the occupations of the people are seen as an important part of the history of the continent. These occupations are in- fluenced by the climate and the soil and drainage system, which are important factors in the distribution of population over the continent, the congestion of population in certain sections and the development of commercial routes. 5. Mining: resources. Mining resources are important in fur- nishing the people with opportunities for work and in furnishing much of the raw material by which manufacturing is carried on. 6. People. The people of the continent should be talked about with reference to the racial stocks from which they came, their occupations, their ideals, their participation in government and their contribution to social and industrial development. v Map drawing and modeling. Have pupils make ^ 1. Outline map of North America, indicating a. The two great highland regions b. One great river system c. United States, Canada, and Mexico (in colors) d. The meridian at "Washington 2. Outline map of New Jersey, indicating a. Local county b. Important cities within state, New York City and Phila delphia c. Important waterways 3. Product map of a. United States b. New Jersey 4 5' UNITED STATES The first emphasis in the study of the United States is upon regions. These regions influence occupations, products, and hfe in general. For example, the great mining regions furnish cer- tain occupations, which in turn require certain types of men who are able to withstand hard physical labor. Agricultural regions furnish opiX)rtunities for certain occupations, which in turn make lines of transportation to reach those regions. Naturally regions will overlap the divisions or sections of states. They will also reach into Canada and Mexico. It is fundamental that in teach- ing according to the suggestions given the political boundaries should be temporarily ignored, for it is of prime importance that the pupils put meaningful content into this geography work. In the study of manufactures, wherever possible the articles discussed should be brought into the classroom. This is true also of agricultural products, ores, forest products, and whatever articles may be obtained relative to grazing and fishing. Regions 1. Manufacturing Eastern section Clothing, shoes Railway equipment Steel and iron Glass Automobiles Central section Glass Automobiles, wagons Farming implements Furniture Southern section Iron, steel Cotton 2. Agricultural Grains Sugar Cotton Rice Orchard fruits 3. Mining Iron Stone Oil 4. Lumbering 5. Grazing 6. Fishinj 52 Coal Copper Silver Redwood and fir Hardwood Pine (hard and soft) Cattle Sheep Horses Oysters Cod Salmon 7. Health resorts, pleasure and scenic resorts Adirondacks Maine woods Florida California Certain Rocky Mountain sections Jersey Coast Great Lakes Certain sections in the South Yellowstone Park Grand Canyon Niagara Hudson Berkshire Hills In organizing the work as indicated by the outline excellent opportunity is offered the teacher to center the discussion around three great physical regions of the United States — the Eastern slope, the great Central Plain, and the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast. The points developed from time to time can be worked over as causal facts to be connected with either the physi- cal part of the geography or the human part — that which shows what influence man has had in handling soil, in controlling output of minerals, in taking care of transportation, in planning cities, in establishing trade centers, in making provisions for health resorts — shows, in short, that man is one of the most important geography facts of North America. The outlying possessions of the United States — Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, Philippines, Guam, the Virgin Islands, to- gether with the independent island of Cuba — should be studied 53 briefly in connection with the United States by means of the products raised, lines of transportation established between the United States, and the educational opportunities offered. While the chief interest is centered in the United States, neces- sarily much of the geography of Mexico, Central America and Canada is being taught. Much of this work, however, has been accomplished through the study of the regions of the continent, since these regions extend over the borders of the United States. For example, when one is studying the wheat regions of the great Northwest he is studying conditions in the northwestern section of the United States, and at the same time he is studying condi- tions which obtain in much of Canada, lying immediately north. NEW JERSEY If the work has been carried on as indicated the pupils should have a general knowledge of the geography of the United States which will give them a basis for a more detailed study of some particular parts of it. For example, it is of special importance for the children of New Jersey to learn more about the regions bordering on the Atlantic Coast. Children and teacher may use much initiative in getting acquainted with the geography region in which the state of New Jersey lies. Here is offered an oppor- tunity for special note-book making, for journey taking, for class projects, and for industry and product maps. This work would also furnish excellent basis for problem review. It is very important that fifth grade pupils study the geography of New Jersey in much detail. Therefore, they should study the great industrial development that is going on within New Jersey : the place that New Jersey occupies in potato raising, truck farm- ing, general agriculture and dairying; her great mineral re- sources such as iron and zinc mines, clay beds ; and her fishing industries. Attention should also be given to the importance of the New Jersey coast as a summer resort. Definite lessons should be given upon the counties of the State. They should be presented with reference to their natural re- sources, industries, transportation facilities, special attractive features. Pupils should know the names of all the counties and be able to locate them on a map. A fifth grade pupil should be able to use a wall map intelli- gently, pointing out geography facts in regard to his county — 54 farming, mining, or dairying sections, if there are such; the county-seat, important towns, historic points of interest. These historic points of interest should be dwelt on especially in order to help engender local and state pride. This is very important and in no case should be omitted. The study of these geographical factors should give the pupils a great pride in their own state. This pride would be increased by giving some attention to the government of New Jersey, her educational system, and the rapid growth of important cities. It is recommended that fifth grade teachers refer to A Sugges- tive Program for the Celebration of "New Jersey Day" in the Public Schools of New Jersey, prepared by the Department of Public Instruction in 1916. This pamphlet emphasizes the im- portance of New Jersey's geographic position, her natural re- sources, her pleasure resorts, and her contributions to our federal union. It is profitable for the pupils to locate on a wall map all states in the Union and the capitals of the states near New Jersey. It is strongly advised that schools be furnished with blackboard maps and that pupils be given opportunity to learn locational geography by building up such maps. Even after this work has been accomplished there still remains time for some fact stressing with reference to cities of the United States, rivers, lakes, coast waters, mountains, capes and plains. For example, it would be well for the teacher to decide upon a small list of important cities and a small number of rivers which the fifth grade children ought to know. APPLICATION OF CERTAIN PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY If the study of latitude, longitude and standard time, rain, ocean currents and their effects, temperature, distribution of plants, animals and peoples of the earth, is to be productive of results, these topics should be taken up in connection with these regions where they are of special importance. In the fifth and sixth grades the industries and the modes of life might be ex- plained in terms of the above mentioned topics in the various regions studied. The following problems suggest the application of the fore- going principles to the study of regional geography. Each 55 teacher should select four from the list as a minimum limit for class study. 1. Why has Atlantic City become a g-reat pleasure resort? Select cities in the United States in about the same latitude as Atlantic City and show how their climate differs from that of Atlantic City. 2. How manv degrees apart are the northernmost and southernmost points in New Jersey? What difference would there be in the growing- season of the two regions? Cape May is as far south as what southern city? Should we go two degrees farther south, what crops unknown to our state would we find? 3. Between what parallels of latitude is nearly all the cotton of the world produced ? 4. Why is such a large part of that section of country which lies west of meridian 100 degrees given over to grazing? Ex- plain the lack of rainfall. 5. How many degrees difference in latitude is there between southern Illinois and northern Minnesota? What difference would there be in the length of the growing season in the two places? (Ninety days difference in number of days between killing frosts.) 6. Compare the plant products of our eastern coast south of parallel 40 with the plant products of corresponding regions on our western coast. Account for the differences. 7. Why do trees attain greater growth on the coasts of north- ern California, Washington and Oregon than elsewhere in our country ? 8. Point out the irrigated sections of our country and show why irrigation is necessary. LATITTIDE-LONGITUDE GAMES Children tend to confuse the terms latitude and longitude, parallel and meridian. The difference can be made clear for all time by having them play a latitude-longitude g-ame. using such questions as the following : 1. I am thinking of a point on parallel 40 degrees north lati- tude, meridian 90 degrees west longitude. In what state is it? 2. I am thinking of a point on parallel 50 degrees north lati- tude, 30 degrees east longitude. In what country is it? What citv is near it? 56 The class may be divided into two sections and the game played at first with books open. Have each child write on paper a question similar to the ones siigg-ested above. Let the two groups exchange papers and each child write the answer to the question which he receives. The group first answering correctly the greater number of questions wins the game. Later the game may be played orally with books closed, like an old time spelling match. PROJECT WORK The following project work ofifers opportunities by which the important facts of geography may be vitally connected. If one such project is carried out in detail in each half term's work, the pupils will make use of practically all the geography which they need to know in this grade. SUGGESTIONS Corn. Have pupils make a study of the uses of corn. (Refer to magazines and advertisements which show^ the many uses to which corn and corn products are put.) Visit corn fields or make a special study of pictures showing stages in corn cultivation. Have pupils compare the method of corn raising of the early American with that used by the pro- gressive farmer of the East today. How does the raising of corn in the West different from that in the East? Determine upon the conditions necessary for successful corn raising (soil, climate, rainfall, seed testing, cultivation, harvest- ing, marketing). See Bulletins of U. S. Department of Agri- culture. Locate important transportation routes used for marketing corn. Compare quality of corn raised in certain sections of United States; estimate value of crop; show increase in bushels and average per acre since i860. Make map showing great corn regions. Coal. Study maps of United States show'ing principal regions where coal is mined. Show principal uses to which coal is put — heat for dwellings, heat for furnaces and forges, source of manufacturing gas, source of certain coal tar products, use in transportation. 0/ Compare methods of mining- — deep pit, surface. Report on difficulties in mining*. Trace transportation routes, showing how coal reaches the great manufacturing centers. Contrast values of coal output — amount mined in 1890 with amount mined in 191 5. List important influences that this industry has upon com- merce, the occupations of the people and the people of the United States. SUGGESTIONS ON THE TEACHING OF CITIES The following principles and devices in regard to teaching city development will be of service to the teacher of any grade in which cities are considered as important geographical facts. The cities mentioned should be studied in direct connection with the state or district in which they are located, and not as isolated geographical facts. CITIES SUGGESTED FOR SPECIAL STUDY Those cities in italics should be taught to all fifth grade chil- dren. Teachers who have opportunity may select others from the list. Trenton, Atlantic City, Jersey City, Caniden, Paterson, Elisa- beth, Neivark, Washington, Philadelphia, St. Louis, New York, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Denver, Cincinnati, Birmingham. (Alabama), New Orleans, Detroit, Minneapolis, Manila, Seattle, Cleveland. Most of our large cities are dependent for their existence upon both commerce and manufacturing. Cities de^^endent chiefly upon commerce grow up ( i ) where conditions favor the collec- tion and distribution of commodities on a large scale, or (2) on important lines of communication at points where the mode of transportation is changed. Such places are (i) seaports, (2) river ports, (3) lake ports, and (4) railroad centers. Sea- port cities are influenced in their growth principally by (\) their position in relation to great trade routes, (2) the size, population and resources of adjacent regions, (3) the character of their harbors. River ports are located at the heads of river naviga- tion, at the junctions of rivers, on great bends of rivers, and at points where falls or rapids occur. A mountain pass upon which S8 trade routes focus may lead to the growth of a city ; so also may a ferry or bridge across a river. Cities chiefly dependent upon manufacturing grow up as a result of their position in relation to the following factors : ( i ) command of power, (2) raw materials, (3) markets, (4) labor, (5) transportation facilities. Lead pupils to see some of the underlying causes of the growth of the various types of cities — commercial, manufacturing, min- ing; political centers, health and pleasure resorts. This may be done by a study of the conditions which promote the location of industries in which city dwellers are engaged. Have the most important cities studied, located and classified. Consult tables of population frequently for purposes of comparison. Use pic- tures to make the study more interesting and illuminating. CHICAGO AS A T7FE ^\^ly has Chicago grown to be such a great city ? The follow- ing method of treatment indicates an economical way to secure interest and effort in solving the problem. Have pupils make a list from the appendix of the textbook of all the cities in the world with a population of more than two millions. Which is the youngest of these cities ? How does it rank among the great cities of the world in size? What natural advantages have led to its rapid development? For answers to these questions refer the pupil to a list of the factors leading to the growth of com- mercial and manufacturing cities. The following are suggested as a minimum : transportation facilities, nearness to raw ma- terials, nearness to markets, nearness to power for machinery, intelligent labor and enterprising men. Then lead the children to suggest that it will be necessary to consult product maps, rail- road center maps, population charts. Let the children draw conclusions as to the leading manufactured products of Chicago and the chief products distributed from this point. Inquire as to the possible intermediate and ultimate destination of these products. Use the textbook to verify conclusions and to sum- marize the leading factors in the development of Chicago. In studying Chicago as indicated pupils and teachers should see it as (i) lake port, (2) grain market, (3) railroad center, (4) meat packing center, (5) manufacturing center, (6) financial center. 59 BUeOESTIYE QUSSTIOITS ON VEWABK AND NEW ORLEANS Newark. Name the largest city in your own state. How does it rank among the cities of the United States ? In what part of the state is it? In what county? To what type of city does it belong? Make a list of the leading factors that cause the growth of a manufacturing city. Underscore the factors which you think have been most important in the growth of Newark. In what way have men increased the natural advantages pos- sessed by this city? Find out how many railroads pass through Newark. Make a list of the chief articles manufactured there. Where do the raw materials for these come from? What effect, if any, has been its proximity to New York? New Orleans. Show why New Orleans has become the largest city in the South. How will the Panama Canal affect its growth? If the plans for deepening and controlling the Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio rivers and for building a canal between the Mississippi and Lake Michigan should be carried out. how might New Orleans and other cities on these waters be affected ? PROBLEMS ON NORTH AMERICA The problems on North America have been selected, as in all other cases, because they emphasize the important facts and prin- ciples that should be stressed. No teacher is expected to use all problems given. She is expected to select those that can be studied with m.ost advantage to the pupils under her care. Moreover, she is to learn how to make the problem in geography as definite and clear as the problem in arithmetic. She and pupils must decide what questions or problems are to be solved, what materials are to be used in the solution, how the work can be organized from day to day until a satisfactory^ answer is found. In answering the more difficult problems teacher and pupils will need to spend several days. In some cases, as for example, problem lo on North America, page 60, or problem i on Great Britain, page ^, much of the geography of each country must be understood before the problems can Ije fully solved. All teachers should read the discussion on the "Problem Method of Teaching" in Part II of this monograph. 6o 1. What advantages does the location of our continent offer its people for : a. Trading with other people? b. Making a living? 2. Which is better located for world commerce, North or South America? 3. How does tlie surface of our continent affect the occupa- tions of the people ? 4. What effect has the arrangement of mountains in North America on its climate and rainfall? 5. How do the highland regions hinder or help people in mak- ing a living? 6. Compare temperatures on the east coast with those on the west coast. Compare temperatures of the w^est coast with those of the interior. Explain the difference. 7. How do ocean currents affect the eastern coast of our continent? 8. Why are winters colder and summers warmer in the in- terior of our continent than near the coast? 9. What advantages for carrying on internal trade have the people of our continent? 10. Point out the sections of our continent best fitted to sup- port a dense population and explain why they are better fitted than other sections. 11. Account for the great population on our eastern coast? 12. Why did the New England States gradually change from a farming to a manufacturing section ? 13. How do the farms and ranches of the Central States differ from those of New Jersey? 14. How did the Civil War influence the industrial develop- ment of the southern states? 15. What conditions have led to the development of Chicago into a large city? 16. Why has New York grown to be the largest city in the world ? 17. What advantages arise from the fact that the industries of the South are different from those of the North? 18. Which of our colonial possessions do vou consider most valuable? Why? 19. Why was Alaska worth its purchase price to the United States ? I 6i 20. Find five advantages for making a living which our con- tinent offers progressive people. 21. Why did the United States stop the Chinese from coming to this country? SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADE V Brooks, E. C. Story of Cotton. Rand McNallj', Chicago Carpenter, F. G. Geographical Readers. American Book Co. N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. The Continents and their People. Macmillan, N. Y. Hotchkiss, C. W. Representative Cities of the United States. Hough- ton, Boston McMurry, C. A. Larger Types of American Geography. Macmillan, N. Y. McMurry, C. A. Type Studies from the Geography of the United States. Macmillan, N. Y. Monroe, W. S. & Buckbee, Anna. Our Country and its People. Harper, N. Y. GRADE VI CONTINENTS OF EASTERN HEMISPHERE SUGGESTED TIME ALLOTMENT First Half EUROPE The continent as a whole — 2 weeks Kinds of people and relation to us — 3 days Location, size, relief, drainage, climate — 2 days Resources — agricultural, mining, fishing, manufacturing — 1 week Great Britain — 5 weeks Relation of people to us — history, government, trade, language, literature — 1 week Location, size, relief, drainage, climate — 3 days Resources and occupations of the people — 2 weeks Colonies and Ireland — 1 week Cities — 2 days Germany — 2 weeks France — 2 weeks Austria Hungary — 1 week Belgium and Holland — 1 week Russia — 2 weeks Norway, Sweden and Denmark — 1 week Spain and Portugal — 2 days Italy — 1 week Switzerland — 3 days Greece — 3 days Balkan States — 2 days Second Half ASIA, AFEICA, AXJSTBALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Asia — 8 weeks Continent study — 1 week Turkish Empire — 3 days V Japanese Empire — 2 weeks China — 1 week Indian Empire and Ceylon — 1 week Asiatic Russia — 1 week Indo China and Malay Peninsula — 2 days Arabia, Persia. Afghanistan — 3 days Islands — 2 days Africa — 4 weeks Australia and New Zealand — 3 weeks Review of Elastern Hemisphere with special reference to Europe — 4 weeks (63) 64 The general principles discussed under North America may be applied to Europe. The approach to the study of the con- tinent should be made through a brief survey of the history of the important peoples of Europe. However short this part of the work may be, it has its value in making the pupil feel that he is still studying about people. The pupils of this grade are mature enough to put some mean- ing into the more scientific study of geography. For example, they should learn of the influences of the gulf stream upon Europe ; the effect of the prevailing westerlies ; the significance of Europe's geographic location. Pupils of sixth and seventh grades should obtain clear and definite ideas of location with respect to countries, most important mountains and rivers, cities, capitals, harbors and trade routes. In taking up a detailed study of the separate countries, one approach is through their especial assets and disadvantages. For example, the British Isles and France are excellently situ- ated for ocean commerce; Germany, Belgium, Holland, Den- mark, Norway and Sweden, and Russia are less fortunately connected. Portugal has few good harbors ; Spain, Italy, Austria and Greece have trade outlets through the Mediterranean. The classroom work should be organized around large ques- tions which will unify the geography facts of these countries. These questions or problems will serve both as points of attack ind as centers around which to group subject matter. The fea- tures of each should be studied with reference to a unit previously understood — its climate with reference to New Jersey or some other part of the United States ; its advantages as a place to live compared with some other country. The principles in the foregoing paragraph are to be adhered to in the approach to the study of any continent or country. First Half EUROPE Introduction. Pupils should first locate Europe in imagina- tion by pointing toward it. always facing the north. Steamer connections should be named ; steamship docks in New York City, Hoboken and Philadelphia being noted ; distance to Europe, as compared with the width of North America and as measured in days for the voyage, should be given. Pupils 65 should then locate Europe on the map, comparing its latitude with that of North America and noting that it is part of a very large section or grand division, Eurasia, and of a still larger land mass, the Eastern continent. Trace four steamship routes : (i) to England, (2) to France and Holland, (3) to Germany, (4) to Italy. If possible have pictures of famous steamships of these lines, of Sandy Hook and Fire Island lighthouses, of Ellis Island, Quarantine Station, Statue of Liberty, the south end of Manhattan Island. This may be followed with an imaginary ocean voyage on a real "liner" to Liverpool, Southampton or Havre, traced on the map by daily stages as "first day out," "second day out." Map study. Use of map of Eastern Hemisphere. Locate Europe with reference to Asia and Africa. Note character of coast line and its advantages. Note highland and lowland regions, note the direction of the most important mountain systems as compared wnth those of North America and draw out the significance of this difference. Have the pupils indicate mountain regions, the great central low plain, a few important plateau regions, five important rivers, the Mediterranean, Black Caspian, Baltic and North Seas. As an aid to a proper appreciation of the significance of moun- tains to human life, study in a series of lessons, with pictures, the Alps, Pyrenees and Balkan Mountains, showing them : ( i ) As a protection against the north wind with the consequent effect upon climate; (2) As a barrier to travel and migration; (3) In their effect upon the character of mountain dwellers (illustrate with the Swiss traits) ; (4) As storehouses of frozen moisture in the form .of mighty glaciers. A large and well selected collection of mounted pictures of mountain peaks and valleys, glaciers, mountain climbing, Alpine houses, mountain passes, the great tunnels, Swiss mountaineers, would be useful. A study similar to the above should be made, in a series of lessons, of the great rivers of Europe. Compare the Rhine with the Hudson as to work, uses, scenery, length, source, condition of water, mouth. Study the Danube, Elbe, Vistula, Volga. Make a comparison of the Volga and Danube with the Mississippi as to points of likeness and difference. Minimum number of cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located 5 GEOG 66 (see suggestion in fifth grade outline) : Great Britain — Lon- don, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Dublin; France — Paris, Mar- seilles; Germany — Berlin, Munich, Hamburg; Russia — Mos- cow, Petrograd; Austria Hungary — Vienna; Turkey — Con- stantinople; Italy — Rome, Venice, Naples; Greece — Athens; Spain — Madrid; Holland — The Plague, Amsterdam; Belgium — Antwerp; Norway and Sweden — Christiana, Hammerfest, Stockholm, THE SIX GREAT NATIONS— GREAT BRITAIN, GERMANY, FRANCE, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA HUNGARY, ITALY Let the pupils locate each country on the map of Europe and compare it as to area and population with our own country ; also have pupils arrange the countries in order of area and popula- tion, beginning Avith the largest. Have them study each of these countries briefly, noting its relation to the sea and mountains, its climate, surface, soil and other natural resources, and the relation of these to one another and their bearing on the occupa- tions and mode of living. Have the primary occupations of each country illustrated with selected mounted pictures and note the leading product or products of each exported to the United States; also the leading product or products imported from the United States. It would be profitable to have a committee of pupils investigate and report upon the rank of each of these countries and the United States in the possession of natural resources and in the production of steel, coal, petroleum, fabrics, steel products, grain, fruits, lumber, chemical materials and meats. Problems Great Britain 1. Why is it important for the United States to maintain adequate trade relations with Great Britain? 2. Labrador and the British Isles are in the same latitude; account for their difference in temperature. 3. Why does Great Britain need to look to other countries for much of her food supply ? 4. In what ways are the coal and iron mines of Great Britain responsible for her development? 5. How are the possessions of Great Britain a great help to her? ^7 6. What benefits do the different possessions get from Great Britain? 7. In what way does her fishing industry return great revenue ? 8. Why have London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, be- come such great cities? 9. What are the chief articles of trade between Great Britain and the United States? 10. Why is it necessary for Great Britain to maintain great shipping interests? German Empire 1. Why is Germany anxious to keep an open trade with the rest of the world? 2. What are the biggest factors in Germany's industrial de- velopment ? 3. What are the chief articles of trade between Germany and the United States ? 4. How has Germany been able to keep such a large standing army ? 5. Make special reports on Hamburg, Berlin and Essen. France 1. Why is France not as great a manufacturing country as Great Britain? 2. What are the chief articles of trade between France and the United States? 3. The farms of France are very small and are owned as a rule by the people who cultivate them. In what way does this fact add to the agricultural interest of France? 4. Why is silk manufacture one of the leading industries of France ? 5. Why would an American 1>e interested in a visit to Paris? Russia 1. How has the lack of seaports hindered Russia? 2. Why has Russia colder winters and warmer summers than the countries of Europe further west ? 3. Of what mutual advantages in times of war and peace is an alliance between Great Britain and Russia? 68 Austria Hungary 1. What advantages resulted from the union of the two kingdoms of Austria and Hungary? 2. Why should Austria Hungary seek to maintain friendly relations with the Balkan countries along the Danube river. 3. Why are there so many different kinds of people in Austria Hungary ? Italy 1. Why is the position of Italy a favorable one? Why was its position a much more important one formerly than now ? 2. Why is agriculture so profitable an occupation in Italy? 3. Venice and Milan are in nearly the same latitude as Montreal. How do you account for the difference in climate between these cities and Montreal? 4. Venice has been called the most interesting city in the world. Why ? 5. What cities of Italy would a student of ancient history desire to visit? 6. Why do the art museums of Italy surpass those of all other countries ? THE SCANDINAVIAN COXTNTEIES Develop the adventure phase of early Norse history by reading or having pupils read stories of the Sea Kings and Viking's, sue! as H. A. Mabie's Norse Stories and Longfellow's poem, "The Skeleton in Armor.'' Note any of these early traits that still survive. Have pupils note leading occupations in each of these countries, leading exports to and imports from the United States. Note the language of these people and the general family group to which they belong. Have pupils note the p€culiar physical characteristics of this region and their relation to the occupations and products of these countries and their influence upon the traits and character of the people. Problems 1. What influence has the shore line of Norway exerted on her industries? 2. Why is the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula the most thicklv settled? I I 69 3- Why would Russia and Germany each Hke to control Denmark ? 4. Why do the people of Sweden use charcoal in smelting some of their iron ore? 5. If you lived near a fiord of Norway what things would you have to know how to do? THE BALKAN OOTTNTaiES Have the pupils name and locate each of the Balkan States. Let them ascertain by reading such a book as Carpenter's Europe the traits and character of these races and the great diversity in language, religion and custom. Let them deduce the geographic reasons for these facts from a study of the physical features of southeastern Europe as indicated on a good physical map of Europe. The historic reasons might well be developed by the teacher by showing ( i ) how the successive invasions of this region by the various European and Asiatic tribes introduced new and different elements each time, and (2) how the isolation of the separate mountain valleys prevented these elements from blending into one great national stock. Problems 1. How has the progress of the Balkan peoples been hindered by the fact that there are so many countries in the Peninsula? 2. What effect has Turkey's misrule had on the countries of this peninsula? 3. Why w^ould Russia like to own Constantinople? THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Locate two countries composing the Iberian Peninsula. Show how these two countries are connected by trade with the United States. Let the pupils note the leading occupations and race characteristics of the people. A brief account of events showing the relation of these countries to the discovery, exploration and settlement of the Americas would be timely. Problems 1. What influence has the surface of the Iberian Peninsula had on the development of its industries? 2. Why did Spain lose most of her colonies? 3. What things would the national pastime of Spain indicate as to the character of its people? 4. Why are Spain and Portugal now among the weaker nations? 5. Is it likely that Spain may again become one of the greater nations of Europe as in the case of Italy? SWITZERLAND Ivocate and find reason for the independent existence of Switzerland. Allow a group of pupils to report upon the char- acter of its government and the large contribution the country has made to modern civilization. Attention should be called to the diversity of language in the three regions of Switzerland and the reasons therefor. Emphasize the beautiful scenery of Switzerland. Have a group of pupils investigate and report upon this country as one of the world's summer resorts. Problems 1. Why is Switzerland called the "Playground of Europe"? 2. In spite of the lack of raw materials how have the Swiss people managed to do considerable manufacturing? 3. What natural advantages does Switzerland offer for manu- facturing ? 4. Why has Switzerland remained independent? Give several reasons. 5. How do you account for the fact that Switzerland has no national language? THE NETHERLANDS Contrast the Netherlands with Switzerland as to surface fea- tures and occupations of the people. Emphasize the effect of the natural fertility of the soil upon the countries. Utilize pictures showing the intensive character of the agriculture, the ease of transportation, the industry, thrift and habits of cleanliness of the people, and relate these facts to the density of the popula- tion and the larger per capita wealth. Note also the fisheries and the nrominence of Holland in oversea trade, and of Belgium, in manufacture, and deduce the reasons therefor. 71 Problems 1. What conditions have stimulated dairying in the Nether- lands? Where do the people find a ready market for their products ? 2. What characteristics of the Dutch people have made their great progress possible? 3. How have the people of the Netherlands added to their territory? Why is most of Holland fllat? Why fertile? Com- pare with Louisiana. 4. Why do the prevailing westerlies blow with great regularity over Holland ? How is this fact of particular value to the Dutch people ? 5. Belgium has always suffered as a result of battles fought on its soil between some of the Great Powers. What effect has this had on the country? THE ISLAITBS Locate and determine the national ownership and chief im- portance of Iceland, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, Cyprus, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, the Azores. THE IMPORTANT CITIES Have pupils learn to name and locate the capital cities of the major European countries. It would be desirable for them to learn to recognize by pictures the important landmarks of each of the major capitals, as, for example, St. Paul's Cathedral, West- minster Abbey, Parliament House, Tovv^er of London, Trafalgar Square, in London ; Notre Dame Cathedral, Eiffel Tower, Louvre, Grand Opera House, Seine Bridges, Arc de Triumphe, Vendome Column, Church of the Madeleine, in Paris. These places should be associated with some important interesting pro1> lem discussed during the term. As additional optional problems the children could locate and mention at least one important fact in connection with each of the following cities : Liverpool, Man- chester, Belfast, Queenstown, Glasgow. Southampton. Cherbourg, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Bremen, Cologne, Milan, Nuremberg, Rheims. Calais, Marseilles. Naples, Genoa, Florence. Venice. Athens, Moscow. Odessa, Warsaw, Rotterdam. Antwerp, Munich, Dresden, Essen. 72 SCHOOLS Attention should be called to the fact that while the leading European countries have schools for all the children, it is not possible usually for the children of the poorer classes to go to the same schools as do those of the richer classes. The universities are among the best in the world and there are many of them. As a special problem certain pupils could secure pictures of the buildings of the Universities of Oxford, Paris, Berlin, Heidel- berg. GOVERNMENT Pupils should be led to distinguish the two principal kinds of national government : ( i ) those countries that have a responsible ministry or cabinet; (2) the autocratic form of government. In the former kind the ministers who carry on the government must do as the majority of the people want them to do or resign. In the latter the ministers are appointed by the king or emperor without any expression of the will of the people and can be dis- missed only by the monarch. ETJHOPEAN CIVILIZATION Call attention to the fact that the forefathers of practically all of us came originally from some one of the European countries, so that our language, our customs and ways of working and living, and our religion, laws, government and schools had their beginnings in Europe. Just as we have changed these laws and customs to fit our modes of life in this country, so have the coun- tries of Europe since the time of our forefathers made changes in their laws and customs to meet new demands. MAP MAKING AND MODELING Have pupils draw outhne map of Europe, indicating: a. Alps Mountains b. Danube, Rhine and Volga Rivers c. Boundaries of the six great nations d. Capital cities of the six great nations e. Countries where population is densest 73 Second Half ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND ASIA For suggestion on method of attack, see outline on North America, page 49 ; also Europe, page 64. Orientation. Locate the country in imagination, and by indi- cating the most direct way of reaching it. Note on the globe the location of Asia relative to the United States, to the four hemi- spheres, to the temperature belts, to the oceans, to Europe. Size. (Use map of hemispheres and of Asia.) Note the size of Asia relative to all other grand divisions, to North America in particular, and to the United States, making comparisons by a visual device and numerically by consulting statistics. Compare in a similar way its great highland region, its great low plains, its important rivers and river valleys, in number and extent, with those of North America. Compare its population with that of the United States and of Europe. Work for appreciation of the vastness of this wonderful continent. IMPORTANT COXTNTRBES JAPAir Approach through familiar experiences of pupils with Japanese persons and objects. Let the children take in imagination the customary journey by way of Chicago and San Francisco or Seattle to Yokohama. Give one or two illustrated lessons, either by lantern or postcards, on Yokohama or Tokyo, giving char- acteristic street scenes and calling attention to the diversity in costume and reasons therefor, to the methods of building houses, and the kinds of transportation. Note the size of the largest city as compared with New York, and classify it among the world's great seaports. Map study. Call attention to the three large islands, and measure their extent from north to south and note the significance of this fact. Note inland sea and the surrounding waters. Country life. Let the pupils examine pictures of rice terraces, vegetable gardens, pleasure gardens, the Japanese farmer at work. From these pictures and from printed descriptions make appropriate deductions as to the thrift, industrv. cleanliness, 74 artistic sense and economic standing of the Japanese country people. Have the pupils note the absence of beasts of burden and the significance of this fact. Give especial attention to the natural resources and products of Japan, and to the leading occupations, means of subsistence and characteristics of the Japanese people as a whole. As a class problem the pupils could find out the leading exports to and im- ports from the United States; also the relative proportion of the rural and city population, to determine, if possible, whether the Japanese are chiefly an agricultural or a manufacturing people. As a special problem, a group of pupils could make a brief study of the way in which Japanese boys and girls are educated and report upon their readings. Qovernment. Note the similarity to a government in Europe. Let the pupils note the population of the country in relation to its area and deduce the bearing of this fact on the foreign policy of Japan. Also have them discuss the past relations between the United States and Japan and the reasons therefor. CHINA Approach through pupil's experience with Chinese objects and persons. Take in imagination the journeys from Yokohama to Pekin. Study Pekin pictures of street scenes, of the city walls, and of the entrance to the "forbidden city;" also pictures of Canton, Shanghai, Mukden. Map study. Pupils should locate the Chinese Empire on the map of Asia. Note the states that touch it; the provinces that compose it, with the significance of their names; the three large rivers traversing it ; and the location of the cities studied. Let the children also note the extent from north tO' south of the Ciiinese Empire with the significant deduction. Study by means of selected mounted pictures the ways and means of communica- tion and transportation in the Chinese Empire; namely, on river, canal, road ; by carrier, cart, wheelbarrow ; arriving at some worth-while conclusions. Have the pupils see the diversity in surface and climate of this immense country by comparing carefully selected pictures of the landscape in the eastern delta region, the hilly middle region, the mountainous western and northern regions, noting the intensity of cultivation, primitive methods of farming, methods of irrigation, character of roads, 75 deforested conditions of mountains, structure of bridges and buildings. A picture study of the fruit trees and other vegeta- tion of China would be profitable. Emphasize the natural resources, products, occupations, popu- lation and area by a plan similar to that followed in dealing with Japan. As a special problem a group of pupils should study the changes in government, transportation, schools and customs now going on in China. INDIA AND FARTHER INDIA Introduce by reference to the object of Columbus' voyage, to familiar associations and to the routes by which Americans travel to this region. Study pictures of Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi and Singapore; also pictures of Hindu villages, jungle scenes, rice fields, Hindu temples, the beautiful valley of the Ganges, a typical landscape of the interior upland country and of the Himalayan mountain region. Call attention to Mount Everett, the highest peak in the world. Center problems around natural resources, products, occupations, caste system, economic, political and intellectual condition of the people. Compare population of India with that of the United States and with that of China. In studying the principal wild animals of this region note the peculiarities of the animal life, and that it constitutes one of the five great animal regions of the world. Note the natural boundary separating this animal region from the others. THE NEAR EAST Asia ]\Iinor, Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Persia and i Arabia. Introduce by reference to Bible history and the be- 1 ginnings of civilized peoples. Have pictures of Jerusalem, ! Joppa, Antioch, Babylon, Palmyra, Ephesus and famous ruins, I taken from ancient history; also typical pictures of shepherd , life, of travel, of Bedouin life. Study the racial, political, i economic and educational condition of this whole region, trac- j ing the relation of each to the Turkish government. As an I additional problem allow a pupil or group of pupils to draw a i map of this region, locating the Tigris. Euphrates and Jordan I rivers; the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea; the cities of i Antioch, Damascus, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Tyre, Joppa. Tarsus. ! Ephesus. Troy, Mecca, Bagdad, and present it to class by giving I an interesting fact about each river, city, country or sea. 76 STBEBIA Introduce by reference to the Trans-Siberian railroad and the frontier region of Russia, calHng attention to the analogy between going to the Far West in America and going to Siberia or the Far East in the Russian Empire. Note the length of the Trans-Siberian railroad and its terminal points ; also its significi- cance for Russian development, Russian influence in the Far E^st, American trade with Russia, and settlement of Siberia. Study pictures of cities along the Trans-Siberian railroad of Tomsk, Irkutsh, Vladivostok and Harbin; also pictures of the forest land, river, plain, upland and Tundra zones of Siberia. Study the natural resources, climatic peculiarities, extent of the region, relati\'e density of population. In this connection have certain pupils note the relative area of the entire Russian Empire as compared with the rest of Europe, the United States, North America. PROBLEMS ON ASIA 1. Why have the peoples of Europe advanced more in civiliza- tion than those of Asia? 2. Why is Japan the only country of Asia numbered among the world powers? 3. Why does Japan desire to control China? 4. Japan successfully imitates many of the manufacturing in- dustries of other nations, and sells the product cheaper than the other nations. How can she do this? 5. Why have so comparatively few British (soldiers and officials) managed to keep under control the many natives of India? 6. How does India support so vast a population ? 7. Which is of more value to Great Britain, India or Canada? What relations exist between the control of these two? 8. Why are there so many famines and plagues in India? Suggest some remedies for these. 9. Of what particular value to India and Emgland is the Suez Canal ? Minimum number of cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located (see suggestions in fifth grade outline) : Jerusalem, Yokohama, Tokyo, Pekin, Canton, Singapore, Bombay, Calcutta. 77 AFB.ICA Orientation. Let the pupils indicate the direction of Africa from North America and call attention to the fact that if they were to set out in a freighter from New York harbor and steer in a southeasterly direction, the first land they would encounter would be Africa. Have them mention facts in our history and objects or exj^eriences in our daily life that relate us to Africa. Study on the map of the hemispheres the relation of Africa to Europe, to Asia, to the Atlantic Ocean, to North America, to South America. Have the pupils take imaginary trips, starting from New York in each case, up the Nile River and the Congo River, using mounted pictures and descriptions from the geo- graphical readers and magazines. Note the interruptions in navigation in each case and the general cause; also the effect of this physical peculiarity oi Africa upon the early exploration and settlement of that continent by Europeans. It would be profitable to have the story of the lives of Livingston and Stanley told to class by certain members. As a second optional problem, pupils could take in imagination a journey by caravan across the Sahara Desert, noting the nature of the country, the purpose and method of such journeys, the occupations and characteristics of the people dwelling in this region. Physical characteri.stics. Help the pupils to distinguish by means of pictures and descriptions these physical regions : ( i ) the Mediterranean seacoast, (2) the Great Desert region, (3) the Grassy Plain region, (4) the Jungle region, (5) the Veldt region. Let them make a brief study of the plant and animal life peculiar to each of these regions. A group of pupils may study a physical map of Africa with respect to elevation and report to class, noting the relative heights of the highest African mountains as compared with those of other continents ; also the relative size of the Nile and Congo as compared with the Mississippi and the Amazon. Races, Let the pupils distinguish at least three distinct physi- cal types of people inhabiting Africa and make a study of the race that takes its name from the continent, as to methods of sub- sistence, shelter, dress and government. European possessions. As a class project, draw a map of Africa, indicating by means of a color scheme the territory con- trolled by France, England, Italy, Belgium. Germany and Portu- 78 gal, and the part that is indeiDendent of European control ; also the location and names of the four cities mentioned below. Minimum number of cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located (see sugges- tion given in fifth grade outline) : Cairo, Tunis, Johannesburg, Cajje Town. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Orientation. As an approach to the study of Australia certain pupils should be called upon to indicate the way to get from New Jersey to Australia. Let them locate Australia on the globe and note its position relative to the United States, and to New York City in particular. Make a study of Australia's position on a map of the eastern hemisphere relative to Japan, the Philippines, the Suez Canal, Guam, the Samoan Islands. A group of pupils should study the history of Australia, touch- ing on its discovery, the early use made of it by England, reasons for its subsequent development, and its present importance to the British Empire. Develop the topics of natural resources, occupations, leading productions and exports to and imports from the United States. Pupils should ascertain the facts in regard to the schools and government of Australia, noting resemblances to or difTerences from those of the United States and Canada. As a special pro- ject pupils could find two reasons why Australia constitutes a distinct animal and plant life region. They could also make a study of at least two animals and two trees of this region that are unique. Stimulate pupils to find out the chief physical attractions of New Zealand, and why that colony's government is interesting to the rest of the world. Minimum number of cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located : Melbourne, Sydney. FEOBI^MS ON AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA 1. Why is Africa called the "Dark Continent"? 2. Why has Africa never been fully explored? 3. What effect would railroads across the Sahara Desert have on the caravan trade? Would the building of railroads be a profitable investment? 79 4- Why is the term "Ship of the Desert" a good one to apply to the camel ? 5. Which is the more valuable acquisition of territory by Great Britain, Australia or South Africa? 6. Why is Egypt called the "Gift of the Nile" ? 7. If you had it in your power how could you arrange the mountains of Australia so as to give more rainfall to a wider area in that continent? 8. In what ways are the plants of Australia adapted to the scanty rainfall? 9. Why is sheep raising so profitable an occupation in Australia? 10. Why are the animals of Australia so different from those of any other continent? SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GEADE VI Allen, rsi. B. Industrial Studies: Asia. Ginn, Boston Allen, N. B. Industrial Studies: Europe. Ginn, Boston Carpenter, F. G. Africa. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. Asia. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F, G. Australia and the Islands of the Sea. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. Europe. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. Industrial Readers. (How the World is Fed. How the World is Clothed. How the World is Housed.) American Book Co. N. Y. Coe, F. E. Oui American Neighbors. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Dunton, Lorkin. The World and Its People. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Kidd, Dudley. South Africa (in Peeps at Many Lands Series). Mac- millan, N. Y. Monroe, W. S. and Buckbee, Anna. Europe. Harper, N. Y. Singleton, Esther. Famous Cities of Modern Europe. Dodd, N. Y. Willard, M. F. Along Mediterranean Shores. Silver Burdette, N. Y. GRADE VII SOUTH AMERICA, MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, CANADA, ETC. SUGGESTED TIHE ALLOTMENT First Half South America — 10 weeks Continent study — 2 weeks Brazil — 2 weeks Argentina — 2 weeks Chile — 2 weeks Uruguay and Paraguay — 2 days Venezuela and Guianas — 3 days Other countries — 1 week Mexico and Central America — 3 weeks Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Newfoundland — 4 weeks Princioles of geography — 2 weeks Second Half World Review — 19 weeks First Half SOUTH AMERICA Introduction. See suggestions on North America, page 49. Identify this new grand division by calling into the conscious- ness of the pupils their experience with well-known South American products and allusions to this region in their general reading or in stories they have heard. Locate the region in imagination by pointing toward it and by indicating the steamer connections and the possible railroad connections. Locate on the globe its relative position east and west as compared with North America and its relative position in the zones, drawing the ap- propriate inferences. Suggest the significance of the Panama Canal with regard to the development of South America. Climate. Have pupils study the map and draw inferences as to the range and the diversity of climate by noting the great extent of this division from north to south and by recalling the analagous conclusion in the case of North America. Have three pictures of landscapes, one from Brazil, one from Central Argen- 6 GEOG (81) 82 tine, and one from Southern Patagonia, to corroborate the above fact'. Connect the equatorial region with the direct or practically vertical rays of the sun and the effect of this on the temperature of this region. Call into play the experience of the pupils with the analagous daily difference in temperature brought about by the change in slant of the sun's rays from sunrise to sunset. Connect high average temperature with amount of rainfall and the apparent annual north and south movement of the sun in the heavens with the seasons. Characterize the seasons of the torrid zone. Have pupils note the obvious connection between the prevalence of heat and moisture and abundant plant life. Illustrate with hothouse. Show pictures of jungles to corrobo- rate the conclusion. Compare climate of eastern equatorial sec- tion with that of the western section. Plant life peculiar to South America. If possible get the ma- terial before the pupils by means of carefully chosen and syste- matically arranged mounted pictures of the royal palm, the banana palm, the cocoanut palm, the coffee tree, the rubber tree, mahogany and rosewood, the tall grasses of the Lianos, sugar cane, cocoa tree, the jungle growth, particularly the great creep- ing plants. Use these mounted pictures in teaching the plant life of the different sections of South America. Animal life peculiar to South America. Follow plan as indi- cated above, by carefully selected mounted pictures of birds such as, condor, rhea, penguin; of wild animals such as armadillo, peccary, anteater, tapir, cougar; of the domesticated llama, and of the boa-constrictor and some of the venomous reptiles and insects of the tropical region. In the case of each of these animals the pupils should find out whether or not it is of value to man or injurious to him and in what way. Main physical features of South America. Compare the main physical features of South America with those of North America by means of physical maps, noting shape, size, number and arrangement of great highland regions and great valleys. By means of mounted pictures or the stereoscope, study the Andes Mountains, showing carefully selected scenes on the eastern slope near the equator, and the effect on vegetation of change in alti- tude. Compare the Andes with the Rock>' Mountains as to alti- tude, relative location in the respective grand divisions, trend, presence of volcanoes, relation to transcontinental travel and 83 transportation, effect on climate. Study by means of pictures and map the three great valleys of South America and the Amazon River in particular, comparing the latter with the Mississippi. Call attention to the remarkably slight fall in the last 1800 miles of its course and the effect of this condition. Map drawing. Have each pupil draw an outline map of South America and fill in details as follows : 1. The three highland and the three lowland regions 2. The equator and the tropic of capricom 3. The meridian of Washington 4. The three great river systems 5. Block out in color Brazil, Argentine Republic and Chile 6. Indicate the boundaries of the other states 7. Indicate the capital cities of the three important countries, and three other important cities Civilization. In order to stimulate interest have the pupils note the races that make up the inhabitants of South America and the proportionate part that the people of European extraction form of the whole population; also their relative importance. Occupations. Study with the aid of pictures the coffee, rub- ber, mining and cattle industries and river and railroad trans- portation. Select for study railroad development, schools, governments. Center a series of lessons around one of the fol- lowing subjects : cattle ranches, coffee plantations, the gathering of rubber, railroads in the Andes, pack trains of llamas. Mini- mum cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located (see suggestions in fifth grade outline) : Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, Quito, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Para. The "A B C" countries of South America : Argentine, Brazil and Chile. Relative importance of this group. BBAZIL Have the pupils recall any and all associations they may have made with objects, materials and products of Brazil. Important steamer connections with Brazil and sailing routes should be noted. Certain pupils should look up the story of the discovery, first exploration, and first settlement of Brazil. They should note the significance of these events in their relation to the national language of Brazil. Attention should be called to the 84 three large racial groups composing the population of Brazil. These groups could be arranged in order of numerical size and in order of importance to the life and development of the nation. Ports of entry. Para, Bahia, Pemambuca, Santos and Rio de Janeiro. Procure pictures of at least three of these, including the capital city, and let the pupils note what seems to be the most important geographical fact in connection with each of the five. Map study. As a part of the map study pupils should locate the abo\e mentioned cities. They should note the position of Brazil with respect to the tropics; also its surface makeup or contour. The annual rainfall record for Brazil should be com- pared with that of New Jersey. The pupils should search out the three large factors that account for the great rainfall in Brazil. Pupils should be encouraged to discover from the map and from descriptions four important results of the great rain- ^, fall bearing on transportation, vegetation, animal life and dis- | tribution of population. Occupations. Seventh grade pupils should be able to deduce from such information as they now possess what the leading occupations of the people of Brazil are. As special problems they should make a study of the rubber or coffee industry, noting the important steps from tree to export, and forming con- clusions as to the relative importance of these industries to Brazil as compared, for example, to wheat growing in our own country. Institutions. The form of government of Brazil should be compared with that of the United States. Have a group of pupils report upon such questions as the length of the term of office of the chief executive, the extent of the suffrage, the size of the army and navy and similar questions. Let them also ascertain whether or not Brazil has a public school system that gives all the children a common school education. ARGENTINA Before using globe or map let the class arrive at some con- clusion as to the two possible lines of approach to Argentina from the United States. Globe and map study. Locate Argentina on the globe, not- ing its relation to the western hemisphere, to Brazil, to the great 85 surface divisions of South America, and to the great com- mercial routes of the world. Pupils should raise the question whether the immediate effect of the use of the Panama Canal will be to help or retard the trade development of Argentina. Let the pupils note by actual measurement on the globe the rela- tive distances of Buenos Aires from New York and from Liver- pool and the relative distances of Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope from the South Pole and draw out the significance of each of these comparisons. Occupations. Emphasize the two leading occupations of Argentina and compare the products of this country with those of the United States. As problems for study let certain pupils report upon the sugar cane and grape culture of the North and Northwest, the wheat raising of the central region and the sheep and cattle grazing of the South and West. Pictures of ranches and ranch life showing the picturesque costume of the Guacos or South American cowboys should be studied. An effort should be made by the teacher to help the pupils get a feeling for the great stretches of prairie land in Argentina for the vastness of many oi its ranches. In connection with the study of the cattle and wheat ranches the fact that most of the land is held in large estates by a com-- paratively small number of owners, and that the rest of the rural inhabitants of these regions are mere workers dependent upon the owners for employment and living, should be dwelt upon, especially in its bearing on popular government and the rule of the majority. Let the pupils determine two good reasons why greatly increased trade between Eastern United States and Argentina would be very beneficial to both countries. Cities. Pupils should locate Buenos Aires and compare the population of this city with that of Rio de Janeiro and with that of Chicago, determining the probable reasons for its great size as compared with the population of Argentina as a whole. They should study pictures of this city, noting the type of its dwellings, the attractiveness of its streets and the architectural beauty of its public buildings. People. Pupils should ascertain why the national language of Argentina, as well as that of nearly all the other countries of South America, is Spanish. The question why immigration to Argentina is greater than that to any other South American 86 country is worthy of study and may lead to worth-while geographical conclusions. CHILE Globe and map study. Pupils should determine from study of the glol>e the most direct route from New York to Chile and answer for themselves the probable effect on the trade develop- ment of Chile from the use of the Panama Canal. From a study of a physical map of South America a group of pupils could ascertain by measurement the maximum width and the average width of Chile, and the maximum altitude and the average altitude of its surface. Attention should be called to the existence of the desert strip on the western slope of the Andes in Chile and farther north, and the reasons for such condition. Occupations. A very valuable insight into the occupations could be secured through a study of the nitrate industry, includ- ing its commercial value in the United States and Europe. Other occupation problems are: ascertaining the importance of the grazing industry in Chile, comparing it witli that of Argen- tina ; comparing the agriculture of Chile with that of Argentina as to products raised, size of ranches, condition of the farm lalx)rers, importance of irrigation; and showing Chile's rank in manufacturing among South American countries. People. The people of Chile are sometimes called the "Yankees of South America." The pupils should ascertain of what stock the people of Chile consist and to what extent immi- gration is contributing to the increase in population. A group of pupils should make a report as to why Chile, as a nation, is classed with Argentina and Brazil as one of the three most im- portant nations of South America. Cities. Pupils should locate Santiago and Valparaiso and note the most important fact to be associated with each. In this con- nection it would be profitable to make a brief study of the Pacific coast line of South America, comparing it with the Pacific coast hne of North .\merica and with the Atlantic coast line of North America, deducing from this study appropriate geographical conclusions. 8; COLOMBIA, PEETI, BOLIVIA ATSTD ECVABOH The significance of the Panama Canal in the trade develop- ment of these coimtries should be noted. Pupils should ascertain from a contour map the prevailing elevation above sea level and the surface of these countries, and compare this elevation with that of the highest mountain in the Appalachian system. Two staple food products of America had their origin in this plateau. One or more pupils should read up and report on agriculture among the ancient Peruvians and upon the crops and methods of tilling the soil as practiced by the present day Peruvian Indians. Attention should be called to the mean annual tempera- ture of this plateau by comparing it with that of the Amazon valley lying in the same latitude. The pupils should draw appro- priate conclusions as to effect of altitude and latitude upon climate and vegetation. The story of Pizarro's conquest of Peru, with its consequences to the nations of this region, would be opportune. Occupations. A knowledge of the occupations should be ob- tained through a study of the leading articles of export from this region, and through an investigation into the stages of develop- ment of agriculture, mining, manufactures, transportation. Cities. The pupils should be able to locate Bogota, Lima, Quito, Guayaquil, and associate one important fact with each. People. As a special problem, pupils could find out the ap- proximate proportions of the population of this region that are of Indian origin and of European origin; also the status of public education in these countries. VEITEZVELA ASTD THE GVIANAS These states should be located and discussed with respect to advantages or disadvantages of location and climate. Venezuela was one of the earliest parts of South America to be frequented by Europeans, yet it has not kept pace in development with the "A B C" countries, for example. The pupils should be encour- aged to deduce at least one good geographical reason for this. The Guiana Colonies should be studied by noting the countries to which they respectively belong and by noting what use these countries have made of their possessions. Certain groups of pupils should report upon the mining f>ossibilities of these coun- tries, and the chief articles of trade of both Venezuela and the Guianas. imTTGUAY AND PAKAGTIAT These countries should be studied in their trade with Argen- tina and Brazil respectively. The importance of the Plata and Paraguay rivers to the development of these countries should be brought out. A knowledge of the occupations of the people and of the products of these countries could readily be brought out by a study of the two important exports. Pupils should locate Asuncion and Montevideo and associate an important fact with each city. PROBLEMS ON SOUTH AMERICA 1. Show in what respects North America and South America are alike in surface features. 2. Has North America or South America the advantage in regard to coast-line? climate? 3. Show whether or not Brazil will likely rival the United States in importance in the future. 4. Why is northern Brazil not more thickly settled? 5. Why is Argentina the most progressive country of South America ? 6. Why is Buenos Aires so large a city ? 7. How do you account for the variety of products raised in the tropical Andean countries? 8. A boat built in Glasgow, Scotland, carries passengers on Lake Titicaca. How did it get there? 9. How much shorter is the trip from New York to Val- paraiso, Chile, by way of the Panama Canal than by way of Cape Horn? 10. If you were expecting to emigrate to South America in what country would you settle? Why? 11. How would it be an advantage to the people of South America if the smaller countries, such as Paraguay and Uruguay, would unite? MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, CANADA, NOVA SCOTIA, NEWFOUNDLAND AND NEW BRUNSWICK The children should have their attention directed to the im- portance of these countries, as suggested in the work of the fifth grade. From their fonner geography experience the pupils of the seventh grade ought to be able to formulate a series of ques- 89 tions or problems about each country. These problems should emphasize in what ways the products, industries and people of the United States have influence upon the people of these coun- tries ; in what way the products, industries and people of Mexico, Central America, Nova Scotia, Canada, Newfoundland and New Brunswick have upon us, MEXICO Pupils should obtain an idea of location and distance from New Jersey by tracing trade routes by water and by land. Near- ness to southern states could be shown by noting railway connec- tions between border towns in Texas and important towns in Mexico. Difficulties of travel in Mexico could be shown by a report of a member of the class upon Colonel Pershing's recent expedition into Mexico. A knowledge of the important surface features could be gained in connection with the questions raised by this report. Industries. A group of pupils could get information upon the methods of farming and mining obtaining in Mexico and com- pare them with those of the United States. Bring out the fact that much of the lack of advancement in agriculture is due to the great arid regions as well as to the lack of progress in the natives. It would be helpful for the pupils to make a comparison of the values and difficulties in some of our western states. Raise the problem of the industrial isolation of Mexico and have the pupils show how this affects farming, mining and commerce in Mexico. Products. A group of pupils should make a list of the most important exports and imports of Mexico and show why the United States should be interested in the development of Mexico's resources. Minimum cities to be studied in connection with the geography of the country in which they are located (see sugges- tions given in fifth grade outline) : Mexico City, Vera Cruz. People and government. Indian stock. Let some pupil make a report upon the early settlement of Mexico, showing the difficulties which confronted the settlers and how these diffi- culties still exert an influence. It would be profitable to show what proportion of the population was of Indian stock and the significance of such proportion to the progress of the country. Show how a lack of a system of good roads, a lack of a system 90 of waterways, a lack of thrift and a lack of education have kept most of the people poor. Bring out the difficulties of a stable government in Mexico by conclusions drawn from the many facts discovered in a study of the geography of Mexico. Let the pupils make statements as to the industrial, economic and governmental relations that ought to obtain between Mexico and the republics of North America and South America. ^ CENTSAL AHKEIOA Locate Central America on the wall map. Determine the imports and exports to the United States, and what articles we send to Central America. Let the pupils see the significance of the Panama Canal to the trade interests of Central America. This could be brought out best by a special report of given pupils upon the possible exports and imports of the country to the United States and other countries. CAKADA A valuable approach to the study of Canada can be made through its early settlement by the French, and through the later period when the territory had been acquired by England. Its position as a part of North America and its close physical relation to the United States can be brought out by a study of the use it makes of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Its progress in settlement can be shown by the great nun> ber of our farmer people who have gone there recently to occupy some of the fertile soil. Pupils should know something of the relative rate ©f settlement of Canada as compared with the United States, and some possible reasons why Canada has been developed slowly. Industries. In studying the industries of Canada the teacher should make use of the experience of the children with reference to the great wheat regions, the great lumber regions, the great mining regions, and the fishing grounds of the United States. The method in which each of these industries is carried on is in some important respects similar to that used in the United States. However, there is an added interest when contrasts be- tween the methods in the two countries are made. In Canada, for example, the lumber industry presents more difficulties be- cause of the longer winter, the hea\ner snowfall, the less favor- 91 able transporting facilities; wheat raising presents more diffi- culties because of the longer winter and the handicap resulting from the fact that only spring wheat is raised in great cjuantities ; greater difficulties obtain in the mining industries because of the very short season during which mining is possible and because of the great cost of transporting equipment and pro- visions. In this connection pupils should be encouraged to look for points in which these industries are followed to better advan- tage than in the United States. In carrying out the above principles the pupils will have learned all important climatic facts by making use of such facts to prove or disprove the propositions advanced. In this, as well as in the work upon the industries, there must be a constant tying up with the experiences used in a study of the climate of the United States. Products. A more intensive study of the important products than that resulting from the foregoing work upon industry may be carried out by reference to the leading exports and imports of Canada. Provision should be made by which certain groups of pupils make reports upon (i) the chief needs of Canada as regards an outlet for her increasing raw materials, (2) the chief needs of Canada with respect to imports, in order that she may develop greater industrial efficiency. If such reports are guided by teacher, and presented by pupils as a part of regular work, they will give the boys and girls of this grade enough usable experience as to the products of Canada. Minimum, number of cities which should be studied in connec- tion with the geography of the country in which they are located (see suggestions given in fifth grade outline) : Montreal, Quebec, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver. People and government. Since some attention was given to the people of Canada in the introductory work, added emphasis can best come through reference to more detailed study of the early history, to magazine articles, and pamphlets, showing recent changes in the types of settlers. A study of the government of Canada should include a com- parison of the general government with (i) that of Australia, in order to show England's control; and (2) that of the United States, in order to show relation to our republic. The great development of the people of Canada could be brought out by 92 showing their allegiance to England, and the effort they have put forth to have popular education extended throughout the Dominion. NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BKUNSWICK AND NEWFOTTNDLAND The geography of these countries should be learned through a study of their chief industries, agriculture, dairying, mining, lumbering, commerce and fishing. In talking up these industries comparison should be made with the ways in which they are carried on in the United States. As another approach to these countries the pupils could find out their value in furnishing products for trade with Great Britain and the United States. In studying the climate — especially of Newfoundland — good opportunity is found to show the influence of the gulf stream. Halifax should be stressed as an important shipping center. Pupils should work out a problem which would connect Halifax with Newark; one that would connect Halifax with Liverpool. PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY The principles of geography are easily discerned and clearly understood only in their applications. The thoughtful teacher will repeatedly call attention to many of these principles in con- nection with the teaching of the geographical facts suggested by the outlines for the previous grades. A more mature and a more thorough comprehension of the significance of certain phases of geographic knowledge and of certain principles governing the interpretation of geographic facts can be attained only by re- peated and varied organizations of subject matter. For this reason logical treatments of such topics as that of latitude and longitude, the causes of the change of the seasons, air currents and water currents, and distributions of plant and animal life, are outlined more fully and apart from any specific applications to particular regions in order that they may be comprehended as thoroughly and as fully as is possible with seventh grade pupils. These treatments are in the nature of summarized knowledge which has been brought out frequently in the previous study of geography. Latitude and longitude. Approach this subject from the standpoint of its practical use to navigators by raising the ques- tion as to how a vessel in distress at sea can inform other vessels I 93 of her location? Develop with the class the idea of the whole scheme of imaginar>' circles, illustrating with the globe. Lead to the significance of the derivation of "meridian" — the midday line. Have the pupils distinguish between local time and standard time. Let them compute the relation between the difference in longitude and the difference in local time of two places. Upon a map of the United States the pupils can construct and mark the standard time zones and by discussion arrive at a clear understanding as to why such a scheme has been adopted. The time-tables of some transcontinental lines will be valuable here as supplementary material. The seasons. Approach this general topic by calling attention to the succession of seasons in our latitude and by raising the question as to the fundamental cause. Let the class note the sun's apparent movement in the heavens from north to south from June 21 to December 21, and from south to north during the other six months. This can be verified by simple observa- tions. Relate this fact to the fact that when the sun is farthest south it is winter and the days are shortest. Raise the question as to why these two facts are related. Call attention to the vary- ing power of the sun's rays during the course of a day from sunrise to sunset and the obvious reason for this. Draw the analogy between this daily variation in the force of the sun's rays as they change from an almost horizontal to an almost vertical direction with respect to the earth's surface and the cor- responding yearly change due to the apparent northerly and southerly movement of the sun in the heavens. Proceed to show how this latter change in the position of the sun changes the average daily temperature in our latitude through the course of each year and leads us to distinguish four seasons. The reason for the lagging of the seasons behind the calendar times for them should be made clear. Illustrate with the globe how the vertical rays of the sun fall during the course of a year and how the oblique rays reach only as far as the Arctic circle on the 22d of December but reach beyond the south pole to every point of the Antarctic circle. The accompanying ideas of the sun directly overhead at noonday or in the zenith of the sky, and the phe- nomena of the midnight sun and of the continuous polar night or twilight should be made clear. 94 As an optional problem, in teaching the length of day and night in the regions outside of the torrid zone, have the pupils glean facts as to the approximate time of sunrise and sunset on June 21 and December 22 in New Jersey, Mexico City, London and Petrograd. Make the reason for this variation clear by use of the globe. Let the pupils deduce a most important cause of the seasonal changes and of the variation in length of day and night. Use the globe to illustrate this fact, the pupils making the demonstration. Air currents and water currents. In taking up the logical study of air currents and water currents, the following six prin- ciples are given to influence the teacher's thinking. If she has a pupil or pupils who can understand the simple principles named it would be well to let them make a study of these principles and explain to class. 1. Liquids and gases are fluids and seek the lowest possible level under the constant operation of the force of gravity. 2. In seeking the lowest possible level under the force of gravity^, fluids will displace solids and other fluids which are lighter volume for volume than themselves. Examples : water floats wood ; mercury floats iron ; water floats kerosene ; chlorine gas floats air. 3. Taking into account the fact that rise in temperature ex- pands both water and air and thus makes them lighter volume for volume than other water and air at a lower temperature, we conclude that warmer air is displaced by cooler air. 4. The sun heats some substances more rapidly than others. Hence in the same length of time under the sun's rays different substances will heat to different degrees of temperature. Ex- amples: cement sidewalk and the green lawn; plank of wood and the bare earth ; the hard road and the grass-covered field ; the surface of a lake and the surrounding land. 5. Different substances give off stored up heat at different rates of speed. 6. In general, land heats up under the influence of the sun's rays more rapidly than does water and to a higher degree than water ; also it cools off more rapidly than water and to a lower degree than water. All pupils should read the explanations of air and water cur- rents given in a good textbook. Simple explanations should be 95 sought and application made within the pupil's experience. The teacher could raise the following questions : Why is the average daily temperature of the air higher in the tropics than in the temperate zones? Why is the average daily temperature higher in the temperate and frigid zones in August than in January? Why is the temperature higher about one or two o'clock in the day than at five o'clock in the morning? Pupils should then know something about : 1. The effect of the sun's rays when they are most nearly vertical. Illustrate both by longest day as compared with shortest day and by noonday as compared with early morning. 2. The effect of the rays of the sun when it shines continuously for 15 to 18 hours of the day in the high latitudes in summer as compared with their effect when the sun shines only 6 to 9 hours of the day in winter. 3. The cumulative effect of the sun's rays when it continues to shine more than half of the 24 hours of the day, day after day. 4. The fact that land surface absorbs solar heat rapidly and so absorbs much heat, comparatively speaking, in a given length of time; for the same reason it radiates heat rapidly and gives off much heat in a given time. Water surface absorbs heat much more slowly than land surface and gives it out much more slowly than land. The foregoing discussions, illustrations and generalizations should have laid in the minds of the pupils the foundation for comprehending the larger movements of the atmosphere and of the ocean. Study the globe, keeping in mind the position of the sun with reference to the equatorial belt and the mean annual temperatures as one goes from the poles to the equator. These temperatures might be written for every 15 degrees of latitude on a diagram. Pupils who are especially interested could stud}*, as an optional problem, a hemisphere map of the winds as found in any good textbook to note the direction of the prevailing winds in the different zones and the reasons therefor as far as they are obvious. The teacher could assist them by explaining how the irregularity in the trend of these mountains, the great interior plains and the slopes of the land masses as a whole, are disturbing factors in the directions of the winds : also how the vast snowfields of the 96 North and the barren wastes of the subtropical regions have tremendous influence in disturbing the regularity of the atmos- pheric circulation. The winds as carriers of moisture. Raise the question as to the ultimate source of all the water that falls on the land surface in the shape of rain or snow; then the question as to how it is carried. Lands favored with prevailing winds blowing from the ocean should have an adequate rainfall. Test this proposition by examining into the case of eastern and central United States; the British Isles and Europe; northern Africa; the Pacific coast of North America from Alaska to San Diego. Let the pupils note the part that high mountains play in the production and conservation of rainfall; in the prevention of rainfall. Ocean currents. Introduce by calling attention to the facts that : 1. Prevailing winds, like the trade and prevailing westerlies, by pressure and friction tend to move the surface of the water in the direction they are blowing. 2. The contour of the coast line or the outline or shape of the ocean areas deflect the ocean currents and determine their direction. Let the pupils study a map of the important ocean currents as found in a good textbook and let them try to see the cause and factors determining the flow of the gulf stream and of the Japan current, and the influences of these streams. Distribution of plant and animal life. A study of the dis- tribution of plant and animal life is one that may be made a very profitable part of the general world review. Keeping in mind the locational phase of plant and animal life, the approach may be made concrete by raising the question as to what plants and animals have especial value for human existence. One pupil could make a study of the portions of the earth's surface which are covered with pine forests, and thereby bring out the impor- tant uses to which this valuable wood may be put ; another could study the regions where deciduous hard woods grow; another the wheat growing regions of the globe ; another the corn grow- ing sections; another the rice growing sections; another the potato growing sections. Another way to put the question in regard to these plant and animal products that are world-wide ! 97 commodities is to look for the world's source of supply of aay given product or animal and to connect that source with the places where the product is used, noting the way in which the product is used and its influence upon industry and human life. In studying these plants and animals as to their value in human existence, teacher and pupils must consider carefully the factors of latitude, altitude, amount of moisture, condition of country as affected by timber or lack of timber. These factors become concrete when it is shown that they produce different animals and plants far up a mountain side from those at its base, or different kinds of vegetables in one climate from those in another climate. The important consideration is one of causal relations, which are to be seen through concrete illustra- tion from lesson to lesson. Second Half WOELD EEVTEW Special emphasis is to be placed upon : 1. United States and New Jersey with respect to important trade facilities within their own borders, and the most important trade relations with the outside world. 2. Economic, governmental, educational and social progress of given countries as shown in (a) the way in which the country under consideration makes for stable industrial develop- ment whereby all may secure sustenance, (b) the way in which its government protects and develops its citizens, (c) the way in which it provides education for the masses, (d) the way in which its standards of home and social life are maintained. The purpose of the world review is to guide the pupils in a general survey of the world from the point of view of the rela- tions of its various .parts to our own country. While the rela- tions suggested will be largely economic, and should be made as concrete as possible by calling into consciousness the main lines of commerce on sea and land, an effort should also be made to compare with our own state and federal systems the political systems prevailing among the more important peoples of the earth. In the treatment of all facts, commercial, political and phys- ical, entering into this review the underlying principle should be that of causal relations. The selection and interpretation of 7 GEOG 98 geographic ractors influencing the life of man is the main pur- pose of advanced geography. However, the ability to make a reasonably accurate and complete imaginary map of the world's surface, in which any important physical feature — city, state or people — takes its rightful place as soon as it is mentioned, is another test of good thinking in general geography. Hence the never ending importance of sensible ways of study and locational geography. The teacher must bear constantly in mind the fact that this term's review is not a drill, not a renaming of certain facts, but that it is, on the other hand, an attempt to get a new viezv. It is a review in which the pupils have opportunities to use in a new way the details that have been mastered, thereby gaining a better conception of the big facts. When teacher and pupils handle the review in this manner they are not re-listing facts, but are finding a new setting, a new content for them. The only sure way to have our boys and girls obtain a useful knowledge of geography is to emphasize the geography of New Jersey and the United States. This monograph has suggested much elimination of subject matter. It has also made elimina- tion possible by suggesting that much less time than is the ordinary practice be given to the continents of Asia, Africa and Australia, It is especially necessary in a general world review to guard against a waste of time, which would occur if each continent received equal emphasis wuth the others. Therefore the geography of any part of the world outside the United States is to be ignored except as it is connected with this country in an important industrial, commercial or social and political way. For example, it is easily seen that our trade relations with South Africa, or Australia, or Venezuela, are negligible as com- pared with our trade relations with France, or Japan, or Brazil. Even if it were possible to review the geography of the entire world it would not be an economical expenditure of time, in- terest and effort. On the other hand, there are significant geography facts which show the important factors of trade among industrial and commercial centers w^ithin our own borders; also valuable geography facts which show our im- portant trade relations with such countries as France, Brazil, Argentina, Chile. Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Japan and Russia. The emphasis must constantly be upon those trade 99 centers with which we are most directly connected by amount and quahty of trade. The best method of attack would be to make a study of in- dustrial and commercial trade possibilities, first within our own state, then within our own nation. After a definite knowledge of our chief routes of trade and our chief articles of exchange has been gained the field should be enlarged to take in the most important foreign fields with which we are most intimately con- nected. In this way pupils will collect only the data which they are to use; they are to gain practice in the handling of books, maps, charts, statistics; they are to gain a useful method of gathering information — not merely a mass of facts. Pupils in the seventh grade ought to leani about the resources of New Jersey, her rapid industrial growth, the great progress she is making in conservation and development, in such a way that they will have an increasing interest in the geography of their state. PROBLEMS In starting with a review of commercial relations within New Jersey, the following suggestive problems upon which to center attention are offered as types : ( i ) What are the raw materials of the state that are used as material for manufacturing within the state? (2) What are the raw materials of the state that are used immediately to sustain the people of the state? (3) What are the raw materials of the state that are sent outside the state to be used immediately or to be used in manufacturing? (4) What are the raw materials brought into New Jersey from other points within the United States, to be used immediately or to be used in manufacturing? (5) What are the raw materials that are brought into this state from foreign coun- tries? (6) What are the chief articles of trade that New Jersey has to offer the rest of the United States? (7) What are the commercial and industrial wants of New Jersey that can be supplied from points within the United States? (8) What are the wants (industrial and commercial) of New Jersey for the satisfaction of which she must go to foreign countries? (9) What are the commercial and industrial wants of the United States that can be supplied from within the United States? (10) What are the industrial and commercial wants of the United States for the satisfying of which she must go ICX) to foreign countries? (ii) What are the chief articles of ex- change between Brazil and the United States? (12) What are the chief articles of trade between France and the United States? (13) How does a knowledge of the trade relations brought about by the exchange of goods give one a knowledge of the geography of France and of the United States? The foregoing problems suggest both a plan of attack and an emphasis upon relative values. To follow any one to solution pupils will need to learn how to break a problem up into its parts, how to analyze the important factors in any part, how to collect data, and finally, how to organize and use the knowledge gained. For example, in solving problem i it would be necessary : 1. To obtain information concerning the chief raw materials of the state. This would cause a classification of these materials into such divisions as : a. Those produced from the soil, such as potatoes, com, fruits, etc. b. Those mined from the earth, such as clay, iron, zinc, sand c. Those obtained from the sea, such as oysters, clams, fish 2. To study difficulties and advantages under which raw" ma- terials are procured. For example, potato culture in Monmouth County is much more profitable than it is in Sussex County; dairying is carried on to more advantage in Sussex County than it is in Cumberland ; oyster fishing is a financial risk because of the great cost of planting the beds and of harvesting the oysters. 3. To study how these industries affect the life of the com- munities where they are located because of : a. The amount of money earned by those who are employed b. The dangers involved in the industry c. The kinds of people employed (1) Their interest in owning their homes (2) Their interest in obtaining a schooling for their children 4. To follow the raw material through the process of manu- facture and into the port or market where it is to be sold. This would make the pupils learn much about : a. The manufacture of the articles b. The uses to which they are put c. The places where they are needed d. The articles of exchange given and uses to which those articles are put lOI 5. To organize the full information obtained to such a degree that it could be used in school and everyday experience. This would necessitate a development in the pupils of : a. A habit of study b. An interest in trade relations as a vital part of state and national life c. A beginning appreciation of the pupils' places in the field of indus- trial and commercial endeavor This device is not the only good way by which to teach our trade relations, but it is a way which is full of rich suggestion for pupils and teachers. When the teachers have thought through the fact or facts to be studied with such causal relations upper- most, they have a true perspective for teaching. The pupils are freed from a lifeless listing of exports and imports, a useless naming of amounts and values of our exchange. In dealing with the economic, educational, governmental and social standards of the various countries the teacher need not expect to find a mass of material with which to work; neither need she expect the boys and girls to have finished judgment upon these questions. However, she can find some valuable material which is within the range of the pupils' understanding; she can hope to have the pupils form rough judgments which will be of great use to them in getting ready for more adult points of view. For example, pupils can see that the economic life of China is much below that of Canada; that the opportunities for public education of the masses are greater in the United States than in almost any other country in the world; that the government which insures the right of suffrage to all its citizens is more serviceable to mankind in general than the one which refuses such right; that the country in which the home and social life are founded upon Christian principles has the highest type of civilization. The following suggestive problems indicate a way by which this work may be carried out : (i) How does the fact that England has few small land owners affect the life of the people of England? (2) What re- lation has this fact to the kind and amount of England's imports? (3) Why must the Dutch people be thrifty and saving? (4) What influence do the low wages of China have upon China's industrial development? (5) The children of France, Germany I02 and England have what educational advantages over the children of Russia ? (6) To assure yourself of an opportunity for a public school education where would you rather live, in Mexico or the United States? (7) In what respects is the Japanese school system similar to ours? (8) In what way does the government of Switzerland benefit its citizens more than the government of Spain? (9) Why should American school children honor and resi^ect their country and be grateful to it? (10) Why should adult citizens of America be willing to serve their country ? (11) Why would the leaders of France be determined to keep France a republic? (12) Certain governments such as Germany and England either own or operate their railroads; how does this fact illustrate the right of a government to control industry and commerce? (13) How is the social life of rural people different from that of city people? (14) What is the relation between the low standard of education of the common people of Russia and the social life of Russia? Many of these problems have been studied earlier in the course. However, this new attempt to study from a new and definite point of view will give added zest to the work of both teacher and pupils. Such work makes geography knowledge useful knowledge, for it insures that the pupils are learning how man affects his environment; how^ his surroundings are influences uix)n what he accomplishes in life. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADE Vn Blaich, L, R. Three Industrial Nations. American Book Co. N. Y, Bov.frran, Isaiah. South America. Rand McNally, Chicago Brooks, E. C. Story of Cotton. Rand McNally, Chicago Carpenter, F. G. Geographical Readers. American Book Co. N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. The Continents and Their People. Macmillan, N. Y. Day, Clive. History of Commerce. Longmans Green, N. Y. Greene, Homer. Coal and the Coal Mines. Houghton, Boston Hotchkiss, C. W. Representative Cities of the United States. Houghton, Boston Huntington, Ellsworth. Asia. Rand McNally, Chicago Smith, J. R. Story of Iron and Steel Story Series. Appleton, N. Y. Tower, W. S. Story of Oil. Appleton, N. Y. PART II HISTORY AND CIVICS AS SOCIAL STUDIES GRADES 11 TO IV FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES TO OBSERVE IN ALL INSTRUCTION IN PRIMARY GRADES I. Find out what children already know about the problem set for solution. 2'. Create interest concerning the topic to be discussed by means of observation, anecdotes, story telling and dramatization. 3. Let the instruction given to the children utilize what they have observed and experienced, and make it as concrete as possi- ble by using pictures, objects or samples of materials as a means of getting interested, active attention of the children and of making the impression vivid. 4. Provide varied opportunities for construction work such as paper cutting, dramatic action, drawing, clay and sand modeling, doll dressing, house making. 5. Arouse an intelligent interest in industries and stimulate thoughtful observation of those in the immediate neighborhood. Let the children play at being housekeeper, storekeeper, farmer, milkman, carpenter, blacksmith, shoemaker, etc., and make use of every opportunity to show respect for the property of another, GRADE II PROBLEMS Time, two recitations a week. In the work of the second year special effort should be made to enlarge the child's experience of the social and industrial life which is within his range of observation. Simple concrete prob- lems connected with procuring food, clothing, shelter, etc., can be understood by even the youngest children. They have observed cooperation in the family, in the games or sports on the playground, in the industries of the neighborhood, and in the classrooms. The school contains many social groups. All training that a pupil receives in the direction of a realizing sense of his own responsibility toward these school groups is far- 103 104 reaching in its effect. Little children are eager to help others but in school they must be supplied with definite concrete prob- lems to solve. They must be encouraged to persevere by the suggestion of aims or purposes which appeal to young children, and for every contribution they make they must receive generous acknowledgment. During the early years of school life children should be saturated with the spirit of service and furnished with the instru- ments of effective self-direction suited to their stage of develop- ment. The problems solved should reflect the life of the larger society of which the school is a part. The problems connected with family life, with bearing burdens, problems of travel and transportation, and the appropriate celebration of holidays are excellent if presented in keeping with the experience of second grade children. Positive suggestion on the part of the teacher will be necessary to make the problem seem desirable or com- mendable so that the child will feel like putting forth his very best effort on it. The teacher of the second grade has a three- fold task. 1. To show the child that he is a helper in the family, on the playground, on the street, in the classroom, in the celebration of holidays, etc. 2. To illustrate benefits of working together or cooperation in home-making, in suitable playgrounds, clean, well-lighted streets, beautiful parks, pure drinking water, good roads, the firemen, the traffic officers, the public school, hospitals for the sick, health officers, suitable houses, food, clothing, etc. 3. To make comparisons between what children have learned by personal observation with what they have learned from stories or school instruction. A FABM SAKD-TABLE Time, approximately 19 weeks. The aim is to show the interdependence of city people and country people. Only a few children are so fortunate as to have the experience of living in both the city and the country. Before a child can understand why the farmer needs the city and why the city people need the farmer he must have a very definite idea of what a farm is like — how it appears to the eye, and what los it produces. One way of giving such instruction is to make a farm on the sand-table.^ I. Organization A. Projects 1. Main project — dairy farm on sand-table 2. Minor projects a. Construct: (1) House; (2) Barn, icehouse, milk house, silo, corn cribs, hay lofts, etc.; (3) Well or windmill or gasoline pump; (4) Trucks, automobiles, wagons; (5) Fences; (6) Trees; (7) Milk cans and bottles b. Model cows, horses, dogs, cats 3. Booklet to include spelling, language and arithmetic correlated with the subject 4. Take a trip to a dairy farm B. Subject matter 1. Source of all food 2. Different kinds of farms — market farms, chicken farms, dairies, cattle ranches, grain farms 3. Equipment for a dairy farm' 4. Materials used in making projects a. For house, barn, milk house, silo, windmill, ice house, etc., use oaktag or bogus paper, or possibly wood, or convert small wooden boxes into houses, bams, etc. h. For trucks, wagons, vehicles, use pasteboard or oaktag, or colored mounting paper, or possibly wood c. For animals use clay d. For fences use dowel sticks and thin wire or pasteboard e. For milk cans use silver coated paper over oaking /. For trees use green construction paper g. For brooks use colored paper or zinc 5. It is suggested that all the above be carefully and simply planned to be of value to the child C. Method (time two weeks) 1. A discussion about the kinds of foods and kinds of farms a. Name the kinds of food you eat — meat, vegetables, fish, cereals (food made from grains) ^The purpose and value of these projects in hand work lie largely in furnishing the child an opportunity for expressing his ideas in some other form than language. Hence, whether carried out as Individual or group projects, they should be the result of the child's thinking and skill rather than the teacher's. The teacher's aid should be incidental, the child being helped only where he would otherwise fail. A common modeled form, such as a silo or a com crib, should be the outgrowth of experimental work by the class and embody the collective ideas of many children. = Use Farmers' Bulletins from Washington, D. C. io6 b. Name the kinds of food stuffs used for drink — milk, tea, coffee, cocoa, water c. Where do you get the food you eat? d. Where does the storekeeper get it? e. What does the farmer sell to the storekeeper? /. If you had meat for dinner, where did it come from? g. If you ate milk or cereal, where did you get the milk? h. Where did the cereal come from? What are cereals made from? t. Someone had chicken for dinner? Where did the butcher get the chicken he sold you? 2. Having named the kinds of farms, decide what one the class will make (Class decides to make dairy farm) II. Presentation (time ten weeks) 1. Equipment needed for starting a dairy farm a. After deciding on a dairy and buying the land (sand-table) what is the first thing we must build? Why? For the farmer to live in. The next thing? Barns, outbuildings. Why? This can be carried out until all the necessities are named and built. b. Of what shall the farmer make his house — wood, brick, stone or concrete? Here the interdependence of the farmer, carpenter, plumber, painter, etc. can be shown. c. Of what shall we make ours? (Paper or oaktag.) 0. Each building can be discussed in same manner. e. The cows, horses, cats and dogs are modeled from clay /. Where will the cows be in the day time? g. What keeps them from their neighbor's lots? h. What are fences made of? (Rails, pickets, wire, boards, concrete posts and wire, iron posts and wire.) 1. What shall we make ours of? (Class decision. It may be an individual's project if made with dowel sticks and wire) ;. How high shall we make the posts? (Comparison with build- ings and cows) k. How many fence posts shall we need? (Measure the length of the part of sand-table to be used for pasture and, allowing five inches between each two posts, find the number needed) /. Now the fences are made, the pasture is chosen and fenced in; what do the cows eat besides grass? m. Shall we have any other kinds of fields? What will they be for? (Class decision) n. If the day is hot where do the cows go to keep cool? 0. Then what shall we need to put in our pasture? p. Shall we need trees anywhere else on the farm? q. You say cattle keep cool in the brooks; on what side of the pasture shall we make a brook? (Class decision) r. What else does the cow get from the brook? s. When the cows get to the barn, from what do they get water? 107 t. How does the farmer get the water to the troughs, etc.? M. What shall the class build with which to draw water? (Class decision) 2. Transportation a. How do«s the milkman get the milk to your house? b. How does the milk get to Newark, New York or any big city? c. What shall we have to transport our milk in? (Class decision) d. "V\Tiat does the farmer put the milk in? e. How does he get the milk ready for selling? Talk over the process of cooling, the need for sanitation III. Conclusion and application (time four weeks; lessons in applica- tion to be given when needed in the course) Having constructed the dairy farm and placed it on sand-table, use it for arithmetic lessons to motivate addition, subtraction and multiplica- tion, in buying and selling milk, and in measuring your construction work. Language lessons may consist of discussing the making of the things, the construction of real buildings on a farm, how the farmer cools his milk, and how he produces butter and cheese. Hygiene is easily introduced by talking over the sanitation of the utensils, etc. Spelling consists of objects and action words in connection with the construction. Words chosen will later be needed and used in simple written composition work which will record some of these interesting experiences for the children. IV. Stories and poems (to be used when needed during any part of the work). Books that are interesting and simple should be selected. They furnish valuable material for practice in sight reading. (Time three weeks) The dairy farm represents the study of food. A lumber camp on the sand-table represents the study of :ihelter. The projects to carry out the idea of a lumber camp are the log cabin, made of branches plastered together with clay; the miniature forest of twigs ; the logs ; the sled, which is made 01 wood; horses and people made of clay; and the river made of colored paper or zinc. The large problems connected with this study may be the building of a kindergarten chair and table, book racks or window boxes. This will take several weeks. Clothing may be studied. In this study emphasize either wool or cotton. Hemm.ing dusters of cheese cloth is appropriate in connection with keeping the furniture clean. A needle-book may be made with a simple cross stitch design. Charts and booklets made by the children are aids in fixing the processes of convert- ing the raw material into useful commodities. io8 4 The problems for the latter half of the second year are centered about school life, community life, and primitive life. Project work similar to the preceding outline should be carried on. In a study of primitive life an attempt should be made to show the first steps of interdependence. A comparison of modem and primitive life should be made. Modern books which tell in an interesting way the story of primitive man may be used as supple- mentary readers. Certain projects should be selected from these books. STIGGESTED PROJECTS 1. Poster illustrating life of primitive peoples (time, two weeks) 2. Sand-table of modem life (time, four weeks) In many second, third and fourth grades there are boys and girls who are too mature physically to enter into the recitation and project work with the enthusiasm and abandon of average boys and girls of these grades. These children should be given outside projects to make or problems to solve. Opportunity should be given them to explain to class the work which they do. When such pupils do work that is valuable and interesting to them, and when they contribute their share to the general pro- gress of the class, the right provisions have been made for them. B.E8TJLT OF WOfiK ST7XKABIZEI> Playing at house building, housekeeping or storekeeping, for instance, has been utilized to teach number in connection with the necessary measurements. Oral language has been improved through the discussions concerning materials to be used and in the descriptions of the various rooms and their furnishings. In deciding upon the proportions, and in the selection of color com- binations, training in art is given. In selecting the materials it is learned that the kind of house one can build is determined by the site, by the resources at his command, and by the purpose the house is to serve. Genuine discussion, disagreements as to advantages and dis- advantages of the various plans give power to appreciate con- ditions and to make decisions. The child has learned from, actual expenence what "working together" means. He has learned that ; people are dependent in many ways upon vegetation and upon animals, wild and tame. He has learned that each occupation in I09 the neighborhood has a definite relation to himself. He knows that his own family cannot supply all his needs. It is not a matter of mere knowledge; he feels the interdependence. He is asking what each conspicuous element in his surroundings is "good for." He wants to be an important helper in community life. He knows that city people need farmers and why fanners come to the city. His emotional life has had many opportunities to express itself by participating in the celebration of the birth- days of his classmates and the holidays of the nation. Through dramatic action the child has been "making believe" and trying to put himself in another's place. He has been in turn "Little Bo-peep," "Red Riding Hood," an "Indian dancing to express his joy," an "Eskimo baby" or an "Eskimo mother," a "farmer selling apples," a "storekeeper arranging a show window." Consequently he has gained some conception of mood, of motive, of cause and effect, which will help in later history work when he has to infer the motive and the feeling from the outward act. He has had sense training throughout the year's work and experience that will help furnish material for a "control of his imagination according to fixed principles." A controlled, critical imagination is a prerequisite for any serious study of history. During this year the child's world, both physical and human, has become larger. He knows about children of his own age. He has a better realization of his own importance and his rela- tion to others in work and in play. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER OKASZS n TO IT Bancroft, J. H. Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gymnasium. Macmillan, N. Y. Brooks, Dorothy. Stories of the Red Children. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Burton, A. H. Story of the Indians of New England. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. How the World Is Clothed. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. How the World is Fed. American Book Co. N. Y. Carpenter, F. G. How the World is Housed. American Book Co. N. Y. Carroll, C. F. Around the World. Book I. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Chamberlain, J. F. How we are Sheltered. Macmillan, N. Y. Chance, L. M. Little Folks of Many Lands. Ginn, Boston Chase, Anna. Children of the Wigwam. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. no Chase & Clow. Stories of Industry. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Dobbs, E. V. Primary Handwork. Macmillan, N. Y. Dopp, K. E. Cave Men. Rand McNally, Chicago. Dopp, K. E. Sea People. Rand McNally, Chicago Depp, K. E. The Tree Dwellers. Rand McNally, Chicago Dunn, A. W. The Community and the Citizen. Heath, Boston Dynes, S. A. Socializing the Child. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Earle, A. M, Child Life in Colonial Days. Macmillan, N. Y. Eastman, C. A. Indian Boyhood. Doubleday Page, Garden City, N. Y. Forman, S. E. Stories of Useful Inventions. Century, N. Y, Holden, E. S. Our Country's Flag. Appleton, N. Y. Jenks, Tudor. The Fireman. McClurg, Chicago Judd, M. C. Wigwam Stories. Ginn, Boston Mabie, H. W. Heroes Every Child Should Know. Doubleday Page, Garden City, N. Y. Mansfield, B, L. Our Little Dutch Cousins. L. C. Page, Boston Mclntyre, M. I. The Cave Men. Appleton, N. Y. McMurry, C. A. Pioneers of Mississippi Valley, Macmillan, N. Y. Newell, Cicero. Indian Stories. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Peary, Josephine. The Snow Baby. Stokes, N. Y. Pratt, M. L. Stories of Colonial Children. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Rocheleau, W. F. Transportation. Flanagan, Chicago Schwatka, Frederick. Children of the Cliff. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Schwatka, Frederick. Children of the Cold. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Smith, M. E. E. Eskimo Stories. Rand McNally, Chicago Tappan, E. M. Letters from Colonial Children. Houghton, Boston Verhoeff, Caroline. All about Johnnie Jones. Milton Bradley, Boston Wiley, Belle. Newanee, the Little Indian Boy. Silver Burdette, N. Y. GRADE III PROBLEMS Time, two recitations a week; no textbook in hands of pupils. STTTOT OF PEIMITIVE MAN {Continued, from second grade) Aims considered: (i) To show progress of mankind; (2) To compare primitive and modern life with reference to food, cloth- ing, shelter, records, utensils and transportation; (3) To show results and benefits of cooperation I. Food 1. How procured a- How could the tree dweller secure food when there were no farms, no gardens, no stores, no markets? b. Could you procure such food? 2. Cooking Ill a. If all our fires should go out some day and no one could remember how to make a fire and no matches could be found, what would you eat? h. Can you tell how a fire might be produced if there were no matches? c. Name all the different ways in which we use fire d. Name all the different ways in which primitive men might have used fire if they had known how to make it and control it e. What kind of food do Eskimo children eat? Projects: Grind corn; Make corn bread II. Shelter 1. What kind of dwellings did primitive people use? a. Caves b. Crude huts, made from mud, grass and branches of trees c. Tents made from skins of wild animals 2. To what uses were the early dwellings put? a. Places in which to sleep b. Furnished protection from cold, heat, storms and wild animals c. Places in which to protect the very young children Projects: Make cave-men's home; Eskimo hut III. Clothing Materials used 1. Do you know how primitive people dressed the skins of animals before they used them for clothing? 2. Do you know how they made moccasins? leggings? 3. How could they sew without needles and thread? 4. Can you sew in the way they did? Project: Weave blankets IV. Utensils Kinds 1. Do you know how they made baskets, boats, stilts? 2. How did they carry their burdens? 3. Can you make carrying straps? Projects: Weave baskets with reed and raffia; Make canoes out of birch bark sewed with raffia; Make moccasins; Model clay bowls V. Transportation Modes 1. How did the cave-men travel? 2. How did Indians travel? 3. Make the tent or wigwam in which an Indian of the plains lives 4. Make the kind of dwelling used by the Lenni Lenape Indians of New Jersey Project: Make an Indian drag 112 VI. Cooperation 1. What games do Eskimo children play? 2. In what ways do they help father and mother? 3. What does the Eskimo get from us? VII. Generalization 1. How do Indians live now? 2. What have they learned from the white people? 3. What do we get from the Eskimo? At the dose of the year's work the children will have some definite notions about progress and will have gained some insight as to how progress takes place. They will be interested in dis- covering what will promote it and what will retard it. They have widened their horizon, enlarged their experience, and gained in self-reliance and self-confidence, and they see more clearly than before the value of cooperation. The interesting books which tell of primitive life in all lands should be used as supplerhentary readers. The project work of the year and the readings should furnish material for oral English, BSizr otrrLDnE: axtd type lessov for teaches's ttse nroiAN LIFE (Prepared by Mildred Bayne, Asbury Park) I. Food II. Clothing III. Dwellings and house-life A. The wigwam 1. A temporary shelter 2. Its construction determined a. By materials available b. By needs of the tribe (it can be moved readily) 3. Its location determined a. By convenience b. By need foir safety 4. Its decoration a. Origin of design used (the totem of the tribe) b. Purpose In using design B. The adobe 1. Preparation of the materials used in Its construction 2. Ita location determined a. By convenience b. By need for safety rv. Weapons V. UtensllB "3 LESSON PLAN FOR PRIMARY GRADES ON THE WIGWAM Alms: ( I ) To enable children to get a vivid mental picture of this type of Indian life; (2) To show by means of comparison the advantages of the white man's home; (3) To stimulate curi- osity conc'erning' possible means of improving a home. Approach to the lesson. Pictures and models of two types of Indian dwellings are placed before the children. Questions are asked concerning the pictures and models to produce careful observation by the children. Questions 1. We learned that the Indians used two kinds of material for clothing. Name the two materials used by them. 2. If you had to use one of these materials to cover this frame- work of poles, which would you choose? The Indian called this dwell- ing a wigwam. 3. What did the Indians use for thread in sewing? What did they use for a needle? The Indians sewed very large skins together to make this cover. They stretched this large piece over the poles. The poles were fastened in the ground at the bottom and tied at the top. Long poles were selected. Why did they choose long poles? 4. With what could the Indians fasten the poles together at the top? Did they have rope? What else do you think they could use? 5. If you wanted to feel quite safe would you choose to live in a wigwam or in a house made of wood? 8 G^OG Answers Anticipated The Indians made clothing of skins of animals cured by the squaws. They also used colored wool woven into cloth. The skin would keep out the wind and the rain. It is stronger than woolen cloth. W-i-g-w-a-m written on black- board (to be spelled and pronounced). They could sew with strips of leather or with sinews of animals. They could use a sharp thorn or a small shaii) bone for a needle. Teacher demonstrates on sand- table or illustrates on the blackboard. They used long poles so that the tall Indians could stand inside without stooping. 4. They could use stronger pieces of sinew than the fine pieces used in sewing. They could cut a skin into narrow strips and tie the poles together with them. 5. I would feel more safe in a house made of wood. 114 6. What do you think might hap- 6. pen to this wigwam in a storm ? 7. If you were an Indian making 7. a wigwam and knew that there would be some wind- storms in a few days, how would you try to fasten the poles? 8. How would you put on the 8. covering? 9. If the covering is loose and a 9. storm of rain or snow comes, what will happen to the wig- wam? 10. Can you see in the picture this 10. extra piece of skin sewed at the top like a flap? This can be closed over the open- ing when there is a storm. 11. How could the Indians heat 11. this wigwam? 12. How would the smoke get out? 12. Can you see any chimney? Do we have chimneys? Could the Indians have a chimney in this kind of dwelling? 13. How do you know which house 13. in the street is yours? How did the Indian know which wigwam was his home? Find the totem in this picture. What does it represent? What other totems have you seen? Suppose an Indian wished to leave a message at his wigwam where would he place it? 14. Why do the Indians locate the 14. wigwam near a spring or stream? Why do they place it in a forest? 15. Which trees do not drop their 15. leaves in the autumn? The wind might blow it down. Teacher should make the most of contributions given and encourage experiments. I would stretch it and tie it firmly. The rain or snow will come in. Teacher illustrates on black- board. They could build a fire inside. Commend those who give thoughtful answers. We know our homes by the number, by outward appear- ance, the color, the material, the lawn, etc. The Indian knew his wigwam by the totem. He w^ould write it in pictures on the skin at the door. (Teacher shows a brief mes- sage written in pictures on the blackboard.) The Indian wants to live near water to get drinking water and to get fish, oysters, clams or crabs. He also wants to be near animals and to be protected from storms. Evergreens keep their leaves on. 115 16. Listen to these lines from 16. (Place on blackboard) "Behind Longfellow about the wigwam it rose the black and gloomy of Hiawatha and Nokomis. pine trees" and "The firs with cones upon them." 17. Wliy do you suppose the Indian 17. He might want better food. He moved his wigwam so often. might want a warmer place. 18. When the iRdian moved he took 18. He would place the poles side down the wigwam and used by side. He would spread the it for a moving van. Can covering over the poles and you see how he would pile his goods on top. arrange the van? NEXT LESSON Compare a wigwam with a white man's home with reference to the following points : 1. Location 2. Construction 3. Durability 4. Protection against a. Storms b. Enemies c. Wild animals EEVTEW When the children have covered all the work indicated in the outline, Indian posters may be made to show their knowledge of Indian life. An ideal location for an Indian wigwam may be made on the sand-table. The wigwam can be constructed and the canoes can be made and placed at the edge of the river. The Indians can be modeled out of clay, painted with water colors and arranged in natural positions and groups. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GBADE lU See list at end of Grade II GRADE IV PROBLEMS Time, three recitations a week. No textbook in hands of pupils. ENLARGING THE PTTPIL'S EXPERIENCE In the fourth year of primary work the pupil's social experi- ence can be enlarged by school instruction much more rapidly than in the two preceding years because he is now quite at home ii6 in the school atmosphere. The conspicuous elements in the social life of the neighborhood of both home and school are familiar to him and he is now ready to widen his horizon still further. By studying the child life in other lands at the present day, for instance, the pupil is introduced to people who are as highly civilized and enlightened as himself, and whose manners and customs, occupations and amusements offer material out of which comparisons and contrasts can be made. The contrast between the daily experiences of children in other lands and those in our own will bring up many concrete problems in his- tor\-, civics and geography that are within the pupil's range of comprehension and that will make a strong appeal to his present interests. A fourth grade pupil wants to know what games such children play, how they celebrate holidays, how they help their parents, what they eat, how they travel and transport goods, and in what kind of homes they live. In finding answers to these questions his interest in far-away places and people is stimulated and his sympathies are broadened. THE PRIMASY PUPIL'S SEKSE OF HISTOKIC TIME By Studying child life in colonial days, or in revolutionary days in New Jersey, the pupils in the fourth grade become inter- ested in conditions that are far away in time. No attempt should be made in any of the first four years of school life to teach historic time as such. Children below the fifth grade have very vague notions of time. E. g., "A long time ago, when father was a little boy, or when grandmother was a little baby, or when grandfather was a boy of eight or nine," is their method of getting back into the long ago. The primary pupil's actual experience with years of time is too limited to warrant any definite instruction in historic time. The present is vastly more interesting to him than either the past or the future. As a rule primary pupils acquire curiosity about the past through their interest in aged relatives or friends, in old buildings, convey- ances, costumes, utensils, etc. For most children under ten years of age these are safer measuring rods than either years or cen- turies because they are more significant. SUGGESTIONS FOK A STUDY OF CHILD LIFE IN OTHER LANDS An easy method of approach to a study of child life in other lands in our own day, or to a study of child life in colonial or 117 revolutionary days, is through the solution of social and indus- trial problems which can be made concrete. The following sug- gestive outline on the study of child life in other lands offers sufficient work for several weeks. If the teacher presents this work in such a way that the pupils get real information about child life in Holland there will be no need to make detailed studies of several other countries with respect to the problems involved. The pupils will gain power to use their experience about Holland whenever they think and talk about other countries. JOTTRNEY TO HOLLAUD I. Means of transportation (time one week) 1. On sea and canal 2. On land — dog carts, milk carts II. Description of Holland (time one week) 1. No forest 2. No mountains 3. Broad low fields 4. Long stretches of green pasture in summer 5. Black and white cows grazing 6. Windmills 7. Dikes; reason for; care of; stories about 8. Canals 9. Markets — cheese, fish III. Homes (time two weeks) 1. Description (use postcards) 2. Why different 3. Home life a. How children help parents b. Games they play c. Christmas customs; Feast of St. Nicholas; New Year's Day rv. Clothing (time one week) 1. Wooden shoes 2. Full cloth skirts; white kerchief 3. Headdress 4. Wide trousers 5. Short jackets V. Occupation (time two weeks) 1. Bulb raising 2. Cheese-making 3. Fishing 4. Spinning, lacemaking, knitting ii8 VI. Historical stories (time one week) 1. Heroes 2. Why called "Land of Pluck" 3. Peter at the Dike 4. Hans Brinker and the Silver Skates VII. Projects (time four weeks) 1. Make Dutch scene in winter or summer (sand-table or poster) 2. Dress doll in Dutch costume 3. Dutch ready to embark for America 4. Dutch landing in America 5. Pilgrims among the Dutch in Holland (3, 4 and 5 may be assembled in a poster) 6. If possible visit any points of interest connected with Dutch settlements THE PRIMARY CHILD'S SENSE OF PLACE AND MAP-MAKING Only those who have taught Httle children can realize how very vague their notions of space and place relations are when they enter school. Sand-table work and excursions under the supervision of the teacher in grades II to IV, together with their increased power in number work, have prepared the children to undertake definite work in map-making and in reading maps made by others. No fact can be said to be an historic fact unless it is definitely located in both time and place. Primary children are capable of grasping location in place earlier than location in time because of their larger experience in connection with the former, which enables them to picture a scene much more readily than the lapse of time since an event occurred. But even at the beginning of the fourth year in school, distances which are outside their range of vision or over which they have not traveled mean only "far away" or a "long way off." Consequently, in the fourth grade emphasis must be placed upon map-making and map interpretation, and place rela- tions in history must be taught in a definite way. If during the first three years the children have had practice in visualizing the material background of history as indicated in the suggestions for both geography and history given in this monograph, they are prepared to receive definite instruction in making maps and in reading maps during the fourth year. Some children can begin the work as early as the third year. Because the history of New Jersey, or of the United States, 119 is intimately related to the physical environment of the people in the State and in the various sections of the United States, a concrete knowledge of the geography of a particular region helps to make some of the historical facts of that locality more real. Consequently in teaching history the geographical back- ground must be emphasized. E. g., in beginning the study of the early settlement of New Netherlands by the Dutch, a sand- table map of the region from the mouth of the Connecticut to the mouth of the Delaware should be before the eyes of the chil- dren. The value of a good harbor into which a vessel can easily sail should be emphasized. The pupils should be stimulated to visualize the appearance of the region at that time — the dense forests, the wild animals, the birds, and the Indians — so that the problems confronting the Dutch when they arrive can be com- prehended more readily. SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW JERSEY REAL TO CHILDREN IN THE FOURTH GRADE 1. Use good pictures. Place them where the children can see them easily. Question to make sure that the pictures are care- fully observed and interpreted correctly. 2. Have the girls dress dolls in the costumes of the early Dutch settlers and in the costumes worn by the Society of Friends or in the garb of the Puritans who came from New England. 3. Have the boys make on the sand-table a Dutch blockhouse surrounded by strong palisades, the Friends' Meeting House, and different types of colonial houses. 4. The whipping post, the pillory and the stocks can be made real by pictures and verbal descriptions. 5. Convey information through stories, anecdotes and descrip- tions of dramatic episodes. Encourage children to act out the dramatic scenes. Arouse curiosity by asking questions and by showing models, pictures, objects of historic interest — a warm- ing pan or a foot-stove, for instance, or a pewter dish. 6. Compare and contrast colonial scenes and conditions with those of the present day. The following outline is suggestive of the kind of material available in enlarging the pupil's experience, and is valuable m laying a foundation for the study of history. 120 COLONIAL HISTORY OF NEW JERSEY I. ICiirly HottlorB (time three wocUh) 1. QtinkerB (Friends) Dross, plain lanRiiano, social customs, o. g., refusal to doff hats, to take an oath In court, to go to war Project: Illustrate Quaker dress by cutting paper costume for a child 2. Dutch Dress, hnlilts of industry, customs, children's games Project: house, cliildron's costumes II. Mothml of i)rorurlnp; land from Indians (tlmo two weoks) 1. Trading a. In Now York /;. In Now Jersey c. In PcMinsylvanla 2. Invasion by white man a. Hunter and trapper /;. Pioneer c. Surveyor d. Farmer seeking permanent home 3. Patrmm'a grant of land a. Extent: eight miles on both sides of river or sixteen miles on one side of river and as far back as he wished project: map drawing b. Responsibilities (1) Pay Indians for land (2) Pay expenses of 50 colonists (3) Set colonists up In farming (4) Provide school teacher and minister III. Occupations of early colonists (time four weeks) 1. Fur trading with Indians Kinds of fur, how secured, i)rlre paid, kind of money used 2. Farming a. Few Implements, no modern machinery /). Domestic animals from England ,-. Crops raised— wheat, rye, oats, cam, tobacco 3. Foreign trade with England a. Furs /). Skins c. Tobacco 4. Trade with Spain. Portugal. Canary Islands a. Oil h. Fish 5. Early industries of the locality in which school is located Project: trips to historical points 121 IV. Transportation (time three weeks) 1. Land a. Horseback, sedan chair, stage coach b. Poor roads 2. Water: row and sail-boats, hand ferry, tow boat Projects: cutting or pasteboard modeling showing evolution of transportation V. Colonial conditions to be realized (time five weeks) 1. Sundial and hourglass to tell time of day 2. Heat and light: no stoves, huge fireplaces, pine knots; oiled paper Instead of window glass; tallow dips, tallow candles, wax candles, no electric lights, no gas; warming-pans, foot-stoves 3. Communication: no newspaper; mall delivered Irregularly by post boys or stage coaches; no telegraph, no telephone 4. Different types of colonial homes a. Use pictures, postcards, models, descriptions, and visit some homes still standing b. Use of Dutch oven, brick oven 5. Amusements, recreation, holidays, celebrations 6. Slaves, Redemptlonors In New Jersey Projects: (1) Chart to show method of lighting and heating — modem and historic; (2) Dip tallow candles Vf. Special subjects and projects (time five weeks) 1. Anecdotes and episodes concerning early settlers In locality of school 2. Stories of Henry Hudson, Peter Mlnult, Peter Stuyvesant, William Penn, John Fitch 3. Early settlements In New Jersey — Bergen, MIddletown, Shrews- bury, Woodbrldge 4. Other places prominent before the Revolution: Scotch Plains, Camden, New Bnmswick, Elizabeth, Rahway, Tuckerton, German Valley, Newton, Oxford. Deckertown, Newark, Tren- ton, Plalnfield, Hackensack Vri. Supplementary historical and geographical reading (time three weeks). To be given when It will best reinforce class study or project work STTMMARY OF WOHX A child entering the fifth grade who has had the training out- linefl for grades II to IV inclusive will be eager to hear stories anfl biographies of mature, historic personages. In the second year he has learned how to conduct himself when with other children and has had his appreciation of home intensified. He learned some of the handicaps and difficulties of primitive man and felt the superiority of some of the advantages of our modern 122 life. In the third and fourth years he has become acquainted with children in far away places and children who lived in the same place in which he now lives, but long, long ago. His physical world and his human world have been growing larger and larger and his curiosity has increased. CIVICS In grades II to IV inclusive no regular recitation time need be given in civics as such, but instead the subject matter of geography and history may be given from the point of view of civics at any time in the course. For example, when the geog- raphy course is considering the location of the school ground it would be very appropriate for the teacher to direct attention toward the playground rights of the children, also toward the value to the community in having a place where the children can play. In this same work opportunity would be offered for practical work for second, third or fourth grade in keeping the ground free from paper and other refuse; in beautifying the ground with flower beds or simple playground apparatus. When these grades are observing special holidays or when they are talking about the life of one of our former leaders the teacher can get civic material from each of the given situations. For example, in discussing the Thanksgiving vacation, a part of the work should be practical civics, showing how the forefathers worked together for a common good, how they gave thanks for their blessings, and how they held themselves in readiness to aid their people. Comparison could be made with the Thanks- giving of the Pilgrim fathers, and with the Thanksgiving which we enjoy today. For example, the country children today have definite opportunities to do good at Thanksgiving time. The city children also can find such opportunities on every hand. The classroom teacher is doing actual civic teaching when these things are made subjects for discussion in regular schoolroom work. In keeping with this principle, the teachers of the lower grades have excellent opportunities to do something more than corre- late history, geography and civics. They can put into practice the principle stated in the introduction of this monograph; that is, they can demonstrate by actual teaching that these subjects 123 are simply different aspects of the large social subjects which show how man lives and enjoys his living. We are still handicapped in th'e work of the elementary schools by the old time way of trying to teach attitudes of behavior through the "moral" or "lesson" supposed to be in a certain piece of literature. If all this practice would cease, it would be fortu- nate indeed, but there are still too many cases where the teacher thinks that by discussion of the moral attached to the given story the children will learn how to behave. If such a teacher would see how little she herself is influenced in her action by a reverie on the moral of a given story, perhaps she would begin to check her practice. Unfortunately she seldom makes this connection. If our work in civics is to be successful this way of civics teach- ing must be eliminated. If there is a valuable moral in a given selection, and if the child in studying this selection feels the effect of this moral lesson, he has obtained value from it. Talk- ing about it, asking him if he has it, does harm instead of good. Our work in civics, even in the early grades, must change, then, from a mere discussion about right acts to a condition in which we bring about situations that will necessitate right actions on the part of the children. The right actions will obtain through practice and not from theory. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADE IV Bass, Florence. Pioneer Life. Heath, Boston Brigham, A. P. From Trail to Railway. Ginn, N. Y. Campbell, H. L. Story of Little Jan, the Dutch Boy (in Children of the World Series). Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Coe, F. E. Heroes of Everyday Life. Ginn, N. Y. Dodge, M. M. Hans Brinker; or the Silver Skates. Scribner, N. Y. Ellis, E. S. & Snyder, Henry. History of New Jersey. American Book Co. N. Y. Griffls, W. E. Brave Little Holland. Houghton, Boston Humphrey, Frances. Pilgrim Stories. Rand McNally, Chicago Otis, James. Peter of Amsterdam. American Book Co. N. Y. Otis, James. Stephen of Philadelphia. American Book Co. N. Y. Perkins, L. F. The Dutch Twins. Houghton, Boston Pratt, M. L. Stories of Colonial Children. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Southworth, Gertrude. Builders of our Country. Vol. I & II. Appleton, N. Y. 124 Stockton, F. R. Stories of New Jersey. American Book Co. N. Y. Tappan, E. M. Hero Stories of American History. Houghton, Boston Walton, J. S. & Brumbaugh, M. G. Stories of Pennsylvania. American Book Co. N. Y. Welsh, L. D. Colonial Days. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. Wright, H. C. Stories of American Progress. Scribner, N. Y. See also list at end of Grade II GRADES V TO VIII GRADE V HISTORY Time allotment, not more than three recitations a week. Much of the work should be given as a part of the regular work in reading, Elementar}^ textbook in hands of pupils. SPECIFIC AIMS It is a fact that very many boys and girls leave school at the end of the fifth grade. These children are lost to the school at a time when the school should do them the most good, but unfortunately neither their parents nor society can sense the necessity of keeping them in school throughout the grades. The fifth grade teacher especially should hold these facts in mind, since she has most influence in instilling into this class of children whatever is possible of a sense of civic duty and an appreciation of the growth of government. In teaching this class of pupils her pur^xjse should be : 1, To get these pupils into an attitude of mind where they will see the history of our country as shown through the lives of our great men, and the big movements, such as religious liberty, cooperation in government, representation in govern- ment, just taxing, which they espoused. 2. To get worthy ideals into their lives, plus a habit of making these ideals into practices. 3, To instill a yearning to know more and more about what our country has done, 4. To give them ideals that will make them take active parts in' the groups of society into which they fall. '5. To give to those who have the ability to use it, the ambition to become leaders. 125 If the above purposes are worth while, then the method of teaching history must be such that the child will see: 1. The leaders of our country as men and women who worked for the good of the community and the state. 2. The development of government as an outgrowth of human experience with difficult problems. 3. How human experience and the laws of our nation affect each other. 4. Himself as a young citizen who is receiving benefits from the actions of the men and women who lived many years ago. The foregoing purposes make history a subject in which character is revealed, one in which law is shown as a growing mode of guidance, one in which the facts taught are of value, not in themselves, but only as their causes and effects are found in their relation to daily living. In other words, history is made a vitalizing study, where it is shown that given conditions help to make of certain men heroes and able servants, and that such men in turn modify conditions of living in the interest of humanity. The method of approach would be through the life of the leader, first as he affects his country, then as his country repre- sents and reflects him. The second stage in method would show that certain men working along kindred lines stood for prin- ciples which became fundamental to the life of society, that these principles became greater and clearer as society obeyed them, until definite tendencies and laws were established. When the child studies in this way the great leaders and movements history is made clear to him. In the fifth grade the teacher's primary purpose is accom- plished if the child begins to interpret the leaders and movements of history. The finished product will come when he is much older. The children of this grade should not be held responsible through either written or oral tests for a mastery of historical facts or information. As indicated by the discussion, in this grade the important consideration is to select that liistory material which will best show how our country has developed, as represented in the lives of important leaders and in great historical movements. Therefore no attempt toward tlie detailed study of such topics as period of discovery, period of colonic^ tion, French and Indian wars, should he made. On the other 126 hand, the story of colonization can be understood by fifth grade boys and girls if the teacher directs the work in such a way that those men who had most to do with colonization are portrayed as active individuals at work to accomplish certain definite results. Aeain, the life of a man like Daniel Boone illustrates to these children some of the difficulties encountered in settling and developing our country. The pupils can see in him a man who really personified the great movement in American history to explore new territory, to endure hardship, to encounter danger, and to succeed in spite of adverse circumstances. In studying big events and movements through the lives of men the teacher must not make the mistake of assuming that movements can be represented by the life of a single individual. Most of the movements worthy of study are much more im- portant than the lives oi the individual men who championed them. For example, the movement toward uniting in a New England confederacy was large enough to have leading men take different sides. Those who held to the view of the value of confederating were as sincere as those who held to the opposite view. The movement is not truly understood until teacher and pupils study the lives of the men who represented both sides in the discussion. A true concept of the movement comes only when pupils and teacher study why the given men believed as they did. If the teacher's problem is to present how the northwestern territory was acquired she can find most valuable material for the children through the life of George Rogers Clark. If she wants to give the pupils opportunities to appreciate how great men of our country have served the country well she should have the pupils read short biographies of such men as Franklin, Washington, Lincoln, Grant, Lee, McCormick and Edison. In following such a plan as suggested, her work organizes itself about the leading men and the leading events in the progress of our nation. In presenting this work the teacher should be guided hy con- stant reference to sequence of movements in the progress and development of our nation. This will guide her in the quality of books she uses for reference, the quality and amount of sup- plementary reading, and the amount of time which she devotes to certain movements and ideas in history. The textbook used 127 in this grade should not be a condensed text. It should be one written anezif for the purpose of presenting to fifth grade boys and girls the interesting and important men and women of our country. SUGGESTIONS ON PRESENTATION LIFE OF DANIEL BOONE I. Purpose of teacher — to have pupils see 1. Boone as a hunter, pioneer, and road-maker 2. That happenings in North Carolina and Virginia had effects upon Boone 3. That Boone performed such acts that he led the way in set- tling a new country II. Purpose of pupil (aroused and stimulated through assignment of teacher) — to make Boone's life a problem for study by 1. Seeing the interesting events in his life 2. Relating him to other men of his time 3. Finding out what good he did for his country III. Approach to the lesson 1. An explanatory talk by the teacher which shows the spirit of adventure in the men of Boone's time 2. Questions which provoke thought and stimulate curiosity IV. Assignment plan^ 1. Assignment of reading matter in text 2. Assignment of reading matter in references 3. Assignment of special points of value for special work 4. Arrangements for individual discussions 5. Arrangements for using knowledge gained in any kindred sub- ject Each movement expresses some general idea around which the development should center. This general idea may be con- nected historically with other movements. As far as possible it should be associated with everyday life, environment and ex- perience of the pupils. This development of the theme presents a unity of thought which, if not chronological, is dynamic and interesting and easily understood by a fifth grade. The group names should be thoroughly discussed and illus- trated; the meaning of such words as pioneers, statesmen, etc., should be brought out clearly in the introduction. ^An oral discussion or description by the teacher is far more stimu- lating to children, even in the fifth grade, than a page of print. But after such approach, individual efforts upon the printed page should be expected. I 128 Each person in the group to be studied represents certain defi- nite qualities of character, which should be emphasized as sym- bolic of the whole movement. The historical setting may be made alive by pictures ; outside or special story material ; blackboard drawings, maps and charts; construction work of various kinds; dramatization and oral and written compositions. If Boone be a tyi3e, draw or make Boonesboro, so that the pioneer fort and the exciting life inside its walls is understood by the child. The teacher and pupils should dramatize scenes from the life of Boone which introduce the Indian and portray the problems that faced the pioneer. If the type hero be William Penn, the Quaker and his ways may be shown. Early settlements in New Jersey made by Penn's followers should be located, and connected w-ith the settlement at Philadelphia. The treaty with the Indian might be dramatized. The children could make the blue sash, the collar and hat like those worn by Penn, and feathers, wampum and beads like those worn by the Indian. A geography lesson on Philadelphia today could be associated with the Penn story. Children who live near Philadelphia would be interested in a visit to Penn house, which stands in Fairmount Park. Variety and originality of treatment will add greatly to the value of the group study by the class. A lesson on Longfellow should be entirely different from one on Alexander Hamilton, but the children should feel that each man helped America in his own way. Quotations may be learned : the quaint sayings of Franklin ; or the noble words of Lincoln ; or phrases describing various personages, as "Edison, the Modern Wizard," or "Dewey, the Hero of Manila Bay." Pictures should familiarize the chil- dren with the personality of the characters studied and an occa- sional history game or history match should be used to emphasize the f^fcts that have been learned. / EXPLORERS v^hristopher Columbus, Ferdinand DeSoto, Father James Mar- quette. The movement centers around the finding of America, the idea of discovery. It dwells upon the qualities of endurance, perseverance, kindness, cruelty, tact. It presents the work of Spain and France, with their ideas and methods. In introducing 129 this group some conception of Europe should be given. The con- ditions of medieval commerce and the new impulse that led to the discovery might be shown through simple story work illus- trating the life in Europe in the fifteenth century, and the need and desire for the products of the East. SETTLEES William Bradford, Lord Baltimore, William Penn. The move- ment centers around the idea of settling America, or making homes in the new land. It presents the difficulties and trials of the founders of our nation. It shows the English notion of starting colonies. The movements should teach the necessity of religious freedom and impress the idea of tolerance towards others. The types suggested are the Puritan, the Catholic, and the Quaker. Each stands for idealism, religious zeal, and a broad outlook on life. Each suffered for his faith. Each is the founder of a great state. Each represents broadly the peculiar character- istics of the New England, Southern and Middle Colonies. PIONEERS Daniel Boone, George Rogers Clark, Lewis and Clark. This movement has for the central theme the winning of the continent from its ancient owners, the Indians, and the struggle by the settlers for mastery over the forces of nature. It represents the environment and customs and character of the Indian, his wrongs, his cruelties, his final conquest. While the story shows the daring and bravery of the pioneer it should do justice to the Indian, who is fighting for his own home. It also emphasizes the great struggle with nature itself — the forests and mountain ranges, the rivers and wild animal life that were conquered by the indomi- table courage of the pioneer. The life of the people in early days in the West should be pictured well. The part they played in exploring the new country and their aid in securing this land for settlement should be emphasized. SOLSIEBS George Washington, Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, George Dewey. The central idea is here fighting for America. It might be considered under three heads. Trouble with the mother ^ conn- try would b€ presented through the story of George Washington and the Revolution. In presenting Washington, the human and 9 GEOG 130 tender quality of his nature should be shown, and the tremendous debt we owe him today should be emphasized. The second type gives the idea of trouble in the family. This centers around the war period, using Grant as the unifying figure. Lee should be presented with Grant, however, as the type of the ideal soldier. The two men should be associated in the children's minds with the Civil War struggle. The third type gives the thought of trouble itnth our neighbors. In presenting Admiral Dewey and the war with Spain the movement shows the work of the navy as well as the army and brings the idea of fighting for America down to the present day. The essence of the movement is the heroic quality in men. It teaches self -sacrifice, courage, the meaning of obedience, the power to act quickly and efficiently in an emergency. Generosity toward the enemy is another element to be emphasized in the treatment of the group. STATESMEN . y Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, ^ Abraham Lincoln. The movement idea is here making America into a nation. It should present the idea of service and achieve- ment through the "building up processes of peace." Franklin represents the builder during the stormy days of the Revolution. His life is the life of the young native. His part in the signing of the Declaration of Independence, his successful efforts in France, and his participation in the making of the constitution should be shown. The personality of Franklin offers lessons on thrift, on humor, and on tact in dealing with men. His story is a dramatic history of his day. Hamilton and Jefferson show the later construction period. They should be presented as the men who helped Washington start the big machine of the new govern- ment. Fifth grade pupils can appreciate the fact that the work of Jefferson and Hamilton is still felt in the life of our nation today. The class should associate the two men as workers under Washington for America. Lincoln is the supreme figure in the "making of a nation" movement. His difficulties, his stupendous problems, his nobility of nature, his efforts to hold together the government created by Franklin, Washington, Jefferson and Hamilton, his tragic life and death make this movement one of the most important in otlr history teachings. Franklin, Jefferson, Hamilton and Lincoln each had a life full of excitement and adventure. Each gave much to America. 131 AUTHORS James Fenimore Cooper, John Q. Whittier, Henry W. Long- fellow. This movement has for its theme service through zurit- ing. It teaches that writing books, sing-ing songs and making poems is also work for America. Each member of the group may be associated with other movements which have been already studied. Cooper wrote about the Indians and the Revo- lution. Whittier made the people think about slavery and the necessity of freeing the negro. Longfellow's poetry is dear to all Americans because he taught men to love America. The "Song of Hiawatha," "Paul Revere's Ride," "Miles Standish," the Song of Union in the "Building of the Ship" may be used with the children to prove that Longfellow turned history into poetry, and that his poems are America set to music. I INVENTOES AND BXTILDERS OF BTTSINESS Peter Cooper, Thomas A. Edison, Cyrus McCormick. The central idea here is giving wealth, power and new ideas to America. It shows the value of machinery in daily life and presents the inventor as a benefactor to mankind. It might be introduced by a comparison of life in modem New Jersey with the life of our great grandfathers. A journey across the state before the railroad existed would introduce Peter Cooper, who financed the beginning of railroading in America. The early methods of travel, the first railroad in New Jersey, should be illustrated by picture and story. Peter Cooper himself could be presented as a type of the public spirited citizen who used his money for the benefit of others. McCormick's contribution through the invention of the reaper should be emphasized be- cause of its far reaching influence upon the agricultural develop- ment of our country. Edison is a fine illustration of the im- portance of the great inventor in our daily life. What Edison has done for our homes may be easily illustrated. The rise of each man from obscurity to world fame is a stor}' full of dramatic and everyday interest to a class. As Edison Hves m New Jersey he is peculiarly a state hero and the meaning of his life should be emphasized— his genius and personality, and the gift he has given the world. 132 BENEFACT0S8 Horace Mann, Clara Barton. The theme of the last move- ment is opportunity and happiness for all. Horace Mann repre- sents the new idea of education for all children through the public schools of America. His love for children and his work for them should be shown. The old fashioned schools with their queer books, rough equipment, stern discipline, may be con- trasted with the modern school of today. The children should also suggest their own conception of an ideal school. Clara Barton shows that women as well as men are builders of America. She presents the idea of universal service, the Red Cross. The topic may be introduced with the story of Florence Nightingale. It should develop the work of the Red Cross as putting into action the divine command "do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you." It means care for all who are in need, suffering or distress. The varied activities of the Red Cross may be shown by pictures, stories, newspapers and maga- zine articles. Its work is on the battle-field, where it helps friend and foe alike. Its aid in times of flood, in famine districts, fol- lowing cyclones or earthquake disasters, should be discussed and special instances found. It is not to be overlooked that Clara Barton taught one of the first public schools in New Jersey, at Bordentown. CIVICS Time allotment, one recitation a week. In teaching civics to grammar grade pupils the point of emphasis must still be upon the civic life of their immediate com- munity. The pupils are active factors in the school and com- munity life. The function of civics is to aid them in interpreting this life and to encourage them to be more and more responsible for right actions toward their playmates, the members of their families and the adult members of the community groups. When the life of the school gives the pupils training in the right way of acting toward the people with zvhom they are directly associated, it gives them the best basis for right action toward the state when they become more mature individuals. In grades V to VII inclusive the problems in civics should center around what the children do in their immediate commu- nities, how they act, how their acts influence other people, and 133 how they are influenced by what older people have done for them. For example, food and clothing furnished by parents; the good roads over which they travel, furnished by county and state ; schools furnished by the state ; health protection furnished by local and state boards of health — ^all these show to the boys and girls that much has been done for their welfare. In this way they learn how to act in school, on the street, in community gatherings ; how to act toward their township or town officials ; what it means to have good roads, good streets, good schools, good fire protection, good police protection, provisions for good health. As they study how people act toward each other it is very important that they have opportunities to see how one group works in order that another group may be benefited. COimSE OF STTTDT The work as outlined in this grade should be given in connec- tion with the regular work in hygiene. In planning for the work as suggested, the teacher should refer to the monograph on Physical Training and use the outlines and suggestions there in connection with those offered in this monograph. The teacher should constantly check herself and determine to what degree she is continually stimulating her pupils to act rightly in the given situations rather than to talk about the acts of citizenship. // her boys and girls think of themselves as young citizens in the schoolroom; on the playground, on the street, and at home, and carry out the precepts and practices of the schoolroom, she will he doing vital civic teaching. There are certain old-time virtues which are as indispensable in the education of a child today, as they were in former days. Obedience is as commendable now as it was in the days of Samuel. Reverence still marks the man with a true soul. Polite- ness wins the approbation of all. Truthfulness is as praise- worthy in every boy and girl of today as it was in George Washington. Industry is necessary to all respectable and self respecting citizens. The catalog of virtues expected of every true citizen does not stop with these. Many others should con- stantly be kept in mind by the good teacher, and children should aspire to their continued practice through the influence of the teacher. These are selected as the more important ones for special emphasis during the fifth year's work. 134 Truthfulness. How can truthfulness be best taught? This is a question that confronts every teacher. For instance, it is positively known that children do not always practice truthful- ness as a result of their being told to tell the truth at all times. In other words, the direct method is frequently used without results. Modern pedagogy also greatly questions the one who teaches her children to tell the truth because it is merely right and good. The inquiring mind of the child should have a better reason. The good old saying "As ye would that others should do unto you, do ye also likewise unto them," will be of value to the teacher here. Every child has an appreciation of justice especially when he is the person most concerned. If the teacher can help him to put himself in the place of the other person he is quite likely to see that telling the truth promotes not only his welfare, but the welfare of all. It is quite impossible for the teacher toi invent a situation effectively. The teaching of this subject is to be done when the situation arises. Few teachers lack abundant opportunities. When the situation does arise no time should be spared and the utmost patience of the teacher should be exercised. Then, too, children should be dealt with individually and privately. A boy should not be embarrassed because he told a lie, and thereby be prompted to tell more lies. For instance, the teacher has evi- dence that a pupil is doing dishonest work. A private session with that individual pupil is necessary, and the treatment must be indirect. A direct accusation, even in private, would result in most cases in another lie. The conscience of the child should be aroused regarding the credit of a boy who does honest work and the credit of the boy who does dishonest work, and how each is concerned. The futility of a lie should be set forth, showing that the real situation is not changed. Do not ask the child to accuse himself by a confession. A thoroughly awakened conscience is accusation enough. The teacher should stop when the conscience is aroused. ■ Should the method not be effective at first, one should be patient, and repeat the procedure. It is hard to right-about-face immediately in this respect. In discussing public characters, give the child an opportunity to express his ideas regarding truthfulness, and his estimate of the man whose word is as good as his bond. The biographies of national characters frequently give splendid, illustrations of 135 truthfulness. The class will readily grasp the situation and fully appreciate a truthful Washington. In dealing with children collectively it is well to discuss and memorize pertinent quota- tions and good maxims, such as "Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again;" Above all things, always speak the truth; Your word must be your bond through life. — Haliburton This above all; to thine ownself be true And it must follow as the night the day Thou can'st not then be false to any man. — Shakespeare He is a freeman whom the truth makes free And all are slaves beside. — Cowper Biblical stories and stories wherein truthfulness is exercised at great physical, social or financial sacrifice should be read. Let the story tell its own tale. Little comment is necessary. Let the pupils feel and appreciate. The moral ought not to be attached or commented an. Situations which are material for class use : 1. A game of ball in which both sides tell the truth by playing fair. 2. A written lesson in which each member of the class tells the truth by doing his own work. 3. A school that has for its motto "Act the truth." 4. During play, a window is broken. The one who breaks it admits the accident. All pupils agree to help pay for the window, if necessary, because all pupils were interested in the play. Problem: allow pupils to apply principle to their own play and tell how the application was made. A pupil happens to be late at school. How does it pay him to be truthful ? 5. Men who work on the farm or in the factory are required to report to work promptly. Present a scene in which one who is late tells his employer truthfully about the matter. Politeness. Som.eone has said: Politeness is to do and say The kindest thing in the kindest way. Politeness is indeed a virtue to be coveted. The best teaching here is the constant example of the teacher. A child is never too young to receive the utmost politeness from his teacher. The schoolroom should be characterized by politeness. 136 A beautiful exercise at the opening of school in the morning is to have pupils give little plays in which polite behavior is set forth, such as raising the hat, accepting a gift with thanks, placing a chair for a lady at the table, removing the hat while standing in the presence of a lady, picking up a package that has been dropped, running an errand, giving aid to older people. Polite behavior at the table can be well taught by using the teacher's desk as a table. A make-believe breakfast, dinner or supper can be gone through with profit and interest to the children. Politeness in the home, such as rising when a lady enters, stepping aside when one wants to pass through a door- way, giving one's seat to another, quiet and respectful conversa- tion, affords field for dramatic work. Pupils should be taught that it is impolite to chew gum, to pick the teeth, or to trim the finger nails in public. The school should .see to it that all pupils refrain from these practices while in school. Conduct in travel should be taught. Children should know what is expected of a polite person on the street, trolley and rail- road. This is especially needful for children going to and from school by train, trolley or wagon transportation. Children should be taught that it is impolite to engage in loud and boisterous talk and laughter. Many people judge the whole school system and the merits of the transportation system by the conduct of pupils on street cars, railway or wagons. Schoolroom practice in pleasant, modest-toned conversation is excellent civics training. Each schoolroom could form a civics club to encourage polite speaking. Stories which show the chivalry of boys and men toward women are interesting and of great worth. A chivalrous polite- ness in a boy is admirable and the kind heart of a girl is to be praised. Children should learn to enjoy doing that which pleases others. This they can learn quickly if the teacher habitually does things which please the children; if she shows that she is pleased when they do acts of politeness for her. For example, when a boy cares for the fire or ventilates the room he should receive the teacher's thanks ; when the girls arrange library books or tidy up the room, as they should be accustomed to doing, the teacher should show her approval. When a group of pupils does a kind- ness for the class or room the pupils should be ready to respond with a nod of approval or a quiet "thank you." ^37 Additional problem for application. Select two biblical char- acters and show their acts of politeness ; two men from American history ; two from American business. Present a situation in which politeness is shown on playground. Industry. The thrift movement throughout the United States suggests that educators have sensed a need in this direction. Thrift is akin to industry and cannot exist without it, and indus- try is without doubt a greater virtue than is commonly realized. Even the religious character of a man who is slothful is ques- tioned. It is possible that education, especially of the bookish type, does not always promote industry. Farmers complain that their children sometimes lose the industry of the farm when they con- tinue their education through the high school. Children should learn that the happiest man in the world is the man with a job. Lessons which contrast the working man with the loafer are valuable. Pictures such as Millet's "Gleaners," "Sheep-Shearers," "The Sower," give a wholesome atmosphere to the classroom. A study of these pictures brings forth their worth. An industrious class and an industrious teacher will not permit the windows to become dirty, the floors unclean, the walls of the schoolroom unsightly, the school grounds and the schoolroom littered and untidy. Lincoln's birthday offers a splendid opportunity for the teach- ing of industry. His boyhood affords a fine example. It should be pointed out to boys and girls that his habit of industry was a great factor in his success. The industrious career of Franklin will captivate the interest of every boy and girl and every life will be enriched that appro- priates the words of his ripest years : At the workingman's house hunger looks in, but does not enter; nor will the bailiff or the constable enter; for industry pays debts, but despair measureth them. . . . An hour's industry will do more to produce cheerfulness, suppress evil humors, and retrieve your affairs, than a month's moaning. . . • Sloth makes all things difficult, but industry all easy; and he that riseth late, must trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his business at night; while laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him. Boys and girls who do regular work at home should be praised. The educational value of the home chores should be magnified 138 in the schoolroom. When there is pleasing recognition made of these activities boys and girls do them with a greater pride. No work is too menial for the true man and the true woman, and every boy and girl should grow up with the guiding principle, "Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with all thy might." Problems for application : Use of recess time in vigorous play; clean-up squad for playground ; school garden club ; home yard club. Obedience. It is agreed that only that teacher can teach obedi- ence who conducts a well-disciplined school. To obey is to do what the other fellow wants you to. In other words, it is doing what pleases the other fellow ; and most suc- cessful people like to please the other fellow. Much disobedience is not intentional disobedience, but is rebel- lion against method. Most persons who are told to stop react by going on — at least a little way. Then, too, most persons, while they do like to please others, object to gratifying the mere exercise of authority. Humanity is prolific in negative reactions. In teaching obedi- ence the child must be taught to control his negative responses, and he must be taught at the same time never to exercise authority for authority's sake. The well-trained cadet stands for review when some one shouts "Attention!" He has learned to obey. Why? Because he fully understands what is meant by the command and because he is aware that commands are necessary in order that an army may be manoeuvered. The child in the classroom must be taught that rules and regulations are not imposed so that a teacher may ex- ercise authority, but in order that the general good of the class- room may be consented. For instance, studyiny aloud and talk- ing aloud are not offenses in themselves, but in the classroom they cannot be permitted, because that would transgress the rights of others. This general condition must be constantly, patiently and untiringly explained to children. The child will see further that all law and rules of order are instituted, not that the rights of men shall be denied, but that they may be maintained and en- larged. Biblical sayings and selections should be memorized. We must teach children intelligent obedience and not obedience for obedience's sake. Where the need for obedience is understood obedience will follow. 139 Class reading: "Message to Garcia," "Paul Revere's Ride." Class applications: Why obey policeman's signals? Why obey "safety first" signals? Why obey implicitly in fire drill? Reverence. Boldness of conduct appeals to few. Bold con- duct, especially on the part of children, invariably provokes drastic comment. Kindness, thoughtfulness, humility, reverence for the maimed, the infirm, one's elders, and those in high places, should be a product of public school teaching, and should mark the behavior of the boys and girls of our schools. Could the public see more of these virtues practiced by school children on the street, in the home, in school, and in public, there would be more pride in our schools and a still stronger support. Rever- ence is a civic virtue and all acts of children which point toward such a spirit should be praised. The study of officials of state, heroes and heroines, educators, clergymen and the President of the United States should be accompanied by a reverential respect. There is small place for adverse criticism. Let the good they have done be magnified. The liberty of a criticizing public too often runs to license. President Eliot says : The faculty for discerning quickly and surely excellences and virtues in persons, peoples, nature and art is an immeasurably more valuable and useful faculty than the faculty for seeing weaknesses and sins. It ought to be carefully and incessantly cultivated by school, college and the experience of life, for it is capable of contributing greatly to happiness as well as to material success. The faculty of discerning and using conspicuous merit in other people distinguishes the most successful ad- ministrators, rulers and men of business. The best flag salute is accompanied with a patriotic reverence. The uncovered head should bespeak a deeply sincere heart that would give one's life for one's country. In the best schools the daily flag salute is thus conducted. In one county of the state the following plan has been adopted. This or some other good form should be universal. As a part of the opening exercises, during the singing of America, two worthy pupils take the flag from the wall or from a closet and stand before the school holding it spread out high between them. When the first stasza of the song is ended the school pauses and gives the flag salute— "I pledge allegiance to my flag, and to the republic for which it stands, one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." The flag is then folded in three or four folds and the two pupils who have it in custody march out of the room, the other pupils following, while the school continues to sing America. The flag is unfurled on the staff out- 140 side, the pupils return to the building and stand before the teacher. The stanza finished, the singing stops while the pupils salute the teacher, and the spokesman of the two pupils who carried out the flag states: "The flag of our country is flying." The song is finished and the school is seated. At the close of school, when the children are all ready to go home, the pupils rise, the two custodians of the flag come forth and salute the teacher. She says: "Haul down the colors, boys." The school begins the singing of America and the two pupils go out, take down the flag, and return to the front of the room. After finishing the stanza the school pauses, and the pupils salute the flag as in the morning. The flag is then carefully folded up or placed on the wall; the song is completed, and school is dismissed. Problems for application : room or class entertain aged soldiers; room or class have Fathers' or Mothers' Day. While the teaching of these virtues is to some extent a by- product of the classroom, nevertheless such teaching is of para- mount importance. When the manliness of a boy or the woman- liness of a girl is considered these are our standards. In the business of training up boys and girls in the way they should go, these virtues must be constantly kept in mind. Various treat- ments have been suggested. Kindly and honorable recognition, the story, the indirect comparison, memory gems, study of biography, pictures, the private conference, schoolroom prac- tices and the practice of the teacher, dramatic presentation, the fable, morning exercises, and special day programs are many ways by which a teacher may work to these ends. A teacher should frequently ask herself, "Are my pupils truthful, polite, industrious, obedient and reverent?" and boys and girls should be proud to be known by these virtues. Honor and shame from no condition rise. Act well your part; there all the honor lies. — Pope SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADE V Bass, Florence. Pioneer Stories. Heath, Boston Bruce, H. A. B. Daniel Boone. Macmillan, N. Y. McMurry, C. A. Pioneers on Sea and Land. Macmillan, N. Y. Putnam, M. L. Children's Life of Abraham Lincoln. McClurg, Chicago Southworth, G. V. D. Builders of our Country. Appleton, N. Y. Thwaites, R. G. Daniel Boone. Macmillan, N. Y. Thwaites, R. G. George Rogers Clark. Macmillan, N. Y. Welsh, L. D. Colonial Days. Educational Pub. Co. N. Y. 141 GRADE VI HISTORY Time allotment, three recitations a week. Much of the work should be given as a part of the regular work in reading. Textbook in hands of pupils. Purposes paramount : 1. To give emphasis to those phases of European history that had most to do with the beginning of our country. 2. To awaken interest in a few of the great heroes and heroines of former times. 3. To give a basis for the detailed study of American history which is to come in grades VII and VIII. 4. To show reasons why all people should sense their obliga- tion to great leaders. 5. To inculcate motives of willingness to serve society through the state. 6. To make common, everyday civic actions subjects of study. In presenting history to sixth grade pupils at least two points of view should be kept in mind. The first thing of importance to remember is that this work in history should be instrumental in getting the pupils into such an attitude of mind that they will be prepared for a somewhat detailed study of American history, both because of the method of work, and because of the stress given to our relation to English history throughout the sixth year's work. The second thing of value to note is the fact that this year's work will give to the boys and girls who leave school at the end of this grade their only basis for seeing the relation of our country to the countries of the old world. They should begin to see that our civilization is a partial outgrowth of the civiliza- tion of the Greek, the Roman, the A.nglo-Saxon and the Teuton. With the two points of view in mind, the work in sixth grade history must necessarily be confined within definite limits. It is not a scientific study of history. On the other hand, it does pro- pose to show how the habits and customs of a people affect the life of the following age. It should make the pupil feel that a study of the lives of these peoples is decidedly worth while. In this grade's work there is the greatest opportunity possible to develop worthy ideals and motives. From this study the children 142 should learn that the motives of a people are determining factors in proving whether or not that people is beneficial to society. English history is more important to us because it deals with that phase of history from which so much of our political life sprang. The work in sixth grade history will be a partial basis for giving meaning to present day civic duties. With a reasonable amount of workable historical background the child can deal in- telligently with questions that confronted the citizens of former times. He will also have a better opportunity to make present day civic problems subjects for actual classroom discussions. With this beginning in mind there yet remains continual prac- tice in everyday civic duties until the correct habits are made. For example, a study of chivalry gives a basis for ideals of bravery, courtesy and kindness. When the child sees these prin- ciples in the lives of former heroes he has an example which may serve to guide him in his present choices of classroom behavior, playground attitude and home habits of mind. The teacher of the sixth grade should read the entire history monograph very carefully. The point of view given in the fifth grade is as essential for her as it is for the fifth grade teacher. Therefore she can begin her work with the thought that the fifth grade pupils, who have learned of the progress of our country, have a need to know more about what happened in olden times in its effect upon the making of our nation. No doubt but that Grecian influence has helped somewhat to make America what she is. Likewise Roman, Teutonic and English influences have affected her materially. From this abundance of material the teacher's \\'ork is to select a few of the great men and women of former times, also the most valuable phases of the history of those countries which have a direct bearing upon the growth of our country. For example, it would be better to study four or five important characters, such as Caesar, Napoleon, Socrates, Pericles, Peter the Great, Alfred the Great, Cromwell, Victoria, Elizabeth, with some degree of thoroughness than to attempt to cover the entire field of European history. Four or five of the great movements for sixth grade study are sufficient for these children when one considers the crowded curriculum of this grade. In doing this the teacher must consider the interests and inclinations of her pupils. They are not interested in abstractions and philosophical movements. When teacher and pupils are 143 studying movements in history these movements must be easy of understanding, they must allow of approach and interpretation through actions of men. When the lives of men are interpreted in connection with the conditions with which they worked there is a real study of history. Therefore the teacher must be guided by the interesting elements in history. If the purpose of the seventh year's work is to attempt a de- tailed study of American history, the sixth grade teacher must give her pupils a basis for this detailed work. Therefore, in selecting important and interesting men or movements for study, opportunities must be offered pupils to begin to organize the work, even in the sixth grade. The teacher's reviews must give especial emphasis to the organization of the material around the big contributions which one country has added to the life of another. In our newest and best history texts, written for sixth grade pupils, the sul)ject matter presents our relation to the mother country in a way that offers very valuable material for invigorat- ing imaginative work. The teacher must recognize that much of the material in the best textbook is to be read by the pupils for real enjoyment and not for purpose of class study or discussion. Class discussion should be upon the important phases only. As in the fifth grade, the pupil should not be held responsible, either through oral or written tests, for a mastery of historical facts or information. It is necessary that many of the important historical facts be made actual wide-awake situations to the present day boy and girl. These can be made real through dramatization, pageants and story telling. This insures interest, a definite question to answer, a connection between the civilization of that time and of this, and a chance to make history go over into real habits — the end sought in teaching history. PROBLEMS The following problems indicate how the teacher is to select the things of most worth in sixth grade history. The Athenian boy in the time of Pericles was trained to serve his state, even as a boy. What schooling did he receive? What games did he play? When did he begin to take a part in the life of his city? Why was he taught to honor the heroes of Greece? What heroes do you think he would study in Greek history? 144 (Short stories of the Trojan War should be utilized here as ma- terial for pupil reference.) What oath did the boy take? In what way did this oath prepare him for his future work ? Why had Athens a right to expect so much of its young citizens ? The Greeks strove to develop strong, beautiful bodies. What did they do in order to have such bodies? How may we profit by what they have taught us? The Greeks believed in training for courage, truthfulness and bravery. How did their training develop these virtues? How may we profit by their example ? In the time of Julius Caesar the Roman soldier was a very important citizen of Rome. How was this soldier trained? When did his training begin ? Why did the Roman boys admire the courage of the Roman soldier? Julius Caesar was one of Rome's great soldiers. How did he spread the Roman law and customs ? Charlemagne was a great leader in civilizing and controlling the barbaric nations. Tell how he helped his people. King Alfred was the man who united England and gave her permanent laws. How did he unite England? What laws did he make? Why did his subjects love him? William, the Normsm, and Harold, the Saxon, show the beginnings and growth of feudalism. What were the interesting happenings in the lives of these men? How could sixth grade pupils dramatize the battle of Hastings? King John was forced by his subjects to sign the Magna Carta. How did this charter of privileges help the people of England? Tell the story of King John to determine whether or not he was a great leader. In the middle ages, the knights were trained to be courteous, kind and brave. How could one become a knight ? What deeds of kindness did the knight perform throughout his life? In former times there were people who made great religious pilgrimages. What were their purposes in making these pil- grimages? How did those pilgrimages afifect the occupations of the people of that day? It would be well in this connection to have certain children tell the story of Peter, the Hermit; of Richard, the Lion Hearted. The foregoing problems or movements in history can be handled by sixth grade boys and girls. The problems given 145 suggest the important things to be stressed with reference to the movements named. For example, in studying the life of the Greeks, it is important that the children of this grade learn that the Greeks loved beauty, that they attempted to carry out their love by having strong and beautiful physical bodies. They also need to know that the Greeks trained themselves in truthfulness, bravery and courage. When the children have talked about these things which the Greeks did, when they have learned about the Greek games and how important they were in the life of the Greek people, they understand — in keeping with the experi- ences of sixth grade boys and girls — the contribution that Greek life gave to us. The helpful teacher utilizes the information which these children obtain in connecting the games of the Greeks with our present day games, and in showing how the Greeks' example of courage, truthfulness and bravery is help- ful to us. In presenting the idea "Feudalism" to these children, the teacher must utilize pupil abihty and pupil interest to clinch a few of the important things which feudalism gave to civilization. Therefore she gives stress to what the knight did through his courage, his kindness and his bravery. The child is not sup- posed to get such a glimpse of civilization as is possible to an adult, but he can appreciate this stage of civilization in terms of the lives of the men and the chivalry practiced. If the problems discussed deal with the religion of the middle ages they may be approached through the religious pilgrimages made at that time. Therefore the teacher should give oppor- tunities for these children to appreciate some of the conditions and circumstances under which the pilgrimages were made. With this approach the Crusades are not isolated facts in history but have a setting which has meaning for children of this year. The influence of monasteries and of the work of the educated monk is a part of the big movement in this period of histor}^. Such problems are directly connected with the whole religious movement of the middle ages. This discussion indicates what is meant by movements in his- tory, or problems, taught from the viewpoint of the sixtli grade pupil's understanding. Consequently much of the material m a given textbook must be eliminated ; much of it must be given to the pupil as material for pleasurable reading. Throughout the lO GEOG 146 entire year only those important parts of history which deal with the lives of a few of the great leaders, or the important move- ments in history, can be utilized, and those that are utilized should be kept in reach of the understanding and inclinations of the chil- dren of the sixth grade. CIVICS Time allotment, one recitation a week. Sixth grade children can profitably spend the time given to civics upon two large topics, health and thrift. When they are dealing with the topic of health the teacher should make con- stant reference to the monograph upon Physical Training, and should in turn vitalize the work in hygiene by a careful dis- cussion of the problems outlined in the work on health from the civic point of view. In taking up the second large problem, thrift, the teacher has excellent opportunity to bring the children face to face with the necessity for thrift in all lines of action. She is urged to utilize every means available to assist the pupils to become thrifty in their habits. For example, a thrifty farmer of a given com- munity could be called in to tell the boys and girls how he be- came successful. A thrifty school teacher could tell to these children what she does to increase her earning power ; a thrifty business man or professional man could be asked to contribute little talks upon how he became self-sustaining. If the teacher opens a savings account in the schoolroom, or has her children open savings accounts in the bank, she is putting into practice civics training in the problem of thrift. Her teaching will be successful if the pupils sense the necessity for thrift upon their part in the home and in the school. The following suggestive problems should indicate to the teacher the limits of her work, and it should also suggest defi- nitely the plan of procedure. HEALTH Why needed in school ; throughout life. Why community is interested in health of its citizens. Why school authorities are interested in health of school children. Why state and nation are interested in health of all. 147 How school children may promote health measures — at their home, in school, on the playground, on the street How medical inspector and local health authorities may pro- mote health measures. How local, county and state health officers may bring about conditions that make for better health. How farmers and business men aid in the better health move- ment. How clean back yards and barnyards make for better health. How all health agencies, such as clean streets, closed sewers, clean public buildings, good water supply, pure food, make for better health. How recreation and recreational centers assist. THRIFT Why needed in school — use of time, use of energ)% use of equipment and supplies furnished at public expense. Why needed in the home — use of money in buying nutritious food and appropriate clothing; in procuring recreation and health ; in securing education ; in preparing for a vocation. Why needed in business. Why needed in public life. Home projects in thrift for sixth grade children, e. g., cultiva- tion of vegetable garden, cultivation of flower garden, care of lawn, care of furnace, care of basement floors, care of kitchen, making one's own clothes, selling papers, raising chickens. School projects in thrift for sixth grade children, e. g., care of special beds in school garden, care of school yard, care of schoolroom, care of school flag, mending school books, mending chairs for money, making manual training and sewing articles for money, saving for deposit in a savings bank pennies that could be spent for candies and ice cream. SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GEADE VI Allsop, H. An Introduction to English Industrial History. Macmillan, N. Y. Atherton, Edward, Ed. Adventures of Marco Polo. Appleton, N. T. Beazley, C. R. Prince Henry the Navigator. Putnam, N. Y. Blumner, Hugo. (Translated by Alice Zimmern). Home Life of the Greeks. Cassel, N. Y. 148 Brooks, Noah. Story of Marco Polo. Century, N. T. Buchan, John. Sir Walter Raleigh. Holt, N. Y. Butterworth, Hezekiah. Story of Magellan. Appleton; Cliatterton; N. Y. Fiske, John. War of Independence. Houghton, Boston Grierson, E. Florence (in the Series called "Peeps at Great Cities") Macmillan, N. Y. Hall, Jennie. Men of Old Greece. Little, N. Y. Hall, Jennie. Viking Tales. Rand McNally, Chicago Johnson, W. H. French Pathfinders in North America. Little, N. Y. Johnson, W. H. Pioneer Spaniards in North America. Little, N. Y. Lansing, M. F. Barbarian and Noble. Ginn, N. Y. Marshall, H. E. Island Story. Stokes, N. Y. Plutarch's Lives. Edited by Clough. Everyman, 3 vol. Button, N. Y. Synge, M. B. A Book of Discovery. Putnam, N. Y. Tappan, E. M. In the Days of Elizabeth. Lothrop, N. Y. Wheeler, B. i. Alexander the Great (Heroes of the Nations). Putnam, N. Y. GRADE VII HIiTORY SPECIFIC AIKS Limits : discovery of America to winning of complete inde- pendence. First half: discovery and colonization, colonial life, struggle between France and England for control of America. Second half: separation from mother country, winning of independence, formation of Union, winning of complete inde- pendence. Purposes : 1. To make the problem studied the pupil's problem 2. To attach to the work all that is possible of wholesome emotional experience 3. To make rough judgments during the process of collecting material, but to withhold final judgment until all available ma- terial is organized 4. To sense causal relations in all topics of history study 5. To evaluate facts, events, movements, lives of men and women, and contributions to government ^ 6. To make simple, practical applications of facts and prin- ciples learned to problems of today 7. To utilize history as a subject by which to help socialize all work of the school 149 The teacher of history in grade VII may assume that her pupils are ready to undertake a somewhat detailed study of American history. The average age of such children; their in- clinations, interests and desires; their habit of work — all these are proofs of their ability to take up a definite question and follow it through a series of changes, until it is solved. These pupils are ready to attack a problem which has much content and collect material toward its solution, selecting, weighing and rejecting evidence, until the causal relations are brought out to their satisfaction. This habit of withholding final judgment, of keeping an open mind, is one of the most important habits to cultivate at this stage of their education. The virtue of with- holding judgment shoidd carry over into their lives and should become an active control in adult life. Efficient history teaching during the seventh grade offers great opportunities for such development. In the earlier grades the pupil began to see the relation of heroes, heroines and leaders to the countries which they served. In this grade he is to experience this relation by putting himself as nearly as possible in the place of the hero or leader whom he admires. He is to make the problem studied his problem, and get value accordingly. Our great difficulty has been that we have not helped the child to make a direct connection between the past history facts which he studies and his present life. When he thinks and feels as the men whose lives he studies thought and felt, he is understanding history. The boy who replied, when asked what help he had received from a study of history, "I have not yet begun to fight," had been putting him- self into the situation studied, had been making the problems of history his problems. SJuch teaching is valuable history teaching. In order that the teacher may present work economically she should consider the relative values in certain so-called "methods" of teaching history, such as "words of the text method," "ques- tion and answer method," "topical outline method," "problem method." WOEDS OF THE TEXT METHOD The first named, words of the text method, should not be called a method, for it is valueless in teaching children real history or in causing them to think while they are studymg 150 liistory. It is a method by which a pupil is supposed to learn history by repeating, almost verbatim, the words of a given text- book. Unfortunately some such teaching still goes on, at least in spirit. For example, history work in which the teacher allows the children to repeat the words of the text practically, without any thought as to the meaning implied, is a worthless pro- cedure. Teaching which allows pupils to give a thought in a paragraph or a group of paragraphs without stimulating any opinion or discussion from pupils is poor teaching. The spirit of this monograph condemns utterly such teaching whether it be in seventh or fifth grade history. aiTESTION Aia> AN6WEK KETHOD The question and answer method is worthy of serious con- sideration. One phase of this method is useless, namely, that in which question one on the part of the teacher calls up questions two, three, four, etc. It is readily seen that there is no sequence of ideas, for questions two and three are mere accidents; in fact, question one is likely an accident. It could suggest twenty different ones to follow. The one selected would depend upon the worth of the teacher. The poorer the teacher the fewer possible reactions one would expect; the fewer reactions the greater the chance that the first question thought of would be selected. It is seen at a glance that this phase of the question and answer method does not obligate the teacher to know her subject matter, neither does it obligate the children to do sequen- tial thinking. There is a phase of the question and answer method, how- ever, that brings out valuable history work. For example, when question one is given in the light of the important points to be stressed it so stimulates the pupil that in answering he sees the relation of the big facts or ideas in a given lesson. His purpose- ful thinking causes him to ask questions of the class and of the teacher in order to satisfy his desire for help. Such a use of the question and answer method presupposes that the teacher has a definite purpose in mind, that the assignment has point, that the teacher has her big facts, her pivotal questions, in mind and that she will not allow irrelevant matter to defeat the purpose of the recitation. 151 Such work necessitates that the assignment be made in such a way that it alone will suggest logical thinking. This assign- ment—as a suggestive outline, as a series of commands, as a series of points to be worked out, or as a group of related problems to be solved — makes the work of the pupils full of interest. At the same time it makes it possible for the teacher to use the given assignment as a means by which she will get definite pointed questions for the recitation proper. These factors are the minimum essentials in conducting a valuable recitation in history, geography or reading. When used rightly the question and answer method has much to commend it. TOPICAL OTTTLINE METHOD The topical outline as a method may be used in such a way that it reinforces the work just discussed under the good ele- ments in the question and answer method. For example, if used occasionally it breaks the monotony of the question and answer method. It may also be used to clinch the relations brought out by the questions of the teacher. On the other hand, it may become a mere empty form which allows children to think that by sensing the heavy type of the paragraph they have mastered the thought therein. It may be used by the teacher as a short way by which she may grasp the ideas to be taught, a way by which she "bluffs" an assignment. It may be used by the pupils as a means to cover up their ignorance of the subject under dis- cussion. When it is used as shown in the first part of this dis- cussion it is a very valuable way by which to get pupils to sense the relation of cause and effect and to group ideas in sequence, to stress thought work as more important than fact work. I PROBLEM METHOD The problem method, so called, suggests immediately that there is a definite need on the part of the learner, a definite result wanted on the part of the teacher. It also suggests more than any other method that the teacher knows much of the relations of a given problem, both with respect to the facts within the given subject matter and the related facts without the subject matter. Much of the work suggested under this method can be accomplished through use of the question and answer method handled rightly. Much of it is related closely to the sensible use of the topical method. 152 If one adds to these points the provisions for continued de- velopment of the large idea into larger and larger units; the provision for testing values ; the provision for more individual and intra-class discussion ; the provision for the use of the ideas gained with respect to dramatization, local history and civic questions; the relation of history facts to those of geography and other subjects; he has truly evaluated the problem method of teaching history. The foregoing discussion indicates the .importance of the problem method if it is used in such a way that it incorporates the good points in the other methods mentioned. For example, in approaching a subject such as colonization or industrial de- velopment of the West, the pupils and teacher should have free exchange of ideas as to why it is worth while to study such topics, what facts are to be considered, w^hat books are best to read, what sub-topics are to be omitted, what important ques- tions are to be stressed, what notes are to be taken, what wants of the class are to be satisfied, how the work is to be handled — by oral or written reports or by questions and answers. This vital way of teaching history makes the problem stand out, makes the plan of attack clear, and directs the interests and efforts of the children toward a live issue. In carrying out the work constant provision must be made for the testing of values found, the weighing of facts in their relation to others studied. This provides for the organization and the use of ideas gained. The pupils w^ho have a desire to gain definite information, and who, at the same time, have their plans of attack worked out and a knowledge of how to organize the ideas as they are worked out are obtaining real training in history. The discussions given on certain methods, so called, indicate quite clearly that there is much to be done before good history teaching becomes common practice. Many aspects of the work, apparently unimportant, must be understood by every teacher before she begins to teach efficiently. For example, the ma- jority of the pupils of the seventh grade have not learned how to use a textbook to the best advantage. It would be important, therefore, for the teacher, when at work upon a definite prob- lem, to examine the textbook with the pupils in order to deter- mine how it would furnish material to answer the question at I I 153 hand. In this way the pupils could be taught the use of indices and tables of contents, the purpose of headings and foot-notes. They could see a real meaning in maps, pictures, charts, related material in magazines, periodicals and newspapers. Such pre- sentation obligates the teacher to give her pupils opportunities to dramatize certain phases of history work. All seventh grade pupils should be able to pick out important parts of history material that could be dramatized. Furthermore, after a few months' practice they should be able to direct this dramatization with but little assistance from the teacher. In this connection it is worth while to have these pupils give imaginative settings for dramatization work. Their imaginative settings should be an outgrowth of their classroom work and outside reading, pro- vided they be given freedom in their individual imaginative abilities. DRAMATIZATION PROJECTS It would be very easy, for example, for seventh grade chil- dren to give an imaginative dramatization concerning the Pil- grims which would present scenes showing effect upon ( i ) those who loved the Indians, (2) those who loved their homeland, (3) those who loved their new land. Likewise it would be easy to show through imaginative dramatization the conquest of the northwest territory. The scenes could show : ( i ) attack at Vincennes, (2) life of the settlers along the Wabash and Ohio rivers, (3) influence, of missionaries upon the Indians, (4) character of Clark. It would be helpful to see the life in the South through imaginative dramatization: (i) scene showing ideals of the South-loving people, (2) allegiance of the negro to the master, (3) friendhness of the planter, (4) happy life on a plantation controlled by a kind-hearted master. DEBATES Another way to teach history successfully is through class dis- cussion and debates. Seventh and eighth grade pupils should be able to select vital questions from history which would be valuable for debates. They should be trained in stating thes-e questions in good form, in making simple briefs upon such questions, in collecting collateral material, and in makmg refer- ence lists for given topics. If the history work is conducted as suggested the pupils will find many opportunities to give drama- 154 tization with profit; to debate before the class, before the school, and before visitors, with much credit to themselves. Good history teaching in the seventh and eighth grades offers the best opportunities possible for Vv-ide-awake debate work for boys and girls. EEPORTS TTPOH OtTTSIDE HEADING Much of the outside reading and biography work should be directly connected with the regular classroom work and used in dramatization, in debate work, and in special reports. All pupils of these grades should have occasional opportunities to present the biography of an individual or the interesting phases of an important subject to the entire class or to the room. At such times they should be held responsible for defi.nite outside reading and for clear presentation of the case. Members of the class should bring about discussions in which all pupils may have practice in defending the position which they have taken. THE STTTDY OF PICTURES An intelligent appreciative study of important historical pic- tures is essential in these grades. In the best texts there are pictures which reveal history equally well with the printed page. Kindred pictures, which may be obtained from libraries or from magazines, are equally important. When these pictures are taken as subjects for study and are interpreted in the light of the pur- pose for which they are used the teacher and pupils have excellent history material. These pictures should be studied as carefully as any lesson in the course. Studying a picture means interpret- ing what the picture has to say, picking out the controlling ele- ments in it, appreciating the ideas suggested, and connecting the picture with the historical events or movements with which it is rightly associated. IMPOETAKT DATES If history is taught according to the principles laid down in this monograph the important dates in American history will be emphasized. Such a list will not be too long to be memorized by each pupil. Neither will it be a tiresome task if pupils memorize the dates by making worth-while connections during study and recitation periods. 155 LIMITS OF WO&K The unit of work outlined for the seventh grade covers Ameri- can history from the beginning of American history to the time when the country began its period of industrial development. In point of time the period covers from 1492 to approximately 181 7. This unit of work ought to give seventh grade pupils a unified glimpse of our country up to the time when it had permanently established itself among the nations of the world. The majority of courses, it is true, recommend as the upper limit of seventh grade work the formation of the new government. The division offered in this monograph seems better because of the fact that the problems raised during the formation of the new government are not really answered until after the war of 18 12. It seems reasonable that the conditions which tested out whether or not this government could maintain itself should be studied in the same term's work with the formation of the government. The second reason for increasing the limits of seventh grade history is that the eighth grade must have more time to give to the study of important movements in current history, and of present day civic questions. MOVEMENTS OR LARGE QTTESTIOKS ILLTTSTEATED The work in each half year should center around the move- ments of large historical significance. The lesser movement, the sub-related principle, the small detail, should each find its place in its relation to the large movement. These movements should be presented as questions that need to be answered or as problems worthy of being studied. The two essential things to be con- sidered are : ( i ) Nature and need of the child ; his ability to learn historical facts and relate them to his immediate life; (2) Placement of facts and principles in true historical significance. STTGGESTIONS ON PRESENTATION Types of Asslgnmsnt To he Worked out with Pupils Problem. Why was the settlement of Pennsylvania, made by William Penn, so successful? 156 Assignment 1. Purpose of Penn, as shown in OL The way he treated King Charles b. What he had done in the West Jersey Colony c. His selection of the territory d. His attitude toward his people 2. Problems arising because of a. The nature of the people who settled here b. The nature of the Indians c. The location and condition of the land 3. Solution of the problems which arose, as shown in a. Treatment of Indians b. Kind of government produced c. Growth of colony d. Relation of this colony to others Problem. How has the invention of McCormick influenced our country? Assignment 1. When McCormick lived 2. His trade and his preparation for it 3. Problems confronting him 4. His invention of the harvester o. The difficulties encountered b. The results of success upon (1) McCormick (2) The farmers of his day (3) Commerce and industry (4) Other inventions (5) Other inventors (6) The people of today If history problems are presented in accordance with the prin- ciples shown in the foregoing assignments the pupils will have as definite tasks to perform as those presented in an arithmetic lesson or a manual training exercise. They will have definite questions to answer which will call for a sensing of the conditions under which the problems arose, and an understanding of the situation and results which followed. There is another value attached to the work as suggested in the outline. When such assignments are followed the teacher and pupils must use the index and the table of contents in the textbook rather than a particular page of the textbook. They must find all the evidence that is presented within the whole ■ 157 book. For example, in one of the better history texts about one- half page is given to a rather concise discussion of the invention of the McCormick reaper but some phase of the subject is men- tioned on ten different pages. Anybody could "hear" history in the old-fashioned way, which allowed a topic to be begun and finished by reading one paragraph. It takes a well prepared, wide-awake individual to really "teach" history^ by Ending and utilising all available material. By use of table of contents, index, etc., any modern history text lends itself to such "Prob- lem" organization as is indicated by these outlines. COTTESE OF STUDY The outlines for seventh and eighth grade work are in keep- ing with the principles set forth. The function of the outlines is to guide the teacher in her efforts to present history in such a way that the child studies it from the basis of his felt need to learn. Furthermore, these outlines, or organizations in problem form, suggest the way to stress the important events and movements in history. They also suggest how much of the non-important material is to be eliminated. An attempt has been made to vary the form of the problem in order to en- courage teacher and pupil to make out problems in keeping with class possibilities. Such outlines or problems are not to be used as assignments, nor are they to be rigidly followed. Not all the problems given are to be worked out in detail. If the teacher follows in spirit the work as outlined, she will have the freest use^possible of her individual initiative. Problems Organized How America came to be discovered 1. Value of Mediterranean to trade; use of overland route ^ 2. Cities about Mediterranean; factors in growth of these cities 3. Articles of trade 4. Map regions showing routes (sketch map) 5. Steps in conditions that brought about trade stoppage with Asia 6. Possible solution of difficulties a. By Spain, Portugal b. By Columbus 7. Conditions brought about by the temporary solution 8. The way in which England was interested in expanding her trade 15^ a. Her part in the situations just discussed ^. The work of Cabot (1) Significance of voyages (2) Failure to profit by them c. Conditions which gave a new interest to tho discOTeries^ II. What cause led to the settlement of the new world? 1. General a. Growing desire for luxuries b. Love of adventure c. Renaissance and Reformation 2. Specific a. Inventions b. Conquest of Turks c. Rivalry between Spain and England d. Religious diflaculties in England e. Religious freedom in Holland /. Overpopulation in Europe 3. EiXplorers who paved the way. (Lists of explorers from the various countries should be avoided. Only such explorers as solved a definite problem for Europe need be taught. Among the Spanish explorers, Columbus answered the ques- tion, "Can the ocean be crossed?" Cabeza de Vaca, the question, "Can the new continent be crossed?" and Magellan the question of the rotundity of the earth. Cortez and Pizarro need to be distinguished as conquerors. Champlain was the great investigator of colonization among the French. Aside from the Cabots, practically all English exploration was incidental to the plunder of Spanish ships. What children need to discover is that the three great powers of Europe succeeded in establishing for themselves empires in America. Compare difficulties of these early explorers with those of recent explorers such as Peary.) III. What steps were necessary for establishing a claim in America and what nations satisfied these conditions?* 1. Discovery 2. Exploration 3. Settlement 4. Conditions met by France, Spain and England IV. Whsit helps and hindrances did the American Indian offer to the colonists? ^ Questions and discussions should create a want in pupils to make their meager information very definite. Assignments and questions should center attention upon commerce of Western Europe in its relation with the Indies. ' Pupils should be encouraged to make a map of the American pos- sessions of the three greatest European nations. 159 V. Why was life in English colonies so difficult? 1. Distance from England and difficulties of transportation 2. Unfortunate choice of colonists in certain colonies 3. Continuous quarrels between governors and people a. In New Jersey b. Clayborne's Rebellion c. Bacon's Rebellion d. Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson 4. Question of rights to land a. Rights of Indians (1) Different ways used by colonists in adjusting claima (2) King Philip's War (3) Pequot War b. Conflicting claims of colonies (1) New Jersey vs New York (2) Pennsylvania vs Maryland c. Jealousy of other nations — Dutch, Swedes, etc. 5. Unwise laws 1. Navigation laws 2. Grand model 3. Suffrage restricted by religion or property VI. Why did the English • colonies endure when Spanish and French failed? 1. Methods of government compared a. Spanish b. French c. English Types^ (1) Massachusetts — self governing (2) Pennsylvania — proprietary (3) Virginia — royal province 2. Social conditions compared a. Spanish b. French c. English 3. Industries developed by each compared 4. English wrest land from French in French and Indian War VII. Characterize home life in the colonies 1. Dwellings a. First or temporarj'- houses b. Later or permanent houses c. Homes on Virginian plantation 2. Heating and cooking 3. Food 4. Dress ^It is intended that the government of the other English colonies be briefly compared with the type colonies. i6o 5. Transportation a. On land b. On water 6. Occupation 7. Labor problems 8. Religion and religious customs 9. Education 10. Unhealthful conditions VIII. How Englishmen in America became Americans 1. How these people were changed by: a. Nature b. Contact with Indians c. How England and the colonists differed in their idea« about the relation of England to the colonies 2. What important factors led to desire for independence? a. What events show growing unity among colonists? b. What events show growth of Independent spirit? c. Lack of sympathy with England and consequent misunder- standing^ IX. How the Revolutionary War was fought 1. Advantages of colonists a. Knew the country b. Controlled sources of supply c. Knew one another d. Had received training in fighting in the open coimtry e. Could endure great hardships, due to pioneer life 2. Disadvantages of colonists a. Not great in number b. Had few facilities for manufacturing implements of war and ammunition c. At beginning had few leaders d. Had little wealth e. Lacked a central government strong enough to control 3. Advantages of England a. Had plenty of money with which to carry on war b. Had trained leaders in war c. Had facilities for manufacture of war equipment and munitions d. Shipping equipment for transporting 4. Disadvantages of England a. The great expense of transporting troops and ammunition b. Unacquainted with country c. At war with other nations 5. The first plan of the British a. The meaning of such plan to the colonists if successful b. The reasons for its failure ^ The teacher should select for emphasis only the important difficulties between the colonies and the mother country. The reason for and the results of these difficulties should be brought out in class discussion. i6i 6. The part played by New Jersey in the war— at Trenton, Princeton, Monmouth, Morristown^ 7. Significance to our country of such places, events, and land- marks as North Church, Lexington, Bunker Hill Monument, Faneuil Hall, Independence Hall, Yorktown, Saratoga 8. Services of such men as Washington, Robert Morris, Benjamin Franklin, Lafayette, the Adamses, Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Governor Paterson, Boone, Clark 9. The final victory at Yorktown^ a. How it was brought about h. What it signified 10. The results a. Upon our country at large h. Upon other nations X. Why the first attempt of the United States to form a government was a failure — Articles of Coniederation 1. "V\Tiat was the effect of the states existing first and then granting powers to the nation instead of the nation's granting powers to the states? (Basis of all study of American government and history) 2. Select stories which illustrate the trouble into which the country was plunged at this time a. Farmers vs merchants b. New York vs New Jersey c. Paper money d. Western lands XI. How our present form of government was obtained? (The children should be helped to realize that the change of government which took place during the years 1787-1789 was as truly a revolution as was the change brought about by the Revolution- ary War. Thus they will have a true conception of the term revolution) 1. Calling of the Convention 2. Leading men of the Convention ^ In presenting the share of New Jersey in the Revolutionary War, the teacher should give special attention to the fact that for more than a year the chief scenes of fighting were upon New Jersey soil; that these conflicts were important factors in the final defeat of the British; and that New Jersey had as important a part to play as any of the New England States. In this connection the teacher should utilize any local story or setting that would help to make this period of history vivid and meaningful to the children. 'In teaching the final events of the Revolutionary War the teacher should make clear the facts that the aid of France was a great factor in the winning of the war for the colonists; that England's war witn Spain, Holland and other nations, kept her so busy near home that she could give but little attention to the colonists; that, aftej all, tne war with the colonists was an incident in the many projects that Bngiana was carrying on at this time. II GEOG 1 62 3. The Great Compromises of the Convention 4. The Constitution: New Jersey's plan; Virginia's plan a. The principles upon which our institutions are based b. Simple outlines of structure of our government 5. Adoption a. Method b. Difficulty of getting states to surrender more power to nation — 1788 XII. The nation's problems during the following 40 years and how they were met A. Setting the new government in motion 1. Washington as President a. Election b. Excellent judgment in making appointments (1) Cabinet (2) Judiciary 2. Hamilton and his financial policy a. Credit of United States established b. Uniform currency through United States bank 3. Testing constitutionality of laws in Adams administration 4. Twelfth amendment and why it was necessary 5. Slavery under the Constitution B. How the United States gained the respect of foreign nations European Events 1. French revolution 2. Rise of Napoleon's power in public of France 3. Allied war against Napoleon 4. Napoleon becomes emperor 5. Congress of Vienna American Events 1. Washington's avoidance of for- eign complications; neutrality of 1795 Re- 2. Complication of foreign rela- tions during Adams' adminis- tration a. By treatment of citizens of belligerent, countries in United States b. By France's declaration of war against United States 3. Jefferson's increase of United States' power by Louisiana purchase 4. How embargoes are now em- ployed in time of international trouble; use made by United States during Jefferson's ad- ministration 5. Commercial or Second War with England a. Why such a war was fought b. How we might have avoided it i63 6. Holy Alliance c. Our unpreparedness for it (compare with our pres- ent condition) d. Important engagements on sea and land e. Important results to United States C. What changes in the social and industrial development of the new nation occurred during the first forty years? 1. Transportation and communication a. National road b. Erie Canal c. Railroads d. Steamboat 2. Sectional development a. South (1) Cotton growing increased by cotton gin (2) Free trade (3) Growing desire for more slave territory b. North ' (1) Growth of manufacturing (2) Tariff for protection (3) Slavery unprofitable c. "West (1) Agricultural (2) Distribution of land (3) Internal improvement question 3. Education a. Early schools and colleges b. Beginnings of literature (1) Irving (2) Cooper (3) Bryant 4. Newspapers, etc. CIVICS Time allotment, one recitation a week. The value of an elementary school education, the value of the public schools to a given community, and the value of the industries of a given community are important problems for seventh grade pupils. In presenting the first problem — value of an elementary school education — the teacher should lead the pupils to see that through the public schools, more than through any other agency, Ameri- i64 can boys and girls are getting acquainted with the tools of knowledge. These children can see and appreciate the great value that comes from being able to read, to write, to understand and use number combinations, to use their hands with skill. The teacher should also show how the public schools give training in the important virtues of life as indicated in fifth grade civics, and in health and thrift as indicated in sixth grade work. If the importance of the work of the public school as indicated in the courses in civics in grades V and VI is reviewed as a basis for seventh grade work, the pupils are ready to emphasize in this grade the value in money and opportunity of a public school education. All normal children are interested in their own education, especially with reference to: (i) What they are able to earn by means of it; (2) How more schooling will aid them toi in- crease their earning power; (3) What they will be able to save; (4) What good they will be able to accomplish with their time and earnings; (5) The way in which the schools of their com- munity make for a better community. These questions can be made live issues. The question of remaining in school above the sixth grade is partially an eco- nomic question to many of our boys and girls. These pupils of the seventh grade can learn much from, a discussion showing why they should remain in school longer. They could earn money if they were to leave school. It is a practical civics prob- lem for them to discuss why it will pay them to increase their earning power by staying in school longer. If by remaining in school longer they will be able to get such training that later in life they can earn much more money, it will be important for them to learn this. Further, it should be pointed out that pupils without at least twelve years of schooling or its equivalent will be shut out from all professions. The work which they had upon thrift in the sixth grade will be appropriate at this point, for the seventh grade pupils can see that they can afford to be very careful with their spending money in order that they may go to school longer, or in cases where they must earn their own money to be able to go to school, they will see reasons for spending it more wisely. The questions of attendance, punctu- ality and tardiness also become real civic questions for these boys and girls. i65 In all these discussions the pupils will have vital experiences with which they can make direct connections. For example, the boy who makes a dollar a week cutting grass and who spends ninety cents buying clothes for himself, or puts that amount in the savings bank, or purchases books with it, is doing lasting good to himself and family. x\lso, the boy who earns a dollar a week and uses but forty cents of that dollar for clothes, books or investment in savings bank is still spending his money with some thought for the future, but with less thought than the other boy mentioned. When these pupils see that by spending their money carefully and wisely they are assisting their parents, there- by making it possible for them to obtain more schooling, they are practicing good civic habits. The teacher is to hold constantly in mind the fact that the ex- ample suggested is only a starting point. The question of saving money, of spending it wisely, and of doing good for one's com- munity, reaches far beyond the particular individual. For ex- ample, a classroom can make money by selling posters or calen- dars or manual training projects. Here is a community project in which a classroom makes money for a definite purpose. This money can be saved and spent for schoolroom decoration or for purchasing a phonograph. Such an approach is even more valu- able than that which considers a single individual, for the whole classroom is at work practicing and experimenting in civics. When a group of children has made money there is always a possibility of waste. When one carries the principle to a wider range still more vital problems are suggested to the classroom teacher. Here she can present the subject of the saving of money by the community in order that the boys and girls may go to school. This money can be spent in building schoolhouses, in paying teachers' sala- ries, in hiring janitors, in purchasing textbooks, in buying paper, pencils, ink, etc. Here the children are directly connected with the whole community of interests which look after the children's education. In this way the pupils are directly interested in certain questions : why a board of education wants good teachers ; why a superintendent of schools or principal wants good teachers; why the parents want good teachers; why a board of education wants to buy good textbooks ; why it wants to buy suitable sup- plies and at reasonable prices; why the teachers and children i66 want to work with good textbooks and good supplies ; why the children should be interested in cutting down the waste in pencils, paper, pens, drawing material. The whole schoolroom is thus alive to the practical problems which are immediately around teacher and children, with which the children like to work and upon which they are anxious to express opinions. To collect some data, to express some opinion, is worth very much to these children. For the children to work these opinions over and to check their own practices in the light of these opinions, is the most valuable civics possible. PROBLEMS As an example of a definite project for a seventh grade civics class, the following suggestions are given. Select a group of seven or eight children and let this group have for its problem, "What is the waste in paper in our school for a given month?" Let the committee of children collect the waste-baskets of the various rooms of a given building at random days — for example, two afternoons of each week for a period of three weeks. Let them examine the papers found in the waste- baskets, taking notes upon at least two items : ( i ) the amount of unused space on the papers found; (2) the amount of poor and untidy work found on the paper. These amounts can be handled in terms of pages and half pages. When this part of the committee's work has been done it can determine in per- centage the amount of the paper wasted in a given room for a given time. If there are several rooms in the contest these rooms should be scored on the basis of their value in saving money for the community. The percentage of untidy and soiled paper would also indicate the room's standing. Such procedure is a practical demonstration in schoolroom cooperation. If used rightly it would save money for a community and give the grow- ing children of that community the necessary attitude toward the right use of public funds. It is hoped that teacher and pupils will make the second large problem — value of the public schools to a given community — a vital issue in stimulating pupil interest in the school and the com- munity which it serves, and in stimulating parent and citizen interest in the school and community as cooperating agencies for the good of all. As indicated in the outline, class work should i67 be upon practical questions showing how the schools are sup- ported, how they are administered, how school children may help in having good schools, what the community thinks of its schools, etc. The third large problem suggested — industries of one's com- munity — offers opportunities to show the relationship of the general community industry with the work of the schools. Prac- tical discussions here show how the school children are influenced by what the industries are, how they make for better schools, what employment they offer for the people of the community, why the schools should be interested in the industries of the com- munity. All these suggestions show the necessity for pupils of the seventh grade to study their immediate community with reference to w^hat it does. The problems in the following outline should stimulate teacher and pupils to their best efforts. I. Public school education 1. Value a. To the individual children of a community (1) Gives them the tools of knowledge (2) Trains them in habits of health (3) Gives skill in use of hands (4) Teaches the value of such virtues as truthfulness, politeness, industry, obedience and reverence b. To the life of the community (1) Creates interest In community welfare (2) Makes it possible for all people of a community to receive training (3) Furnishes leaders for community 2. Cost a. In time b. In money 3. Responsibilities of these who have received schooling II. Public schools of your community 1. How they are supported 2. How administered 3. How related to the home 4. How home and school can cooperate 5. How they serve the community 6. How related to public library 7. How related to police departments, police courts, juvenile courts, attendance officer, work of the justice of peace, con- stable, town and county jails 1 68 8. How related to recreational parks 9. How related to the different occupations of the community 10. How the growth of the schools is related to the growth of the community 11. What the community thinks of its schools 12. How the community shows its attitude toward the work of the schools 13. How the school children may help in having good schools a. By taking care of the buildings and grounds b. By taking care of equipment and supplies c. By talking about the good things in school life d. By making good use of their time in and out of school III. Industries of your community 1. How they furnish employment 2. How they tie up the work of one person with another 3. Why these industries are factors in making good roads 4. How good roads are factors in promoting good school accom- modations 5. How these industries should make for the good of the com- munity 6. Necessity for connection of one community with another a. By means of good roads b. By means of good railroad or waterway connection c. By means of telephone, telegraph or radio 7. Necessity for mutual development of the various communities SUPPLEMENTARY AND REFERENCE BOOKS FOR PUPILS AND TEACHER GRADES Vn AND VHI Beacon Biography Series. Small Maynard, Chicago Eison, H. W. Side Lights on American History. Macmillan, N. Y. Franklin's Autobiography. Ginn, N. Y. Also Houghton, Boston Hill, F, T. On the Trail of Washington. Appleton, N. Y. Mace, W. H. Washington a Virginia Cavalier. Rand McNally, Chicago Mowry, William. Clara Barton. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Roosevelt, Theodore. Winning of the West. Putnam, N. Y. Schouler, James, Alexander Hamilton. (Riverside edition) Houghton, Boston Seelye, E. E. Christopher Columbus. Appleton, N. Y. Stone, G. L. & Fickett, M. G. Days and Deeds of a Hundred Years Ago. Heath, Boston 169 GRADE VIII HISTORY The work of the eighth grade should begin at the point where the seventh grade work closed, namely, at the end of the period in which our nation developed itself industrially and commerci- ally, and thereby took its place among the other nations of the world. The first half of this year should complete the textbook. In outlining the work in this way, it is recommended that during the term time be set apart when current history can be taken up for regular classroom work. It is also recommended that all the important history movements that have developed within the last three or four years be discussed in the classroom and that they be evaluated by the pupils of the eighth grade as a part of the regular work of this course. If the work in the seventh and eighth grades is followed as outhned the teacher must of neces- sity pick out those important events and movements in history that ought to be stressed. Many of the lesser facts and move- ments in history should have but very little discussion. The teacher will increase materially the value of history in the seventh and eighth grades if she pays special attention to those values and movements in history that have been important in solving large and vital questions. Little attention should be given to mere battles or series of battles in wars. If time and energy are saved by eliminating parts of history, as suggested, there will be sufficient time for the completion of the work. More important still, there will be keener and more wide-awake interest. Bach eighth grade teacher should read carefully that part of this monograph which evaluates the methods of teaching history in the seventh grade. She should examine also the work as organised for the seventh grade, in order to build sympathetically upon the foundation made in seventh grade. FBOBLKUB I. The early history of New Jersey is of particular interest to us. Justify selection of important events 1. Indian occupation 2. Early settlements a. At Bergen, Elizabethtown h. In New Sweden 170 3. East and West Jersey (the Jerseys) a. First settlers — Puritans, Huguenots, Friends b. How governed c. Political divisions (1) East Jersey — Bergen, Essex, Middlesex, Monmouth, Somerset (2) West Jersey — Burlington, Gloucester, Salem, Cape May, Hunterdon d. Their union 4. New Jersey a. In Revolution; also in the Confederation under the Con- stitution b. As a state (1) Its government — constitution, governor, senate and assembly (2) Its growth (a) Natural resources ib) Industries (c) Canals and railroads id) Schools II. The greatness of our country has depended largely on its terri- torial growth. How important were the acquisitions made prior to the Civil War? 1. Northwest territory — north of Ohio and east of Mississippi a. Extended dominion b. Opened up waterway on Great Lakes c. Its relation to the slavery question later 2. Louisiana purchase a. Explain importance to United States b. Constitutionality of purchase ^ c. Services of Lewis and Clark 3. Florida purchase a. Completed southern coast line b. Settled difficulties with Spain 4. Annexation of Texas a. Concession to South b. Aroused anti-slavery movement c. Effect upon political campaign of 1844 5. Mexican conquest a. Cause of — desire for expansion of slave territory b. Value of land acquired c. Effect upon slavery question d. Revived idea of Panama Canal e. Secured ports for direct trade with the Orient 6. The Oregon country a. Fixed northwestern boundary b. Step in advance in international arbitration 7. Gadsden purchase 171 III. What were the causes which led to the disruption of the Union, or why was the period from 1820-1865 a period of struggle between the states and the nation? 1. Discover the concrete cause of this struggle a. State sovereignity — due to the fact that the states existed first and then granted power to the nation b. Slavery — its birth and growth c. Western lands d. Tariff 2. Important situations between 1789 and 1860 which indicated the growing struggle a. Virginia and Kentucky resolutions b. Hartford convention c. Situation in South Carolina, 1828-33 (1) How Jackson saved the Union (2) Webster-Hayne debate^ 3. Breach between North and South widened a. Missouri Compromise b. Publishing of anti-slavery journal c. Founding of anti-slavery societies d. Mexican cession and Wilmot Proviso e. Fugitive Slave Law, Compromise of 1850 f. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and kindred publications; Kansas- Nebraska bill and Civil War in Kansas g. Dred Scott Decision h. Lincoln-Douglass Debate i. Election of Lincoln as President rv. How the country was benefited by forcing the South back Into the Union 1. Comparison of North and South at beginning of war with re- spect to a. Area and population b. Wealth c. Natural and industrial resources d. Relations with foreign countries e. Experienced generals f. War strength g. Transportation routes h. Devotion of the people 2. Important offensive plans of the North; important defensive plans of the South 3. Method of securing and distributing munitions and supplies a. In the North ( Indicate advantages and b. In the South \ disadvantages obtaining ' Teachers can well use both speeches of this debate in teaching the most important arguments of the several sectional quarrels— slavery, nullification, etc. 172 . 4. Stages in the progress of the great conflict a. Battle of Bull Run b. The fight between the Monitor and the Merrimac c. Capture of New Orleans and Vicksburg d. President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation e. The battle of Gettysburg /. Sherman's March to the Sea g. Lee's final surrender 5. The contributions made to the northern cause by such men as Lincoln, Grant, Seward, Stanton, Sherman, Sheridan, McClel- lan, Farragut, Thomas, Meade, Hancock, Hooker 6. Contributions made to the southern cause by such men as Davis, Lee, Stuart, Early, the Johnstons, J. B. and A. S., Jackson, Pickett, Ewell, Longstreet 7. Results of the conflict a. Upon the immediate progress of the South: industries, economic condition, problem of reconstruction b. Upon the nation as a whole V. National affairs after the war were in a trying condition. Picture the problem which confronted the country 1. Conditions in South 0. Idea of secession extinguished b. Confederate leaders Milling to take oath of allegiance c. Freed slaves suddenly thrown on the public d. Poverty everywhere in the South 2. Needs for reconstruction 3. How the problems of reconstruction were solved VI. Political parties have been of great value in our national growth. A brief study should be made of the principal parties and the measures they supported. Each party studied should be con- nected directly with the appropriate events upon which it has influence, and which influence party progress 1. Federalists a. Interpretation of constitution b. Attitude toward Hamilton's policy c. Attitude toward war of 1812 2. Anti-federalists a. Interpretation of constitution b. Attitute toward financial policy for nation 3. Republicans Important principles which this party has adhered to and progress of party 4. Democrats Important principles which this party has adhered to and progress of party 173 VII. How have the steps in our financial development established for us national currency and credit?^ 1. Value of Hamilton's financial policy in paying debts and estab- lishing credit 2. Value of Gallatin's policy of economy during Jefferson's adminis- tration 3. Value of Second United States Bank 4. Causes and results of financial panics of 1837 and 1857 5. Great financial strain due to Civil War expenses 6. Growth in financial supremacy since Civil War VIII. To what ends have adjustments in the tariff been made?* 1. The tariff has always been a controverted subject 2. Concrete situations have demanded changes a. What great changes have been made? b. What were the causes of these changes? IX. The United States has become a great nation. What recent phases of her progress have led to this greatness? 1. Remarkable increase in population a. Immigration b. Growth of cities 2. Territorial expansion a. Cuba b. Porto Rico c. Hawaiian Islands d. Philippine Islands e. Guam 3. Industrial achievements a. Invention and use of labor saving machinery b. Manufactures increased, especially in the South c. Scientific agriculture d. Developments in trade and commerce and transportation (1) Improved railroads and transcontinental lines (2) Electric trains, trolley lines and subways (3) Telephone, telegraph, telegraphic cable, radio (4) Interstate Commerce Commission (5) Panama Canal ^ The teacher is to bear in mind that pupils of the eighth grade are not to make an exhaustive study of the finance of our country. She will accomplish her purpose if the pupils are able to sense the necessity for sound government credit, and the necessity for economy in use or money. 'Pupils are not to make an exhaustive study of the tariff question. The work should be limited to the use of revenue tariff and protective tariff; concrete examples of how the government of the United States raises taxes; purposes of such taxes; effect upon certain sections or the country of changes in tariff policy; the three or four great cbanges in the tariff policy of the United States. Show clearly how the War or 1812, the Civil War, and the present World War have affected our tariff^ It would be profitable to have pupils connect the platforms of the leaamg parties with the tariff question. 174 4. Civil Service reform 5. Purifying of elections by adoption of Australian System 6. Cruise of Atlantic Fleet — a display of naval power and efiBciency 7. Conservation of forests, fish, and wild game 8. National expositions X. What inventions, discoveries and improvements have made our present highly developed industrial conditions possible? What dangers lie in this development? 1. Inventions (Let pupils list any inventions which they may be able to learn about from 1789 to the present day and tell the effect upon any certain industry) 2. Discoveries (The same type of problem as in 1 may be worked out regarding discovery of coal, silver, gold, etc. Pupils should be shown the significance of Admiral Peary's dis- covery of the North Pole) 3. Improvements (The same regarding road conditions, develop- ment of scientific farming, conservation of forests, etc)' XI. Other suggestive problems 1. Where did we get our present social customs a. Their European origin b. As they were in 1763 c. As they were in 1850 d. As they are now 2. How have our educational facilities been improved since the Civil War 3. Immigration and what we are doing with the immigrant a. Tides of immigration b. Recent tides from southern Europe c. Reason for less immigration since 1914 d. Present literacy test and its effect CIVICS Time allotment, five periods a week for one half year. All eighth grade children should have opportunities to study a modern textbook in civics. This textbook should be written from the point of view of the principles which underlie this monograph in civics. This textbook should furnish means by which the boys and girls of the eighth grade could learn how society is organized in their immediate community, in their town, township, county, state, and finally in the nation. Teachers will find further help by consulting monograph 5 of the high school ^It is suggested that pupils in these grades be encouraged to take some one topic, such as, "The lighting of homes," "Traveling," and work out the complete pro'blem with pictures, charts, maps, and written explanations. In this way the child himself becomes, for the time being, a young historian I 175 series entitled, The Teaching of Community Civics and the Study of Vocations. Eighth grade children naturally want to know much about the way in which their immediate county, municipal and state affairs are conducted. When the teacher gives them an opportunity to learn more about civic and social con- trol, and approaches these factors of government from the point of view of the children's need, she does away with the formal textbook study of civil government. Therefore she uses a wide- awake textbook in civics as one of the means by which the chil- dren get answers to their vital questions. Other means are pamphlets issued by state and local authorities, town and county official reports, school appropriations, magazine articles, news- paper editorials and clippings, and pupil investigations into com- munity undertakings. The teacher must constantly hold in mind that her work is not to make a detailed analysis of our govern- ment, but rather to see the relations that the given community bears to the government, and the relation among elements that make for communit}^ welfare. In studying civic problems, both state and national, the teacher must give the pupils many and varied opportunities to put them- selves in the places of the people who organize these institutions. For example, in studying state government or national govern- ment, no formal attempt should be made to study the bare con- stitution of either the state or the nation. On the other hand, she should provide opportunities by which the children could organize themselves into groups representing the people who were responsible for our state and national constitutions. Three or four days of wide-awake work, in which groups of pupils have a part in actually organizing constitutional conventions and in debating upon the relative merits of different articles and sections of constitutions under consideration, are of more lasting value than any amount of memoriter work or listless reading of the constitution. This illustrates a way by which the eighth grade boys and girls put definite usable meanings into a civics textbook. It is as essential for the teacher to base her work upon the relative values in textbooks when she is dealing with civics as it is when she is dealing with geography or history. In fact, pupils of the eighth grade should be made aware of this necessity to look for important facts in the books and should be able at the beginning of the term's work to have an opinion upon what 176 is most essential for them to study. It is not necessary, then, to cover all the pages of the textbook in civics. The important consideration is for the teacher to know what topics to con- sider and to provide opportunities for classroom discussion of those that are important; to reinforce this daily by provisions for individual and class project work, and for practice in acts of community and national civics. Many times through the year she should ask herself this question: "What difference is my civics teaching making in the lives of my boys and girls?" When she is able to see that her pupils are constantly becoming viore and more cooperative in their actions, more and more interested in the life of their community, mere and more willing to obey the laws of their state and their nation, she is doing vital civics teaching. SUGGESir^E PROBLEMS The following topics are suggested for vital civics teaching: 1. What should our local roads cost per mile? 2. How are good schools and good roads related to a grow- ing community? 3. How necessary is it for the township to have good roads? 4. Why should boys and girls be interested in their own com- munity? 5. How can this schoolroom or building gradually become par- tially a self-governing group? 6. Why should a school superintendent be diligent in enforcing the compulsory attendance law? 7. Why should a community be willing to pay for a good water supply? a good sewer system? playground centers? 8. Why should voters be as much interested in their local elec- tions as they are in the national election ? 9. What are the duties of the board of health? 10. Excursions by class or selected group to investigate and report upon a. How streets are cleaned b. Conditions of roads c. How grocery stores and meat-markets obey the pure food laws d. How a civil case is handled in county court For Supplementary and Reference Books for Pupils and Teacher see list at end of Grade VII APPENDIX A REFERENCE BOOKS Andrews, C. M., Gambrill, J. M. & Tall, L. L. Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries. Longmans, N. Y. Bancroft, J. H. Games for the Playground, Home, School and Gym- nasium. Macmillan, N. Y. Bourne, H. E. Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans, N. Y. Brigham, A. P. Commercial Geography. Ginn, N. Y. Brigham, A. P. Geographic Influences in American History. Ginn, N. Y. Bryant, S. C. How to tell Stories to Children. Houghton, Boston Buxton, G. F. & Curran, F. L. Paper and Cardboard Construction. Men- omonie Press, Menomonie, Wis. Charter, M. W. Teaching the Common Branches. Houghton, Boston Cooley, A. M. & Sage, Elizabeth. Occupations for Little Fingers. Scrib- ner, N. Y. Course of Study for the Public Schools of Baltimore County, Maryland. Williams & Wilkins Co. Baltimore Craig, A. A. The Dramatic Festival. Putnam, N. Y. Curtis, H. S. Play and Recreation. Ginn, N. Y. Davis, W. M. Progress of Geography in the Schools. University of Chicago Dobbs, E. V. Primary Handvv^ork. Macmillan, N. Y. Dodge, R. E. & Kirchwey, C. B. Teaching of Geography in Elementary Schools. Rand McNally, Chicago Dopp, K. E. The Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Chicago University Press Dewey, John. How we Think. Heath, Boston Dewey, John. Interest and Effort. Houghton, Boston Dewey, John. The School and Society. (Revised Edition) Chicago Uni- versity Press Dynes, S. A. Socializing the Child. Silver Burdette, N. Y. Earhart, L. B. Teaching Children to Study. Houghton, Boston Earhart, L. B. Types of Teaching. Houghton, Boston Gesell, A. L. & B. C. The Normal Child and Primary Education. Ginn, N. Y. Hartwell, E. C. Teaching of History. Riverside Educational Monograph. Houghton, Boston Hill, Mabel. Teaching of Civics. Riverside Educational Monograph. Houghton, Boston Holtz, F. L. Principles and Methods of Teaching Geography. Macmillan, N. Y. Hoxie, Jane. Handwork for Kindergarten and Primary Grades. Milton Bradley, Boston Hutchinson, Gregory & Lydekker. Living Races of Mankind. Hutchin- son & Co. London 12 GEOG 177 178 Johnson, Henry. Teaching of History. Macmillan, N. Y. Johnson, W. E. Mathematical Geography. American Book Co. N. Y. Journal of Geography. University of "Wisconsin, Madison, Vv'is. Legge, J. H. The Thinking Hand. Macmillan, N. Y. Mace, W. H. Method in History. Ginn, N. Y. McMurry, C. A. Making and Judging Curricula in Geography. Teachers College Record 1915 McMurry, C. A. Special Method in Geography. Macmillan, N. Y. McMurry, C, A. Special Method in History. Macmillan, N. Y. McMurry, F. M. How to Study and Teaching how to Study. Houghton, Boston National Geographic Magazine. National Geographic Society, Washing- ton, D. C. Ratzel, Friedrich. History of Mankind. Macmillan, N. Y. Report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Eight on the Study of History in the Elementary Schools. Scribner, N. Y. Robinson, E. V. Commercial Geography. Rand McNally, Chicago Salisbury, Barrows and Tower. Elements of Geography. Holt, N. Y. Semple, E. C. American History and its Geographic Conditions. Hough- ton, Boston Semple, E. C. Influence of Geographic Environment. Holt, N. Y. Smith, J. R. Commerce and Industry. Holt, N. Y. Starr, Frederick. American Indians. Heath, Boston Starr, Frederick. Strange Peoples. Heath, Boston Stevens, Romiett. The Question as a Means of Eflaciency in Instruction. Teachers College, N. Y. Strayer, G. D. Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Macmillan, N. Y. Strayer, G. D. & Norsworthy, Naomi. How to Teach. Macmillan, N. Y. Sutherland, W. J. The Teaching of Geography. Scott, Foresman & Co. Chicago U. S. Bureau of Education. Teaching of Community Civics. Bulletin 650 (1915, No. 23) WayJEnd, J. W. How to Teach American History. Macmillan, N. Y. Wilson, H. B. & G. M. Motivation of School Work. Houghton, Boston APPENDIX B LESSON PLANS Many teachers of the state kindly submitted lesson plans to indicate the quality of work which they were doing. The plans selected are representative. Many others would have been used but for lack of space. While the plans given are not necessarily in accordance with the principles underlying this monograph, yet they indicate stimu- lating work on the part of the teachers, and they should offer many helpful suggestions. GEOGRAPHY GRADie V The Coal Industry of the United States Teacher, Rosena M. Gerhard, East Orange Teacher's aims 1. To teach, tlie mining of coal in the United States 2. To show that coal is one of the most common necessities of civilization Child's aims 1. To know the extent of coal mining in the United States 2. How the coal industry has developed all our other industries Subject Matter Method of Procedure 1. Coal fields of United States In what parts of the United States a. Size are *he coal fields located? ft. Map Look at coal map. What states In- cluded? 2. Formation of coal How was coal made? What do 0. Proof that coal is made of the prints of leaves and ferns on plant remains pieces of coal teach us? How b. Condition of earth did the coal form in layers? 1) Climate You go to the country and see a 2) Soil wooded section — what were the 3) Vegetation conditions that made it so? c. Period of time 3. Mining coal (Coal fields of Penn- sylvania as a type) a. Kinds of coal Why are there four kinds of coalT 1) Peat With the help of the map dis- 2) Lignite tinguish the differences in the 3) Bituminous regions where they are found 4) Anthracite 179 i8o The pressure caused by the fold- ing of the mountain rocks has changed soft coal to hard coal b. Methods of mining 1) In sunlight 2) Tunnel 3) Shaft (Description of shaft) 4) Comparison of Ameri- can with Belgian and English methods of mining c. Transportation 1) Cars to tide-water (50,- 000 cars, 900 locomo- tives) 2) Barges 3) Rivers and lakes a) Ohio b) Allegheny c) Monongahela d) Mississippi e) Great Lakes 4. Uses of coal o. Heating b. Generates steam c. Drives machinery d. Electricity is made with its help e. Gas (product) f. Coke (by-product) K. Child's map Why is it necessary to have dif- ferent methods of mining coal?' Children may tell of shafts they have seen or read about Would th© price of coal be higher in Maine or Ohio? What are the needs for transpor- tation ? Why are the lakes and rivers so extensively used? Is there any industry in the growth of which coal has not had its share? Conversation: "Suppose our coal supply were suddenly cut off" Draw a map of the country, shad- ing the regions where most coal is found (Can be drawn when children study "coal regions" if preferred) Production of Corn in the United States Teacher, Dorothy Conover, Maplewood School, South Orange I. Aim 1. Teacher — to vitalize study of corn production, and to connect with individual life of child 2. Scholar — to get place, uses and manner of com production II. Material 1. Maps of United States — political; blackboard outline 2. Graph of corn-producing states 8. Com products (brought by pupils) i8i I. Organization 1. Determine area of Corn Belt a. Which requires more moisture, corn or wheat? b. Which requires higher temperature? c. Comparison with Dakotas (already studied) d. Indicate by dotted line on blackboard, New York 2. Corn forms most important food for man and animal a. Name three articles of food for man made from corn b. From what animals does our meat supply largely come? On what food are these fattened? c. Is stock raising an important industry in the Com Belt? Why? 3. Cities noted for shipping com, etc. a. Chicago b. St. Louis c. Kansas City d. Omaha e. Cleveland /. Cincinnati g. Indianapolis 4. Summary a. Why is the study of corn so important? b. Name the states constituting the "World's Great Com Patch" in order of importance c. Give seven cities of this section. What products would they be particularly noted for? The Cotton Industry Teacher, Sue E. Garis, East Orange I. The plant A. Description of plant B. Conditions necessary for growth 1. Climate 2. Sxirface, soil C. Planting and cultivating D. Picking E. Ginning and baling F. Uses 1. Clothing, etc. 2. Medicinal purposes 3. Seeds a. Oil b. Fertilizer c. Cattle food II. Sections where grown A. United States 1. Upland 2. Sea islands B. Other parts of the world (very briefly) 1 82 III. Cities A. Ports (southern) B. Baling centers C. Manufacturing centers 1. Southern (Atlanta, etc.) 2. Northern (Lowell, etc.) IV. Routes and means of transportation A. Home (New York City and New England centers) B. Foreign (Manchester, England, etc.) Topic I, "The Plant," has been worked out in detail, as follows: Material. Cotton, cotton halls, pictures, maps (wall and class outline maps of southern section), sand-table (illustrating cotton fields or cotton wharf), manufactured cotton of all kinds Aim. (1) To teach cotton production; (2) To teach practical use of cotton products D. Picking. Merry scenes in field; negro men, women and chil- dren chattering, singing and working; beautiful appear- ance of field; machinery im- practicable because of uneven ripening of cotton E, Ginning and baling. Amount of labor required to seed cotton by hand. Story of Eli Whit- ney F. Uses Clothing, etc. Trace on map and by story the cotton from field to gin, from gin to mill, from mill to consumer Medicinal purposes, very briefiy D. Pictures of cotton, of negroes. Why were there slaves in the South? Observation of cotton balls, of loose cotton. Chil- dren find material in their books; teacher supplements from other books or by story. Children who have seen cot- ton field may give description as additional E. What did the invention of the cotton gin mean to the cotton planters? Show pictures and miniature sample bale of cot- ton. Let children reproduce story of Eli Whitney (volun- teer work). Children find material on ginning and bal- ing and reproduce F. 1. Lead children to realize how much cotton clothing they are wearing. Ask (several days before lesson) for volunteers to study process of cotton manufacturing of various kinds. Have samples (brought by children) of clothing, lace, thread, etc. Why is cotton cheaper than wool or silk? Touch 2. Have samples brought of medi- cated cotton, bandage, gauze, etc. Why is cotton preferred to wool or silk? i83 3. Seeds a. Oil. Notice that where seeds used to be discarded they now bring in many thousands of dollars Fertilizer, Notice how plants help the next gen- eration of plants to grow Cattle food. Notice that nearly every part of the plant is used a. What other oil does it re- semble? Is it as good? For what is it used? Have chil- dren find and reproduce briefly the process of oil making b. Have children study briefly the process of making the fertilizer. Of what use is it? c. Recall cattle's fondness for vegetable matter. Study the process of making the food from the seeds. Why is the cotton a good plant to raise? GRADE VI Map Study Showing Industrial Development of Germany Teacher, Raida Oshorn, East Orange I. Size. Third largest country in Europe; gives opportunity for large population. II. Position. Central Europe, touching chief countries, favors commerce. Opening on North and Baltic seas gives special opportunity for trade with England, United States and Baltic countries. Temperate zone, where westerly winds prevail, and nearness to Atlantic Ocean, will give a temperate climate and sufficient rainfall for the development of agriculture. III. Surface. Mountainous in south, favors mining; also lumbering on wooded slopes. Large level lowland in north is well suited for agriculture and grazing. IV. Drainage. Many long rivers flowing through a long plain will develop domestic commerce. The Danube flowing to the Black Sea will give opportunity for trade with Balkan countries. Resources Central location Seacoast Navigable rivers Level plain Temperate climate Moderate rainfall Mines Forests Summary Industries Commerce Fishing Grazing Agriculture Mining Lumbering Products Cod, mackerel Cattle, horses, swine, sheep Grain, fruits, vege- tables Wood, furniture i84 Signs of Industrial Progress Many large cities show a large population and indicate manufacturing. Canals and railroads indicate domestic commerce. Large cities near mouths of rivers indicate foreign commerce. Since countries which have a large population and engage in com- merce must feed and shelter their people and produce materials for manufacture and commerce, we conclude that Germany has used her resources and developed agriculture, fishing, grazing, lumbering and mining to support her population, and is an industrial leader. Time, fifty minutes. Object, to develop intelligent map reading. Outline for Study of Holland Teacher, N. P. Hewitt, South Orange Problem. Why is Holland well fitted to support so large a population? 1. People a. Density of population com- pared with that of New Jer- sey b. Characteristics of people c. Living conditions — govern- ment, education, sanitary conditions, savings banks, etc., and amount of emigra- tion Location a. In relation to Great Powers b. In relation to New World c. Effect on progress Surface a. Character. Why Netherlands is a good name b. Effect of glacier c. Influence of Rhine and Meuse and result on soil d. Reclamation of lowland e. Effect of this struggle on people f. How topic helps to answer problem If children do not understand dis- tribution of people an explana- tion will be necessary This information may be obtained from assigned readings, and • enough given to show how de- velopment has depended on men- tal and moral qualities of people Parts read or told by teacher or children. Lead them to see that progress means wealth more or less equally distributed — no very poor, ignorant class May be developed first, textbook then used Cross section maps of Holland and any other country compared (make comparisons wherever possible as it helps to fix points) On surface and soil i85 4. Coast a. Struggle to maintain coast line h. Dikes — structure and care. value c. Harbors — number, size d. Advantages and disadvan- tages 5. Natural resources a. Plants b. Animals c. Minerals d. Rivers and winds e. Summary of conditions /. Ways of overcoming disadvan- tages Industries a. (1) What Holland seems best fitted to do (2) Conditions that make ag- riculture first in import- ance (3) Kinds carried on (4) Crops produced (plants) (5) Amount of pasture-lands; extent of animal raising — kinds, quality, products (6) Upon what success of ag- riculture is based (7) Relation of topic to prob- lem b. Fishing (1) Elxtent (2) Value (3) What other industry this often helps to develop 38% of land overflowed but for dikes. Importance to a country of this density Details taught under commerce Pasture-lands Fish Use production maps Children need to see how the lack of forests, tillable lands, coal, iron and stone has been over- come by (1) people who know how to turn natural conditions to greatest possible advantage, (2) colonies, (3) and nearness to countries rich in those mater- ials Surface, soil (top soil has been replaced in many sections by effort of people), climate, land system Teach as much about climate as is necessary to understand why cer- tain agricultural conditions exist Reasons Reasons Note cities near these sections which serve as centers for re- ceiving and distributing 1. Absolute cleanliness 2. Personal attention to details Cheap food — no cost of production Show how commerce developed 1 86 Mining (1) Relation of surface to this industry (2) Kinds of minerals (3) How location affects this Industry Manufacturing (1) Amount to be expected (2) Needs of people (3) Kinds and places or sec- tions (4) How difficulties have been overcome Commerce (1) Place Holland occupies (2) History of their com- merce (3) Reasons for growth and helps in railroad and steamship lines (4) Ports of exchange (5) Exports and imports (6) Bearing that Dutch com- merce has on her ability to support 460 people to a square mile (7) Problems that Holland must solve in the future (a) That of extending territory (b) That of overcoming placid contentment with pleasant con- ditions (c) That of being less prudent and more willing to enter new fields of business Easy transportation to Belgium, Germany, England Help children to see need of raw products Resourcefulness of people In using winds where water power Is lack- ing. Value of colonies in furnish- ing raw materials, also in taking surplus of manufactured goods People, location, surface, rivers and canals, colonies Colonies taken more in detail Great value of Rhine and Meuse. Canals supplement rivers and correct their faults. Water proves to be a greater help than hindrance. Great merchant ma- rine. WTiy? Study Amsterdam and Rotterdam, the latter as a rival of Hamburg and Antwerp. Advantage of lo- cation over that of Amsterdam By draining Zuyder Zee 18; Summary of essential points under each topic, showing just how it helps to answer our problem After a country has been studied in this way a child should be able to organize his knowledge in a complete but brief summary, including location, climate, sur- face, natural resources and oc- cupations, showing just how each helps to answer the question GRADER VII Importance of Halifax as a Seaport Teacher, Charles Kanter, Belmont Avenue School, Newark Time, two 25 minute periods Aim. To teach the importance of Halifax, Nova Scotia, as a seaport. Groundwork (known to pupils) 1. Industries and products of Canada 2. Effect of the Labrador current on the eastern coast of North America 3. Halifax — "The best natural harbor in North America" Method (leading questions) Question 1. What does Canada produce that the mother country needs? 2. From what ports might these products be sent to England? (Refer to map of the world) 3. What advantages have Montreal and Quebec over Halifax as ports for the shipment of goods to England? (Use map of North America) Subject matter {to be drawn from the pupils by leading and subordi- nate questions) 1. Food (wheat and meat) and nickel (used in manufacture of ammunition) 2. Montreal, Quebec and Halifax Montreal and Quebec are nearer western Canada, the source of wheat and meat (Saskatchewan, Alberta, Man- itoba) and nearer to northern Quebec, the source of nickel. This makes a shorter rail trip to the port and a longer water trip from the port to England. and, of course, it means a cheaper trip than by rail to Halifax and thence, by boat, to England i88 4. What advantage has Halifax over Montreal and Quebec? 5. What disadvantages has the port of Halifax? (How do the Canadians lessen the effect of this disadvantage?) a. Its harbor is the "best natural harbor In North America" b. It is situated near the coal fields of eastern Canada, mak- ing Halifax the chief coaling station on the continent of North America for the United Kingdom c. Its large, deep harbor makes it accessible for steamers larger than those able to ascend the St. Lawrence to Montreal and Quebec The effect of the Labrador cur- rent is such that for a few weeKS in winter the harbor is frozen over. (The use of ice-breaking boats enables the port to be kept open almost the whole year round) (End of first lesson — 25 minutes) 6. What new plan has Great Britain made to protect her merchantmen from German submarines? 7. Since the United States is oflBcially still neutral, what will we do when these armed merchantmen wish to enter OUT harbors? 8. a. What does England buy from the United States? b. What did she buy chiefly last year? (Refer to exports of United States in World Al- manac and to clippings of newspapers shown.) Our ex- ports to England in 1916 — especially in food and ammu- nition 9. How will England get these things from the United States when her armed ships will be excluded from our ports? 6. The British are going to arm their merchantmen with can- nons on the prow and stern to be used to repel subma- rine attacks 7. According to international law, we are bound to exclude armed ships of either bellig- erent 8. England bought from the United States last year millions of dollars worth of ammunition — she does not manufacture enough for her needs; and of food — England, not being an agricultural country, has very little except that obtained by import 9. The goods will probably be sent from the United States to Halifax, and there the armed merchantmen will take their cargo on board 1 89 10. What advantage has Halifax lO. The route from Halifax Is over New York City as a shorter than from New York port of shipment to England? city (Halifax is almost in the same latitude as Eng- land) 11. Application — write a few para- graphs (10 minutes) on: "Why Halifax is of more im- portance to England as a seaport than Newark" (End of second lesson — 25 minutes) Note. No attempt is made to prophesy the turn the lesson may take, therefore no subordinate questions are suggested. The teacher's in- genuity will in itself be the basis for drawing from the children the desired subject matter. Manufacturing: in Great Britain Teacher, Florence Sherry, R. D. Wood School, Millville Problem. Why is manufacturing so profitable an occupation in Great Britain? (This problem was decided upon by pupils and teacher as a topic for study) (Have the pupils study the lesson with the idea of answering the problem, and suggest that they bring to class a list of topics of which a further knowledge would be helpful in solving the problem.) First unit of work — two or three days The following questions and directions indicate approach and values stressed. On the map locate the British Isles with regard to their direction from Europe. What country on the mainland of Europe is nearest the British Isles? How great is the distance between them? On the map locate the British Isles with regard to their direction from us. Trace the route that we would take in going there, pointing out prob- able ports of entry. How long is the journey in miles and how long would it take us to reach there? Point out on the map the boundaries of the British Isles. Describe the surface of the British Isles. Describe the climate of the British Isles with regard to zone, wind- belt, and rainfall. Point out on the map the beds of mineral deposits. Point out on the map the leading seaports of the British Isles. 190 Point out on the map the important manufacturing cities, stating the leading kind of manufacturing carried on in each. After having studied the lesson with this problem in mind what topic can you suggest for our further study which will be helpful in the solution of our problem? (Have a list of the topics given placed on the board. Some topics such as "the mineral wealth," "the wool from the sheep," "the many people," the children will suggest themselves. Others the teacher should suggest.) Second unit of work — ^three or four days In assigning the second unit of work divide the class into five groups. Assign to each group a topic to work on and appoint a chairman for each group, letting him apportion the work among the members of his group. It will no doubt be necessary for the various groups to hold separate meetings and the teacher will have to suggest important points of study for each group. Suggestions for Group I Agriculture has not been an important occupation 1. Size of the islands 2. Number of people 3. Density of the population 4. Effect of the climate and surface 5. Products can be raised more cheaply elsewhere 6. Comparison of English and American agricultural methods Suggestions for Group II Manufacturing is easily carried on 1. Mineral wealth 2. Water power 3. Production of wool 4. Ease in obtaining raw materials 5. Advantage in having vast population 6. Leading centers for textile industries, for iron and steel industries Suggestions for Group III Great Britan has a great colonial empire 1. Find out all you can about Sir Francis Drake and other English explorers 2. Influence of the sea on the British people 3. Reasons for Great Britain's colonial ambitions 4. Extent of Great Britain's colonies 5. How were the colonies acquired? 6. Which of them could she least afford to lose? 7. Which could she lose with the least concern? 8. Make a list of the chief products of Great Britain's colonies 9. Advantages to the colonies to trade with Great Britain rather than elsewhere 191 Suggestions for Group IV Great Britain is the foremost commercial power 1. Give a brief account of how Great Britain acquired commercial supremacy, including the defeat of the Armada and the Trade and Navigation Laws 2. Great Britain's merchant marine compared with other countries 3. Her position in the center of the world 4. Her good natural harbors 5. Her shipbuilding materials 6. Her need of a large merchant marine Suggestions for Group V Great Britain is one of the wealthiest nations of the world 1. Comparison of total wealth with that of other great nations 2. Comparison of wealth per capita with that of other great nations Third unit of work — two or three days Have each group give its report as a part of regular recitation. These reports should be given in as much detail as possible, following the working out of the suggestions given to each group by the teacher. Encourage the children of one group to question those of the other groups and make them prove statements where necessary. Appoint one child in the class as secretary but let the important facts of the reports made by each group be placed on the board. Have pupils suggest a heading for the work, and as a class project make outlines in keeping with the principles shown in the following: I. Manufacturing can be carried on very easily and with great profit in Great Britain 1. Great Britain is one of the greatest coal producing countries of the world 2. Abundant iron ore is found near the coal fields 3. Great water power has been developed 4. Abundance of tin in Great Britair. 5. Great Britain has a climate suited for raising sheep, leading to the production of wool 6. Raw materials for manufacturing are easily obtained from other places a. United States sends cotton and mineral oils h. Canada sends wood products and silver c. Australia and New Zealand supply wool, hides, and gold d. India supplies cotton, jute, hides, and skins e. Egypt supplies cotton /. British Guiana supplies timber, gold, and diamonds g. Union of South Africa supplies gold, diamonds, wool and mohair, ostrich feathers, hides and skins h. British colonies in tropical Africa supply palm oil. gums. rubber, ebony, ivory, and hides i. Sweden and Spain supply iron ore 192 Several days of wide-awake geography study and recitation work was * carried on in the manner indicated by this plan. So many direct appli- ,1 cations were made of the knowledge gained through a study of this single large problem that in the end the pupils knew enough about the geography of Great Britain for average seventh grade pupils. Switzerland Teacher, Gertrude Roberts, Bradley School, Asbury Park I. Switzerland's location (use map) A. General — southwestern part of EnTope; surrounded by what countries? B. Latitude and longitude — compare with New Jersey C. Size — compare with New Jersey D. Advantages and disadvantages of location 1. Center of trade routes; Swiss dependent upon others for carrying on their commerce 2. Bordered by Germany, France, Italy, and Austria — leads to a mixture of people a. Effect upon their languges, customs and industries ■ b. Need for preparedness 1) To repel invasion 2) To insure respect of border nations c. Effect on people 1) Develops resourcefulness 2) Increases patriotism II. Physical features (use map) A. Mountains, character of — (pictures used) 1. Attract tourists 2. Necessitate good roads 3. Effect of such mountains upon the people a. Increase spirit of industry b. Lead to outdoor life B. Glaciers, rivers and waterfalls — water power for manufacturing C. Lakes — used as reservoirs D. Mountain-passes, such as St. Bernard, St. Gothard Value of passes III. Climate (map work) A. Temperature, affected by: 1. Altitude 2. Latitude B. Rainfall — effect of mountains upon prevailing westerlies and winds from the Mediterranean Sea IV. Industries A. Agriculture — products B. Lumbering C. Manufacturing — electricity 193 D. Commerce 1. Raw products 2. Distribution of manufactured articles 3. Means of distribution a. Best roads in the world b. Railways. Difficulties overcome by 1) Tunnelling, as the St. Gothard Railway 2) Engineering skill of the people V. Government A. Republic 1. President and Federal Council 2. Compare with United States a. People more democratic b. Cantons (22) instead of states VI. Education A. Compulsory education B. Desire for education VII. Cities (use map) Locate and give importance of Zurich, Basel, Geneva, Berne In teaching the geography of Switzerland by means of the preceding outline, topics I, II and III were studied by the class with the help of the teacher. The pupils had their books opened to the map of Switzer- land. The large map of Europe which hung on the wall was also used. The pupils first determined the location of Switzerland. They com- pared Switzerland's location with that of New Jersey; those who did not remember hunted up New Jersey's location by turning to the map of the United States. The area was found by referring to the back of the book. Topic II was studied by using the physical map and pictures. The different points were brought out by suggestions and questions by the children and teacher. The industries v;ere suggested, but topics IV, V, VI and VII were assigned for special reports. In each case the new lesson was begun by a short review of the fact« studied the previous lesson. The assigned lesson was then taken up and the points in the outline were particularly stressed. Cities were located on the wall map. A map was also made by the class showing the boundaries, physical features and cities. Some of the children brought in articles that had been made by tha Swiss, and some were able to tell interesting facts about Switzerland which they had learned from books, pictures and conversation with other people. 13 GEOG 194 One Device for Teaching Certain Pliases of the Geography of New Jersey Teacher, Ethel Rake, Chatham There has been a growing tendency in recent years toward making a more vital connection between school work and actual life interests and activities. The teaching of geography is real only in so far as it deals with the interests of the individual. The seventh grade pupils in Chatham began the study of the geography of New Jersey with the home community. Means of communication Muth nearby towns and cities were traced. By use of railroad time-tables, maps and tourists' guide books, interest was broadened until all the important towns and cities of the state were reached. Later, letters were written by the pupils to a few of the boards of trade in different sections of the state, asking for information con- cerning the city, town or community. Nearly every board of trade re- sponded and many interesting circulars and booklets were received. Each group of pupils was asked to report on the information which it had received, selecting only what was considered of value to the class. Topics of interest were freely discussed. Special attention was directed to questions of health (as water supply, drainage, sewerage) and civic and municipal affairs. The class was soon able to weed out material that was purely advertisement and treat it as such. Real underlying reasons for a selection of certain towns for homes were given con- siderable attention. Booklets were made by all the members of the class. Each drew an original cover design. The aim was to have the work done independently of the teacher, as far as possible. The written accounts were exchanged among the pupils for criticism. Each understood that he was responsible for the very best booklet that he could make but that he might do it in his own way and time. All the other subjects were correlated, especially history and civics. Each town or city has some historical interest and no circular was received which did not mention some phase of municipal government. The poorest reader in the class read well because he wanted to hold the attention of all. The letters to the boards of trade were the best the pupils could write, for there was a definite motive. The fact that pupils were asked to give only the most important of the information received helped to develop an ability of selection. They began to understand more clearly that there are facts to keep and facts to throw aside on any printed page. To know directly about other towns broadened the point of view, developed greater interest in trade centers and showed the necessity for good means of communication. Each day a group of pupils met together to discuss a topic of general interest. 195 This is simply one device for bringing the geography of New Jersey within the interests of each pupil. Flax Teacher, Helen G. Williams, Richmond Avenue School, Atlantic City I. Is the growing of flax a recent industry? 1. Egyptian mummies wrapped in cloths of flax fiber. In the old tombs along the Nile have been found paintings of many men, women and children gathering flax 2. Also mentioned in the Bible 11. Conditions of growth 1. Damp, moderately cool climate. Why? 2. Fertile soil, well prepared. Why? III. Culture 1. Seed planted in the spring. Why not in the fall as we some- times do with wheat? 2. Height of plant about three feet. Delicate blue flower 3. Great care is exercised in weeding, more so than the weeding of corn. Why? 4. Purpose of flax raising a. For seed b. For fiber IV. Harvest 1. If raised for fiber, the flax is harvested before the seed matures. Why is this done? 2. Method— By hand or machinery, the former preferable. Why? V. Preparation for market 1. Retted a. Laid on damp ground or in shallow streams as in Belgium b. Chemical process — not very successful c. Purpose, to decay woody tissue 2. Dried 3. Broken by hand or machinery 4. Scutched, to separate fiber. Color of fiber, gray or yellowish 5. Spun into thread a. Washed b. Bleached. How did our grandmothers bleach their linen? VI. Value and uses 1. Next to cotton most important textile fiber 2. Uses a. Linen cloth b. Linen lace c. Linen paper d. Linen thread e. Linseed oil, oil-cake 196 VII. Centers of flax raising Belgium — best quality Central Russia — four-fifths world's supply Holland France Ireland Italy Canada United States — for seed only The United States imports annually more than $3,000,000 of flax fiber and more than $20,000,000 of linen goods What cities are especially noted as centers of linen manu- facture? HISTORY GRADE V Life of William Penn Teacher, Vera M. Telfer, Asbury Park Purpose of teacher 1. To have children picture Penn as a man who really lived 2. To have them feel that Penn founded Pennsylvania because he saw that the persecuted Quakers needed a new home 3. To idealize those traits of character which made Penn a leader 4. To make the class appreciate what Penn did Purpose of pupil. To make Penn's life a problem for study by 1. Learning the story of one of our great forefathers 2. Finding out who the Quakers were 3. Seeing how the worthy actions of this leader affected our country Assignment Textbooks in history are usually too diflBcult for the average fifth grade child to comprehend. Teacher should tell briefly the story of Penn's life, giving only enough to arouse the children to read their textbooks for more information. By questioning, the teacher will help the pupils to formulate their prob- lems for study. In this way the teacher is giving the child an oppor- tunity to develop good judgment by helping him to select the important factors, and the child sees a purpose for his thinking. This might be done in the following way: Show a picture of William Penn to the class and focus the attention of the children on his dress. The pupils will ask questions, and with the help of the teacher the following study problems might be written on the blackboard: 1. Why does he wear that kind of a hat? 2. Who were the Quakers? 197 3. Why did they want to come to America? 4. Who helped them and how? 5. Did Penn prove himself a good Christian man: (1) In his deal- ings with the Indians? (2) In his government of the settlement? 6. Would you rather have lived in Penn's colony than in any of the others? Why? 7. Do you think Philadelphia is properly named? Why did it grow so rapidly? Assign to several pupils extra reading to be done from reference books. During the recitation let the children tell the class what they have read. Recitation Using the study problems already made, have the children tell the story. Allow the child to answer the problem in his own way, and then bring out by suggestion and class discussion such points as need further attention. As a summary have the children formulate two or three questions about William Penn, the discussion of which will distinguish Penn from any other settler. Written Work This story is now ready to be used as a written EJnglish lesson Suggestions for correlated liand-work 1. Make a booklet to contain written English work on this subject, illustrated with cuttings and drawings. 2. Have the class make a large cut paper poster, representing the signing of the treaty in Penn's Woods near the Delaware River. 3. Make a sand-table representation of the signing of the treaty. Quakers and Indians may be made of clay, clothes-pins or com cobs appropriately dressed. Twigs may be used for the woods and blue paper covered with glass for the Delaware River. Geography Locate Philadelphia on the map of the United States. Have a pupil make a blackboard sketch of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and parts of the adjoining states. Indicate the Delaware River, Philadelphia, Trenton and your home town in New Jersey. Any child who has been In the woods of New Jersey can picture the conditions which surrounded Penn and his colonists. If some member of the class has been in Philadelphia or In some other part of Pennsylvania, let him tell the other children about It. Allow some bright pupil to report upon and locate eariy settlements in New Jersey by Penn's followers. 198 Settlement of Newark Teacher, Elisabeth M. Serven, South Eighth Street School, Newark General purpose. To inspire patriotism and love for our city through a better knowledge of its origin and development. Special purpose. To teach the history of the settlement of Newark Children's aim. To learn about the beginning of their own city. Subject Matter Religious freedom the reason for the settlement of many of the early colonies Hooker's settlement in Connecti- cut Settlement in New Haven after the Pequot Indians were sub- dued Location on the Sound good for development and trade Trouble with Charles II over regi- cides. Punishment for hiding these men who fled to America New Haven merged with the Con- necticut Colony The two factions created through the opposition of some to this merging The separation of the two factions Beauties of New Jersey were being talked about Robert Treat's exploration Negotiations entered into with Stuyvesant, then with Cartaret when New Jersey came into the hands of the English Site on Passaic River chosen The journey from New Haven. The landing. Meeting with the Indians. Indians claim the land. Treat acknowledges their claim. Pays $700 for land. This in- cluded whole of Essex County- Method Why were most of the early col- onies settled? What religious leaders made set- tlements where true religious freedom prevailed? What people troubled the settle- ments in Connecticut? After the Indians were subdued where was a settlement made? Why? How would Charles II feel about men who had killed his father? How would he feel toward a col- ony who would shelter them? Would high-spirited men like this subordinate position given to their colony? What could they do? (Make a settlement for themselves) What would they look for? (Good climate, fertile soil, water high- way) After they had chosen a place, of whom would they have to ask permission to settle? (Governor of country) Children will be able to tell many reasons for the selection of this site Who would the colonists be likely to find here? What would the Indians think about the land? What would be the honest thing to do? 199 Compare with settlement of colonies in Connecticut. Treat's fair treatment of the Indians in buying the land was a good beginning upon which to build a colony. (A fuller generalization will follow a series of lessons on the growth and development of Newark.) GRADE VII The Pupil and SeIf=ReIiance Teacher, Lilian C. Webster, Rutherford We all know that one learns to do by doing. How to apply this truth advantageously in the schoolroom is the problem for the teacher to solve. The aim should be to make pupils self-reliant as rapidly as possible by a process which should make them at first realize their task, and then, slowly but surely, willing to assume its responsibilities. For several years I have used this method in the teaching of history in the seventh and eighth grades. When the classes first came to me at the beginning of the seventh year, I found that many pupils did not possess initiative. They were willing to be instructed but not will- ing to take any part of the work as theirs. In order to help them we began the lesson by having paragraphs read aloud by different pupils. Then the help of the class was asked to form questions which would be sensible and which would bring out the most important parts of the paragraphs. At first the questions were neither thoughtful nor stimulating. Criticism being asked for, interest was aroused and better questions followed, a few of which were written on the board. These questions were answered and commented upon. This continued through the lesson assigned. In assigning the lesson, as part of the pupils' task I have required from each pupil at least five questions dealing directly with the lesson. Pupils have come prepared to answer their written questions, and in no case have they been allowed to recite in the words of the book. I do not hold pupils to any particular book. If, however, they are asked on what authority they make a certain statement, they are re- quired to name the author and produce the book. Though a school's collection of histories may be quite extensive, the pupils soon become very fiimiliar with the different authors. To maintain interest, I change recitation methods frequently. One day certain pupils are sent to the board, topics are assigned them, and they are told to write. Then two children are called upon to question each other. All eyes are fixed expectantly upon the chosen two. The moment either hesitates, hands are raised, and the questioner calls upon any one he chooses to answer. If the answer is correct, the one answer- ing becomes the questioner. This is great sport, and as the pupils at the board finish their writing, they are always eager to join the game. When the majority of those at the board have finished, I close the quiz, as we call it, and the attention of the class is turned to the written work. One pupil reads his work, then faces the class. If they have any 200 questions to ask on the topic he has written, or if any part of his work is vague or incorrect, his critics stand and he calls each one by name in turn. If he cannot answer the question or make clear any doubtful point, the critic either answers or explains. This exercise is repeated to cover the work on the board. If necessary, I call attention to the main points of the lesson, but very seldom have I found that they have been overlooked. It is a whole- some plan to repeat often a particularly good question, emphasizing its value. Often I divide the class as in a spelling match, allowing the pupils to question each other back and forth. The captains are free to challenge an ambiguous question, and many a lively, entertaining and instructive lesson has been conducted in this way. Frequently, I send a certain number of pupils to the board to write questions. Others are sent to write the answers. Corrections and criti- cisms follow and, if the class is not too large, every pupil asks and answers at least one question during the recitation. At other times a pupil stands in front of the class and asks a question, a record is kept of how many fail to answer, and the number is placed on the board. The one answering correctly then asks a question, the other returning to his seat. These are a few of the many ways of developing initiative. Friday is review day. The value of review is not to be overlooked. Constant drill and review in school work cannot be over-estimated. "Repititio mater studionim," said the Jesuits, and they were right. Review is the mother of all education. As the year advances, the work is made more difficult. For instance, the pupil who is reciting must be able to sketch the geographical out- lines of his history lesson. In the eighth grade, besides the kind of recitation required in the seventh grade, I required the pupils to prepare an outline. Biographies and original plays have been introduced to vary the procedure. We have often staged a particularly good play; for instance, Spanish discoverers and explorers, telling of their deeds before the Court of Spain; First Colonial Assembly; Landing of the Pilgrims; Boston Tea Party, and many others. I have found that this has stimulated much interest. This method has been productive of excellent results and there has been such wonderful development in the power of reasoning and in self-expression that I feel it may be suggestive, at least, of the great possibilities which class instruction offers of developing self-reliance in pupils. Making: a Nation Teacher, Mary O. Hoffmire, South Orange I plan to have the pupils make their class organization at the time when they are studying the Constitution. This helps them to understand organization, committee, convention, constitution, amendment, compro- 20I mise, nomination, majority, executive officers, etc. With the lesson in mind it is easy to necessitate the use of these and other important terms In such organization Material A good textbook in the hands of the children and plenty of good reference books at their disposal. The children are en- couraged to read from helps at home and to bring illustrative mater- ial in line of pictures, anecdotes, etc., to class. One child in our class has visited Washington and has offered to bring pictures taken by himself, throw them on the screen by means of the projectoscope and tell the boys and girls about his visit. A trip to Washington, if possible, would be ideal. Assignment (For two or three lessons according to ability of children and time) 1. Why was a new organization needed? 2. What material was there of which to make it? 3. What differences of opinion concerning the kind of organization arose at once? 4. Which colonies by their own forms of local government, enthusiasm or otherwise helped greatly? 5. Can you justify the attitude of your own state regarding the organi- zation? Recitation Our method of recitation varies. Sometimes we put the lesson into the hands of a pupil for development. Sometimes we select from such a question as number three of the assignment a subject for class debate, as "More power should have been given the states," "Slavery should have been forbidden at the outset," and we secure excellent results by this method. The results of too strong central government is easily Illustrated in the current history of China and Russia. Again we assign topics upon which the children write paragraphs on the blackboard. Frequently we arrange the subject matter in the form of an outline and discuss such outline together. Such outline we use at times as a summary of the lesson, as: Forming a Nation I. Need of such formation because of weakness of the Confederation A. Defects 1. No president 2. No supreme judge 3. No senate B. Lack of power delegated Congress 1. To raise money 2. To regulate commerce 3. To make currency uniform 4. To enforce treaties 14 GEOG 202 n. Materials to be used A. Ideas of individual states 1. Legislative representative body of Virginia 2. Constitution of Connecticut 3. Ideas of New Jersey B. Men with opinions differing as to 1. Strong central power 2. States' rights 3. Slavery 4. Apportionment of representation C. Leaders 1. Washington, "The Father of his Country" 2. Madison, "The Father of the Constitution" 3. Franklin, "The Sage of the Constitutional Convention" Discovery and Trade Teacher, Marie B. Miller, Massachusetts Avenue School, Atlantic City An outline designed to cover four lessons. Material may be drawn from textbook and supplementary books. Some references were assigned for special report; others were looked up during the recitation period and read. Problem. How did trade conditions in Europe lead to the discovery ©f America? I. Trade between Eastern Asia and Southern Europe was most important commercial factor of 15th century A. Origin of trade Review facts of Cru- 1. Crusades » a d e r s, emphasizing a. Crusaders learned of valuable •ommercial possibilities products of East, jewels, silks, spices from study of products ^ Crusaders acquired taste for of East and West spices of East and wished to have which might be ex- them for use at home (Spices changed necessary for preserving food, ow- ing to lack of means of refrigera- tion) B. Trade routes 1. Northern Have pupils work out a. Genoa, Mediterranean Sea, Con- from map the possible stantinople, Black Sea, caravan to ways of reaching Indies Caspian Sea, caravan to India Have them tell why 2. Central they select certain o Mediterranean Sea, Antioch cara- routes and decide which van down Tigris and Euphrates are best. Trace three Valley to Persian Gulf, water to routes actually used. India 303 All outline map on which routes may be placed is valuable What would be prob- able effect of blocking trade routes? Why? What city was first affected? Why? Have pupils, with map, point out possible routes, and work out advantages or disadvan- tages of each Have pupils draw map which would illus- trate Columbus' idea of reaching Indies by sail- ing West On above map, locate land discovered, show- ing that Columbus be- lieved he had reached the East Indies III. 3. Southern a. Venice, Mediterranean Sea, cara- van over Isthmus of Suez, Red Sea, Indian Ocean to India Interruption of this trade necessitated the discovery of a new route to the East A. Cause of interruption of trade 1. Turks captured Constantinople, 1452 a. Cut off northern route and in- jured Genoa b. Turks harassed traders in Medi- terranean, preventing use of central route 2. Spread of Turkish power cut south- ern route a few years later B. Possible ways of reaching East Indies 1. East Blockade by Turks 2. North Frozen greater part of year 3. Southern Portuguese explored in that direc- tion a. Prince Henry the Navigator b. Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope, 1487 4. West Possible only if earth were proved to be a globe Summary Capture of Constantinople blockaded available routes to East Southern route dangerous, supposedly Northern was impossible, while West- ern was believed to be impossible Discovery of America followed adoption of western route A. Voyage to westward planned by Columbus 1. Native of Genoa, and therefore especially interested in recovering trade for Genoa 2. Believed earth to be globe from 0. Observation of boats going to and from Genoa b. Study (1) Aristotle (2) Ptolemy (3) Toscanelli 204 B. Aid for voyage finally secured from Spain 1. Earlier attempts imsuccessful a. Genoa b. Portugal c. England C. Voyage completed. Columbus, seeking route to Indies by sailing westward, reached Islands of New World which lay in his path, and believed that Indies had been found The Defeat of the Spanish Armada Teacher, Lucille O'Shea, Belmont Avenue School, Newark Subject. The defeat of the Spanish Armada. Its effect on Elngland and subsequently on America. Time. Tm'o or three periods of 30 minutes each. Teacher's aim. To establish the importance of the defeat of the Spanish Armada on England's progress in trade and colonization. Pupil's aim. Why the defeat of the Spanish Armada is so important in the history of England and the history of early colonization in America Pupil's preparation. (Review) 1. Spanish supremacy on the sea 2. Relations existing between Spain and England. Why? 3. What Spain hoped to accomplish by the Spanish Armada 4. Result of attack of the Spanish Armada Class Activities Teacher's Pupil's 1. After the defeat of the Spanish 1. England declared, "The sea is Armada, what was the atti- ours." The world seemed open tude of England toward trade to them and they determined on the sea? to trade extensively 2. Being able to trade freely on 2. Manufacturing flourished in all the seas had what effect upon parts of England, for this English manufacturing? trade must be fed. Wealth Wealth? poured into England, some of which came from Spanish ships returning to Spain from Mexico and Peru, where they had obtained their riches 20! 3. What effect did this prosperity have on English life and edu- cation? 4. State some reasons v;hy England desired to plant colonies in America 5. Give reasons v/hy English col- onization in America was so successful 6. The defeat of the Spanish Ar- mada meant what to Spain? To England? 3. The life of the nobles became more gorgeous and that of the commoners more comfortable. New houses were built with windows of glass, giving sun- light and health, and chimneys and fireplaces became common. Comfortable beds and chairs took the place of rude benches and pallets of straw. Dishes of pewter and silver sup- planted the wooden bowls. A much better grade of food was used by all. Men's minds became active also. Universi- ties and grammar school flourished. Books and learn- ing were brought from far and near, as were new ideas. Printing presses became com- mon in England, and histories, books of travel, stories, essays, plays, and poetry abounded. Learning now counted as much as nobility 4. a. That attack might be made upon Spanish fleets b. The opportunities it offered for growth of a great people c. The relief of the crov/ded in- dustrial condition at home d. Laboring classes thrown out of employment by introduc- tion into England of rais- ing of sheep c. Religious troubles 5. Their motives were of the right kind — motives which formed a permanent and lasting basis on which to establish perma- nent colonization 6. a. The loss of supremacy on seas; wealth and power in America lost; decline of power in Europe b. Trade flourished, wealth In- creased, bringing luxury and comfort; the way was clear for colonization in America 15 GEOG 2o6 Method of the Recitation Topics to appear on blackboard 1. England's trade prospered 2. Manufacturing throve and wealth poured into England 3. Life of nobles and commoners made more attractive and comfortable by many improvements 4. Education and learning furthered 5. Colonization and settlement by English in America begun 6. Spain's power in Europe and America broken, followed by decline. Summary By the defeat of the Spanish Armada the power of Spain in Europe and America was broken. This defeat of Spain left England free to trade on the seas and to colonize America. Application Topical recitations by children from the outline or a written lesson covering the general aim of pupil. GRADE VIII The New South Teacher, Margaret C. Gallagher, Vice-principal, Madison School, Netvark Teacher's aim. To teach the pupils the progressive condition of our South today as compared with its conditions before and immediately after the Civil War. Topical Outline for the Teacher Subject Matter Method of Procedure 1. The South before the War Before taking up the subject, pupils a. General poverty have already had a study of the h. Poor railroads Civil War and its effect upon the c. Scanty manufacturing estab- condition of the South generally lishments d. Poor public buildings e. Capital lay with a few rich Preparatory to taking up this sub- families ject In the classroom, pupils 2. Conditions of the South from should be assigned topics I and 1865-1880 II for home reading. Encourage a. General poverty them to come prepared to discuss 1) Exhaustion of money these conditions in their numer- by Civil War ous phases. Designate some 2) Labor question. Race Read to the class selections bring- question causes trouble ing out labor diflBculties between laboring white and laboring negro 207 b. State and Confederate bonds worthless c. Railroads ruined d. Cities in disconsolate con- dition e. People discouraged 3. The building up of the South as it is today through the foUow- agencies a. Cotton lands 1) Location 2) Output a) In 1790—4,000 bales b) In 1904—14,000,000 bales 3) A modern cotton plan- tation b. Fruit and truck farms 1) Location a) Carolina b) Georgia c) Texas 2) Climate and soil con- ducive to many kinds of fruits and vegetables c. Timberlands 1) Importance. Surpassed only by the Pacific Northwest 2) Uses o) Lumber b) Railroad ties c) Turpentine d) Resin 3) Location a) Louisiana b) Mississippi c) Alabama d) Georgia e) Carolinas 4) Uses of timber sec- tions already cut. After timber is sold and land cleared cot- ton is raised Let there be a broad sympathy In discussing these topics, as we are all one nation Locate on map the Black Lands, extending from Georgia through Mississippi Valley through Black Lands of Texas What things have helped in the raising of cotton? Read to the class a description of a modern plantation Show pictures of plantations Question pupils as to the value of this industry In eastern Texas a belt of land having good railroad connection with the North has become pros- perous because its season is much earlier than most of its competitors Question as to value of pine In the industrial world For what is turpentine used? Resin? How are these procured? Let pupils discuss the Important part turpentine and resin play In the "Naval Stores" industry Some farmers receive as much as one thousand dollars for turpen- tine on their farms. Show pic- tures of turpentine industry 208 d. Minerals 1) Coal 2) Iron 3) Lead 4) Zinc 5) Petroleum 6) Phosphate 7) Sulphur e. Manufactures 1) Iron 2) Cotton cloth 3) Tobacco a) In North Carolina b) In Kentucky 4) Causes of the success of these manufactures a) Fuel and water power abundant b) Little fuel needed for homes /. Investments of capitalists from the South and also from the North g. Establishment of banks; 1500 national banks in the South h. Farmers' banks Transportation facilities 1) Good railroads 2) Good trolley system 3) Enterprising cities o) Galveston b) New Orleans c) Mobile d) Pensacola e) Savannah f) Charleston Location of these minerals in the South How would these minerals affect the growth of the South? The coal output in 1906 was 40 million tons Iron ore is most abundant How does iron ore working affect the growth of a section? What mineral found in the South makes iron manufacturing a prosperous industry? Compare with the North in these respects What is necessary to make any business successful? What investments in the South would be likely to be safe ones? What benefit does a community derive from investments? Of what uses are banks to the poor people? To business men? To manufacturers? How, then, are banks aiding the development of this region? Explain to pupils how the farmers' banks loan the farmers money at a low per cent to carry on their farming Of what service are these banks to growth of the South? Let pupils discuss how railroads affect the growth of a section Speak of the effects of railroads on each industry Locate on map Explain to pupils how the Eads system of jetties has helped the cities to become great shipping ports. Show pictures Speak of the rivalry existing be- tween these ports, which tends 209 (Before we became involved in towards the greater progress of the present war, two-fifths of each port the inward and outward move- ment of United States passed through our southern ports) y. Character of the people Why should we admire the South- 1) Patience em people as a whole? 2) Unflinching courage To what is the success of the 3) Great pride in seeing South due principally? their cities restored to WTiat kind of citizens help to build cities of prosperity up any community? Let children 4) Generosity in loaning give their ideas freely money to help build up Read to the pupils, or preferably the industries let the pupils read Henry W. Grady's "Speech on The New South" An admirable way of rounding up this subject is by the use of lantern slides. The lesson is conducted by the class as follows: 1. The operator throws picture on the screen 2. The pupils look at it silently 3. Pupils volunteer to go to the screen and talk to the class about what the picture represents 4. Members of the class supplement the talk 5. Pupils question the speaker — questions being relative to the work — that is, from an industrial viewpoint, an historical standpoint, or a com- parative standpoint Causes of the Revolutionary War Teacher, Edith D. Mitchell, Culver School, MilhilU- Problem. England's Great Problem First Day For preparation of this lesson the following questions should be given the previous day: 1. Give a brief account of English life in the eighteenth century- (This topic may be assigned to one pupil to report to the class) 2. Compare this with colonial life of this period a. What are the most striking differences? b. How do you account for these? 3. Do you think England could understand these differences as well as we can today? "SMiy? Open the recitation by having one pupil discuss English life of this period under the topic "Social Life." Have the other members of the class ask questions of the one reciting, they themselves contributing as 2IO much as possible. In the same way discuss the "Industrial Life" and the "Political Life" — the latter to be treated in a simple manner. Follow this by a discussion of American colonial life and then make comparisons. From this the class should realize that the colonists had come to have ideas different from England's as to how men should live, due to their life in the wilderness. Such questions should be asked as, "Just imagine that you were living in these early times and you had given up your home in England to come to live in the American wilderness, how different is your life here?" "How do you spend your days?" "Do you like it as well as you did in England?" "Why?" Encourage pupils to ask questions of each other and to give their opinions of the subject. Let the discussion of the mo'de of living lead to the problem of govern- ment. "If your life in this country is more simple than in England will you need the same kind of government?" "Are you having the same kind?" "What suggestions would you make as to a change in government?" "Do you think England can see things in the same light that you do?" Devote the last few minutes to summarizing. Have the pupils develop the following outline: England's great problem 1. Misunderstands her colonies because of a. New ideas as to how men should live, due to their life in the wilderness b. New ideas of government (To be concluded the next day) Second Day On the second day have the same questions before the class as on the day before. Also have on the blackboard the outline as far as it was developed. Review quickly the tO'pics previously discussed, namely, how the social and the political life of the colonists differ from the mother country. From the comparison of industrial life between the mother country and her colonies as given yesterday the class should realize that the colonists had come to have interests different from England's in trade and industry. We are still living in colonial times. "WTiy does your father wish to trade with the Dutch?" "Wouldn't it be better for him to get these things from England?" "Why isn't he content to buy everything from his mother country instead of trying to manufacture in such crude ways?" These problems will form a foundation for the study of the trade and navigation laws. This discussion should lead up to the point that the colonists, being three thousand miles from England, have become very independent. 211 "On the map locate England." "Locate the colonies." "How great is the distance?" "Suppose you were to leave your mother today and go three thousand miles across the ocean to live in England, what lessons would you learn by being apart from your mother?" Then lead the class to see that such a condition existed in colonial days. The colonists, being isolated, had a feeling of independence, were anxious to do for themselves, and were sure they could do. However, England could not understand the wild and restless ways of her children, and her mismanagement of the colonies later on was due to this mis- understanding. Good feeling alone could keep them united. In summarizing "England's Great Problem," let the pupils develop the outline as follows: England's Great Problem 1. Misunderstands her colonies because of a. New ideas as to how men should live, due to their life in the wilderness b. New ideas of government c. Difference in trade and industry d. A feeling of independence, due to isolation The following problems should then be taken up American conditions Immediate causes of the war Trade and navigation laws Sugar Act; Stamp Act New taxes of 1767; Boston Massacre How England's problem might have been solved How the Great Problem was solved How History Work is Conducted Teacher, Ethel Rake, Chatham In studying United States History we have endeavored to use only those facts which explain the present and prepare for the future. Only so much of the past as contributes directly to the present or future deserves a place in the school curriculum. The work has been based entirely on one central thought. "The DevelODment of Our Nation." The topics for consideration under tins were suggested by the pupils themselves. One pupil believed our development due to the rapid growth of manufacturing, another to educa- tion, and another to improved methods of transportation. A number of such topics were suggested and developed in outline form and then reported on by the class. a^«,.<^i. During these discussions many of the present conditions n America were attributed to the European war. Pupils began to ask auest.cns rncerning the causes of wars and the final outcomes. They wanted to know what part America might have in the present, conflict. 212 Finally, we decided to study the wars in which our nation has been involved in order to better understand the present situation both in Europe and Mexico. The class reasoned that v/ar is a disease; that it is contagious; and that the world must find the cause for this disease before it can find a remedy. This reasoning led to the study and com- parison of the causes of all wars in which our nation has taken part. The interest shown by the class was the guide in developing the study of important events. In many cases our pupils preferred to group the important events around certain individuals. There we found an oppor- tunity to study leaders and their influence on their own times and suc- ceeding generations. The last lessons in our study of American wars were given to the result of wars. After realizing the ravages of war and its futility in many instances they wanted to discuss possible remedies. After various suggestions were considered the class decided that arbitration must be one alternative for vs^ar, and so decided on that subject as the topic for their next study. The study of Arbitration occupied the class for three days, as follows: 1. The first lesson on Arbitration was a general class discussion, the purpose of which was to develop a suitable outline, as a basis for study. Pupils expressed a desire to know more about: (a) the real meaning of the term Arbitration; (b) its uses; (c) how it had prevented war in the past; (d) some of the present day tendencies toward Arbitration. The class was divided into groups with a chairman in charge of each group to find out more about the topics mentioned for the next day's lesson. 2. The following day the reports were given. Those who reported on the first topic illustrated by referring to the changes from primitive methods of settling disputes between individuals. The second group cited instances of the use of arbitration in settling labor troubles in our own country and touched on its use in international disputes. A third group endeavored to show how arbitration might have been used as a preventive of war. At that point we found a considerable dif- ference in opinions. The last report for the day was on peace conferences, both national and international. Pupils attempted to show reasons for the partial failure in each case. 3. The preceding lessons led to the discussion for the third day — "A practical union of the nations in a world-wide peace league." A few pupils reported on previous movements in that direction, par- ticularly on the Hague Peace Conferences. They pointed out the in- effectiveness of these movements, and from the current literature they had read, attempted to formulate the essential principles necessary to peace. Their conclusions were: 213 First, that there must be equality among the members, not equality in size or wealth but in government. One pupil said, "I think each nation will have to give up the idea of trying to be bigger and better than another nation. I don't think they hate each other as men." Second, all must agree to a decision of ihe majority. Third, the league must have power to enforce its decisions. The methods used in the development of the topic "Arbitration" were the methods used largely in the development of all the topics studied during the year. These class discussions were socialized recitations with the emphasis almost entirely on the interest of the pupils. All ideas were given voluntarily: as a result, a certain few did nearly all the talking. To counteract this tendency the class was divided into two sections. Those who regularly volunteered were asked to make out several good ques- tions each day on the subject to be discussed and ask some one from the other section to give the desired information. It was taken for granted that each one was prepared and altogether capable of dis- cussing the question but not quite so willing to volunteer as some of his less reticent companions. No one was allowed to believe that he was considered incapable; and before long all were taking part to some extent. Later in the year, the reticent group prepared questions on alternate days. Stenographic reports of a few recitations indicated that thirty per cent of all questions were asked by pupils; and that approximately sixty- five per cent of the entire recitation — questions and answers — was carried on by the pupils. The Westward Movement Teacher, Fannie C. Watson, Massachusetts Avenue School, Atlantic City The following plan may cover four or five lessons: The purpose of the lessons is, first, by the study of a typical community to show how the West was settled; second, to emphasize the importance of the westward march of the people in the industrial history of the nineteenth century; and third, to arouse in the pupil an interest in, and appreciation of the conditions which contributed to this movement. It is expected that pupils will make use of textbooks, maps, charts, pictures and any supplementary material available. References to such material on the part of the teacher should be definite. I. Review of conditions favoring western settlement A. The pathfinders B. Harrison and Jackson break the power of the Indians in ""a Middle West II. The influence of mountains and rivers on migration and settle- ment, typical problems A. From maps trace the natural barriers and great highways B. How did travelers reach the West? 214 t C. Why did immigrants settle the southern part of Indiana and Illinois before the northern? D. Why did the river towns of the West have an advantage over those on the shores of the Great Lakes? E. What improved means of communication were establishes as a result of the western movement? III. The rush to the AVest after the War of 1812 Immigration after the war 1. Conditions in Europe 2. Opportunities in America — in the East; in the West 3. Conditions in the East causing emigration IV. The beginning of a typical community in the West A. Selection of a suitable site. Conditions favorable to 1. Health 2. Business Pupils may imagine they are to select a suitable site for a settlement. For what would they look? B. Common interests of settlers In manner of life in settlement C. Simple family life of settlers 1. Homes 2. Church and school 3. Occupations 4. Pleasures V. The growth of the community modified by A. The character of the people B. The character of the site C. Natural geographical conditions 1. Soil 2. Climate 3. Natural resources 4. Surface features What geographical conditions were prominent in the growth of New Orleans, St. Louis, Cincinnati and Chicago? VI. Membership in the community. What did it mean? Cooperation for larger opportunities to 1. Protect life and health 2. Accumulate wealth 3. Educate the young 4. Satisfy social and religious desires 5. Establish representative self government VII. Problems of application A. Have pupils compare the beginning of their community with this one 1. Points in which they were alike 2. Points in which they differed B. Have pupils discuss the common interests of this community 215 C. What are some of the benefits that a citizen receives from his community? D. What are some ways in which a citizen may contribute to the welfare of his community? CIVICS GRADE VIII The Water Supply as an Element of Community Welfare in Atlantic City Teacher, Bthel C. Hamniel, Richmond Avenue School, Atlantic City Aim. To find out what the pupils know concerning the water supply of Atlantic City and lead them to realize the responsibility of each citizen in keeping the water pure. Approach. WTiere does the water supply of Atlantic City come from? Is it pure? '^A'^lat is the citizen's responsibility toward the water supply? Illustration. The proper use of water fountains in the school and on the Board-walk. Actual demonstration by some of the pupils of the correct use of fountains in the school, showing how unsanitary they become when misused. I. Source of the water supply 1. Water mains a. How are they connected with the houses? h. Need for strong mains to carry the water across the meadows 2. The pumping station. Report on a visit which may have been made there 3. Artesian wells. Do they ever furnish sufficient supply of water for the city? 4. The reservoir a. W'here is it located? h. How does it help to make the supply more certain? II. Purity of the supply. How is the purity of the water maintained? 1. Chemical examination 0. Who makes these tests? h. How often are they made? 2. Proper drainage 3. Filtration. Where does this take place? 4. Cause for occasional discoloration III. The city's part in providing the water supply 1. Organization of the water department. Report of a visit made by some of the pupils to the office of the department, telling of the work done by the city 2. Variation in quantity needed in different sea.sons makes a special problem for Atlantic City 2l6 a-. How great is the variation? b. How does the city provide for this? 3. Prevention of unnecessary leakage. Need for constant super- vision 4. How the city pays for this part of its work IV. The citizen's part regarding the water supply 1. With respect to liealth a. Keeping spigots clean b. Use of individual drinking cups 2. Protection from fire a. Danger from waste b. What are high pressure mains? 3. Protecting pipes from freezing Newark Taxes Teacher, Anna Achenbach, South Eighth Street School, Newark Aims. To cultivate intelligent, appreciative citizenship. To familiarize pupils with the advantages and protection of a well-organized city government, and to give them some idea of how the expenses of such a government are met. Purposes of taxation Remind the class of the officer at the street crossing near the school, and of what his presence there means, as one instance of police protection. Call to their attention the purpose of the fire house in their vicinity. Ask how many of them use the public library and what such use costs, if they are careful to observe the rules. Get them to name some other buildings and institutions maintained by the city for the public good. Lead them to see something of what the school stands for in culture, knowledge, association — preparation for life. Then ask them what all this splendid and expensive equipment costs the individual In proportion to the opportunities it offers. Read to the class from "The Street and Life of the City" — Newark Study, p. 89, as an illustration of the importance and use of the streets. In like manner discuss briefly such topics as: The protection afforded by the Board of Health The convenience and necessity of lights, public water, supplies, scavenger service, etc. The necessity for efficient service from the city officials, who have charge of all departments, and who should work for the best interests of the whole community. These purposes should be tabulated in brief form and learned. They are some of the conveniences and privileges enjoyed by all alike in the city, and without which life here would be neither comfortable, happy, nor safe. 2iy Every privilege or benefit implies a duty, or obligation. Who should bear the expense of maintaining all these departments of government and these public institutions? How is that expense met? Sources of taxation Just as the purposes of taxation were developed as far as possible from what the children knew, supplemented and enlarged upon by the teacher, so the sources of taxation should be taught in the same way and finally tabulated in some such form as this Sources of taxation in Newark 1. Real estate 2. Personal property 3. Poll tax of the voters 4. Franchise tax on public utilities, apportioned by the state 5. The city's share of railroad tax, apportioned to the schools by the state 6. Fines — illustrate What kind of taxes are the above to the people or companies that pay them? (Direct taxes) 7. License fees paid by Saloons Jitney busses Moving picture places Theaters Dance halls Peddlers, etc. What kind of taxes are the above to the people who patronize these places of amusement, saloons, etc.? (Indirect taxes; explain) ' From the foregoing, deduce the following facts: A. That the general purposes of all taxation are 1. To meet the expenses of government 2. To provide for protection or safety 3. To make public improvements for the benefit of all 4. To add to the happiness and general convenience of the community B. That taxes are of two kinds 1. Direct 2. Indirect C. That, although our system of taxation is by no means perfect, the general theory is to have those pay the taxes 1. Who are best able — property owners 2. Those who enjoy the privilege of making their living out of the public directly— those who pay licenses 3. Those indirectly, who can afford luxuries, amusements- things that are not absolute necessities 2l8 Application Make this work a basis for the teaching of taxation in arithmetic Begin with local taxation Have someone bring a tax bill Get information from recent statistics (found at the library) For what information would you ask? Teach how to find tax rate Apply to individual taxpayer, etc., or Have the pupils write an Imaginary conversation between a dis- gruntled taxpayer and a public-spirited citizen, as an exercise in composition. Note. This plan may serve for tliree or more lessons In civics, dependent upon the detail with which It is worked out and the length of the lesson period. UCLA-Young Research Library LB1583 .N46 y 'M B*^-' iJD3 , <^ ^v i\ ./■