MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED P.M. STARBUCK MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED MODERN PLUMBING - ILLUSTRATED A COMPREHENSIVE AND THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL WORK ON THE MODERN AND MOST APPROVED METHODS OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION THE STANDARD WORK FOR PLUMBERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, PROPERTY OWNERS, BOARDS OF HEALTH AND PLUMBING EXAMINERS, AND FOR TRADE CLASSES IN PLUMBING BY R. M. STARBUCK AUTHOR OF " QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF SANITARY PLUMBING" (2 VOLS.), "QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING," "MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS," ETC., ETC. Third Edition Revised and Enlarged FULLY ILLUSTRATED BY FIFTY-EIGHT DETAILED PLATES MADE EXPRESSLY BY THE AUTHOR FOR THIS WORK NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 132 NASSAU STREET 1915 VV COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY COPYRIGHT, I9O6, BY R. M. STARBUCK COMPOSITION, ELECTROTYPING, PRINTING, AND BINDING BY TROW DIRECTORY, PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. PREFACE THERE is possibly no branch of construction work which has undergone within the same given time such great changes of a far- reaching nature as plumbing construction. These changes look to the betterment of sanitary conditions, and are going on continually. As a consequence of all this, any work relating to plumbing con- struction to be of real value to the reader must deal with modern methods and appliances, for the old-time construction called for such entirely different methods, materials, and appliances, that the trade of the younger plumber of to-day has little in common with the trade which the older school of plumbers learned in their younger days. The practice of filling books on plumbing with instructions and historical data concerning old-time plumbing construction has no features to recommend it, and the author, believing in the truth of this statement, has avoided the employment of all such material. The ambitious plumber of to-day, if he is to keep abreast of the times in his chosen line of work, cannot afford to waste much time in gaining knowledge of an obsolete nature. Many factors have taken part in the advancement of sanitary construction. The good features that have arisen in plumbing construction are not to be credited to any one influence, but to many and varied influ- ences. In the first place, the people of this country have been edu- cated to demand and to expect the best possible living conditions, and the result is that the standard is constantly being raised. The public years ago began to demand more efficient regulation of plumbing con- struction in towns and cities, and the results arising from this demand and its fulfillment have been of the best. Municipal plumbing ordi- nances are constantly being revised or added to in the effort to provide the public with the most perfect sanitary conditions that are to be obtained. Competition is another factor which has brought results. S* Manufacturers everywhere have striven to improve their goods, and the advancement which they have made in all lines in recent years is truly wonderful. The plumber whose duty it is to execute work of construction has been most influential in bringing about changed conditions. It is he who is better able than others to observe the good points of different methods and devices, and their deficiencies, and to him is due the credit of very many of the improvements in the construc- tion of the plumbing system which the public now enjoys. 3430S7 8 PREFACE So far as it is within his power the author has endeavored to acquaint his readers with the improvements that have been effected in the many different directions. The work is designed to cover the entire field of plumbing as far as possible. It takes up not only plumbing as practiced in towns and cities under strict plumbing regulations, but plumbing construction under conditions obtaining in country districts, where the problems which arise are often of an entirely different nature, and where there is not in existence any public regulation of sanitary work. The subjects considered cover a variety of lines of work, including fixture work in detail, the construction of the drainage and vent sys- tems in detail, and complete plumbing systems of buildings of various kinds. The work is designed essentially to cover subjects pertaining to drainage alone, but it is clear' that in many instances the subject of water supply is closely associated with the drainage problem, and the author has therefore deemed it advisable in several instances to go somewhat into the general subject of water supply. This is especially true of country plumbing systems and of the systems of large city buildings. In conclusion, the author would say that to him the collection and arrangement of the information which " Modern Plumbing Illus- trated " contains has been a matter not only of much labor, but of much pleasure as well. It is a subject which has held his interest for many years, and the interest which he has long had in all that per- tains to the betterment of plumbing construction and to the betterment of the plumbing trade at large will always continue. It is his sincere hope that the following pages may hold infor- mation of interest and of value to his readers, and that they may prove a source of help in time of need. In bringing out a new edition of " Modern Plumbing Illustrated," the author becomes more fully aware that in the years which have passed since its first edition appeared, the science of plumbing has seen no great change in any of its essential principles, and whatever advance has been made has had largely to do with the developing and perfecting of detail. Such additions as have been made to this present edition will therefore be found to be along such lines. August, 1915. CONTENTS PAGE PLATE I. The Kitchen Sink Laundry Tubs Vegetable Wash Sink 15 PLATE II. Lavatories The Pantry Sink Contents of Marble Slabs 21 PLATE III. The Bath Tub Foot Bath Sitz Bath Child's Bath- Shower Bath Trimmings for Baths and Lavatories Setting Marble Floor Slabs 29 PLATE IV. Water Closet Connections Venting of Water Closets . 35 PLATE V. The Low-down Water Closet Operation of the Water Closet by Flush Valves Water Closet Ranges 41 PLATE VI. The Slop Sink The Urinal The Bidet 47 PLATE VII. The Hotel or Restaurant Sink The Use of Grease Traps 53 PLATE VIII. Refrigerators Safe Wastes Tank Overflow Floor Drains and Drips from Ice Houses, etc. Laundry Waste Creamery Waste 59 PLATE IX. Refrigerator Lines Bar Sinks Soda Fountain Sinks Exhausts, Drips, and Blow-offs of Steam Boilers, etc. ... 63 PLATE X. The Stall Sink The Horse Trough Frost-Proof Water Closets 67 PLATE XI. Connections for S-Traps Venting 71 PLATE XII. Connections for Drum Traps Practical Requirements of Venting 79 PLATE XIII. Soil Pipe and Soil Pipe Connections 85 PLATE XIV. Supporting and Running of Soil Pipe . . . . 93 9 io CONTENTS PAGE PLATE XV. The House or Main Trap and Fresh Air Inlet ... 99 PLATE XVI. Floor and Yard Drains Subsoil Drainage The Cellar Drainer 107 PLATE XVII. Water Closets Water Closet Floor Connections . . 113 PLATE XVIII. Local Venting . . 121 5 PLATE XIX. Bath Rooms 129 PLATE XX. Bath Rooms 135 PLATE XXI. Bath Rooms 141 PLATE XXII. Bath Rooms 147 PLATE XXIII. Poor Practices in Plumbing Construction . . .153 PLATE XXIV. " Roughing-in " Use of Cleanouts 159 PLATE XXV. Testing of the Plumbing System The Water Test The Air Test The Smoke Test The Peppermint Test . . 165 PLATE XXVI. Continuous Venting 173 PLATE XXVII. Continuous Venting for Two-Floor Work . . .177 PLATE XXVIII. Continuous Venting for Two Lines of Fixtures on Three or More Floors Practical Requirements of Venting . 181 PLATE XXIX. Continuous Venting of Water Closets Circuit Vents Loop Vents 185 PLATE XXX. Plumbing for Cottage House General Remarks . .189 PLATE XXXI. Construction of Cellar Piping The House Drain, House Sewer, etc 193 PLATE XXXII. Plumbing for Residences Use of Special Fittings Brass Piping 199 PLATE XXXIII. Plumbing for Two-Flat House Rain Leaders- Regulation of Plumbing Construction in Tenement Houses, Lodging Houses, etc 203 PLATE XXXIV. Plumbing for Apartment Building Systems of Hot-Water Supply Range Boilers, etc 209 CONTENTS ii PAGE PLATE XXXV. Plumbing for Double Apartment Buildings Fil- tered Water Supply ............ 215 PLATE XXXVI. Plumbing for Office Buildings ...... 221 PLATE XXXVII. Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms Causes of Siphonage in the Unvented Plumbing System ..... 225 PLATE XXXVIII. Plumbing for Public Toilet Rooms . . . .231 PLATE XXXIX. Plumbing for Bath Establishment Tanks for Stor- age and Supply ............. 235 PLATE XL. Plumbing for Engine House and Stables Factory Plumbing .............. 239 PLATE XLI. Automatic Flushing for Schools, Factories, etc. . . 243 PLATE XLII. The Use of Flushing Valves ....... 249 PLATE XLI II. Urinals for Public Toilet Rooms ...... 253 PLATE XLIV. The Durham System The Destruction of Pipes by Electrolysis .............. 259 PLATE XLV. Construction of Work without Use of Lead . . . 269 PLATE XLVI. The Disposal of Sewage of Fixtures Located below Sewer Level Automatic Sewage Lifts Automatic Sump Tanks ................ 2/5 PLATE XLVII. Country Plumbing Water Supply ..... 283 PLATE XLVI 1 1. Construction and Use of Cesspools ..... 291 PLATE XLIX. Construction and Action of the Septic Tank Under- ground Disposal of Partially Purified Sewage Automatic Sewage Siphons ............. 297 PLATE L. Pneumatic Systems of Water Supply Hydraulic Rams Pumps Water Supply by Siphonage Pumping by Windmill -Capacity of Tanks Protection of Supply Pipes against Freezing PLATE LI. Water Supply for Country House Double-Acting Ram Cistern Filters Hot- Water 'Supply 323 12 CONTENTS PAGE PLATE LIT. Thawing Underground Water Pipes by Electricity . . 329 PLATE LIIL Double Boilers 335 PLATE LIV. Hot-Water Supply for Large Buildings 341 PLATE LV. Automatic Control of Hot-Water Tanks 347 PLATE LVL The Three-Pipe System of Supply 35 l PLATE LVII. The Softening of Hard Water for Domestic Purposes . 355 PLATE LVIII. Special Problems and Devices in Hot-Water Supply . 359 Suggestions for Estimating Plumbing Construction 365 INTRODUCTION MANY of the readers of " Modern Plumbing Illustrated " have long been acquainted with the same title applied to another work by the same author, which is now no longer published. A few remarks relating to the several steps through which this work has passed may be of interest. In January, 1899, Mr. Starbuck published a novel work relat- ing to plumbing construction, known as " The Starbuck Plumbing Charts." This work consisted of fifty blue-print plates showing a variety of work relating to plumbing systems of various kinds, including both detail work and complete systems. The work filled a require- ment which had never before been met, and was cordially received by the plumbing fraternity at large. After a short time, however, it was seen that the " Plumbing Charts " were deficient in many respects, and as a result this work was replaced in 1900 by a far more extensive publication, known as " Modern Plumbing Illus- trated." This work was still in the form of blue-print plates, with- out text, but double the size of the original plates, and meeting practical requirements to a far greater extent than the original work. The work in the form of blue prints has had an immense sale during the past six years among all interested classes, including architects, master and journeyman plumbers, boards of health and plumbing examiners, contractors, etc. Meanwhile, however, vast improvements have been made in all branches of plumbing construction, with the result that much of the work shown in the 1900 publication has now been so far improved upon that it has seemed best to the author to again revise the work. In the work of revision it has been found inadvisable to make use of any of the plates of the 1900 publication, and accordingly each illustration of the present publication has been drawn especially for this work. Whereas the fifty full-page cuts of the 1900 work repre- sented some seventy separate illustrations, the present form shows more than twice this number. 13 14 INTRODUCTION The greatest improvement in " Modern Plumbing Illustrated," however, is to be found in the addition of a large amount of text, and in carrying out this part of his work the author has endeavored at every point to convey the information imparted in as concise a manner as possible, while at the same time making it entirely clear and comprehensive. As each successive revision of the work has been undertaken, it has been the aim of the author to purge it of all unnecessary and obsolete matter, and to keep it as far as possible entirely up to date. PLATE 1 THE KITCHEN SINK LAUNDRY TUBS Cnnec/~/ns Kitchen Sink. Plaf-e I. x s J&raclzefe / Jbizze Laundry Tubs 27SO22K ID 2 23 e THE KITCHEN SINK THE kitchen sink is made of plain, galvanized or enameled cast iron, slate, soapstone, and porcelain. The waste for the kitchen sink is generally i l /> inch, though the tendency is toward the use of 2-inch pipe. As this fixture is usually subject to greater use than any other plumbing fixture of the house, and as much greasy matter enters it, even with the utmost care, 2-inch pipe is often preferable to i l /2 inch. The vent for the trap of the kitchen sink should be of i^-inch pipe. In connection with this fixture, especially in large residences, restaurants, boarding houses, or wherever a large amount of dish- washing and cooking is done, a grease trap will often serve the fix- ture much more satisfactorily than the ordinary trap. An illustra- tion and description of such a trap will be found under Plate 7. Sinks are generally set about 32 inches from the floor, this measure- ment being to the top of the sink. This height may be varied an inch either way, to suit the desires of the owner. As the kitchen sink is so much in use, and demands so much hot water, the prefer- ence in the matter of such supply should be given this fixture over all others. A quick supply of hot water may be secured by connect- ing the flow pipe from the range into the hot-water pipe at the top of the boiler instead of into the side of the boiler as generally done. This is of special value when hot water is required at the kitchen sink in the morning, the range fire having been allowed to go out the night before. TABLE OF SIZES OF CAST-IRON SINKS The following sizes are for plain, galvanized, and enameled cast- iron sinks, the depth of sink being 6 inches, and the dimensions in inches. 12 X 12 12 X 20 14 X 22 16 X 16 12 X H H X 14 H X 24 16 X 20 12 X 16 14 X 18 14 X 26 16 X 24 12 X 18 14 X 20 15 X 27 16 X 28 17 i8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 16 X 30 18 X 36 20 X 40 22 X 62 16 X 3 6 18 X 42 20 X 42 22 X 76 17 X 28 20 X 20 20 X 48 23 X 42 17 X 30 20 X 24 20 X 60 23 X 48 17 X 35 20 X 26 20 X 7 2 24 x 48 18 X 18 20 X 28 21 X 42 24 X 50 18 X 24 20 X 3 22 X 36 24 X So l8 X 28 20 X 32 22 X 40 24 X 120 18 X 30 20 X 36 22 X 42 26 X 52 18 X 3 2 20 X 38 22 X 48 The most satisfactory sizes of kitchen sinks for family use are, viz. : 1 8 X 36, 20 X 36, and 20 X 42. If space allows, 20 X 42 is the preferable size. Sinks 18 X 36 are largely used in the cheaper class of work. All sinks are cast with the bottom pitching toward the outlet end. Therefore there is no necessity of setting the sink so that its top is other than level. A valuable device for use in connection with the kitchen sink is the flexible wooden sink mat. This mat, being flexible, will fit into any sink, and in the case of enameled or porcelain sinks keeps the surface from being scratched by pots and kettles. It also prevents breakage in setting dishes, etc., into the bottom of the sink. VEGETABLE WASH SINK A fixture now much used in high-grade kitchen work of resi- dences, hotels, restaurants, clubs, etc., is the vegetable wash sink. This fixture is generally made of enameled cast iron or porcelain, and is provided with a standing overflow at one end, so that the water may fill the sink, which is of considerable depth, without flowing into the waste. The waste and vent for the vegetable wash sink are of the same size as for the kitchen sink. LAUNDRY TUBS Laundry tubs, or wash trays, are made of porcelain, enameled cast iron, soapstone, slate, and artificial stone. The connections for this fixture are shown in Plate I. The LAUNDRY TUBS 19 waste outlet from each section of the laundry tubs should be i^ inches in size. The main waste and trap for a two-part laundry tub may be I*/? inches, and for laundry tubs of three to six sections, the main waste and trap should not be less than 2 inches in size. The vent from the trap of a set of laundry tubs should not be less than \y 2 inches in size.. Formerly this fixture was made of w r ood, the several sections sometimes being lined with sheet metal. The use of the wooden laundry tubs or wooden sink should be pro- hibited, as the wood readily absorbs moisture and filth, and the fix- ture soon becomes unsanitary. For use in general work, such as for dwelling houses, and the less pretentious residences, laundry tubs either of slate or soapstone give excellent service. Laundry tubs of artificial stone are much used in the cheaper grades of work, but often have the disadvantage of cracking and crumbling, especially if installed in cold places, where frost may work into the stone. A strong cement for mending artificial stone, slate, and soapstone tubs may be made of litharge and glycerine formed into a paste, which is very hard when it has set, and very durable. In many instances, especially in flats and apartment houses, the laundry tubs are located in the kitchen, close to the sink. When so located, it is customary in some sections to allow one trap to serve both fixtures. This is considered poor practice in any case, and especially when applied to such fixtures as the kitchen sink and laundry tubs. Each fixture should be separately trapped. Al- though the use of the drum trap is not popular in certain sections, in connection with laundry tubs it may be used to great advantage many times, for it can usually be located more advantageously than the S trap, and is of sufficient diameter to easily receive any number of waste pipes that may be required to enter it. In its use, a less length of fouled waste connection to the trap is able to throw impure odors into the room than in such a connection as shown in Plate I. When the kitchen sink and laundry tubs are each to be located in the kitchen, and especially when it is necessary to economize space, the combination kitchen sink and laundry tub may be used to advan- tage. This fixture combines the two fixtures in one. Plate II LAVATORIES .723 a 2 22 Ve&t ? FcLJ ? ^S2 /r/y. /. ? C 0/7 n e c hi f Q r Panf-ry Sink 273 a 2 22 LAVATORIES LAVATORIES are generally made of marble, enameled cast iron, or porcelain. Marble is fast being superseded by enameled cast iron and porce- lain. Marble lavatories present opportunity for the collection of filth in the joints and corners between the marble parts and between the bowl and the marble. Enameled cast-iron and porcelain lavatories are cast in one piece, which includes both the back and the bowl, for which reason there is no necessity of setting the bowl, and therefore no possibility that it may become loose and need resetting, as often happens in the use of marble lavatories. Being cast in one piece, there are no joints to fill up with filth. Tt is for these reasons that enameled cast-iron and porcelain lava- tories are preferable to marble. The waste from the lavatory is generally of i^-inch pipe, but should never be as small as I inch, a size which is sometimes used. The trap vent should also be 1% inches in size. The lavatory should be set so that its upper surface is about 31 inches from the floor. The height may, of course, be varied to suit the desires of the owner. The trap of this fixture is very liable to stoppage, not from greasy matter as in the trap of the kitchen sink, but from soap, lint, and hair. Two methods of making waste connections for the lavatory may be followed, shown in Plate 2 by Figs. A and B. The waste may be carried to the floor, as in Fig. A, or directly back to the wall, as in Fig. B. The latter method is preferable, as the waste connection so made is shorter, there is less of the work exposed to rough usage, and a separate entrance into the main soil or waste pipe may always be secured. The vent of the half S-trap may be taken off farther from the seal than in the case of the full S-trap, resulting in a lower rate of evaporation, and the half S-trap is less subject to siphonage than the full S-trap, owing to the long outlet arm of the latter. Usu- ally when the half S-trap can be used for the lavatory, or, in fact, for any other fixture, the continuous method of venting may be applied, 23 24 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED as shown in Fig. B. This method is of great advantage to any fixture, and is fully described under Plate 26. An objection to the use of the patent overflow bowl, such as shown in Figs. A and B, is that the overflow soon becomes coated with filth, which often throws off foul odors into the room. The use of scented soaps increases this objectionable feature. The same thing occurs in public toilet rooms w r hen a line of sev- eral lavatories is served by a single trap at the end of the line. This long line of fouled waste pipe sends out its foul odors into the room through the outlet of each bowl. Italian and Tennessee marble is the material mostly used for marble lavatories. On good work, lavatory top slabs are countersunk, with moulded edges, and 1*4 mcn thick. The backs and ends for lavatories may be 8, 10, 12, 14, 1 8, or 20 inches in height. The standard sizes of marble slabs for lavatories are 19 X 24, 20 X 24, 20 X 26, 20 X 28, 20 X 30, 22 X 28, 22 X 30, and 22 X 36. On the better grades of work the larger sizes of slabs, with high backs, are mostly used. Lavatory bowls may be obtained either round or oval, with com- mon overflow or patent overflow. Round bowls are made of 12, 13, 14, 15, and 1 6 inch diameter, the 14-inch bowl being largely used on general work. The sizes of oval bowls are 14 X 17, 15 X 19, and 16 X 21. The bowl is generally fastened to the marble slab before the latter is set in position. The bowl is attached by means of bowl clamps. Three or four bowl clamps may be used on round bowls, but not less than four on oval bowls. The slab is drilled out to receive the clamp bolt, the hole being cut under at the bottom. The bolt is held firmly in the marble slab by means of lead poured in around it and caulked, the under cut at the bottom clinching the lead and preventing it pulling out. The joint between the bowl and the marble is made with plaster-of-paris. In connection with the subject of marble work, the making of marble cements may be of interest. Portland cement withstands water, as also a cement made by soaking plaster-of-paris in a satu- rated solution of alum, the mixture being baked and ground into a powder and applied by mixing with water. A putty made of litharge and glycerine is also good. CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS 25 THE PANTRY SINK Pantry sinks commonly in use are made of sheet copper; the higher grades are of enameled cast iron and of porcelain. A very satisfactory pantry sink may be constructed by lining a wooden box, of proper dimensions, with white metal. The back and drain boards should also be lined with the same material. This work requires the services of a skilled workman, for it is a difficult matter to lay the metal smoothly and to finish the joints and seams so that they may be as nearly invisible as possible. Many of the more pretentious residences now have a breakfast room in addition to the dining room, each being provided with its own special pantry sink. The size of waste for the pantry sink should be i^ inch; the size of trap vent should also be i]/ 2 inch. The pantry sink should be set so that the top of the sink is about 32 inches from the floor. CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS In connection with the subject of marble lavatories the follow- ing table will be found of value. Marble slabs are sold by the foot, and from this table the contents of any slab from 6 X 12 inches to 47 X 62 inches may be quickly found. The figures in the top hori- zontal line show the widths of slabs, and the figures in the left-hand vertical column show lengths. In estimating on slabs with finished edges it is customary to add one inch in length or width, as the case may be, for each finished edge. The following example will show the manner in which the table is to be used : It is required to find the contents of a marble slab 20 X 24 in., having both ends and the front edge finished, with lo-inch back. Adding I inch for each finished edge, gives the slab dimensions as 21 X 26 in., and the dimensions of the back as n X 26 in. Find in the side column the length, 26 inches, and in the upper line the width, 21 inches. To the right of the 26, and under the 21, will be found the con- tents of a slab 21 X 26 in., 3 feet 10 inches, and in the same manner the contents of the back will be found to be 2 feet, giving a total of 5 feet 10 inches. End pieces will be found in the same way. 26 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED c to - (N 00 rH T-I O3 -0 l^ OS ro "- M -C: ^H -* >O t 00 O o -S C O X CS I-H (NCO'CCDOOOl'-H rHCC^>Cb-OOC!i-i i-i (NCC-*3t^OOC!O -i( (NCC-*>OOOOOiO M "* i-( (N -i rH 40 O fi OOr-4 i-i(NCOfO'OOOt>OOO!O5O OS <-> 00 C! O O 00 " _______ .-___.__-.___ ^_, _. i-( 1-1 N M M * . rH ffl CONTENTS OF MARBLE SLABS 27 00 * 00 <}.'5'Oi.OcOCOCOCOb-t^t^X O X i-l CO CC C. rH O "" * *^S ~ -~ e~t s g ' S s .. CO CO _ CD Ci t^. ^- | o cococi eotoo cocoo cocoes cocoes cocoos coco g ^ COCDO CO>OX'-ilN'OXC'-i'*t-OrHCOCOas COOX--H(MiOX *f . CO co - W ^ t^ b- X X X X X C. C. C. iN " CO _c co 49 ^ 5 CO C C'HCO'OXC5'-iCO'-OXprHCOCDXOi-iCOCO o M i!5 X O X - in., and the vent of the same size. Owing to the purpose for which it is designed, however, the supply to the bidet is of a much different character than that of the water closet. Both hot and cold water should be supplied to the bidet, entering the fixture through its side and rising inside the bowl in the form of a jet and douche. The supply also passes through the flushing rim in order to thoroughly cleanse the fixture. In connection with the bidet, a mixer, similar in character to the valve on shower baths, is generally used. This allows either hot or cold water, or water of any degree of warmth to be used. Such valves should be of some non-scalding pattern. THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS A/o/-e/ o/- Restaurant- -Sink THE HOTEL OR RESTAURANT SINK THE waste and vent pipes of the ordinary kitchen sink are gen- erally ij/2 in. in size. The waste and vent of the kitchen sink, when used in hotel, restaurant, boarding house, and club kitchens, or when used in other public or private establishments which call for its almost constant use, should never be less than 2 in. in size. The amount of greasy matter entering such sinks is very great, even when the utmost precaution is used, and it is very necessary to so construct the work in connection with such a sink that stoppage shall have the least possible opportunity. It is a well-known fact that when sewage con- taining grease comes in contact with a cold surface, the grease will separate from the sewage and adhere to such surface. This often occurs in soil and waste pipes, the pipes running through cellars being cold and therefore well calculated to collect grease. When the grease begins to collect it continues to increase in thickness, until in time the entire bore of the pipe is filled. The collection of grease practically forms a body of hard soap in the pipe, and a stoppage of such nature cannot be dislodged by ordinary means of forcing stop- pages, but necessitates taking down the pipe and clearing out each length. For this reason, on horizontal lines of waste from sinks used in hotels, restaurants, etc., a cleanout should be inserted at intervals of ten feet in the piping. Money put into cleanouts on such work as this is always well invested, as their use will eventually avoid the necessity of taking down the waste piping, an expensive undertaking. THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS When conditions are such that a great amount of grease neces- sarily enters the kitchen-sink waste, it is necessary to use a grease trap, a form of which is to be seen in Fig. 7, this form representing the best type of such traps. As already stated, contact with cold surfaces causes the grease 55 56 in sewage to separate from the liquid, a fact which is made use of in the operation of this or any other grease trap. The body of the trap is surrounded entirely by a water jacket or chamber, with the excep- tion of the top. In addition, the partition in the center of the trap, which is designed to aid in breaking up the sewage and deflecting the grease upward, is also formed into a water chamber. The water pipe supplying the kitchen sink is connected at the inlet and outlet ends of this water jacket, cold water thus flowing through the jacket constantly and changing whenever water is drawn at the sink. If the jacket were simply filled with water and not changed there would be no cooling effect, but the method described keeps the surfaces against which the waste comes in contact always cool, resulting effectively in the separation of the grease, which rises to the top and is taken out through the removable cover. The trap outlet is made at the bottom of the trap, instead of at the top, to aid in preventing the escape of the grease. The partition through the center of the trap also helps to pre- vent grease entering the trap from being carried over into the outlet. While the water jacket surrounding the trap does effective work, a large part of the results obtained is due to the presence of the hol- low partition or deflector. This trap is of cast iron and made in several sizes. Less expensive and less satisfactory grease traps are made on the same general lines as the trap just described, but not provided with a water jacket. Many of them do very good work, but it is not to be expected that they can hold back as large a part of the grease as the trap does which is cooled continuously by the water supply. There is one point in the use of the grease trap which does not always receive consideration the amount of money to be derived from the sale of grease coming from the grease trap. In large establishments this is often a very respectable sum of money. Traps similar in design to the one described are also made of wrought steel. Cast iron, however, would seem to be less in danger of deterioration than wrought steel, which is more easily acted upon by acids. The grease trap, on a larger scale, in the form of a catch basin, is sometimes located outside the building, underground, and into this receptacle all the kitchen waste from kitchen sinks, pantry sinks, dishwashing sinks, etc., is discharged. The great advantage gained in the use of such a catch basin is that it is constantly cooled by the moisture of THE USE OF GREASE TRAPS 57 the ground in which it is located. It should always be set low enough in the ground to be out of danger of freezing. If it is impossible to so install it, the catch basin should never be used. A serious disad- vantage in the use of the underground catch basin is that generally its use necessitates a long line of horizontal waste pipe from the kitchen to the catch basin, and in this pipe and its connections grease has abundant opportunity to collect before reaching the catch basin, resulting in the ultimate stoppage of such pipes. These pipes generally run in cool cellars and for a distance under- ground, which favors the collection of more or less of the grease on their surfaces. The better plan would seem to be the use of grease traps under the fixtures in the kitchen, with systematic attention given to the removal of grease that accumulates. In the case of a line of kitchen sinks or of dishwashing sinks, one grease trap of proper size may be used for the accommodation of the entire number of fixtures. Catch basins for kitchen waste may be of brick or cast iron, and should never be less than 30 in. in internal diameter, tapering toward the top, if desired, to about 22 to 24 in., and provided with a cast-iron cover. If of brick, they should be made water-tight. The drain from the kitchen catch basin to the sewer may be of glazed tile, and should be not less than 5 in. in diameter and provided with a trap having a deep seal. Plate VIII REFRIGERATORS SAFE WASTES TANK OVERFLOW SPECIAL WASTES P/ate 8. f'9 ft REFRIGERATORS REFRIGERATORS should never, under any condition, be directly connected to any part of the drainage system. This restriction makes it necessary to provide connections for the refrigerator on an entirely different principle from those of the regular plumbing fixtures. The refrigerator should drip into a pan beneath it, which should be trapped, the waste from the trap dripping into an open sink. The sink should be trapped and vented in the usual manner, and may be connected to any soil or waste pipe. The use of the drum trap is good practice, as it may easily be cleaned of the slime and sawdust which collects in considerable quan- tity. It also has a much deeper seal to withstand evaporation when the refrigerator is out of use. The methods shown in Figs. A and B amply protect the refrig- erator, for there is not only the trap usually found inside the refrigerator, and the other two traps, but also the two breaks in the connections. The outlet from the refrigerator trap should discharge as far from the sink outlet as possible. It is preferable to drip into a sink in common use, as the renewal of its trap seal is ensured, but if impracticable, a special sink may be employed. It is permissible also to discharge the refrigerator waste into a cellar-floor drain, yard drain, or into a trap provided with a receiv- ing funnel. In the latter case it is necessary to provide a brass screw cover or a gate valve for closing the trap when the refrigerator is not in use. The waste from the refrigerator should never be less than 1*4 in. in size. Short wastes and traps may be of lead, 'but long lines should be of galvanized wrought iron. The refrigerator waste should have as sharp a grade as possible. Fig. C represents a desirable form of refrigerator drip pan. The box is lined with metal, formed so that all drippings entering the pan flow toward the outlet, which is provided with a strainer and 61 62 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED brass screw cover, the latter for use when the refrigerator is not being used. The requirements for refrigerators apply also to ice boxes, or any other receptacle for food or provisions which it is necessary to drain. SAFE WASTES TANK OVERFLOW Wastes from safes, drip pans, etc., should not be directly con- nected to any part of the drainage system. Such wastes should discharge into a sink or laundry tub, cellar- floor drain, or deep seal trap. The lower end of such a pipe should have a brass flap valve to prevent the passage of cellar air. The overflow from the attic tank or other similar tank should not be directly connected to the drainage system, but should be dis- charged upon the roof or into an open fixture. It is often convenient to discharge this overflow into the flush tank of a water closet on a floor below the tank. This overflow should never be less than 1*4 m - in size, and i l / 2 -m. pipe is often better. FLOOR DRAINS AND DRIPS FROM ICE HOUSES, ETC. Floor drains, etc., used for the draining of ice houses, refrig- erator rooms, storage rooms for provisions, etc., or for draining any room where food is prepared, should not be directly connected to the drainage system, but should discharge into an open catch basin or trapped sink located outside the building, the outer end of the pipe being provided with a brass flap valve. LAUNDRY WASTE CREAMERY WASTE The waste from washing machinery in laundries, from similar machines in breweries and other establishments where a large volume of water is constantly used, and from receptacles and sinks used in creameries, may be discharged onto the floor, provided it is water- tight, properly graded, and provided with a suitable floor drain. Plate IX REFRIGERATOR LINES BAR AND SODA- FOUNTAIN SINKS- -EXHAUSTS BLOW-OFFS, ETC. Line w W /or Plcrf-a, 9. 3 3 s 5 X / &2ap Volre f/'g. B. Cellar tSujy&lied wiffe Wafer REFRIGERATOR LINES THE size of a line of waste pipe serving refrigerators on two floors should be at least \y\ in., for three or four floors i l / 2 in., and for more than four floors 2 in. Galvanized wrought-iron pipe is generally used for this work, and all branches from this pipe should be made by means of forty- five-degree Y-branches. Refrigerator traps do not require venting, as no conditions are present to cause siphonage of their contents. The waste pipe which serves a line of refrigerators should in no case be connected direct to the plumbing system, but should dis- charge in the same manner as the single refrigerator, as described under Plate 8. All changes in direction and all offsets on the refrig- erator waste pipe should be provided with full-size cleanouts. Refrigerator pipes should never discharge upon the cellar floor or bottom, and wherever sewage privileges exist they should not drip onto the ground. However, if necessary to discharge upon the ground, such discharge should not take place within three feet of the foundation walls, unless into a tight gutter. Each refrigerator connecting into a line of waste pipe should be separately trapped, with its branch waste as short and direct as pos- sible. The main line should be carried directly through the roof, and in cold climates it should be increased to 4 in. in size before passing through the roof. The reason for this is that smaller sizes often close up at their upper ends with hoarfrost, thus stopping ventilation, which in the case of the refrigerator is a most important matter. The cellar end of the refrigerator line should be provided with a brass flap valve, in order that the upward passage of cellar air and odors may be prevented. The use of the flap valve and the cleanout is shown in Fig. B. 65 66 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED BAR SINKS SODA-FOUNTAIN SINKS The bar sink or the soda-fountain sink may be installed, if desired, with an indirect connection to the drainage system, or with direct communication. When an indirect connection is made for either of these fixtures it may be trapped or not, as preferred, but should always discharge into a fixture or pan properly trapped and located as close to the bar sink or fountain sink as possible. EXHAUSTS, DRIPS, AND BLOW-OFFS OF STEAM BOILERS, ETC. The exhaust, draw-off, drip, and blow-off from a steam boiler should never connect directly into any sewer or into any part of the drainage system. These pipes should discharge into a tank or con- denser, the capacity of which should be the same as that of the boiler. The tank should be provided with a vent pipe not less than 2 in. in diameter, connecting with the outside air. The tank should connect, through a waste not less than 3 in. in diameter, into the house drain or sewer, preferably the latter. The waste should be trapped and vented and provided with a back-pressure valve. The reason that this class of drainage should not discharge directly into the drainage system or sewer is that the steam rising from it produces sewer pressure, against which all possible precautions should be taken. Water over 120 degrees in temperature should not be discharged into the sewer, owing to the result which may follow in the forma- tion of steam. The drainage from hot-water heating systems and from low- pressure steam-heating systems may, however, be connected directly into the drainage system, if properly trapped, without entering a condensing tank. The drainage from hydraulic elevators, lifts, and other similar apparatus which is direct connected, should not be discharged directly into the drainage system, but should first enter a tank, in order that it may be discharged from that point into the sewer without pressure. Tanks used for this purpose should be trapped and vented and pro- vided with a back-pressure valve. Plate X THE STALL SINK HORSE TROUGH- FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS 10. f<=>r Shall THE STALL SINK IN modern stables much attention is given to the proper drain- age of horse stalls. Although not of so much moment when stables are located at a distance from dwellings, or in sparsely settled dis- tricts, the horse stalls of stables that are located in sections devoted to residential or business purposes should be provided for in the same manner as any other plumbing fixture. This applies to private stables, livery stables, engine-house stables, etc. The drainage of the horse stall is best accomplished by the use of a specially constructed cast-iron stall sink, the four sides of which pitch toward the center, from which point the waste is carried off. Below the sink a special fitting is provided which bolts to the sink and caulks into the cast-iron waste pipe. The waste and vent should be of 2-in. cast-iron pipe, cast iron withstanding the action of the acids in the waste much more effectively than wrought iron or steel. The waste line should enter a trap located as close to the stall as convenient, and provided with two 2-in. cleanouts. Two cleanouts may be used by taking the vent from a tee located next beyond the trap, instead of from the trap itself, as shown in Plate 10. The use of cleanouts wherever possible on work of this nature, is a necessity, as even the utmost precaution will not serve to entirely prevent the entrance of solid matter into the drain. A clean- out at the end of the horizontal cast-iron waste, as shown, will prove of much value. A perforated cover is provided with the stall sink, its purpose being to prevent as far as possible, the escape of solid substances into the waste pipe. The stall sink should be set well toward the rear of the stall, as shown in the plan view, in order to best serve its purpose. The sink should be covered by a skeleton trap door, through which the liquids may find their way into the sink. Even when provided with these drainage facilities, the horse stall soon becomes foul smelling, owing to the foul nature of the solids and liquids deposited; but if the sink is thoroughly flushed out with the hose each day, it may be kept in a comparatively clean condition. 6 9 7 o. MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED THE HORSE TROUGH The plumbing of the stable is not complete without the properly connected horse trough. The horse trough is generally made of cast iron, and may be provided with a standing overflow to guard against the overflowing of the fixture. Its waste should be 2 in. in size, and its vent \y 2 in. The drain- age pipes of stables are generally of cast iron, as the presence of strong acids in the waste soon causes wrought iron to deteriorate. FROST-PROOF WATER CLOSETS Several forms of water closet are now made, designed especially for operation in places exposed to extreme cold, such as unheated stables, yards, etc. Water closets for this purpose cannot be of the ordinary style, that is, with the trap combined in the fixture, as the contents of the trap would be in danger of freezing. Therefore long hoppers are generally used on frost-proof water closets, the trap being generally of cast iron and located below the closet at sufficient depth to avoid danger of freezing. Various methods are employed in providing a flush. In some cases the flush is direct connected, while in other cases galvanized cylindrical flush tanks are used. The flush tank is sometimes placed in a pit below the water closet, and sometimes on the wall above it. In the latter case the tank fills only when the seat is occupied. When the seat is released, a heavy weight attached to it opens the flush to the closet and empties the tank, any water standing in the piping draining through a small pipe into the trap. W^hen the tank is located below the floor it remains empty except when the seat is occupied. When the seat is pressed down, the tank fills with water to whatever extent the pressure will compress the air. When the seat is vacated the weight attached tips the seat up, closing the inlet to the tank, opening the flush to the closet, and the com- pressed air forces the flush through the fixture. When frost-proof water closets are located in cellars or basements of such buildings as factories, warehouses, and other buildings occupied, but not used as dwellings, they should be vented and local vented. Plate XI CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS VENTING Plahe II. Traps \ F'9 c. /-/p. F'9-r. f'9- CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS VENTING THE trap and its vent are so closely allied that it is best to con- sider them under the same heading. The trap is a vessel containing a body of water, the duty of which is to obstruct and prevent the entrance of sewer air and gases into the house. All plumbing ordinances recognize the necessity of a trap under each fixture, and upon the application of proper prin- ciples in its construction, installation, and venting, a large part of the successful operation of the modern system of plumbing depends. A trap to be entirely satisfactory and sanitary should possess a good seal, be self-scouring, non-siphonable, have the least possible opportunity for the collection of filth, have no partitions within itself, and depend upon no mechanical contrivance to make a seal. To secure all these features in the same trap is a difficult matter, but the claim is made for several traps now on the market that they meet these requirements, and the non-siphonable requirement having been solved, they require no venting. If an absolutely non-siphonable trap could be produced, there would be no need of the venting system, and the cost of the average plumbing system would thereby be reduced approximately one-third. It is true that several traps have been introduced which have withstood severe siphonage tests remarkably well. A very important question arises, however, as to what results these traps will show after they have been in service for a time, become fouled and in other ways reached the trap's normal condition. Some few plumb- ing ordinances now allow the use of these so-called non-siphonable traps without the use of the trap vent. The vast majority of ordi- nances, however, still adhere to the venting of the trap as a safe- guard against siphonage, and it would seem at the present time a wise stand to take. Before considering the special subject of S-traps, it will be well to consider some of the general features of the trap question. By the seal of the trap is meant the depth of water between the outlet of the trap and the dip, that is, the depth of water which pre- vents the entrance of gases from the sewer. 73 74 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED A safe depth of seal is 2 in. A much greater depth of seal might be secured for many traps, but the argument against it is that it presents a larger body of stag- nant waste than is necessary. A small seal is dangerous, as it may more easily be destroyed by evaporation. Evaporation is a great menace to the trap seals of fixtures which do not have their seals renewed in the everyday use of the fixture; and the conveyance onto the trap seal of air through the trap vent increases the evil. Internal partitions are dangerous, for sewer gas may pass into the house through defects that may exist in the partition above the water line. Formerly traps with mechanical seals were much in use, but are now generally prohibited. The mechanical device employed was usually a heavy ball or float, which gave opportunity for the collec- tion of grease and other filth about itself, resulting in the stoppage of the trap. The trap seal may be destroyed by back pressure, capillary attraction, momentum, evaporation, and siphonage. The trap seal may be forced by back pressure, that is, the pres- sure of gases generated in the sewer. This evil has been practically eliminated by carrying the vertical stacks through the roof, but was a serious matter in the old-style system, in which each stack ended at the highest fixture. The action of capillary attraction takes place in the trap when threads, pieces of cloth, etc., happen to dip into the seal and extend over into the outlet. By this means, a drop at a time, the seal may be, and often is, broken. There is no remedy that can be applied to this evil, for its existence is never known. A trap may lose its seal by momentum, that is, in flowing out of the trap, the rush of the waste is so strong that it may carry a part of the seal with it. This is the tendency in some traps working on the centrifugal principle. In these traps the waste inlet and outlet are on a tangent, resulting in a whirling motion which is so strong as to endanger the seal. These traps have great scouring qualities, which is an excellent feature. Occasionally traps on top floors may lose a part of their seal by its being blown out by gusts of wind passing over the top of the stack. Siphonage, however, is the worst evil which the trap has to con- tend with. For the purpose of the consideration of the action of CONNECTIONS FOR S-TR APS VENTING 75 siphonage it is considered that the trap in Fig. A, Plate n, is with- out a vent. In that case, if a vacuum or partial vacuum were formed by any means in the lower part of the trap outlet, the atmospheric pressure exerted on the house side of the trap seal would force the contents out of the trap into the waste pipe. In other words, the contents would be sucked out of the trap. If conditions are such that a vacuum is produced as above, the only way in which siphonage of the trap can be prevented is by bringing a supply of air into the trap at or near its crown. The siphon consists primarily of a bent tube, one arm being shorter than the other. After the vacuum has been created, and both arms filled with water, the action continues because the falling of the greater weight of water in the long arm exerts a suction on that in the short arm. If the two arms were of the same length, the weight of each would balance that of the other, and the result would be that the water in each arm would fall by gravity, at once empty- ing both arms of the siphon. It will be seen, then, that the trap with its outlet, almost always represents the ideal form of siphon, for the middle leg of the trap is short and under atmospheric pressure, and the outlet is generally much longer, and at its lower end often subject to influences which tend to produce a vacuum. In order, then, that the entrance of air may break the siphonic action, the air must be admitted at or near the crown of the trap. That there are many influences in the plumbing system tending to produce a vacuum may be seen in the text under Plate 36, in which this subject is taken up more extensively. The vent pipe connected at the crown of the trap is the means employed to prevent trap siphonage, and to date it is the only practical means. Various experiments have been tried to pre- vent trap siphonage without employing an expensive vent system, but to no avail. Having now covered some of the features which apply to traps in general, the consideration of the S-trap will be taken up. This trap is more extensively used than any other form of trap. The S-trap and the drum trap may be considered as the funda- mental forms of traps, all other traps now in use being based upon one or the other in their operation. Much debate has arisen as to the relative advantages of these 76 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED two forms of traps, but it is not the purpose of the author to enter into the controversy. Facts concerning the advantages and disadvantages of each will be given, the reader reaching his own conclusions as to which is the more perfect trap. The S-trap, owing to its form and to the fact that its passage throughout is of the same size, possesses excellent self-scouring qualities, a most desirable feature in traps. On the other hand, there is no other trap so susceptible to the action of siphonage as the S-trap, and it would be very unsafe to install this trap without providing it with a vent. Upon the proper application of the vent the successful operation of the S-trap largely depends. The greatest difficulty which the trap vent has to contend with is the accumulation of grease, hair, lint, etc., about the opening of the vent into the trap. So great is this evil that it is an acknowledged fact that in a very large majority of instances the vents of traps that have been in use for a number of years are undoubtedly inoperative, owing to com- plete stoppage of the entrance of the vent into the trap. Patent devices to prevent this have failed. Cleanouts on trap vents, as shown in Fig. D, are seldom used, owing to the fact that the existence of the trouble is usually unknown, and the need of the remedy therefore not appreciated. The nearest approach to a vent which will not close up is the connection shown in Fig. F, in which the vent is taken from the top of the waste fitting. This method is known as continuous venting, and is of such acknowledged excellence that it is taken up at length under Plates 26, 27, and 28. S-traps are made in three styles, the full S, three-quarter S, and half S. In the latter two forms the vent may be taken off at a consider- able distance from the seal, as seen in Figs. C and E. Such a con- nection is preferable to that of either Fig. A, B, or D, for there is not so great a tendency to throw the waste up into the vent as in the three connections named. There is one other feature which makes the w r ork of Fig. C preferable to that of Figs. A, B, and D. Air is supplied to the trap seal at such a distance from it, that the rate of evaporation will be materially less than in the case of the other three connections. CONNECTIONS FOR S-TRAPS VENTING 77 The vents in Figs. B and D being taken off further from the trap seal than in Fig. A, their rate of evaporation will be less. It may be stated, however, that the connection shown in Fig. A is the one most commonly in use. Although evaporation is not so dangerous a factor as siphonage in connection with traps, it is much more to be feared than would appear at first thought. This is particularly true of traps under fixtures which are sel- dom used, or traps of fixtures in houses that are vacant, as is often the case during the summer season. The S-trap, when used to serve the bath tub, is often found very inaccessible when it is desired to clear it of stoppage, for the trap screw, so convenient in most positions, is in this case very difficult to get at. Flooring must usually be taken up to get at the cleanout. In Fig. E is shown a very desirable method of providing a clean- out for the bath trap. The cleanout being brought flush with the floor, any stoppage may be removed without taking up the flooring. The sizes of traps are, viz. : Traps for water closets, 4 in. diameter. " slop sinks, 3 " " kitchen sinks, i l / 2 or 2 " " laundry tubs, i*/ 2 " " bath tubs, iy 2 " " urinals, i^ " " lavatories, i# " " other fixtures, i^ " Every trap should be provided with a cleanout on its inlet side or below the water level in the trap, and the overflow from each fix- ture should be connected on the inlet side of the trap. Through carelessness and ignorance the overflow is sometimes found connected to the sewer side of the trap, thereby forming a by-pass through which gases and odors from the drainage and sewer system may enter the house. The trap should always be set level with respect to its water seal. Otherwise the available depth of seal will be lessened, and the seal possibly entirely lost. Traps located under floors should have cleanouts accessible from above the trap, except in cases where the trap is accessible from the 78 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED floor below, owing to the form of floor construction, as, for instance, in factory work. The waste from a fixture should never pass through more than one trap before entering the house drain. The effect of passing waste through two traps is to cause air-lock between the two traps, which impedes the natural flow of the waste and results finally in a stoppage of the waste. CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS- PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING Plate 7-2. Drum Traps rig. B. vrt ri i i i r I I I i LJ rig f /=-/$?. e. rig CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS THE drum trap for general fixture use is 4 in. in diameter, and into it are wiped the inlet and outlet waste pipes. The trap, then, represents an enlargement in the waste from a pipe of i^4> I /^> or 2-in. diameter to 4 in., and under this condition it cannot be expected that the drum trap will possess the scouring qualities to be found in the S-trap. The drum trap, however, certainly possesses one very strong point. While the S-trap is the trap most easily siphoned, the drum trap is one of the most difficult to siphon. In fact, under any ordinary working conditions the drum trap is practically non-siphon- able. Special tests of great severity have shown that at least a part of its seal may be siphoned, but these tests subject the trap to con- ditions far more severe than they encounter when installed on the plumbing system. The strong point of the drum trap is that, unlike the S-trap, it holds a large body of water, and when subjected to siphonic influence, such action takes place through a passage of the same diameter as the waste pipe, allowing the remaining body of water to fall back and form the seal. While acknowledging that the drum trap is far less subject to siphonage than the S-trap, it should be vented, in order that every possible precaution may be taken to eliminate this danger and to give the entire system the benefits to be derived from thorough ventilation. It would seem a poor policy to maintain a radical stand against the use or in favor of either the S- or the drum trap. A better course is to select the form of trap to be used after considering the nature of the fixture which it is to serve, and the special conditions under which the plumbing system acts. For instance, in country districts, where venting is not always used, it would appear to be good practice to make free use of the drum trap. Wherever the continuous vent can be applied to the trap, however, the use of the S-trap will give excellent results. The drum trap is of special value in serving the bath tub, as it may be easily cleaned, and very often a better pitch can be secured for the outlet pipe than in the use of the S-trap. It is also well 81 82 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED adapted to the laundry tubs, as it will easily receive the inlets from the several compartments, and may be placed in a more advan- tageous position than the S-trap, often avoiding a long line of hori- zontal waste extending from the farthest section to the S-trap. The drum trap is often used to serve two or more fixtures, but this is a practice which should not be followed, as each fixture should have its own separate trap. Connections to the drum trap may be made in a great variety of ways, several of the more common connections being shown in Plate 12. The connections of Fig. A are no doubt the most common, but the trap so installed is open to an evil which is not often considered. The trap screw is made tight by means of a rubber or leather gasket, and unless this joint is perfectly tight, direct communication with the sewer will exist. It is almost impossible to open this clean- out after the gasket has been in use for some time without destroy- ing it, and a defective joint is very liable to be left. There are a number of ways in which this danger may be avoided. Fig. G shows a method of using the drum trap so that any defect in the cleanout gasket will at once be made apparent by leakage from the trap. The cleanout may be placed at the bottom or on the side, as shown by dotted lines. In either case it is not only submerged, but allows the trap to be cleaned to better advantage. Many ordinances now require the cleanouts of fixture traps to be submerged. Fig. B shows a trap which is well guarded, having its outlet submerged, in which case, when the trap screw is removed, there is no direct communication. This method of connection, however, is open to a serious ob- jection. By taking the outlet from the bottom of the trap, where the heavy parts of the sewage collect, and thereby making the outlet pipe form the trap, there is much greater liability of stoppage. In Fig. C the outlet ends inside the trap, dipping down into the seal, and thereby preventing direct communication with the sewer when the trap screw is removed. Although gaining this point, the part of the outlet inside the trap forms an obstruction, and there is opportunity for the collection of grease, etc., around it. The interior of the trap should always be free from any obstruction. Fig. D shows a trap in which the vent is connected through the cleanout cover. Many ordinances prohibit a vent connection of this CONNECTIONS FOR DRUM TRAPS 83 kind on the ground that no vent connection should be made by means of a union and gasket. There is still another objection to this form of vent connection. All traps sooner or later have to be opened and cleaned out, and in this case to remove the cleanout the vent must be bent around out of the way, which is not only an annoyance but harmful to the vent. In Figs. E and F the outlet pipe is shown dipping down to the bottom of the trap. This is done to prevent direct communication when the cleanout cover is removed, but is a bad practice, for two reasons. In the first place, it takes up space in the trap, and forms an obstruction around which collections of foul matter may form. In the second place, either of these two forms of trap is very much more liable to siphonage than would be the traps in Figs. A and B, for the inlet and outlet openings are close enough together to prac- tically form an S-trap, which is very susceptible to siphonage. Fig. H shows a trap which is compact in the manner in which its connections are made, but which has the same fault that is found in Figs. C, E, and F. This trap will siphon more readily than when connected as in Figs. A and B. Fig. K shows a trap provided with a continuous vent, that is, a connection so made that the vent may be taken off the waste fitting. As stated in connection with S-traps, this method is an excellent one. It is taken up thoroughly under Plates 26, 27, and 28. In the case of Fig. K, the fault is the same as in Fig. A, that is, there will be direct communication with the sewer whenever the cover is removed. The same trap reversed, however, so that its cleanout is submerged, overcomes this objection. Therefore, in summing up, it would seem that the trap shown in Fig. G, connected like that shown in Fig. K, would present the drum trap under the most favorable conditions possible. PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING The matter of venting appears in the plumbing system in sev- eral ways. In the first place there is the soil or waste vent through the roof, the main lines of vent into which the individual trap vents connect, the trap vents themselves, the fresh-air inlet, and the local vents of water closets, urinals, and slop sinks. Local vents and the 84 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED fresh-air inlet have no connection with the system of trap vents, and will not be touched upon under this plate. The soil and waste vents, main vent lines, and trap vents are closely allied, however. One of the chief steps toward the improvement of the plumbing system was taken when soil and waste stacks were carried through the roof instead of being allowed to end at the connection of the top fixture. Even without the use of trap vents the roof vent was of great benefit, as it was often the means of preventing the creation of siphonic conditions, which meant the siphonage of the unvented traps. In addition, .it proved a successful remedy for back pressure from the sewer, as the latter could not force the seals of traps, for the reason that the roof vents relieved any such pressure. It is generally through the soil or waste vent that air is brought into the main vent lines of the plumbing system, which in turn deliver the air to the traps through their separate vents. The trap vent should be as direct in its course from the trap to the main vent line as possible, in order that the passage of air may be secured with as great an amount of freedom as possible. Each fixture vent or trap vent should incline upward through- out its course, in order that any condensation forming in it may be conducted back into the trap. The trap vent should in all cases enter the main line of vent above the fixture which it serves. When the vent is thus properly connected, and a stoppage occurs in the trap or the fixture waste, the waste from the fixture will back up into the fixture, thus giving warning of the trouble that exists. If the vent pipe is connected below the fixture, however, the waste in the event of such a stoppage will not -back up into the fixture, but will flow off through the fixture vent into the main vent line, and thence into the drainage system, thus defeating the purpose of the vent system, and making of the trap vent and main vent a waste pipe for the fixture. Each fixture trap should be separately vented, but vents from several fixtures may be connected into a single branch vent, provided this branch runs above the highest fixture of the group. Plate XIII SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 13. SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS PROPERLY, soil pipe is any pipe through which the waste from a water closet passes, and waste pipe is any pipe receiving waste from any fixture or group of fixtures other than the water closet. The term soil pipe is often used to designate cast-iron pipe of any size and for any purpose in connection with the plumbing system. The latter is the sense in which it will be referred to in the con- sideration of the present subject. Soil pipe is of two weights, " Standard/' and extra heavy, the latter being far preferable in general, owing to the fact that it may be cast more evenly, with fewer defects, sand holes and cracks, and that it may be cut and caulked with less liability of cracking pipe and fittings. WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF CAST-IRON PIPE Diameter Extra Heavy Standard Diameter Extra Heavy Standard 2 in. ... 5J/2 Ibs. 3 l / 2 Ibs. 6 in. ... 20 Ibs. 10 Ibs. 3 in.... 9]/ 2 Ibs. 4^/2 Ibs. 7 in.... 27 Ibs. 4 in.... 13 Ibs. 6 l / 2 Ibs. 8 in.... 33^2 Ibs. 5 in.... 17 Ibs. 8 Ibs. 10 in. . . . 45 Ibs. It is sometimes required by plumbing ordinances to use soil pipe that is plain and uncoated, it being usually coated inside and outside with asphaltum or tar. The coating often covers defects, which in the uncoated pipe would appear and be remedied. If plain pipe is used it should be coated after being tested. The joints on cast-iron soil pipe should be made of molten soft lead poured onto a firm body of caulked oakum, the lead being caulked even with the top of the hub. The approximate weights of lead necessary for each joint are, viz. : 87 88 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED 2-in. caulked joint I Ib. 8 oz. 3-in. " 2 " 4 " 4-in. " " 3 " 5-in. " " 3 "12 " 6-in. " " 4 " 8 " 7-in- " 5 " 4 " 8-in. " 6 " lo-in. " " 7 " 8 " It is generally unsatisfactory to give such a table as the above, of the amount of lead necessary for caulked joints of different size, as one workman may use much more oakum than another, and a correspondingly less amount of lead. Therefore it will no doubt be found that the table published will not agree always with the prac- tice of different workmen. There is a rule, sometimes used in esti- mating the amount of caulking lead, calling for one pound of lead for each inch in size of the respective joints; thus, 3 Ibs. for a 3-in. joint, 4 Ibs. for a 4-in. joint, etc. In estimating the total amount of lead to be used on the cast-iron piping, it is necessary simply to esti- mate the number of hubs on fittings of different sizes, and the num- ber of lengths of pipe of different sizes, adding the amounts of each size together and multiplying by the weight of lead used per joint. Thus a Y or tee would call for two joints, the third joint on the spigot end, being estimated on the straight pipe. An allowance for waste, shrinkage, and extra fittings, should always be added to the estimated amount of lead. It is sometimes necessary to make a rust joint on soil pipe. This should be done by caulking into the hub a ring of oakum, and filling the remaining space with a putty made by mixing together sulphur, iron filings, and sal ammoniac. Connections between cast-iron pipe and lead pipe should be made by connecting the lead pipe to a brass ferrule by means of a wiped solder joint, the ferrule being caulked into the cast-iron hub. Overcast and cup joints are often weak and imperfect, and should not be used. Connections between cast-iron pipe and wrought-iron or brass pipes should be made by means of a caulked or screw joint. All horizontal soil pipes, whether for drainage or venting, should, when possible, have a uniform fall of l /2 in. to the foot, but never less than SOIL PIPE AND SOIL PIPE CONNECTIONS 89 % in. to the foot. A less amount of pitch brings the pipe nearly level, and stoppage and sluggish flow of waste is liable to result. A grade on vent pipes is necessary in order that condensation may be carried off. All changes in direction of soil pipe used on the drainage system should be made by means of Y-branches and sixth, eighth, or six- teenth bends. This connection is shown in Fig. A, Plate 13, and applies whether the change in direction is made vertically or horizontally. A clean- out should always be used in the end of the Y in order to control that section of the piping. The change in direction made in Fig. B is entirely wrong, the quarter bend not being permissible on any part of the drainage system. It is allowed, however, on the fresh-air inlet, vent lines, rain leaders, and floor and yard drains. The tee should not be used on any part of the drainage system; the T-Y being allowed on vertical lines when it is impossible to use the Y-branch, but not being allowed on the horizontal piping. The object in restricting the use of these fittings on the drainage system is to secure for the waste flowing through the drainage sys- tem as natural and unimpeded a passage as possible. Double hubs should not be used on the drainage piping, as in their use a rough end of pipe is always exposed where the pipe was cut off, and on this end, lint, paper, etc., in the sewage is liable to be caught. The use of double-hub pipe will often avoid the use of double hubs. The double T-Y is another fitting which should not be used on horizontal work, as the waste entering one side of the fitting will cross and enter the branch on the other side, instead of entering the main line only. Vertical stacks should be straight whenever possible, but when offsets are necessary they should be made with 45-degree fittings. Any building in which plumbing fixtures of any description are installed should have at least one stack extending through the roof. Whenever a vertical line receives waste from a fixture on any floor, it should extend through the roof, if 10 ft. or more from the nearest stack. The following sizes of soil and waste pipes should be followed: 90 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Each soil pipe should be at least 4 in. Main soil pipes for water closets on two, three, or four floors . 4 " Main soil pipe for water closets on five or more floors 5 " Main soil pipe for tenement houses of more than three stories . . 5 " Branch soil pipes 4 " Main waste pipe for kitchen sink 2 " Main waste pipe for sinks, lavatories, or laundry tubs on five or more floors 3 " Main waste pipe for six or more fixtures, not less than 3 The following sizes for main vent lines should be followed: Main vent for 4-in. soil-pipe line 2 in. Long branch vent lines 2 Main vent for stack serving sink, laundry tubs, and lavatories . 2 Main vent for line of water closets on three or more floors .... 3 Main vents for tenement houses of more than three floors .... 3 Additional main-vent sizes will be found under Plate 36. The main vent line may be run independently through the roof, or it may be reconnected to the main soil or waste pipe above the highest fixture vent. The latter connection is shown in Fig. C, Plate 13, and it has certain advantages over the independent roof connec- tion. In the first place, it saves cutting an extra hole through the roof, and the smaller the number of pipes passing through the roof the less will be the danger of leakage, and the less unsightly will the roof appear. In addition, the circulation of air through the vent sys- tem will be better, owing to the influence of the warmer air of the main stack in keeping the air in motion. This connection may be made into the vent fitting shown in Fig. C, into an inverted Y-branch, and in the use of wrought-iron main vent by means of a tapped fitting on the main stack. When the pipe is to be increased through the roof, the vent line may enter the main stack through an increaser, such as shown in Fig. F, provided with a side hub or tapping. The lower end of the main vent should be reconnected to the main stack, as shown in Fig. D. This connection allows all condensation and collection of rust and scale to be carried off into the drainage system, and in addition, it gives rigidity to the work, the danger from leakage due to acci- dental blows, settling, shrinkage, etc., being largely eliminated. Fig. E shows a very common but undesirable method of con- necting the lower end of the main vent to the fixture vent of the lowest fixture. It will be plainly seen that all scale falling through the main vent will collect in the bend at the foot of the line, and such collec- tions of rust and scale often present a serious difficulty. In Fig. F is shown a common method of making the roof connec- tion. Some plumbing ordinances require a 2-in. stack to be increased to 3 in. in passing through the roof, and a 3-in. stack increased to 4 in., that is, each pipe less than 4 in. in size shall be increased one inch in size. Most ordinances, however, allow no pipe of less size than 4 in. to pass through the roof. The latter is the preferable method, for the reason that 2 and 3 in. and smaller sizes of pipe will sometimes entirely close up with hoar frost formed about the opening above the roof, this accumulation being produced from the steam rising through the stack. In increasing the size of pipe, long increasers, such as shown in Fig. F, should be used, and the increaser located not less than one foot below the roof. Caps or cowls should not be used to cover roof pipes. In the case of roof pipes of tenement houses whose roofs are used by the inmates, the openings should be protected by the use of a wire basket, but under other conditions it is preferable to keep the opening entirely free, as even the wire basket gives opportunity for the collection of frost. The roof pipe should extend two feet above the roof. When- ever the roof is used by the inmates, all pipes passing through it should be carried up at least 6 ft. above the roof. Roof pipes should terminate not less than 3 ft. above any window, door, or air shaft that may be within a distance of 12 ft., and such pipes should not terminate within 6 ft. of any chimney or flue. When carried above the roof, pipes should be securely stayed to the roof. Many styles of roof flanges are in use, the most com- mon probably being that of Fig. F, in which the hub is riveted to a flange of sheet copper, which may be slipped under the slate or shingles above the pipe, and over them below it. Adjustable roof flanges will fit a roof of any pitch. A very desirable form is one in the use of which the plumber is not required to go onto the roof to pour the lead joint. 92 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED A change has in recent years come about in the use of materials on the drainage and vent systems of the plun^bing system. Years ago all piping of the plumbing system was of lead. This was fol- lowed by the use of cast iron on both main drainage lines and vent lines, with branch wastes and vents of lead. Although much cast iron is still used on main vent lines, a large part of the main vents of modern plumbing systems are now con- structed of w T rought-iron pipe, and the branch vents as well, until at the present time a large majority of trap vents are of wrought iron, excepting in certain sections of the country that still adhere to lead work. The present tendency, especially on large work in the large cities, is toward the use of wrought iron and brass for fixture wastes, and a very excellent feature to be noted in their use is that cleanouts at bends may be used, whereas this was not done in the use of lead wastes. The use of brass pipe for drainage purposes is excellent practice, but the cost of brass pipe is so great that, excepting on the higher grades of work, its use is limited. Plate XIV SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE Too much care cannot be exercised in the running and support- ing of soil pipes. They are generally made tight by caulked lead joints, which are easily made defective when moved in any way, owing to the great weight and leverage of the pipe. Few plumbing systems that have been in use for a number of years would show perfect joints under test, and in many cases this condition is due to imperfect supporting of the pipe. When a vertical line drops to the cellar bottom, it should rest upon a thick flagging or upon a brick or stone foundation, as in Fig. E. Care should be taken in building such a pier during the winter season that there is no frost beneath it, which would allow the pier and stack to settle when it thawed. Brick or stone piers should also support a horizontal line run- ning above the cellar bottom, particularly at points where vertical stacks enter it. The use of piers to support horizontal lines running below the cellar timbers is preferable to long hangers, as in the use of the latter the pipe would be inclined to swing if subjected to side pressure. There are now on the market pipe-supporting fittings, as shown in Fig. G, which can be made to support piping running at any given grade. When there is no firm cement cellar bottom, these support- ing fittings should rest on wide flaggings. Equal care should be used on overhead piping, some ordinances calling for overhead running of all pipes. In supporting overhead pipes, hangers of the pattern shown in Fig. A should be used, and the pipe should be supported once in each five feet. Some ordinances call for a support in each ten feet, but the above provision is better. Fig. D shows a practice, generally prohibited, of using hooks for the supporting of pipe. The hanger is firmly supported at each end, the pipe resting between the two supporting points ; in the use of pipe hooks, how- ever, the weight of the pipe, owing to the form of the support, will 95 96 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED cause it to sag, and though the sag may often be very slight, it will generally be sufficient to cause defective joints. All vertical lines of soil pipe should be supported at each floor by iron bands placed just below the hub or under the branch of a fitting. These bands are made of flat wrought iron, and should have the strength of ^-in. round iron, and should be securely fastened to the timber with screws. The support should be made on a vertical timber if possible, as the danger of settling or sagging of a horizontal timber is greater. A practice sometimes followed is to cut the pipe in such a man- ner that it supports itself on a hub at each floor, as shown in Fig. C. For hangers for 2- and 3-in. soil pipe, ^-in. wrought-iron rod should be used; and V-in. rod for 4- and 5-in. pipe. That there is great need of every precaution in running and supporting soil pipe may be seen when it is considered that a 4-in. stack in almost any ordinary residence or dwelling will weigh at least 550 Ibs., without taking into account any branches or fittings, and pipe of larger size will weigh very much more. Furthermore, when the entire system is filled with water during the water test, this weight is raised to a much higher amount. Stacks passing through the roof and carried several feet above it in order that their upper ends may be above all roof openings or above adjoining windows, should be given special support, as the pressure of the wind against them is at times very strong. When roofs of tenement houses are occupied and used by ten- ants, as often happens, there is the additional danger of blows against the pipe. Such pipes should be supported by three or four stout wrought-iron rods firmly secured to the soil pipe, run off at an angle and secured to the roof. A wrought-iron collar placed around the pipe and above a hub, provides a good means of attaching the rods to the soil pipe. Another method is to tap the pipe and secure the rods by bolts. Vent pipes from cesspools when required to run vertically in the open for a number of feet should also receive special support. A very good method of providing such support is to set in the ground, close to the cesspool, a heavy pole which will not sway under the pressure of the wind, and run the pipe vertically against it, sup- porting the pipe under each hub by wrought-iron bands. SUPPORTING AND RUNNING OF SOIL PIPE 97 The present excellent practice of connecting main lines of vent pipe to their main soil and waste stacks above the highest fixtures, and below the lowest fixtures, is a good practice, as it ties the work together, giving rigidity to it, and, in the event of settling, allows both lines to settle evenly without resulting in an unequal strain on the two lines that would result to a greater extent if not thus con- nected. The settling of a line of cast-iron pipe often results in pull- ing apart the caulked lead joints, especially if the line is not properly supported. For instance, a vertical line that may happen to be well supported in its upper sections, but poorly supported at lower points, is very liable to pull apart from the section that is securely fastened. This sometimes results in pulling the caulked lead joint entirely out of the hub. The great necessity will thus be apparent, of securing vertical lines firmly throughout their course, and of providing support at the foot of each stack which cannot possibly settle. One of the chief advantages to be gained in the use of wrought-iron drainage and vent piping, in the construction of the Durham system of plumbing, is that the screw joints of such pipes will not pull apart in the settling of stacks, as the caulked joints of cast-iron piping will do when the pipe is not properly supported. As far as a vertical pull on a vertical line of screwed pipe is concerned, it will have no more efifect on the joint than on the pipe itself in pulling it apart. However, if proper precautions are taken, vertical lines of cast- iron pipe may be installed even in high buildings without danger of pulling apart. Plate XV THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET Plof-z 15. Fresh Air Inleh THE HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET IN the construction of any plumbing system, one of the first things to be decided is whether the system shall be protected by a main trap or not. The question is a debatable one, and has been since the intro- duction of the trap itself. Plate 15 shows three methods of installing the main trap and its accompanying fresh-air inlet. From these illustrations it will be seen that the main trap is placed on the house drain at a point as close to the place where the drain leaves the building as possible. The object of this trap is to prevent the entrance into the plumb- ing system of gases and odors from the sewer. At first thought, the entrance of gases into the plumbing system would not appear to be harmful, especially as it has abundant oppor- tunity to rise and escape through the roof pipes. However, although the plumbing system of to-day is subjected to rigid test after being constructed under rigid ordinances, there are numerous ways in which gases rising through the plumbing system may enter the house. The settling of floors and foundations may result in rendering soil- pipe joints defective; the soil piping is seldom properly supported, and often settles or sags through its own weight, causing the same kind of trouble. These and other conditions that might be named are of such universal occurrence that it is safe to say that only a comparatively small percentage of plumbing systems that have been in service for a term of years would be able to show perfect joints under test. Even though the plumbing system, with all its various connections, may be perfectly tight, still the danger of entrance of sewer gas is not always eliminated. Traps of fixtures not in everyday use often lose their seals in a comparatively short time, as do floor drains, cellar drains, etc. Whenever repairs are to be made on the soil piping or on branch wastes, sewer gas has a free passage until the repairs are completed. Whenever the water closet is removed for repairs or to be renewed, sewer gas has a free entrance until it is replaced. Many 102 'MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED other instances might be given in which the gases and odors from the sewer may find their way into the house. The main trap is provided as a means of preventing this result. The opponents of the main trap claim that it obstructs the flow of sewage through the house drain, that the trap will soon stop up, that in cold weather it will often freeze. These objections are not serious, and in many cases are more fancied than real. To be sure, the outflow is somewhat impeded by the trap, but the gain in pro- viding protection to the house would much more than offset such difficulty. The strongest and practically the only real argument against the use of the main trap is that it prevents the ventilation of the public sewer through the roof pipe of the building. The weigh- ing of the questions which arise in this connection is a very difficult matter. In the first place it does not seem to be right to make a venti- lating flue of each stack in each dwelling house, through which the sewer may throw its gases, to escape into the houses through defects and openings. At the same time, the main drain and stacks present at present the most available means of ventilating the sewers, and are therefore often made use of. The closed sewer should not be tolerated, and the present method of venting the sewer through perforated manhole covers is open to serious objection, as it allows direct communication between the streets and the sewer. Special vent stacks should be erected at high points in the sewage system, through which the sewers might vent themselves, but such means are not provided, and there- fore not to be considered. It is claimed that where a free passage exists between the sewer and the outer air through the roof extension of the plumbing sys- tem, a circulation of air will be kept up, by means of which fresh air will be drawn into the sewer through the manhole covers, and the foul air drawn out through the roof pipes. If it were not for the matter of exposing the interior of the house to the admission of sewer gas this would unquestionably be an excellent plan. Some go even further, and claim that enough fresh air would be drawn in through the manholes to render the gases harmless. This does not seem reasonable when it is considered what a small area the manhole perforations really represent, and that a large percentage of these holes are closed up with dirt, ice and snow, etc. HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 103 If the house could be guaranteed against the entrance of gases, there are certainly many places in which the delivery of them into the air above the houses of the community would be followed by no harmful results. In our towns and cities, however, with odors and gases escap- ing through every roof pipe, a heavy atmosphere must force them down to such points that they may often enter windows, light shafts, etc. In our large cities, also, where low buildings adjoin high ones, it would seem very poor policy to banish the main trap, for without it the pipes through the roof of the lower building are constantly throwing their impurities out, to be drawn into the rooms on the higher floors of the high building. That they would be drawn in in this way there is no question, as the circulation of the warmer air of the building would often create a suction sufficient to draw in the outer air. In the case of tenement houses, also, whose roofs in the summer season are occupied by the inmates, the escape of a constant stream of sewer gas would seem to be a thing to be dreaded. Another, and a very strong point against the employment of plumbing systems having no main trap, is the fact that under such conditions air contaminated with disease germs coming from the human excreta of any infected house on a line of sewers, may find its way through defects in the plumbing systems of other houses on that line, and thus gain entrance into the living apartments of the inmates. Plumbing systems should always be so installed that there may be no opportunity for such occurrences as this, whether in the manner just mentioned or through local vent systems, which have been known to carry infection from one to another apartment in the same building. For this reason, as well as for other reasons, it is always poor practice to connect the drainage system of one house into that of a neighboring house. Such practices were more or less common years ago, but since the matter of sanitary conditions has begun to receive its proper attention, the connection of two or more houses to the same house drain or sewer has been strictly prohibited. It would seem that there is an opportunity for the display of good judgment in the employment of the main trap. In sections of a city where the houses are detached, as in the residential sections, io 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED it would be wiser to do without the main trap than in the more densely populated sections. The use of the main trap makes necessary the use of the fresh- air inlet, which, as shown in Plate 15, must be connected on the house side of the trap. The purpose of this pipe is to bring into the plumb- ing system a supply of fresh air, and to create a circulation of this air through the system and out through the roof pipe. It also serves to prevent air lock between heavy bodies of waste flowing down the house drain and the seal of the main trap. If the fresh-air inlet were connected on the sewer side of the main trap, it would not only fail of its purpose of supplying air to the system, but would form a direct vent for the sewer at a particu- larly bad point. The fresh-air inlet should under no conditions receive drainage of any sort. Formerly the fresh-air inlet was connected to the trap itself, as shown in Fig. A, which method allowed but one cleanout to be used on the trap, whereas two should always be used. Experi- ence proved, however, that this connection had another disadvantage, from the fact that it brought in a current of cold air directly upon the trap seal, which resulted in the chilling and sometimes in the freezing of the water in the trap. Even though not frozen, the chill- ing of the waste caused the grease to separate from the sewage and cling to the inner surface of the trap, making ultimate stoppage more possible. The freezing and the stoppage of the trap are two of the argu- ments against its use, but by the employment of proper means these results may be largely overcome. The fresh-air inlet, when properly constructed, is taken out of a fitting placed next to the trap, on the house side of it. This fitting may be either a tee or a Y, as shown in Figs. B and C. The more bends there are in the pipe, and the more indirect its course, the less will be the possibility of chilling and freezing. The fresh-air inlet should never end at a point within 15 ft. of any door, window, or cold-air box supplying heating systems. The reason for this is that when heavy volumes of sewage pass through the house drain, a discharge of foul air passes through the inlet. This same trouble also occurs sometimes owing to a heavy atmos- phere. When the fresh-air iniet ends at a distance greater than 15 ft. from any opening into the house, it may terminate at the outer face of HOUSE OR MAIN TRAP AND FRESH AIR INLET 105 the foundation, as seen in Fig. B. In this case its end must be pro- vided with a perforated cap, or with a bend looking down, in order to prevent different articles, such as stones, etc., from being thrown into it. It must usually be carried out into the lawn or yard to cover the requirement, in which case it is often constructed, as shown in Fig. A, with a ventilating cap covering its end, or ending in a return bend, this bend ending at least one foot above the ground. In busi- ness districts, where such devices as the return bend and ventilating cap could not be used, the fresh-air inlet should open into a box, 18 in. square, located below the level of the sidew r alk, and at the curb. The bottom of this box should be at least 18 in. below the under side of the end of the inlet pipe. The box may be constructed of brick or flagging, or of cast iron, and covered with a flagstone provided with a removable iron grat- ing leaded into the flag. The grating should have small perfora- tions in order that refuse may not pass through, and the total area of the perforations should at least equal the area of the fresh-air inlet. Another method of running the fresh-air inlet is to carry it through the roof, as seen in Fig. C. In general, this adds considerable expense without giving much added value. An objection to it, especially in the case of the ordinary house where there is but one 4-in. stack, is that the weight of air in the stack and in the fresh-air inlet about balances, with the result that there is but little circulation. This method, however, is but seldom used. As to size, the fresh-air inlet for traps up to 4 in. in size should be of the same size as the trap. For traps larger than 4 in. it may be less than the size of the trap. For 5- and 6-in. traps the fresh-air inlet should be 4 in. in diameter. For 7- and 8-in. traps, the fresh-air inlet should be 6 in. in diam- eter; and for traps larger than 8 in. it should be 8 in. in diameter. Care should be taken that the main trap is set level, in order that none of its seal may be lost. When located below the cellar bottom, it should be made accessible either by setting it in a brick manhole provided with a removable cover, or by making depressions in the cement bottom so that the cleanouts may be easily reached. The connection shown in Fig. B, whereby it is made possible to use an end cleanout, is an excellent one. io6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED With two cleanouts on the main trap, and this end cleanout, the house drain at this point is well guarded against any possible stop- page. The connection referred to is now demanded by the ordinances of a number of different cities. All connections into the drainage system must be made on the house side of the main trap. An exception to this rule is made in the case of rain leaders, which are sometimes run outside the foundation walls, in which case they may be connected into the house sewer on the sewer side of the main trap. Such rain leaders must be properly trapped. The main trap is sometimes located underground, outside the foundation walls, in which case it must be made frost proof and accessible. This is done by setting it below the freezing level, in a brick or stone man- hole, covered with a flagstone. When so located, the fresh-air inlet should never be taken off the trap, as the passage of cold air would be so direct as to cause trouble. Plate XVI FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS SUBSOIL DRAINAGE THE CELLAR DRAINER Plate /6. Drains Ce//a/~ Drains C02*T>2C& FLOOR AND YARD DRAINS FLOOR drains are much used and of much value on large work, especially in public toilet rooms for hotels, depots, stables, etc. The size of floor and yard drains should never be less than 3 in. in diameter, and very often, where there is much service required of them, and where there is any danger of solids of any description entering them, 4 in. is preferable. The drainage of yards and areas in congested business districts, and in densely populated districts, is a matter of importance to the public health. Under such conditions, all areas, yards, paved courts, and courtyards should be properly drained. This applies especially to tenement-house districts. The com- mon form of floor and yard drains is of the style to be seen in Fig. A of Plate 40, provided with a removable perforated cover. There are several special forms of drains, such as those shown in Figs. A and B of Plate 1 6, some of them being provided with a vent connection. Ordinarily, however, drains of this description do not require vent- ing, but may safely be installed without it, as in Fig. C. Floor and yard drains should always be provided with deep- sealed traps. The deep seal is a special feature of the' trap in Fig. A. An excellent form of trap which will fill this requirement is one made of quarter bends. This trap is generally of the half-S form and may be easily constructed of three quarter bends. The use of a very deep seal on this class of work is not to be feared, as it would be in the case of polluted drainage, for all drainage passing through such drains is composed practically of clear water. In the case of other drainage a very deep seal would allow too large a body of sewage to stand in the trap to putrefy and make the system more impure than there is need of. The drain of Fig. B, with its flushing device, is an excellent one for many purposes, particularly for use in hospitals and on other work where general conditions must be as perfect as possible. The flushing rim and jet with which the drain is provided allow the entire surface to be thoroughly cleansed, and the cleansing is accomplished without wetting the floor. By means of properly 109 no MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED arranged supply connections, the trap may be flushed with hot or cold water, or with both. The seal of this trap is of much greater depth than that of the ordinary floor drain. The connection of the water supply with drains of this description is an excellent idea, as a very small drip may be provided which will insure a permanent seal in the trap. Yard drains, for instance, in times of drought, and especially when not provided with deep-seal traps, may become a source of danger from loss of the trap seal. This source of danger, by the way, is an argu- ment in favor of the use of a main trap. Many plumbing ordinances demand that floor and cellar drains shall be water supplied, and this is certainly a needed precaution. Floor and yard drains need not be separately trapped when one trap can be made to serve two or more drains, or where such drains are so connected as to be controlled by the trap of a rain leader. In fact, the use of a single trap, especially a rain-leader trap, to control one or more floor or yard drains is an excellent means of protection, as the permanence of the seal of such trap is more positive than the seals of separate traps would be. In many cities a separate system of sewers is used for the dis- posal of surface and subsoil waters, no house drainage being allowed to enter it. In this case all floor and yard drains, roof leaders, sub- soil drains, etc., should enter the surface water system. When these drains enter the house drainage system, however, no drainage which is not of clear water should be allowed to enter them. Vitrified earthen pipe may be used for stable drains and for yard drains which are not connected with any house drain. Such drains must always be trapped and connected to the house sewer outside of the connection of the house drain to the house sewer. When drains are of vitrified earthen pipe they should not be less than 5 in. in diameter. The practice is sometimes followed of using any convenient cleanout opening as a cellar-floor drain, but it is a poor practice, and should not be followed. The construction of the cellar drain is shown in Fig. C. This drain is naturally located at the end of the cellar at which the house drain passes out, as the house drain pitches in this direction. The cement bottom should be graded from the several sides of the cellar toward the entrance to the cellar drain. SUBSOIL DRAINAGE in A catch basin or well is generally formed in the cement, and at the bottom of it the cellar drain trap is located. Even though the system is provided with a main trap, a trap should be used on the cellar drain. Without it, odors from the house drain would pass through the cellar drain and out into the cellar. The practice of double trapping on this part of the work will .not be followed by the troubles that generally follow double trapping, for the passage of water from the cellar drain is seldom of large volume. It is a good plan to form in the cement bottom a small gutter, following around the entire cellar wall and close to it, this gutter being led into the catch basin of the cellar drain. By means of the gutter, and the grading of the cellar bottom, any water entering the cellar through the upper part of the foundation, or discharging onto the floor through leaks in the water piping, may find its way into the cellar drain. SUBSOIL DRAINAGE It is of the utmost importance to the health of the inmates that the cellar be kept as free from dampness as possible. In the case of damp soil, a system of subsoil drainage should always be employed. Subsoil drains are constructed of earthenware drain tile, laid with open, uncemented joints. The moisture of the damp soil enters the drain through these open joints. The subsoil drain should be laid completely around the cellar wall, and whenever necessary may have branches running in to the center of the cellar. The drain should be laid on a level with the bottom of the foundation wall, and about six inches inside of it. The subsoil drain should be laid on an even grade, pitching toward the catch basin to which it is to be connected, it being necessary to connect it always into such a catch basin properly trapped and entered into the house drain. The catch basin is generally constructed of concrete, and made in the form of an open well in the concrete cellar bottom, and covered by a stone or cast-iron cover. Whenever the sewer to which such a catch basin is connected is known to back up, the trap of the catch basin should be provided with a back-water valve. ii2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED THE CELLAR DRAINER When the house drain is run overhead, it is clear that the cellar and subsoil drainage cannot be disposed of by gravity in the ordinary manner, as just described. The device used in raising the subsoil water is the automatic cellar drainer, and it is also used for remov- ing water from excavations, wheel pits, or other depressions where water accumulates. The drainer is placed in a pit or manhole below the cellar bot- tom, into which the drainage to be raised is discharged. As soon as the water collects to the depth of about a foot in the pit, the drainer opens and discharges the water. As the water rises in the pit, a float attached to the drainer is gradually raised, and when a certain level is reached, the lever to which it is attached opens the valve wide, allowing water or steam pressure to pass through the drainer, and thereby drawing or suck- ing the water from the pit into the discharge pipe. The drainer is generally operated by water pressure, this con- nection being made to any supply pipe. The water passes under full pressure through the drainer point or jet, thus creating the necessary suction to draw the water out. When the water has been removed from the pit, the valve instantly closes, and the drainer again becomes inactive. The water in passing through the jet of the drainer creates a vacuum, this vacuum being the means of producing the necessary suction. The discharge pipe from the drainer should empty the water of the pit, and the pressure water used in operating the apparatus, into a sink or pan located above the house drain, into which the drainage may then flow by gravity. The sink or pan should be trapped and vented in the same manner as any other fixture. In general, the cellar drainer requires a water pressure of four or five pounds for each foot through which the water is to be raised vertically. The cellar drainer is not adapted to raising water over 12 ft. usually, and many of them lose much of their efficiency after passing 8 ft. The drainer may be located in an underground box or barrel. Cellar drainers are capable of raising from 250 to 1,200 gallons of water per hour. The sizes of supply pipe generally used are YZ in. for small sizes, Y^ in. for medium sizes, and I in. and larger for large sizes. Plate XVII WATER CLOSETS FLOOR CONNECTIONS Wafer C/se/-s 9 WATER CLOSETS PROBABLY no other plumbing fixture or device has passed through such great changes and been brought from a most unsanitary condi- tion to a condition of such high excellence as the water closet. A volume might be written on the changes that have been wrought in its construction, but as this work is designed to deal only with present-day plumbing, only those fixtures now actually in use will be considered. A water closet to be sanitary should possess the following fea- tures: It should be protected by means of a trap within itself, this trap having a good seal; there should be as small an area of surface exposed to contact with soil as possible, and all such surfaces should be thoroughly scoured; the flushing of the fixture should be accom- plished as noiselessly as possible, and without unnecessary waste of water ; the trap seal should be exposed to view ; no mechanical devices should be employed in the operation of the fixture, with the excep- tion of the flush tank; and for flushing the fixture it should never be directly connected to the water-supply system. Modern water closets are superior to the old-style water closets of the pan, valve, and plunger styles in every respect. They avoid dead ends that are neither provided with water nor with ventilation; surfaces between the bowl and its trap, that in the old fixtures were protected in no way, are now submerged; the modern water closet is provided also with better ventilation, a stronger flush, is more noiseless, and is far more cleanly. The leading forms of water closets now in use are the washout, washdown, siphon, and siphon-jet, the two first named being used very extensively in many cities on the cheaper class of work. Since the principle of siphonic action has been applied to the water closet, however, the siphon and siphon- jet fixtures have taken the precedence over all other forms, and it appears to be only a matter of time before they will supplant the less satisfactory forms entirely. The four \vater closets mentioned above are illustrated in Plate 17, Fig. A showing the washout style, Fig. B the washdown, Fig. C the siphon, and Fig. D the siphon-jet. "5 n6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED The washout water closet is somewhat different from other forms, from the fact that soil, as it enters the fixture, falls into a shallow pool of water above the trap, from which it must be con- veyed by the flush into and out of the trap. The meeting of the flush with the resistance above the trap and with the resistance which the soil presents, impedes its force to a great extent, with the result that the water merely runs over the dip into the trap without much force, losing thereby much of the scouring effect that it would otherwise have. So much of the energy of the flush is used up in removing the soil from the upper shallow bowl that it has not sufficient energy to perform the work needed in driving out the contents of the trap. This same loss of force is to be observed in the flushing of the old pressure closet, in which the flush is sent around the bowl. There is one advantage that is not often considered that the washout water closet has in having its upper shallow pool. The location of the pool allows excreta to remain in sight, wiiich, in the case of the sick room, is often desirable to the physician and nurse. For this reason the washout water closet is sometimes made use of in private infirmaries. The washdown water closet is an improvement over the wash- out, as the action of the flush is more severe and its scouring qualities therefore better. Surfaces, which in the washout closet are left exposed, in the washdown closet are submerged, making the latter much the more cleanly of the two. At length, however, the principle of siphonage was applied to the action of the washdown water closet, this step marking a very great advance in water-closet construction. In the washdown-siphon water closet, the outlet is through a horizontal leg, which is contracted so that its area is considerably less than that of the passage above it. As the flush enters the fix- ture, and the contents of the trap pass out through the vertical passage, the water in passing through this passage attains a much higher velocity than it has when it reaches the contracted horizontal leg. The outflow being thus retarded, the water completely fills the horizontal leg, and as it passes out creates a vacuum behind it. With nothing but the water in the trap to resist it, atmospheric pressure exerted on the upper surface of the trap seal, forces the con- tents of the trap out through the outlet and into the drainage system. WATER CLOSETS 117 Atmospheric pressure is approximately 14.7 Ibs. per square inch, and it is this amount of pressure that acts to force the contents of the water-closet trap. When the siphon finally breaks, enough water fills into the bowl to fill the trap, when it is ready for another operation. The application of the principle of the siphon to the washdown water closet allows a larger amount of the surface of the bowl to be submerged than possible to obtain in the same form of closet in which sole dependence is made on a rush of water to operate it. In the siphon closet there is not only a pushing force exerted by the water entering the fixture, but there is also the force of suction pulling the contents of the trap out of the fixture. The next step in advance in water-closet construction was the application of the water jet to the siphon closet, as seen in Fig. D. In the washdown-siphon water closet the formation of siphonic action depends entirely upon the filling of the outlet, and until enough water flows out of the trap to accomplish this the action does not take place. In the case of the siphon- jet water closet, additional aid is pro- vided for the complete filling of the water closet outlet. At the point where the flush enters the fixture, it divides, a part entering the bowl through the flushing rim, the rest entering a small passage w r hich leads into the trap in such a way that its opening shall point directly up the middle arm of the trap, from which it emerges in the form of a jet. The force with which this jet emerges will help to raise the water and cause it to pass over into the vertical arm. The aid obtained from this jet, in addition to the natural flow of the contents of the trap into the contracted horizontal leg, quickly forms a solid plug of water, a vacuum forms, and siphonage takes place, as seen above. This entire action is very strong, and in the case of both fix- tures shown in Figs. C and D, all surfaces are thoroughly flushed. These excellent features make of these two fixtures the most sani- tary and most satisfactory water closets on the market. In addition, there is less annoyance from the noise created by flushing the siphon water closet than others. The washout water closet, with its shallow seal and its surfaces exposed to the contact of the soil, may be procured at far less cost than the siphon jet, and it may be said that this fact is the only one that makes its use favored by anyone who is at all acquainted with n8 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED the subject. The washdown-siphon water closet may be obtained at a slight advance over the cost of the washout, the difference being so slight that it would seem that no one desiring proper sanitary conditions would hesitate a second in selecting the siphon closet. The siphon form of water closet is the only one that should be used in connection with the low tank, the reason for this being that, although the flush inlet from the tank is enlarged to make up for the loss in head which is secured in the high tank, enough water cannot be thrown into the closet from the low tank to make the flushing of the fixture sufficiently strong. By the aid of the siphon, however, the low tank is able to pro- duce excellent results. There are numerous other water closets, working on slightly different construction than those shown in Plate 17, which will hardly be worth considering, as those already discussed are most generally in use. The hopper and trap form of water closet, in its various forms, appears, in comparison to the modern high-grade fixture, to be of a very primitive character, and is now generally prohibited. The use of the offset water closet is a practice which should never be allowed. This form of closet is made for use in connec- tion with the lead or iron trap used with the pan, pressure, long hopper, and other closets. Very often, when closets of this class were taken out, instead of taking out the trap beneath the floor, it would be allowed to remain, and the offset water closet, which has no trap, set in place of the old fixture. The reason that one of the modern closets could not be used instead of the offset closet was that there would then be two traps on the same fixture. The objections to the use of the offset water closet are that the flush loses its force before it reaches the trap, consequently not flushing the trap to any extent, and that there is a large amount of polluted surface, extending from the crockery into the trap below the floor, which gives off foul and unsanitary odors into the room in which the fixture is located. The offset closet is made in such a manner as to deceive those not acquainted with the subject into the belief that it is a fixture built on modern principles. The only course to pursue in renewing such work as the above, is to tear out the trap under the floor, replace it with a lead bend, and use a modern type of water closet. Vitreous chinaware is now used in the construction of all first- WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS 119 class water closets. This ware is formed of compact material, which is subjected to a high heat before being glazed. In the employment of this material there is no danger from the cracking or " crazing " of the glazed surfaces. In former times, before modern processes were employed, the crazing of the water closet was of frequent occur- rence, resulting in the absorption of moisture by the exposed sur- faces under the glazing, the fixture in time becoming foul and very unsanitary. All water closets, as well as lip urinals and slop sinks, should have flushing rims, so as to flush the entire surface of the crockery. Water closets should never be located in dark or unventilated places, and the practice of installing them in cellars, although fol- lowed to considerable extent, is not a wise proceeding. Sunlight and air are two powerful purifying agents, and when fixtures such as water closets and urinals are placed where ventilation is not pro- vided and sunlight cannot enter, the conditions must necessarily become unsanitary, and the place where the fixtures are located filled with impure air. For this same reason the open plumbing of the present day is much more sanitary and much more wholesome than the old-style boxed-in plumbing. WATER-CLOSET FLOOR CONNECTIONS Floor connections, although often receiving scant attention, are an important feature in obtaining sanitary conditions. Several forms of this connection are shown in Plate 17. Fig. H shows the simplest and probably most common connection, and at the same time most unsatisfactory and unsanitary. This method consists in flanging the lead bend over onto the floor, filling the groove around the outlet of the closet bowl with a ring of putty, and screwing the bowl to the floor. The putty com- presses and forms the joint. In the event of pressure against the fixture, shrinking or rotting of the floor, this joint will break and allow a leakage of gas into the house. In addition, the oil in the putty often spreads and discolors the flooring around the fixture. A much better form of connection is to be found in Fig. G. Here the lead bend is brought up through a brass flange, and soldered to I2O the latter, as shown. A rubber gasket is placed between the flange and the base of the water closet, and the whole fastened together and made tight by means of brass bolts. This makes a connection which should never leak, even though there be shrinkage or settling of the floor on which the fixture rests. Fig. E shows a patented form of floor connection which also makes a good joint. The base of the closet is recessed to receive a brass-screw connection, it being made firmly to the crockery by cement and lead. A female brass-screw connection is soldered inside the top part of the lead bend, and the closet screwed down into it. The joint formed between the brass and the crockery makes the former prac- tically an integral part of the closet. Fig. F shows a floor connection for use in connection with wrought-iron soil pipe, such as is used for the Durham system. A brass floor plate or flange is screwed into the end of the ell or other waste fitting in use, and a tight joint made by using a rubber gasket between the flange and the base of the water closet, the latter being screwed to the floor. Plate XVIII LOCAL VENTING L^cal Wafer C/o,seAs LOCAL VENTING A LOCAL or surface vent is a vent provided for the purpose of carrying off foul odors incident to the use of the water closet. This pipe is also applied to the urinal and slop sink to good advantage. The local vent has no relation whatever to the drainage system or. to the back-venting system, and may be considered as a measure looking to the comfort of the people making use of the fix- tures to which it is applied, rather than as a strictly sanitary measure. Local ventilation differs in no way from any other form of ventilation. The system generally in use consists in connecting a pipe from the local vent spud on the water-closet bowl to a heated flue. A good feature of this form of ventilation is that it is accomplished without any expense of operation. As long as a sufficient difference in temperature between the air of the toilet room and the air of the flue exists, excellent results may be maintained by means of this system. The heated air of the flue being lighter because of being ex- panded by the heat, rises through the flue, the tendency being to produce a vacuum behind the column of constantly rising hot air. A suction is thus caused on the air in the pipe connecting to the rim of the water closet, and this air is drawn into the flue and forced up and out of it by the current of heated air. The suction is often so strong that small pieces of paper thrown into the water-closet bowl will be forcibly drawn into the local vent pipe and into the flue. The only point against this form of ventilation is the fact that it cannot always be connected to a flue which is heated throughout the year. It is a form of vent which is used principally in dwellings, tenement houses, and other buildings in which the flue to which the local vents are connected is not likely to be heated during the warm months. On larger work, such as public toilet rooms, other means are used for obtaining ventilation. However, in most cases where the local vent is applied, no other ventilation would probably be made use of because of the expense of 123 i2 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED running the mechanical devices used in producing- it, and it would therefore seem of much advantage to the inmates to be able to enjoy its comforts during those months when the flues are heated. There is this to be said concerning the months of the year when it might not produce results: the windows at such season of the year are generally wide open, and the need of artificial ventilation not so great as during the period when the local vent does its work thoroughly. It is certainly true that the toilet room provided with the local vent is far more wholesome than the one which is without it. This vent, sometimes called a seat vent, opens into the water-closet bowl just back of and below the seat, and while the water closet is in use carries off all the odors incident to its use. In addition, when the cover of the closet is down, there is sufficient space for air to enter the bowl and pass into the vent between the seat and the crockery, which are kept apart by means of rubber bumpers on the seat. There- fore the local vent is at all times providing ventilation not only for the water closet itself, but for the entire toilet room. In order to provide proper ventilation three factors are neces- sary. There must be an inward passage of fresh air and outward passage of foul air, and a force acting to produce the movement of air which results in the changing of the air. The first factor named is one most likely to be omitted in providing a system of ventilation. Foul air will not pass out of the toilet room unless other air is brought in to take its place. The demand for a supply of fresh air is very largely filled by natural means. Open windows, the entrance of air through window casings, etc., supply in general a considerable amount of fresh air. In addition, it is a fact that air passes through brick walls to a very considerable extent, and through the plaster- ing as well. Many plumbing ordinances do not make the use of local ventila- tion compulsory. Even though it is not compulsory to use the local vent in all toilet rooms, there are certain conditions under which it certainly should be used as a sanitary precaution. In this connection the following requirement is a good one: All water closets, slop sinks, and urinals should be provided with local vents when located in rooms which receive their light from light shafts, skylights, or courtyards, or when located in compartments not directly connected with the outside atmosphere and sunlight. The application of the local vent may be made more universal by provid- LOCAL VENTING 125 ing artificial means of creating a draft when it is impossible to enter a heated flue or a flue which is always heated. Under such condi- tions an excellent method is to carry the local vents up to an airtight box or compartment heated by means of gas jets, the pipe from which should be carried 3 ft. or more above the roof, ending in an auto- matic ventilator. Another method of a similar nature is to provide a specially constructed device of the kind shown in Fig. C, Plate 1 8. This may be inserted in the main vertical line of local vent, and will be found to perform excellent service at only a slight cost for the consumption of gas. Figs.. A and B of Plate 18 show two different systems of local venting. Fig. A gives the separate system of vents, in which the vent from each water closet is carried separately to the point where entrance is made into the heated flue. The system shown in Fig. B consists of a main vertical line, into which the local vent from each water closet is entered, and is probably more commonly in use than the system first mentioned. The system of separate vents of Fig. A has very decided advantages over the other system. In the event of the presence in one apartment of a contagious disease, it is possible in the use of the system of Fig. B to communi- cate the disease to the inmates of other apartments in the building. This would be especially true of apartments the water closets of which backed up to opposite sides of the same partition. In the same way, in the use of the system of Fig. B, conversation and other sounds may be carried from the toilet room of one apartment into the toilet rooms of other apartments. The separate system of local vents suffers from none of these objectionable features, and although certainly somewhat more expensive to install, the additional outlay should not be considered if the matter of freedom from the evils mentioned is to be secured. The local vent from a single water closet should never be less than 2 in. in diameter. When two, three, or four vents enter a main line of local vent, the main vent should not be less than 3 in. in diameter. These are the sizes ordinarily used in the local-vent system, and are the sizes generally specified in plumbing ordinances, but are not strictly in accord with the principles that should be followed in secur- ing a perfect system of ventilation. Providing that a 2-in. pipe is of sufficient size to thoroughly i26 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED ventilate a single water closet, at the point where the second vent enters, the pipe should be enlarged so that its area shall be equal to the combined area of the two vents which it supplies. When the third vent enters it, the size should be such that its area will be equal to the combined areas of the three branch vents. This gradation in the size of the main local-vent pipe is necessary if each water closet is to receive its full amount of ventilation, that is, if each water closet is to be ventilated as it would be if its individual 2-in. local vent were able to perform its full duties. The area of a 2-in. pipe is 3.14 sq. in. ; of two 2-in. pipes, 6.28 sq. in. ; and of three 2-in. pipes, 9.42 sq. in. The area of a 3-in. pipe is 7 in., and it will therefore be seen that while a 3-in. pipe is sufficiently large to provide for two 2-in. vents, it is not large enough to provide for a larger number. The main, in order to properly provide for three fixtures, should be 3J/2 in. in diameter, and 4 in. for four fixtures. While 2-in. local vents to the several water closets will accomplish good work, single vents of 2^ in. diameter will be found to do better work. When this size is used, it will be found that two water closets will require a main vent 3^/2 in. in diameter, and three water closets, 4^ in. in diameter. This shows an increase in the main local vent of one inch in diameter for each additional water closet, but after the third fixture has been added the increase in the size of the main need not be so great. Water closets on which the local vent is to be connected should be provided with a spud, which may be on the right or left- hand side, as may be desired. As the local vent has no connection with the drainage system or with the trap-vent system, it is not an essential feature that its joints should be gas tight. For local vents either copper or galvanized sheet-iron pipe is used. Where the vent is exposed to view, and neat-looking work is desired, the copper pipe may be nickel plated. All changes in direction, reduction or increase in size of local vents should be made with long ells, reducers and Ys. Y-branches and 45-degree bends are preferable to tees, as they make the course of the air currents more easily taken, and thus improve the draft. The local vent should pitch upward throughout its course, in order to facilitate the work of the vent as much as possible. Heated air naturally rises, and therefore it is always poor practice in run- ning pipes to convey such air in any other way than pitching upward toward the point of delivery. For the sake of convenience local vents LOCAL VENTING 127 are often bent downward to avoid some obstruction, and then carried upward again, a very poor practice when it can by any means be avoided. Main local vents connected to a heated flue should not have an area exceeding one tenth the area of the flue itself. Local-vent con- nections with heated flues should always be made at points above the highest opening into the flue. If made below, the foul odors carried in the local-vent pipe may escape into the rooms with which flue openings communicate. Care should be taken in making the proper chimney connection for local vents. An excellent method is to use copper pipe for con- nection into the chimney, the local vent lines being connected to the pipe. A cast-iron ferrule may also be used for the purpose, but gal- vanized sheet iron should not be used, as the soot of the chimney is liable to destroy it after a time. The chimney connection may be run straight into the chimney, or it may be turned upward, an objection to the latter method being the danger of the collection in the pipe of falling soot. When so constructed, it is good practice to provide a cleanout at the outer end of the chimney connection, for use in clearing any obstruction. The pointing downward of the pipe by means of a bend inside the chimney obviates trouble from the soot, but results in checking the draft. When the chimney connection is run straight into the chimney it should project inside only slightly, as unnecessary obstruction of the flue space is undesirable. The work which has thus far been described and illustrated relates chiefly to the application of the local vent to residences, dwell- ing houses, apartment houses of ordinary size, etc. For larger work more extensive methods are necessary, such as the use of large piping, and the mechanical supply of fresh air and exhausting of foul air. In the case of public toilet rooms, underground comfort sta- tions, etc., means of ventilation on a large scale are extremely nec- essary, as the use of such rooms would otherwise result in a public nuisance. The difference to be noted in the atmosphere of public toilet rooms of hotels, for instance, which are provided with poor light and 128 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED no ventilation, is great in comparison with the atmosphere of many of our modern, well-appointed toilet rooms of hotels, etc. It has become a matter of good business to make special effort and outlay in securing proper ventilation for toilet rooms of public buildings, for the public has become educated to the point where they will patronize only those establishments that look after these points. On the larger work it often becomes necessary to secure greater motive power for ventilating purposes than the heated flue is able to furnish. For this purpose fans are largely employed, connected as shown in Fig. D. Usually an exhaust fan is used to withdraw the foul air, and another fan to supply fresh air to the fresh-air ducts. This class of work will be taken up again in connection with the subject of public toilet rooms, as also the local venting of urinals. Plate XIX BATH ROOMS P/al-z 19. I2& 02 73 Veiz, /- BATH ROOMS WITH the advent of modern fixtures and modern methods, the bath room of to-day may become, with a comparatively small outlay, a room of great beauty, and when it may be installed regardless of cost, it may become a place of almost marvelous beauty. No other part of the plumbing system so fully illustrates the many advantages which the open-plumbing system has over the closed or sheathed-in system. No one attempts to make a comparison of the old-time sheathed- in bath-room work with that of the present day, as far as beauty and artistic effect are concerned. Furthermore, the open system is far more sanitary. When plumbing fixtures were sheathed in, neither light nor air could circulate about them, with the result that there was constantly a musty, if not foul, odor present. The sheathing absorbed more or less moisture and filth from the careless use of the fixtures, and there was abundant opportunity for the collection of dirt in crevices and corners in the use of sheathing. The bath room of to-day can indeed be made as clean and whole- some as the parlor. The connections for the bath room shown in Fig. A of Plate 19 show one point of excellence which is seldom sought for by the plumber or considered by the architect or owner. Each fixture waste has a separate entrance into the soil-pipe line. When fixtures are installed under such conditions, the stoppage of one fixture can in no way affect any other fixture. It will be of interest to compare the work of Fig. A with that of Fig. B. In the latter the lavatory and bath are connected into the same trap below the floor. Without doubt this method often saves expense, but the trap any trap, in fact is almost certain to be stopped up at some time, and when this occurs, not only one fixture but two fixtures are affected, both remaining out of use until the trouble is repaired, and thus causing a double annoyance. In addition, the trap which serves two fixtures must become stopped more often than the trap which serves but one. i 3 2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Furthermore, quite a length of waste must be run from the lavatory before it enters the trap, and the filth of the interior of this trap is bound to give off impure odors into the bath room. To prevent this result as far as possible, each trap should be placed as close to its fixture as circumstances will allow. The work of Fig. A is free from these troubles, which arise from not entering each waste separately into the stack. There is another serious objection to be found with the work shown in Fig. B. The waste after leaving the drum trap, instead of being con- nected into a Y-branch on the soil-pipe line, is connected into the horizontal arm of the lead bend. Now, if a stoppage occurs in the lead bend, every fixture in the bath room is immediately put out of use, and the waste under these conditions often sets back into the bath tub and water closet. A less number of fittings, and doubtless less labor, is necessary in constructing such work, but if troubles of the nature mentioned do not sometimes occur, it is simply a matter of good fortune. Usually a slight additional outlay would have made such evils unnecessary. The wiping of the waste into the lead bend is also accompanied by the liability that sharp points of solder have run through inside the bend, forming projections against which paper and other material may catch and form the starting point of a stop- page. The only favorable thing about this lead-bend connection is that in the present instance it is made on the horizontal arm rather than into the heel of the bend, where the connection would be much more likely to be followed by trouble. It is a fact that many cities operating under strict plumbing ordinances, and maintaining a high standard of plumbing construc- tion, allow both the lead-bend waste connection and the use of a single trap to serve the lavatory and bath. It is also strange that certain cities will allow the kitchen sink and laundry tubs to be served by a single trap, and that occasionally one of these connec- tions is allowed and the other prohibited. It must be acknowledged that the plumber is often at fault in allowing such connections to be made. However, it must also be stated that it is often almost impossible to gain a separate entrance for each of the three fixtures, owing to lack of working space, loca- tion of fixtures, shape and size of the room, etc. BATH ROOMS 133 Many times a separate entrance can be provided for the lava- tory, if located near the stack, by running the waste back to the wall and using a half-S trap, as shown in Fig. A, the waste fitting coming so much above the other fittings as not to interfere in any way with the rest of the connections. The architect could, in a great many cases, arrange his work to a great deal better advantage than he usually does. For instance, the fixtures, with a little study, may be located in such a way that the advantages just mentioned may be obtained. The shape and location of the bath room, the location of pipes, etc., may usually be worked out so that the plumbing may be installed to the best possible advantage. It is not the good fortune of the plumber often to work from plans which show that the architect has given much consideration to, or has much knowledge of, the requirements of the plumbing system. The plumber often finds, for instance, that in order to run the soil pipe as shown in the plans, an offset on the vertical line must be used, which is always detrimental. He also finds, especially in bath- room work, that he must cut into floor timbers and ito uprights in order to conceal his work, and indeed, often cut through timbers and make use of a header to support it ; whereas, if the architect knew the requirements and put this knowledge into his work, many of these difficulties might easily be avoided. The vertical soil piping may sometimes be run in a dark closet adjacent to the bath room, but more often must be run inside a nar- row partition, or exposed to view. If it is desired to conceal the soil pipe, it should be boxed in, but the front boarding should be put up with screws, in order that it may be easily and quickly taken down when repairs or changes are necessary on the piping. Unless this provision is made, lathing and plastering must be cut out. Plate XX BATH ROOMS 20. BATH ROOMS IT will be observed that all the waste and vent connections of the bath-room work shown in Fig. C of Plate 20 are of either wrought or cast iron, with the exception of traps, their short con- nections, and the lead bend. This is the style of construction that is rapidly displacing lead work. This change in plumbing construction is without doubt as it should be. To be sure, the skill of the expert lead worker is no longer required to any great extent on a large part of the present-day construction work, but the workman of to-day must have a far greater knowledge of physics, hydraulics, and many other subjects which concerned the old lead worker but little. Whenever a fixture is located at a greater distance than 6 ft. from its stack, it should not have a lead waste. The chief reason for this is that long lines of lead pipe are very liable to sag, thereby causing traps to be formed on the waste pipe. The lavatory in Fig. C being more than 6 ft. from its stack, a line of cast-iron pipe is run to it, and as the fixture is located on the opposite side of the room from the stack, the vent is carried up to the floor above, and then run over to the main line of vent, a course much preferable to any attempt to run the vent around the sides of the room. The latter course would often be difficult, as it would generally be necessary to expose the vent to view, and to run it above the height of the fixture, detracting much from the appearance of the bath room. If obliged to run the vent about the sides of the room, it would be necessary to use nickel-plated brass pipe in order to obtain a good-looking piece of work. The vent of the lavatory is known as a continuous vent, and above the waste fitting should be run of wrought-iron pipe. Separate entrance for the bath waste is obtained into the cast-iron waste, and the cleanout in the end of this horizontal line amply protects it in the event of stoppage. The main vent is shown of cast iron, also the vent for the water closet, which is taken from a vented T-Y, while the vent for the bath trap is of wrought 137 138 iron, and connected to the cast-iron piping by means of a tapped fitting. Another method of bath-room connections is seen in Fi^. D. o While separate entrances into the stack are not provided for the bath and lavatory, the connection of the wastes from the two fixtures into one pipe connected to its own waste fitting is much preferable to the method shown in Fig. B, Plate 19. Of course a stoppage might occur between the junction of the two wastes and the Y, but the chances are against it. Therefore there is not so much danger of a stoppage affecting both fixtures. In this work an S-trap is used for the bath, and a cleanout to the floor provided. If such a cleanout is not used, the flooring over /the trap should be put down with screws, in order that the trap may be made as accessible as possible in the event of cleaning. Fig. D shows a bath room under conditions often to be found, that is, there are no fixtures wasting into the same stack, either above or below the bath room. Under such conditions no main vent line is required, the fixture vents being connected directly into the stack above the highest fix- ture, and receiving their air supply through the roof extension of the stack. That part of the stack above the entrance of the highest fixture waste is called the soil vent in the case of a soil stack, and a waste vent in the case of a waste stack. In the present instance, there being no fixtures either above or below the bath room, there are no conditions present which might cause the siphonage of the water-closet trap, and there is conse- quently no necessity of venting it, particularly as it is located on the top floor, close to the roof connection. Under these conditions the only reason for venting a water closet would be that the fixture was located at a considerable distance from the stack, in which case vent- ing might be desirable. The question may arise as to the necessity of venting the other fixtures of Fig. D. In the case of these two fixtures conditions are somewhat different, for the water-closet waste enters the stack above the entrance of the waste from the bath and lavatory, and is of sufficient volume to make the possibility of siphon- age of these fixture traps strong enough to demand venting, espe- cially as there is an additional danger that the waste from either the bath or lavatory may exert siphonic influence on the other. If, however, the lavatory entered the stack above the entrance of the BATH ROOMS 139 water closet, through a half-S trap, there would usually be little dan- ger of the siphonage of its trap, and consequently small necessity for venting it. In the several illustrations of bath rooms shown in Plates 19, 20, 21, and 22, no other fixtures than the three common fixtures, water closet, bath, and lavatory, are shown. In the modern, well-appointed bath rooms to be found in many up-to-date residences of the wealthy, however, many other fixtures and devices for the comfort of the household are to be found. Many of these bath rooms contain as many as six or eight different plumb- ing fixtures. Among these additional fixtures may be named the foot bath, sitz bath, child's bath, shower bath, and bidet. The use of two lavatories is occasionally noticed, the pedestal lavatory of porcelain making an excellent appearance. In addition to the above fixtures, the use of shower baths in connection with the bath tub, and showers in connection with the lavatory, is much in vogue. Mirrors over the lavatories, porcelain stools, bath seats, and the various nickel soap dishes, sponge holders, etc., also add much to the general style of the bath room. Nearly all high-grade bath rooms are now furnished with porce- lain fixtures, including the lavatory, a very small amount of marble now being used for lavatory work, as compared with its use a few years ago. The porcelain-lined bath so generally used in bath rooms well appointed, but not of the most expensive type, is generally painted some dull color, leaving it to be finished and decorated in the prevailing style of the room. For the bath room, nothing neater can be devised than pure white, and, if decoration is desired, a narrow gilt band may be used. Tiling is used extensively in up-to-date bath-room work, includ- ing floor, walls, and ceiling. When the tiling does not cover the entire interior of the room, it is generally carried up on the walls to a distance of four to six feet from the floor, and capped with a half round or O. G. molding. A very neat innovation in bath tubs is the porcelain or porcelain- lined tub, sheathed on its exposed sides with tiling to conform to the prevailing style of the room. Plate XXI BATH ROOMS 21. BATH ROOMS THE bath-room connections shown in Figs. E and F, Plate 21, are designed to show the use of various special waste and vent fit- tings, which are possibly more useful in bath-room work than on any other part of the plumbing system. The. water-closet waste fitting of Fig. F is along the same line as the vented T-Y of Fig. C, Plate 20, but is a better fitting for bath- room work, inasmuch as the branch is taken spirally into the side of the fitting, allowing the fixture to set closer to the wall. The water closet should set as close to the wall as practicable, as it is less in the way, and less liable to damage. The water closet is vented from a hub on the waste fitting. The waste fitting of the water closet of Fig. E is of similar pat- tern, with a special hub for receiving the waste of other fixtures. The work of Fig. E is almost entirely of iron pipe. The triple fittings on the waste and vent lines are made in vari- ous lengths and with different numbers of openings. By the use of these fittings the vents are so connected to the several traps that there is little danger of stoppage of the vent openings. The fitting shown on the main vent line of Fig. E is a very useful one, and may be obtained with a short or long arm, with or without the additional vent hub. In the construction of many houses the plumbing is centralized so that the bath room and the kitchen sink may be served by the same stack. This custom is a common one, and is recognized by the triple fittings, which have the third hub for the use of the kitchen sink. It may also be used for a lavatory in a room adjacent to the bath room. The work of Fig. F is not entirely of iron or made up entirely of special fittings, but is intended to show the use of some of these special fittings on ordinary work. The special fittings shown are very few in number compared to the total number of these fittings. They may be procured for almost any special purpose, or to fit into almost any place. These fittings are usually more expensive than ordinary fittings, 143 144 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED but the practiced eye will easily see how useful they are, and how much work they save, for instance, in the matter of wiped and caulked joints, which are comparatively few, considering the amount of work covered. The use of special fittings accomplishes two things: it reduces the number of caulked and wiped joints, and it generally allows the use of continuous vents, two very important features. Too much attention cannot be given to the lighting and venti- lating of the bath room. The local vent, which is described under Plate 1 8, is of very great value in maintaining wholesome conditions in the bath room, as it not only ventilates the water closet while in use, but ventilates the entire room at all times. In addition to getting rid of the foul air, a good supply of fresh air should be furnished the bath room. Exterior lighting should always be provided. This may always be done in detached buildings, but in buildings that are built close up to the walls of other buildings it is often a difficult matter. In the bath or toilet room receiving light from a light shaft, the air is usually lifeless and musty, and in such cases all precautions possible in the matter of ventilation should be taken, and the room and fixtures kept as clean and wholesome as possible. The existence of disagree- able odors in the bath room may often be traced to a source over which the plumber has no control, as it is as likely to occur in the plumbing system which is absolutely perfect as in the poorly con- structed system. This trouble sometimes arises from the use of highly scented toilet soaps, toilet water, etc., which are much in use in the private bath room, and but seldom used in public toilet rooms. When mixed with grease, and waste filled with impurities emanating from the skin, these strong perfumes give rise to heavy, nauseous odors, which are extremely offensive and which are often mistaken for escaping sewer gas. Most of the trouble comes from the slime in the traps and waste connections, but a source which is not often taken into account is the patent overflow of the lavatory bowl. The fact that this is a prolific source for the same trouble, makes it apparent that the same evil often arises in the use of the private lavatory in sleeping rooms, where the presence of foul odors is especially unhealthful. To remedy this evil, the strainers should be removed from the BATH ROOMS 145 bath tub and lavatory bowl, and the waste connections and traps thoroughly cleaned out with potash or washing soda and boiling water. As to cleaning out the overflow, the bowl should be taken down and the overflow washed out in the same way. The traps and waste connections may be kept clean by occasionally using the alkali in the bath tub and lavatory, and turning on the hot water. If this trouble should occur in the bath room of Fig. B, Plate 19, it will be seen that the long, unprotected lavatory waste would be the particular point to look to, as there is a large amount of sur- face here, which must constantly emit odors into the room. This point further emphasizes the fact that each fixture should have its own individual trap, located as close as possible to the fixture, A point which may properly be mentioned in connection with bath-room work relates to the painting of exposed soil piping. When soil pipe is exposed in the bath room it is unsightly at best, and to give it the best possible appearance it should be painted in the prevailing color of the room. It is not sufficient to cover it with several coats of paint, as the tar will soon strike through and show. The paint should not be applied until several coats of shellac, such as is used by pattern makers, are applied. The shellac will pre- vent the tar from striking through. Another point which may be of value is in relation to the clean- ing of marble and porcelain, which often become soiled with rust, oil, and other stains, which may generally be removed by a mixture of 2 parts of soda, I of pumice, and I of powdered chalk or whiting. These materials should be sifted and water added to form a paste, which should be applied to the soiled surface and allowed to remain for a number of hours, then washed off with soap and water. Plate XXII BATH ROOMS Bcrfh Ff //d7/e22. BATH ROOMS A SPECIAL feature of the bath room of Fig. G, Plate 22, is that, with the exception of the water-closet bend, no part of the work is of lead. Fig. C, Plate 20, and Fig. E, Plate 21, also show bath-room connections which are of similar general construction, but in which special and expensive fittings are used. The work in Fig. G, it will be noted, is performed by the use of common fittings carried in stock by all dealers. The concealed work may be of either wrought or cast iron. If of wrought iron, the pipe should be galvanized. The traps for the bath and lavatory should be of brass. Another feature of this work is that each trap is served by a continuous vent. Several references have been made to continuous venting, a full description of which is to be found under Plates 26, 27, and 28. In Fig. H is shown a bath room the fixtures of which are unvented. While work of this kind is not allowed in many of our large towns and cities, it may be, and is used to a large extent in country districts and in the smaller towns. If the work is installed in the right manner, it may usually be made quite safe, even though unvented. In the first place, the bath room is usually on the upper floor and close to the roof pipe, features which are of advantage, as the supply of air through the soil vent is quick and direct. There is practically no danger that the lavatory and bath will exert siphonic influence on the water-closet trap, but under the right conditions the flushing of the water closet may exert such influence on them. In the case of the bath tub, it is necessary usually to carry its waste into the stack below the lead bend. In order to give all possible protection to this fixture, its trap should be of the drum pattern or of some non-siphonable make, and the waste outlet into the stack should be as short as possible. The lava- tory may best be located so that its waste may enter the stack above the entrance of the water closet. Here it receives the most direct 149 1 5 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED supply of air through the soil vent, and if a non-siphonable trap is used there will be practically no danger from siphonage. The same general precautions should be taken with other plumb- ing fixtures of the house. On an unvented system it is poor policy to locate a fixture in the cellar, close to the foot of a stack, and wast- ing into the horizontal line, as the liability of siphonage under such conditions is fully as great as at any other point in the system. Before leaving the subject of bath rooms, it will be of interest to many readers, no doubt, to study the fixtures and trimmings for an up-to-date, high-grade bath room. The water closet should be of the siphon-jet style, and of porce- lain, and should have nickel-plated flush and supply pipes, with flush tank finished in the natural wood, or enameled to suit the finish and decorations of the room. The low tank is at the present time more popular than the high tank, and the flush valve, doing a\vay entirely with the flush tank, bids fair to become more popular than either. The flush valve may be exposed to view or concealed in the wall behind the water closet. The bath tub should be of porcelain, or at least porcelain lined, and should not be less than 5 or 5^/2 ft. in length, and provided with nickel-plated waste and supply fittings. The bath may be furnished with a shower and shower curtain. There is a wide choice in the selection of the bath. The effect of the solid porcelain tub is massive, especially if its base rests upon the floor instead of upon legs. The only decoration that the bath should have is a narrow plain band or other decoration a short dis- tance below the rim. In lavatories, also, there is a wide range. Porcelain is prefer- able for fine work, and the one-piece lavatory of enameled cast iron comes next. If of porcelain, it should be furnished with porcelain legs and back, A very artistic fixture is the oval pedestal lavatory, which is massive and looks well with a heavy bath. The lavatory is much improved with a mirror following in its shape the general style of the lavatory. Nickel-plated legs or brackets may support the lava- tory, but do not appear to such advantage as the white porcelain legs. White is by all means the color for the bath room. It is cool and clean in appearance, and obliges frequent attention, as any dust or dirt that gathers shows plainly. BATH ROOMS 151 Some fine bath rooms are now provided with fixtures which are supplied with water in such a way that no metal shows in connection with any of the exposed plumbing, the entire effect being of white. The shower should be provided with a porcelain or porcelain- lined receptor resting on the floor, and nickel-plated combination needle and shower bath, with shower curtain. The bidet is not in common use, but is to be found in some of the best-appointed bath rooms. It should correspond in style and decorations to the water closet. The foot and sitz baths should correspond closely in their mate- rial, style, and decoration to the bath tub. The best manufacturers now carry the same style, design, and decoration right through the line of bath-room fixtures, so that there is no reason why all the fittings of the bath room should not be in keeping. Piate XXIII POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CON- STRUCTION POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION IN order that the plumbing system may be absolutely safe, count- less points of apparently small importance must be observed. The difference between a strictly high-class plumbing system and one of medium or poor quality is to be found largely in the observance or non-observance of the small points. In Plate 23 are to be seen some of the small points which are often disregarded. The instances of error to be seen in the illustration are not novel or to be rarely seen, but are constantly being made by mechanics who should or do know better. These errors are often made in ignorance, and it must be admitted that they are also often made, especially on contract work, in order that the work may be made to pay bigger profits. Next to the main trap, a fresh-air inlet should have been pro- vided, as the main trap should never be without it. If the nearest waste stack is near enough to the main trap, it would relieve any air lock, but is in no sense a fresh-air inlet, so long as waste enters it. The two stacks enter the house drain through tee fittings, whereas the connection should always be made with a Y-branch and eighth bend. Fixture No. 9 should waste into a Y. Tees should be used on no part of the drainage system, and T-Ys only on vertical lines. The continuation of the house drain beyond the soil stack forms a dead end. The main vent for the soil stack should reenter the stack below the T-Y on the first floor, and a trap vent from fix- ture No. 9 run over into it. The ending of this main vent in the vent of No. 9 allows no opportunity for collections of scale and rust to drain out of the main vent. The 2-in. waste stack should have been increased to 4 in. before passing through the roof. No stack of less size than 4 in. should pass through the roof. Taking up the fixtures in consecutive order, according to their numbers, the trap vent of No. I should be taken from the lead bend, and not from the vent horn of the closet bowl, and the local vent 155 156 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED from the same fixture should not drop after leaving the closet, but should pitch upward throughout its course. No. 2 should have sepa- rate entrance into the stack through a Y-branch, instead of being connected into the lead bend, the proper course allowing a shorter and more direct connection. The vent from No. 2 should have entered the vent from No. I above the top of No. 2. As it is now connected, if a stoppage occurs on the waste of No. 2, waste from this fixture will run off through its vent, thence through the vent of No. i, and discharge into No. i. Fixtures No. 3 and No. 4 should be trapped and vented inde- pendently, and be entered separately into the stack, or into the open- ings of a Y caulked into the Y already in use. The horizontal vent from Nos. 5 and 6 pitches in the wrong direction. Vent pipes should always pitch upward after leaving the trap. The vent connection of No. 5 should have been made into the horizontal arm of the bend rather than into the vertical arm, as the latter presents greater opportunity for the collection of refuse in the opening of the vent into the bend. The waste from No. 6 should have a separate entrance into the stack, but if it must be connected into the lead bend it should be con- nected into the upper part of the horizontal arm, as the opening of the waste into the heel of the bend is in such a position that soil and other refuse matter may drop directly into it in passing through the bend. The local vent from No. 5 enters the chimney at the second floor, and at a point below the highest opening into the chimney. When all local vents are not entered above the highest chimney opening there is danger that foul odors carried in the vent may enter rooms into which openings in the chimney communicate. Fixtures No. 7 and No. 8 are double trapped. The waste from No. 8 should be discon- nected from the trap of No. 7, and entered separately into the stack, or at least connected to the waste from No. 7 close to the point at which it enters the stack. Numerous errors might be mentioned which do not appear on Plate 23. Some of these errors are the fol- lowing. Earthenware house sewers are sometimes continued inside the foundation wall, and the house drain connected to it by means of a cement joint. Cleanouts are occasionally used which depend for a tight joint upon the use of a ring of putty. POOR PRACTICES IN PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION 157 Drainage is allowed to enter the fresh-air inlet, and the latter is often constructed of too small pipe. By-passes are a very common form of error, and this particular error often occurs in the connection of the bath overflow to the outlet side of the bath trap, the proper connection being into the inlet to the trap. When thus connected the trap is practically short- circuited, gases and odors passing from the waste pipe through the overflow and out into the room. In the absence of the main trap, a by-pass means that direct communication exists between the house and the sewer. Much poor work is to be found in connection with refrigerator work. Refrigerators are sometimes found connected directly into the drainage system without a trap, and very often found connected directly into the drainage system through a trap, which is not much better than the first-named connection. Local vents may be found connected into main back-vent lines, and trap vents into flues. The blind vent is a deception also often practiced. It consists in running the trap vent back to the wall, or through the wall, and plugging the end, no connection being made into the main vent. This is not so bad in its results as the blind vent with an open end, which is also to be found, and through which direct communication with the sewer exists. The blind vent has every appearance of being honest work, and is no more than open fraud. It will be seen, then, that the opportunities for error are great, and it behooves the owner and inmate of the house to know right from wrong in plumbing construction. The instances of poor practice in plumbing construction to be noted in Plate 23 are self-evident to the person who has a knowledge of the subject of plumbing. They are errors which the plumbing inspector should not pass over. At the same time there is not an error to be found on this plate which is of an exaggerated nature, and which does not often appear. Indeed, some of the practices which have been criticised as errors are not looked upon, under some plumbing ordinances, as in any way out of character. For instance, the practice of connecting the waste from the lava- tory, as in fixture No. 2, into the lead bend, is a method allowed in many cities which boast of strict plumbing ordinances. Poor practices are not alone confined to the methods of making connections, but appear in various other ways. 158 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED The use of inferior material is a very common matter, and is to be met in connection with plumbing- construction at almost every point. The use of light cast-iron soil pipe instead of extra-heavy pipe is an instance, as also the use of very light weights of lead pipe, lead traps, bends, etc. The use of light lead has reached such a point that much of that used on cheap work is entirely unfit for its purpose, inasmuch as it is so thin that it can withstand very little rough usage. In this con- nection it may be stated that one of the advantages in the rapid dis- placing of lead pipe, traps, etc., is the fact that stiffer and more durable materials are taking the place of lead. Many other instances might be named of the use of inferior materials, such as cheaply constructed brass work of poor metal, tanks lined with metal of the thinnest quality, fixtures full of imper- fections, etc. These results have been reached very largely owing to the keen competition of recent years. It is true that plumbing construction can be made possibly more deceptive than any other branch of building construction. One rea- son for this is the fact that such a large part of the work is concealed. Frequently, to judge from the neat appearance of fixtures, with their bright nickel work, the plumbing system must be an excellent one, whereas in reality it may be of the poorest description, for the con- cealed work, which is generally the most important from a sanitary standpoint, may be installed in any but a sanitary manner. Plate XXIV " ROUGHING-IN " USE OF CLEANOUTS Roughing , Ready f*>r~ P/ate " ROUGHING-IN ' ; THAT part of the work on the plumbing system known as the " roughing-in " is shown in Plate 24. As will be noted, when the work has progressed to this point, all soil piping has been run, from a point 10 ft. outside the founda- tion, through the cellar, and all stacks run up through the roof, their vent stacks also run and completed, all waste fittings and vent fit- tings on mains inserted, and all branch fixture wastes and vents completed as far as possible. In the roughing, the fresh-air inlet is included, all cleanouts on the soil piping, rain leaders if they are to enter the drainage system inside the cellar, all floor and yard drains, etc. In fact, when the roughing is complete, little should remain to be done before the fixtures are set in place. The water test is gen- erally applied to the plumbing at this point. This, when properly applied, is a most thorough test, and a test which cannot be applied after the walls are plastered. Therefore, in the roughing, just as much of the work should be included as possible, in order that as much of the piping and as many of the joints as possible may be tested with hydraulic pressure. Therefore, all fixture wastes and vents should be completed if practicable, or brought as near completion as possible. The vent for the w r ater closet may almost always be completed, unless nickel is to be used. Traps that are located under floors may usually be placed in position, inlet connections made as far as pos- sible, and the outlet into the stack completed. All ferrule connec- tions, whether on the vent or on the drainage system, should be made before the roughing can be considered complete. It will be noted that sizes' for all pipes in the plumbing system of Fig. 24 are given, these sizes corresponding to the sizes demanded in most plumbing ordinances. In the case of the kitchen sink, however, some ordinances now require a 2-in. waste instead of i l /2 in., a requirement which is in the line of good practice. 161 i6 2 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED When the fixture wastes are roughed in, great care should be taken that the long runs of lead pipe beneath floors are properly supported. If not supported, the lead pipe is very sure to sag, thus forming traps in the waste. The best method is to support straight runs of lead waste on boards, properly secured. Fixture wastes of greater length than 6 ft. should always be run of more rigid material than lead, either of cast or galvanized wrought iron or of brass. As elsewhere noted, nothing but coated cast-iron pipe should ever be used underground, as the action of the moisture of the earth is very harmful to wrought-iron or steel pipe, and also to unprotected cast-iron pipe. There is really no necessity for coating cast-iron pipe that is not buried, with tar or asphaltum, for, excepting when under- ground, there is rarely any harmful action that takes place. CLEANOUTS The connection shown on the sewer side of the main trap in Plate 24 is an excellent one, and is a practice now demanded wher- ever possible by many plumbing ordinances. The chief value of such a connection is that it allows a cleanout to be used in the end of the Y-branch into which the main trap discharges. This cleanout controls the straight run of house drain into the house sewer, and a considerable length of the latter, while the clean- out at the opposite end of the house drain controls that section of the drain, and the two cleanouts on the main trap complete the entire control of the house drain and house sewer. Nothing can add more to the worth of the plumbing system than the intelligent and liberal use of cleanouts. The money invested in cleanouts is a good investment always, for their use often saves not only much annoyance, but avoids the breaking into pipes to remove stoppages. Every trap on the plumbing system, with the exception of water- closet traps and other traps combined in the fixture itself, should be provided with a cleanout. All cleanout screws should be of brass. Cleanouts for use on soil piping are of two kinds, entirely of brass or having the body of iron and the screw of brass. CLEAXOUTS 163 The latter is known as the iron-body cleanout. The threaded parts of cleanouts should have at least six threads, tapered, and of iron-pipe size. Cleanouts should be of the full size of the pipe or trap which they serve, up to a diameter of 5 in., and not less than 5 in. in size for larger traps. Cleanouts should always be used in the ends of Ys into which vertical stacks connect, as shown in Fig. E, Plate 14, and in the ends of all horizontal branches of soil or waste pipes. Quarter bends being used on rain leaders, cleanouts used on their traps must be depended upon for cleaning purposes. A cleanout should be used at each change in direction of hori- zontal piping. By this means each run of piping is fully controlled in the event of stoppage. The cleanouts thus far mentioned are known as end clean- outs. In long runs of horizontal waste and soil pipe it is often neces- sary to provide cleanouts at intermediate points. Special cleanout fittings are made for this purpose, into which the cleanout cover screws. They should be placed not farther than 30 ft. apart, and a more liberal use of them can be made with advantage. All cleanouts should be made tight with a gasket, and no clean- out depending on the use of putty for a tight joint should be allowed. All cleanouts in main traps that are underground, or any other cleanout that is underground, should be made accessible by means of depressions in the concrete bottom, and cleanouts outside the walls of the house should be located in accessible manholes. The gasket generally used on cleanouts is of rubber, and if the gasket has been in use for a considerable length of time, it is almost certain to be destroyed in removing the cleanout cover. If not de- stroyed, it is probable that it has become so hard and lifeless that, if again used, a tight joint cannot be made. Therefore a new gasket should be used on a cleanout whenever the cover is removed, after having been in use long enough to get into this condition. Another form of cleanout, not extensively used, however, makes tight by means of a ground joint. The advantage of this cleanout is that it is free from the objectionable features incident to the use of gaskets. The ground joint is also often easier to open than the screw joint. 164 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED The foregoing renjarks apply only to cleanouts used on the large drainage piping. There are certain additional facts to be considered also, concern- ing cleanouts on other parts of the plumbing system. Whenever brass and galvanized-iron pipe is used for waste pur- poses, cleanouts should be liberally used at points where a change in direction occurs. All drum traps located under floors should have their cleanout covers flush with the floor, in order to make them accessible without the removal of flooring. Such cleanout covers may be concealed beneath nickel-plated covers or guards screwed to the floor. The cleanouts of all traps should be on the inlet side of the trap, and sub- merged wherever possible. Submerged cleanouts show an imper- fect joint by leakage, whereas the same imperfection in the case of a cleanout not submerged might remain undetected for an indefinite length of time. Cleanouts on fixture vents are demanded by the plumbing ordi- nances of certain cities, but in a vast majority of cases it is probably a practice which has little value. The reason for this is that usually use of the cleanout is by the inmates only, who know so little con- cerning the purpose of the vent and of the cleanout that it is almost never made use of. When there is a stoppage of the waste it makes itself known at once, but a stoppage of the vent opening is never known, and consequently the remedy, by means of the cleanout, never applied. Plate XXV TESTING OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM THE WATER, AIR, SMOKE, AND PEPPERMINT TESTS 25. F^/urnJb/ng /"k7e /a/-e28. CONTINUOUS VENTING FOR TWO LINES OF FIX- TURES ON THREE OR MORE FLOORS ON the preceding plate the continuous vent is shown in a spe- cial application to two-floor work for four-flat apartment buildings. In Plate 28 the continuous vent is shown as applied to double lines of fixtures on three or more floors. Such double lines of fixtures are often to be found in double apartment buildings. In the larger cities such buildings are often many stories in height, and in the towns and smaller cities double apartment build- ings of three and four stories are very common. In office buildings, also, fixtures are often so located that two of them on the same floor, and on opposite sides of a wall or parti- tion, waste into the same stack. The work shown in Plate 28 applies to many cases of similar nature. The waste from each of the two adjacent fixtures is carried into the same waste fitting, from the bottom of which a mutual waste is run to the waste stack, and from the top a mutual vent to the vent stack. In addition to gaining for each fixture the advantages derived from continuous venting, the work may often, and in fact usually, be done with less labor and material than if installed with the cus- tomary crown venting. While the matter of saving in the cost of construction might be questionable in the case of a single line of fix- tures, the addition of a second line of fixtures requires no additional material or labor, with the exception of the furnishing of the traps and connecting them to the waste fittings. The system shown is an excellent one, and without doubt will gradually come into general use, a result much to be desired. The entire system shown is of cast iron, but it may be said that for the main vent, and especially for the fixture wastes and vents, wrought iron is more generally used. In the case of the mutual fixture wastes and vents, wrought iron will effect a saving in expense, as sizes smaller than 2 in. may often be used, and cast-iron pipe is not made in sizes smaller than 2 in. 183 i8 4 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS OF VENTING The fixture vent should pitch upward from the trap at all points in order that condensation may drain into the trap, and it should be connected into the main vent line at a point higher than its fixture, so that, in the event of stoppage of the trap or waste, the fixture waste may not pass off through the vent. To provide against the latter evil, it is good practice in the case of a group of fixtures whose vents connect into a main branch vent, to run this branch so that its lowest vent fitting shall be at least two or three inches above the top of the highest fixture of the group. Formerly much vent work of lead was used, but the best prac- tice to-day calls for the use of galvanized iron or brass on all branch, main branch, and individual fixture vents of 2 in. or less in size. The use of lead for vent work is fast becoming limited to use in connection with lead traps, short connections being made into the wrought- iron or brass pipe. Main branch vents should be increased one size in diameter after passing 30 ft. When a fixture is located 8 ft. or more from the main vent, its trap vent should either be carried independently through the roof, or enter the main vent stack above all fixtures. Thus, in the case of the lavatory of Fig. C, Plate 20, if its dis- tance is 8 ft. or more from the stack, its vent should be run as above ; if its distance is 6 ft. or more, lead should not be used on its waste. Under such conditions the use of the continuous vent for the fixture, as shown, is excellent practice. Under Plate 13, it was shown that the main vent line might either run independently through the roof or reenter the soil or waste vent above the highest fixture. In many of the large cities this demand is qualified by requiring the running of a main vent sepa- rately through the roof, whenever such vent serves fixtures on more than six floors or extends more than 80 ft. above the grade line. Whenever main vent lines are reentered into soil or waste vents, no fixture should be located on any floor above such reentrance, and be connected to the soil, waste, vent, or back-vent pipes from fix- tures on floors below. Plate XXIX CONTINUOUS VENTING OF WATER CLOS ETS CIRCUIT VENTS LOOP VENTS <=>nt-inu**us Vending of I/Voter P/af-" . \l/ 2 " */* o/ * 2 " 4 4 " 6 The amount of pressure on street mains must determine the weights of lead pipe proper for supplies, but for ordinary pressures the following table is safe to follow: Diameter of Lead Pipe Weight per Foot Yz in. i l / 2 Ibs. Sheet lead should never be less than 4 Ibs., and 6 Ibs. for roof flashings is preferable. The tendency to use light materials, owing to the keen competition of the present day, is very marked, and nowhere on the plumbing system more plainly to be seen than in the lead work. Lead bends and drum traps, for instance, are often used which are so fragile that the workman must be careful that in his handling of them they are not crushed. This is true also of the pipe. The weights given above, however, if obtained, will ensure solid and secure work. The choice of material for water-supply pipes should always be made with due consideration to the chemical properties of the water supply. This is true also in the matter of range boilers. Some waters will quickly attack wrought-iron pipe and boilers, and make renewal necessary in comparatively few years. Under such conditions, lead or brass supply pipes and copper range boilers should generally be used. On high-grade work, brass piping is now being extensively used, and for the best work all changes in direction are made by bending the pipe rather than by the use of elbows. Plate XXXI CONSTRUCTION OF CELLAR PIPING THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC, R/af-e 31. Cellar Piping Jbeodez* Jieacter* Wo fez* C2<=> Jo>roi2Q> O THE HOUSE DRAIN, HOUSE SEWER, ETC. PLATE 31 shows the general form of the drainage piping in the cellar or basement. Many of the features which appear have been taken up under preceding plates, such as main trap and fresh- air inlet, cellar and subsoil drainage, etc., and will not be again considered here. Before taking up the consideration of the above subject, it will be well to clearly define the terms house drain and house sewer, con- cerning which there is often some confusion. The house drain is that portion of the horizontal piping of the drainage system of any building into which all the soil and waste pipes, whether vertical or horizontal, but inside the building, ulti- mately discharge. The house drain extends through the founda- tion wall. The house sewer is a continuation of the main drain, from the point where the latter ends, to its connection into the sewer or cesspool. The house drain and sewer, under any ordinary circumstances, should serve but the one building, it being entirely wrong to connect the sewage from any building into the house drain or house sewer of another building. The drainage system of each building should be entirely distinct and separate from all other buildings. It sometimes occurs in the large cities, where buildings of mam- moth proportions are erected, that in order to properly care for the vast amount of sewage collected over large areas and from many floors, it is necessary to make use of two house drains and sewers for different sections of the building, in which case the two systems are entirely separate. More than two house drains and sewers are rarely required. The running of the house drain, whether overhead or underground, is determined largely by the prevailing usages of different towns and cities. For instance, the prevailing construction of some cities is flat houses, in which all plumbing fixtures will be found on the several floors, and none in the basement or cellar, under which conditions the house drain may be run overhead. On the other hand, the prevailing dwelling houses of another city may have two or three single flats, the laundry tubs for the 195 196 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED several flats being placed in the cellar, which necessitates running the house drain underground. The house drain should be of extra- heavy iron pipe, and should be carried to a point 10 ft. from the inner face of the cellar wall. This means that two full lengths of soil pipe are to be used in running from the foundation wall to the house sewer. The reason for this requirement is the danger of broken earthen- ware pipe and fittings and cement joints, close to the foundation wall, with the consequent danger of the leeching of escaping sewage through the foundation walls into the cellar. When laid under- ground, nothing but extra-heavy tarred cast-iron pipe should be used, whether it be the house drain or branches from it. This is required for the reason that uncoated cast-iron pipe is in time de- stroyed by galvanic action when laid underground, and wrought iron and steel pipe suffers in the same way, but to a far greater extent. On no account should earthenware pipe enter the cellar. The best method of making the connection at the main trap is shown in Fig. A, Plate 25, as the use of an end cleanout is thus allowed, which will control the straight line out into the house sewer in the event of stoppage. If the house drain through the foundation wall cannot be laid low enough for the main trap to discharge into the Y from above, the Y may be used lying on its side. All entrances into the house drain, or into any horizontal soil or waste branch, should be made through Y-branches or Y-branches and bends. Into the house drain all floor drains, cellar drains, etc., should be connected. In the case of rain leaders, they should be connected into the house drain when brought inside the basement or cellar, but may also be run outside the foundation walls and entered into the house sewer. If, however, there is a separate public system for surface sewage, clear waste, such as coming from floor and yard drains, rain leaders, subsoil drainage, etc., should be connected into the house drain of the surface sewage system. The matter of the use of the main trap is generally determined by plumbing ordinance. The practice is varied, some cities demand- ing its use, others prohibiting it, and still others making its use optional. When the main trap is used, however, all connections into the main drain should be made on the house side of the trap. THE HOUSE DRAIN, ETC. 197 The objection to the use of a main trap, due to the forcing of its seal, has caused a trial of two main traps on the house drain. The use of two traps, however, has not been taken up to any extent. Whenever two traps have been used, the fresh-air inlet has been taken off on the house side of the trap farthest from the sewer, and in order that there shall be no air lock between the two traps, a vent was taken off a fitting placed between the two traps. The idea of this arrangement was that, in case back pressure from the, sewer was sufficient to force the seal of the first trap, the seal of the second trap could never be forced because of the vent between the two traps, and in this way sewer gas would be prevented from entering the house-drainage system. -An objection advanced against the use of a single main trap is that it impedes the free outflow of sewage and is subject to stoppage. The use of two traps would certainly increase these troubles, and their use would seem to be inadvisable. As already stated, sim- plicity rather than complexity is to be desired in all parts of the plumbing system, and especially at such a point as the main trap, where serious trouble affects the entire system. As stated above, the house sewer begins at the point where the house drain ends, which is generally 10 ft. from the inside face of the foundation wall, although some plumbing ordinances make this distance only 5 ft. In general, the house sewer is constructed of vitrified earthen pipe, and should be one size larger than the house drain. If the house drain is 4 in. in diameter, the house sewer should be 5 in. All pipe that is buried deep underground, and therefore not easily accessible, should be of larger size than for the same line when running above ground, whether the pipe be used for drainage or supply purposes. When the house sewer is laid in made ground, or in ground that has been filled in, or is in danger of destruction from roots of trees or from the action of frost, earthenware pipe should never be used. Under -these conditions nothing but extra-heavy tarred cast-iron pipe should be used, laid with caulked lead joints, but not with cement joints. When the house sewer must of necessity run close to any cistern, or any source of water supply, it should be constructed of cast-iron pipe. Joints on the earthen pipe of house sewers should be given as careful attention as joints on any other part of the plumbing system, 198 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED although this work is often constructed in a most careless manner. Portland cement of the best quality should be used, three parts of clean sand to one part of Portland cement. The opening between the spigot and the hub should be entirely filled with cement, and whatever cement has squeezed out into ths interior of the pipe should be cleaned off and removed before the next length or fitting is laid. A lath is convenient for cutting off the superfluous cement. A stronger and better joint may be made by caulking a ring of oakum into the hub before the cement is put in. The spigot end should be inserted into the hub so that the thickness of the cement will be uniform around the circumference. Depressions should be cut into the bottom of the trench for the hubs to set into, thus allowing the pipe to rest firmly on its entire length rather than on the hubs only. The bottom of the trench should have a uniform grade of not less than 2. ft. in 100 ft., and more where possible, and in long lines of trench work it becomes almost neces- sary to have the grade laid out by an engineer in order that the work may be done properly. This is especially true when the total pitch for the entire length is barely sufficient, and must be distributed evenly. Before trenches are filled in, the earth around pipes should be thoroughly rammed, and no pipe, whether water or drainage, should be covered until inspected by the proper official. Changes in direc- tion of the house sewer, entrances into it of rain leaders, etc., should be done under the same general rules regulating like work in con- nection with the house drain. When rain leaders connect into the house drain or house sewer, it should be seen to that these two lines are of sufficient size to handle the large volume of rain water entering them during severe storms. The amount of water which a line of pipe can safely be depended upon to carry depends largely on the grade at which the pipe is laid. The connection of the house sewer into the street sewer should be made as shown in Plate 31, that is, by the use of a Y-branch on the main sewer and a bend on the house sewer. This is more satisfactory than entering a tee, just as it is on the house-drainage system. When the street sewer and house sewer are of such levels that a proper grade can be secured, the house sewer should enter the main street sewer above the center of the arch of the latter. Plate XXXI f PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES USE OF SPECIAL FITTINGS BRASS PIPING f^/urnbing Plate 32 2" ^ PLUMBING FOR RESIDENCES USE OF SPECIAL FITTINGS BRASS PIPING THE plumbing for a residence, shown in Plate 32, shows the use of various special waste and vent fittings, which are now coming into use extensively on the best class of work. A special advantage gained in their use is that fixture traps may be easily provided with a continuous vent. In previous plates the running of continuous vents by the use of common fittings is to be seen. The use of spe- cial fittings often saves the making of one or more joints. In Plate 32 all the fixtures are supplied with continuous vents with the excep- tion of the bath and lavatory in the bath room, and the refrigerator drip sink. It is very rare that a fixture is so located, however, that, by the use of some one of the numerous special fittings or common fittings, it cannot be vented on the continuous principle. It will be noted that sizes of all pipes are given. For the ordinary residence, double house, two- and three-flat houses, and much other work, a 4-in. house drain and main stack is large enough for the work required of them. It is poor policy in constructing the house drain or the house sewer, or any horizontal drainage pipe, to use a pipe of larger size than is necessary, for it is much better to have the sewage which is flowing through a hori- zontal line fill the pipe well up on its sides than to have the pipe so large that the sewage flows in a thin stream at the bottom of it. In the latter case, heavy sewage is more liable to lodge in the pipe, while the use of a smaller pipe would have resulted in sufficient scouring action to carry it along through the pipe. It will be noticed that in Plate 32 the laundry tubs are located in the cellar. This is a very common practice. A strong point against it, however, is that, but for placing this fixture in the cellar, the house drain might be run overhead and in sight, which is always preferable to burying it underground. On high-grade work, such as is to be found in residences, apart- ment buildings, etc., brass piping is now largely used for waste and vent work. 202 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED The proper weights of brass pipe are to be found in the follow- ing table: WEIGHTS OF BRASS PIPE Nominal Diameter Nominal Diameter of Pipe Weight per Foot of Pipe Weight per Foot i l /2 in 2.84 Ibs. 4 in 11.29 Ibs. 2 " 3-82 " 4^ " 13.08 " 2/ 2 " 6.08 " 5 " 15.37 3 " 7-92 " 6 " 19.88 " 3/2 " 9-54 Brass fittings used on drainage work should be cast, and of extra heavy weight, and of recessed pattern, similar to cast-iron recessed drainage fittings, as illustrated in Plate 44. With the various appliances now on the market, there is abso- lutely no excuse for using on brass and nickel pipes the tools designed for use on wrought-iron pipes. These appliances include brass pipe vises and wrenches of various makes, the use of which avoids all scratching of pipe and tubing, and the crushing of the latter result- ing from the use of common vises and pipe wrenches. Brass pipe work should always be put together with threaded connections of iron-pipe size, but never with slip joints and couplings. It often happens, both on supply and drainage work, that it is necessary or desirable to make a bend in the pipe rather than to use an elbow. The following is a practical method of performing this work, and the result, when the work is properly done, is a perfect bend. First fill the pipe to be bent with sand, and securely plug each end. Set the pipe on the work bench, with the point to be bent over- hanging. Place a plumber's furnace under the pipe, so that the flame heats the pipe at the bending point. To confine the heat, cover this part of the pipe with a piece of sheet iron, or a shovel, if more con- venient. See to it that the pipe does not become overheated. When it becomes sufficiently hot, the weight of the overhanging pipe will cause it to bend. With care and a little experience, sharp right-angle bends can be easily and neatly made in this manner. When heated, brass becomes very brittle, and it should not be removed, therefore, until somewhat cooled. If the overhanging end is too short to provide sufficient weight to cause the pipe to bend, a weight may be attached to the pipe. Plate XXXIII PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE- RAINLEADERS PLUMBING CONSTRUC TION FOR TENEMENT HOUSES 33. PLUMBING FOR TWO-FLAT HOUSE THE elevation of the plumbing for a two-flat house, with pipe sizes given, is shown on Plate 33. In general, the plumbing on build- ings of this class is confined to the kitchen sink, laundry tubs, and three bath-room fixtures. Although not shown in Plate 33, owing to lack of sufficient space, flat buildings of all classes should be pro- vided with refrigerator drainage. Usually in flat houses of two or three stories, a 4-in. bath-room stack and a 2-in. kitchen stack is required, although in some cases the 4-in. stack can be made to serve all the fixtures, obviating the use of a second stack. The use of two stacks is better, however, as separate entrance into the stacks can be gained for each fixture, which would be very difficult if the five fixtures entered one stack. In two- or three-flat houses the laundry tubs are sometimes located in the cellar, against \vhich there is no special objection, if the cellar is well lighted and ventilated, except the matter of inconvenience to the tenants on the upper floors. In Plate 33 all fixtures have separate waste entrances, and it will be noted that the kitchen fixtures are served by the special method described and illustrated in Plate 27. It will be noted that the water closet on the upper floor is not vented. There is in reality no danger whatever of the siphonage of the water-closet trap when the fixture is located close to its stack, with no fixtures entering the stack on floors above,- and therefore there is no necessity of venting it. Most plumbing ordinances ac- knowledge this fact by not demanding the venting of water closets thus located. In connection with this plate, the subject of rain leaders will be considered. RAIN LEADERS The size of rain leaders should never be' less than 3 in., and as much larger as the roof area which is drained should require. Plumbing ordinances differ in trap requirements for rain leaders, 205 2o6 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED some requiring no leader trap when the main trap is used, others demanding leader traps even though the system is protected by the main trap. It goes without saying that each rain leader should be trapped on the system \vhich has no main trap. It \vould appear wise to use the trap also on systems provided with main trap. There is no danger in this case of air lock from double trapping, for this trouble is obviated by the presence of the fresh-air inlet. The use of the trap prevents foul odors from the house drainage system, and pos- sible back pressure from the sewer, from finding their way through the rain leaders and conductor pipes and escaping through joints and defects in the latter into the rooms of the house through open windows. The usual method is to run the rain leader, of cast or wrought iron, from its connection with the house drain to a point outside the foundation wall, where the galvanized iron conductor enters it. The iron pipe connection should end not less than 5 ft. above the grade level. When run entirely inside the building, they must be of cast or wrought iron, and connected at the roof by means of lead or copper pipe wiped to a brass ferrule and caulked into the top of the leader, the opening being protected by a wire guard or basket. Whenever possible, it is better practice to connect two or more branch rain leaders into one main, and place a trap on this main, rather than to separately trap each leader. This method guards the piping better, for the reason that a trap thus located is more certain of maintaining its seal. In the same way, and for the same reason, the rain leader may be connected into a yard drain, the two lines being protected by one trap. Conductors run outside should be one size larger than required for a conductor draining the same area when run inside. When rain leaders pass through the foundation close to a drive- way, or where there is danger of being harmed by passing teams, they should be run up in recesses made in the walls, and should not pass through the side of the building at a point lower than 12 ft. above the grade. If there is no sewer in the street on which the building is located, its roof drainage should be conducted from the leaders into a pipe running below the sidewalk to the street gutter. If the street is provided with a public surface sewage system, the rain leaders should connect into the surface house drain, and not into the house drainage system. If desired, it is proper to carry the RAIN LEADERS 207 rain leaders outside the house and enter them outside the main trap into the house sewer. When so run, they may be of either extra- heavy cast-iron or glazed-earthenware pipe, and should be provided with traps made accessible by being located in brick or stone wells or manholes. The chief danger that confronts the rain-leader trap is the loss of its seal during a long-continued drought. In traps having only a ^-in. seal or thereabouts, it can be imagined that evaporation will not be long in causing its destruction. It would be a good idea to construct on all rain leaders, deep seal traps made of quarter-bends, in order that a sufficient depth may be obtained. The evils of evaporation thus far have been almost impossible to remedy, and the only safe course is to take every possible precau- tion against it. There is one point that may be advanced in favor of connecting the rain leaders inside the cellar wall with the house drain, instead of running them outside the cellar wall and connecting them into the house sewer. When connected inside, the rain water during a storm enters the house drain in sufficient quantity to thor- oughly scour and cleanse the piping. REGULATION OF PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION IN TENEMENT HOUSES, LODGING HOUSES, ETC. Many of the larger cities have found that as the crowded condi- tions of the tenement-house districts increase, special provisions must be made to meet these conditions in such a manner that the sanitary standard of these dwelling places may be kept as high as possible. Other conditions besides that of being crowded, such as the unclean- liness and ignorance of many of the inmates of these districts, make special provisions a necessity. The following requirements with others of similar nature, are therefore now demanded by many of our large cities in their plumbing ordinances. In all such houses, and in factories and workshops as well, there should be installed at least one water closet, regardless of the small number of occupants, and there should be enough additional water closets to allow at least one such fixture for each 15 persons. In tenement and lodging houses there should be not less than one water closet on each floor, and whenever more than one family occu- pies a single floor, there should be at least one additional water closet for each two additional families. In such buildings whenever there 208 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED are more than 15 persons living on the same floor, there should be an additional water closet installed on that floor for every 15 addi- tional persons, or fractional part of that number. The water-closet compartments of tenement and lodging houses, factories and work- shops should be made waterproof, with marble, slate, or tile. In tenement houses, when the water closet is used by a single family only, its base must be not less than 6 in. high, and in all other cases, where it is required, it should be as high as the seat. Water closet and urinal apartments of tenement and lodging houses should in all cases be provided with a window opening into the outer air, or into a ventilating shaft not less than 10 sq. ft. in area. The partitions separating the toilet from the rest of the floor space should either extend to the ceiling, or the apartment be sealed over. These partitions should be made air-tight, and the outside partition be made to include a window opening into the outer air, into a ventilating shaft or into such a lighted area as may be approved by the proper officials. The interior partitions of such toilet apartment should be dwarfed partitions. The general water- closet accommodations for a tenement or lodging house should not be allowed to be installed in any cellar, and all such fixtures should be open, and free from any inclosing woodwork. Sinks of these houses should also be entirely open, and supported on iron legs or brackets, without inclosing woodwork of any description. If the water pressure is not sufficient to fill the house tank of such buildings as tenement and lodging houses, factories and workshops, power pumps should be provided. Cesspools should never be per- mitted in the case of tenement and lodging houses, and the yards, areas, and courts of such buildings should be properly drained into the sewer. Plate XXXIV PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER SUPPLY- RANGE BOILERS, ETC. ^ f*=>r Apar/-menf- Bu/fcf/ng 34-. PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER SUPPLY RANGE BOILERS, ETC. IT is not the purpose of this work to take up the consideration of either hot- or cold-water supply in a comprehensive manner. There are certain things, however, which many of the readers of this book will desire to know, and some of these will be briefly given at this point. The range boiler, to be in keeping with the other plumbing fixtures of such work as shown in Plate 34, should be of copper. The galvanized boiler has a great advantage in first cost, but the copper boiler will generally outlast several of the galvanized. On contract work the 3O-gallon boiler is much used, but 40 gallons is a better size for apartment buildings having individual range boilers. For residence work, boilers of larger capacity than 40 gallons are often required. For large apartment buildings, office buildings, etc., it is far more satisfactory and more economical to provide a large tank heated by a special heater. This practice does away with the use of a boiler for each apartment. A method often followed in the use of the large hot-water tank or boiler, is to provide it with steam coils connected to the heating system, by means of which it may be heated in the winter time, a small heater providing heat for it during the summer time. One of the annoyances in this work comes from carelessness or inattention to the heater on the part of the attendant. This may be avoided by the use of automatic tank regulators, of which there are several makes on the market. By means of such an appliance, the tempera- ture of the boiler heated either by steam coils or coal-burning heater, or by both, may be regulated to a certain temperature. The size of main necessary to supply the plumbing fixtures for a large apartment building, office building, or other similar building, is a problem that is often difficult to solve. The main and branches, if properly sized, will allow water to be drawn at any fixture or any reasonable number of fixtures, without affecting the free flow of water at other fixtures. When pipes of too small size are used, however, the 211 212 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED use of water at a single fixture will result in a reduced flow at other fixtures. The following will be of service in estimating the necessary size of main to perform given amounts of work. In the first place, it must be remembered that all fixtures are not in use at any one time. The chances are that in an apartment such as shown in Plate 34, not more than one fixture in the bath room will be used at any one time, or more than one fixture in the kitchen. Therefore, in the case of apartment buildings, the main will be ample in size if designed to supply two ^2 -in. fixture supplies per apartment. Thus, if there were 20 apartments, a main having a supplying capacity equal to 40 l /2-'m. pipes would be of sufficient size. The following table shows the approximate number of ^-in. pipes different larger sizes of pipes will supply: i in. il in. 2 in. 2\ in. 3 in. 4 in. Sin. 6 in. 5 16 32 5 100 2OO 375 6OO Referring to this table, it will be seen that a size between 2 in. and 2 l / 2 in. will be required to supply this system. The 2^/ 2 in. would be the safer and better size, although 2 in. would no doubt do the w r ork satisfactorily. In a great many systems this question could not be figured out in this way. For instance, in large toilet rooms of hotels, railroad stations, etc., the demand at times is large and at other times small. The main supply lines and branch mains under such conditions must be made to supply maximum requirements. In supplying hot and cold water to apartment buildings and other similar work, each group of fixtures should be supplied by a separate line. Thus, each kitchen should have its own supply, and each bath room also, each line having a shut-off. This avoids much annoy- ance, for if otherwise, the making of repairs in one flat might result in the shutting off of the supply in others. On a great deal of high- grade work, faucets for the various fixtures are specified to be of the Fuller pattern, and on public work often of some self-closing pattern. Both Fuller and self-closing work closes very quickly, and water, being almost incompressible, forms a very poor cushion to receive the shock. The common result in the use of these two styles of work is a snapping and jarring of the pipes whenever the faucets are closed. Air chambers properly placed will often entirely remedy this trouble. Compression faucets, however, are much slower in PLUMBING FOR APARTMENT BUILDING 213 closing, and from them none of the above annoyances is experienced. Compression work is not only better many times than Fuller and self-closing work, but it is less expensive. Two systems of supply are in general use: tank pressure and street pressure. In the use of range boilers on the direct or street- pressure system, supplies are taken directly to the boilers, while in the use of the tank system the supply for the boilers is taken direct to the tank and from that point delivered to the boilers below. The result of the tank method of supply is a uniform pressure, while the direct system gives a pressure which varies greatly according to the demands that are being made upon it. Boilers used on tank systems may usually be of lighter construction than tank boilers, although this is not true in the case of high buildings. The conditions in very high buildings are of a special nature, often requiring special apparatus. For instance, many office buildings, hotels, etc., in the large cities, are of such great height that the pressure on the street mains is not sufficient to force water to the upper floors. Under such circumstances, for those floors not reached by direct pressure, a house tank above all fixtures must be provided, into which water must be pumped. Large hot-water boilers are generally of the horizontal pattern, hung from the cellar timbers by heavy wrought-iron hangers. The following is a table of boilers of standard size and make, and their capacities: Size of Boiler Capacity Size of Boiler Capacity 5ft. X 12 in. 30 gals. 5 ft. X 30 in. 185 gals. 5 " X 13 " 35 " 8 " X 24 " 192 " 5 ' : X H ' 40 5^" X3Q " 203 " 5 " X 16 " 52 " 6 " X 30 " 225 " 5 " X 18 " 66 " 4 " x 36 " 212 " 5 " X 20 " 82 " 5 " x 36 " 265 " 5 " X 22 " 100 " 5 y 2 " X 36 " 290 " 5 " X 24 " 120 " 6 " X 36 " 315 " 4 ' X 30 ' 140 7 " X 36 " 360 " 6 ' X2 4 " 144 " 8 " X 3 6 " 425 " 7 " X 24 " 1 68 " For apartment buildings such as shown in Figs. 34 and 35, the construction of circulation work is of very great advantage, as it is in almost any system of plumbing. On ordinary work, the hot-water supply is run from the hot-water main, and ends at the fixture which 214 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED it supplies. In circulation work, the supply is run from the main also, but it is returned by a circulating or return pipe, into the boiler. The result is that in the first case a long line of pipe filled with cold water must often have to be drawn off before the water will run hot, while in the use of the circulating pipe, the water will run hot almost at once. The latter naturally causes much less annoyance to the person desiring to draw hot water. The first cost of circulation work is greater than that of ordinary work, but if the water is metered and paid for by the cubic foot, it will be found that circulation work generally figures out a good investment. In installing hot- and cold-water supply systems for large build- ings, it is usual to supply headers which are connected with the boiler. Separate headers are used for the cold supply, hot supply and return. The street supply is connected with the cold-water header, and from it all cold-water supply lines are taken out. The flow pipe from the boiler is connected into the hot-water header, and from the header all hot-water supplies are taken off. All return or circulation pipes are connected to the return header, and the latter connected to the boiler return. Each line of pipe connecting with each header should be provided with a stop and waste cock close to the header, a small waste connection from each cock being connected into a main line of waste, which should empty into some convenient basement fixture. Such a waste should not be connected directly into the drainage system. Each line of hot- and cold-water supply, and each return pipe should be provided with a metal tag, showing what fixture, or group of fixtures, and what floor it serves. A keyboard, as the above arrangement is called, is a very con- venient thing, especially on large work, and is much used in nice residences, apartment buildings, office buildings, etc. In the event of bursts or other emergencies, the keyboard shows at once the valves that control the piping that is to be shut off, and often saves damage to the property that would result if the proper valve could not be found quickly. The use of the valve waste allows the contents of the pipe to drain off into the fixture without dis- charging onto the cellar bottom. The foregoing, as already stated, is not meant as comprehen- sive in any way, but is given simply in a suggestive manner, in connection with the general subject of drainage of different classes of buildings. Plate XXXV PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT BUILDINGS FILTERED WATER SUPPLY __ ,. Plate 35. Plumbing rr Double Aparrmenh Building PLUMBING FOR DOUBLE APARTMENT BUILDINGS IN Plate 35 are shown two stacks serving the fixtures of a double apartment building, one stack for the kitchen fixtures, the other for bath-room fixtures. The main lines of soil and waste pipes in buildings of this class may often be run in the mutual wall or partition which divides the building at the center. This method centralizes the plumbing, and allows the work to be installed at the lowest possible cost of labor and material. Lack of space prevents showing in this system a line of refriger- ator waste, which should always be provided in buildings of this class. In the more pretentious apartment buildings a pantry sink is often provided for each aoartment and sometimes one or more bed- room lavatories. Connected with the general plumbing arrangements for apart- ment buildings, office buildings, etc., the matter of a filtered water supply is now demanding much attention, as also for residences, and a brief consideration of the subject will not be out of place at this point. FILTERED WATER SUPPLY There is a constantly growing demand for filtered water supplies for city buildings of nearly all classes, the demand increasing as the country grows in population, and as a consequence hitherto pure supplies of water become polluted. There are two forms of filtration, that which clears the water of all mechanical impurities, such as rust, sediment, etc., and that which not only clarifies the water, but frees it of all germ life and renders it free from the danger of producing such diseases as typhoid fever. For commercial purposes, for the bath room, etc., the first- named form of filtration is sufficient, but for drinking and culinary purposes, the latter form should be required. It is a mistaken idea that the ordinary filtration plant which filters the supply for an entire building in every case purifies the water of disease germs. The water 217 218 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED coming through such apparatus is certainly rendered purer as far as inorganic matter is concerned, but a filter working under pressure cannot deliver water so free from the more dreaded disease germs as the filter which operates by the gravity of the water passing through it. An ideal provision for the supply of filtered water would include the installation of a pressure filter on the main supply of the building, to clarify and purify the entire supply for the building outside of the supply for drinking purposes, and the installation of a gravity filter supplying a separate system of piping for drinking and culinary purposes. In place of the latter, a form of filter of excellent con- struction, described as follows, may be used. The common form of the filter referred to is made in different sizes for domestic use, filter- ing enough water during the twenty-four hours of the day to provide a liberal supply of drinking water. The apparatus is briefly as follows: Connection by means of block-tin pipe is made to the supply pipe, the water being conveyed to a sheet-metal tank hung on the wall, inside of which, and attached to a collecting device, are unglazed porcelain tubes filled with bone- black or animal charcoal. The water is admitted to the tank through a ball cock, which admits it only as fast as drawn. The water, by means of its own gravity only, filters through the tubes and their contents, and flows into the collector to which the tubes are connected by rubber connectors. From the collector the filtered water runs down into a glass globe attached to the bottom of the tank, from which the water may be drawn as required. In most of the large cities will be found companies operating this and other domestic filters, who inspect, clean, and sterilize the apparatus each month. Upon the periodical attention given to filters depends their satisfactory operation. If no attention is given them, after a time the tubes clog up and refuse to filter, or if filtration continues it is under very unsafe conditions, as all water passing through must come in contact with the thick covering of sediment and impurities collected on the outside of the tubes. This same style of filter in a modified form, can be made to produce any amount of pure water desired per day, and is made use of extensively for pro- viding the drinking supply of hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions which desire nothing but a pure quality of drinking water. On large work, the empty tubes are placed in large copper tanks, FILTERED WATER SUPPLY 219 supplied through a ball cock, and the water after filtering through the tubes is conveyed from the collectors into other smaller tanks filled with animal charcoal. The double filtration is done entirely by gravity, and produces a perfectly pure water. The animal charcoal is placed in separate tanks on large work, simply to economize labor in cleaning. If the water delivered to filters of this class first passes through the house pressure filter, much of the heavier matter in suspension, sediment, etc., will be taken out, rendering less frequent attention to the gravity filter necessary. Pressure filters are of various form and make, using many differ- ent materials for the filtering medium. When stone or porcelain of a fine quality is used as the filtering medium, a very large percentage of the germ impurities may be removed. A very important feature of all pressure filters is the matter of frequent cleansing, which is abso- lutely essential. Certain makes of pressure filters depend upon large masses of bone-black for their filtering material, and experimental tests show this to be one of the most effective filtering mediums. One form of bone-black filter consists of two separate cylinders filled with bone-black, but so connected that by the use of a device known as a manipulator, the entire filter may be switched off from the house it supplies ; or the water supply may be divided and sent through each cylinder equally ; or the water may be sent through each cylinder in succession, thus filtering the same water twice; or the water may be filtered through either cylinder alone without effecting in any way the supply of filtered water to the building supplied. Thus in this fil- ter, as in the one previously described, each cylinder may be washed by filtered water from the other, and while the entire filter is thus being cleaned, the supply to the house is not cut off or affected in any way. Experiment has shown that the effectiveness of a filtering medium depends directly upon the amount of air space contained between its particles. This is the reason that porous stone, porcelain, and such materials do such excellent filtering. Sand contains a great deal of air also, but it is claimed that bone-black contains nearly twice as much as sand, owing to the packing together of the latter. The action of filtration depends upon the action of infinite numbers of bacteria which live and multiply in the air spaces of the filtering medium. These bacteria must have air in order to perform their work, and air will not penetrate in sufficient quantity through sand to feed them at a depth of more than three or four feet. Air will 220 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED penetrate much more thoroughly through bone-black, it is claimed, and therefore this material is preferable for filter use. The bone-black filter described above is cleaned by forcing com- pressed air into the mass of bone-black, thus breaking it up into particles, after which the flow of filtered water is sent through the material, thoroughly cleansing it, and carrying it off into the waste. In the use of sand in pressure filters, it is necessary to use a coagulating agent, owing to the closeness with which the sand packs. For this purpose alum is generally used, and its action is to coagulate the sediment and other impurities of the water into such large masses that they cannot pass through the sand. While the use of alum is not ordinarily harmful, it is not desirable, and it makes the water hard, which is undesirable for many manufacturing purposes. A great many forms of pressure filters are now made, most of them using either sand, bone-black, porcelain or stone as the filtering medium, and being provided with a variety of apparatus and methods for cleansing. There are three methods of providing a storage of filtered water, each having advantages of its own. Storage by means of the closed overhead tank is mostly used. The delivery pipe from filter to tank also answers as the down supply for the building, thus effecting a saving in pipe. An air vent at the top allows air to pass into and out of the tank, but prevents overflow. In this system no impurities can reach the water, which is not true of the open-tank system. Storage by the open gravity tank is often the most convenient to install in houses already provided with an attic tank. The open gravity tank is used when the filtered supply must be forced into it by a pump. The pressure, or compression system is also much used. Only pressure tanks should be used for this work, as others will not hold air sufficiently well to produce the desired compression. The pressure tank is placed close to the filter into which the latter delivers filtered water, and from the tank the house supply is taken, under pressure. When the tank is filled to its full capacity with water under air compression, the compression stops the action of the filter until water is drawn. The chief drawback to the use of this system is the use of tanks of too small capacity to provide a sufficient reserve supply of filtered water. Plate XXXVI PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS 07 , . - F>/al-e 36. P/umbing f<*r Office Building PLUMBING FOR OFFICE BUILDINGS THE plumbing for office buildings is naturally varied, but consists largely of lines of lavatories and toilet rooms, both public and private, successive floors often being duplicates. The continuous vent prin- ciple may often be applied to lines of fixtures in office buildings to the benefit of the plumbing system and with a saving over common methods in both material and labor. In office buildings and other buildings containing many stories, the following limitations in the size of soil-pipe stacks should be observed. Regardless of the small number of fixtures that may enter it, a soil-pipe stack in any building between five and twelve stories in height should not be less than 5 in. in diameter, and in buildings of more than twelve stories, this size should never be less than 6 in. For sizes of main vent lines, the following regulations should be adhered to : Main vent lines for water closets on three or more floors should not be less than 3 in. in diameter ; a main vent line for fixtures other than water closets on less than seven floors should be not less than 2 in.; for less than nine stories 3-in. main vent; for nine to sixteen stories, 4-in. main vent; for sixteen to twenty-two stories, 5-in. main vent; for twenty-two stories and up, 6-in. main vent should be used. These requirements result in centralizing the plumbing, as it would become an expensive matter to run large stacks through many stories simply to provide for a few fixtures. Whenever water closets are located on different floors, as in Plate 36, the}' should each be vented, with the exception of the top water closet. When two water closets, however, are located close together on the same floor, it is not essential to vent both fixtures if they waste into the same Y branch. It is sufficient to prevent siphonage, to vent only the water closet that is the farther from the stack. When two water closets discharge into a double fitting, a mutual vent may be taken from a hub near the junction of the two branches. Fittings of this kind are easily obtained, and it will be seen that the one vent taken from this point vents both the fixtures. 223 224 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Many plumbing ordinances call for the venting of all water closets except a water closet above which no other fixtures enter. As a matter of fact, it is very difficult to siphon a water-closet trap even partially, by the discharge of other fixtures than water closets. Therefore, it does not seem necessary to vent any water closet which is the only fixture of its kind on the stack, provided the water closet is within 3 ft. of the stack. For the same reason it does not seem necessary to vent either of two water closets discharging into a double fitting, and located on the same floor close to the stack, if other water closets do not discharge into the same stack. Judgment must be used in these instances, however, for batteries of fixtures such as lava- tories might be located on the same stack as a single water closet, and be able to throw enough waste into the stack to endanger the water closet. If it could be depended upon that people of high intelligence were always to install the plumbing system, and also that in every case they could be depended upon to install the work honestly, there are many conditions constantly arising under which a safe piece of work could be constructed without the necessity of venting, whereas venting under the circumstances is required by ordinance. Because dependence of this nature cannot be made, iron-clad rules must be adopted to make the attainment of perfect work a surety. Plate XXXVII PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS CAUSES OF SIPHONAGE IN THE UN- VENTED PLUMBING SYSTEM _, Plumbing Public TZ&crizz, Plate 3?. f F'9- PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS THE public toilet room of to-day is a far more sanitary institu- tion than that of a few years ago. This is due not to one thing only, but to several. The methods and practices of installing such work are superior to those of times past; the manufacturer has improved the construc- tion and quality of fixtures in a wonderful manner; and a plentiful supply of light and thorough ventilation are provided. The floor of the public toilet room, formerly of wood, which soon became reeking with filth, is now of tile or waterproof material, and adds beauty to the room. To provide for the thorough washing out of the room, one or more floor drains should be installed in each such room. For this purpose, an excellent device is that shown in Fig. B, Plate 16. It can be flushed thoroughly with hot water when desired, and thus kept in a clean condition. An important feature of the sanitary public toilet room is the thorough ventilation of the room. In order to succeed in providing perfect ventilation, means must be provided for bringing in a supply of fresh air if foul air is to be drawn out. In Fig. B of Plate 37 is shown a method much employed in providing this ventilation. It will be seen that the foul- air duct is run at the bottom of the room, each fixture stall or com- partment being connected to it by means of a small register opening into the flue. This flue should be connected with a flue constantly heated, or may be provided at its outer end with an exhaust fan. As the foul air is thus exhausted, fresh air enters the room at various points near the ceiling, through registers opening into a fresh-air duct. If sufficient fresh air does not enter through the flue by natural means, a fan may be employed to force in a sufficient supply. Fig. C shows in section the arrangement of flues, from which it will be seen that they are generally run in a space behind the partition, against which the fixtures are set. Very often the tanks for the water closets and urinals are also concealed in this space, as shown in Plate 38. In the case of large toilet rooms, these flues may be continued for any desired distance, and on different sides of the room. 227 228 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED It will be found desirable to allow openings in both foul- and fresh-air ducts at intervals during their course outside of the fixture- stall openings. In this way a perfect exhaust of foul air and entrance of fresh air may be maintained, and the air of the room kept as nearly pure as possible for the air of a room of this character to be kept. In rooms of this nature, a change of air once in fifteen minutes should be provided for. In proportioning the area of these ducts, about 24 sq. in. of duct area should ordinarily be allowed for each urinal, water closet, and slop sink, and about one half this amount for such fixtures as lavatories, and the effective area of ventilation through the regis- ters should be of the respective amount for each fixture named. It is better practice to raise all partitions of fixture compartments of! the floor in public toilet room work, as there is then no opportunity for the collection of dirt and filth about the bases. If located in such a place that outside light cannot enter the toilet room, it should be lighted as thoroughly as possible from a light shaft or skylight, through windows opening into a lighted room, or by artificial means. Water- closet compartments are generally about 7 ft. in height above the floor, and urinal stalls about 4 ft. and 6 or 8 in. The best practice in the construction of toilet rooms to be used by the public, such as to be found in hotels, schools, factories, etc., calls for the use of the individual water closet. The range water closet as constructed and provided for to-day, is certainly far superior to the old style con- struction, but the fact remains that in its use there is greater danger of infection, and it is more difficult to keep the air of the room pure when ranges are used, as excreta must remain in the bowl until the automatic flush acts, whereas in the use of individual tank water closets this is carried away immediately after the fixture has been used. If the range is to be used, however, a large foul-air flue should be provided at the end of the range, and entered into a heated flue capable of producing a strong draught on the foul-air flue. It is quite customary to provide public comfort stations and toilet rooms with drinking fountains placed in close proximity to other fixtures. It would seem preferable and more cleanly to place this fixture outside of the toilet room, where it will not be in the midst of foul and impure odors. The only sanitary drinking fountain is that in which no drinking cup is required. Drinking fountains of this type are now. much used, the water 22Q issuing through bubbling cups which may be adjusted to give any desired amount of water. The user simply places his mouth over the stream coming from the bubbling cup, his mouth coming in con- tact with nothing but the water. The ordinary fountain with its common drinking cup is unsanitary and a successful agent for the spreading of many diseases. These fountains are made singly in pedestal form, and in batteries of any number of bubbling cups, the latter being especially desirable for school use. In the installation of long lines of lavatories, each lavatory should be provided with its own trap, and separately vented. The use of a common waste pipe extending the whole length of a long battery of lavatories to a trap at the end is to be considered very poor prac- tice. It leaves a long line of foul waste pipe to send its odors into the room through each waste connection into it. In order to economize space, it often becomes necessary to locate a double battery of lavatories at the center of the public toilet room, a matter that is usually difficult owing to the impossibility usually, of running the waste and vent pipes concealed, as is desirable in work of this kind. Fig. A shows a method of accomplishing this result, which is considered further in connection with Plate 38. Under the subject of venting, taken up under Plate n, it was seen that the trap seal may be lost by siphonage, the latter action following the formation in the drainage system of a vacuum or par- tial vacuum. Some of the ways in which this vacuum may be formed in the drainage system that is not provided with a system of trap vents, are considered in the following. Siphonage of a trap may be caused by the outflow of the waste from its own fixture, the momentum of which is sometimes sufficient to suck out a large part of the seal. When two fixture wastes branch into the same pipe, the passage of the waste from one fixture may fill the pipe sufficiently to produce a vacuum behind the column of waste, and thus siphon out the seal of the other trap. A fixture having a long line of horizontal waste is often en- dangered by a partial temporary stoppage in the horizontal part of the waste. When this stoppage is relieved, the waste filling the pipe 2 3 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED may flow off so strongly as to produce a vacuum behind it and cause siphonage. This is true even of the water closet. The passage of a heavy volume of waste down a vertical stack may produce a partial vacuum at the entrance into the stack of another fixture, causing: the o trap of the latter to lose its seal. Fixtures at the foot of a stack are more open to the danger of trap siphonage than those nearer the top of the stack. As the lower floors are reached, more waste fills the stack than at points farther up, and as this heavy volume of waste strikes the horizontal line it is naturally impeded, and more nearly fills the pipe, with a consequent greater danger of producing a vacuum followed by the siphonage of trap seals. These conditions that have been described are the cause of many of the rules regulating the construction of plumbing, such as the prohibition of quarter-bends on the drainage system, for instance, the use of which would impede the outflow of waste far more than the Y branch and eighth-bend form of connection between vertical and horizontal lines. Plate XXXVIII PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS czr A- Hlumbing Rublic PLUMBING FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS IN Fig. A of Plate 37 and Fig. E of Plate 38 are shown two views, front and end, of double batteries of lavatories installed at the center of the public toilet room, or in such location that no partition may be used for concealing the waste and vent piping. Each individual lavatory is separately trapped and provided with a continuous vent, this work showing the principle of continuous venting applied somewhat differently than in Plates 26, 27, and 28, though with equal effectiveness. In Fig. A, Plate 37, it is intended to show the main horizontal waste pipe run above the floor, while in Fig. E, Plate 38, the main is run below the floor, and branch wastes connected from each fixture. Either method that is most desirable may be used. The chief feature of this work is the concealment of the main vent line and branch vents inside a box formed by the marble backs of the two lines of fixtures, and a piece of marble set on top. The marble box runs the entire length of the line, which may rise vertically to run to a vertical vent stack at any intermediate point, as in Fig. A, or at either end. The lavatories in both illustrations are of porcelain or porcelain-lined ware, and supported on cast-iron standards. In Fig. A, the marble backs run down to the floor, allowing all but the traps to be concealed in the space between the two marble back slabs, while in the case of Fig. E the space below the lavatories is open, and a part of the work is in sight. The use of continuous vents is of great advantage in this in- stance, as it not only allows the work to be done in a more sanitary manner, more neatly and compactly than by ordinary methods, but at far less cost of labor and material. This last advantage is gained in the use of continuous vents on nearly all work where fixtures back up to each other in pairs, whether under such circumstances as these or on opposite sides of a partition. Under ordinary circumstances, it is not difficult to so construct the toilet room that much of the work may be concealed in open spaces behind partitions. 233 234 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED In Fig. C, for instance, the flush valves for a line of water closets may be thus concealed, and as in Fig. D, the flush tanks, whether high or low, and the horizontal soil pipe may both be concealed. Concealment of working parts, such as flush valves and tanks, with their chains and pulls, is often very desirable, especially in school and factory work, where there is danger of damage due to mischiev- ous tampering with such devices. When so concealed, however, the working parts should be made accessible for repairs and inspection. The use of the circuit system of venting is often of much advan- tage in public toilet rooms, especially in connection with lines of water closets. It is applied in the case of Fig. A, and might be applied to equal advantage in Fig. D. The choice of water closets for public toilet-room work is almost unlimited, if the matter of expense is not to be considered. Fig. D shows a very desirable form in many respects. It is so constructed that it fits squarely into the corner made by the partition, and may be made much more firm and secure against accidental blows by being bolted both to the floor and to the partition. It has a rear outlet which allows the soil pipe to be run above the floor. This method of running the soil pipe and connecting the water closets is of special value in fire-proof buildings and for public buildings of various kinds. The soil pipe is supported on standards, the entire work presenting a very neat appearance. In Fig. B a very con- venient form of water closet is shown, provided with a large local vent connection, which is a part of the bowl itself. This local vent connection gives a much more finished appearance to the fixture than a connection made with metal pipe. The connection is designed to project into a foul-air flue located back of the partition against which the water closets are set. When water closets of public toilet rooms are flushed by indi- vidual flush tanks, the capacity of the latter should not be less than for other uses, that is, not less than of 5 gallons capacity. When supplied from an automatic flush tank, however, the latter should be of such capacity that each water closet on the line shall be flushed by at least four gallons of water at each discharge of the tank. All lip urinals, water closets, and slop sinks used in public toilet rooms should be of the flushing-rim type, this form of fixture being flushed and cleansed more thoroughly than others. PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY Plumbing fr 39 ' PLUMBING FOR BATH ESTABLISHMENT SYSTEMS of plumbing such as that shown in Plate 39 are to be found in Turkish-bath establishments, clubs, Y. M. C. A. buildings, and in other like institutions. Such a system usually includes a num- ber of shower-bath compartments, other compartments for tub baths, swimming pool, lines of lavatories, and ample toilet arrangements. A very important feature in the bath establishment is the liberal use of floor drains, for a great deal of water naturally falls upon the floors; and in addition, abundant opportunity must be provided for flushing and thoroughly cleansing. Owing to impurities washed from the skin, the bath rooms of an establishment of this kind may become exceedingly filthy unless constant attention is given them. For this reason many such bath rooms are supplied with flushing- rim floor drains provided with hot- and cold-water connections, which are very effectual in keeping such drains in a sanitary condition. All floors and walls of bath establishments should be of tile or waterproof material. The walls and ceilings should never be cov- ered with any material that may absorb moisture and odors. Generally the waste from a line of shower baths is carried off in a gutter at the rear of the stalls, the stall floors being graded so that all water will flow into the gutter. The gutter may be formed in the floor itself or of slate or marble set into the floor for this purpose, or it may be of cast iron. The gutter should be graded to its outlet. The outlet should connect into a cast or wrought-iron waste line, and be provided with a trap, the size of which should be determined by the number of shower baths which are served, the size generally being from 2 to 4 in. This trap should be provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts. The plunge or swimming pool should waste through a 4-in. trap, provided with a 2-in. vent and cleanouts of the same size as the trap. The bottom of the pool should be graded toward the outlet end. The swimming pool should be provided with ladders reaching down into it, and a brass hand rail running completely around it. The water of the swimming pool, when constantly in use, should be changed at least once in seven hours. 237 238 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Although not seen in Plate 39, the swimming pool should be provided with an overflow. The plunge bath is now to be found occasionally in the basement of fine residences, and the use of shower apparatus of extensive nature has become a common feature of high- grade and well-appointed bath rooms. In some sections, where the water supply is not remarkably clear, the filtering of the water used in the bath establishment will be found to add much to its luxuries. As in the case of other public toilet rooms, it sometimes becomes necessary to provide a storage of water to be used at such times as the regular supply is inadequate. Concerning the use of tanks, the following remarks may be of value : TANKS FOR STORAGE AND SUPPLY Formerly the attic tank, which supplied the house with water under tank pressure, was of large size, holding several hundred gal- lons. To-day, however, much smaller tanks are used for this purpose. They are supplied with a ball cock, thus allowing water to enter the tank at the same rate that it is drawn out. The storage tank, although it may be used for the same pur- pose and in the same way as the common attic tank, is generally used as an auxiliary to the pressure system of supply, and may be of any size, from a capacity of a few hundred gallons to many thou- sands. These tanks should be of wood or iron, or of wood lined with heavy tinned sheet copper. The best materials for wooden tanks are cypress, white and yellow pine, cypress being the most satisfactory. The storage tank should be supported on heavy iron beams which will not sag under the immense weight of the tank and its contents. In many cases the storage tank must be placed above the point that the pressure supply can reach. Its supply must then be pumped into it. In high buildings it often happens that during the day time, when the mains are being heavily drawn on, the street pressure is not sufficient to force water into the tank, but during the night it is sufficient. A supply can thus be stored at night for use during the day time on those floors not reached by the city pressure. Tanks should always be covered in order to keep out dust, foul gases, and odors. Plate XL PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND STABLES FACTORY PLUMBING Plumbing Enq/nz -/ 4O. . e/c. F~ac/-<=>ry PLUMBING FOR ENGINE HOUSE AND STABLES IN Plate 40 is shown the elevation of a system of plumbing for an engine house. The same style of work may also be used in private stables. In addition to the connections shown, there are usually toilet accommodations for the hostler, in the case of the stable, and bath rooms and toilet fixtures for the engine house. Floor drains should be placed in the apparatus room, wash rooms, hose tower, etc. The construction and connection of stall sinks is shown in detail by Plate 10. Two adjacent stall sinks may be served by the same trap. The plumbing system for a stable should be provided with the same sanitary features as for the house system. A separate main drain should be provided for it to the street sewer, which should not be connected with the house drain of any building. Even under the most favorable conditions, more or less solid matter from the stalls will find its way into the drain, and the fol- lowing provision is of advantage. All wastes from stables, includ- ing waste from wash rooms, manure pits, etc., may, before entering the street sewer, be discharged into a catch basin located under- ground outside of the stable. The catch basin may be constructed of brick or of cast iron, and should be water-tight, with a tight cover, and properly vented. The outlet from the catch basin may be con- nected to the stable sewer or street sewer. FACTORY PLUMBING The sanitary arrangements of well-appointed factories of the present day are of as high an excellence as for schools and other institutions. There is no reason why they should not be of a high standard, but it is true that, until within a comparatively few years, they have often been given scant attention. The ventilation of the toilet room should be on the same scale 241 242 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED and as thorough as that of other public toilet rooms. In Fig. B is shown a floor plan of part of a factory toilet room. As will be seen, it is thoroughly lighted from outside windows and also by inside windows, the latter admitting light from the out- side to the wash room. The floor should be constructed of water- proofed concrete, and provided with a floor drain, as the thorough flushing out of such rooms is very essential. A sill cock, conveniently located, \vill be found convenient in sup- plying water for this purpose. In Fig. D is shown the common method of venting such a line of water closets and the connection of the main horizontal vent line into the main vent stack. The use of the circuit-vent system, as shown in Plate 29, is advantageous in such work, and results in reducing the cost of installation. In buildings of factory construction, horizontal waste and soil lines may be run on the ceiling of the floor below, thus making such lines, with their cleanouts, accessible from the floor below. It may be stated that, in using the circuit and loop vents, it is desirable to run the horizontal soil line as close to the bases of the water closets as possible. The line of water closets shown is provided with local vents. Ventilation by means of fresh and foul-air flues and fans, as described in Plate 37, is preferable for large toilet rooms to the system shown in Fig. D, as it is more thorough, purifying the air of the entire room more effectually. The wash sink for factory use is an important matter. In Fig. B a double line of wash sinks is shown, and in Fig. C an end view of the same. The sinks shown are of enameled cast iron, cast in sections, thus allowing any length of sink to be used. They are supported 'on cast-iron standards, and made in a variety of forms. The waste may be arranged as in Fig. C, which shows a short waste connection above the floor, leading into a trap which serves both lines, the horizontal waste being of cast or wrought iron and hung on the ceiling below. In factory and school plumbing sys- tems it is well to have as little piping exposed as possible, owing to the rough and careless usage given it. The size of the waste from the factory sink should not be less than 2 in., and 3 in. for sinks of great length. The trap should be vented with 2-in. cast- or wrought-iron pipe, which is carried verti- cally to the ceiling, and then horizontally into the nearest vent stack. Plate XLI AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, FACTORIES, ETC. F/ushing X AUTOMATIC FLUSHING FOR SCHOOLS, FACTORIES, ETC IT is often desirable to provide groups of such fixtures as water closets and urinals with automatic flushing, such provision being specially valuable in school and factory use, and often in public work, such as railway-station toilet rooms, public comfort stations, etc. In the use of any toilet room for the accommodation of the public, the fixtures are bound to be used by many people who are ignorant or careless in the matter of flushing fixtures after having used them. In the matter of urinals, especially, the flushing of them is often left to the attention of an attendant who may be careless in perform- ing this duty. In school houses particularly, small children using the fixtures cannot always be expected to understand the necessity of flushing water closets. Owing to these circumstances and many others, the periodic and automatic flushing of fixtures is of much advantage in maintaining wholesome toilet rooms. In Fig. A, Plate 41, is shown a sectional view of a form of automatic flush tank, the action of which is as follows: The admission of water to the automatic tank is not controlled by ball cock, as the supply must be constant. The interval between flushes depends upon the amount of water flowing into the tank, which is regulated by the valve G. The principal working parts of the flushing device consist of a circular vessel D, which is supported by several wires attached to the outer circular compartment B. The vessel D, is filled with water, into which a tube C, projects. Out- side of C is a hollow cylinder H, closed at its upper end, and sup- plied with holes at the bottom, through which the water may enter. As the water rises in the tank, it fills the space between the tubs C and the cylinder H, the air in the tube and at the top of the cylinder being confined between the rising level of the water and the water seal of D. This air becomes more and more compressed as the water rises, until the pressure exerted is sufficient to force the water out of D. This produces a vacuum at the bottom of the tube, and the compression being relieved, atmospheric pressure on the surface of 245 246 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED the water in the tank will force it into the tube C, and into the flush pipe A, which conveys it to the different fixtures to be flushed. This siphonic action continues until the water in the tank drops to such a point that air is admitted through the holes M, when the action stops, the tank again beginning to fill for the next flush. Fig. B shows the general plan of connections between the tank and the fixtures. The principles governing the construction, locating, etc., of stor- age tanks also apply to automatic flush tanks, and are to be found under Plate 39. Successive flushes should not be more than seven minutes apart. A great objection to automatic flushing is that when- ever water closets or urinals are used, the excreta entering them must remain in the fixture, giving off impure odors into the toilet room, until the next flush takes place. For this reason it is necessary to provide each water closet and each urinal of an automatically flushed system with strong-acting local vents. The automatic flush tank should be of sufficient size to discharge into each fixture at least four gallons of water at each flush. The copper lining for the automatic flush tank, and for all other flush tanks, should not be less than 10 ounces. This weight is ordinarily used for tank linings, but a heavier grade of metal is preferable. Another disadvantage in the use of the automatic flush tank is the large amount of water used, which is a matter of importance if a metered public supply is to be used, owing to cost of water. In many instances however, institutions, factories, and hotels have a large private supply, the use of which is not restricted. When used in connection with many systems, the periodic flushing must go on without interruption, but in the case of school buildings the supply to the tank may be shut off when school is not in session. In con- nection with plumbing systems automatically flushed, water closets and urinals in private toilet rooms and bath rooms may not be con- nected to the automatic flush if it is desirable to keep down the cost of water used. Fig. C, Plate 41, shows a form of automatically flushed urinal, of excellent design. It is made of porcelain, or porcelain-lined material, is free from exposed metal parts which may corrode, and is well adapted to public toilet rooms. A cross section of a urinal of this type may be seen in Fig. E, AUTOMATIC FLUSHING 247 Plate 43, from which it will be observed that a large body of water always stands in the fixture, the tank after completing its flush always providing this body of water, which stands in the urinal until the succeeding flush. A double trap is provided on the outlet of this urinal, one trap being above the other; When the tank flushes, the air in the upper trap becomes rarefied that is, partially exhausted sufficiently to set in action a strong siphon which draws the entire contents of the urinal out of the fixture and into the waste. When the water in the tank drops to a certain level, air is admitted to the pipe running from the tank to the crown of the upper trap, the admission of this air to the trap breaking the siphon. When the siphon breaks, the water at that time in the urinal, remains there until the next flush. No water is wasted in starting this siphon, every drop of water passing out of the tank being used in cleansing the fixture. A horizontal perforated pipe at the back of the urinal, and connected with- the vertical flush pipe from the tank, thoroughly flushes and cleanses the back of the urinal. This same action is applied in the flushing of water-closet ranges. Both range and urinal can be installed of any number of compartments and supplied with a tank of size to correspond. Slop sinks, in addition to water closets and urinals, may be automatically flushed. There is a sink for factory use, made of slate, or wood lined with sheet copper, and of any desired length, which is comparatively self-cleansing. The sink is made with an outer and inner compartment, the latter running through the center of the sink, with space for wash- ing on either side. There is also a narrow space at the end of the inner compartment, between it and the outer compartment, in which a standing overflow is located, connected into the waste. A line of supply pipe runs above and over the center of the sink, and is pro- vided with sprays which throw the water down into the center compartment, from which it overflows into the main body of the sink. Thus the first washing may be done in the outer compart- ment, with clean water always in the inner compartment for use in face washing. In factories employing a high grade of help, the line or battery of lavatories shown in Fig. A of Plate 37, and Fig. E of Plate 38 is much in use. Plate XLII THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES Use F~/u shing ** V////////K. f/g.B THE USE OF FLUSHING VALVES FLUSH valves are used in place of tanks in the flushing of water closets, urinals, and si-op sinks. They may be placed directly back of and above the fixtures which they serve, or may be con- cealed behind partitions, as shown in Figs. C and D of Plate 42. Flush valves may be operated either under direct pressure, as in Fig. B, or under tank pressure, as in Fig. A. The operation of flush valves under tank pressure is generally the more satisfactory method, as there is always a storage of water in the event of an interruption of the public supply, and the pressure is more positive mid reliable. The tank pressure is always uniform, while direct pressure is extremely variable, which is an undesirable feature in not only this work, but in all branches of supply work. When a storage tank is used, the height of the tank above the highest flush valve should not be less than 10 ft. if good service is to be expected. Flush valves may be obtained that are to be connected with the supply pipe coming directly through the wall back of the valve, or for either right- or left-hand side connection. The operation of most flush valves is similar in its general features. This action is as follows: When the handle is released after flushing, the valve is closed automatically by a jet of water discharged from the pressure side of the valve into and through a by-pass to the valve chamber beyond the piston head, which it gradually forces onto its seat. This by-pass is one of the sources of trouble, as any sand or other solid substance will clog up the passage and stop the passage of the water jet into the valve cham- ber. Some valves are provided with a device for holding back any such harmful solids. It is difficult to state definitely proper sizes of pipes and connec- tions for flush valves, as this information, given by manufacturers of different forms of flush valves, varies greatly, depending upon the different forms and construction of valves and upon the pressures that they are designed to work under. Some manufacturers adver- tise flush valves which work under pressures between 10 and 200 251 252 pounds, and are not affected in their operation by a variation between these two points. Other makes of flush valves, however, are made in different styles, for different pressures. Owing to inability to give absolutely definite data which will cover all makes of flush valves, the follow- ing information is given in general, and may or may not be correct in the case of certain makes. Generally a pressure of 8 to 10 pounds is required for the operation of flush valves under direct pressure, and supply pipes serving buildings in which flush valves are used should be of such sizes and so installed that the drawing of water at fixtures will not reduce the pressure at any flush valve below the amount- named. In general, the size of service pipe for flush valves is from 1*4 to i l /2 in., when operated by direct pressure, for valves up to four in number, and these sizes should be increased for larger numbers. When working under tank pressure, a main line of supply pipe is run down to the several floors, branches being taken to the dif- ferent fixtures to be supplied. A i*/2-in. main is ample for from one to four fixtures. If there is more than this number of fixtures, it is well in ordinary build- ings to carry a 2-in. supply down from the tank 10 or 15 ft., reduc- ing to i */2 in. for the rest of the distance, and if the building is ten stories or more in height, the lower floors may be reduced to i% and i in. Flush valves for urinal use are often smaller in size than those designed for water-closet use, and have smaller supply connections. For low pressures a 1^/2 -in. connection to the flush valve is used, and for ordinary pressures \y in. is the general size. The storage tank for use in connection with flush valves should have a capacity, whenever possible, of about 6 gallons per fixture. This capacity is the requirement when a small number of flush valves are installed. On large systems, where a large number of valves are used, it is not necessary to provide such liberal storage, as the amount named per fixture allows for two successive flushes, and in large work it is almost impossible that all, or anywhere near all, of the fixtures served will be flushed at the same time. Therefore the size of the tank may be reduced from the capacity named, as may be cor- rect for each separate system. A liberal capacity of storage is always desirable, however. URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS L/r/no/s 7~o//e/- URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS OWING to the nature of the waste that enters the urinal, it is the most difficult of all toilet-room fixtures to keep in a clean and sanitary condition. The foul air noticed in many public toilet rooms that are not properly provided for and attended to, is due in a large measure to foul urinals, this cause no doubt, being greater than the use of water closets. The local vent may be very effectively applied to the urinal, and results in lessening the nuisance mentioned very percep- tibly. In Fig. A, Plate 43, is shown a method of applying the local vent to the single urinal or to groups of them when of the lip pattern. The piping for the urinal is concealed behind the back urinal slab or behind a partition. From the house side of the urinal trap the local vent connection is made, it being connected directly into a main horizontal local vent line, which should be carried into a heated flue under the same conditions as prescribed for the local vent serving a line of water closets. The main should be proportioned in size so that at any point its area shall be equal to the combined areas of the branch vents that have been connected into it. A strong draft in the heated flue will result not only in drawing the foul odors out of the connections, but from the fixture itself, and from the room. It is very necessary that a heated flue should be used, and for the ventilation of large toilet rooms a special flue should be used and kept heated the year round. The connection of the local vent does not interfere with the connection of the trap vent, which is, of course, taken off the other side of the trap, and may be connected into a main vent line above the floor, the trap entering a main line of waste either above or below the floor. In Fig. D is shown a system of local venting applied to another form of urinal. These vents should also enter a heated flue. In order to better show the remaining con- nections, the trap vents have been omitted in Fig. D. The local vent- ing of urinal traps has the disadvantage of producing on the seals a higher rate of evaporation, but when used in public toilet rooms the urinals are more or less constantly in use, and the loss of seal 255 256 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED thereby continually renewed. In the case of a urinal seldom used, it would be unwise for this reason, to apply the local vent. As to the form in which the urinal is made there is a great variety of choice. One of the most common forms is the lip urinal, shown in Fig. A, which is supported on a slate or marble back by means of bolts, and receives its flush through a urinal cock by direct pressure or from a tank located above it, which may or may not be of auto- matic action. In Plate 44 is shown a line of these fixtures, from which it will be seen that such a line may be provided with con- tinuous vents to advantage. The various forms of slate urinals are also very common. Figs. B and C show two of these forms, the latter showing a double line with single dividing partition. In the urinal of Fig. B, the waste, striking the two drip slabs, is washed down into a gutter, formed in the concrete floor, by means of water discharged from two per- porated flush pipes running lengthwise. This flush keeps the slabs wet at all times, all liquids being washed away as they fall upon the slab. More commonly in use than this type of urinal, however, is that shown in Fig. C, w r hich consists of a vertical drip slab with perforated flush pipe, the waste liquids being washed into the cement gutter or into a cast-iron gutter. The ends of such gutters should be provided with metal connections and cast- or wrought-iron trap of not less than 2 in. diameter connected into the waste. All urinals should be provided with slate or marble floor slabs, and any wall surface that is exposed and within 5 ft. of a urinal should be con- structed of Portland cement or other impervious material. The urinal gutter should also be constructed of like material. In connection with the cast-iron urinal gutter mentioned above, it should be added that to be strictly sanitary the gutter should be lined with enamel, in order to prevent any corrosion due to the presence of the urine in the waste. All lip urinals should be of the flushing-rim pattern, in order that all surfaces of the urinal may be as thoroughly scoured and cleansed by the flush as possible. In Fig. D is shown a set of three porcelain urinals, flushed by means of an automatic flush tank. The porcelain urinal is a massive fixture and especially adapted to the service of public toilet rooms and comfort stations, which de- mand the most perfect sanitary conditions possible, usually without URINALS FOR PUBLIC TOILET ROOMS 257 question of expense. The flush pipe is concealed in the fixture itself, the flush entering' each urinal through a spreader, which throws it upon every part of the exposed surfaces, these surfaces being so formed as to allow the flush to cleanse them to the best advantage. An excellent feature of this form of urinal is that no metal parts or trimmings are exposed, and thus there is nothing which may corrode by contact with the urine. The addition of the local vent completes in this fixture the highest sanitary excellence to be found in urinal construction. The porcelain trough urinal shown in elevation in Fig. C, Plate 41, and in section in Fig. E, Plate 43, has been fully described under the former plate, and is to be considered an excellent fixture for public toilet-room work. The pedestal urinal of porcelain, is one of the latest types of urinal to appear on the market, and is also of much excellence. An- other recent urinal of high-grade construction is the siphon- jet urinal, supplied from a tank. In this fixture, a heavy body of water is at all times maintained. When the tank is operated, the flush enters through the flushing rim and through a jet, in the same manner as in the siphon-jet water closet. This action results in siphoning the entire body of water out of the fixture, which is of the lip pattern. Flushing valves may be applied to the urinal to advantage, as shown in Plate 42. These valves may be concealed, as in Fig. C, or exposed, as in Figs. A and B. Automatic flushing of urinals, as illustrated and considered in Plate 41, is along the line of good practice. When the flushing of this fixture is left to the user of it, this important matter is often neglected, the result being a foul-smelling toilet room. Automatic flushing does away with much of the nuisance arising from this cause. In Plate 44 a line of urinals is shown in connection with the Durham system. The drainage of this system is entirely of wrought- iron or steel pipe, upon which the action of the acids in the urine passing from the urinals is especially harmful. This action is far less serious on cast-iron pipe, and presents additional argument in favor of the use of the latter material for drainage purposes. As elsewhere intimated, the public toilet room should be pro- vided with the advantage of good ventilation and with an abundant supply of light. Without these advantages the urinal becomes a foul and unsanitary fixture. Plate XLIV THE DURHAM SYSTEM THE DESTRUC TION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 77?e Durham ;?:..&. Xf///////j Casf ?ec Drp/noge ~' ' THE DURHAM SYSTEM THERE is no difference in the principles of construction between the Durham system and the plumbing system as ordinarily con- structed. The only difference in the Durham system is that it is constructed entirely of wrought-iron threaded pipe and cast-iron fittings. On the Durham system all joints are made with screw threads, no caulked lead joints being used. The Durham system is shown in Plate 44, with a detail in section, of the style of cast-iron fitting used on Durham. Fittings of other than recessed construction should not be used on any part of the drainage system. On vent work in con- nection with the Durham drainage system, galvanized, cast, or mal- leable steam and water fittings of ordinary make may be used. The purpose in using recessed fittings is that the alignment of the inside surface of drainage pipe and fittings may be as even as possible, with no ends of pipes that screw into fittings presenting shoulders against which solid matter flowing in the waste may find lodgment. The use of cast-iron pipe and fittings is free from this trouble, for the hubs are sufficiently recessed to allow an even inside align- ment. In the use of common steam and water fittings on cast-iron drainage work, there being no recesses in such fittings, the ends of all pipes entering fittings present shoulders against which lint and other materials in the waste may collect. It may be stated, however, that this trouble is experienced in a greater degree in connection with Durham work than in cast-iron soil piping. For this reason, special care should be taken in cutting wrought-iron pipe for drainage use, and all burs on the ends of such pipes should be reamed out. The weights of wrought-iron pipe for drainage purposes should not be less than the following: Diameter of Pipe Weight per Foot Diameter of Pipe Weight per Foot iy 2 in 2.68 Ibs. 5 in 14.5 Ibs. 2 " 3.61 " 6 " 18.76 " 2/2 " 574 " 7" 23.27 " 3 " 7-54 " 8 " 28.18 31/2" 9 " 9 " 33.7 " 4 " 10.66 " 10 " 40.06 " 4/2" 12.34 " 261 262 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED All fittings used on Durham work and on all vent work should be galvanized. Short nipples, in which the unthreaded part is less than i}/ 2 in. long, should be made of weight and thickness known as " extra heavy " or " extra strong." This provision is to guard against crushing and splitting, which is liable to happen in the use of nipples made of ordinary pipe. Joints on the Durham system should be made up with red, or white lead, applied to the male part of the thread. When thus applied there is less opportunity for the lead to squeeze through into the interior of the pipe and form an obstruction. Care should be taken that all such obstructions are removed when the joint is made. When wrought-iron or brass pipe is connected into cast-iron pipe, the connection may be made by a caulked lead joint or by a screw joint. Connections between lead and wrought-iron pipes may be made by means of a brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the cast iron, the lead connection to the ferrule being made by means of a wiped joint. An advantage claimed for the Durham system by its friends, is that a screw joint, being as strong as the pipe is, there are no weak points in a line of such pipe, whereas it would be folly to claim any such thing as this regarding a line of cast-iron pipe with its caulked joints. This argument is followed by the claim that the above being true as regards a vertical line of wrought-iron pipe, so long as it rests at its base on a firm foundation, there is no necessity for side supports, and that it may be carried thus, through the height of the tallest buildings. This would not seem plausible, for the reason that any line of drainage pipe, whether vertical or horizontal, of cast or wrought iron, should be given lateral support in order that it may be rigid and not subject to any lateral movement. Even though the screw joint is a strong one, lateral motion in a long line of pipe will often result in snapping the pipe at one of the screw joints or in breaking a fitting. Furthermore, if a vertical line of cast-iron drain- age pipe be given the support that it should receive, it will not sag or settle so that the caulked joints will be forced out of the hubs, a claim that is made against the use of cast-iron pipe. It is true that in the construction of the plumbing system the proper supporting of heavy piping is not given the attention that it should receive, damage to caulked joints' often resulting thereby. It is also true that lines of THE DURHAM SYSTEM 263 cast-iron pipe properly provided for, suffer no more from broken joints than wrought-iron lines, and are free from certain serious evils which wrought iron is subject to. The Durham system, which has received its name from the inventor of certain patents on the application of wrought-iron pipes to drainage systems, is now extensively used in high city buildings, mainly because of the advantages thus claimed for the system, and it is a question whether such extensive use would have resulted if the cast-iron system had been properly handled. It has often been placed in high buildings with not much more pro- vision being made for supporting its great weight than is made in the system of a private residence, and it is mainly due to this cause that cast iron has been somewhat superseded in very large work. There are many uses to which iron piping is put, in which the use of wrought iron for drainage purposes is preferable. Greenhouse work is an important instance. In this work, where there is much expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature, the caulked joint will not stand nearly so \vell as the screw joint. This is also many times true in the case of factory work, where constant and severe vibration tends to start the caulked joints of cast-iron piping. A very strong argument against the use of the Durham system is the fact that wrought-iron pipe has a much shorter term of life than cast-iron pipe, particularly when buried underground. This fact is testified to very strongly by the demand made by all plumbing ordinances dealing with the subject of the Durham system, that when- ever pipes connected with the system are to be run underground, such pipes shall be of cast iron. This feature appears in the illus- tration in Plate 44. Regarding the life of wrought-iron pipe, it may be stated that under certain unfavorable conditions, plain wrought- iron piping that has been installed not longer than eight to ten years has had to be renewed, owing to its deterioration. Steel pipe is much used in place of wrought iron, many times indeed, under the impression that it is wrought iron. This material is far shorter lived than even wrought iron, and is entirely unsuited to the plumbing system, which should be expected to render service almost as long as the house in which it is placed. The only way in which either wrought-iron or steel pipe can be used with any degree of safety is by coating it with a non-corrosive substance such as galvanizing, which is demanded by all ordinances on plumbing. Even when so protected, there will be thin places in 264 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED the coating, and whenever the pipe is cut, the coating at the ends of the pipe is more or less damaged, so that the steel or wrought iron is left bare. At such points corrosion gets in its work. A scale is formed by this galvanic action, over the exposed surface, which in time exposes a fresh surface to be acted upon, the scale forming again, and again falling off. Thus the action continues until a hole has been eaten entirely through the pipe. The action of gases and acids in the sewage, and in the vapors and steam that rise from the sewage, tends to increase this corrosive action in a marked degree. Cast iron, however, is much more free from such corrosion, for it simply rusts over on any exposed surface, but does not scale, the rust actually forming a sort of protection for the piping. An important agent in the corrosion of wrought iron and steel is the condensation of vapors on the sides of the pipe in the form of drops of water, which quickly oxidize any exposed surface which they come in contact with. Mild steel is especially objectionable, as it is so filled with im- purities that it rapidly decays wherever they exist. The vent system is open to the injurious effects of corrosion to an even greater extent than the drainage system, for the latter is often covered with a slime which acts as a protection against such action. While the screw joint is the strong arguing point in favor of the Durham system, it is right at this point that the most serious trouble may be expected, both on the drainage and on the vent lines. Wher- ever a thread is cut, the material of the pipe is entirely exposed, and whenever threads project out from the joint, which often happens, there is not only abundant opportunity for corrosive action to take place, but there is a large surface to act upon, because of its being threaded, and owing to the depth of the thread there is less thick- ness of metal to be eaten through, before the pipe is punctured. In the case of mild steel, especially, it takes only a few years to accom- plish such a result under the above conditions. It is a very easy matter for most users to be imposed upon in deciding from the appearance of pipe, whether it is wrought iron or steel. A very large part of the pipe now turned out is of steel. The following shows some of the differences between iron and steel. Iron pipe looks rough and has a heavy scale, while the scale on steel pipe is much lighter and in the form of small bubbles, with a smooth and rather white surface beneath. DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 265 Steel pipe, when spread out, seldom breaks, while iron pipe breaks easily. A break in the former shows a very fine grain, while that of the latter is much coarser. Steel pipe is not hard and its threads tear rather than break. Dies that are used on steel pipe may also be used on wrought-iron pipe, but blunt dies that work satisfactorily on wrought-iron pipe will tear the softer threads of steel pipe. A few remarks concerning the length of life of wrought- and cast-iron pipes under actual working conditions, and the conditions which act to protect or destroy them, may be of interest. A case is on record of the complete decay of an entire underground wrought- iron gas-supply system in eleven years, the cause being in this case traced entirely to external conditions and not to the gas which the pipes were carrying. In the same town experience shows that wrought-iron water-service pipes have a life generally of about seven years. Cast-iron pipes have been known to fail through softening of the metal after a period of use underground of from thirty-five to fifty years. This action, however, is very rare, and the failure of cast-iron pipes, when laid underground, may generally be traced to defects in manufacture. A few years ago in the city of Los Angeles, the cast-iron water mains were uncovered in over three hundred places, and the pipes, which had been laid nearly thirty years previous, were found to be in almost perfect condition. It was found that the coating of asphalt had almost entirely dis- appeared, that in sandy soil the bare pipe had not rusted, and that in other moist soil it had rusted somewhat but was almost uninjured. In conclusion, it would seem advisable to use cast-iron pipe for drain- age purposes wherever possible, and that when impossible or im- practicable, nothing but wrought-iron pipe heavily galvanized should be used. Steel pipe should never be used. DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS In recent years great damage has been done to all kinds of underground piping by the action of electric currents, chiefly from electric railway systems. This damaging action affects water mains and service pipes, gas mains and service pipes, the lead sheathing of 266 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED underground telephone and telegraph lines, and in fact any line of underground piping, regardless of the nature of the metal of which it is made. In the action of the ordinary galvanic battery, such as is used for house bells, two metallic plates are used, one of these gen- erally being zinc, and the other some metal which will not oxidize so readily as zinc. When two such plates are immersed in a saline solution, and a circuit completed by connecting a wire from one plate to the other, it is a well-known fact that the more easily oxidized plate will be acted upon chemically and decomposed. It is for the reason that this chemical action in time destroys the zinc plate that battery zincs must be replaced in batteries at longer or shorter intervals. This destruction of a metal by means of the passage of an electric current, is known as electrolysis, and is an action which is constantly going on underground, in the vicinity of trolley tracks. It is the practice in the operation of most electric-railway systems to carry the electric current to the end of the line through large wires, and to carry it back to the dynamos through the rails. As the rails are not separated or insulated from the surrounding earth in any way, there is nothing to prevent a part of the current from escaping from the rail and passing into and through another near-by conductor. An electric current will always take the path that is easiest for it; that is, the path that has the least resistance. When- ever an electric current passes a point where it may take either of two or more paths, it will always divide, a part of it passing through each path that is open to it, and the path that presents the least amount of resistance to its passage will receive the largest part of the current. If the rails of the trolley system were welded together and therefore one continuous conductor, the action of electrolysis would be much less prevalent. As it is, however, the rails must be bonded, and at these joints the greatest resistance is to be met. Even though two rails might have their ends pressed together as closely as possible, there would still be at this joint a resistance to the passage of the current many times greater than the resistance it would meet at any intermediate points in the rail. Even when the rails are connected together by means of copper wire attached to the rails in the most approved manner, the resistance at the points of connection will be very great. It is at such points of resistance as these that the electric current will jump from the rail to some other conductor which offers DESTRUCTION OF PIPES BY ELECTROLYSIS 267 less resistance, and this easier path for the current is often supplied by a near-by line of underground piping. If the current would only continue in the pipe, and not leave it, the pipe would not be damaged, any more than the rail is damaged by having the current pass through it. It is at the points where the electric current jumps from the pipe to the rail again, or to some other conductor, that the damage comes, and also at fittings. The current in passing from the pipe, through the joint and into a fitting, does specially harmful work. It is not at the point where the current enters the pipe, or at interme- diate points along the pipe that the pipe is destroyed, but at those points where the current leaves it. This point is not generally understood. While all kinds of piping are subject to the action of electrolysis, and valves as well, cast iron is probably less harmfully acted upon than the other metals, although there are many instances where cast- iron water mains have been very seriously damaged. There are, however, several instances recorded, where serious damage was done to wrought-iron and lead pipes, while the cast-iron mains, which were apparently subject to the same conditions, were practically unharmed. An explanation of this result is not clear, .although it has been suggested that in the casting of the iron pipes in sand moulds, a sort of silicious coating forms over the pipe, which acts as a protection to it. The plumber is naturally much interested in the methods that may be employed to prevent the action of elec- trolysis. It may truthfully be said that there is really no practicable remedy which may be applied at an expense which is not prohibitory. The owners of electric-railway systems may often considerably re- duce the cause of damage, but that is not the part of the question in which the plumber is interested. If the pipe that is affected can be surrounded by some suitable non-conductor, the trouble may be remedied, but it is a most difficult matter to provide a suitable non- conductor. Many materials that above ground might be used as non-conductors, cannot be used underground for the same purpose, as they absorb moisture and become conductors. The use of as- phaltum, resin, wax, and other substances has been tried, but they are not generally practicable, as a coating of such material is liable to crack and fall off, and in addition is too expensive to apply. In some cases, about the only thing that can be done is to provide for 268 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED taking out sections of pipe, that are being constantly destroyed, in as easy a manner as possible. Sometimes it is well to encase the pipe in another pipe, in which case the current will often act on the outer pipe only. The action of electrolysis has caused the plumber an endless amount of annoyance in a great many instances, as one pipe after another has often been destroyed, and the cause many times being unknown, the plumber has been blamed for results that are prac- tically beyond his power to remedy. In addition, the gas and water and telephone and telegraph companies have suffered enormous losses. In the case of the gas and water companies, especially the former, the loss has not been entirely on the piping, but loss of great extent has occurred in the waste of gas or water carried in the pipes. The action of electrolysis is not confined alone in its destructive action to underground piping. The steel frames of large city build- ings, the steel framework of elevated railways, and much other construction work of a similar nature has also been very seriously impaired from the same cause. The great losses due to the action of electrolysis, and the danger attending the results of such action, have become of such importance that a very large amount of money has been offered by a leading scientific institution for a practicable remedy that will overcome its effects. Plate XLV CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT USE OF LEAD Plahe 45. Lead CONSTRUCTION OF WORK WITHOUT USE OF LEAD THE present tendency of plumbing construction is toward the use of other metals than lead, cast and wrought iron, brass and copper being the materials commonly used; whereas in former times the entire drainage system was of lead, including the soil piping. This practice has reached such an extent that many plumbing ordi- nances restrict the use of lead to short branches of soil and waste pipes, closet bends and traps. Plate 45 shows several illustrations of this class of work, Figs. A and B showing work in connection with the Durham system, while the three remaining illustrations show brass and wrought-iron work in connection with main lines of cast-iron pipe. It is entirely feasible to construct the entire plumbing system without the use of any lead whatever, and numerous buildings may be found which are so pro- vided. Figs. A and B show two methods of installing water-closet connections without the use of lead. In the latter, the long-turn elbow takes the place of the lead bend. The connections in Fig. A are very satisfactory for water-closet w r ork, giving a quick discharge of the waste into the main. Very often in connection with a line of water closets, the connections of Fig. A may be used without the vent, and the end of the horizontal main extended in the form of the circuit or loop vent. In such work the horizontal line may be brought considerably closer to the fixtures than in Fig. A. In Fig. C the lavatory is served by a brass trap and vented by a continuous vent. When such a fixture is located at a distance from a main line of vent, this method is very convenient, as the vent can be carried to the ceiling above, or under the floor, and hori- zontally to the desired point. Fig. D shows the manner in which a fixture connected in the ordinary way may be installed without the use of lead. In Fig. E a group of urinals and lavatories is connected in a manner which is very satisfactory and now much used. The main horizontal waste line is generally run above the floor, and directly above it and above the highest fixture, the main horizontal vent is run. Back of each 271 272 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED fixture the main waste and vent lines are connected by a i^-in. vertical pipe, and into these vertical lines the fixture wastes are con- nected by a horizontal trap outlet, into a fitting of the T-Y pattern. This provides a continuous vent for each fixture, and effects a saving in cost of installation over the ordinary methods. The waste connections into the horizontal waste are ordinarily made through T-Y fittings, but it is preferable to use a Y branch and eighth bend, the waste passing ofif by this means more smoothly than through the T-Y fitting. In the use of wrought-iron pipe on the drainage system, the 'work may often be put in more compactly than with cast iron, owing to the fact that fittings and hubs take up less room. This will appear from Fig. A. In Figs. A and B the brass floor flange for the water closet is screwed into the cast-iron elbow. Fig. F, Plate 17, shows a detail of a water-closet connection when the soil pipe is of wrought-iron and no lead bend is used. All cast-iron fittings used in connection with wrought-iron drainage pipes should be recessed fittings, whether the entire system is of Durham construction or only branch wastes, as in Fig. C. When the Durham system is used, and it is desired to connect lead pipe into the wrought-iron pipe, it may be done by means of a brass soldering nipple or brass ferrule caulked or screwed into the wrought iron, as shown in connection with the water closets in the basement, in Plate 44. Brass ferrules should be of extra heavy cast brass, not less than 4 in. in length and 2^4, 3^, and 4^2 in. in diameter. The weights of brass ferrules should not be less than the fol- lowing: Diameter Weight 2*4 in ....................... I lb. 3/ " .................... :. itt Ibs. 4/2 ...................... Soldering nipples should be of brass pipe, iron-pipe size, or of extra-heavy cast brass. Cast-brass soldering nipples should not be less than the following in weight: Diameter Weight 1 1/2 in ................... 8 oz. 2 " ............... , . . 14 " 2 y 2 " .................. i lb. 6 oz. 3 " .................. 2 Ibs. 4 " .................. 3 " 8 " CONSTRUCTION OF WORK 273 On several of the foregoing plates, illustrations are shown of work constructed without the use of lead. For instance, on Plate 43, Fig. D shows a line of porcelain urinals constructed in this manner. For urinal work, cast iron and brass are preferable to wrought- iron, steel, and lead pipe, for certain acids and gases in the urine which enters the connections of this fixture act destructively on the three last-named materials, and this action is often very rapid. There is a considerable amount of work installed in which the only lead used is the lead bend. The bath-room connections of Fig. E, Plate 21, are an example of this style of work, in the use of spe- cial fittings. Fig. G, Plate 22, shows the same class of work performed by the use of common fittings. Figs. B and C of Plate 26, and the illustrations of Plates 27 and 28, show plumbing construction provided with continuous vents, in which brass traps may be used, thus avoiding the use of lead. These illustrations show clearly that continuous vent work favors the use of other materials than lead. Plate 36 shows an entire plumbing system in which the only lead material used is the lead water-closet bends, and, if desired, other materials may be used in place of these. Fig. E, Plate 38, shows connections of wrought iron for a line of lavatories which give satisfaction and make a very neat appear- ance. Thus it will be seen that lead has but a small place in the construction of present-day plumbing in the larger cities, and on large work especially. The displacing of lead in plumbing construction by such mate- rials as cast and wrought iron and brass is attended by results both favorable and unfavorable, some of which may be seen from the following. The great objection to the use of lead, as stated else- where, is that when run of considerable length it will sag and form traps, owing to the softness of the metal. This objection is cer- tainly not encountered in the use of wrought- and cast-iron and brass piping. There are many places where lead will give better service, how- ever, than material of a stifTer nature. For instance, lead will stand sudden strains and concussions better than cast- or wrought-iron or brass pipes. For this reason it is always advisable to use lead on the suction pipes of pumps, water lifts, etc. On such work as this, 274 lead pipe does not develop the leaks that other materials do. In connection with the use of lead for suction pipes, it may be stated that in the event of a leak on the suction pipe it is far easier to locate it if the pipe is of lead than if of wrought iron. The reason for this is that the sound made by the passage of air through the leak telephones along the length of the wrought- iron pipe to a much greater extent than through lead pipe, the result being that it is difficult ofttimes to locate the exact place where the defect exists, while in lead pipe the noise can be heard only indis- tinctly at distant points. The objections to the employment of wrought iron and steel on the drainage and vent systems are considered thoroughly under the subject of the Durham system. It may be stated that while certain disadvantages exist in con- nection with the use of lead, wrought-iron, and steel pipes for drain- age and vent purposes, there is almost nothing that can be said against the use of cast iron and brass for the same purposes. Plate XLVI THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES LOCATED BELOW SEWER LEVEL AU- TOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS AUTO- MATIC SUMP TANKS Aul~^mo/-/c Setvaoe " L iff- THE DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE OF FIXTURES LOCATED BELOW SEWER LEVEL AUTOMATIC SEWAGE LIFTS -AUTOMATIC SUMP TANKS IN the larger cities there are many instances where plumbing fixtures are located below the level of the street sewer, in which case it is obviously impossible to discharge the waste coming from them, into the sewer by gravity. Such conditions must be dealt with in the sub-basement floors of numerous tall city buildings, underground toilet rooms or public-comfort stations, and in underground or sub- way passenger stations. Briefly stated, the method of handling such sewage is to convey it by gravity through the ordinary soil and waste lines into a receiv- ing tank, from which it is pumped or ejected by other means, into the house sewer of the gravity system. In addition to fixture drainage, the matter of subsoil drainage, which is often a very considerable matter in underground work, must be taken care of. There are several methods of raising the low-level sewage into the gravity house drain. It may be done by pumps of different kinds, or by means of automatic sewage lifts, several of which are now on the market, and operated by compressed air or steam. A sectional view of such a sewage lift or ejector is to be seen in Plate 46. When pumps are to be used, the low-level sewage is discharged into a receiving tank located below the level of the lowest fixtures, each soil or waste inlet to the tank being trapped, and the trap sup- plied with a vent, which may be connected into any main vent of the gravity system. A tank of this kind should be large enough to hold the sewage collecting during several hours, if the discharge from it is automatic, and if not, it should be large enough to hold the sewage entering it during twenty-four hours. As nearly above the tank as possible, a centrifugal pump is set, which is operated by an electric motor. A float inside the tank is arranged to rise with the sewage in the tank, and when it has filled i fe' 277 278 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED to a certain point, the rising of the float locks an electric switch which controls the motor. The motor is thus set in action, operat- ing the pump, and the latter quickly draws out the contents of the tank and forces them into the house sewer of the gravity system. The suction of the pump should reach down to the bottom of the tank in order to draw out all the heavy matter. To the tank a fresh- air inlet should be connected, not only to serve the ordinary pur- pose of the fresh-air inlet, but to relieve the tank while it is filling and to aid the pump by admitting air when the latter is in action. The pump may also be set on the same level as the tank, and, in fact, works to better advantage when so set, as no primer is necessary, and the apparatus is thereby considerably simplified. Piston pumps are also used in raising sewage from low levels. The centrifugal form of pump is best adapted to large volumes of sewage which are not to be raised very high, while piston pumps will raise smaller amounts through much greater distances. In the use of piston pumps, however, it is necessary to prevent anything but clear sewage from entering, as the coarser and gritty matter works destructively on the working parts of the pump. The great objection to the use of pumps in disposing of low- level sewage is the cost of operating. The use of automatic sewage ejectors, however, is accompanied with small running expenses, and they have many advantages over the use of pumps, chief among which is the fact that there are almost no working parts to get out of order, and very few auxiliary devices, which are expensive to operate, as in the case of electric motors used on pumps. In Plate 46 is shown such an apparatus, operating automatically, and designed especially for this kind of work. There are several other makes that may be obtained, all work- ing on more or less similar principles. Compressed air has proved the most satisfactory motive power, but very often these machines are provided with appliances by means of which steam or water may be used to operate them in the event of an interruption in the com- pressed-air apparatus. The action of the automatic sewage lift is the following: Sew- age from the levels below the crown of the sewer is conducted, through various lines of soil and waste pipe, into a sewage tank or receiver. DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 279 Inside the receiver an open bucket rests upon the surface of the sewage, rising as the latter rises. When it has risen to a cer- tain point, the rod to which it is connected, and which passes through a stuffing box at the top of the tank, by means of a lever attachment trips a valve on the compressed-air supply pipe, the same action clos- ing a valve on the vent pipe of the apparatus. Compressed air is at once admitted upon the surface of the sewage in the receiver, and is sufficient in pressure to raise this sewage through the outlet and into the house sewer of the gravity system. A pressure of 2 pounds should be provided for each foot in height through which the sewage is to be raised. When the pressure of the compressed air is exerted on the sew- age, it closes the check valve on the inlet to the receiver, and opens the check valve on the outlet, and as the closing of the vent pipe closes the only other path for the sewage, it must pass out through the proper outlet. As the water in the receiver falls, the bucket, which is weighted with the water which it holds, follows with it, and when it reaches a point near the bottom, the lever attachment shuts the valve which controls the compressed-air supply, and opens the vent valve, thus venting the air confined in the receiver. The ejector is now ready for another operation. It will be seen that the ejector acts as a trap, and therefore the use of a main trap is unnecessary in connection with it. The receiver of the ejector should be vented, such vent usually being connected into some convenient main vent on the gravity- drainage system. Air compressors and a storage tank for com- pressed air are necessary features of a plant of this kind. The valves on the inlet and outlet pipes of the ejector are for use in the event that it is desired to disconnect any one of several sewage lifts that are connected together on the same system. The automatic sewage lift is generally installed in a brick or iron well and made accessible in case of inspection and repairs. In handling the low-level sewage of some of the immense hotels of the large cities, apparatus must be .used which is able to discharge many thou- sands of gallons of sewage each hour. This may be accomplished by means of ejectors of the type shown in Plate 46, by connecting several of the lifts together. When so connected, combination lifts working under either com- 280 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED pressed air or steam are generally used, in order that in the event of a breakdown on one source of motive power, the other may at once be made use of. It will readily be seen that no chances can be taken in providing against a mishap which may totally disable an entire system of this kind, for it is a question of handling a great many thousands of gallons each hour, and when this cannot be done, and the sewage constantly accumulates at this high rate, the situa- tion becomes very serious. When several ejectors are connected together, the main sewage inlet divides the sewage between the different ejectors, and each one discharges into a main. Some of the advantages of this method of disposal are the fol- lowing: No pumping apparatus, with working parts to get out of repair, is necessary; there are practically no working parts in the lift to get out of order; the receiving tank, in which the work of the apparatus is chiefly performed, has no finished surfaces or parts on which the coarser matter in the sewage may act injuriously; and the tank acts as a trap to protect the building against the entrance of gases from the sewer. In addition to the matter of caring for fixture drainage, sub- soil drainage, floor drainage, etc., must also be provided for. This drainage is usually disposed of by other apparatus than that used in connection with polluted drainage, the apparatus being known as the automatic sump tank, an illustration of \vhich appears in Plate 46. This tank is installed in a water-tight catch basin or pit, constructed of brick or iron. Subsoil, floor drainage, and any other clear-water drainage that must be taken care of, should enter the pit through inlets provided with check valves, as shown, all drains being trapped in the usual manner. The tank should be air-tight and vented, gen- erally into some convenient main vent in the gravity system. The action of the automatic sump tank is similar to that of the automatic sewage lift already described. When the bucket is raised by the drainage in the tank to the right height, it opens the compressed-air supply valve and closes the vent pipe, the admission of compressed air forcing the contents out of the tank and into the main gravity line. A wise provision in the installation of automatic sewage lifts on large work, is that they shall be provided in pairs, each being large enough to hold the drainage accumulating from the fixtures during DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 281 an hour. The two ejectors should be so connected that they will operate alternately. When water closets discharge into sewage ejectors, the vent from the apparatus should not be less than 4 in. in diameter, and when other fixtures only are connected into it, the vent should be of the same size as the main waste pipe serving such fixtures. There is another form of ejector sometimes used, which dis- charges low-level sewage into the house sewer of the regular sys- tem, also by means of compressed air. The compression of the air in this apparatus, however, is accom- plished by. the head of the sewage in the gravity system discharged into a large tank. Water from the public water supply may also operate this system, and this water afterward be used in supplying fixtures on the floors below the sewer level. This system, while not particularly well known, has the advantage of disposing of the sew- age without apparatus which entails expense in installing and in operating. Of the several different methods mentioned or described for raising low-level sewage, the automatic sewage lift, operating by compressed air, with steam as an auxiliary, is, in general, the most desirable. In order to determine the size of lift needed for any given plant, the amount of waste entering it must be known, and to estimate this it is necessary to know the number and character of all plumbing fixtures below the sewer level, the number of floor drains, and the character and size of all other drains and apparatus from which waste of any description is discharged. It is also necessary to know the size of the gravity house sewer, and the kind of power that is to operate the lift, with full data con- cerning pressure, etc., relating to such motive power. In addition to its use in connection with underground floors of high buildings and underground public toilet rooms, there are sev- eral other uses to which the automatic sewage lift may be put. It often happens that small villages or hamlets, situated in level country, which has no advantages for disposing of public sewage by gravity, are in a perplexing situation. The sewage lift may be used to advantage under such conditions. By installing it in a pit underground, as low as desired, enough pitch can be obtained to allow- the discharge of the public sewer into 282 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED it. The lift may discharge the sewage into a septic tank at a higher level, and this tank in turn onto filter beds, the latter delivering the clear sewage which results, into underground distributing pipes. More concerning the septic tank, filter beds, and underground dis- tribution will be found under following plates. If other sources of motive power are not available, the lift may be operated by water. The sewage lift is used in many marine plumbing systems also. The apparatus is located below all fixtures, which discharge into it by gravity, the lift discharging the sewage into the sea. This is an important application, as the disposal of sewage of large steamships, as well as other vessels, is a matter of importance and difficulty. Plate XLVII COUNTRY PLUMBING WATER SUPPLY C^un/ry P>/urnbing COUNTRY PLUMBING THE subject of country plumbing differs in many respects from the plumbing of cities and towns. The difference arises principally because of the fact that usually the plumbing system installed in the country cannot enter a system of public sewers, and a water supply cannot be secured from any public system of supply. These condi- tions make it necessary to study each individual plumbing system, and to provide for it as conditions require. Another feature that also influences the installation of the plumb- ing system, is the absence of any regulation or inspection of plumbing work. As a consequence, many houses in the country, of ordinary style, are provided with an unvented plumbing system. This, how- ever, in many cases need not be a serious matter, as on small systems special provision may often be made for making the work as safe as is possible to make it when the traps are not vented. Plate 47 shows such a plumbing system. In many cases one stack serves all plumbing fixtures of the house, including usually the three bath-room fixtures, kitchen sink, and, possibly, laundry tubs. The use of S-traps on such work is poor practice, as this form of trap is easily siphoned, unless provided with a vent. The use of drum traps and approved forms of non-siphonable traps is much better practice. As far as possible, long, horizontal runs of lead waste pipe should be avoided in an unvented plumbing system, as siphonage often results from the backing up of waste in these long runs. The connections from bath-room fixtures into the stack can usually be arranged as shown in Plate 47, with the lavatory waste entering above the water-closet connection. If the lavatory connection is below the closet connection, the liability of siphonage of the lavatory trap will be greater, owing to the passage of a heavy volume of waste from the water closet past the lavatory waste opening. The passage of the stack through the roof is a great safeguard for any system of plumbing, especially in the case of an unvented system. When the country plumbing system empties into a cesspool or septic tank, a vent should be run from such receptacle. The septic 285 286 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED tank or cesspool, stands in the same relation to the country plumbing system that the public sewer system does to the city plumbing system. If the cesspool or sewer is not vented, gases will generate and produce a pressure that will force the seal of the main trap. The soil vent or roof connection relieves this pressure, which is a duty of much importance, for if not thus relieved, the fixture traps will also be forced, and poisonous gases from the cesspool thus find entrance into the house. The use or non-use of the main trap does not appear to be a matter of so much importance in connection with the country plumbing system as with the city system. One reason for this is that in the country districts there is no danger of con- taminating the surrounding air by venting the cesspool, whereas in the city the venting of the sewer through the soil vents of a build- ing only a few stories in height may throw foul odors and gases into the windows of a high building next to it. There is one reason why the main trap is of much value to many country systems. There being no regulation by ordinance, or inspec- tion of plumbing, much poor work is installed that remains undiscov- ered, which a test would quickly reveal ; and, moreover, standard soil pipe is generally used, which is easily split in handling, and which has more defects than extra-heavy pipe. Consequently, sewer gas would have a much greater opportunity to find its way through defective pipe and joints than in work of a higher grade, and the main trap will prevent much of this trouble, by preventing the entrance into the plumbing system of the house, of gases from the cesspool. The subjects of cesspools, sewage siphons, septic tanks, etc., are considered more thoroughly under the two plates following. WATER SUPPLY The manner in which the water supply for the country house shall be procured is always a matter of importance, and usually depends largely upon the natural facilities that exist. The methods commonly in use, are pumping by hand from wells or by power such as windmill or pumping engine supply by gravity, by siphonage, or by the use of a ram. In the use of a gravity supply, the source of supply must be at a higher elevation than the point of delivery. The siphon is used in procuring water from a higher point than the point of delivery, when a hill or other obstruction intervenes between the WATER SUPPLY 287 two points, and over which the supply line must be carried. The ram can be used only when the source of supply is lower than the point of delivery, and when the supply is so located that the ram may be placed at a point below it. Thus it will be seen that in procuring a water supply, local conditions must usually govern the matter. In order to provide a head which shall deliver the water at the several points where it is to be used, an attic storage tank is generally used. A tank of 300 to 500 gallons will be found to be large enough for the ordinary country home. The tank when filled, represents an immense weight, and care must be taken in giving it a proper sup- port. This is easily done in "installing a tank in a house in course of construction, but is often a difficult matter in an old house. The tank should be located where it will not freeze, near a chimney often being a good location. The top of the tank should be covered, in order that dust and dirt and odors may not reach the water, and a ventilating pipe should also be provided. The tank may be filled in many ways by hand or power pump, windmill, pumping engine, or ram. Plate 47 shows the discharge pipe from the pump delivering to the tank over the top, the supply pipe to fixtures being taken out of the bottom. Another very good method is to connect the pump pipe into the bottom of the tank and use this same pipe as the down supply to the fixtures. This will save the necessity of running a separate supply pipe to the fixtures, and answers the purpose as well. If a hand force pump is used, as shown in Plate 47, a faucet on the pump may be used to advantage. Drinking water may- be pumped direct from the well through the faucet, and when this is closed it may be pumped into the tank. A tell-tale should always be provided, which should end, if pos- sible, at the point where the pump is located, in order that the per- son operating the pump may know by the escape of water, when the tank has been sufficiently filled. The tell-tale may enter the side of the tank, as shown, or pass through the bottom into a standing overflow. The attic tank should have an overflow either of 1^4- or i]/ 2 -in. pipe, which, if possible, should empty onto a roof. It may be carried into a fixture on a floor below. It is often convenient to discharge the overflow into the water-closet flush tank. When the attic tank is used, the hot-water supply for the house 288 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED is under tank pressure, and in order to provide for expansion, an expansion pipe should be taken from the highest point of the hot- water system and carried over the top of the tank, into which any expansion may vent itself. Under the tank a safe or drip pan should be placed, to take care of any leakage from the tank. From the safe a drip should be run into some open fixture in common use, in order that, by the escape of leakage through the pipe, warning of trouble may be given as quickly as possible. Sheet lead is generally used for drip pans or safes, while sheet copper is now mostly used for tank linings. When the attic tank is filled from a pump of ram, the ball cock and valve are not used, but when a supply by gravity is used, the ball cock and valve are necessary in order to regulate the flow of water as it is needed. A great objection to many well waters is their excessive hard- ness, which make them objectionable for kitchen and laundry pur- poses-. When the natural supply is of this nature, the rain water falling on the roof of the house is collected and used for these pur- poses entirely, or as far as possible. Rain water may be discharged directly from the roof into the attic tank, as shown in Plate 47, the objection to this course being that a large part of the water must be lost through the overflow, and in the event of the stoppage of the overflow during a heavy storm, the house would be in danger of being flooded. Instead of discharging the overflow upon the roof, it may be carried into a cistern, and all the water needed, thus saved. If desirable, the rain water may not be connected directly into the attic tank, but may be discharged into the cistern. In either case of using the cistern, a pump must be used to force the water into the attic tank. When the rain water is thus utilized, wholly or in part, the pump connection with the well may be allowed to remain as shown in Plate 47, to be used whenever the cistern water gives out, and for providing through the pump faucet, a sup- ply of drinking water. In the use of the faucet, there will often be sufficient storage of water in the pipe between the pump and the tank, without having to pump. It is best to use a cistern capable of holding a month's supply of rain water, in order that when a rainy period comes, enough water WATER SUPPLY 289 may be stored to last until it will probably be renewed. When entire dependence is made upon rain water, storage should be provided for a period of six weeks, if possible, at the rate of about twenty-five gallons per day for each inmate of the house. To some this rate of water use may seem excessive, but it is low rather than high, as extended experience shows. When the water supply must be economized, a much lower amount may be figured on, but when plumbing fixtures, such as water closets, are constantly in use, the rate increases rapidly. If possible, rain water should be screened before entering the attic tank, as leaves, twigs, slate, etc., enter the cistern in consider- able quantity. Filters are sometimes used for clearing the water, and screens of various kinds are employed. 'Devices known as rain- water separators may also be procured, which prevent the first wash- ings of a rain storm from entering the tank or cistern. W T ell water is no doubt used to a far greater extent in the coun- try than any other source of supply. Whether it is a well or spring or other source of supply, the greatest care should be taken in pro- viding against its contamination in any way. It is popularly con- sidered that the country is free from all manner of impure condi- tions, but it is true, nevertheless, that in the past, the death rate in country districts, where, apparently, living conditions are perfect, has been as great or greater from such diseases as typhoid fever than in cities. Generally a case of this dreaded disease in the country, may be traced to a contaminated well or other supply. For this reason every precaution should be taken. The well should never be located near a leeching cesspool, it being well to have at least 300 ft. separate them. A tight cesspool should not be located within 30 ft. of any well or other source of supply. In running a line of earthenware drain pipe, it should be kept as far away from any source of water supply as possible. Whenever possible, a cesspool or drain-pipe line should be lo- cated at a lower elevation than the well, in order that the natural drainage may carry any leakage away from, rather than toward, the well. The location and common use of wells within a few feet of privies, is a practice which may be seen in almost any country dis- 2 9 o MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED trict, and is a practice which has been the direct cause of a large part of the typhoid-fever cases in the country. It is claimed that contaminated water in running through a com- paratively few feet of soil, will purify itself, and on the strength of this claim, many are willing to take chances in the use of drinking water coming from exposed sources. \Yhile this fact may be true under certain circumstances, it has little in it to cause a lessening of precautionary measures, as the con- taminating source is usually a permanent one, and the action of purification by filtration is not to be depended upon at a depth of more than three or four feet, as the admission of air, upon which the action depends, is not sufficient at greater depths. Wells are of three kinds, those which are dug, driven wells, and bored wells. The first named is the most common, and the driven well next. Even the driven or bored well is by no means proof against contamination, as impurities may enter the water at considerable distances from the well. Many waters of sparkling appearance, and apparently abso- lutely pure, are very far from being what they appear, and too much attention cannot be given to the matter of precaution in securing a supply for country use which is absolutely pure, and then seeing to it that it is not contaminated later. Plate XLVIII 48. C Q ns/~ruch'n <=>f F"re.> - >^ :x *) Treter ' ' f??* ' ^ - JT&ciiz . ^ ' I L I i I i THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES BY ELECTRICITY A SUCCESSION of severe winters has had the result of establish- ing the practice of thawing frozen water mains and service pipes by means of electricity. In some sections during the winter of 1903-4 water mains / ft. underground were frozen, and the old method of digging up the frozen ground to expose the affected pipe was found to be a matter of great expense, especially as several thousands of freeze-ups occurred in some of the large cities. The principle upon which this method works is the fact that an electric current, in passing through a conductor which offers consid- erable resistance to its passage, develops a great amount of heat in the conducting material. In passing an electric current through a frozen water pipe there is sufficient resistance encountered to generate the heat necessary to thaw the pipe. The ice itself offers great resistance, it being a poor conductor, while the pipe, especially at its joints, offers a consider- able amount also. With this principle to work upon, the thawing of pipes may be accomplished if the means are at hand for providing a large enough current, in this work the securing of a large amount of current being of most importance, just as in the use of water for some purposes, the volume which may be obtained is of greater im- portance than the pressure which it is under. Many different and successful methods have been made use of in supplying the electric surrent. In sizable towns and in cities, the most convenient source of electricity for this work has been the electric-lighting mains, most of which are now alternating circuits. In employing alternating currents it is necessary to use what is known as a step-down transformer. Such a device consists essentially of two coils of wire adjacent to each other, but not connected together in any way. The ends of the primary coil are connected to the light- ing mains, and the passage of the current through this coil induces a current in the secondary coil. The step-down transformer takes a current from the mains at a high voltage or pressure and delivers it through the secondary coil under a much lower voltage. 331 332 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Currents under various voltages, up to several thousand in amount, have been used on the primary and transformed generally to about 50 volts on the secondary. An electric circuit is made up of three factors current in amperes, voltage, and resistance. As the resistance increases, the amount of current decreases, and vice versa. The thawing apparatus is generally placed upon a wagon or sled, and consists principally of the transformer and what is known as a water resistance. The latter is usually in the form of a small barrel filled with salted water, in which two copper plates are im- mersed, each being connected to a wire. After this apparatus has been taken to the place where the thawing is to be done, the primary leads are connected to the electric- light mains, proper fuses and an ammeter for measuring the current being provided. The secondary leads or connections are then attached at either end of the frozen section, and the water resistance placed at any point in the secondary circuit, with the copper plates far apart. When in this position the resistance is great, and the amount of cur- rent small. When it is seen that a larger amount of current is necessary, it may be obtained by reducing the resistance, that is, by moving the plates closer together. Various amounts of current are required, depending on the conditions of each individual piece of work. For service pipes, which are naturally more often affected than the mains, currents of an amount between 200 and 300 amperes are generally used. Long leads are used on this work, and when possible the con- nection may be made most easily by attaching one of the secondary leads to the nearest hydrant, and the other to a faucet or to the piping inside the house, the current thus being allowed to pass through the frozen section. Attention should be given to making as good connections to the hydrant and faucet as possible, as a poor contact at either place may result in burning the metal. When there is no hydrant conveniently located, connection may be made to the piping of an adjacent house, and if the latter is too far distant it sometimes becomes necessary to dig down to the pipe to make the connection. When the service pipes of two or more adjacent houses are to be thawed, the several water services may be connected in series, THAWING UNDERGROUND WATER PIPES 333 and a single application of the current answer for thawing all of them. By using long secondary leads, frozen service pipes of several houses may often be thawed without changing the primary connec- tions to the lighting mains. So universal has the practice become of thawing frozen mains and service pipes by electricity, that apparatus designed especially for such work may now be procured of manufacturers of electrical apparatus. In some cases, where it was impossible to use lighting or power circuits, portable outfits have been used in this work, consisting of a steam or gas engine connected to an electric generator. Storage batteries have also been made use of. The time used in thawing pipes depends so largely on conditions, size of pipe, length of frozen sec- tion, amount of current available, etc., that it is difficult to make any estimate of it. Under favorable conditions, however, service pipes of different sizes have been thawed out in from ten to twenty min- utes, and long lines of water mains, as large as 10 in. in size, in two or three hours. The plumber, being ordinarily unacquainted with electrical work, should always seek the advice or the services of competent electricians before attempting this class of work, as errors in connections on his part might result seriously. The workman inexperienced in electrical work might easily make a mistake which would not only result in considerable dam- age to apparatus, but which might also affect the lighting circuit to such an extent as to render it useless until repaired. In addition, there is the danger of serious or fatal injury to the workman. The matter of caring for frozen mains and services has in many cities been taken over by the city water department, the thawing operations being performed by them, in combination with the electric- lighting companies. This would appear to be by far the best method under the circumstances. Plate LIU DOUBLE BOILERS Plate 53. DOUBLE BOILERS WHILE the principle of the double boiler is simple and its con- nections straightforward, there are comparatively few who under- stand the manner in which it should be installed. The double boiler is used in city buildings of such height that the water under city pressure will not at all times reach the upper floors. It consists of two boilers, one inside the other, the outer boiler being connected in the usual manner with the heater, and the inner boiler receiving its heat from the hot water in the boiler which surrounds it. This form of boiler is much used in large residences, and often in apartment buildings. In most of the largest buildings, however, where very large amounts of hot water are required, the water is pumped into the house tank, and the entire hot-water supply for the building deliv- ered under tank pressure. The outer boiler is supplied by city pressure, while the inner boiler is under tank pressure. The lower floors, which can be reached by city pressure, are supplied from the outer boiler, and the upper floors, which cannot be reached by city pressure, are supplied from the inner boiler. The connections for the double boiler are to be seen in Fig. A, Plate 53. The hot-water supply line from each boiler should be provided with an expansion pipe taken from the high point on the line and emptying over the house tank. The supply to the latter is delivered by a pump or water lift. From the tank an overflow should be carried, generally into some open fixture which has a sufficiently large waste to insure the passage of all overflow water that may enter it. A tell-tale pipe should also be run from the tank to a fixture conveniently located, so that the pump operator may be warned when the tank has been sufficiently filled. Beneath the house tank a drip pan should be provided to col- lect any leakage that may come from the tank, and from this pan a drip pipe delivers such leakage into some open fixture. 337 338 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED In the event of a breakdown of the pump, or from other cause, there is always danger that the house tank may lose its supply. If this condition should continue for some time, it might result in dan- ger to the inner boiler, to guard against which a connection is made from the pressure supply to the outer boiler, into the tank supply to the inner boiler, a check valve, C, being used on this connection. When the system is working normally the check valve remains closed, owing to the pressure of the tank supply, but when this is withdrawn, as would happen after a time if the pump were not in operation, the street pressure will open the check valve, and thus keep the inner boiler supplied with water. A check valve, B, prevents the siphon- age of the contents of the outer boiler in the case of a break in the service pipe. It is the use of this check valve that necessitates the use of an expansion pipe on the hot-water supply from the outer boiler, the check valve cutting off the natural means of expansion. The valves A and D control the use of these two lines. If cir- culating pipes are used, as they should be on such work as this, the tank circulating pipe should connect into the return of the inner boiler, and the pressure circulating pipe should connect into the return to the heater. Special attention should be given to properly draining the double boiler. If the inner boiler is drawn off first, there may be danger of collapsing it, due to the creation of a partial vacuum inside it and street pressure outside of it. This danger is eliminated by arrang- ing the draw-off in such a way that the outer boiler must be drawn off first or both boilers drained at the same time. This is accom- plished by the proper placing of valves, as shown in Plate 53, Fig. A. CUT-OFFS Under some conditions street pressure will not at all times of the day raise water to the highest floor which is intended to be sup- plied by city pressure. It then becomes necessary to use a device, known as a cut-off, by which tank pressure may be supplied to the floor. Fig. B shows the simplest form. The two cold-water pressures are connected together, also the two hot-water pressures. By opening the two upper valves and closing the two lower ones the floor may be provided with tank pressure, and vice versa. The HEADERS 339 objection to the use of this crude form of cut-off is that confusion may result from the use of valves. In Fig. C a patented form of cut-off is shown, in which this trouble is not present. By throwing the lever up or down either tank or street pressure is turned on. HEADERS In large hot-water supply systems the cold-water lines connect into a header, the hot-water lines into another, and the circulation pipes into another. This makes the work very systematic and easily cared for. Fig. D shows the general arrangement of a header, with its branches, each supplied with a shut-off, and each branch also provided with a drip connecting into a main drip, the latter emptying into an open fixture. The same general arrangement of headers, branches, drips, valves, etc., may be, and often is, employed to great advantage in connection with the hot- and cold-water supply of a residence. In connection with high-grade residence work, a very neat and artistic piece of work can be performed on these headers by using polished brass pipe and fittings, and additional neatness in appear- ance may be obtained by bending the pipes at changes in direction, instead of performing the work with fittings. Better results can also be obtained from this method for the reason that there is less fric- tion encountered in smooth bends than in bends made with fittings. The employment of these methods is almost a necessity on large work, as in such work the supply piping is of such a complex nature that it cannot safely be installed other than in the most systematic manner. Plate L1V HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS Water Sc/pp/y PJal ~ c S4 ' L* or rye Bu//cf/ngs ->v \ I) HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS IN the supplying of hot water for large buildings the boiler is generally of the horizontal style, hung by wrought-iron hangers from the cellar timbers, although vertical boilers are sometimes used. The source of heat for such boilers is generally a special tank heater. Live and exhaust steam are also much used by means of steam coils placed inside the boiler. A combination often used to advantage includes both tank heater and steam coils, the heater being used dur- ing the summer and the coils during the winter season, when the heating plant of the building is in operation. The use of the tank heater and steam coil is seen in Fig. D, Plate 54. In addition, special heating devices or auxiliaries are used in this work, one of them, known as the P. P. Heater, being shown connected to the boiler in Fig. E, and a sectional view of the same in Fig. F, Plate. 54. As seen from the latter, the device consists essentially of three pipes, one inside the other. Cold water is con- ducted through the innermost pipe, from which it passes into the pipe or tube next outside, this pipe being closed at its end. Steam is conveyed into the space between the middle pipe and the outer one, thus entirely surrounding the cold water that enters. The flow connection is made to the middle pipe, also the draw- off connection. It is claimed that the heating of water by means of this heater is very rapid, and that even in the form of steam vapor it will heat the water more rapidly and in greater quantity than it can be heated by a water front with a hot fire. The heater may be connected with the steam piping of the building, as shown in Fig. E. The heater is made in several sizes, ranging from the kitchen- boiler size to sizes suitable for large work. The size of hot-water boilers naturally depends on the character and use of the building, the number of apartments, and number of fixtures supplied with hot water. In the case of apartment buildings it is generally a compara- tively simple matter to approximate the boiler capacity necessary, but in the case of many buildings, experience and judgment are necessary in arriving at a proper size. 343 344 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED A very common method, and one that is ordinarily a safe one to follow, is to estimate about 20 gallons of boiler capacity for each full set of fixtures that would commonly require hot water in an apartment. These fixtures would include the kitchen sink, wash trays, bath tub, and lavatory. If any of these fixtures are omitted, or others are added, a due allowance may be made. Reckoning on this basis, the following table shows the boiler capacity necessary for different numbers of apartments, and the standard sizes of boilers having the respective capacities. TABLE OF HOT-WATER BOILER CAPACITIES No. of Apartments Capacity of Boiler Size of Boiler 4 100 gals. 22" X 60" 6 120 " 24" X 60" 8 1 80 " 30" X 60" 10 215 " 30" X 72" 12 250 " 30" X 84" 16 365 " 36" X 84" 20 430 " 42" X 72" 24 575 42" X 96" 36 720 42" X 120" Another table which will be found of value is the following, which shows the number and size of steam coils necessary for the 'several sizes of hot-water boilers specified in the foregoing table. TABLE OF STEAM COILS FOR HOT-WATER BOILERS Capacity of Boiler Size and Number of Coils 100 to 120 gals 4 i-in. pipes. 1 80 " 215 " 6 i-in. 250 " 365 " 6 1 14 -in. " 430 " 575 " 4 i/2-in. " 720 " 6 i^-in. In Figs. A, B, and C, of Plate 54, are shown three different methods of installing large hot-water supply systems. Of the three systems, probably that shown in Fig. A is least satisfactory, for the reason that the supply at different points is less evenly heated than in the case of the other two systems. For HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR LARGE BUILDINGS 345 instance, the hot-water branches taken out of the return will not deliver such hot water as those on the flow line. However, the choice of a hot-water supply system must often depend upon the character and construction of the building to be supplied. All things being equal, the overhead system shown in Fig. C will probably do as sat- isfactory work as any of the others shown, although the system in Fig. B is an excellent one. The latter should be provided at its high point with an air vent, while the former needs none. Plate LV AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER TANKS 7 P/o/-e 55. Ho/- Water Tanks / /_ -l ~ ___' "" _ " ""__, .// _ - _ City AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HOT-WATER TANKS ON large work it is essential to satisfactory service to provide automatic control for the hot-water tank. On smaller work, also, automatic control may be used to advantage. When the supply system is under the attention of a painstaking attendant the neces- sity of automatic regulation is not so great, but in general constant attention to the necessary requirements cannot be depended upon, in which case control of the temperature of the hot-water supply by automatic means avoids all trouble. There are several excellent systems of regulation now on the market, two of which are shown in the several illustrations of Plate 55. Fig. A represents a sectional view of one of these regulators for use in connection with boilers heated by kitchen range or special tank heater. Fig. B shows this regulator in use in connection with a boiler heated by tank heater. The regulator should always be con- nected to the flow pipe, and may be in either a horizontal or vertical position. In using this regulator, the part B is filled with water through the opening D, which is closed by means of a plug. About a cupful of water should be drawn out through a small tube, and this liquid replaced by an equivalent amount of gasoline. The hot \vater of the flow pipe which passes through C, C, heats the contents of B to the temperature of the hot water itself. Gasoline has a somewhat lower boiling point than water, and will boil just before the water in B and C, C, reaches the boiling point. The gasoline in boiling exerts a pressure which is trans- mitted through A to a diaphragm, which in turn, by means of a lever, operates the chain which will close the draught damper and open the check damper. When the temperature of the water has dropped sufficiently, the diaphragm will react, opening the draught damper and closing the check. The regulator may be set at any convenient point in the flow pipe, the only requirement being that it be set so that the plug D shall be at the top, in order that it may be filled. Fig. C shows the regulation of live and exhaust steam to the steam coils when the boiler is to be heated in this \vay. 349 350 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED The regulator is connected into the end of the boiler and about three-quarters of the distance up from the bottom. This regulator should be set horizontally, with the tube running into the boiler. A diaphragm steam valve is placed on the steam-supply pipe, at a point between the boiler and the live-steam connection, in order to control both live and exhaust steam. City pressure is connected to the regu- lator, and thence to the steam valve. Before reaching the regulator the water supply is reduced to the proper pressure by a filter. As the temperature of the tank water rises, the expansion of the tube inside the boiler operates the regulator, which allows the water pres- sure to reach and close the steam valve, thus shutting off the supply of exhaust steam to the coil. When the water cools, the regulator acts in an opposite man- ner, the city pressure is shut off, and the water carried away from the steam valve through the waste. On the live-steam connection the regulating valve is adjusted to open at a lower temperature than that usually carried in the exhaust-steam pipe. Thus, when the latter falls below its normal point, live steam is admitted through the steam valve. If a tank heater is also connected to a boiler thus supplied, the regulator shown in Fig. B may be used in conjunction with the regulating apparatus of Fig. C. The regulator of Fig. D is of another make, but working along similar lines to the regulator of Fig. C. By means of this regulator any desired temperature of the water may be obtained by moving the pointer toward " cooler " or " warmer." By means of a diaphragm similar to that shown in Fig. B, this regulator can be made to control the temperature of hot-water tanks heated by tank heaters. Plate LVI THE THREE-PIPE SYSTEM OF SUPPLY Three - F*ijbe THE THREE-PIPE SYSTEM OF SUPPLY IN many sections of the country, owing to the nature of the soil through which the water supply flows, water supplied for domestic purposes is exceedingly hard, and therefore naturally presents a most difficult problem for the community to solve. It does not concern the supply for drinking purposes, for the flushing of water closets, and for certain other uses, but hard water is entirely unsatisfactory for toilet use, for washing clothes, the washing of dishes, etc. Furthermore, w r hile hot water that is hard would be objectionable for many uses, the heating of hard water is also attended by a very great annoyance in the rapid filling of the water front and range connections with a deposit of lime, making their frequent renewal a matter of much expense and inconvenience. Under these conditions, a system of hot and cold water supply known as the three-pipe system, may be used to very great advantage. The general features of this system may be observed in Plate 56. In the installation of the three-pipe system, three lines of supply are provided to such fixtures as sinks, lavatories and wash trays, where hard cold water may be required for drinking or rinsing purposes. From the three bibbs at these fixtures may be drawn soft cold water, hard cold water, and soft hot water. At baths hot and cold soft water may be drawn, and of course water closets are provided with hard cold water only. It will be understood that in places where the natural supply is hard, any supply of soft water that may be obtained must be used as economically as possible. The system is simple in construction, and not expensive to install, although costing somewhat more than the common system. The street supply is piped direct to the pump, and from the pump direct to the fixtures which are to be provided with hard water. When hard water is drawn at any of these fixtures, the street supply passes through the pump, serving also to operate the pump, thereby causing the latter to draw soft water from the cistern and deliver it to the attic tank. 353 354 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED From the soft-water tank in the attic, a supply of soft water is piped down to those fixtures requiring this kind of water, and a branch taken to supply the range boiler. Thus nothing but soft water passes through the boiler, water front and connections. From the boiler, hot water is delivered to fixtures in the ordinary manner. It is necessary to provide for a supply of hot hard water, in the event that the supply of cistern water fails. This is done by means of the connections and valves at the pump. When there is a supply of soft water available, valves A and B are closed, and valve C open. When the soft-water supply gives out, and hard water must of necessity be used for all purposes, all that is required is to open valve B, which will allow city water to fill the entire system, including the boiler. When the cistern is empty, and it is required to use only hard cold water, valve B should remain closed, also valve C, and valve A opened. This will allow city water to enter the cold-water piping, without pass- ing through the pump. The attic tank should have an overflow pipe, and if economy in the use of soft cistern water is to be observed, the pipe should lead back to the cistern, in order that the overflow water may not be lost. Instead of running as shown in our illustration, the overflow may discharge onto the roof, and from this point flow back to the cistern. If a supply for sprinkling or other such purpose is to be provided, connection should be made on the street side of the connection to the pump, as at X, so that sprinkling may not keep the pump operating. Plate LVII THE SOFTENING OF HARD WATER FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES Plate S7 1 Wafer Sof/~en&~ f~o Prevent' /ncrusfaj-ion of Wafer Fr ante .etc . A < Water Softener f/o. C. - Defo// of l/vofer Softener JB oiler <5upp2y Wafer 2? eater fig. B. THE SOFTENING OF HARD WATER FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES IN the consideration of the three-pipe system, under Plate 56, a method was described for overcoming the incrustation of water fronts and range connections, incident to the use of hard \vater, by means of a separate storage of soft water, which would generally be rain water collected in cisterns. For various reasons, such as an insufficient supply of rain water, this method may not always be satisfactory, and we believe that the following method will often be found preferable. We allude to the use of a water-softening device, several of which have been introduced, designed for use in connection with domestic water supplies. The construction of a water-softening device of this type, and its application, are shown in Plate 57. In Fig. A the device is shown con- nected to the return pipe of the range connection, which is the ordinary practice, although, as shown in Fig. B, it may be connected to the boiler supply. If desirable in any case to soften hot water, it may be con- nected to the hot water piping with equally good results. The softening is accomplished in a very simple manner, by passing the hard water over a "Kompost" brick, a water-softening composition which converts the sulphates or carbonates in the water into phosphates. As shown in Fig. C, the cylindrical "Kompost" brick is contained in a basket, and this is placed in the feed cylinder of the device. As the water flows about this brick, after a time it wears away, and may be easily replaced with a new brick. Following are instructions for using the water softener : After it has been connected, and water turned on, hot water faucets should be opened to allow all grease to be drawn out of the system. The two valves should then be turned off, the drain cock opened, the screw cover removed, and the basket with its brick, dropped into the chamber. The cover is then replaced, and the valves opened not more than one-quarter turn, the water softener then being ready for use. As long as any of the softening composition remains in the cham- ber, all water passing through it will be thoroughly softened, and tur- 357 358 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED bid water clarified. The composition used is of a mineral nature, con- taining nothing that is in any way harmful to health or to fabrics. As the water is thoroughly neutralized before it reaches the water front, it is clear that incrustation of the water front with lime cannot occur in the use of this water-softening device. The deposit of lime takes place chiefly in the heating of the water, so that the water front and hot-water flow-pipe between range and boiler suffer mostly. A feature that deserves special attention is that while the deposit of lime fills the water front and connections, thereby reducing the effect- ive size of piping, this coating also acts as an insulation, which makes the heating of the water much more difficult, and in the use of instan- taneous heaters and gas water-heaters especially, greatly increases the amount of gas used, and therefore the cost for gas. In Fig. B the device is shown connected to the supply to the boiler, with a special tank in use for the collection of sediment, which may be removed from time to time through the sediment cock. The coating of the coils of instantaneous heaters with lime takes place in a com- paratively short space of time, and the employment of soft w r ater will be found of special advantage in their use. The water-softening device which has been described may also be used to very great advantage in the case of heating-boilers. As the water is softened before entering the boiler, there is no possibility of the formation of scale, and if such a device be applied to a boiler already affected by scale, this will gradually disappear, as the soft water dis- integrates the lime. The water softener has a valuable application also for automo- bile garages. Considerable difficulty is occasioned in using hard water in automobiles, which soft water would entirely overcome. An excel- lent plan for garages, where only cold water is required, consists in the use of a range boiler without boiler tube, the boiler being supplied through a top opening with soft water. The supply of soft water may be piped from one of the top openings to points of delivery. It may be stated that generally the attempt to clear water fronts of lime deposit by the use of acids is not very successful. A plan which seems to work successfully, however, is to make use of two water fronts. When one becomes useless, owing to lime deposit, it may be removed and replaced with the other water front. By the time the second water front is in bad condition, the lime in the first one will have become disintegrated by the action of the ajr. Plate LVIII SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND DEVICES IN HOT-WATER SUPPLY Spec/a/ Problems Plof ~ e s& /n Hoi- W&J-er Sufijb/y C&ech f~/q.A.- To Prevent Back/no of Ho/" Wafer info Meters J orjf. . B. JRuTiTziTzg c)Jzr0t/ -*s^ & To Prevent Freezing of or for Thawing Service Pibe, fig. C. Deta/J of- f/on - by -Jbass Tee turts f/g.D SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND DEVICES IN HOT-WATER SUPPLY PROBABLY there is no branch of the plumbing industry which con- stantly presents more difficult situations than hot-water supply and circulation, and the consideration of some of these problems, with the methods applied in their solution, should prove of interest and value. The matter of expansion for range boilers introduces problems which are sometimes difficult to solve. Under some conditions, for instance, hot water from the boiler will back into the cold-water pipe supplying the boiler, in which event there is great danger of damage to the meter. In overcoming this trouble, recourse has often been made to the use of a check valve on the supply pipe, the action of which would be to prevent expansion of the boiler in this direction. Expan- sion back into the water mains is the natural and necessary outlet for excessive pressure in direct pressure boilers, and if such a path is not provided, a water front explosion is the common result. The use of check valves in this way is by no means uncommon among careless or ignorant workmen, and the results are often disastrous both to life and to property. If such a course is to be followed, it becomes necessary to use a safety valve in connection with the check valve, although this does not absolutely insure against bad results, as the safety valve may be de- fective, or may stick and refuse to operate. Under these conditions, the method presented in Fig. A, Plate 58, will be found very useful. It consists in the use of a by-pass around the meter, with two check valves closing in opposite directions, one on the by-pass and the other on the house supply. The latter serves to prevent expansion into the meter, and the check valve on the by-pass prevents any flow to the house through it, but allows expansion to take place back into the water main. It will be seen that this arrangement allows all water to pass through the meter, while removing the danger to it of damage from a back flow from the boiler. 3 6i 362 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED In the case of boilers supplied from an attic tank, there is no chance of this damage to meters, because of the different nature of the supply connections. In Fig. B, Plate 58, is shown a method that will be found very effective in thawing frozen service pipes, and also in preventing freez- ing. As shown, the plan is to encase the service pipe in a second pipe, closing the opening of each end of the casing by a lock-nut working on a running thread, and closing against a packing. At either end of the casing a tee is used. Into the outer tee a pipe of small size is connected, one branch rising through the street box, and another passing into the cellar through the foundation. By means of steam or hot water, entering through either branch, the pipe may be thawed whenever it freezes, or it may be kept from freezing. The cas- ing is drained through the inner tee, just inside the foundation, and should point downward. Another problem concerns the trouble experienced in the by-pass- ing under certain conditions, of gas-water-heater connections made into the top of the boiler. In this by-passing, which is not due to the heater itself, cold water draws in and mixes with the hot water at the point where the ordinary tee connection is made. This trouble is over- come by the use of a fitting known as a non-by-pass tee, which is illus- trated in cross section by Fig. C, Plate 58. Fig. D shows the fitting connected to a rising line of hot water, and Fig. E to a horizontal line. Mixing of cold water with hot water may also occur from other causes. For instance, it sometimes happens that the boiler tube is care- lessly omitted, or has become so corroded that it breaks off. Either of these things will allow cold water to enter the top of the boiler, and cause either cold or lukewarm water to be drawn at the fixtures. Another subject not generally well understood is the matter of air-lock on hot-water piping. Air-lock often prevents flow of hot water to fixtures, and it will generally be found that when such a state exists, it is in connection with a system which has a very low pressure. If the air pressure is greater than the water pressure, air-lock results, but if the water pressure is the greater, the air-lock will be overcome. The trouble seldom occurs in the case of direct pressure supplies, owing to the fact that they generally are under sufficient pressure to overcome the air. The pressure required to do this amounts to about one pound for each two feet of vertical air-lock, and if there SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN HOT-WATER SUPPLY 363 is a back pressure, the amount of it would have to be added. It is a common practice to turn down from the top of the boiler with the hot- water pipe, and it is at the point where the turn is made that air-lock occurs. This can be overcome in the case of the tank-supply system, by taking an expansion pipe from this point, up to and over the tank. It may also be done by taking a branch supply to some fixture above, from this high point. Under certain conditions it may sometimes be very convenient to reduce the size of a range boiler without making a change in boilers. This may be done effectively by taking the cold-water connection to the water front out of the side opening of the boiler, instead of from the bottom, and connecting the range flow-pipe at the top. This method has the effect of reducing the size of the boiler to that part of it which is above the side opening. Such a reduction in size might often be of advantage during the warm months, when only the gas water-heater is in use, and economy in the use of gas becomes a matter of importance. The cold-water connection to the water front, from the side open- ing of the boiler, as mentioned above, is a good one for another reason. It is preferable to the common connection from the bottom of the boiler, for the reason that when the water is taken from this part of the boiler, it is free of rust and sediment, and in the use of gas water-heaters, this is of special importance, as the presence of sediment will, after -a time, fill the coils and destroy the effectiveness of the heater. SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING PLUMBING CONSTRUCTION IT is the belief of the author that a special chapter devoted to the subject of the estimating of plumbing work will add to the value of this work in the eyes of many of its readers. The plumbing fraternity at large are just as careless in their estimating of labor and material as those who are connected with other lines of construction. The plumber who keeps a close account of these things, and knows, when the work is completed, just how much he has made or lost, is the exception. It is a fact, indeed, that many do not seem to wish to know when a contract has been finished at a loss, and it is also a fact that the author has met those who have frankly refused to figure into their estimate such incidentals as gaso- line, screws, putty, freight, cartage, etc., for fear of losing the con- tract. This would appear to be a strange thing in a business man, for these items represent an expense which must be met just as cer- tainly as such items as traps, ferrules, etc. On the other hand, many of the successful plumbing firms fol- low a very exact system of estimating, and keep a close account of all stock and labor used on each contract, thus being able to figure exactly the amount of profit or loss on any completed piece of work. Many firms, however, while estimating accurately and safely on stock and labor items, do not figure any percentage into their contracts to cover inside expenses, that is, rent, office expenses, telephone, etc. This is a matter of great importance, and consideration or noncon- sideration of it often means the success or failure of the firm. Any firm doing a construction business must, along certain lines, be guided by past experience in estimating certain items. The expense of conducting business, which includes the items named above and many others, is a matter which must be figured largely by looking into those expenses of the past, and from the comparison of this amount with the gross amount of business done, the percentage that must be allowed for the conducting of business may be arrived at. Thus, if it costs a firm $500 to carry on a yearly business of $10,000, 367 3 68 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED the percentage that must be allowed for this item of expense is 5%. This is a matter which varies greatly with different firms, some being able to conduct business at much less expense than others. It is claimed by many firms doing a moderate amount of busi- ness that 15% is not too large an allowance for business expenses. Instead of giving this as the proper percentage to be added, how- ever, it is the opinion of the author that each firm should approximate the amount in the manner above mentioned. Another important matter is the amount of profit which may fairly be charged on contract work. It is a well-known fact to many of the readers of this work that at the present time many contracts are taken at as low a percentage of profit as 5%. When it is considered that, in its anxiety to obtain a contract, a firm is willing to take it at this low figure, generally without add- ing any percentage for the expense of conducting business or for extras that may be overlooked in estimating, it is clear that the greater the number of such contracts taken by the firm, the sooner they must go into bankruptcy. There are many plumbing concerns, it may safely be said, who would be better off if they never took contract work, for the losses that must be sustained in this branch of their business must be offset by the profits derived from their jobbing or repair work, or bankruptcy is their only end. A profit of 25% on contract work, according to the author's opinion, is by no means too great. It may be said, however, that on large work a safe profit of a less amount may be satisfactory. It is well understood by the author that these matters must be regulated by each individual concern, and it is equally well under- stood that if a firm is to carry on a successful and honest business, living profits must be secured, and that to secure them no legitimate business expense can be shirked in making estimates of cost. The first essential in estimate work is a complete and reliable form of estimate, the use of which is very necessary, as it is not within the power of any man to remember at all times the scores of items that should enter a plumbing estimate. The low bidder on contract work is often low because he has forgotten to figure on some important item. The writer recalls a firm which secured a cer- tain contract and found, when the work was under way, that all the water closets six in number had been omitted, which meant the completion of the work at a loss. The use of a correct estimate SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 369 sheet avoids these troubles. In connection with this subject there is shown an estimate sheet which is very satisfactory. In this connec- tion, however, it must be stated that it is a difficult matter to con- struct an estimate sheet that will please everyone, and that an esti- mate sheet entirely satisfactory for one part of the country may not answer the purpose of some other section, owing to the great differ- ences that may exist in the methods and materials employed. If unable to secure a satisfactory published form of estimate, one arranged to suit individual tastes may be printed at small cost. PLUMBING ESTIMATE Made by Date Soil Pipe EX. HI IAVY STANDARD ft. 2" ft. 2" ft. 3" ft. 3" ft. 4" ft. 4" ft. r-ff ft. 5" ft. 6" ft. 6" ft. 8" ft. 8" Fittings Traps 2" 3" 4" Ys 2" 1" 4" Tees 2" 1" 4" TVs 2" 3" 4" Bends 2" tit 6 4" Hubs 2" *," o 4" Dbl Hubs 2" ~,n J 4" Vent Ts 2" 3" 4" Vent Caps 2" 3" 4" Increasers 2" 3" 4" Reducers 2" V j 4" Offsets 2" 3" 4" Dbl Ys or Ts 2" 2" 4" Cl'nouts, I. B. or Br. 2 n y, 4" Misc. Fittings Hooks Hangers Clamps Caulking Lead Ibs. Oakum Ib s. Gasoline gals. Roof Flanges 3" 4" 5" 370 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Galvanized Pipe ft. ft. Galv. Fittings, Water Galv. Fittings, Vent Br. Ferrules S & W Cocks Valves Sill Cocks Solder Nipples Solder Nipples Solder Unions " Fittings ft. ft. 2 ft. i " ft. 2" Galvanized Fittings Brass Work Brass Pipe Brass Tubing 4" * ft. i#" ft. 3 " Fittings Ibs. %" Ibs. i " Total Lead Pipe Solder Water Soapstone or Slate Brackets Traps Lead Pipe Ibs. Ibs. Legs Plugs Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. %" Ibs. Ibs. \y*" Ibs. Sheet Lead Ibs. prs. Lead Tacks Gas Piping, Outlets Meter Connections Gas Range Sinks, Iron Enamel or Porcelain Bibbs Ferrules Gaskets Wash Trays Covers Chain Traps Bibbs Ferrules SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING Copper Boiler Stands Sed. Cocks H. W. Boilers Galv. Tubes Valves House Tank Ball Cock and Valve Pantry Cocks Traps Pantry Sinks Plugs, Chain, Stays Ferrules Water Closets Tanks Tank Boards Brackets Chain & Pull N. P. Flush & Supply Pipes Ball Cock & Valve Clamps Bolts Floor Flanges Local Vent & Fittings 2" Seats Lead Bends N. P. Flanges Ferrules Floor Slabs 3" Bath Tubs Bath Cocks Waste & Overflow Traps Plug & Chain N. P. Valves Ferrules N. P. Supplies N. P. Flanges Lavatories Bowls Chain & Stays Gaskets N. P. Traps Cocks Clamps N. P. Supplies N. P. Flanges Brackets Plugs Traps Ferrules N. P. Wastes N. P. Valves Marble N. P. Flush Pipes Traps Urinals Valves Ferrules Tanks Marble Cocks Slate Tanks Cocks Slop Sinks Traps Ferrules 372 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED Pumps Screws Tile Pipe & Ft'gs Carfare Labor Miscellaneous Air Chambers Putty Carpenter Board Days, Plumber Total Add for Expense " " Profit Total Estimate Valves Plaster Paris Excavating Fr't & Cartage Helper There are several features connected with estimate sheets that are worth mentioning. In the estimate sheet shown, for instance, such items as traps, ferrules, bibbs, etc., are to be found under each fixture. Some may prefer to have such items lumped, rather than scattered, but in pre- senting in connection with each fixture the items that are needed in the installation of that fixture there is possibly less danger of omissions. Under brass work, however, such items as brass ferrules and valves are given, although appearing under the different fixtures. This is necessary, as such material as ferrules and valves may be used for purposes not identified with any particular fixture. Such an item as lead pipe is more conveniently and accurately figured, and with less labor, in the lump than under respective fixtures. Before being able to figure material accurately and intelligently, it is necessary to have a slight understanding at least of architects' plans. The term " plan " is used in general to designate all architects' drawings. Technically, however, a plan is a view looking down onto an object, and an elevation is a view looking at the object from the front or the side. In the case of the floor plans, they show locations of fixtures and pipes, and cellar plans show horizontal measurements of soil piping, water piping, etc. The front or side elevation of the building, on the other hand, shows the distances between floors, from which can be estimated the heights of the vertical lines of pipe. Architects' plans are never drawn full size, but always at some SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 373 standard scale, usually *4 m - to the foot for small buildings and y% in. to the foot for large buildings. In order to measure piping from such a drawing, it is nece.s- sary to understand how to use a scale. In the work of an architect or engineer, where the object of which drawings are made, is very large, it is necessary to show the object on a smaller scale. If the scale is l /^ in. to the foot, a quarter inch measured on any of the drawings represents one foot in the actual work itself, and if the scale is ^ in. to the foot, any measurement of l /s in. represents one foot in the actual work. The general custom in estimating material is to estimate the soil piping first, and by this is meant the house drain and all its con- nections, the stacks and their main vent lines. The cellar plan (see Plate 31) is first referred to, and the lengths of the several sizes of horizontal piping measured at the proper scale. If Plate 31 is drawn at a scale of y$ i n - to the foot, the straight run from outside the cellar wall to the cleanout at the end will be found to be 5^ in., representing 45 ft. of 4-in. pipe. In the same way the branches, fresh-air inlet, etc., are esti- mated, the measurements in ordinary work being made without ref- erence to the space taken up by fittings; that is, measurements for straight pipe are taken without deducting anything for fittings. The excess measurement thus obtained will make a due allow- ance for loss in cutting lengths of pipe. If, however, fittings are very close together, as in the use of a number of branch fittings for a line of water closets, this method of measuring may be modified. Attention is next directed to the elevation of the building being fig- ured, in order to estimate the lengths of straight pipe in the vertical main lines. The points to be considered may be observed from Plate 33, which shows an elevation of a plumbing system. The vertical lengths may be found by measuring on the eleva- tion the distance from the cellar bottom to a point usually 2 ft. above the roof. If the roof is flat, these lengths will be the same, but in the case of pitched roofs, reference to either the front or side elevation will show at what point the stack passes through, thus enabling the esti- mator to find its length. The main vertical vent lines, vertical rain-leader connections, 374 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED the vertical part of the fresh-air inlet, and other vertical lines should next be measured, and the total lengths of each size of pipe inserted in the estimate. It is a very good plan to divide each amount of soil pipe, if of cast iron, between single- and double-hub pipe, as the latter will be found very convenient in many places. The next thing in order is the estimating of soil-pipe fittings, including main-vent fittings. The fittings needed in the cellar on horizontal lines will be evi- dent from reference to the cellar plan, which should always show a plan of the horizontal cellar work. A rough sketch of the vertical lines, both soil, waste, and vent, with their fittings and connections into the horizontal lines, will be found very helpful in estimating the fittings to be used. The pipes shown in such a sketch may be repre- sented by single lines instead of double lines, as in Plate 33. Unless designated in such a sketch, the estimating of fittings must generally depend upon the picture of the work, at different points, which the estimator holds in his mind. While this method often results in the omission of fittings, the practical estimator can generally, if careful, figure very close to the fittings needed. At the same time, very few plumbing systems are estimated which do not call for a considerably greater number of fittings when the work is actually constructed than was estimated. These extra fittings are largely bends and offsets used in getting around obstructions which did not appear from the plans or were unnoticed by the estimator. Allowance should be made for extra fittings and extra material of other kinds. Many practical men claim that the extra stock de- manded, over and above that figured in the estimate, will average about 5%. The fittings should be arranged according to size and character, as seen in the estimate form shown. Before leaving this part of the work, other materials, such as cleanouts, hangers, clamps, roof flanges, oakum, caulking lead, and gasoline should be estimated. The estimating of caulking lead is an approximation, but expe- rience will enable the estimator to come very close to the true amount. This item is very generally estimated offhand, which often comes wide of the mark. On large work, especially, a definite estimate should be made, the following being a reliable method. It is clearly seen that no SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 375 caulked joint will be called for excepting where there is a hub. Therefore, estimate one hub for each length of pipe, the number of lengths being found by dividing the total lengths of soil pipe by 5. In the case of fittings, such as bends, count one hub, tees and Ys two hubs, and double fittings three or more hubs, as the case may be. In the case of a 4 X 2 Y, one hub would be 4 in. and the other 2 in. The number of hubs of each size should be added, and the amounts multiplied by the weight of lead for the respective size of joint. The amount of lead used for the several sizes of caulked joints is not a definite amount, as different workmen will naturally use different amounts. The following table shows weights of lead joints : 2-in. lead joint ............... i]/ 2 Ibs. 4-in. 5-m. " ......... 6-in. " " 7-in. " " 8-in. " " ..... : lo-in. " " These weights represent ^4 Ib. for each inch in size of the pipe. Many will claim that I Ib. to the inch is not too much to figure on. The weights of lead found necessary for the different sizes of pipe, added together, will give the total amount of caulking lead required. Oakum is generally estimated offhand. The following table will give an idea, however, of the amount of oakum necessary for joints of different sizes : 2-in. lead joint ......... 3 ft. oakum 3-m. " " ......... 4/2 " " 4-in. " " ......... 5 5-in. " " ......... 6-in. " " ......... 7-in. " " ......... 8-in. " " ......... m-in. " " ......... 12 Such fittings as cleanouts, plugs, and ferrules do not have to be 376 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED taken into account in estimating caulking lead and oakum, for the hubs into which these fittings are caulked have already been counted. In the estimating of lead waste and vent pipe it is simply a matter of figuring mentally the amount of each size needed; and knowing the number of pounds per foot of the various sizes, the total weight may be found. It is necessary to know the total weight of both waste, vent, and supply pipe if of lead, as this material is sold by the pound and not by the foot. In filling out the estimate sheet, however, the estimator should be careful to fill out against each size the amount of that size necessary, as when it comes to ordering stock the number of feet of each size will need to be known. A table of weights of lead pipe is necessary to figure this item from. The following is a table of safe weights for ordinary work: Diameter of Lead Supply Pipe Weight per foot Y% in i l /2 Ibs. V, " . 2 " Diameter of Lead Waste Pipe Weight per foot I in .................... 2 Ibs. 1/2" .................... 3/2- 2 " .................... 4 " 4 " .................... 6 " In connection with lead pipe, wiping solder should also be fig- ured. The number of joints of each size may be quickly estimated, and knowing the amount of solder necessary for a joint of each size, the total weight of solder may easily be found. It is very customary for plumbers to estimate solder according to fixtures so much for a sink, so much for a water closet, etc. In figuring many plumbing systems this would be safe if the estimator has a correct idea of the amount necessary for each fixture. In work which is out of the ordinary run, however, it might not be safe to estimate in this way. In getting at the full amount of solder, lead supply-pipe joints and connections, flush and supply-pipe joints for water closets, for urinals, slop sinks, etc., must be taken into account. SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 377 The amount of solder used per joint of the different sizes is a variable quantity, as some workmen make much heavier joints than others. It is customary among some estimators to allow one pound of solder per joint, regardless of size, including the small supply- pipe joints, as well as the large-size waste and vent-pipe joints. This might possibly have averaged safely in the days of lead supply work, but as work is now generally constructed, a better way would seem to be to find by practice the weights of joints of the several sizes, and thus make the estimate a close and accurate one. The following table may be used as a guide, though undoubtedly varying widely from the custom of many workmen: Diameter of Pipe. Solder per Joint .... i in. Jib. fin. i Ib. Jin. i Ib. i in. ij in. i}lbs. i i$lbs. ij in. if Ibs. 2 in. 2-2 Ibs. 4 in. 3-4 Ibs. In the matter of galvanized piping, the number of feet of each size should be estimated. To find the amount of galvanized supply pipe, brass or lead, as the case may be, reference must be made to the cellar and floor plans mostly in figuring out horizontal runs, and the elevation re- ferred to, to give vertical measurements. The matter of fittings on supply work is a difficult matter to estimate in detail, as they are numerous, and it is hardly possible to figure on just what fittings and the respective amounts of each that are going to be required. On such items as these the estimator of experience will often cast up the amount in his own mind after a little study of the plans, and he may usually come very close to the amount of cost represented in the item. The preservation of old estimates and complete lists- of stock used will often allow the estimator to refer to them and get a line on work of similar nature which he may be figuring. Galvanized vent fittings should be estimated in detail as far as possible, just as soil-pipe fittings are estimated. Stop cocks, valves, sill cocks, solder nipples, and unions should also be estimated as nearly in detail as possible, as an offhand esti- mate of material that represents so much cost as these items is not a safe thing. Gas piping often enters into the plumbing contract. It is some- times safe on new work to approximate the cost of the gas piping 378 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED at so much per outlet. If this can be done it saves considerable labor in figuring out the cost of different sizes to be used, fittings, and labor. Reference to previous work of similar nature is of much help in this connection. Estimating at so much per outlet is not a safe method on old work, that is, where gas piping is to be installed in an old house. Many plumbers are inclined to estimate old work in this way, however, and often suffer loss thereby. Water, gas, and range connections are not generally considered a part of the general plumbing contract in many sections, but in other sections must be included. There is little to be said on the matter of estimating fixtures and their trimmings. Sizes and list prices may be found in the cata- logues of jobbers and manufacturers, and knowing the prevailing discount, the net cost may be easily arrived at. Many fixtures, water closets, for instance, are often figured complete, that is, instead of having to figure the crockery, tank, brackets, chain and pull, etc., in detail, a cost price of the entire outfit may be obtained. This is true of other fixtures also lavatories, urinals, etc. When so figured, however, the estimator must be careful to note any items required in the specifications which are not included in the combination price. The estimating of marble and slate may often be made very easy by the use of the table of contents of marble slabs shown under Plate 2. The area found from this table, multiplied by the cost per square foot, will give the cost of the marble required. Much loss may be sustained if miscellaneous items are not given due consideration, items such as carfare, board, cartage, etc. In some sections of the country the excavating for pipe trenches, etc., and the laying of tile pipe is included in the mason's contract, rather than in the plumber's. Of much importance to the person who is just entering upon the work of estimating, and desirous of general information, is the method of carrying out costs against the different items in the esti- mate. Nearly all plumbing goods are sold and billed at a discount from a list price, and in carrying costs in an estimate on plumbing w r ork it is necessary to have not only these list prices, but also the prevailing discounts on the different lines of material. It would sys- tematize the work of estimating and make it far easier if the esti- mator would bring all these lists together in a book of proper size, SUGGESTIONS FOR ESTIMATING 379 so that when it comes to figuring costs, the list price and discount on any material whatever may be referred to without having to refer to numerous catalogues and lists that may require considerable searching for before they can be located. The matter of list prices and discounts on such materials as cast- and wrought-iron pipe, brass goods, etc., has been systematized to a considerable extent dur- ing recent years, and is handled more easily therefore. For instance, the lists of standard and extra-heavy cast-iron pipe are so arranged now that one discount applies to both grades, whereas formerly there was one discount on standard and another on extra-heavy pipe. In order to show how the cost of material may be carried out on an estimate, it will be pertinent to the subject to show the cost figured on a list of soil pipe and a list of soil-pipe fittings. In the following list, after the style of pipe or fitting is named, is given the list price per foot of soil pipe or the list price per single fitting, then the total number of feet of pipe or total number of fit- tings reckoned at this list: 20 ft . 2 in. X. H. C. I. Pipe List $o.3S $7.OO Net 50 " -> *' " a .6s 72 . SO 60 " . u *< 80 48.00 2S " 4 " Standard C. I. Pipe .40 IO.OO Disc. 25% $97-50 $7^ . I 3 8 ?. i n. X. H. Bends $o. so $4.OO 4 1 / O * O 6 3 l( U I . SO H- w 7. QO I -I " x 2 in. Standard Ys I .40 I .4.0 3 4 " Standard Ys I .00