THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID Just published, in large 12mo, price 5s. Qd. net SYNTAX OF THE MOODS AND TENSES IN NEW TESTAMENT GREEK BY PROFESSOR E. D. BURTON, CHICAGO 'Professor Burton's treatise is one of great merit one of the very best books indeed on its subject. ... It is a most valuable addition to our grammatical literature.' Tlie Critical Review. SOURCES OF FEW TESTAMENT GREEK PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB, FOR T. & T. CLARK, EDINBURGH. LONDON : S1MPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, AND CO. LIMITED. NEW YORK : CHARLES SCRIBNER*S SONS TORONTO : THE WILLARD TRACT DEPOSITORY. SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK OK THE INFLUENCE OF THE SEPTUAGINT ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT BY THE REV. H. A. A. KENNEDY, M.A., D.Sc. EDINBUKGH T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEOKGE STREET 1895 PREFACE IN the preface to his Essays in Biblical Greek, the late Dr. Hatch speaks of these as being designed " to point out to students of sacred literature some of the rich fields which have not yet been adequately explored, and to offer suggestions for their exploration." This book is an attempt to deal with some of the matters which formed the subject of Dr. Hatch's investigation, and, indeed, owes its origin to the results at which that most independent and keen -minded scholar arrived as regards the special character of Biblical Greek. But while the writer began with a complete, though provisional, accept- ance of Hatch's conclusions, the farther the inquiry was pushed, the more decidedly was he compelled to doubt those conclusions, and finally to seek to establish the connection between the language of the LXX. and that of the New Testament on a totally different basis. The discussion is purely a tentative one. Further research may modify many of the results which are here presented. But it seems to the writer that the lines for investigation laid down in this dissertation are at least M348740 VI PREFACE trustworthy, and lead to the true standpoint for the study of Biblical Greek as a whole. A list of the chief authorities referred to and consulted is given. But the writer must express special obliga- tions to two books Mullach's Grammatik der griechischen Vulgarsprache, and Thayer's edition of Grimm's Lexicon of the New Testament. The admirable lists in the Appendix to the latter work have formed, to a large extent, the basis of this investigation. CALLA.NDEE, February 1895. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE INTRODUCTION . . . 1 CHAPTER II NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT Limitations of such an inquiry Its possibilities Method of investigation ....... 5-10 CHAPTER III CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY B.C. The Attic of Xenophon and its formative elements The new spirit The Macedonian dialect Transition-stage of language in Aristotle Character of the Attic diffused by Alexander's conquests The literary dialect .... 11-20 CHAPTER IV THE SEPTUAGINT: (1) ITS ENVIRONMENT; (2) ITS VOCABULARY, AND THE SPECIAL INFLUENCES WHICH MOULD IT General character of Egyptian Greek The language of Alexandria Origin of the Septuagint Special considerations affecting the investigation of the vocabulary of the Septuagint Tables illustrating the various elements in the vocabulary : (1) old poetical words ; (2) Ionic words ; (3) affinities with Xeno- phon and the writers of the xotvv ; (4) colloquial words ; (5) diminutives in common with the Comic writers ; (6) new formations ; (6) foreign words ..... 21-45 yiii CONTENTS CHAPTER V PAGE BRIEF SURVEY OF THE MAIN FACTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE VOCABULARY OF GREEK LITERATURE FROM ABOUT (200-160 B.C.) THE COMPLETION OF THE SEPTUAGINT DOWN TO C. 100 A.D. The "Common" and "Hellenistic" dialects as parallel growths The Common dialect Polybius The writers of the Apocrypha Philo Josephus Plutarch Summary of results 46-59 CHAPTER VI THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Problems affecting the investigation of the vocabulary Numerical statistics General tone of the language Tables illustrating the elements in the vocabulary The classical element Affinities with the writers of the xoivj The colloquial element : Points of contact with Comic writers ; lists ; affinities with Aristophanes Parallels between the Greek of the Comic Fragments and the late language Colloquial element, continued : "Weakening of strong terms . . 60-83 CHAPTER VII COMPARISON OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE LXX. WITH THAT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT The LXX. familiar to the New Testament writers Dr. Hatch's dicta Classification of possible relations between two vocabu- laries List of words peculiar to LXX. and New Testament List of words peculiar to LXX. and New Testament along with Philo List of words common to LXX. and New Testa- ment with " Biblical " meaning Summary of results . 84-93 CHAPTER VIII THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE THEOLOGICAL AND RELI- GIOUS TERMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT VOCABULARY Formation of a theological terminology Discussion of words exemplifying the influence of the LXX. on the theological and religious terms of the New Testament Cautions to be observed in estimating this influence . . . 94-109 CONTENTS IX CHAPTER IX PAGE DISCUSSION OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF WORDS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, WHICH EITHER IN THEMSELVES OR BY THEIR PARTICULAR USES SUGGEST A CONNECTION WITH THE LXX. Actual Hebrew words Words expressing Jewish customs and ideas Words with exceptional meanings in the LXX. and New Testament "Alexandrian" words New compound words ....... 110-133 CHAPTER X DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL QUESTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, BASED ON THE RESULTS REACHED Subdivision of the New Testament vocabulary Numerical statistics Exaggeration of the influence of the LXX. on the vocabulary of the New Testament Marked differences between the two vocabularies Application of the criteria laid down on p. 87 sq., to the case of the LXX. and New Testament 134-145 CHAPTER XI COLLOQUIAL GREEK, THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND OF THE NEW TESTAMENT The striking resemblances between the language of the two groups of writings due to its "colloquial" character in both Statistics The spoken language, and its diffusion and developments Distinction between the colloquialism of the New Testament and that of the LXX. . 146-151 CHAPTER XII CORROBORATION OF THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT BY THE PHENOMENA OF MODERN GREEK Introductory note on the continuity of the spoken language down to modern times Brief discussions of illustrative examples ...... 152-156 X CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII PAGE EXAMINATION OF PECULIAR FORMS WHICH GO TO PEOVE THE COLLOQUIAL CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE OF THE LXX. AND NEW TESTAMENT Prefatory Remarks Verb-forms " Popular " spellings . 157-164 SUMMARY OF RESULTS . . . . . 164-166 LIST OF AUTHORITIES ...... 167 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS .... 171 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK CHAPTEE I INTRODUCTION THE study of Language, like all other provinces of investigation, has been influenced to a high degree by the modern scientific spirit. Not that this influence has come from without and forced itself upon philological inquiry. The process has been evolved from within, and under conditions marked for it by the principles inherent in Language itself. One main result is that the sphere of investigation is ever being widened. Light is thrown on important problems from directions the most various. Fine Art, Antiquities strictly so called, Epigraphy, Folk-lore, each contributes its quota to linguistic research. But perhaps nothing has tended so powerfully to give this particular department a place among the exact sciences as the rapid advance which the latter half of the present century has seen in the field of Comparative Philology. Now, investigations in this province have not only reached results quite invaluable in themselves, 2 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK and for their own sake, but have brought into prominence certain leading conceptions in regard to language in general which will inevitably impress themselves on all future study. Not the least important is that which regards a particular language as a living whole, an organic unity, which, while from time to time it presents varying aspects, retains an indestructible common principle which is really a thread of life, preserving it throughout its entire history from utter disintegration. In this way, every stage of a language is of paramount importance for the history of the whole. Of course, some periods will always have, and justly have, a special attraction. The reasons are various. One stage of a language becomes of special moment because it is the formative epoch. It displays the birth, so to speak, of the principles which are to be the determining elements throughout the history of the speech. Another stage absorbs interest as the culminating point, the zenith in the language's life. All rudimentary strivings after expression have been mastered. The language has become plastic. It is an artistic instrument. Its products are works of art. It has a freeness and large- ness of sweep, it has a grasp of technical details. There is balance, symmetry, proportion. - No doubt this will "correspond to a unique era in the nation's history. The life of the people is untramelled and broad. The national spirit has reached a summit, and this wealth of splendid energy calls for expression. It creates expres- sion. So the language becomes the mirror of the national life. It is therefore necessary that this INTRODUCTION 3 definite period should, above all others, call for considera- tion. And in any language, but especially in one so rich, and subtle, and strong as that of Hellas, a grasp, of its culminating epoch and its great masters is' that which alone affords a standpoint from which to survey the language as a whole. When that epoch closes, the Greek tongue enters on a new and, in many aspects, disastrous career. But, though its grace and charm are seriously impaired, though corruption spreads with extraordinary rapidity, the history of the language never loses in interest. Indeed, the interest deepens as we find it striving to become the world-speech, passing through a new mould of foreign influences and alien tongues, and coming forth with the stamp of cosmopolitanism upon it, the fitting instrument of a world-wide empire. The later stages, therefore, of Greek have a special importance of their own. On the one hand, they are a comment on the earlier life of the language, inasmuch as they show the forces inherent in that life, their powers of self-preservation, the points where they are liable to attack, the conditions determining their development or decay. On the other hand, they look forward to the future, revealing the particular adaptabilities of the Hellenic tongue, suggesting its lines of further dissemina- tion, affording in a special case a remarkable forecast of modern linguistic developments. But not this alone. The corruption has in it seeds of life. In this decaying stage of Greek, striking light is shed on many phenomena which otherwise would appear abnormal in the history of the language. Its latent resources are displayed with 4 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK a new and astonishing clearness. So that, on the whole, the materials gained by investigation of Greek when its palmy days were over, are both valuable in themselves, and exceptionally valuable for the insight they give into the innate essence, and potencies, and influence of the speech of the Hellenic peoples, viewed in its entirety. CHAPTEK II NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT ONE of these later stages of the Greek language has been taken as the subject of this Dissertation. Or rather the attempt is made to trace some special elements in the history of Greek through several stages. But in en- deavouring to estimate " The Influence of the Septuagint on the Vocabulary of the New Testament," it is necessary to make a preliminary inquiry as to the general nature and scope of an investigation like this, its limitations and its possibilities, the results which may be expected and those which need not be. An investigation like the present must be entirely tentative, for the important reason that the language of the Septuagint, as a whole, has never been accurately or rigidly examined and classified. Indeed, anything like precise assertion must be made from the New Testament as starting-point. Much has been written in a vague way as to points of contact between the two groups of writings, but when one attempts to distinguish some solid facts which may be taken as results arrived at, scarcely any such are to be found among a hazy mass of broad asseverations. This holds as to the relations of the language of the Septuagint to that of the New 5 6 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Testament, viewed generally. But, no doubt, definiteness is not so easily reached in such inquiries. Especially is such a statement true of our subject which deals with the language of these two large collections of books, in one particular aspect, the relation of their vocabularies. Yet this means a definitely-marked province, a fact which, to some extent at least, may preserve our in- vestigation from mere vague generalities. One fixed point there is from which to start, and that is the vocabulary of the New Testament, which is being investigated from year to year with increasing accuracy and scientific precision. Working back from this to the Septuagint, we gain lines of procedure and standpoints for a general survey. The object of our inquiry is to ascertain, as far as possible, the various stages in the development of the so-called " Hellenistic " dialect of Greek, its relations to the literary language of contem- porary writers, and the amount of its connection with the colloquial language of the period. For this purpose a distinct field of investigation is necessary, and that chosen appears, in some points at least, adequate to the end aimed at. The limitations of the subject are not hard to discover. It need scarcely be said that it would be impossible within reasonable limits to take up the separate vocabu- laries of the various writers either of the New Testament or Septuagint. In the case of the latter, absolutely so, as the various hands in its compilation can only be hypothetically distinguished. But this is not necessary. In any case only , approximate results could be looked for, and so, roughly speaking, our inquiry is in no way NATUKE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT 7 hampered by taking each group of writings as a whole. In the case of the New Testament, of course, a period of about fifty years comprises all the writers. Perhaps a hundred and fifty would be nearer the mark as regards the Septuagint ; but the Pentateuch, which all scholars admit to be the nucleus of the whole translation, and its most careful part, may be regarded in all probability as finished within less than half that time. But there is a further limitation inseparable from the- subject. The comparison of two vocabularies must always be a relative process. In this inquiry it is especially so. For not only is each of these vocabularies made up of several types of language, so to speak, due to writers of varying individuality, but we possess no contemporary literature of precisely the same class which might be used as a standard or norm to guide our determinations. Accordingly we must often be content with provisional results, the only ones which can be arrived at with our present data. Still further, the estimation of the influence of one vocabulary upon another has a certain incalculable element which must not be lost sight of. The biography of words is often almost incredible. Thus, a word peculiar in form and of uncouth appearance may be found in the Septuagint repeatedly as the translation of a more or less common idea. This word may occur nowhere else save in the New Testament. But con- stantly it has a submerged history. It may be a local peculiarity. It may be a derivation from some special dialect, all the circumstances of which are unknown. It may be one of the most common forms of the vernacular. 8 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK It may have become stereotyped by means of the Sep- tuagint, and thus have passed into the New Testament through its direct influence. All these possibilities and more will present themselves, and often it will be im- possible to come to a decision. Again, in the two vocabularies with which we are concerned, there is, of course, an unusual number of terms which express moral and religious and theological conceptions. But it is quite possible that an unusual term which is found in the one may be found in the other with something like a complete change of content. No doubt this can be usually determined with a sufficient degree of accuracy. Still, as regards the influence of the one vocabulary on the other, in such cases the question is a delicate one, in which hasty assertions are unsafe. Once more, the conditions under which each of the vocabularies is found must not be overlooked as determining factors. It is here we are most heavily handicapped. It is not overstating the matter to say that our knowledge of the special circumstances which may have led the separate writers of the New Testament to display particular characteristics in their vocabularies is scanty in the extreme. More so is this true of the Greek translators of the Old Testament. But in spite of all these limitations which look so formidable, there is a wide area for research, and results may be obtained more valuable than would have been anticipated. It does not affect the inquiry whether these are predominantly positive or predominantly negative. In either case, light will be thrown on biblical Greek as a whole. NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE SUBJECT 9 But there are further important possibilities. The special phase of the Greek language which we have to consider has, at least, the advantage of being unartificial. So that we should expect side-lights on questions outside the scope of our main inquiry. Also, the subject brings us face to face with a peculiar phenomenon in the history of the Hellenic tongue ; its employment by an alien and deeply-prejudiced race to set forth their own highest conceptions. This means a new demand on the resources of the Greek speech, a new test of its plasticity and scope. But besides, we have in the vocabularies of the Septuagint and New Testament, apart from special Hebraistic traits, a character and colouring quite distinct from the literary language of the time. Such a fact must suggest new points of view from which to regard the development of Greek in its later stages. The most important feature has still to be emphasised. We have the right to expect that a very direct relation will be found to exist between the language of the Septuagint and that of the New Testament. There are various reasons for the expectation. The chief one is that these two groups of writing are the only monu- ments of the " dialect " they represent. This " dialect " attains definite form in the Septuagint. It has a fixed stamp put upon it. It is therefore natural to believe that when we meet it again it will show the impress of its earlier life. More especially will this be the case with conceptions and modes of thought peculiar to the Jewish people. The very fact that Greek is not their native language will be found to make it harder for them to deviate from a standard once laid down, espe- 10 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK cially when their own rites and usages and charac- teristics are involved. Eeference has been already made to the abundance of terms which translate par- ticular religions and theological ideas. With regard to them, we are justified in expecting that in many cases, at least, the language of the Septuagint will be found to be the basis on which the New Testament structure is reared. Having examined the nature and scope of the investi- gation, we need not linger long over the method to be employed. Clearly the question is one of facts, and where there is so much room for hypothesis, its use must be scanty. Our first task is to ascertain as dis- tinctly as possible the actual data which we possess. This is, indeed, the most important part of the inquiry. For here there is a solid foundation. But these data have to be viewed, above all, in their historical setting. If they can be connected by links of historical evidence, all will have been gained that can be gained. But whether or no, the investigation is a record of facts, and the inferences which these facts permit. It is useless to attempt anything more. CHAPTEE III CONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY B.C. THE first matter to be examined is necessarily the conditions and circumstances of the Greek language in the third century B.C., the period in which our inquiry starts. The tone and character of the Greek which then prevailed should give the key to its subsequent development. But it would be wrong to limit ourselves to this single epoch. It cannot be understood apart from currents and movements in the language which go back at least a century earlier, and which are anticipations of the processes which were afterwards to be dominant. Nothing is more striking than the change which meets one on passing from the Attic of Plato and Demosthenes to that of Xenophon. At first sight the difference is not so obvious. But when we begin to examine rigorously the vocabulary of the earlier writer, it is easy to trace in him a totally divergent conception of what the range of Attic Greek is, and a complete disregard of its precise limitations. In making this statement, however > regard must be had to the well- known phenomenon, apparently peculiar to Attic, in which the earlier stage of the dialect, after becoming 11 12 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK the parent of a new and more perfect form of speech, continued to exist in healthy vigour, and to be used exclusively for one particular type of poetical composi- tion. This, of course, holds good of Athens alone. But this earlier Attic had countless affinities with the cognate Ionic speech prevailing in numerous regions of the Greek-speaking world. Indeed, that and the earliest Attic might be said to have the same basis. It is difficult to conjecture even as to the relation between the earlier Attic, which always remained the vehicle of tragedy, and the popular spoken language of Athens in its best days, though probably there can be little doubt that the latter closely approximated in kind, if not always in quality, to the Greek of the orators and Aristophanes. But, at anyrate, this earlier Attic was known and recognised within certain limits, and it would be the delicate and subtle feeling for language which would chiefly secure the mature Attic against its en- croachments. To return to Xenophon. His experience was a peculiar one. His life was deliberately spent away from his native land, and a large portion of it in foreign countries outside Greece proper altogether. In this way he mingled with men of many dialects. His pride in Athens and her glory of life and language vanished. This must consciously or unconsciously affect his language also. His sense of proportion, his appreciation of the just mean to be observed, and the strict standard of speech, must unconsciously be marred. And so, in the midst of dialects cognate to his own, in which the subtle shades of meaning and the refinements of THE GREEK LANGUAGE TN THE THIRD CENTURY B.C. 13 pure Attic were replaced by laxness of usage and clumsier notions of the requirements of language, he abandoned the purity of Athens and became a noteworthy pre- cursor of the future history of the Greek tongue. It is interesting to find the Mysian Galen, in his Commentary on Hippocrates (quoted by Eutherford, New Phryn. 161), comparing Xenophon with the cele- brated physician in the use of ovo/juara fawo-o-y/LLaTiica KOI Tpowi/cd. And Helladius (fifth century A.D.) is quoted by Photius (Bill. 533. 25) as saying: Qav/jLaarbv avrjp eV (TTpareicus <7^oA,a&>z> ical o)vf]S' Sto vo^oOer^v avrbv OVK av Tt9 CLTTIKKT^OV 7rapa\d{3oi. Many instances might be given to illustrate what has been said of Xenophon. The following (from Euther- ford's list, New Pliryn. 165 sq.) will suffice: dype'uw, " hunt " = Orjpevw, /cvi/r/yeTw. Hipp. 4. 18; Cyn. 12. 6 ; Anab. 5. 3. 8 ; LXX., KT. Mpoifa. Cyr. 1. 4. 14; Anab. 7. 3. 48; Herod. 1. 79, 5. 15, 7. 12; Eurip. Herod. 403; KT. 6/377/>ta = 8wpov. Hier. 8. 4; Aesch. P. V. 626; Pers. 523; Soph. Aj. 662 ; Eurip. Hel. 883 ; KT. A7rw = 0ep/xatW Cyr. 5. 1. 11; Horn. Od. 21. 179; Hes. Theog. 864; Aesch. P. V. 590; LXX., KT. yyai/w = a7rro//,ai. Cyr. 1. 3. 5, etc.; Aesch. P. V. 849, etc. ; Soph. Oed. R. 760, etc. ; Eur. Hec. 605, etc. ; KT. 0fya> in LXX. = 7TOV05. Conviv. 2. 4, 8. 40 ; Hes. Sc. 306 ; Aesch., Soph., Eur., LXX, KT. w = vaipto. Cyr. 4. 2. 42; Aesch. Cho. 620; Soph. Phil. 1427; Eur. Sup. 153; LXX., KT. pax<>5 = Tapaxr/. Anab. 1. 8. 2 ; Cyr. 7. 1. 32; Hippoc. 300. 41 ; LXX, KT. 14 . SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Already in Xenophon's days tokens of change in the fortunes of the Greek peoples might readily be found. Yet the separate States had sufficient pride of independ- ence to preserve their national life a stage further. But the old restrictions of nationality could not much longer endure. A new spirit was beginning to pervade Greek life, no doubt, in many aspects, a weaker and more nerveless spirit, yet one which contained within itself the potency of a wider civilisation, a more cosmo- politan existence. Thus it was that neighbouring peoples began to aspire to a new and higher cultivation. Barbarian Macedonia claimed a share in the refinements of her more polished neighbours. It need not be doubted that political motives had a large part in such aims. But, granting this, the issue was not affected. The Attic language became the language of the Mace- donian Court. The modifications which it underwent in this new phase of its history cannot be accurately de- termined. For this purpose a clear notion would have to be formed of the precise character of the pre-existing Macedonian dialect. As it is, fragmentary hints must suffice as to its nature and constitution. A passage in Curtius, vi. 9, 35-36 (quoted by Mullach, Grrammatik, p. 14), seems to say that Mace- donians and Greeks could not understand one another. And certainly, if reliance can be placed on the collec- tions made by Sturz (De Dialecto Macedonica, etc. pp. 30, 31 sq.) and others, it is no wonder that this was so. A few instances will make this clear. aKoimov among Macedonians = pdx^, chine, ridge So Hesych. and Phavorinus. THE GEEEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIED CENTUEY B.C. 15 Saves = Oavaros (Plut. de and. poet. 5). Kapa/?os = 7rv\rj. Hesych. Phavor. Two of the words quoted in this connection have a more interesting history, viz. irape^o^ and pv/jLtj. 7rap6fJLJ3o\ij, which seems properly to mean "in- sertion," "interpolation" is described by Phrynichus, 353, as 8az>w? Mafce&ovifcov ; and all the old grammarians apparently assent to this. Starting from its original signification, it would first come to mean " method of arrangement of camp," and finally reach its ordinary Macedonian sense of " camp," " encampment." It occurs often in Polybius = (1) Locatio in castris. Ipsa castra. (2) Aciei instructio. (3) Special manoeuvres in a naval battle. It is found in an inscription of Thessalonica (c. 118 B.C. -Dittenberger, Sylll 247. 20), ^ere-Tre/i^aro et9 Trjv 7rape/jL/3o\rjv. Countless instances in the Septua- gint where, almost without exception, it translates the Hebrew term for " camp," " encampment." It occurs ten times in the New Testament. (1) Camp, Heb. 13. 11 ; Apoc. 20. 9. (2) Encampment, almost = army, Heb. 11. 34. (3) Barracks, Acts 21. 34, 22. 24, 23. 10. It is used in jest by Diphilus as = o-TpaTotreSov, and also found in the comic writers Theophilus (Mein. 3. 630), and Crito (Mein. 4. 53). pvfjLij. Phryn. 382: pvfjLij' ical TOVTO ol 'AdrjvatoL 7rl T?}? o/3/z% eTiQecrav, ol Se vvv d eVt rov (TTevcoTTov. Bo/cel Be /JLOL KOI TOVTO fjLa/ceSovi/cbv elvai. Suidas explains ajviai by pv^ir). Eustathius on Horn. H. (3. p. 166 (quoted by Sturz), says pvprj is used 1 Sylloge Inscriptionum Grcecarum^ W. Dittenberger. 16 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK in this sense in the Koivr\. The earlier signification of "rush" "onset," is found in places like Thucyd. 7. 70: TTI fjuev TTptorrj pv/j,f} eViTrXeo^re? /c.r.X. Polyb. 6. 29. 1 : al pvjjLai = roads in a camp. In the Septuagint: Isa. 15. 3 : teal ev TCU? pv^al^ avrwv TTCLVTW oXoXufere street. In the New Testament four times, and = street or lane. Used by the comic writers Antiphanes and Philippides = street (Mein. 3. 26, 4. 471). The stages in the history of the word are well pointed out by Carr (on Matt. vi. 2) : (1) rush, impetus ; (2) going ; (3) lane or street ; cf. English " alley," from French " aller." We have dwelt longer on these two terms for a special reason. They open the way to a large question, the intermingling of foreign elements, or, at least, usages with the pure Greek tongue at an exceedingly early date. The constant voice of tradition makes them Macedonian words. But when we find them in Attic writers like Antiphanes (380 B.C.), Theophilus (330 B.C.), Crito (330 B.C.?), Philippides (323 B.C.), and Diphilus (300 B.C.), the suggestion naturally presents itself that there was a far closer connection between the colloquial language of everyday life and the alien dialects of Greek than has usually been believed, or that original elements of current Attic speech were preserved outside the strict limits of the dialect. It would be absurd to make the slender basis of a few examples support any far-reaching hypothesis, but these give rise to the belief that if a greater mass of materials came to light, the problem would be far on its way towards solution. But .besides the appearance in the Macedonian dialect THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIED CENTURY 17 of peculiar terms, such as dSr) = ovpavos, fiedv = dtfp, Scopaj; = crTfKriv, and the like, peculiar consonantal changes are said to have prevailed, which appear to have a phonetic character ; e.g. ftaXa/cpos = fyakaicpos, Ke/BdXtj = tcetyaKij, dSpala = alOpia K.T.\. Probably such lists have to be taken with caution, as so little is known of the sources used by the old lexicographers who are our authorities. In any case, the Macedonian type of Greek, whether or not it is admissible to call it a special dialect, was so far removed from ordinary Attic as to make it certain that the latter, on Macedonian lips, must soon and inevitably suffer thoroughgoing modification. Even the Greek polish itself of Alexander the Great and his associates was only skin-deep. But apart from the process of change experienced by the Attic dialect in a semi - barbarian country like Macedonia, the world of culture, as well, was opening the way for results of that kind. Aristotle himself marks the beginning of a new era. Looking at his language alone, one is struck by the number of new words and new forms which he admits into his prose. The perfect Attic sense for language seems to have become relaxed in him. The transition to the KOLVTJ has already begun. Naturally, the tendency increases rapidly. It is found in an intensified degree in writers like Theophrastus, who may almost be reckoned with the writers of the " Common Dialect." And, as has often been pointed out, it is noteworthy that contemporaneous with this weakening of purity in language is the growth of the Asian rhetoric, which seeks to make up for nerve and force by florid colouring and exaggeration. 18 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Thus, within Greece itself, the degeneration had set in. Alexander's conquests formed the determining factor for the language, as for the whole life of the Greek peoples. Now, as has been said, the Attic dialect was undoubtedly recognised as the basis of the language spoken at the Macedonian court. This meant that henceforth the official and imperial speech throughout the Eastern world must be Attic at root, whatever varying aspects it might present in particular cases. It did not a priori follow that the language of the conquerors should become that of the conquered. But Greek civilisation had been making rapid advances. Even the interior had not been left wholly untouched. The maritime regions were already thoroughly leavened by Greek influence. But the language which Alexander and his victorious armies brought with them found special points of contact in the several countries through the remnants of old Greek colonies, so that, even in districts where they did not themselves settle as rulers, Greek idioms became familiar. The dialect which they introduced was Attic, but the Attic of a non- Athenian people. Accordingly, from the first, there would be a laxity as regards the words to be used, and the nature of their usage. This was an element sure to lead to further corruption. And so we find that in each province the Greek spoken there assumed a distinctly local colouring, reflecting at many points the dialect originally peculiar to that province. Our data on this point are somewhat fragmentary. But there are constant traces of local dialectical variations. We shall find the most note- THE GREEK LANGUAGE IN THE THIRD CENTURY 19 worthy instances when we come to examine more care- fully the Greek of Alexandria. But such phenomena as the late Aorist form in -oa-av, on which Eustathius, p. 1759, 36, says: ol rfj ^Acnavr) xpw/jievoi, cfxavfj TTOIOVCTI TO ecfrvyov KOI rj\6ov irapevBecrei -n}? aa (rv\\aj3f)<; ecfrvyocrav \eyovres KOI rfKdocrav. (frwvfjs XaX/aSeW ISia elo-i ; the substitution of the weak Aorist endings in strong forms, as e\apa, eirea-a /c.r.X, which the old grammarians hold to be originally a Cilician peculiarity ; and the appearance of many uncouth words in the later language, principally associated with the requirements of common life, give some colour to the idea of a wide- spread local effect on the language which Alexander established in his new domain. Another point has to be strongly emphasised. The one aim of the Macedonians who diffused the Attic type of Greek was to be intelligible. They had no thought for refinement of idiom or purity of vocabulary. They were not themselves cultivated men, and their language was not a cultivated language. The important con- sequence followed that it never became a literary instru- ment. No doubt this would have given it fixity and a standard. Instead, it became the parent of a new type of colloquial Greek, the speech of the mixed popula- tions of Asia, Syria, and Egypt. This is a most important fact. All those who afterwards laid any claim to literary power or skill must be held rather to carry on the tradition of Aristotle and his contemporaries, than to belong immediately to the circle of the ( E\\yvi- foj're?. Of course they are conditioned by their environ- ment. The Greek which Aristotle had handed down to 20 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK them was already in process of fusion. Words, forms, and phrases distinctly non-Attic had been admitted by him. It would be absurd to suppose that amidst the mixed populations of the countries where these writers lived, the tendency already manifested could be checked. Everything was in favour of its growth. Still, it was regulated and kept, to some extent, within bounds by the general culture of these writers, their acquaintance with the early literature of Greece, and a more or less earnest attempt to preserve alive the literary succession by direct imitation of some of the great masters of speech. Thus arose the literary language, the KOLVT) BiaXe/cros. More will have to be said of it in tracing the linguistic history between the time of the Septuagint and that of the New Testament. No doubt great caution must be used in drawing a strict dividing - line between the literary dialect and the colloquial speech of everyday life. We must rather regard the boundary as fluctuat- ing and undefined. Yet it may be said . that while the writers of the Koivr) frequently descend to the ordinary level of the current popular language, or nearly so, the literary monuments which we have of that popular language rarely reach, so far as style and idiom and even purity of vocabulary are concerned, the common standard of the Koivr) CHAPTER IV THE SEPTUAGINT: (1) ITS ENVIRONMENT; (2) ITS VOCABULARY, AND THE SPECIAL INFLUENCES WHICH MOULD IT AFTER the foregoing very brief account of the general condition of language in which the LXX. arose, we must next investigate its immediate environment, and this will form the transition to the discussion of our special subject itself. In no country did Macedonian influence produce more rapid and far-reaching effects than in Egypt. Alexandria, the capital, founded under the auspices of the Macedonian conqueror, formed a centre of new prosperity for the country. Favoured by natural situation, the glory of its founding, and the benign rule of the early Ptolemies, it could not fail to be a most potent instrument in the diffusion of Hellenism among the Eastern peoples. As has been already said, the Macedonians brought with them, as their ordinary language, the Attic dialect, not, however, unadulterated and pure, but modified in many directions by reason of having become their official and conventional mode of speech. Accordingly, Egypt too must yield to the new tongue. Not, of course, that Greek was a strange language there, but that from this 22 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK time it was to be the language of court life and letters, of trade and commerce, soon also, through the mixed population of a great national centre like Alexandria, the language of common life and ordinary intercourse. Now the conditions under which the Macedonian Attic took root in Egypt could only lead to one result. Nowhere was there a more remarkable blending of diverging elements than at Alexandria. Egyptians, pure Greeks, Macedonians, representatives of the various Asiatic kingdoms, Africans, Jews, all combined to form a motley crowd ; yet they must have constant dealings with one another. The medium of intercourse must inevitably be Greek. It was impossible that it could retain even the purity of its Macedonian type among elements so conflicting. The question accordingly arises, What special colour would Greek, as spoken by the Egyptian people, be likely to assume ? We know that they had deep-seated Oriental tendencies. We are told that their temperament was melancholy ; that they were possessed by a strong bias towards the formless symbolism of their ancient worship ; that their imagination was eager and excitable. Accordingly, we are not surprised to find from the remains preserved, a certain unwieldiness and capricious- ness about their language, which displays itself especially in harsh and fantastic word-composition. Besides, this might naturally be looked for, as Greek came to them, not by free and spontaneous diffusion, but in the stilted guise of officialism. Many instances from their vocabulary, as exhibited by the Eosetta Inscription, Papyri, etc. etc., are given by THE SEPTUAGINT 23 Mullach, Bernhardy, and others. From these the follow- ing are taken : dSi'/ciov, aia>j/o/?tos, aTroStetrraA/xei/tov, avro/cpacna, Aoyeveiv, ovcria/co?, Trapacrvyypa^etv, 7rpa>TO7rpaia, TO reAc- As to the Greek of Alexandria proper, it seems- erroneous to give it the name of a dialect, as many scholars have been accustomed to do. In all probability the language of the Egyptian capital had no more right to be called a dialect than the vernacular of any other great centre of population and commerce. On the other hand, it does appear that, owing to the unique position and circumstances of Alexandria, a certain type of Greek arose there, or was stereotyped there, which was rapidly diffused. It was no literary language, and could not be. It was a blending of words and idioms on an Attic basis, con- tributed to the common stock by the shifting masses which made up the population of the city. Thus East and West alike impressed their stamp on the Alexandrian speech. There is no need to say, as some scholars have asserted, that no memorial of the Alexandrian type of Greek has come down to us. We believe that the more the language of the LXX. is studied, the more clearly it will be seen that, in spite of strong Hebrew colour- ing and the moulding force of Jewish conceptions, the LXX. does afford a lucid and graphic view of the Greek of Alexandria. And more importance attaches itself to this because Alexandrian Greek may be regarded as a typical representative of the language then spoken throughout the provinces which had yielded to Alexander's sway. 24 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK It is unnecessary for us here to do more than state the views generally held by modern scholars regarding the date and origin of the Greek translation of the Old Testament. There is a consensus of opinion that the whole, or, in any case, the greater part of the under- taking, was carried out at Alexandria. This rests on an unbroken line of tradition. The question cannot be decided as to whether any of the kings took a special interest in the work. A mass of legend has grown round this report. The nucleus of the translation was the Pentateuch, a fact to be expected, seeing that for the Jews the reading of the Law formed the chief part of synagogue worship. In all probability this portion of the Old Testament was translated about the middle of the third century B.C., and the prologue to " Ecclesi- asticus" says that by 130 B.C., not only the "Law" but the " Prophets " and the other books of the Old Testament were extant in Greek. The translation, as a whole, reveals several hands, at least five, differing to a considerable degree in acquaintance with Greek, power of grasping the original, and skill in translating. The Pentateuch has been done by the most competent trans- lators. The internal character of the version makes it almost certain that the translators were Egyirtian Jews. Thus, to give one or two instances (I) 1 The Hebrew "shekel " is translated by the Alexandrian " didrachmum," not by the tetradrachnmm, to which it was equivalent. (2) Hebrew " ephah " is translated by OMI, Egyptian 1 Most of the instances quoted are taken from Hody, De Bibliorum Textibus Originalibus. THE SEPTUAGINT 25 pronunciation. This measure still exists among the Copts. (3) Hebrew " Thummim," translated by dX^cia, the Greek name of the ornament worn by the chief Egyptian judges. (4) KovSv, a special name for a particular kind of Egyptian cup, used in the LXX. (5) a^t, used of anything growing in a marsh Trarrvpos. Oiftis ark in which Moses was exposed. (6) A numerous class of nouns beginning with the prefix cf. in Papyri and Inscrr. a/>x i ~ ap^t is said to denote simply a court official. These, of course, are only hints ; but when corroborated by the general nature of the version and an unvarying tradition handed down by the oldest Jewish - Greek writers themselves, who had every opportunity of know- ing the facts, there is little room for doubt. No one has ever doubted that the translators were Jews. The raison d'etre of the version is not hard to seek. Besides several very ancient colonies to be found in Egypt, Jews flocked in multitudes to the new city, induced by the splendid opportunity for commercial pursuits, as well as by the kindly disposition of the Egyptian kings and their own less favourable lot in Palestine. Soon we find that Jews occupied some of the highest posts in the whole country. In the natural course of things, half a century or less would see them thoroughly subject at least to the more ex- ternal influences of their new abode, and none of these could be so powerful as the language commonly spoken, the language, besides, which was the special medium 26 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK of their own cherished pursuits. Accordingly, the staple of their ordinary speech would come to be the language of Alexandria. This would be modified by their original dialect of Hebrew or Aramaic, but would gradually approximate to the common ver- nacular of the city population. Wellhausen, 1 indeed, supposes the existence of a kind of Jewish-Greek jargon, already developed, " which was really Hebrew or Aramaic in disguise," and employs his hypothesis to account for the extreme literalness and frequent harsh- ness of the Septuagint version. But this is a pure hypothesis, and the literalness of the translation is best accounted for on other grounds. Thus situated, and with their synagogue -worship, which was the very centre of their national life, in full exercise, it must soon come to be the case that many Jews of the generation native to Alexandria, could no longer intelligently follow the reading of the sacred books in their public worship, and the demand would speedily arise for a rendering of, at least, the Law into the language which they could understand. And the great majority of modern scholars hold that these circumstances explain the origin of the Septuagint version. It would be going too far afield to make any particular mention of the peculiar theory of Professor Gratz, 2 who places the first nucleus of the translation about 140 B.C., in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor. Again it must be noted that the prophetical and poetical books were translated at various times, later than 1 Art. " Septuagint " in EncycL Britann. 2 Geschichte der Juden, Band iii. THE SEPTUAGINT 27 the date of the Pentateuch, and that this was often due, in all probability, to private enterprise. These facts, however, do not affect our investigation of the vocabulary of the LXX., as one hundred and thirty years at most comprise the whole translation, and there is no evidence to show that any part of it was executed outside Alexandria. In investigating the vocabulary of the LXX. we are investigating the vocabulary of a translation. This translation, moreover, is of a peculiar nature. It is intended to bring out every jot and tittle of the original, because the original is held to be sacred, and not a syllable, therefore, must be lost. Accordingly, the rendering is extraordinarily literal. This implies restric- tion of vocabulary. But when the range of the collection of writings is so wide, the restriction is scarcely felt. Still, we cannot expect to be able to make the same deductions from what is a rigidly literal translation, as might be looked for in a spontaneous literary product. Further, the translators are Jews. They write in a language whose conceptions are alien to their type of mind. The language is acquired. There must therefore be a certain artificiality of expression, a certain clumsi- ness both as to forms and structures. Their vocabulary and style cannot fail to show a real Hebraic element, their inheritance from the past. But, apart from this, they are sure to reflect with more or less accuracy the exact type of speech which surrounds them, the par- ticular form of Greek to which they have been first introduced in their everyday dealings with neighbours and traders. 28 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK The vocabulary of the LXX. has Attic for its original basis, and so we meet, in ever-varying proportions, with much of the ordinary stock familiar to us in earlier and purer writers. This part of the vocabulary, which is, however, far less in proportion to the other elements than the corresponding part of the New Testament vocabulary, we need not for the present dwell upon. It is the common store of most writers in a greater or less degree down to a fairly late date in our era. But, before discussing the other and far more characteristic elements in the vocabulary of the LXX., it appears to us in place to give a rough analysis of a few chapters taken entirely at random from its pages, which will afford, in brief compass, a general view of its language, and serve as a basis of illustration for the principles in the formation of the vocabulary which have still to be investigated. In the case of the LXX., representative illustrations are specially admissible, seeing that, as a matter of fact, the same elements are found throughout its vocabulary. We take the first ten chapters of the Book of Deuteronomy, a fair specimen of the ordinary character of the LXX., neither distinguished for special excellence nor special harshness and incorrectness, though perhaps, on the whole, it would fall among the better parts of the work rather than otherwise. Words and forms belonging to the common stock of Greek writers are, of course, unnoticed. The writers are given by whom the word or form is used. When a word in common use is given, it is because of some special sense in the LXX., and those writers alone are quoted who employ it in that sense. THE SEPTUAGINT 29 LIST OF WORDS a. ayoi/o? = barren. Hippoc., Aristot., Theoph., Soph., Plut. Horn., Soph., Eurip. (Isocr.). Polyb., Philo. aTTocTTTJTO)cra.v. Form. apo-vi/cos. Very late. Callim., Anthol. curaAeirros = unmoved. Eurip., Diod., Plut. Adverb in Polyb., KT. a.o-r)TTToos. Only poetical and late prose. N.T. y/aa/A/Aaroetoraycoycts = Heb. word meaning (1) scribe, (2) magistrate. 8. SctXtaw. Diod., N.T. Siayiyvwo-/copo. Once quoted, Lye. 205. N.T. 7ravao-Tpe<(D = (simply) return. eu/cA?7pos = fortunate. Anthol., Suid. eu/cArjp^/xa in Antiph. Com. al\. Plato, Theocr. Late. In Xen. Cyr. 8. 6. 16, of an officer who visited annually the satrapies of Persia. Timocl. Com. . o>ypeta = Heb. word for "survivor." In Hdt., Polyb., Strabo = one taken alive. 77. ?)XOa.T. Form. N.T. Form. KT. Very late. Dion. Hal. OvcXXa. Entirely poetical. N.T. Passive form. Scarcely in prose. N.T. Form. N.T. tepareva). Herodn., Inscrr., N.T. Katpos = xpoVos. Late. N.T. Hdt., Aesch., Galen., N.T. = grind down. Horn., Hdt., Hippoc., Strabo. ( = /caTcurKOTreoo). Xen., Polyb., Plut. = plant. Plut., Lucian. = encourage. Dion. Hal. = strengthen ; KT. = prevail. Pindar, Lesbonax, N.T. Aristoph., Lysias, and late writers ; N.T. = go to bed. Pind., Polyb. KOTTOS. Late in prose = trouble, burden. Poetry and KT. Koo-fjios = Heb. word for " heavenly hosts as ornaments of the heavens." Kparatos. Poet. Only late prose. Plut., etc. ; N.T. Polyb., N.T. Hdt., Horn., Xen., KT. X. AaKKos = cistern. Hdt., Aristoph., Xen. (Demos.). Xaev(a. Eumath. (Aa^evo-t?. Schol. ad Theocr. ; , N.T.). THE SEPTUAGINT 31 uto = serve God. N.T. Used by Eurip. = serve the gods. A.6/xayxoi/ea> = reduce by hunger. Hippoc., Antisth. ap. Stob. /x. fjLa.KpoY)fjLpev. Diod. . Pass = be beaten. Polyb., Plut., N.T. T. TtLxriprjs = fortified. In this sense only in LXX. S T .T., Apocr. ow = swell. In Hdt., Xen., Theocr. = grow hard. v. vTToVracris = Heb. word for "burden." Almost = etymol. sense of Latin " sustentatio." = shrink from. Hippoc., Dinarch., N.T. Eorm. d 7TTw = fasten on. In Herod, and Hippoc. with the interesting addition of Theocritus, an Alexandrian writer. ftovKoXia. Hdt. (again in company with Theocritus). /caTaAew = grind down. Hdt. Hippocr. (also in Homer). At/xayxovew. Hippocr. (Frag, of Antisthenes). TV A. o'w. Hdt. (also in Theocritus and Xen.). v7ro<7Te'AA.co = shrink from. Hippocr. (also in Dinarchus, a Corinthian). Many other instances could be given from the larger group of words. (3.) As might be expected from what has been said in a former part of this dissertation, many affinities with 36 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK the language of Xenophon are to be found. This is the natural result of the growth of the tendency to laxness in observing the strict boundaries of correct prose, com- bined with ever-increasing foreign influences. Examples from our list are = not liable to rot. Xen. (also in Hippocr.). e tread of the foot. Karaa-K07TV(n ( = Karao-KOTrew). First in Xen. Krrjvos. Good instance of a thoroughly poetical word, brought into prose by Xen. i/ a TTT;. Another term of the same class, etc. etc. (4.) This last class can scarcely be separated from a very large list of words which the LXX. has in common with the writers of the " Common " dialect, in short, with the literary language which arose in the period which gave it birth. This class, of course, is far wider in range than any of those already glanced at, as it really embraces all the outstanding peculiarities of the later literary language. And, without doubt, the LXX. comes far nearer the literature of the " Common Dialect " in actual vocabulary than in style, or syntax, or general tone. The fact is interesting as showing that it was easier for the literary men to model the structure of their sentences after the great masters of literature than to preserve their vocabulary, even by artificial means. Still, writers like Polybius and Plutarch show a far more intimate relation to Plato and Aristotle, even in voca- bulary, than they do towards the LXX. It is impossible, within our limits, even to indicate the numerous points of contact between the vocabulary of the LXX. and that of the writers of the Koivr]. A few THE SEPTUAGINT 37 hints must suffice. Many of the points of contact referred to come under the head of the classes already examined. Polybius, Diodorus, Strabo, Philo, and Plutarch all exhibit the characteristics looked at under (1), (2), and (3) of this section. But there are additional features. Perhaps the most important of these is one common to the immature and the decaying stages of a language. This is the habit of forming compounds. As Eutherford well points out (New Phryn. p. 6) : " Before a language is matured, and that feeling of language developed which sees in a common word the most suitable expression for a common action or fact, there is a tendency to make work-a-day words more expressive by compounding with a preposition." In illustration, he quotes from Sophocles a long list of com- pounds, especially with the preposition e'/c, ef, as efai/e- ^eadai, %6\ev0poa-TOfj,iv, egaTifjLa&iv, and many others, which differ in no way from the uncompounded verbs, except in having a touch of vividness or picturesqueness added. The same tendency displays itself in the later language in a greatly intensified degree and harsher forms. But now it is because language has lost its concentrated force. Words adequate enough to express the intended meaning have become weakened to the popular imagina- tion. They are felt to be too vague just because simplicity is so. The artificiality of language becomes the reflection of artificiality of thought. It is imagined that by heaping on prepositions or other elements to a word it gains in content. The examples are partly from the list and partly taken at random SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GEEEK stand up. Polyb. (no meaning added). = (practically) i/ rj tju,arta>v >) apyvpov rj brovovv aAXov KaXovtri 8' avro ot d/xtt^cis yAfj's (Ditten- berger, 244. 5). XVXVLCL. Phryn. 289 : avrl rovrov Xv^vtov Xeyc. And in his Appendix, p. 50 : Xv^vtov ot d/Aa0ts Xv^vtav avro KdXova-L. So Pollux, 10. 115 (quoted by Lobeck), says that Xvxviov is " vulgarly " called Xuxvc'o. It was clearly a word in regular circulation, and probably from an early date. Cf. Inscr. leronda (240 B.C.) : rrjv re. Xv^vtav rrjv peydXrjv (Ditt. 170. 13). 606viov = linen cloth, in plur. = stripes of linen. Several times in Hippocr., Aristoph. Frag. (Mein. 2. 989). Several times in LXX. and N.T. oi/vx^w = pare the nails, or metaph., examine minutely. Cratin. (Mein. 2. 214). Aristoph. Frag. (Mein. 2. 1217), on which Suidas : ovvx^rat- aKpi/JoXoyetrai, ovrcos 'Aprro(/>ai/r7s. Evidently a colloquial word which the translators of the O.T. used to express the cloven hoof. o-Krj. Phryn. 216 : TraiSiovo}- TOVTO CTT! TT}S 6epa.7ra(,vr]6prLov. Eight instances in Meineke. X -/(to, and its modifications in the use of existing ones to suit its own purpose. EXAMPLES (a) d oo, eoAe0pv'a), eTriya/A/Jpev'w, 7TpOOTOTOKV(0. w, dreKvow, eKpt^ow, cvSwa/xoo), Transitive verbs 1 receive an intransitive sense: e.#. KaraTravti), /carto'xvw, KOpei/vv/At. Intransitive verbs receive a transitive sense : e.#. avrap- KCO>, e^atpw, KaTao"7Tv8(o. o = keep alive. woyove'a> = vivifico. (8.) One of the specially noteworthy features of the language of the LXX. has still to be pointed out, and that is the large admixture of foreign words which can be traced in its vocabulary. 1. The chief element under this head is, of course, the Hebrew. But as it has to be examined minutely in immediate connection with the New Testament, it is needless to anticipate here. For the sake of complete- ness, however, we may summarise briefly. 1 These instances are taken from H. G. Thiersch, De Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina, p. 99. 44 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK A. Actual Hebrew words occur in the LXX. in various guises (a) Hebrew words in Greek letters : e.g. Trao-xa, Ope<0 K.T.A. CV Greek words modified by the influence of Hebrew conceptions (a) Ordinary terms : e.g. Wvos, ctSooAov, e/cAcX^o-t'a, ypa/x.- /xarev?, o-rparia K.r.X. ^o/x,oXoyea), TraiSevw, TraTcurtrw K.T.X. (&) TJieological and religious terms: e.g. ayyeXos, Sta^oXos, Kvpto?, TratSeta, o~cuT?;pta. c/cXcyo/xat, Tropvcvw, ^xori'^w. All these classes will be examined and illustrated carefully further on in the Dissertation. 2. Words from other languages (a) Egyptian : /coi/8v, $t/3t9, v$os, ySapts, TrciTrvpos, oi= fellow-countrymen, and a few more, shows a great partiality for combinations like avros avr60i, dyeiv dywva, Svo-cfropcos os, Trayyecopyo?, eT Ktt/CO/XO^^OS, We have given all these instances, partly to show the alarming proportion in which the Greek vocabulary was increasing even among cultivated writers, and all the time in a diffuse and inelegant direction, and partly to point out a tendency which was strongly at work in the LXX., and which appears inseparable from Jewish use of Greek, that of forming cumbrous and uncouth com- pounds on the model of Hebrew expressions, rather than conveying the thought more flexibly by broken - up phrases. Philo. We omit Diodorus and Strabo as sufficiently represented by Polybius, and glance next at Philo, who, in respect of vocabulary, is one of the most interesting 1 These lists are compiled from the large collections in the Intro- ductions to Grimm's Handbilcher zu den Apocryphen. 54 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK of the writers of the " Common " dialect. He is all the more important for our subject as being a true Jew, a native of Alexandria, and a voluminous Greek writer. But his language is entirely different in general character from the so-called dialect of Alexandria. No doubt he does employ some words which are considered peculiar to that type of speech, such as dfji(pid%cr6ai, Ka^fjLveiv, e/ATria-reveiv, and a few more ; but these are exceptional, and in any case we could not expect him to be unaffected by the direct influences of his surroundings. Philo's tendencies of thought brought him into the closest connection with Greek philosophy, made him indeed an enthusiast for Plato, and so we need not be surprised to find that Plato became his master in the use of language as well as his ideal of a philosopher. This gave rise to the well-known saying : 97 H\drwv i\a>vi%et, PI 3>i\tov TrXaTtovlfa. Siegfried has put together a list of over three hundred rare words which are to be found in both authors. These are by no means chiefly philo- sophical terms, but belong to every phase of the language. It is interesting to observe that Philo, though thoroughly proud of his Jewish origin, yet in language felt himself a Greek. Thus he says (i. 424, quoted by Siegfried) : p,ev ( E/3paloi \eyovai \o- K.T.\. The special glossary -for Philo is large and suggestive for the later language. He has a wonderful command of varied expression, and displays a strong tendency towards the use of synonyms. Thus pairs of words constantly appear in his writings : e.g. d/cpaTi&iv, 7roTieti> ; ydvvaOai,, ^lavorjriKo^ ; evOrjvla, everrjpia ; He is fond of antitheses, and this probably accounts for much of his word-coining. So he opposes the aicr%po7ra0ijs to the ala%poupy6s, Birjfjiepeveiv to $iavv/cTp6V6iv, tStcorat to e/ATretpOTToXeyLtot, aveGis to roVoxm. Finally, like his contemporaries who have a mastery of the language, he delights in playing on words, as between Koprj, girl ; tc6prj, pupil of the eyes, and Kara/cop^, satiated. 1 1 The instances quoted are taken from the lists in Siegfried's Philo, pp. 32-136. 56 SOUECES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Josephus. Following the succession chronologically, the next important name we meet is that of Josephus, who, like Philo, deserves special notice in connection with our investigation, as being, on the one hand, a Jew of Jerusalem, while, on the other, a man of thorough Greek cultivation. It will not be necessary, however, to say much on his vocabulary, as many of its character- istics have come up already in connection with other authors. His stock of words is very markedly that of the " Common " dialect. Perhaps, however, he is more per- sistent than any of the writers of the KOLVYJ in his use of words which go back a long way in the history of Greek literature. A considerable percentage of his vocabulary is to be found in Herodotus, the Tragedians, and Xeno- phon. But a prominent element in his language is its striking agreement with that of Thucydides, whom he evidently made a chief model. This is emphasised by the fact that he follows Thucydides in the use of rare words and rare significations of words. To give one or two instances (all from a few chapters of the Jewish Antiquities) dvot/xwrrco, KaXwStov, uA(o(jO(ris, /xio-OTrov^pta, Trpocretcr- TrpaTTto, 7rpo(re6K/x,d, (otfcovpta), otvo^Xvyta, (6/xopocn;i/r;). TrapaKOvoo, (Trapa^poo-vvry), Trapetcrep^o/xai, Traprjy op la, Trct^ap^ew, TreptXa/ATrco, TrcpiTretpw, TroXiVev/xa, Trpoerot/xd^co, Trpo^ccr/xta, TrpovTrap^co. (paStovpyos). (raXevco, (crKv^pcoTra^o)), (ruyKara^atVw, crvyKpVTrrco, //.aprvpea), aw. Men. (4. 231). ^avareXAw. Telecl. (2. 373). eVaKpoao/xcu. Plat. (2. 618). Nicoch. (2. 843). Mcostr. Klin. 1. Men. (4. 94). Cratin. (2. 223), Alexid. (3. 525). = SiSao-KaAos (as so often in St. Luke). Antiph. ap. Antiatticista, 96. 12. Athenion (4. 558). (ex etl/ )' Menand. op. Pliotius. evapeo-rew. Lysipp. (2. 746). VToV. Anaxand. (3. 169). AtVpa. Posidipp. (4. 516), Diph. (4. 409). fw.Kpoevp.La. Men. (4. 238). Pher. (2. 282). (culinary sense). Eup. (2. 452), etc. /Lteytcrrai/es. Menand. ap. Pliryn. 175. pe6vo-o<5. Menand. (4. 88). prjXtDTrj. Philem. (4. 9). p,ov6eaXp.os. Cratin. (2. 100). KTrjpLcriJLos. Menand. (4. 314). Alcae. (2. 831), Antiph. (3. 81), etc. p,vcrT-rjpi,ov secret. Menander. v. vrjOew. Perh. Cratin. (2. 75), v.l. r)6etv. vw(9po5. Amips. (2. 707), Anaxip. (4. 460). o. olvo^Xvyia. Antiph. (3. 8). avdpiov. Diph. (4. 417). otnj. Sannyr. (2. 874), Xenarch. (3. 617). oTnjrioi/. Mcoch. (2. 844). opao-ts. Men. (4. 105). Plat. (2. 654). Fourteen instances in Meineke. Men. ap. Pliryn. 393. Thugen. (4. 593). Men. Sentent. 457. TratSapiov. Eleven instances in Meineke. 7rav8ox(-8oK-)tov. Philippid. (4. 474). Theoph. (3. 630), Crito (4. 537). THE VOCABULAKY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 75 /is. Antiph. ap. Atlien. 9. 367 D. os. (Horn., Theogn., Find.), Philetaer. (3. 293), Diod. (3. 544). . Theoph. (2. 807), Anaxand. (3. 183). . Alexid. (3. 437). . Men. (4. 88). Antiph. 'AypotK. 1. 4; Stratt. (2. 774), Alexid. (3. 439). . Eub. (3. 252). . Epicharm. ap. Atlien. 7. 7 ; Men. (4. 101). Eupol. (2. 427). 7rpoor/cea.Lv6Xr)av6<;. Six instances in Meineke. Alexid. (3. 526). Men. (4. 236). Eight instances in Meineke. vpaiia. Mens. (3. 569). Ten instances in Meineke. Plato, Fragg. 10, p. 257. Philem. (4. 47). Five instances in Meineke. (of men). Eight instances in Meineke. Anaxand. [3. 202].) to. upvopau. Plat. (2. 659). We have given these lists very fully because we believe that no more important evidence could be pre- sented with regard to the colloquial character of the New Testament vocabulary. In the Comic poets, if anywhere, we should expect to find the current popular speech strongly marked. And when words meet us all through the Comic literature of Greece, from Cratinus at THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 77 its beginning to Posidippus at its close, which scarcely appear anywhere else except in the New Testament, we are justified in accepting this as proof positive of our position. The facts exhibited show clearly the existence of a language of popular intercourse from an early time, which verges on the borders of the literary language, but is excluded from composition except in the case of Comedy. Yet many of the words in question must have borne the stamp of refinement, and belonged to the diction of polite speech at a period long antecedent to literary production. By processes which can no more be discovered, these words have somehow lost caste, and while by no means rejected altogether, we may believe, from the conversation of the educated, have come to be regarded as more or less " vulgar " and " rough." In this way the door of literature was barred to them. But they continued all along to have full play in the language of daily life, and accordingly, when Greek literary taste began to decay, and the real literary dialect no longer survived in spontaneous form, these words again asserted themselves, and by. the time the New Testament was written, they have regained their place in the language of educated men, and are found occasionally even in the writers of the " Common Dialect." But in addition to the writers we have quoted, who range over a period of three hundred years, and whose works are only extant in a very fragmentary form, a most interesting and important contribution is made to the history of colloquial Greek in connection with the language of the New Testament by the vocabulary of Aristophanes. In his case we have the advantage of 78 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK seeing the phenomena of the Greek popular vocabulary at a definite stage in Greek history. So a landmark is given by which the past of the colloquial language and its future may be estimated. Besides, Aristophanes lived in the Golden Age of the Attic dialect, when the sense for language had reached its highest pitch. Accordingly, one may expect that the " popular " words admitted by him are, at least, on the higher level of the " con- versational" type of speech. This gives an additional criterion for the New Testament vocabulary. The following is a list of rare words which occur in Aristophanes, and almost nowhere else except in the New Testament. They are all apparently " colloquial " : a. a/?vo-(ros. Ran. 138. oLKparov. Ach. 75, 1229; Eq. 85, 87. afji7rXovpy6oSov. Frag. 304. Eq. 780. Eq. 819. 13. fidros. Frag. 593. Ten instances = loathe. ov (NT. J3L/3\apL8Lov). Frag. (Mein. 2. 1207). 8. StaAeKTos. Frag. 552. c. eKKoXv^aw. Frag. (2. 975). eW'co. Vesp. 792. Ko-TpeV>?. ^8iW;u,os. Frag. (2. 1178). THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 79 e. 0\ij3o>. Fig. sense in Vesp. 1289; Ran. 5. So in N.T. Ovpis. Vesp. 379; Therm. 797. i. i/xvos. In vernac. sense of " long," " many " ; Pax 354. K. *ap. fagotti. Nub. 592. Therm. 692; Lys. 19; Eq. 715. Before leaving the Comic poets, it is worth our while to note that, even among the earlier ones, strange com- pounds and clumsy formations are found, which are exact prototypes of the same phenomena in the late Greek of post- Alexandrine days. Thus Crates employs words like e0e\oo-v^i;os, dvafiico- cracrdat, = 'jroiija-at dvaftiwa'ai,, etc. Eupolis uses dfj,/3\va$La, /3Se\vpevofj,cu, veavio-Kew, etc. In Phrynichus occur such forms as i,, etc. w, KoXkoTrevco, and the like, which occur in the old Comedy, look quite like formations belonging to the age of the LXX. The old " Anonymous Writer " on Comedy expressly says that the poets of the Middle Comedy employed rfjs crvvr}6ovs XaXta?. By this time the inhabitants of Athens had come into frequent contact with foreigners and men who spoke impure Greek. This told on the language of the people, and, of course, reflected itself in the vocabulary . of the Comic poets. By the time the New Comedy arose, the tendencies already in vogue had increased in influence. The one aim the poets set before them was that which we saw to be the chief thing also with Hellenistic writers, viz. clearness and intelligibility. And so Anonymus de Com. p. 32, says: fj pev vea TO (ratyea-Tepov e%ei, ry vea Ke^prjfjLevrj 'ArOtSi,, rj &e TO Seivbv Kal vtyr)\bv TOU \ejeiv. Barbarous THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 81 words and forms received far greater licence, and this because u Comedy follows the common language of the people." One point which bears upon the relation of the New Testament vocabulary to the spoken language remains to be glanced at. It is found that in the New Testament (and to a considerable extent in the Comic writers) words which in ordinary Greek bore a strong and almost coarse sense, have become entirely enervated, so that they are used in the most casual and trivial connections. This fact is easily explained. The terms gradually passed into the daily speech of the people, a process in which, quite naturally, the rough edges were worn off, and they became strictly commonplace words. Instances are the following : In the Class, language usu. = throw, hurl, cast. Looser sense in Homer and Tragedians, where it is often used metaphorically, but has a notion of " haste " or " hurry " associated with it. This use is almost always the equivalent of our " lay to heart." In N.T. often = " put " in its most colourless sense. E.g. Mark 7. 33 : e/3ctAev TOVS $O.KTV\OVS cts TO, omx avrov. John 20. 27 : John 5. 7 : Iva OTO.V rapa)(0fj TO vS 6 82 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK ev TrapajSoXcus TO (rrofjia /xov, e/ocv^ojuai KCKpupfJieva OLTTO Karaj3o\r]a.v = investigate, etc. THE VOCABULAKY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 83 They are all, apparently, colloquial usages, whose process of formation has been accelerated by the tendency to exaggerate which a language shows when it has entered on a period of degeneration. One most important element in the New Testament vocabulary we merely mention here as it must come up for elaborate treatment afterwards, viz. the large number of terms belonging to the sphere of Christian Theology which occur throughout these writings. CHAPTEE VII COMPARISON OF THE VOCABULARY OF THE SEPTUAGINT WITH THAT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT WE have attempted in the foregoing pages to lay a more or less solid basis for our investigation, to indicate the directions in which it must proceed and its limits,, and to accumulate various lines of evidence which must have a chief place in determining its issue. We have tried to sketch the special conditions of the Greek language in the age when the LXX. arose. A rough analysis of the main elements in the vocabulary of the LXX. has been given, and it has been endeavoured to connect this discussion with a similar examination of the New Testament language by means of a very brief inquiry into the vocabulary of the Common Dialect. A survey of the New Testament vocabulary has completed the collection of materials necessary both for placing us at the proper point of view for our discussion, and for supplying us with guiding-lines throughout the whole of the investigation. What remains to be done in the second part of this dissertation is to state generally the facts which come to view on a minute comparison of the vocabulary of the LXX. with that of the New Testament, to illustrate ^ 84 COMPARISON OF VOCABULARY OF LXX. AND N.T. 85 these, to draw the legitimate inferences from them, and so arrive at some definite conclusion with respect to the whole question under examination. The most cursory reading of the Greek New Testa- ment shows a constant habit on the part of the writers of quoting from the Old Testament. The significant fact in this connection is that the great majority of these quotations are from the Greek version of the Sacred Books. When it is remembered that the writers are almost all Jews, and that the Jewish reverence for the actual letters of the Hebrew original of the Old Testa- ment is unparalleled, the point attracts attention. Unfortunately it is exceedingly difficult to discover the actual usage of the Palestinian synagogues with respect to the reading of the Old Testament in the first century A.D. Some scholars assert that the synagogue readers must have employed Targums in Aramaic, the vernacular of the country. Others as boldly declare that it was the Greek version and no other which was read in the public services. And this is used as an argument in favour of the position, that Greek, equally with or more than Aramaic, was the popular language of the country in the time of Christ. Without, however, discussing a question which seems impossible of solution, one may with safety affirm that the LXX. must have been well known at least to the great mass of intelligent and educated Jews, for this is a legitimate inference from the New Testament. There we find that there are about three hundred quotations from the Old Testament. At least ninety of these agree verbally with the LXX. In the others, the variations 86 SOUKCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK from it are very trifling. More important still, in thirty-seven of the ninety the LXX. differs from the- Hebrew text. Accordingly, the writers of the New Testament must have been thoroughly acquainted with this version, seeing they preferred to use it, though written in a foreign language, rather than to translate from a text which they regarded as in the strictest sense inspired. No doubt it must be borne in mind that the readers for whom they wrote were chiefly " Gentiles," to whom the Old Testament would only be known in its Greek dress. Still their easy familiarity with it shows how completely they had made it their own. This is corroborated by constant reminiscences of it, and allusions which are almost more important than quotations in this connection, as coming up unconsciously. And so- the question naturally arises : If these writers were so- thoroughly versed in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, as is certainly the fact, is it not likely that when they came to write books in Greek themselves, their language would be moulded and shaped by the language of the LXX., especially as the latter had stereotyped a particular form of Greek, and had so become a standard for Hellenistic Jews ? Is it not likely that the influence of the LXX. will appear, not only in words which express Hebrew conceptions and feelings,but in the general vocabu- lary which the Jewish writers of the New Testament employ ? A scholar so thorough and so original as the late Dr. Hatch says, in his Essays in Biblical Greek (p. 3 4) : " The great majority of New Testament words are words which, though for the most part common to biblical and contemporary secular Greek, express in their biblical COMPARISON OF VOCABULARY OF LXX. AND N.T. 87 use the conceptions of a Semitic race, and which must consequently be examined by the light of the cognate documents which form the LXX." And again (p. 11): " Biblical Greek is thus a language which stands by itself. What we have to find out in studying it is what meaning certain Greek words conveyed to a Semitic mind." Our attempt in the pages that follow must be to test these statements by means of the facts we have to produce, and in the light of the conclusions arrived at in the former part of the dissertation. There are various ways in which the vocabulary of one group of writings may be presumed to be a principal factor in the formation of that which belongs to another group. There must always be more or less of mere pre- sumption about the matter, because the life-history of words is often silent and curious. Let us call the earlier group A, and the later B. (1.) There is, first, what may be called external evidence. We may have a definite knowledge of the fact that the writers of B were intimately acquainted with group A, that, indeed, this was almost their only literature. So a presumption is legitimate that the language of A will influence in an indefinite degree the language of B. But this is purely ft, priori. (2.) On examination, it may be found that an over- whelmingly large proportion of the vocabulary of B has already occurred in A. This leads us to look for further points of resemblance. (3.) A careful scrutiny of the two vocabularies may show that a large number of words found in B occur in no other known writings except group A. 88 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK (4.) It may appear that many of the words common to A and B are derived words, whose special character makes it certain that they were formed by the writers of A. (5.) We may further discover that a large number of current words, found in other authors, occur in A and B in a sense quite peculiar to these two groups of writings. (6.) A set of words may be found in B which are local peculiarities of the region where group A arose. This rough classification probably embraces most of the relations which could exist between two vocabularies. Bearing them in mind, we must set down the facts which emerge on a comparison of the vocabulary of the LXX. with that of the New Testament. We have already seen that out of a total vocabulary of over 4800 words in the New Testament (excluding all proper names and their derivatives) there are about 950 which are post- Aristotelian ; of these, over 300 are found also in the LXX. But one half of this number occurs in other writings, which, in this case, mean those of the " Common Dialect," the Anthology, the Jewish Apocrypha, Philo, and Inscriptions. On this element, it is plain, no valid conclusions can be based, except that special attention must be directed to the group common to the LXX., the New Testament, and Philo. We shall touch on this immediately. There are, then, about 150 words in all which are strictly peculiar to the LXX. and New Testament. The following is a list which we have compiled of them. It is, at least, approximately correct : Nouns aya6a)tos, yrjfjia } di/raTroSo/xa, COMPARISON OF VOCABULARY OF LXX. AND N.T. 89 yeevva, &m7S. eAey/Aos, cAeyis, e/ATraty/xos, e/x-TraiK-n/s, IvraX/xa, , KCUXTOOI'J Kav^crt?, Kopos. VIK05. 6A.OKA.r7/Ha, oTrTacrta, op/cw/i.oo'ia. 7rapa7rtKpao-/>tos, TrapotKtia, Trapopytoyxo's, Trarptap^s, Trcipaa-- , aTro- 90 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK co, Siayoyyv7, a/cpo/^voTca, aTravyacr/xa. Siaa-Tropa, Siarayry, Si KaraTreracr/xa, Karacrxeo"t?> Karapov^TT;?, KOKKIVO?. COMPAEISON OF VOCABULAKY OF LXX. AND N.T. 91 Trai/TOKparoop, , 7rpa)TOTO/aa. Adjectives eTri/carapaTO?, ev iXaoT^pios. TTpCDTOTOKOS. e/A7repi7raTyptov. vo/xos, vvfji(j)rj. ovo/x-a, ovpai/os, o^upwyaa. TratSci'a, Trats, 7rapa/3oXrj, TrapoiKOS, Treipatr/xos, Tropvcta, prjfj.a, pt^a. ap^, o-KavSaXov, CTKrjvoTrrjyLa, crro/xa, (rrparta, o- La, crcoTr/piov. 1 Based entirely on the excellent Lists in Thayer's edition of Grimm- Wilke's CZaws ^Vov* Testamenti. T. & T. Clark. COMPAKISON OF VOCABULARY OF LXX. AND N.T. 93 T6/C1/OV. vto?, Adjectives Verbs eo), dvcu^epco, dv0o/-ioXoyeo/x,ai, aTTOKaAvTrrco, a etSa>, i/u', eTnw, e/cXeyo/xat, e^o/xoXoycw, Ka/coto, KaKaoyew, Ka/x,/AV o 5 I. In Class. Lit. in the ordinary sense. II. In LXX. (1)= brother. (2) = neighbour. Lev. 19. 17: 96 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK rov dScX^oV crov rfj Siavoia ta) TrX^o-idV o-ov. (3) = member of the same nation, Ex. 2. 14 : MwvoSJs e^Xflev Trpos TOVS d8eX, TOV dSeX^ov o*ov aOa\jJL<2 TOV d8eX^>ov o~ov. (3) = member of the same nation, Rom. 9. 3 : T/VXO/^V yap avdOefJia eli/at auTOS eyw aTro TOV Xpio~TOV vvrep TWV dSeX^oiv ju,ov, TWV o-vyyevwv JJLOV Kara o*ap/ca otTtvcs ewrtv 'lo-par/XetTat. (4) = fellow-Christians, the whole band of Christians being looked on as forming a single family, 1 Cor. 1. 1 : 2o>, "adversary," which, in these places, denotes "the adversary" KO.T e^o^v, viz. Satan. Sixteen of these places are in Job and Zechariah. III. In N.T. about thirty-five times in the above sense = the devil. Used also in the ordinary sense, 2 Tim. 3. 3 : ao-Topyoi, aonrovooi, 8ia/3oAoi. In the former sense, Sia/3oAos always has the article. I. In Class. Lit. (1) expectation; (2) sentiment; (3) " opinion " ; (4) estimation, good opinion ; (5) credit. II. In LXX. 8da almost invariably translates one of three Hebrew words, but in different proportions. One of these, ^1133 = honour, glory, splendour, it translates more than one hundred and fifty times. It is used next often to translate rnsan = glory, splendour, which it does about twenty times. Lastly, it is used nine times as = "tin, which denotes "majesty." By far its most common use is to translate the first word noted when used of God, and so = the glory with which God appears, an outward manifestation. III. In JST.T. fully one hundred and fifty times. Very frequently applied to God in the sense of " praise " and "honour." But a special sense, quite unheard of in Greek literature, is that which has arisen under the influence of the LXX., and which appears in places like Acts 22. 11 : rys S6^uu CTTI TO. Wvri. Con- stantly used as opposed to Aaos, which denotes Israel itself. III. Accordingly, by a natural transition, in N.T., in such places as Luke 2. 32 : o/?o9 /xeyas <' oXyv ryv tKK\rjopav KOI avarpOTrrjv . Chrysos. vii. 279 C uses it K\Y) p&V OfJiO 5 - I. In Class. Lit. = heir, inheritor. II. In LXX. it translates Heb. Eni 1 *, which means (1) pos- sessor, Judg. 18. 7: K\Tjp6vofAo}s eTrayycXt'as \ Heb. 11.7: r^s Kara TTIOTIV StKatocrvv^s eyerero K\r)p6vofJLOs. /cptVts I. In Class. Lit. = (1) judgment, in various senses; (2) trial ; (3) condemnation ; (4) quarrel ; (5) event or issue. II. In LXX. KpL(TLpei TTcuSeias Kvpiov. In all of these it means " chastisement." It is found also in two other passages, Eph. 6. 4 : e/crpet^ere [ra re/era] ev TratSeia KCU i/ov0eo"ia KV/HOV; 2 Tim. 3. 16: Tracra ypa^r; . . . w^eAi/xos Trpos 8t8acTKaXiav, Trpos eAey/xov, Trpos tTravopOworw, rrpos TTO.L- Setav K.r.X. In this last place it seems as if TratSeta might be taken in the sense already quoted, seeing it is joined with words so strong as eTravop^axris and eAey/>to?. So very probably in Ephesians also, where it is joined with vovOea-ia, a word which has often a more or less drastic sense. Ellicott quotes Grotius ad loc. : " TraiSeia hie 102 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK significare videtur institutionem per poenas; autein est ea institutio quae fit verbis." A hint of this sense in Polyb. 2. 9. 6, when he speaks of people as TrcuScveo-tfai TT/OOS TO /xeXW, which Schweighauser trans- lates : " recevoir une bonne legon pour Tavenir." In Philo still = education. In late Byzantine, such as Theophanes Continuatus = chastisement. TrdpoLKO s I. In Class. Lit. = neighbouring, dwelling near. II. In LXX. used twenty-four times. Eleven times of these it translates Heb. "12, meaning "sojourner," "person living out of his own country." Ten times it translates Heb. D^in, denoting an "emigrant sojourning in a strange country, where he is not naturalised." It is joined in Gen. 23. 4 with Tra/aeTuo^/zos. It occurs several times in combination with lv y-fj dXXorpLa. III. In N.T. four times. (1) Acts 7. 6, quotation from the LXX. : TrdpoLKov Iv y-fj dXXorpLa, where = sojourner ; (2) Acts 7. 29 : TrapoiKos ev yf) MaSta/x; (3) Eph. 2. 19, joined with gevoi-j (4) 1 Pet. 2. 11, joined with Trapem'S^os. This shows that the use is based on that of the LXX. (3) and (4) are a Christian extension of the meaning as found in the LXX. They are both metaphorical uses of the word. The word l denoted, in several eastward regions, e.g. Carpathos, Ilium Novum, etc. (C.I.G. 3595, etc.), the same thing as the Attic /ucrouco?. The Christian sense is clearly seen in Epist. ad Diognet. V. 5 : Trar/atSa? OLKOWW (sc. ot Xptcrrtavot) t8tas aAA.' cos TrdpotKOL ; Polycarp, Ep. ad Philipp. Inscript. : TioXvKap- 7TO5 . . . TT] KK\r}a= "flesh." But besides the ordinary sense, this word has several special meanings. (1) = living creature (usu. man). So o-ap occurs in this sense, e.g. Gen. 7. 21 : a7re$av Tracra crap KivovfMtvT] CTTI rf)VTos ; Ps. 55. 4 : ov o(3rjOr) epeu I. In Class. Lit. = (1) bring or carry up ; (2) sustain; (3) 104 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK bring back ; (4) refer ; and various other subordinate senses. II. In LXX. (1) ordinary senses, a very few times ; (2) about ninety times in ritual sense = offer. Especially in the phrase : di/aTf.ptiv ; 1 Pet. 2. 5 : dVeveyKat Tri/ev/xartKas Overtax evTrpoo-SeKTovs ; and other three places. In Demos. 1030. 13 it is used = contribute : avafytpew ets TO KotvoV. This seems to prepare the way for the prevailing sense in the LXX. I. In Class. Lit. = disclose, reveal. II. In LXX. (1) ordinary senses; (2) special sense of God revealing hidden things to men, Dan. 2. 28 : dAA' eo-Tt $eos lv ovpdVo) 6 aTTOKaXvirTW fMV(TTr)pia ; 1 Sam. 3. 21 : a.TTf.KoXvfyOr] Kuptos Trpos ]a/x,ovyA j Isa. 56. 1 : TO III. In KT. (1) ordinary senses; (2) = (2) of LXX., Matt. 11. 25: aTreKoAv^as cum*, I/^TUOIS ; Eom. 1. 18: a.7ro/caAv7rreTat yap opyr] $eov; Eph. 3. 5 : vvv TOLS ajLOLS ttTTOO-ToAotS, etc. I. In Class. Lit. (1) make or deem right ; (2) do a man right or justice. So Hdt., Thuycd., Soph. II. In LXX. it translates Heb. pnv in the Hiph'il mood. This verb has two main, senses (1) Exhibit one to be righteous, e.g. Ezek. 16. 51 : eSi/ccuWas TO.S dSeAavov^ TO ireip'rjOfjvct.i TOV @ov Kcu TO TTOt^crat To~ov 6Vvao~0ai, where 7mpao//,ai appears to he used in a very analogous sense. Cf. Protevangel. Jacohi, 20 : oval rrj aTrtcm'a fjLov on, e^fTreipaa-a Oeov an/Ta; Straho, 16. 4. 24, uses 7Tipao~0at in the sense of "being afflicted. Plut. ii. 230 A = examinari (Wyttenb.). Tropevo/xa t I. In Class. Lit. = " go," and many subordinate senses. II. In LXX. (1) Ord. sense in a great many places. (2) Vanish, e.g. Ps. 78. 39 : IfjivrjcrOr) on crdp cio-i, Trvev/xa 7ropev6fjivov /cat ov/c Tno~Tpeov. From this comes further the sense of "die," as Gen. 15. 2, where the common Heb. verb for " go " is used. (3) Live, follow a manner of life. Very common. Deut. 19. 9 : ev Trao-ats Tais oSots avrov \ Ps. 14. 2: a/xw/xos. III. In N.T. (1) Usual sense often. (2) = (2) of the LXX., e.g. Luke 22. 22 : 6 vtos ^\v TOV avOpwTrov Kara TO wpto-^ieVov TTopcvcTai. This, modelled on Heb. use of the verb Tj^n = Greek olxca-Oai. (3) = (3) of LXX., e.g. Acts 9. 31 : Tropevo/xevai TO> o/?u> TOV Kvptov; 1 Pet. 4. 3 : TrcTropctyxevous ev dcreXyet'at?. A shade of similar meaning in Soph. 0. T. 883 : el oV TI? r) Xoyw I. In Class. Lit. Only in late writers, Theophr., Aristot., Diodor., Plut., Polyb. (1) Give or transmit light; (2) light up (of the sun) ; (3) metaph. = make known, bring to light. II. In LXX. It usually translates Heb. TNn (Hiph'il of 11K), meaning "enlighten" "illuminate"; or rnin (Hiph. of mj) = teach. Not found in its literal sense. Always = enlighten mentally ( = educate, teach) or spiritually, 108 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK e.g. Ps. 12. 4 : TTOI/ TOVS o<0oA/xovs /xov ; Ps. 118. 129 : ^ S^Awcm TWV Aoycuv o-ov ^cortet (this example shows the process in the word); Judg. 13. 8: am(ravTos 8e a(j>6a.pcriav 8ta TOT) euayyeXtov. (3) = usage of LXX. pecul. to Bibl. Greek, Heb. 6. 4 : TOV? a7ra| ^corto-- ^eyras ; Eph. 3. 9 : (onVai rt's 17 otKovo/xta TOV [AvcrTrjpLov ; Eph. 1. 18 : 7r^aAjU,ovs The second use quoted under the N.T. is found in Polyb. 30. 8. 1 : ypajji/jLara eaXw/cora Kat 7rieva ; Lucian. (7aZ. WOTl tem. 32 : Tre^xjortcr/xevoov rwv Trpay/xarwv VTTO r^s oArjOeias. So Pint. ii. 902 B : Tiov(ra TO. voov/xeva. Diog. Laert. 1. 57 uses the verb of bringing an unknown writer before the public. Justin M. has the special N.T. use, TrypJi. 122 : TW OVTI Se ets 17/xas eipr/rat rovs Sia 'I^crov 7re7//,a = Ord. Gk. I. In LXX. used often of the two veils or curtains in the temple at Jerusalem. II. In N.T. always of the innermost of the two curtains, Matt. 27. 51 ; Luke 23. 45 ; Heb. 9. 3. Also figura- tively of the body of Christ, Heb. 10. 20. Found also in Joseph., Philo, Apocr., and Aristeas. Apparently entirely confined to Jewish usage. I. In LXX. almost always = what is evanescent, vain, empty; so = falsehood, emptiness, vanity. Especially following the meaning of the Heb. &OK J , which it trans- lates = emptiness, in the sense of wickedness or impiety, Numerous instances of this. II. In N.T. 2 Pet. 2. 18, appar. = worthlessness. This sense prob. suits Eph. 14. 17 : ev /Aarato-n/Ti rov voos avToiv. The other passage, Rom. 8. 20, seems to re- quire some such meaning as " fruitlessness," which is, of course, closely connected with those above. Occurs in no secular author except Pollux, 6. 134. I. In LXX. translates usually Heb. rfy, meaning " whole burnt-offering." II. So also in N.T. Mark 12. 33 ; Heb. 10. 6. 8 114 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Phrynichus mentions in his Appendix, p. 51, the forms fjuqpoKCLVTCLV, IcpoKavTeiv, oXoKavretv, which last is only written so in Xen. Anal. 7. 8. 4; Joseph. Antiq. 3. 9. 171. Sometimes 6AoKcum>w, Xen. Cyr. 8. 3. 24; Joseph. Antiq. 1. 13. 40. Doubtful verb-form in Plut. ii. 694 B. The noun occurs once in Philo. Joseph. twice uses oAoicairrooo-is. A form 6AoKavTi (" prince"), denoting leaders of tribes or families. About six times in the LXX. Directly transferred to the N.T., e.g. Acts 2. 29 ; Heb. 7. 4. " Compounds in -apxos usu. exchange this ending for -apx^s in the KT. and late Greek. That -apxrjs was the usual termination in the apostolic age seems a legitimate infer- ence from the fact that the Romans, in translating these words into Latin, used this or a similar form, e.g. 1 Alabarches,' Juv. i. 130; ' Tetrarches/ Hor. Sat. i. 3. 12 " (Winer). 7T p O (T V \ Y! - I. In LXX. numerous instances in the sense of " prayer." II. In N.T. (1) prayer, many instances ; (2) place of prayer, Acts 16. 16 : Tropevo/xevwi/ f)[j,wv cis rty Trpocrevx^. This last use in Philo, ii. 523. 22, etc. ; Juv. Sat. i. 3. 296, " proseucha " ; Joseph. Vita, 54 ; several Inscr. ; Cleomedes, 71. 16. CONNECTION BETWEEN N.T. WORDS AND LXX. 115 TTpOCTT/AuTO S - I. In LXX. almost always translates Heb. "13 = foreigner, alien. So also in Philo. II. In N.T. three or four times, and always in the technical sense of one who has left some Gentile religion for Judaism. Literally = Lat. " advena" Winer l says on the form: "The verbal Trpoo-rjAvros is immediately connected with such forms as eTnyAvs, /aerr/Xvs, and is an extended formation, of which we find no examples in Greek authors." pavr icr /A os I. In LXX. in four places, e.g. in phrase = water for sprinkling, so as to remove defilement. Always = sprinkling. II. In N.T. same sense. Used always with at/xa. A technical term of ritual in the LXX. Not found in any secular author. The nearest approach is pai/ncris in Achmes, a late writer of the Christian era. I. In LXX. Deut. 10. 16 : K) KO.T o<0aA/x,oSovAiav ws avOpia- Trapeo-Kot. So Col. 3. 22. Lobeck compares airrapeorKo?, Apoll. de Conjunct. 504, and o^XoapcoTKos in Hesych. The adj. occurs in Theophil. 3. 14. The noun is found in Justin Martyr. 1 P. 120. 116 . SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK X a e v r 6 5. Xas + etXta TOV KOO"/>IOV c^^/oos TOV ^cov Ka^t'oTarat (Westc.-Hort). Late Greek degenerated to this manner of inflecting common adjectives. Cf. crvyyevts, called by Pollux, flap/3apov ; evyei/t's, Joseph. Antiq. 7. 3. 371; ts, Inscr. Lesbos (end of third Macedonian War) ; /caraywyts, (7/4. ii. 2 (c. 307 B.C.). Aristoph. the Grammarian (quoted by Lobeck) reckons among TO, acrvv^Orj, TO ftot^>) Kal /AOt^is 8t' o>v S^Xovrat Lpovat/3pds in Horn., Pind., Hdt., Tragg. CONNECTION BETWEEN N.T. WOKDS AND LXX. 119 I. In LXX. = discharge the duties of a priest. Numerous instances. II. In N.T. same sense, Luke 1. 8 : lv TCU iepareveiv avrov Found nowhere before the LXX. Afterwards fairly common, e.g. Pausan. 4. 12. 6; Herodian, 5. 6; Joseph. Antiq. 3. 8. 1. Inscr. Mantinea (100 B.C.) : tin tepeos . . . Topyiinrov . . . leparevo-ai/Tos. Ionic form iepr)- revtiv, found in several Inscrr. This may be an instance of the influence of Jewish Greek on the spoken language. For such, no doubt, there must have been. At the same time there is the other alternative, that the word was in common use in the spoken language before the LXX. was written. I. In LXX. = persuade fully, Eccles. 8. 11: optj6r) KapSia TOV TTOt^crat TO Trovypov. II. In 1ST. T.(l) = fulfil, e.g. Luke 1. 1: Trepi TWV TTCTTX^- (oi/ ev rjjMV Trpay/xarcov ', 2 Tim. 4. 5 : TTJV (TOV 7rXr]po(f)6p7}(Tor. (2) = sense in LXX., e.g. Rom. 14. 5 : eKaoros ei/ Topia = information. None of the words given above are found earlier than the LXX., and the few which do occur outside the Bible are usually met with in the Church writers of the Christian era. Yet some of the examples, such as ef o^o- \oyea), eTriya/jL/Bpeva), and leparevco, while, at first sight, they appear to be formed on the analogy of particular Hebrew words, by their sporadic currency, suggest other explana- tions of their existence. It is certainly possible that the LXX., giving literary form, as it did, to the spoken 120 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK language of the time, may have also brought into a gradually widening currency words and senses of words previously unknown. The influence of Judaeo-Greek conceptions on the Greek language of the period is an interesting subject for investigation, if there were any- thing like actual data on which to base it. Yet it would be hazardous to push any such hypothesis when the alternative one is so natural, viz. that words which apparently are confined to the Bible were in use in everyday life, and were adopted by the translators of the Old Testament as the nearest equivalents of the Hebrew text before them. But the majority of the terms just examined show undoubted traces of Hebrew influence, and they are only representatives of a large class. 3. The group of words common to the LXX. and New Testament which comes next in order, consists neither of religious terms nor of terms connected specially with Jewish ideas or usages. We find a large class of words denoting ordinary conceptions of everyday life which are found to have exceptional meanings in the LXX. and New Testament. Isolated instances of them appear in late authors. The question for us is : How did they enter into the vocabulary of the New Testament ? Was it through the medium of the LXX., as many scholars believe, or was it through the colloquial language of the time ? The facts themselves are our only evidence. They are illustrated by the following examples : CONNECTION BETWEEN N.T. WORDS AND LXX. 121 Nouns airo&Toicriov I. In Class. Lit. only in phrase a-rroo-Taa-iov 81*07 = action brought against a freedman for forsaking his Trpoo-TdVr/s, e.g. Demos. 790. 2. II. In LXX. always translates Heb. rviJTna = " cutting-off from marriage," i.e. divorce. Invariably in the phrase ptifiXiov aTToorraa-Lov bill of divorce. III. In N.T. twice in phrase filj3\iov dTroo-racrtW Once aTroa-rao-tov alone, Matt. 5. 31. The word occurs in Simocates, a Byzantine writer (A.D. 600) = aTrooTacris, revolt. I. In Class. Lit. = house, hall, even family. II. In LXX. almost uniformly translates Heb. 32, mean- ing "roof of a house," e.g. 2 Sam. 16. 22: /cat tTrrj^av rrjv (TK-rjvrjV TW 'A/3e//,a in orientalibus provinciis dicitur quod apud Latinos tectum. I. In ordinary Greek used mainly of a condition of the mind of the nature of utter distraction caused by a shock. So freq. in Hippocrates. Combined with /ueTa/3oArj in Plut. ii. 393 D. Used by him of mental shock, i. 276 A; of love-sickness, ii. 623 C. Aretseus (A.D. 80), an imitator of Hippocrates, defines CKO-TOUTIS as /xavia ^povtog aveu$ei/ irvperov. II. In LXX. it has a curious variety of uses. It translates several Hebrew words meaning respectively (1) slander, e.g. Num. 13. 33: ^rJvcyKav CKO-TCIO-IVJ (2) agitation, trouble, 2 Chron. 29. 8 : e/co-Tao-iv /cat o*vptcr/x,ov ; (3) desire, wish, Ps. 30. 23 : etTra ev rfj e/co-Tao-ei ; (4) 122l SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK most freq. = terror, fear ; translates two separate words, e.g. Ezek. 26. 16: eKo-racret e/amjo-ovrat ; 1 Sam. 11. 7: 7rf]X@V K6/3os Kvpcov ; Prov. 21. 22: /axtfeiAev TO c(f> a> 7re7r6V0eo-av ol dcreySct?. III. In N.T. last sense, 2 Cor. 10. 4 : Swara . . . TT/OOS Cf. Philo, de Abrah. 38 : TOV 7rtTet^io-//,ov TWI/ Sogwv KaOcupelv (Alford). I. In Class. Lit. = face, front, mask, character, person. II. In LXX. (1) ordinary senses of "face"; (2) metaph. sense, Gen. 2. 6 : 7T(me TTO.V TO Trpoa-wTrov rfjs y^s; Ps. 104. 30 : (xi/aKatvters TO TrpoarwTrov rfj<; yfjs. III. In KT. (1) ordinary meanings; (2) special sense as above = outward appearance, " species externa " ; 124 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Luke 12. 56: TO TrpoVooTrw TT}S y^s KCU rov ovpoVov; Jas. 1. 11 : rj fVTrpcTreia rov Trpoo-wTrov avrov pjpa I. In Class. Lit. = (1) word (2) phrase. II. In LXX. in overwhelming majority of cases = Hebrew "D 1 *!, meaning (1) word, but in these places (2) thing, occurrence. III. In KT. (1) Ordinary meaning in all its varieties; (2) sense as in LXX. Luke 1. 37 : ov/c dSwar^o-ci Trapa TO) $<3 TraV p>}/xa; Acts 10. 37: TO yevo/xevov pry/Aa ; 5. 32 : fjfjiCis coyxcv //-apTvpes TWV p-rjfJLaTMv TOVTOOV. In all these places /^//.a = occurrence. A suggestion of this usage found in the semi-parallel use of Aoyos, e.g. Soph. Aj. 1288 : et o~ov y* 68' civ^p ovS' CTTI o-/xt/cpo>i/ Xdycov . . . T' to-x" /xv^o-rtv, where Ao'yos seems quite colourless. Also in Plato, e.g. in P/w'Z. 33 C : eav Trpos Xoyov r}, where Xoyos = the matter in hand. Verbs dSvvaTeo) I. In Class. Lit. in Plato and Aristot. = want strength, be unable to do anything. II. In LXX. = be impossible, e.g. Job 42. 2 : Trdvra Sweurou, doWo/rei Sc crot ovSev ', Zech. 8. 6 : t aSwarrjo-eL CVOJTTIOV TWV KaTaXotVcoi/ /^^ evojTTtov /JLOV dSwaT^o-ct. IIL Twice in N.T. Same sense, Matt. 17. 20 : opet TOVTO)' fJiTa/3a ZvOev eKet /cat /xeTa^o-eTat KCU dSwaT^Vet vplv ', Luke 1. 37: OVK aSwarijo-ti Trapa TOV 6f.ov irav pfjfjia (v.l. Trapa T<3 ^e<3). Cf. Polyb. 16. 33. 3 : 6Ve TI TOVTWI/ axpeta>0ei/ d8waTi;o-et. The word is extraordinarily common in Philo, and yet apparently always in the ordinary sense. aTTO/cpiVto I. In Class. Lit. (1) distinguish, separate; (2) middle = answer. (A few other subordinate senses.) II. In the LXX. in a vast majority of instances it translates CONNECTION BETWEEN N.T. WORDS AND LXX. 125 Heb. n^y, which is constantly used in the sense of " beginning to speak," i.e. " taking up the conversation." III. In N.T. (1) answer (usually with passive forms); (2) over a dozen instances of the peculiar usage already mentioned when the verb is used of a person beginning to speak, and not answering any question, but at the same time referring to something that has gone before, e.g. Matt. 17. 4 : a7roKpt#ts Se 6 II expos eiTrev T<2 'I^o-ov (with reference to the scene on the mountain of trans- figuration). Bengel says : " Respondit non modo qui rogatus est sed cui causa loquendi est data." KptVtt) I. In Class. Lit. (1) pick out ; (2) decide ; (3) judge or estimate ; (4) accuse ; (5) condemn. II. In LXX. a number of passages in Judges, where KptVctv TOV Xaov is used in the sense of "govern." Con- stantly in this sense throughout the O.T., e.g. 2 Kings 15. 5 : Kttt VIOS TOV j3(L, which has this sense constantly; cf. "suffetes" (same word) for chief rulers of Carthage. Cf. Sap. Salom. i. 1 : aya-Tr^o-are St/catoo-w^v ot /cptvovTes rr)v 7771/5 on which Grimm says : " The special term KpivtLv, instead of the more general /cvpteveiv or ySao-tXcveiv, according to the Hebrew usage, because in the East the pronouncing of judgment was a chief function of the ruler." III. In N.T. the ordinary senses of "estimate," "judge," "decide," "condemn," as in Class. Greek. But in several places it follows the sense noted under the LXX., e.g. Matt. 19. 28 : orav KaOicry 6 vios TOV dv@pa>7rov CTTI Opovov So>7S avTOv, KaOto-co-Of KOL avTol lirl OWOCKO. Opovovs Kpivovrcs TOVS SwSeKa ot cfJuapdvOyo-av ; 1 Cor. 1 . 20 : e//,a>pai/ev 6 rrjv tav. (2) Make tasteless, insipid; Matt. 5. 13: eav Be ... TO aXa fJL6vov etpyatr/xevov, it means apparently "kill." II. In LXX. almost always translates Heb. H3H (Hiph'il of roa not used) = " smite," but especially in the follow- ing two senses (1) Kill, e.g. Ex. 2. 12 : /cat Trara^asroi/ AiyvTTTiov, %Kpv\f/ev avroVj Judg. 3. 31: /cat e7rdYaei/ TOVS a\\ov\ov<> els e^aKocrtovs dvopa avrovs cts TOV OLKOV \ 2 Sam. 11. 29 : orvvrjyayev avrrjv eis TOV OLKOV avrovj Gen. 29. 22: (ruvrjyaycv Se Aafiav 7ravra9 rovI> eiSwXwv (in speech of St. James). The same idea is expressed in ver. 29 by Hesych. on the word says : 'AXio-y^oVw TI}S X^i/Aeco? Twy /Atopcov Ovcriutv. The verb dXtcryew occurs only in the LXX. Dan. 1. 8 (Theodot.) : OTTCOS fj,rj aXia-yrjOfj ev TO> SeiVvo) TOV yScuriXews; Mai. 1. 7 : aprovs ^Xicryry/xe^ovs j ver. 12 : TpaVc^a Kvptov rjXicryrjfjitvr) rrt. In all these places it translates Heb. Pual Ptcp. of taa = pollute. So Hesych. : dXio-yowTCs- /xoXvvoi/res, /ucuvovTes. A Schol. on Mai. 1. 7, explains by /xe/x,oXvo-/x,ei/ovs. I. In LXX. Job 29. 14 : SiKacoo-uvryi/ Se evScSvKctv, rjfJiia- a-dfJLrjv 8e KpifM i9, TO 8e a//,, Cram. Anecdot. Oxon. ii. 338. 31 (quoted by Grimm). The verb occurs in Diod. 16. 11 ; Plut. ii. 120 B; ^wtfwtf. iii. 12; Inscrr. Noun d/xt- in Job 22. 6, 38. 9 ; d/x^tW/xa, Luc. Cyn. 17 ; 9 130 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK d7ra/x,vX.a.Ky. So Mark 6. 16 ; Luke 9. 10 (always in the story of the Baptist). Cf. Dion Cass. 71. 28 : wo-rc o,7roKa\r)v avrov ISclv vireficwcv Arrian, Artem. Oneiroc. 1. 35. Lobeck says it is never found in Attic, and compares "decollare" in Plautus. Plut. de Is. et Osir. uses a7roKec,7rcuv?r- vto-^i/at. Found in Plut. r ii. 979 C ; M. Antonin. 6. 31 : /cat ev7rncr$ts TraXtv Kat evi/orya'as ort oVeipot (rot ^vw^Xow. Often in Church writers and the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs. I^VTTVOS in Joseph. Antiq. 11. 3. 2; M. Antonin. 10. 13. v 8 o K t a I. In LXX., e.g. Ps. 18. 15 : KOL ecrovrau cts cuSoKt'avra Xoyta TOV o-To/xaros /xov ; and elsewhere, especially in Psalms. II. In N.T. repeatedly, e.g. Luke 10. 21 : OVTWS eyeVero evSoKia /*7rpoo-0eV O-QV. Usually = goodwill. Rom. 10. 1 : ^S e/xiys KapStas = eager desire. The verb (often in LXX. and N.T.) is exceptionally common in Polybius and Diodorus. It was evidently a " common " word. Upt5. I. In LXX. Kepeatedly in this sense in the Pentateuch. 132 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK II. In N.T. 1 Pet. 2. 5, same sense. Sturz quotes it as an instance of an Attic formation which finds place in Alexandrian Greek, the abstract for the concrete. So eov0eVr7/Aa for e^ovflei/^et's in Ps. 21. 6. Parallel to places like Plato, Timse. iii. 24 D : TraiSeiyAa = 7ratSev0eis. Several times in LXX. and KT. = majesty. Plutarch is quoted by Loheck as pointing out that Chrysippus brought in many unwonted words into philosophy, as ^aptevroT^s, KaAoT^s, /xcyaXorr;?, etc. A great mass of words of this formation is said to be found in the Scholiasts belonging to this time. The word occurs in Athenx. 4. 6. 130. The adj. is found in Xen., Joseph., Polyb. 5. The last important subdivision of words which it is possible to regard as having passed into the vocabulary of the New Testament through the influence of the LXX. is that which may be briefly designated as New Compound Words. A large number of these appear only in the LXX. and New Testament. But it has been already noted more than once that this is one of the most characteristic phenomena of the later language. So that we need not be astonished at finding a special group of " Compounds " peculiar to the Biblical writers* It is only surprising that this is not wider in ra'nge than it is, seeing that the Biblical writings are the only monuments of the spoken language, strictly so called, which we possess. The following are instances of this class : Nouns o,7ravyaor/*,a, cy/caiVta, e/XTraiKTT/s, tjJTT^/za, Karavv^ts, KO.TOL- /caveats, /AeyaAaxruv^, ^eroi/cecria, 6pK(o/x,ocria r CONNECTION BETWEEN N.T. WOKDS AND LXX. 133 og, ireiroi6r)iaa), e^ao-rpaTrro), e^ovScvew, eTravaTravto, C Kara/cav^ao/Aat, KaTaKXrypovo/xew, KaTavvo-frw, Kparaiow, op^oroyaea), Trapa^Xow, o-uvcyctpw, CHAPTEE X DISCUSSION OF THE GENERAL QUESTION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE LXX. ON THE VOCABULARY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, BASED ON THE EESULTS REACHED AFTER the inquiries concluded in last section, it ought to be possible to give some more or less definite answer to the question : What is the influence of the Septuagint on the vocabulary of the New Testament ? A few statistics must be recalled. 1. An overwhelming majority of the words which make up the vocabulary of the New Testament is pre- Aristotelian. In fact, 80 per cent, of the whole number dates from before 322 B.C. (a) A great part of these consists of words which denote concrete ideas. a. Many of them naturally bear the same meaning in the New Testament as they do throughout the whole course of Greek literature. 13. A certain number, however, show peculiar significa- tions in the New Testament which are paralleled by similar uses in the LXX. But from constant traces of cognate meanings in contemporary writers, and those, in particular, as they approach the common vernacular, we are only entitled to say that the special meanings are 134 INFLUENCE OF LXX. ON VOCABULARY OF N.T. 135 due to and derived from the ordinary spoken language of the time. (b) This portion of the New Testament language also includes a large number of words which are designations of abstract ideas. a. Of these, a great many, just as in the former class, either have the same significations in the New Testament as in other Greek books of all periods, or show the influence of the colloquial language of the day by various modifications of their original usage, and diverging shades of meaning belonging to a late date in the history of the Greek tongue. 13. There is another group of terms, however, which falls under this heading, and which has been already designated as " religious and theological." The words which express them are, in great measure, ordinary Greek words, but many of these, at least, have been adapted to this use by the translators of the Old Testament. Accordingly, these words have had a special colour imparted to them by the Hebrew content with which they have been filled, although it must be said that they, in particular, have been chosen because they offered easy points of junction for the new meanings which they were destined to have. And so they form a sort of theological terminology which has naturally become a model for the New Testament writers. Yet it must be borne in mind that while we have in the New Testament over three hundred words altogether which have a special " Biblical " meaning, only about one hundred of these occur with a similar sense in the LXX., i.e. about 35 per cent, of the whole. 136 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK 2. The remaining portion of the New Testament vocabulary consists of about nine hundred and fifty words which are not found in any author previous to the death of Aristotle. Of these, about five hundred and fifty, roughly speaking, are " Biblical," i.e. found either in the New Testament alone, or, besides, only in the LXX. To go a step farther, nearly four hundred of the last-men- tioned group are absolutely peculiar to the New Testa- ment, leaving about one hundred and sixty common to the New Testament and LXX., and found in no other place. We have already given a pretty full analysis of these one hundred and sixty words, showing that a number of them are probably formations by the writers of the LXX. on the model of Hebrew terms, or, at least, distinct adapta- tions of Greek forms to express Semitic conceptions ; while the rest are either late words, in whose case it is merely an accident of history that they are only found in Biblical writers, or special phenomena of the popular dialect with perhaps a certain amount of local colouring. The influence of the Septuagint on the New Testa- ment vocabulary has often been, and is still, absurdly exaggerated. It is no wonder that misconceptions in regard to this matter prevail, when a scholar like the late Dr. Hatch goes the length of saying : l " The great majority of New Testament words are words which, though for the most part common to Biblical and to contemporary secular Greek, express in their Biblical use the conceptions of a Semitic race, and which must consequently be examined by the light of the cognate 1 Essays in Biblical Greek, p. 34. The italics are ours. INFLUENCE OF LXX. ON VOCABULARY OF N.T. 137 documents which form the LXX." This is simply not the case. Assuredly, the documents which form the LXX. shed valuable light on the language of the New Testament. But why ? Because they are the only other records we possess of the current popular speech prevailing at the time. Dr. Hatch compares the use of Greek by the Jews to that of English by a Hindoo Mussulman. Surely this is an extraordinarily misleading comparison, especially as regards the Jews of New Testament times. It would be nearer the mark if he had told us that the Hindoo's great-grandfather had settled in England, and that his descendants, with the exception of some stray visits to their ancestral country, resided in the British Islands, and had become naturalised English citizens. Again he says l (and this in reference to vocabulary) : " Biblical Greek is a language which stands by itself." For parts of the LXX., no doubt, this is true. But that is because it is a slavishly literal translation, and it was necessary either to force ordinary Greek words to bear a sense which was not natural to them, or else coin new words on the analogy of Hebrew. For the New Testament it is not true, except as regards that one group of theological terms which are naturally modelled on the similar terminology of the LXX., but which, after all, far overpass their Old Testament bounds, and also the small group of words expressing rites and customs and special conceptions of the Jews which had passed over bodily from the LXX. Dr. Hatch lays down a Canon for the study of the 1 Essays, p. 11. 138 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK LXX., with special reference to its use in determining the meaning of New Testament words. 1 " A word which is used uniformly, or with few and intelligible exceptions, as the translation of the same Hebrew word, must be held to have in Biblical Greek the same meaning as that Hebrew word." This, of course, is meant to apply strictly to the New Testament vocabulary. We admit this absolutely in the group of New Testament words which are the direct outgrowth of Hebrew theology, as Sofa, Sid(3o\o<}, elprjvij, ireipdfa, and the like. We also admit it with restrictions in the case of terms denoting Jewish usages, which were presumably formed by the writers of the LXX., but which, by New Testament times, seem to have become more lax in their use, and in a few cases to have passed into the ordinary vocabulary of the period. Hence, accordingly, they underwent various modifications in their meaning. But in reference to the vocabulary of Biblical Greek, as a whole, it appears to us quite untenable for many reasons. To begin with, it is admitted on all hands that the translators of the LXX. were exceedingly unskilful workmen. Some of them show far greater stupidity than others. Suppose, then, a case which constantly occurs, that of a word only found, though very often found, in a book which betrays great inaccuracy. The same Greek word is always used to translate one Hebrew word. It is used in a very exceptional sense, quite alien to its ordinary meaning. And the reason is that the translator has no proper grasp of Greek, or else, from 1 Essays, p. 35. INFLUENCE OF LXX. ON VOCABULARY OF N.T. 139 an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew, he mixes up two significations, and so uses a word inaccurately. This same Greek word occurs in the New Testament. Are we to make its use in the LXX. our criterion of its meaning there ? We may have abundance of con- temporary evidence for its usage ; we may know the special characteristics of the writer in whom it is found. Surely these are safer tests to apply than that which Dr. Hatch lays down. Another consideration, in this regard, is important. We have a great mass of evidence to show that the translators of the LXX. had a tendency to use a Greek word which was the equivalent for the ordinary signifi- cation of a Hebrew word, in its secondary senses as well. 1 But this is no criterion of usage. It is often the result of mere individual predilection, and yet it may fall exactly under Dr. Hatch's Canon. Surely it would be very unsafe to allow this to regulate our determination of the New Testament vocabulary. But, further, there is the question of time. Several hundreds of years have elapsed between the two collec- tions of writings. In proportion as the Jews have mingled with other nations, and often come to regard Greek as their native tongue, words which originally had a close connection with Semitic conceptions must necessarily have tended to approach nearer to con- temporary Greek usage, and may appear even to E.g. oQtfavftoe. = (1) debt ; (2) sin. #, Swdareta, egavOew, eviXareva), fjia/cpo- Ovfjbos, fjLatcpvvco, fjLTjviw, TroXfeXeo?, all of them terms which might easily have found a place in the New Testament vocabulary, but which do not occur there. Professor Abbott gives some striking instances of the marked differences which exist between the two vocabu- laries. 1 Thus the verb /3ao-rafft>, which occurs twenty- seven times in the New Testament, is only found once in the LXX. The group ftapew, /3e/3ato?, /3/oaSu9, fipa- Svva), ppaSvTrjs, all appearing in the New Testament, are not in the LXX. Differences in the significations of words are well exemplified by the noun ayaTrr), which in the LXX. is used of love as between the sexes, and which, on the contrary, appears in the New Testament of that high spiritual love which finds its chief object in God, in other words, love without passion. The term which expresses this conception in the LXX. is ayaTr^o-i?, never found in the New Testament. So also viropovrj in the LXX.= expectation, in the New Testament = patient endurance. a$eo-fc? in LXX. == dismissal, in New Testament = remis- sion of sins, a conception expressed in the LXX. by Again, Abbott points out that often in reference to 1 Essays on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments, p. 70 sq. 142 - SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK ideas where we should expect the LXX. to influence the New Testament, there are great divergences E.g. " Confess" = eayopev'6poi, etc. Our word "season" has a similar connotation of weather. KaOrjyrjTris. Mod. Gk. = professor. In N.T. = master, teacher. Once in this sense in Dion. Hal., and apparently also in Plutarch. 154 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK Mod. Gk. = lodging. So in LXX. and KT., where it has also the sense of " guest-chamber." Some- thing like this meaning in Polybius and Diodorus. vo-wv. Mod. Gk. =heat. In this sense repeatedly in LXX. and K.T. Apparently also once in Lucian. Dioscor. 1. 21. 149, has it as a medical term = heat in the stomach. fiuTiov. Mod. Gk. = box. Cf. KI/?WTOS in LXX. and K.T. = the ark. Both words in Aristophanes. pao-tov. Mod. Gk. = girl. So LXX., and KT. : "cum nulla evrtXio-fjiov significatione." This use also in Arrian. Mod. Gk. = bed. So precisely Kpd/3f!a.To. Mod. Gk. = approach. This sense frequent in LXX. and KT. Also in Polybius. evwTTtov. Mod. Gk. =in the presence of. So LXX. and KT. 7rtorK7TTo/xat. Mod. Gk. = visit. Same sense in LXX. and N.T. A few times in Class. Lit. (and almost always = visit the sick). eTTto-rpe^w. Mod. Gk. = return. So in LXX. and KT. Hippoc. uses it of the recurrence of an illness. v. Mod. Gk. #a>pco = see (simply), ^ewpew used in precisely same sense in LXX. and N.T. /coi/xw/Aat. Mod. Gk. = sleep. Constantly in LXX. (especially) and N.T. = cvSw, KaOevSw. K o fji /3 o CD. Mod. Gk. = button. Cf . ey/co/x^oo/xat = fasten on one's self, in KT. The latter also in Epicharmus and Apollodorus Carystius (Com.). o/xtXeco. Mod. Gk. = converse with. So in LXX. and KT. Also in Josephus and Xenophon. TT a 1 8 c v a>. Mod. Gk. = chastise. So frequently in LXX. and N.T. 7ria(D. Mod. Gk. Trtavw = seize, apprehend. 7rtao> has the same sense in LXX. and KT. crv^rea). Mod. Gk. = discuss, dispute. So regularly in KT. Mod. Gk. =eat (simply). Same use in KT. 156 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK v Tray w. Mod. Gk. = et/xi. So constantly in N.T. Similar use in the Comic poets. 0dvw. Mod. Gk. = arrive, come. Very common in this exact meaning in the LXX. and N.T. Also found with the same sense in Philo and Plutarch. Xo/>Taw, ;(o/3Tao/x,ai. Mod. Gk. = feed. Constantly in this sense in LXX. and N.T. Same meaning often found in the Comic writers. il/r]Xad and avviw. (2.) TTtecrflu, (^dyecrai,. These 2nd pers. sing, forms of irregular futures in -ofjuat occur together in Luke 17. 8 : /JL6TO, ravra (f>dy6(7ai, /cal Triecrai &v. CHARACTER OF LANGUAGE OF LXX. AND N.T. 159 The same and similar forms repeatedly in the LXX., e.g. Ruth 2. 14: (payeaai TWV aprcov, Ezek. 4. 1.1 : vScop ev jjierpo) iriea-ai. But, besides, the 2nd pers. sing, of the present indicative pass, (or mid.) is found in the same formation both in N.T. and LXX., e.g. Eom. 11. 18 : /cara- Kav^acrai, etc.; 1 Kings 14. 6 : a7ro%evova-ai. In the " common " Greek of to-day, precisely the same endings are found in the 2nd pers. sing, present indie. pass., in ordinary verbs as -ecrat, in contracted verbs -ela-cu, -aaai ; e.g. (fcalvecrai, Trareia-ai,, Kav^acrai. These forms are evidently the originals of the usual contracted 2nd pers. sing., and must have been handed down unchanged in the popular language from a remote antiquity. (3.) Abnormal imperfect terminations in verbs ending in -fit. Thus from SlScofit : SieSlSero (N.T. Acts), irapeSlSero (N.T. 1 Cor.), eSiBero (LXX. Ex. 5. 13). Perhaps the same tendency is seen in the frequently- found " vulgar " form BiSovo-iv for L$oacnv, on which Lobeck says : " transmigravit hsec forma ex lade in vulgarem, quam dicere solemus, linguam omnium dialect- orum commune diversorium." (4.) Tjfjujv. Eepeatedly in N.T. as impf. of et/u, e.g. Matt. 25. 35 : fez>05 tfp'rjv KOI (rvvrjrydyeTe fjue. It is striking to find this the regular form of the impf. of mod. Gk. elfjbai, = elfjul. (5.) A very important group of forms in connection with the present inquiry is that consisting of " strong " Aorists with " weak " terminations. A few of these have a sort of recognition in Class. Lit., as et-Tra, jjveyfca, and e-Treo-a, but the usage receives enormous 160 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK extension in the LXX. and N.T., e.g. 2 Kings 10. 14: Esth. 5.4: eXOdra) ; 2 Kings 17. 20: evpav, etc. etc.; Acts 16. 40: e&)\0av. elSav, dvei\av, e\0ar6, dvevpav, evpafiev, etc. etc., are all well attested. This termination is also found with the imperf. in the LXX. and N.T., e.g. Mark 8.7: d-^av. This is one of the most marked of the " colloquial " forms which crept into the late literature of Greece. Isolated instances occur in Philo, Plutarch, Pausanias and Lucian. Menander has evpd^v. The usage spread and became common in the Eoman and Byzantine periods. Thus from the Koman period we find in Inscriptions instances like ecr^a (C.I.A. iii 1363. 5), evpa^v (900. 6), 7]\7r^a (Kaibel, Epigram. Grcec. 167. 5). Byzantine writers like Malalas have e/c/3d\cu ( = eV/3a\e/), aveiXav, etc. By 300 A.D. this formation has become frequent in the imperf., as the Inscrr. show, e.g. tffapa (for efapov) and the like. In the colloquial Greek of to-day both the imperf. (of the uncontracted verb) and strong Aorist end in -a, e.g. favyco, impf. efavya, Aor. ecfrvya. The first and third persons plural have also the -a vowel. (6.) Common to the LXX. and N.T. is the curious termination -oaav in Aorists and imperfects, e.g. in N.T. eij(oa-av, John 15. 22; irapeKdjBocrav, 2 Thess. 3. 6; eSoXiovcrav, Kom. 3. 13. In LXX. eicpivoa-av, Ex. 18. 26; etpdyoaav, Josh. 5. 11, etc. etc. The old Grammarians give various origins for this form, some designating it Chalcidian, others Boeotian, others again Aeolic. It is found in the Comic poet CHARACTER OF LANGUAGE OF LXX. AND N.T. 161 Posidippus, who has elxoaav. Also in Scymnus Chius (quoted by Mullach), ecr^oo-av. The history of the form is traceable in a fragmentary way. a7rrj\6oa-av occurs in an Inscr. of Thisbse, 170 B.C. (Dittenb. Syll 226. 40), 7rape\a/3ocrav in one of Delos, 180 B.C. (Dittenb. Syll. 367. 112). In the Byzantine writers it is of frequent occurrence, e.g. e&oa-av, Mceph. Greg. 6. 5. 113; TraprjKdoa-av, Meet. Chon. 153, etc. etc. The form survives in mod. Gk. in the 3 plur. impf. of con- tracted verbs, e.g. eVaroOcrav from Trareco, e&o\iovcrav from SoXtoo). These very forms occur in the LXX., e.g. Ex. 33. 8: tcarevoovo-av = /carevoovv ', Gen. 6. 4: fyhrvmav = eyevvcov. With these terminations in -ocrav may be compared the Aor. and impf. forms, aTe<;, C.LA. 471. 17 (100 B.C.). But this tendency is best exhibited by the large class of substantives which shorten -eia to -/a, as apeova'a, (12.) An interesting instance of a "vulgar" form is that in which a " v " is added to the accus. sing, of nouns of the third declension. There is no certain instance in the N.T., but it is very common in the LXX., e.g. Ex. 10. 4: a/cpiSav; Kuth 4. 12 : yvval/cav; 1 Kings 22. 11 : iepeav. The Inscrr. also exhibit this peculiarity, e.g. Thessalian Inscr. of second cent. : rov avbpav. It occurs, too, in those of the later empire, e.g. Trarpi- Sav (C.LA. iii. 1379. 10), ^apnav (Kaibel, Epigram. G-rwc. 167. 6). The form survives in the "common" language of to-day. (13.) It only remains to point out some " popular " spellings in the Biblical writers. a. Harsh concurrences permitted, e.g. \rj^ro^ai (Winer compares Ionic Aa//Ajro/iwu), (rvvirvlyeiv, e 164 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK I. Addition of superfluous letters, e.g. e/e^fle?, G c. Omission of letters, e.g. Svcreprjs, epvaaro /e.r.X These or similar forms occur with the best attestation in the LXX. and N.T., and are also exhibited by many Inscrr. It is needless to give, in closing, an elaborate summary of the results to which our investigation has led us, as this has been already done. But the main conclusions can be put in a few sentences. The LXX. is the first entire group of writings com- posed in the colloquial language of everyday life. See- ing that it is a literal translation of Hebrew books, and that it has been carried out by men of Jewish birth, it is deeply impregnated with Semitic characteristics. Yet these do not prevent it from exhibiting clearly the con- dition and tendencies of the popular Greek of its time, On the one hand, it has many elements in common with the writers of the Koivrj StaXe/cro? ; on the other, it is often a transcript of the vernacular. But the predom- inant features in its vocabulary are (a) The creation of a theological terminology rendered necessary by the original of which it is a translation; and (5) The expression in Greek form of special Jewish conceptions and customs due to the same cause. There can be no question that its vocabulary has influenced that of the New Testament. The earliest Christian writers, in proclaiming the new faith, had to express in words deep theological ideas, unheard of in the CHARACTER OF LANGUAGE OF LXX. AND N.T. 165 old world. It was natural that, in making this attempt, they should take for their model a vocabulary already formed. These writers, moreover, were Jews. Their whole view of things was penetrated with Hebrew modes of thought. Accordingly, they could not fail to make copious use of a type of language already adapted to their special requirements. But the influence of the LXX. on the vocabulary of the New Testament must not be exaggerated. Caution is necessary in determining that which is to be regarded as usage in Biblical Greek, seeing that the LXX. is a translation done by unskilful hands, and that ignorance of Greek or ignorance of Hebrew is often responsible for phenomena of vocabulary which are peculiar to the Biblical language. When we consider the excep- tional importance of the Greek Bible to the New Testa- ment writers, the astonishing fact is that its influence on their vocabulary is not incomparably greater than it is found to be. That which really sets the LXX. and New Testament, as Greek books, in a class by themselves, is the collo- quial language in which both are written. Though the vocabulary of the New Testament moves on a higher plane, it is essentially " popular " in character, and both groups of writings acquire, from the linguistic point of view, a unique importance, as the only literary monu- ments extant of the vernacular Greek of the post- Alexandrine period. But, besides, this popular spoken language, as exhibited by the LXX. and New Testament, is of exceptional value for another reason, inasmuch as it connects the 166 SOURCES OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK " oral tradition " of the past with the ordinary vernacular of to-day, and reveals with startling clearness that wonderful organic unity which makes the language of Greece, through all its complex developments, a living, undivided whole. LIST OF AUTHORITIES CHIEFLY REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED ABBOTT, T. K., Essays on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments. Longmans, 1891. BERNHARDY, Grundriss der Griechischen Litteratur. Band I. BLEEK, Der Hebraer-Brief. Berlin, 1828-1840. BRUDER, Concordance to the New Testament. 2 vols. Leipzig : Bredt, 1880. CARR, Notes on St. Luke. "St. Matthew" in "Cambridge Greek Testament for Colleges." CLASSICAL REVIEW, vols. i.-iv. Various Articles. CORPUS INSCRIPTIONUM ATTICARUM. Ed. by Kirchhoff, Koehler, Dittenberger. Berlin. CREMER, Biblico-Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek. English edition, T. & T. Clark, 1886. DITTENBERGER, W., Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum. Leipzig, 1883. DUNBAR, Concordance to the Comedies and Fragments of Aristophanes. Oxford, 1882. EWALD, History of Israel, vol. v. EXPOSITOR, 1875-1891. Various Articles. FIELD, F., The Hexapla of Origen. 2 vols. Oxford, 1875. GEBHARDT, 0., The New Testament in Greek. Tischendorfs Recension, ed. by Von Gebhardt. Leipzig : Tauchnitz, 1886. GELBART, E. M., The Modern Greek Language in its Relation to Ancient Greek. Oxford, 1870. 167 168 AUTHORITIES CHIEFLY REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED GESENIUS, Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon. GREEN, T. S., Grammar of the New Testament. Bagster, 1862. GREGORY, C. K., Prolegomena to the New Testament in Greek, by C. Tischendorf. 8th edition. Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1884-1894. GRAETZ, Geschichte der Juden. Band III. GRIMM, W., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. English edition, by J. Thayer. T. & T. Clark, 1888. GRIMM, C. L. Das Buch der Weisheit. Erklaert von C. L. Grimm. Leipzig : Hirzel, 1860. Das 2, 3, 4, Buch der Maccabaer. 1857. GUILLEMARD, W. H., Hebraisms in the Greek New Testament. 1879. HATCH, K, Essays in Biblical Greek. Oxford, 1889. HATCH and REDPATH, Concordance to the Septuagint, Parts I., II. Oxford, 1892-1893. HODY, De Bibliorum Textibus Originalibus. Oxford, 1705. HOLDEN, Editions of Plutarch's "Lives." Camb. Univ. Press. HOLTZMANN, H. J., Die Synoptiker. Leipzig : Engelmann, 1863. KOCK, T., Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta. 3 vols. Leipzig : Teubner, 1880-1888. LOBECK, C. A., Phrynichi Eclogse. Leipzig, 1820. MEISTERHANS, K., Grammatik der Attischen Inschriften. Berlin: Weidmann, 1888. MEINEKE, Eragmenta Comicorum Grsecorum. Berlin, 1841. MULLACH, E. W. A., Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgar- sprache. Berlin: Diimmler, 1856. PATON, Inscriptions of Cos. Oxford, 1891. PSICHARI, J., fitudes Neo-grecques. Paris, 1892. RUTHERFORD, W. G., The New Phrynichus. Macmillan, 1881. SALMON, G., Introduction to the New Testament. Murray, 1889. SCHLEUSNER, J. F., Lexicon to the Septuagint. London, 1829. SCHWEIGHAUSER, Lexicon Polybianum. SIEGFRIED, C., Untersuchungen liber die Gracitat Philo's Jena: Dufft, 1875. AUTHORITIES CHIEFLY REFERRED TO OR CONSULTED 169 SIMCOX, W. H., The Language of the New Testament. 1889. The Writers of the New Testament. 1890. Hodder & Stoughton. SOPHOCLES, E. A., Greek Lexicon of the Koman and Byzantine Periods. Boston, 1870. STURZ, F. G., De Dialecto Macedonica et Alexandrina Libri. 1808. SWETE, H. B., The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint. 3 vols. Camb. 1887-1894. THIERSCH, H. G., De Pentateuchi Versione Alexandrina. Erlangen, 1841. TISCHENDORF, Vetus Testamentum Grsece. TROMMIUS, A., Concordance to the Septuagint. 2 vols. 1718. VINCENT and DICKSON, Handbook to Modern Greek (with Appendix by Jebb). Macmillan, 1887. WEISS, Introduction to the New Testament. Eng. trans. Hodder & Stoughton, 1887-1888. WESTCOTT, B. F., Introduction to the Gospels. The New Testament in Greek. 2 vols. (Westcott and Hort.) WELLHAUSEN, art. " Septuagint " in Encyclopaedia Britannica. WINER, Grammar of New Testament Greek. Trans, by Moulton. T. & T. Clark, 1882. WYTTENBACH, Index Verborum in Plutarcho. ZEZSCHWITZ, Profangracitat und Biblischer Sprachgeist. Leip- zig: Hinrichs, 1859. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS DISCUSSED y, 95. j, 124. i, 111. dXtVyTj/ia, 129. ;, 129. fa, 117. dvapu, 103. dvdpaKid, 153. ?, 115. >, 117. *, 104. fa, 130. t, 155. dTTOKplvto), 124. ', 121. ?, 153. ;, 81. j3ao-iXi(r, 117. s, 44. >, 39, 155. }, 153. w, 155. , 153. , 155. , 39. , 39. SidjSoXos, 97. j, 104. 56^a, 97. 5cD/xa, 121, 153. ffw, 155. , 118. f, 98. i, 99. r, 121. ?, 130. ', 155. :, 130. , 130. , 118. /fw, 131. , 118. ^TTlffK^TTTOfJUll, 105, 155. ij, 112. S 155. r, 153. evdoida, 131. , 105. i, 155. ,, 112. , 153. , 159. , 153. , 155. , 126. , 153. 171 iepareijeiv, 119. lepdrev/jia, 131. {XaanjyMOP, 113. tyadrta, 153. ?, 153. ', 162. Kat/a6s, 153. KOLKld, 100. ArardXu/ia, 154. i, 113. >, 122. , 154. /ceipta, 40. -, 154. y, 100. 155. ', 40. , 155. Kopda-iov, 154. KpepparL, 154. K/B^W, 125. *:p^, 116. /, 154. fj.wpa.lvw, 127. 172 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS DISCUSSED , 123. , 154. oddvtov, 40. , 113. , 155. , 40. 6irTa, 155. , 154. j, 40. TravTOKpdrup, 114. wape/A/SoXr), 15. TrdpotKos, 102. , 127. s, 114. w, 106. TTtCt^W, 155. i, 158. , 119. i, 107. , 114. S, 115. , 154. ', 154. ', 123. s, 115. , 154. 124. 15. 102. 116. , 82. , 158. , 41. , 155. , 128. (TWTT7P, 103. , 154. , 41. , 82, 155. u, 156. virovpyds, 154. , 158. , 156. , 41. , 154. w, 107. , 42. , 82, 156. MORRISOX AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH T. and T. Clark's Publications. Just published, in large 12mo, pp. xxii-215, price 5s. 6d. net, SYNTAX OF THE MOODS AND TENSES IN NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. BY EENEST D. BUKTON, PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT LITERATURE AND INTERPRETATION, CHICAGO UNIVERSITY. 1\ /TESSRS. CLAEK have pleasure in drawing attention to -LV-L this important work. It is specially recommended for use in Colleges and Theological Schools, and for private study of the Greek New Testament. The First Edition has been in use for several years in Theological Seminaries and Colleges in the United States ; but hitherto it has not been on sale in this country. Its importance has, however, been recognised by British and Continental Scholars, and arrange- ments have now been made with the Author for the issue of the New Edition on this side of the Atlantic. The New Edition has been so thoroughly rewritten and enlarged as to be substantially a new work. ' A valuable book. ... I venture to express the hope that arrange- ments may be made to facilitate its circulation in this country.' Prof. W. SANDAY, D.D., Oxford. 'This book has been expected for some time in our country, but Professor Burton held it back till the new edition with its corrections and additions was ready. A few English scholars have had a copy, and have been working with it, to their own great satisfaction ; and it is from them that the word has gone forth about its freshness and scholarship. 'Well, it has been issued at last, in a most attractive form, and not a word that Professor Sanday or any other has spoken about it will seem strained or over-enthusiastic. Professor Burton is one of the men whom Dr. Harper has gathered round him at Chicago, and this book will bear witness to the scholarly instinct and accuracy of the work that the youngest of the Universities is doing. . . . He will be a dull student whom this book fails to fascinate and instruct.' The Expository Times. EDITED BY PROFESSORS S. D. F. SALMOND, D.D., AND C. A. BRIGGS, D.D. No. I. of the Series. Fifth Edition. Post 8vo, price 12s. , AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. BY PROFESSOR S. R. DRIVER, D.D., OXFORD. ' The service which Canon Driver's book will render in the present confusion of mind on this great subject, can scarcely be overestimated.' The Times. ' By far the best account of the great critical problems connected with the Old Testament that has yet been written. ... It is a perfect marvel of compression and lucidity combined. A monument of learning and well- balanced judgment.' The Guardian. No. II. of the Series. Third Edition. Post 8vo, 10s. 6d., CHRISTIAN ETHICS. BY NEWMAN SMYTH, D.D., AUTHOR OF 'OLD FAITHS IN NEW LIGHT,' 'THE REALITY OF FAITH,' ETC. ETC. * There is not a dead, dull, conventional line in the volume. It is the work of a wise, well-informed, independent, and thoroughly competent writer. It removes a reproach from our indigenous theology, fills a glaring blank in our literature, and is sure to become the text-book in Christian Ethics.' Professor MARCUS DODS, D.D., in The Bookman. 'It is so beautifully clear, devoid of dulness, and has so many " bursts of eloquence," that it will take the reader who considers Christian Ethics for the first time under his tuition literally by storm.' Methodist Times. No. III. of the Series. Now ready, Second Edition, post 8vo, 10s. 6d., APOLOGETICS; OR, CHRISTIANITY DEFENSIVELY STATED. BY PROFESSOR A. B. BRUCE, D.D., AUTHOR OF 'THE TRAINING OF THE TWELVE,' 'THE HUMILIATION OF CHRIST,' 'THE KINGDOM OF GOD,' ETC. 'In this noble work of Dr. Bruce, the reader feels on every page that he is in contact with a mind and spirit in which all the conditions for a genuine apologetic are fulfilled. ... At the end of Dr. Bruce's work the reader is uplifted with a great and steady confidence in the truth of the gospel ; the evangel has been pleading its cause with him, and he has felt its power.' British Weekly. Detailed Prospectuses of the ' International Theological Library ' free on application. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. T. and T. Clark's Publications. In Seven Parts, price 4s. (net) each; or, complete in half-roxburghe binding, price 80s. net. (PARTS I. to VI. now ready.) A NEW SYff/AC LEXICON. BY DR. C. BROCKELMANN, BRESLAU. With a Preface by PROFESSOR T. NOLDEKE. ' The appearance of a new Syriac Lexicon, designed to meet the wants of students, is an event of considerable importance for the progress of Semitic studies at home and abroad. The work, of which the first part has just been issued, will be welcomed on all hands as fulfilling what has long been the most conspicuous lacuna in Semitic bibliography. . . . The publishers have earned, and will certainly receive, the thanks of every Semitic student for thus coming forward to remove what had almost become a scandal to international scholarship, the lack of a student's dictionary of a language so important to the philologist, the historian, and the theologian.' A. R. S. KENNEDY, D.D. (Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Aberdeen), in The Expository Times. In demy 8vo, Twelfth Edition, price 7s. 6d., AN INTRODUCTORY HEBREW GRAMMAR; With Progressive Exercises in Reading and Writing. BY A. B. DAVIDSON, M.A., LL.D., PROFESSOR OF HEBREW, ETC., IN THE NEW COLLEGE, EDINBURGH. ' The best Hebrew Grammar is that of Professor A. B. Davidson.' The British Weekly. ' A text-book which has gone into its tenth edition needs no recom- mendation here. . . . Certain changes, in the introduction of new examples, and the enlargement of some parts where brevity tended to obscurity, will add to the already great merits and widely acknowledged usefulness of the book.' The Critical Review. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Just published, in demy 8vo, price 7s. 6d., A SYNTAX OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. ' A book like this, which comes from the hand of our first Hebraist, is its own best commendation. It will be eagerly welcomed by all students and teachers of Hebrew.' Critical Review. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. T. and T. Claris Publications. CREMER'S LEXICON. In demy 4to, Third Edition, with Supplement, price 38s., BIBLICO-THEOLOQICAL LEXICON OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK, BY HERMANN CREMER, D.D. translate!! anti "Errangett from tfje latest German fEtoitton BY WILLIAM URWICK, M.A. The Supplement, which is included in the above, may be had separately, price 14s. ' It is not too much to say that the Supplement will greatly enhance the value of the original work ; while of this we imagine it needless to add many words of commendation. It holds a deservedly high position in the estimation of all students of the Sacred tongues.' Literary Churchman. 'We particularly call attention to this valuable work.' Clergyman's Magazine. ' Dr. Cremer's work is highly and deservedly esteemed in Germany. It gives with care and thoroughness a complete history, as far as it goes, of each word and phrase that it deals with. . . . Dr. Cremer's explanations are most lucidly set out.' Guardian. In Two Volumes, crown 8vo, price 16s., THE APOSTOLIC AND POST-APOSTOLIC TIMES. THEIR DIVERSITY AND UNITY IN LIFE AND DOCTRINE. BY GOTTHARD VICTOR LECHLER, D.D. dranslatctj from tlje Cfjirto Litton, tfjorougfjig &ebisttt anU 3&e=S2Srttten, BY A. J. K. DAVIDSON. ' In the work before us, Lechler works out this conception with great skill, and with ample historical and critical knowledge. He has had the advantage of all the discussions of these forty years, and he has made good use of them. The book is up to date ; so thoroughly is this the case, that he has been able to make room for the results which have been won for the early history of Christianity by the discovery of the "Didache," and of the discussions to which it has given occasion. Nor is it too much to say that Dr. Lechler has neglected nothing fitted to throw light on his great theme. The work is of the highest value.' Spectator. * It contains a vast amount of historical information, and is replete with judicious remarks. . . . By bringing under the notice of English readers a work so favourably thought of in Germany, the translator has conferred a benefit on theology.' Athenceum. T. and T. Clark's Publications. The most important contribution yet made to biblical theology.' EXPOSITOR. Just published, in Two Volumes, 8vo, 21s., THE TEACHING OF JESUS. BY HANS HINRTCH WENDT, D.D., ORD. PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY, HEIDELBERG. TRANSLATED BY REV. JOHN WILSON, M.A., MONTREUX. Copyright, by arrangement ivith the Author. 'Dr. Wendt's work is of the utmost importance for the study of the Gospels, both with regard to the origin of them and to their doctrinal contents. It is a work of distinguished learning, of great originality, and of profound thought. The second part (now translated into English), which sets forth the contents of the doctrine of Jesus, is the most important contribution yet made to biblical theology, and the method and results of Dr. Wendt deserve the closest attention. ... No greater contribution to the study of biblical theology has been made in our time. A brilliant and satisfactory exposition of the teaching of Christ.' Prof. J. IVERACH, D.D., in The Expositor. ' Dr. Wendt has produced a remarkably fresh and suggestive work, deserving to be ranked among the most important contributions to biblical theology. . . . There is hardly a page which is not suggestive ; and, apart from the general value of its conclusions, there are numerous specimens of ingenious exegesis thrown out with more or less confidence as to particular passages.' Prof. W. P. DICKSON, D.D., in The Critical Review. In One large 8vo Volume, Ninth English Edition, price 15s., A TREATISE ON THE, GRAMMAR OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK, REGARDED AS THE BASIS OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF DR. G. B. WINER. With large additions and full Indices. Third Edition. Edited by Rev. W. F. MOULTON, D.D., one of the New Testament Translation Revisers. ' We need not say it is the Grammar of the New Testament. It is not only superior to all others, but so superior as to be by common consent the one work of reference on the subject. No other could be mentioned with it.' Literary Churchman. 12 T. and T. Clark's Publications. Just published, in demy 8vo, price 12s. 6d. net, INTRODUCTION TO THE NEW TESTAMENT. LTHE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL. BY PROFESSOR F. GODET, D.D., NEUCHATEL. ' Anything that comes from Dr. Godet is sure to receive a cordial welcome in Great Britain, and our familiarity with his eloquent and luminous commen- taries prepares us to appreciate very highly a work in which the venerable Swiss thus gathers up the harvest of a life-time.' Prof. ADENEY in The Critical Review. ' In every particular it is fully abreast of the times. For the purposes of the hard-working preacher there is no book on St. Paul's Epistles quite equal to , this. For the student, it must always lie in a place that his hand can reach. It is delightful reading.' Methodist Times. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. In crown 8vo, Third, and Cheaper, Edition, price 4s., DEFENCE OF THE CHRISTIAN FAITH. TRANSLATED BY THE HON. AND EEV. CANON LYTTELTON, M.A., RECTOR OF HAGLEY. ' There is trenchant argument and resistless logic in these lectures ; but withal, there is cultured imagination and felicitous eloquence, which carry home the appeals to the heart as well as the head.' Sivord and Trowel. Just published, in post 8vo, price 7s. 6d., ST. PAUL'S CONCEPTION OF CHRISTIANITY. BY ALEXANDER BALMAIN BRUCE, D.D., PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS IN THE FREE CHURCH COLLEGE, GLASGOW ; AUTHOR OF ' APOLOGETICS ; OR, CHRISTIANITY DEFENSIVELY STATED,' 'THE KINGDOM OF GOD,' 'THE TRAINING OF THE TWELVE,' 'THE HUMILIATION OF CHRIST,' ETC. SUMMARY AND CONTENTS: I. The Sources. II. St. Paul's Eeligious History. III. The Epistle to the Galatians. IV. Corinthians. V. Bomans Its Aim. VI. The Train of Thought. VII. The Doctrine of Sin. VIII. The KighteousnessofGod. IX. The Death of Christ. X. Adoption. XI. Without and Within. XII. The Moral Energy of Faith. XIII. The Holy Spirit. XIV. The Flesh as a Hindrance to Holiness. XV. The Likeness of Sinful Flesh. XVI. The Law. XVII. The Election of Israel. XVIII. Christ. XIX. The Christian Life. XX. The Church. XXI. The Last Things. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. The Teaching of St. Paul compared with the Teach- ing of our Lord in the Synoptical Gospels. ' Dr. Bruce's skill as an expositor, his scholarship, his candour, what we may call his mental detachment, are well known ; and all these qualities lend interest to this new study of a very old theme. Those who are most familiar with St. Paul's writings will be among the first to recognise the interest and value of this work.' Methodist Recorder. T. and T. Clark's Publications. Just published, in Two Vols. demy 8vo, price 18s. net, NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY; OR, HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE TEACHING OF JESUS AND OF PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANITY ACCORDING TO THE NEW TESTAMENT SOURCES. BY DR. WILLIBALD BEYSCHLAG, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY AT HALLE. 'A fresh, independent, critical exposition of the teachings of the New- Testament well worthy of study.' Scotsman. 'Dr. Beyschlag has achieved so large a measure of success as to have furnished one of the best guides to an understanding of the New Testament. .... These pages teem with suggestions In the belief that it will stimulate thought and prove of much service to ministers and all students of the sacred text it expounds, we heartily commend it to our readers.' Methodist Recorder. ( In many respects a masterly treatise, and in this admirable translation, for which Mr. Buchanan deserves all praise, is sure to be widely read in this country.' Glasgow Herald. Just published, in Two large Vols. 8vo, Second Edition, price 18s. net, OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. THE RELIGION OF REVELATION IN ITS PRE-CHRISTIAN STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT. BY PROF. HERMANN SCHULTZ, D.D., GOTTINGEN. AUTHORISED ENGLISH TRANSLATION. BY PROF. J. A. PATERSON, D.D. ' Professor Paterson has executed the translation with as much skill as care. .... Readers may rely on his having given the meaning of the original with the utmost accuracy.' From the Author's Preface to the Translation. ' The book will be read with pleasure, and, it need not be said, with profit, not only by professional students, but by all intelligent persons who have an interest in the Old Testament. . . . Though externally popular and of singular literary finish, the author's work within is a laborious and able study of the whole subject.' Professor A. B. DAVIDSON, D.D. 'A standard work on this subject may be said to be indispensable to every theologian and minister. The book to get, beyond all doubt, is this one by Schultz, which Messrs. Clark have just given to us in English. It is one of the most interesting and readable books we have had in our hands for a long time.' Professor A. B. BRUCE, D.D. T. and T. Clark's Publications. GRIMM'S LEXICON. ' The best New Testament Greek Lexicon. ... It is a treasury of the results of exact scholarship.' BISHOP WESTCOTT. In demy 4to, THIRD EDITION, price 36s., A GREEK-ENGLISH LEXICON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, BEING GRIMM'S 'WILKE'S CLAVIS NOVI TESTAMENT!.' Eranslatetr, 3&ebise&, antr (Enlarged BY JOSEPH HENRY THAYER, D.D., BUSSEY PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION IN THE DIVINITY SCHOOL OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY. EXTRACT FROM PREFACE. 4 rnOWARDS the close of the year 1862, the " Arnoldische Buchhandlung " JL in Leipzig published the First Part of a Greek-Latin Lexicon of the New Testament, prepared upon the basis of the " Clavis Novi Testamenti Philologica" of 0. G. Wilke (second edition, 2 vols. 1851), by Professor C. L. WILIBALD GRIMM of Jena. In his Prospectus, Professor Grimm announced it as his purpose not only (in accordance with the improvements in classical lexicography embodied in the Paris edition of Stephen's Thesaurus, and in the fifth edition of Passow's Dictionary edited by Eost and his coadjutors) to exhibit the historical growth of a word's significations, and accordingly' in selecting his vouchers for New Testament usage to show at what time and in what class of writers a given word became current, but also duly to notice the usage of the Septuagint and of the Old Testament Apocrypha, and especially to produce a Lexicon which should correspond to the present con- dition of textual criticism, of exegesis, and of biblical theology. He devoted more than seven years to his task. The successive Parts of his work re- ceived, as they appeared, the outspoken commendation of scholars diverging as widely in their views as Hupfeld and Hengstenberg ; and since its com- pletion in 1868 it has been generally acknowledged to be by far the best Lexicon of the New Testament extant.' ' I regard it as a work of the greatest importance. ... It seems to me a work showing the most patient diligence, and the most carefully arranged collection of useful and helpful references.' THE BISHOP OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 4 The use of Professor Grimm's book for years has convinced me that it is not only unquestionably the best among existing New Testament Lexicons, but that, apart from all comparisons, it is a work of the highest intrinsic merit, and one which is admirably adapted to initiate a learner into an ac- quaintance with the language of the New Testament. It ought to be regarded as one of the first and most necessary requisites for the study of the New Testament, and consequently for the study of theology in general.' Professor EMIL SCHURER. DEPT General Library