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i^Elementary Science, Nature 
 tudy, & Practical Work 
 
 in Preparatory Schools 
 
 and the Lovver Forms of 
 
 Secondary Schools 
 
 Being a Report of the 
 
 SUB-COMMITTEE appointed by 
 
 THE SCIENCE MASTERS' ASSOCIATION 
 1922 
 
 LONDON 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 EDINBURGH GLASGOW COPENHAGEN 
 
 NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPETOWN 
 BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS SHANGHAI 
 
 I! HUMPHREY MILFORD 
 
 Printed in England 
 
 I 
 
\J^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^3^ 
 
 NOTE 
 
 This Report is a detailed schedule of main principles 
 agreed upon.by the Head Masters* Conference, the Associa- 
 tion of Preparatory Schools, and the Science Masters' 
 Association. 
 
 It should not be taken as being a statement of the views 
 of the Science Masters' Association as far as introductory 
 science is concerned, but it is hoped that it may form the 
 basis of work in Preparatory Schools and the lower Forms 
 of Secondary Schools so that some correlation may be 
 possible. 
 
> 
 
 -<^. 
 
 Elementary Science, Nature Study, and Prac- 
 tical JVork in Preparatory Schools and the 
 Lower Forms of Secondary Schools, 
 
 In June 192 1 the Joint Standing Committee invited the Science 
 Masters' Association to send representatives to meet them to discuss 
 the teaching of Science in Preparatory Schools and its correlation 
 with that given in the lower forms of Public Schools. Mr. C. Godfrey 
 was also present as representing the Mathematical Association. 
 
 The Joint Standing Committee arrived at the following recom- 
 mendations, which were forwarded to the Headmasters' Conference 
 and to the Council of the Association of Preparatory Schools for 
 adoption : 
 
 (a) That the scope of the Geography Paper in the Common 
 Entrance Examination be widened. 
 
 (b) That all candidates for the scholarships for Public Schools 
 should have an opportunity of answering questions on Natural 
 Science in a viva-voce examination. 
 
 (c) That some of the questions set in the Common Entrance 
 Mathematical papers should be so framed as to test a boy's pro- 
 ficiency in Practical Mathematics. 
 
 (d) That an opportunity should be given both in the General 
 Paper for scholarships, and in the English Composition and Litera- 
 ture Paper of the Common Entrance Examination, for a candidate 
 to show his knowledge of Natural Science. 
 
 (e) That where possible two periods weekly should be given 
 to Science in the curriculum, or, at any rate, one period. 
 
 The first four of these five recommendations have now been 
 accepted by both bodies, and they have been sent forward to 
 the Common Entrance Examination Board. 
 
 The Science Masters' Association was then invited to prepare a 
 statement of work, in accordance with the above recommendations, 
 which might with advantage be carried out by young boys. The sub- 
 committee, consisting of Messrs. O. H. Latter of Charterhouse, J. R. 
 Eccles and S. Wilkinson of Gresham's School, Holt, V. Seymour 
 
 520841 
 
Bryant of St. Piran's, Maidenhead, with the assistance of Mr. C. 
 Godfrey of the Mathematical Association, recommend as follows : 
 
 1. The object aimed at should be to arouse an intelh'gent interest 
 in the natural phenomena in the world at large, but more particularly 
 those around the school and the home. With this end in view, it is 
 most important that the work should be done by the boys themselves 
 with as little help as possible from the Master in charge. 
 
 The function of the Master should be to propound questions, 
 to suggest inquiries by experiment and observation, and to set 
 boys on the right path to find out for themselves the answers 
 to intelligent questions that they address to him. 
 
 Set lectures giving mere infontiation in a didactic manner should be 
 avoided. 
 
 2. That as far as Nature Study is concerned the recommendations 
 of a previous sub-committee of the Public School Science Masters' 
 Association be adopted. 
 
 3. That the principle of dovetailing subjects should be carried 
 out wherever possible. In practical Geography for example, much 
 of the work can conveniently be interwoven with the ordinary topo- 
 graphy teaching on the one hand, and with woodwork in the Carpenter's 
 shop on the other. Much of the Practical Mathematics may also 
 conveniently be carried out in the workshop, and most of the 
 remainder covered in the classroom by the Mathematical Master. 
 
 The Nature Study Course affords great opportunities for in- 
 struction in drawing, writing, and particularly in English. This 
 should be mutual, however, and friendly co-operation between the 
 English and the Science Master is eminently desirable. 
 
 The sub-committee have drawn up the subjoined syllabus of work 
 which may reasonably be undertaken by boys up to 14 or 15 years of 
 age at both Preparatory and Secondary Schools. 
 
 The syllabus in Practical Geography and Practical Mathematics 
 should be completely covered during the Preparatory School stage, 
 but it is not suggested that the Nature Study syllabus be attempted 
 in its entirety. It is strongly urged that the Master in charge of the 
 Nature Study should make his own selection from the list and calendar 
 hereto appended. 
 
 A few model lessons have been sketched out as examples of the 
 method to be employed in this subject. It will be observed that 
 there is a certain amount of overlapping in the Nature Study and 
 Practical Geography schedules. This is intentional, as some portions 
 of the complete scheme may be more conveniently dealt with by the 
 Nature Study master than by the Geographer or Scientist in some 
 schools and vice versa in others. 
 
 V. SEYMOUR BRYANT, 
 
 Hon. Sec. S.M.A. 
 
SYLLABUS OF NATURE-STUDY WORK 
 SUITABLE TO PREPARATORY SCHOOLS 
 
 (The syllabus is here arranged according to subjects, in order 
 the more readily to enable Masters to perceive the scope of the 
 work. The same syllabus is also presented below in the form of 
 an annual calendar.) 
 
 Botany. — (This is to be understood merely as a list of suitable 
 subjects, from which the Master will make his own selection.) 
 
 1. Seeds : their structure and germination as exemplified by the 
 seeds of mustard, French bean, runner bean, and ash. The behaviour 
 of the root and stem of the seedling, with regard to the force of 
 gravitation. 
 
 2. The effect of light and of darkness upon the growth of 
 seedlings. 
 
 3. The attitude and position of leaves on various plants with 
 regard to incidence of light. 
 
 4. Climbing plants ; the manner in which such plants grasp their 
 supports. 
 
 5. Experiments on the nutrition of plants; the chemical substances 
 necessary to plant life as shown by water-cultures. 
 
 6. The presence of starch in leaves exposed to the light ; how to 
 recognize starch by the iodine test. 
 
 7. Starch in bread, rice, potatoes, and seeds employed as food 
 by man. 
 
 8. The structure of buds, bulbs and corms ; the relation of the 
 bud to the leaf. 
 
 9. The structure of a flower. The colour and scent of flowers in 
 relation with insects. The absence of fruit from plants, e. g. straw- 
 berry, screened by muslin from insect visitors. 
 
 10. Trees that flower before they develop their leaves in Spring, 
 and vice versa ; the differences between the flowers in the two groups, 
 and the significance of the differences. 
 
 11. The fall of the leaf in Autumn a 'vital' process, i. e., does not 
 occur on a branch broken off" in Summer, but is accomplished by 
 living trees and shrubs only. 
 
 12. Evergreens and their characters. 
 
 13. The differences between species of trees in Spring, Summer, 
 Autumn, and Winter. 
 
 14. Fruits : the structure and chief modifications of edible fruits. 
 
 15. The dispersal of succulent and of dry fruits; winged seeds, 
 burrs, &c. 
 
 16. Ferns, their habits, mode of growth and life-history. 
 
 17. The defences of plants; the nature of thorns, prickles, 
 stinging hairs, &c. (Microscopic examination should be made if 
 possible.) 
 
4^!i;ii^:{ ; ■:: ...... ,• 4 
 
 Zoology. — (It is not intended that the whole of this Section should 
 be attempted, but only such parts as each individual Master may 
 prefer.) 
 
 1. The life-history of moths, butterflies, dragonflies, and other 
 insects ; to be ascertained by keeping living specimens and record- 
 ing and sketching the successive phases. 
 
 2. The influence of the colour of surrounding objects upon certain 
 caterpillars and chrysalids, frogs, and some fishes (sticklebacks.) 
 Experiments on these points to be conducted by the boys them- 
 selves. 
 
 3. The life-history of the frog, toad, and newt. 
 
 4. The nests of 'social' insects — ants, bees, and wasps. (Ants 
 may be kept in captivity for years confined in cheap glass cases : 
 * observatory ' bee-hives can be purchased or made on the premises 
 at very moderate cost.) 
 
 5. Comparison of the external form of earthworm, insect, spider, 
 centipede, woodlouse, and snail. 
 
 6. The growth of the shell of a snail. 
 
 7. Sea-shore animals : the occupants of rock-pools, and the fauna 
 between tide-marks. The manner of life, spawning habits, &c., &c., 
 of such animals. The fresh-water hydra and sea-anemones. 
 
 8. The hibernation of animals, e.g., mammals, reptiles, amphibians, 
 insects, snails, earthworms ; the modes by which they contrive to pass 
 through the winter. 
 
 9. Comparison of the feet, legs, and tails of horses, donkeys, cows, 
 sheep, and pigs. 
 
 10. A diary relating to birds : the arrival and departure of migrants ; 
 lists of resident birds, nesting habits, notices of songs heard and 
 identified ; changes in the character of the song at different seasons. 
 The varieties of feathers of an ostrich, or other flightless bird, and 
 those of birds that fly. The forms of the claws and beaks, and the 
 relation between these and the habits of the birds. 
 
 General. — (As with the preceding sections, so here it is intended 
 that a selection should be made from the subjects enumerated, 
 and the whole not attempted.) 
 
 1. Meteorological Observations : — Records of the altitude of the 
 Sun throughout the year; how to determine the points of the compass 
 by the Sun and by the Pole Star ; the names of the chief stellar con- 
 stellations ; the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ; the phases 
 of the Moon ; tides ; the daily record of the wind, of the height of 
 the barometer, of the maximum and minimum temperatures, of the 
 amount of rain as shown by the rain-gauge (these records should be 
 entered numerically and also indicated upon scaled charts) ; the state 
 of the sky from day to day, the occurrence of fog, dew, snow, clouds, 
 and the various forms of clouds. 
 
 2. The principle of the Thermometer ; the principle of the 
 Barometer. (These are suitable only for upper divisions. The 
 
instruments themselves should be used and observed by all boys. 
 It is not necessary that the principles involved should be under- 
 stood before the daily observations are undertaken.) 
 
 3. The effect of frost upon the soil, garden paths, freshly tilled 
 earth, &c., and upon rocks. The freezing of water in a closed 
 vessel. 
 
 4. The effect of rain upon the surface of the earth ; the formation 
 of rills and small streams upon the surface of roads, bare banks, &c., 
 during rainfall ; roadside deltas ; denudation by atmospheric and 
 by marine agencies ; the denudation of rocks of different physical 
 character, e. g., clay, sandstone, and chalk. The outbreak of streams 
 upon a hillside. 
 
 5. The examination and description of quarries, sand-pits, brick- 
 yards, cuttings, limekilns, gravel-pits, &c., in the neighbourhood ; 
 stratification ; fossils from the above localities ; pebbles and running 
 water ; shingle of sea-beaches ; sand and its formation. 
 
 6. Lecture on Coal. (An exception may be made here, as it is 
 not possible for boys to find out much of the nature and history 
 of Coal by their own observations.) 
 
 7. The evaporation of rain-water, spring-water, and sea-water; 
 the comparison of the residues and the steam condensed from 
 each. Application of the facts ascertained to the 'water-cycle' 
 in nature; rain (or snow), rivers, springs, sea, vapour, cloud, rain 
 (or snow). 
 
 8. Map-drawing. A plan of the school grounds drawn to scale, 
 with compass points marked and the positions of various buildings, 
 trees, and other plants indicated ; also the haunts of particular 
 animals, birds' nests, &c., &:c. 
 
 SYLLABUS ARRANGED AS A CALENDAR OF WORK 
 
 (It is not expected nor advised that the whole of this syllabus be 
 attempted in any one school. A selection should be made in accord- 
 ance with individual tastes and circumstances.) 
 
 January. — Meteorological observations : sun, moon, stars, and 
 planets ; temperature, rainfall, &c., &c. The effect of frost upon the 
 soil and upon rocks. The freezing of water in a closed vessel. [The 
 principle of the thermometer and of the barometer.] The differences 
 between various species of trees in wintertime. The state of various 
 hibernating animals. Observations on the species of birds and their 
 habits ; their songs. 
 
 February. — Meteorological observations as in January. Trees 
 that flower before they develop leaves in spring ; the character of 
 the flowers. Comparison of the feet, legs, and tails of horses, 
 donkeys, cows, sheep, and pigs. Observations on birds ; species 
 preparing to nest, arrival and departure of migrants, list of those 
 heard to sing during month. 
 
6 
 
 The effect of rain upon the surface of the earth ; the formation of 
 rills and small streams upon the surface of roads, bare banks, &c., 
 during rainfall ; roadside deltas ; denudation of rocks of different 
 physical characters, e. g. clay, sandstone, and chalk. The outbreak 
 of streams upon a hillside. 
 
 The evaporation of rain-water ; comparison of the residues and of 
 the steam condensed from each. Application of the facts ascertained 
 to the ' water cycle ' in nature ; rain (or snow), rivers, springs, sea, 
 vapour, rain (or snow). 
 
 March. — Meteorological observations as in January. The altitude 
 of the sun should be observed at the equinox, or as near that date 
 as possible. 
 
 Seeds, their germination and structure. Mustard seed : behaviour 
 of root and stem with regard to the earth. 
 
 Trees that flower before they develop leaves ; the character of 
 the flowers. 
 
 Moths and butterflies that appear during the month. 
 
 Frogs' spawn and tadpoles. 
 
 Bees, wasps, and ants — their nests and renewed activity. 
 
 Arrival and departure of migratory birds. Nests, songs, &c., &c. 
 
 April. — Meteorological observations as in January. 
 
 Seeds, their germination and structure ; French-bean seed, runner- 
 bean seed. 
 
 Structure of a flower — buttercup, blue-bell, primrose. The colours 
 of flowers and their relation to insect visitors. 
 
 Trees that flower before they develop leaves ; the character of the 
 flowers. 
 
 Moths, butterflies, dragonflies, &c. ; the early stages of their life- 
 histories. 
 
 Frogs' spawn, toads' spawn, tadpoles, newts. 
 
 Nests of ants, wasps, bees. 
 
 Arrival of migratory birds ; nests, songs, &c., &c. 
 
 May. — Meteorological observations. 
 
 Seeds, their germination and the growth of seedlings. Structure 
 of Ash-seed. 
 
 Effect of light and darkness upon the growth of seedlings. 
 
 Experiments on nutrition of plants, water-cultures (to be continued 
 up to the end of summer). 
 
 Structure of a flower. Absence of fruit from strawberry plants 
 screened by muslin from insect visitors. 
 
 Trees that flower after their leaves are developed. The character 
 of the flower as contrasted with those of trees which flower before 
 their leaves open. 
 
 Plan of school grounds drawn to scale, with compass points marked 
 and positions of various buildings, trees, &c., indicated. 
 
 Continuation of life-histories of insects. 
 
 Influence of the colour of surrounding objects upon certain cater- 
 pillars, chrysalids, sticklebacks, &c., to be treated experimentally. 
 
Further stages of tadpoles. 
 
 Nests of insects. 
 
 Migratory birds — nests, songs, &c. 
 
 Ju7ie. — Meteorological observations. Altitude of the sun should 
 be observed at the solstice. 
 
 The attitude and position of leaves on various plants, and the 
 connexion with incidence of light. Ferns, their habits and life- 
 history. 
 
 Water-cultures (continued). 
 
 The relative positions of leaves and buds upon the stems. 
 
 Strawberry plant (continued). 
 
 Trees that flower after their leaves are developed (continued). 
 The general appearance of the commoner trees at midsummer. 
 
 The defences of plants : thorns, prickles, stinging hairs, &c. 
 
 Life-histories of insects (continued). " 
 
 Influence of colour of surroundings upon caterpillars, &c. 
 (continued). 
 
 Life-history of frogs, toads, and newts (continued). 
 
 Nests of ants, &c. (continued). 
 
 Sea-shore animals ; the occupants of rock-pools, their habits, 
 manner of life, &c., &c. 
 
 July. — Meteorological observations. Climbing plants — tendrils, 
 &c. : ivy, scarlet runner, clematis, convolvulus, hop, honeysuckle, 
 pea, briony, vine, &c., &c. 
 
 Water-cultures (continued). 
 
 Ferns, their habits and structure : their spores. 
 
 Presence of starch in leaves exposed to light. The iodine test. 
 
 Strawberry plant (continued). 
 
 Trees that flower after their leaves are developed (continued). 
 
 Structure of cherry and strawberry fruits ; significance and value 
 of each part. 
 
 Life-histories of insects (continued). Influence of colour of 
 surroundings (continued). 
 
 Life-histories of frogs, toads, newts (continued). 
 
 Growth of shell of snail. Sea-shore animals, their habits, &c. 
 
 Birds ; their nests, songs, &c. ; moulting ; departure of some 
 migrants. 
 
 Effect of rain upon the surface of the earth ; denudation ; the 
 denudation of rocks of different physical characters, e. g. clay, sand- 
 stone, chalk. The formation of small streams on a hill-side during 
 rainfall ; roadside deltas. 
 
 Examination of quarries, sand-pits, brick-yards, cuttings, lime- 
 kilns, gravel-pits, &c. Fossils in such exposures. Pebbles and 
 running water ; sea-beaches, outbreak of streams on hill-sides, «&c. 
 
 August (holiday work).— Arrangements should, if possible, be 
 made for continuance of the meteorological observations during the 
 aummer and other holidays. This especially applies to the readings 
 of the maximum and minimum thermometer and of the rain-gauge. 
 
8 
 
 Life-histories of insects (continued). Influence of colour upon 
 chrysalids, fish, &c. 
 
 Sea-shore animals : the occupants of rock-pools, their manner of 
 life, habits, &c. 
 
 Wasps' nests ; ants' nests. 
 
 Departure of migratory birds. 
 
 Examination of cliffs, quarries, sand-pits, cuttings, &c. ; pebbles 
 and running water ; the arrangement of boulders, shingle, sand, &c., 
 on a sea-beach. Fossils. 
 
 Sepfemder.—Meteorologicsil observations. Altitude of sun should 
 be taken at the equinox. 
 
 The presence of starch in bread, rice, potatoes, seeds, and other 
 storage organs of plants used as human food. 
 
 The dispersal of succulent and of dry fruits by animal and other 
 agencies ; winged seeds, burrs, &c. 
 
 Life-histories of insects (continued). 
 
 Life-histories of frogs, toads, newts (continued). 
 
 Comparison of the external form of earthworm, insect, spider, 
 centipede, woodlouse, snail. 
 
 Sea-shore animals, &c. (continued). 
 
 Wasps' nests. 
 
 Departure of migratory birds. Songs heard during the month. 
 
 October, — Meteorological observations. 
 
 The presence of starch in bread, rice, &c. (continued). 
 
 The structure of bulbs, corms, and buds ; relation of bud to leaf. 
 
 The fall of the leaf: it is a * vital ' process, i. e., does not occur on 
 a dead branch broken off while in full leaf during the summer. 
 
 Evergreens and their characters. 
 
 The structure and modifications of edible fruits — plums, apples, &c. 
 
 The dispersal of succulent and of dry fruits (continued). 
 
 Life-histories of insects (continued). 
 
 Life-histories of frogs, toads, newts (continued). 
 
 Nests of ants, wasps, &c. 
 
 Spiders' webs. 
 
 Migratory birds. 
 
 Effect of rain upon the surface of the earth, &c. {^ide sub July), 
 
 November. — Meteorological observations. 
 
 The structure of bulbs, corms, buds, &c. 
 
 Evergreens and their characters (continued). 
 
 The fall of the leaf (continued). 
 
 The hibernation of animals — mammals, frogs, toads, lizards, snakes, 
 insects, molluscs, worms. 
 
 Arrival of winter migratory birds. Resident birds. Examination 
 of varieties of feathers ; feather of ostrich contrasted with feather of 
 a bird that can fly. 
 
 December. — Meteorological observations. Altitude of sun to be 
 taken at solstice. 
 
 Evergreens and their characters. Winter berries. 
 
Structure of fruits — oranges, apples, medlars, dates, almonds, «&c. 
 
 General appearance of different species of trees in mid- winter. 
 
 Resident birds— winter visitors. 
 
 Effect of frost upon the soil and upon rocks. Freezing of water 
 in a closed vessel. 
 
 Note : — In this syllabus no mention has been made of the metric 
 system, weighing, the determination of densities, &c., as the sub- 
 committee are of opinion that these subjects are best taken in 
 connexion with the mathematical teaching. 
 
 (Signed) Osv^ald H. Latter. 
 W. E. Cross. 
 M. D. Hill. 
 J. Talbot. 
 A. Vassall. 
 
 SPECIMEN LESSON.— I. 
 Comparison of the External Form of Earthworm, Insect, 
 
 Spider, and Centipede. 
 
 Every boy should have a living specimen to examine, and should 
 answer the following questions and make drawings of the animals. 
 
 1. Compare the nature of the outer covering : is it hard or soft in 
 each case ? Is it equally so all over ? 
 
 2. Does the animal move by changing the shape of its body or by 
 changing the shape and position of outgrowths from the body (legs 
 and wings)? 
 
 3. Can you suggest a reason for the outer coverings of the insect, 
 spider, and centipede differing from that of the earthworm ? 
 
 4. Which of these animals are divided up into rings (segments) by 
 grooves running round the body ? 
 
 5. How many regions are clearly marked off from one another by 
 deeper grooves in the insect ? How many in the spider ? How 
 many in the centipede ? 
 
 6. How many legs has the insect ? How many has the spider ? 
 How many has the centipede ? On which parts of the body are they 
 placed in each case ? 
 
 7. Has the worm anything that at all corresponds to legs? If so, 
 state all that you can find out about them. 
 
 8. Which of these animals have antennae? What use are the 
 antennae ? 
 
 9. Which of these animals have eyes ? Where are they placed ? 
 Examine them with a microscope. 
 
 10. Which of these animals are slimy? What is the use of the 
 slime? 
 
 11. Which of these animals is able to spin silk? From what part 
 of the body does the silk come ? What uses do they make of the 
 silk? 
 
10 
 
 SPECIMEN LESSON.— II. 
 Development of Tadpole and Frog. 
 
 This lesson, as in the case of several others, will occupy several 
 months, and should run concurrently with observations upon other 
 types. 
 
 Newly deposited frogs' spawn can be found in March. Some 
 should be placed in a tank or aquarium, containing living water weed 
 and left undisturbed until the tadpoles emerge. A separate stock of 
 spawn should be kept in water and specimens given to the pupils for 
 observation up to the time of hatching. 
 
 The first signs of change in the egg occur within a few hours of 
 the time they were deposited. The egg is hatched and the tadpole 
 liberated in ten to twelve days, the frog being fully developed in 
 about three months. 
 
 These times vary greatly with the temperatures at which the eggs 
 and larvae are kept. Development is considerably retarded by cold. 
 An even temperature of 15° to 17° C. is suitable. It would be well 
 to look up from some hand-book details upon the management of 
 fresh water aquaria. 
 
 In the following lesson the left hand column contains directions 
 for observation by the pupils, but for the sake of clearness and to 
 show the bearing of one question upon a previous one, the results of 
 observations are often stated also. It is of course assumed that in 
 an actual lesson, these results will be supplied by the pupils 
 themselves. 
 
 The specimens should be examined daily, and any change that 
 has occurred noted down. The notes would then form the subjects 
 of discussion in class at suitable intervals. 
 
 Directions and suggestions for observa- 
 tion and inference. 
 
 Place your egg in a watch glass, 
 cover with water, and examine with 
 a magnifying glass. 
 
 Sketch the egg and its surrounding 
 layer of jelly. 
 
 Compare the use of this jelly, with 
 that of the outer covering of any other 
 ^ZE yo" "^^y have studied or that of 
 the seeds of plants. 
 
 Why should the outer covering of 
 the frog's egg be different from that 
 of a bird's egg? 
 
 Examine the egg daily and keep it 
 in a warm spot. Note that one side 
 of the eg^ becomes dark first, the other 
 side remaining unchanged for a longer 
 time. Remember which side of your 
 egg became dark first. Can you find 
 any mark dividing the light from the 
 dark portion ? 
 
 Notes for Teachers. 
 
 The function is chiefly protective. 
 
 In the latter case a hard envelope 
 is needed to resist the pressure of the 
 sitting bird. 
 
 The dark side will give rise to the 
 chief organs of the animal. The light 
 portion is yolk or food for the embryo. 
 
II 
 
 Watch dailj' to see if other lines or 
 marks have appeared. In a very short 
 time the egg will be divided up into 
 a number of small patches by these 
 lines or grooves. The patches are 
 called cells. Each cell may divide 
 again and again by grooves forming 
 across it, each part becoming as large 
 as the original cell. All living matter 
 whether animal or plant grows by this 
 division of cells. 
 
 In a day or so you find the egg 
 altering in shape. Sketch it again, 
 note the difference between the two 
 ends. The blunt end is the future 
 head, the pointed end the tail. 
 
 Examine daily the head, and with 
 your magnifying glass look for any 
 markings upon it. Directly 30U find 
 any show them in your sketches. 
 Watch these daily to see what they 
 will turn into. 
 
 At each side of the ' head ' of your 
 egg, you will find four bar-like swell- 
 ings. Watch for changes in these. 
 
 Look at the under side of your egg 
 (i.e. the original light side). Do you 
 notice any pecuharity in its shape? 
 Remember its shape and note what 
 happens to it after the tadpole is 
 hatched. You ma3' then be able to 
 say what the swelling means. 
 
 In about twelve days from the first 
 changes in the egg appearing, the tad- 
 poles will be hatched and will break 
 through the surrounding jelly. 
 
 Examine the bars on the sides of 
 the head. Two of these now bear 
 gills. Tadpoles, like fishes, breathe 
 by means of the air dissolved in water. 
 
 Note how the tadpole passes its time 
 for the first day or so after hatching. 
 Look for any organs by which it 
 attaches itself to plants. 
 
 Watch the changes in its mouth 
 during this period. 
 
 Note also what is happening to the 
 swelling on its under surface. 
 
 Note how it changes its manner of 
 living in about three days from hatching. 
 
 Can you suggest any connexion be- 
 tween the changes in its mouth and in 
 its manner of living ? 
 
 Why did it not feed directly it was 
 hatched ? 
 
 A microscope with a low power wilt 
 easily show these grooves, which are 
 the beginnings of cell division. The 
 subsequent process could be explained 
 by blackboard demonstration or omit- 
 ted altogether if thought advisable. 
 
 The egg is elongating. The head 
 and tail ends can be distinguished. 
 
 A small central pit will appear on 
 th^ under surface of the head. This 
 is the future mouth, A strong glass 
 will show two more pairs of pits, 
 above and behind the central one. 
 These will form the optic and auditory 
 organs respectively. 
 
 The last two will bear external gills. 
 The development of the others cannot 
 be traced by external observation. 
 
 It is swcllen with yolk cells. 
 
 Continue observations from this 
 point upon tadpoles taken day by day 
 from the tank or aquarium. 
 
 It seems attached to weeds until its 
 jaws are developed. 
 
 Special organs called ' suckers ' are 
 developed for this purpose. 
 
 The swelhng has practically dis- 
 appeared, for much of ^e food yolk 
 has been used up. 
 
 As soon as the jaWs are developed 
 it swims freely in search of food. 
 
12 
 
 You have probably learned how 
 plants live before they germinate, and 
 that their roots can suck up food from 
 the soil. 
 
 Try to say how the tadpole kept 
 itself alive before it could feed itself. 
 
 Now thaf the tadpole can swim and 
 eat the water weed, what is happening 
 to the 'suckers' by which it attached 
 itself to plants ? 
 
 Why did the tadpole need them at 
 first? 
 
 Why are they no longer needed ? 
 
 As the tadpole has no fins, how can 
 it move through the water ? 
 
 What is happening now to the gills? 
 How does the animal breathe now? 
 
 The water is taken in at the mouth. 
 Find how it gets out again. 
 
 When the legs appear, note what 
 happens to the tail and account for 
 the change. 
 
 About the same time you must care- 
 fully watch the mouth and eyes. What 
 happens to them ? 
 
 Has the frog again changed its 
 general manner of living? 
 
 What have the changes in legs, 
 mouth, tail and eyes to do with its 
 changed habits ? 
 
 Should yqj; think its changed habits 
 are accompanied by any further change 
 in its breathing apparatus ? 
 
 Why should it not have had lungs 
 for breathing from the first ? 
 
 Examine the frog's tongue. Of what 
 use is its peculiar shape and position? 
 To answer this question you must find 
 out what the frog now feeds upon, and 
 how it seizes its food. 
 
 All animals go through many changes 
 before they are fully developed, in 
 much the same manner as a frog ; but 
 many (birds for instance) are prac- 
 tically fully developed when hatched. 
 You know also that the tadpole had 
 a food supply that it lived upon before 
 it was ready to seek food for itself; 
 in the same way the yolk of birds' 
 eggs form food for the young bird 
 before hatching. 
 
 Should you think that the bird's large 
 and frog's small food supply have any- 
 thing to do with their different states 
 of development when hatched ? 
 
 In all cases nature provides food 
 until such time as the organism can 
 obtain a supply for itself. 
 
 They are disappearing. 
 
 They were needed to keep the tad- 
 pole in a place of safety until it was 
 able to swim. 
 
 External gills have atrophied and 
 internal gills have taken their place. 
 Careful examination will show an exit 
 hole on the left side. 
 
 Here examine a fish and show the 
 water passages from the mouth through 
 the gill slits. 
 
 Jaws are now developed and eyes 
 opened. 
 
 As the breathing is now performed 
 entirely above water, lungs have been 
 developed. 
 
 The large food supply of the bird 
 enables it to complete all its changes 
 before it need seek food for itself. 
 
13 
 
 Summary, 
 
 Besides some knowledge of the life-history and development of the 
 frog, the pupils will have been collecting information leading up to 
 the following generalization : 
 
 I St — The growth of organism by cell-division. 
 
 2nd. — Change in manner of living is accompanied by change in 
 structure. 
 
 ^rd. — Food is provided by Nature until the organism is sufficiently 
 developed to seek it for itself. 
 
 4th. — An organ no longer needed disappears, e.g., the tail goes 
 when the legs are developed. 
 
 5th. — Temporary needs are often met by the development of 
 temporary "organs, e.g. the development of gills for use during aquatic 
 state only. 
 
 6th. — An organ is not usually developed until it is needed, e. g. 
 a frog, as an insect feeder, has greater need of sight than a tadpole, 
 a plant feeder. 
 
 SPECIMEN LESSON.— III. 
 Climbing Plants. 
 
 It is advisable to warn the pupils, perhaps a week before, that they 
 will have to consider these plants at some particular lesson. 
 
 Furthermore, the teacher should provide himself with specimens 
 of climbing plants, or still better be able to take the pupils into 
 a garden or greenhouse where tjhey can see them growing. 
 
 To begin it may be well to ask a series of questions or tell the 
 pupils to write in their books as many climbing plants as they know. 
 If the class is small each may read out his list. Next, particulars 
 should be stated as to the part used in climbing, and if, as is prob- 
 able, little knowledge is shown, the pupils can be instructed to draw 
 up some such table as is here appended, and told to fill it in during 
 the coming week from their own observations. 
 
 Next, attention may be drawn to the places where climbing plants 
 are found ; to the slender stems they usually possess ; and the pupils 
 be got to see why slender-stemmed water plants do not require to 
 climb, while those on land must. 
 
 The teacher should also have a hop and a runner-bean growing 
 in the same pot, or as n^r together as possible, and the pupils 
 left to notice the different way each climbs. Each plant should 
 be sketched in a note-book. 
 
 As will be readily recognized, such a lesson as is sketched here 
 can be of little value unless efforts are made to make the pupil 
 think for himself; and it is also highly desirable that he should 
 amplify what he does in school by personal observation out of it. 
 
 Anything like dictated notes should be strictly avoided. 
 
 It is even more necessary that the teacher himself should be an 
 original observer. 
 
14 
 
 Part of PIa7it which helps m t/imbhig. Examples. 
 
 r. Stem 
 
 2. Roots 
 
 3. Leafstalks ; 
 
 4. Tendrils formed from leaves 
 
 5. Tendrils formed from stipules 
 
 6. Tendrils formed from shoots. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Practical Geography course has been arranged to cover 
 a period of either two or three years. If the scheme be adhered to 
 all boys will be doing the same type of work in the same term. 
 
 Two advantages follow from this : 
 
 r. At any one period of the year the master in charge will only 
 require one set of apparatus or collection of photographs. 
 
 2. An arrangement becomes possible for the junior boys to question 
 the seniors. Not only will this give rise to revision, but the senior 
 boys will make efforts to be in possession of sufficient knowledge to 
 give a clear exposition. 
 
 1ST Stage. 
 Maps. 
 
 Local 1" and conventional signs. Appreciate — map represents 
 
 country. 
 Description of routes from map. 
 Make plans : — pacing— cross-staff, &c. 
 
 Story of Drake or Columbus. 
 
 How to find directions— compass — sun — dead reckoning, &c. 
 
 As stories develop explain meaning of geographical terms. 
 
 Learn names and positions of continents — seas, &c. 
 
 Layer system — compare with models. 
 Appreciate layers in Atlas Maps. 
 Earth. 
 
 Rotation. 
 
 Day and night. 
 
 Altitude of Sun. 
 
 Principal constellations. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Simple experiments on composition. 
 Relation of living organisms to atmosphere. 
 Properties of air — expansion on heating — presence of water 
 vapour, &c. [Experimental treatment only.] 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Seasonal and daily variation. 
 Thermometer as an indicator. 
 
15 
 
 Rain ajid Clouds. 
 
 Evaporation and condensation. 
 
 Cooling of Air on expansion. [Experimental treatment only.] 
 
 Story of rain — measurement of rainfall — typical clouds. 
 
 Weather. 
 
 Observation of local weather. 
 Denudation. 
 
 Experiments. 
 Snow and Ice. 
 Life on the Sea. 
 Solids^ Liquids, and Gases. 
 Local distribution of plants. 
 Stories of Life in Zones. 
 Lives of Typical British animals. 
 Stories of Early Britons. 
 Mode of Life, &c. 
 Life of Farmer. 
 „ Fisherman. 
 „ Herder. 
 „ Hunter, &c. 
 
 2ND Stage. 
 Maps. 
 
 i" maps. 
 
 Contours. 
 
 Simple problems on contours. 
 
 Simple map- making — traverse — model theodolite. 
 
 Story of Livingstone — Land routes. 
 
 Story of Cook — latitude and longitude. Read Coral Island 
 
 (abridged edition). 
 Make map and model of Coral Island. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Shape (Latitude from above). 
 Experiments on rotation. 
 Sun and seasons. 
 Sun and planets. 
 Phases of Moon. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Experiments on pressure. 
 Productions of winds. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Scales of temperature. 
 Distribution over British Isles. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Nearness to Sun. 
 
 Mountains, &c. 
 
i6 
 
 Rain and Clouds. 
 
 Mode of formation of rain. 
 Methods of cooling air. 
 
 Experiments — direct chilling — warm to cool latitudes, &c. 
 
 British Climate. 
 
 Work of Rivers. 
 Erosion. 
 Transport, &c. 
 
 Glaciers and Cold Regions. 
 Shore deposits and formation of fossils. 
 Volcano. 
 
 How plants live. 
 Types of vegetation. 
 Lives of Typical foreign animals. 
 Begin7tifig of Manufacture 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 Types of Living Races of Men. 
 
 3RD Stage. 
 
 Maps. 
 
 Contours. 
 
 Spot heights— hachures, &c. 
 Problems on gradient, &c. 
 
 Map-making — compass (prismatic). (Read Three Englishmen 
 ajtd Three Russians. — Verne.) 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Seasons — eclipses — altitude of Pole Star — size of earth — longi- 
 tude and time. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Isobars — land and sea breezes — monsoons. 
 
 Temperature. 
 Isotherms. 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Cyclones, &c. 
 
 Clouds and weather associated with above. 
 
 Construct a rain gauge. 
 
 World Climates. 
 
17 
 
 JVof'k of Rivers. 
 
 Carving valleys — building up alluvial plains — deltas, &c. 
 Communication. 
 
 Work of Ice. 
 
 Formatio7t of Sedimentary Rocks. 
 Formation of Igneous Rocks. 
 Distribution of Food Plants. 
 Vegetation and Climate Zones 
 World Distribution of Animals. 
 
 Typical Modern Industries. 
 
 Distribution in British Isles. 
 
 Distribution of Main Races. 
 
 SPECIMEN LESSON.— IV. 
 
 Evaporation of Rain, Spring, and Sea Water. 
 
 Comparison of Residue and Steam condensed from each. 
 
 Preparatory Work. 
 
 (i) Facts teachers should know. 
 
 All water is constantly evaporating — though heat increases the 
 ratfe of evaporation it is not the same as boiling, since it only 
 goes on at the surface and not all through the liquid. The 
 'vapour' given off is absolutely invisible — the cloud the cook 
 calls * steam ' is really made up of minute drops of water condensed 
 from the true steam on meeting colder air. Therefore where this 
 true steam exists, e. g; between tip of spout of boiling kettle and 
 visible water-drop, nothing is visible. Contact with any colder body 
 causes water-vapour to condense to water-drops. 
 
 Since evaporation only goes on at surface, the greater the surface 
 exposed the quicker the rate of evaporation, e. g. a flat wide dish — 
 or heating (which constantly brings more water to the top) — will 
 increase the rate. The rate also depends on the amount of water- 
 vapour already in the air. Therefore anything removing the water- 
 vapour-logged air just over the water supply will increase the rate, 
 e. g. wind or draught. Sea-water contains especially salt, spring- 
 water contains chalk and other minerals : if the water is boiled 
 away these will be left as solid residues, e. g. ' fur ' in kettles and 
 boilers. Rain-water contains no dissolved solid and leaves no residue. 
 All fresh-water contains air — on heating water the air bubbles escape 
 first — later larger bubbles containing steam. 
 
 (2) Class. 
 
 Previous week. Tell each pupil to put a little water in a saucer 
 
i8 
 
 and leave it until the morning of the lesson and to .examine it 
 then. 
 
 Questions, &c. — Any difference to quantity of water in saucer? 
 Where has it gone ? Can it be seen ? Examples of renewing liquid 
 lost by evaporation, e.g. unused ink pot left open, — aquarium tank, 
 unused dog's water-trough, &c. Would water disappear more quickly 
 from deep or shallow dish ? Make pupils suggest and direct experi- 
 ment to find out ; but see that all conditions are equal, e. g. same 
 volume of water must be taken. Measure the volumes accurately 
 before and after the experiment. 
 
 Wet a handkerchief or window-pane and watch the 'drying'. 
 Why does the water evaporate more quickly in a flat than deep 
 dish ? 
 
 What is a good day for drying clothes ? Do they dry more quickly 
 in winter or in summer ? When there is wind or still air ? 
 
 How can we find whether heat and wind increase evaporation ? 
 
 Boil some water in a kettle (if there are no Bunsen burners, spirit 
 lamps do equally well), and make pupils discover the invisible true 
 steam in the gap between spout and cloud. What will happen to 
 the visible cloud if we heat it with another flame ? Do so and let 
 them see that it disappears. Boil some water in a glass vessel, 
 e. g. beaker, flask or thin tumbler, and make them distinguish air- 
 bubbles from steam-bubbles. Make them breathe on a knife-blade 
 or a watch-glass and describe the effect. Where does the water 
 come from ? Make them describe their breath or that of a horse 
 pulling up hill, on a cold day. Thus there is invisible water in the 
 air^ and we have given some of the ways it gets there. 
 
 (3) Can we get this invisible water- vapour out of the air? What 
 principally sends it there ? Ought not the opposite to make it visible 
 again ? 
 
 Fill a metal pot or glass jug with ice, and note the deposit on 
 the outside of the pot. Where has this wet come from? Touch 
 watch-glass, spectacles, knife-blade with warm damp body; what 
 happens? Hold a cold inverted tumbler (or beaker) over boiling 
 water ; what happens ? Which of these various things is hotter and 
 which colder ? What then is the way to get invisible water-vapour 
 out of the air as visible water-drops (cf. Dew and Rain Nature-Study 
 Lessons). 
 
 (4) Catch pure rain-water high up — evaporate to dryness — no 
 residue — pure water and air. Condense the vapour in an inverted 
 tumbler and taste it. What is happening to every free surface 
 of water — especially on dry windy summer days — whether sea, lake, 
 river, pond, or rain-puddle? What happens to all this evaporated 
 water? But rain-water is pure water and nothing else. What 
 about sea- and spring- water ? Evaporate sea-water. What shall 
 we expect? Condense and taste before — examine residue, and 
 cf. salt, &c. For rain-water then does it matter whether sea or 
 lake evaporates? But perhaps spring-water is not as pure as rain. 
 Try as before and examine residue, and compare 'furred' kettles 
 
19 
 
 and pieces of burst boiler, &c. Stereographs of Geyser incrusta- 
 tions, &c., should be shown. Iron deposits in local water — if 
 occurring — examined, &c. An inverted bell-jar over a" dish of 
 dirty water in the sunshine, if possible, will illustrate the whole 
 subject. 
 
 (5) What are clouds ?— observe difierent types on different days — 
 cause 'of mist in river valleys and over lakes^fogs in big towns and 
 at sea.— Where do Atlantic liners run into them usually? Why? 
 Why is the west coast of England wetter than the east ? — When is 
 dew heaviest ? Why ? Local weather observations. 
 
 SYLLABUS FOR PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS 
 
 1. Measurement of straight lines by means of scale, including the 
 estimation of tenths of the smallest scale division. 
 
 2. Measurement of the diameter of cylinder and sphere by placing 
 between two rectangular blocks of wood and measuring the distance 
 of these apart ; also by means of calipers (without vernier). 
 
 3. Measurement of curved lines, and determination of the value 
 
 of TT. 
 
 4. Measurement of the areas of rectangles and triangles by means 
 of squared paper, and determination of the formulae to express these 
 areas. 
 
 5. Measurement of areas of plane surfaces of irregular outline by 
 means of squared paper. 
 
 6. Area of circles by means of squared paper and confirmation of 
 formula. 
 
 7. Determination of the formula for volumes of rectangular solids, 
 special stress being laid upon the fact that this is the product of the 
 area of cross section and the length. 
 
 8. Measurement of the volumes of dense insoluble solids by 
 displacement of water in graduated cylinders or burettes. 
 
 9. Determination of the formulae for the volumes of geometrical 
 non-rectangular solids by methods 7 and 8. 
 
 10. Measurement of inaccessible heights and distances, and 
 finding areas by triangulation, &c., the results being determined by 
 drawing to scale. 
 
 11. Examination and use of balance and weights. 
 
 12. Determination of areas by cutting out in card-board and 
 weighing. 
 
 13. Determination of the weight of unit volume of various 
 substances. 
 
 14. Determination of the weight of i c.c. of water, and elementary 
 ideas of the meaning of specific gravity. 
 
 15. The specific gravity bottle, and its use in finding the specific 
 gravity of liquids. 
 
 16. The specific gravity of solids by means of the specific gravity 
 bottle. 
 
20 
 
 NOTE ON METHODS FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL 
 DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF tt 
 
 Any of the following methods for finding the value of tt are 
 recommended ; in the majority of cases it is wise for the pupils to 
 find it by at least two separate methods. 
 
 A. The diameter of a cylinder is found either by means of calipers 
 or by placing it between two rectangular blocks of wood and 
 measuring the distance of these apart ; a piece of thin paper is then 
 wrapped round the cylinder, pricked with a pin, and the circum- 
 ference found by measuring the distance between the two resulting 
 holes after the paper has been unfolded. Several cylinders "of 
 different diameters should be used, in order that the pupil may 
 become convinced of the constancy of the ratio. 
 
 B. A series of circles is drawn, the diameter of each measured 
 directly, and the circumference approximately found by stepping 
 round the circle by dividers. 
 
 C. Circles are drawn and their diameters measured as in B, but 
 the circumference measured by means of an opisometer or by placing 
 the end of a piece of thread upon one point and carefully tracing 
 round the circle by its means. 
 
 D. A penny or other large coin is placed upon a sheet of paper 
 against a straight edge; a pencil mark is made upon the coin^at,its 
 lowest point, and also upon the paper at this point ; the coin is now 
 rolled along until the pencil mark is once more in contact with the 
 paper, when another mark is made ; the distance between the marks 
 is measured directly, and the diameter of the coin found by means of 
 calipers. 
 
 E. A cylinder is placed on its end, a mark made at any point on 
 its circumference, and this placed against a scale; by means of 
 another rule the cylinder is rolled along the scale until the mark is 
 once more in contact with the latter : having obtained the circum- 
 ference by this means, the diameter is directly measured. 
 
 Printed in England at the Oxford University Press 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
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