UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA INCREASING VALLEY QUAIL IN CALIFORNIA JOHN T. EMLEN, JR. and BEN GLADING CALIFORNIA VALLEY QUAIL BULLETIN 695 November, 1945 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 3 Sources of information 3 Principles and methods of quail management 4 Establishing a population 4 Improving land for quail occupancy 5 Quail habitat 5 Characteristics of quail habitat 5 Quail habitats of California 8 Detecting habitat deficiencies 12 Laying the management plans 13 Improving cover conditions 15 Encouraging natural vegetation 16 Planting quail cover 18 Artificial and temporary shelters 24 Thinning cover 24 Improving food conditions 25 Quail foods 28 Food shortages 29 Encouraging natural food plants 29 Planting quail food 31 Artificial feeding 31 Improving water conditions 34 Water requirements 34 Providing water 34 Protecting quail populations 38 Predators 40 Ground carnivores 41 Eodents 42 Snakes 43 Hawks 43 Owls 45 Other birds 45 Ants 45 Diseases and parasites 46 Accidents 47 Hunting 48 Harvesting the quail crop 48 How much to harvest 48 How to harvest 49 How to record the harvest 50 Hunting privileges and rights 53 Literature cited 55 INCREASING VALLEY QUAIL IN CALIFORNIA 1 JOHN T. EMLEN, Jr. 2 and BEN GLADING 3 INTRODUCTION The valley quail, 4 California's state bird, is one of the most popular wild creatures on the farmlands, ranches, and waste areas where it is found. Almost everyone is attracted by its beauty of plumage, pleasing call notes, and friend- ly behavior. To the California sportsman it is the king of upland game birds, calling forth his best in alertness and marksmanship. Quail have been driven from some areas that they formerly inhabited and are less common than they might be in many others. Ranchers who have few or none on their properties often desire to encourage and foster a quail popu- lation in their fields and around their homes. Sportsmen spend much time speculating on ways to protect and increase quail on their favorite hunting grounds. Existing knowledge on the management of valley quail is still far from com- plete. Such topics as the relation of food abundance to population density and the effect of intensive predator control on quail numbers are poorly under- stood. Knowledge of the diseases of quail is almost lacking as far as practical game management is concerned. Indeed, there is no single phase of quail man- agement on which the authors would venture a final answer. Enough informa- tion has been accumulated, however, to warrant publication of a practical guide to some tested practices useful to ranchers, sportsmen, and bird lovers who are interested in building up quail populations. SOURCES OF INFORMATION The authors have drawn from their experience during eight years of inten- sive study of valley quail on farms, range lands, and desert areas of California ; from the writings of other students of game problems; and from the unpub- lished observations of many ranchers, sportsmen, and game specialists who have contributed valuable information and suggestions. In particular, they acknowledge the scientific contributions of the United States Fish and Wild- life Service, the United States Soil Conservation Service, the United States Forest Service, the University of California College of Agriculture, and the California Division of Fish and Game. Most of the work of the authors was done under the auspices of the last three of these agencies. 5 1 Received for publication March 16, 1945. 2 Assistant Professor of Zoology and Assistant Zoologist in the Experiment Station ; resigned July 27, 1943. 3 Economic Biologist, California Division of Pish and Game. 4 The frontispiece shows a male valley quail (Lophortyx calif ornica) , from a painting by Louis Agassiz Fuertes made for the California Division of Fish and Game. 5 From 1935 to 1943, Emlen investigated the life history and management of valley quail under the auspices of the California Agricultural Experiment Station. From 1936 to 1941, Glading made similar studies for the Cooperative Valley Quail Management Committee, a joint project of the U. S. Forest Service, IT. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, University of Cali- fornia College of Agriculture, and California Division of Fish and Game. From 1941 to date, [3] 4 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF QUAIL MANAGEMENT Valley quail are sedentary, and their management is a problem compa- rable in many respects to the management of an agricultural crop. The pro- gram involves three steps : (1) establishing a breeding stock, (2) aiding and protecting this stock during its development, and (3) harvesting the surplus. Establishing a breeding stock is seldom difficult in California ; if the area is at all suitable, there are usually at least a few quail present. Given a small population as seed stock and an adequate tract of land, nature can produce a bountiful supply of new quail every summer. The nurture and care of this stock constitute the second or cultural step. This calls for two lines of action : first, the provision of living space or habitat attractive and adequate for the special life requirements of quail; second, pro- tection against enemies, accidents, and overshooting. The first of these, com- monly known as habitat management, is of fundamental significance. Only through habitat improvement, by providing more and better living space for the quail, can one establish and maintain an increased population on anything like a stable basis. Protection is a valuable supplementary measure, and the two should be practiced together. The basic breeding population is determined by the habitat and may generally be increased by habitat improvement; the harvestable surplus, determined by the size of the breeding stock, may be con- served for limited periods through protection against enemies and accidents. The harvesting of the quail crop, when contemplated, must be considered as an integral part of the program. Measurements of a quail population by cen- suses and records of the hunting-season kill provide the basis for determining just how many birds may be safely taken from an area. A safe annual harvest of 20 to 30 quail (and, with special effort, up to 150) per hundred acres of managed range, is gratifying compensation for time and money expended. ESTABLISHING A POPULATION It is rarely necessary to establish or supplement a quail population by intro- ducing new stock. Quail occur on all or nearly all suitable areas in California in numbers approximating the ability of the existing environment to support them. Their natural reproductive powers, furthermore, are ample to correct quickly any temporary setback caused by local catastrophe or overshooting. Thus their scarcity or absence is almost invariably due to unfavorable living conditions rather than to any reproductive deficiency. Dumping birds into an inadequate habitat is like pouring water into a leaky bucket. Sportsmen will do well to turn their primary efforts to repairing the bucket. The argument that new birds bring vigor into a population by reducing in- breeding is without proof. Wild individuals regularly move about from covey to covey during the year. This is particularly true of surplus males in the nest- ing season. Thus, serious inbreeding is almost inconceivable under natural con- Glading has done similar work for the California Division of Fish and Game in cooperation with the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration, Project California 6-R. Dr. Carl B. Wolf, Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Anaheim, California, gave generous help in the preparation of table 2 and in parts of the section "Improving Cover Conditions." Grateful acknowledgment is due Dr. Tracy I. Storer, Division of Zoology, College of Agriculture, University of California, for initiating and guiding the program of study of quail by the authors, and for editorial help in the preparation of this publication. Increasing Valley Quail in California 5 ditions. Game-farm birds are rarely as robust as wild quail and often carry diseases acquired in crowded pens. The liberation of such birds is a hazard rather than a benefit to a wild population. The introduction of new birds may be desirable where an isolated quail habi- tat has never been populated or has been depopulated by some local catastro- phe, or where a population is regularly overshot. The first situation rarely occurs in valley quail range in California ; the second is sometimes encountered on club properties and around centers of population. A temporary supply of shootable birds may be had by a release just before the hunting season ; intro- ducing new birds, however, is an expensive procedure, and is recommended only after everything possible has been done to encourage natural reproduc- tion and survival. If and when necessary, quail may be obtained from private game breeders or from the state game farms. Of recent years a limited supply of wild-trapped birds has been available from the Division of Fish and Game (17)* IMPROVING LAND FOR QUAIL OCCUPANCY Quail, like livestock, cannot be crowded into inferior range. Cattle or sheep rapidly lose condition when held on deteriorating pasture. Quail, being unre- stricted by fences, simply move on to better locations or die ; thus the number residing on an area generally indicates the quality of the habitat and the carry- ing capacity for quail. Raise the carrying capacity by habitat improvements, and within a year the birds will respond; lower it by destroying natural cover and food, and they will quickly die off or move out. This responsiveness to liv- ing conditions on the range is due partly to freedom of movement and partly to the rapid annual turnover of birds. More than half of a quail population normally dies and is replaced during the course of a year. If conditions are favorable for replacement and survival, populations will expand quickly ; if unfavorable, they will just as quickly decline and disappear. QUAIL HABITAT Characteristics of Quail Habitat. — In considering the essential features of an area, the importance of behavior peculiarities of the birds must be empha- sized. Quail take their food in the form of seeds and greens. They probably could obtain the same essential dietary elements from insects and worms, as do many other birds. Their food habits, however, are so ingrained that in captivity quail have been known to starve, even when a bountiful food suppy was offered in an unaccustomed form. The same dependency on habit is seen in relation to brushy cover. Whereas other species with similar needs but different habits, such as the pheasant, get along without such cover, quail simply will not settle or remain on land that lacks it. The carrying capacity of a tract for quail is determined by the presence and 6 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature Cited" at the end of this bulletin. As will be noted, some of the references are not specifically referred to in the text but are included as reading sources on upland game-bird management. Two later papers on quail projects are: Glading, Ben, E. W. Enderlin, and H. A. Hjersman. The Kettleman Hills quail project. California Fish and Game 31:139-56. 1945. Glading, Ben, David M. Selleck, and Fred T. Ross. Valley quail under private management at the Dune Lakes Club. California Fish and Game 31:167-83. 1945. California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 distribution of food, water, and cover in acceptable forms. Moving about most- ly on foot, quail require a broken terrain with a close intermixture of open feeding areas and protective brushy cover. Any farming operations that create broad expanses of single vegetation types are not favorable to quail, even when such areas consist of valuable food or cover plants. A clean-cultivated vine- yard, for example, has the necessary brushy element, but lacks food; a large grain field contains much good quail food, but lacks brushy cover. Such large IRRIGATED LANDS HH DRY FARM LANDS l£:£:l RANGE LANDS KM DESERT AREAS V//A Fig. 1.- -The areas in California occupied by valley quail. The four major habitat types are indicated by the different shading. areas of any single cover or food plant are of little or no use to quail except along the edges. Mixed vegetation with small clumps of trees and shrubs scat- tered among open feeding areas, as on many foothill range lands, provides a maximum of "edge," and is ideal for quail when water also is available. The essence of habitat management for quail is the creation of the best possi- ble mingling of feeding areas, protective cover, and watering sites. The highest development of land for quail is attempted only in those rare instances where an area is used solely for quail production. On most lands, the objective of quail management is to create the best possible environment under the limita- tions imposed by essential land use operations. To achieve this purpose requires a thorough understanding of the birds' habits, requirements, and enemies ; in short, the ability to see the land through the eyes of the quail. Increasing Valley Quail in California 7 The essential elements of valley quail habitat are as follows : 1. Food: The birds require an adequate and dependable supply of accept- able seeds in summer, fall, and early winter, and of greens in later winter and spring. (See pages 25-33.) 2. Water : Except under certain unusual circumstances, quail drink at least once a day during the hot summer and fall months. Watering places should be accessible on all parts of the range, and regard must be given to the limited mobility and special cover requirements of newly hatched broods. (See pages 34-38.) mm ^' ROOSTING " S %pg3 Fig. 2. — The four types of cover for valley quail. In some areas the loafing and escape cover are essentially the same. 3. Cover : The needs of quail for cover or shelter may be listed under five types: a. Loafing cover : Between feeding periods, quail spend most of their time dozing and preening in secluded spots protected from the sun of summer, the winds and rain of winter, and the eyes of predators. Loafing cover should be close to the feeding areas and should be low. It should be dense enough to provide concealment, yet open enough to permit considerable freedom of movement by the birds and good visibility from within. Dense stands of brush that afford hidden avenues of approach for terrestrial enemies are unsuitable. b. Escape cover : In their foraging excursions, quail seldom wander more than 50 feet from brushy cover into which they can escape if surprised by an enemy. Cover suitable for loafing is usually good escape cover ; but dense, low shrubs, trees, trailing vines, weed patches, piles of debris, and even rock piles are used. c. Feeding cover : Quail like to feed in clearings or in sparse vegetation that afford them an open view of the sky. They avoid dense thickets of brush or patches of standing grass except where the edges adjoin clearings. When feeding, they will not remain long in a single spot; they like to keep on the move, and feeding grounds should therefore be extensively dis- tributed. California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 d. Roosting cover : In most parts of California, valley quail roost at night in densely foliaged trees or in shrubs 5 to 30 feet tall. One good roosting site is normally enough for a covey inhabiting a 30- to 40-acre covey range, but where populations are large and the ranges overlap, numerous sites are needed. e. Nesting cover : Quail nest on the ground in almost any type of cover that affords a little shade and concealment. The available supply of such cover is usually ample at the beginning of the nesting season. The chief limita- tion is imposed by farming operations and overgrazing that destroy ground cover after nesting has started. Fig. 3. — Coast Eange. Roosting cover : tan-oak and Douglas-fir in background. Escape and loafing cover: shrubs at right. Food: in the clearing at front. (Near Petrolia, Humboldt County; photograph by T. I. Storer.) 4. Other factors : Quail, like other seed-eating birds, require grit, either fine gravel or other hard particles. Grit is held in the gizzard and aids in "milling" the hard-coated seeds. Certain mineral requirements of nutrition are also thought to be provided by the eroding of grit particles in the gizzard. Quail like dust baths and use available dusting places frequently. Dusting helps to keep the plumage in good condition and is thought to afford relief from external parasites. In any management program, all essential features of the habitat must be considered; each is a link in a vital chain. The strength of the chain is deter- mined by the weakest link. The aim of game management is to detect these weak links and to correct them. Quail Habitats of California. — Valley quail are to be found in nearly all parts of California below the winter snow line, except the eastern half of the Mojave and Colorado deserts (fig. 1). In this wide geographical range they occupy many varied types of habitat (figs. 3-7 ) , each of which involves its own distinct problems. Table 1 roughly classifies habitats of valley quail, giving Increasing Valley Quail in California ft a > O ft DQ ft ft «l y 08 03 O 5 3 3 '3 oj o> oi T3 T3 +» £ <£ * 3 03 08 03 3 cy > > > Ph S C m <£ '3 >> . O 03 is -a o > ^ II I tN X 1 3 08 & •3 u «s g 08 03 > — ' F 3 08 3 Cj - Tj c ft d a (h + 03 W 4i 03 — o Sj IQ r, 3 H C 3 ~! 3 o a) a >-ti JS"* bfi .3=5 03 « a +.«: +£ ^ O >.2 FLOAT VALVE TYPE ■- SELF- FILLING TYPE f^fc Fig. 11. — The same section of foothill range as in figure 10, after conditions have been improved for quail. Openings have been made in the chamise (chaparral), addi- tional roosting trees and escape or loafing cover (brush) have been planted on the flat portions, and watering devices have been placed at several points in the area. Ranges of additional quail coveys possible with the improvements are outlined. All new features shown in red. Other legend same as in figures 8 and 10. Grassy nesting cover should be protected as much as possible from heavy grazing by sheep until after the nesting season for quail ends in July. A plan of pasture rotation that leaves small valleys and swales for early summer use by quail and later use by livestock is good range management as well as good quail management. 18 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 Planting Quail Cover. — In many places planting is desirable or necessary to establish permanent cover patches of proper types. Any such program in- volves considerable time and labor and should be carefully planned in accord- ance with the requirements of the birds and the qualities of the land. Each cover development must be considered in its relation to other existing or pro- posed food, cover, and water facilities; small, isolated patches, regardless of their quality, are worthless to quail. Clumps of plants for escape and loafing cover should be 10 to 20 feet in diameter and not more than 200 feet from other escape cover. Continuous or interrupted hedges of good dense shrubs are eco- Fig. 12.— Planted cover. Roosting cover : these one-year-old tamarisk trees will soon grow large enough to provide a roosting place. Loafing cover : under the edge of the (planted) pampas grass. Escape cover and food: naturally abundant on rough lands nearby. (Kettleman Hills, Fresno County.) nomical and effective for cover planting and particularly useful as intercon- necting "bridges" or routes for quail between larger patches of cover. A loose network of hedges and brush patches will make large areas, previously unin- habitable, available for occupancy by quail. Roosting cover should be available at quarter-mile intervals over quail range. Although one good roosting tree is enough at a site, it is well to set out a group of young trees to insure against loss or poor growth (fig. 12). The locations of plantings on agricultural land must be determined largely by the primary land use. Some cover improvements for quail can be fitted into farm programs with little interference and often with positive benefit. On high-quality truck and crop land, cover developments will usually be restricted to submarginal borders or the vicinity of buildings. Odd corners more or less inaccessible to farm machinery can sometimes be planted with brushy cover. Many farmers consider that attractive plantings in such places improve the general appearance of a farm. In hilly country, certain shrubs valuable as quail cover also have important soil-binding properties and are Increasing Valley Quail in California 19 recommended by the United States Soil Conservation Service for planting along gullies and washes. Where windbreaks are desirable along field borders, hedges of osage-orange, cypress, or tamarisk will protect the fields and also provide adequate escape, loafing, and sometimes roosting cover for quail. Some of the best kinds of roosting trees are excellent for shade around farm build- ings and on pasture lands ; broad-leaved evergreens such as olives, citrus, and live oaks are ideal. When planting brushy cover on range lands it is possible and often desirable to use species such as the saltbushes that will ultimately benefit cattle as well as quail. After a few years of fenced protection, saltbushes will develop enough woody growth so that they can be used by cattle, yet not be browsed out. Fig. 13. — Shelter of brush and small logs as constructed for bobwhite quail by the Texas Game, Fish, and Oyster Commission. Similar shelters will provide loafing cover for valley quail in California. Shrubs and trees suitable for quail cover vary widely in their cultural and climatic requirements (9, 11, 22). Where there is any doubt about climatic or soil tolerances, it is a good rule to use plants that are native locally. Hints on methods of planting and culturing are given in table 2. 7 Some species may be established by simply broadcasting seed into roughly scratched patches of ground (21) ; others must be grown in pots for a year or more and then trans- planted to the permanent sites. Many desirable brush species can be started by transplanting freshly cut slips or young plants newly dug from other places. Most of the plants listed in table 2 are reasonably resistant to drought and need little attention after being set out. All need water at the start, but much of this can be supplied by rain if planting is done early in the rainy season. As a rule, the species that require special care are suitable only near residences or in other places where water is readily available. Some of the best cover plants, particularly the densely foliaged roosting trees such as citrus, oaks, and juniper, grow very slowly. Often, when estab- lishing such plants, it is well to set out some faster-growing type such as ever- 7 Leaflets dealing with the culture of native California shrubs and trees are published by the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden at Anaheim, California. Many of these deal with species that are excellent as quail cover. Additional advice or help in obtaining planting stock may be had from the local farm advisor or from any nearby district office of the United States Soil Conservation Service. 20 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 g W a I E-i a > + i + 1 + + + + oj > o o "3 c 3 oj 3 > aj d 53"- 1 i 1 1 1 I i 0) a o CO 1 i 1 + 1 I I (1) 0) "IS + + i 1 + + + + I I 8. a + + + + + + + + + 1 + + + + + + 1*1 >> oj -* £ § 3 +3 >> S3 jd 3 -is u b ° « co o «- 3 ° 1 5 co 03 M a 3 o >> I I >, o OJ ^ w 01 o 73 M Q ffl 3 +> oj >, 6 6 ^ °3 en o T3 £ CO 00 o g .5 <» c >> a < OJ co 03 O O >> d > d < 03 O O OJ £ 03 O O >> d co d £ S *-g a* oj oj b a> m S h o3 *-> -^ <*h £. cC 33 o3 OJ 6 O OJ OJ O CO E td "e3 A bO w o o OJ S3 o -a a> -+a g3 73 c3 J3 a o -^> -o d _d "o OJ ft >, H OJ $ Q + 1 1 + + 1 1 £ C o3 e3 + 1 + + 1 + 1 + + + + 1 + 1 . T3 ■CJS M 60 + + + + 1 1 + a (-1 O EH co bo S ft £ Q 0) ^ d aj | S w^ 5 oj ~d OJ OJ OJ 3 oj > £ h _ s d O o w 73 ° 3 -0 §J»1 -3 aj c •5 § | £ 2.S.&4 OJ T3 OJ OJ > S h oj T3 S3 3 ^ g -3 +j M C OJ w O o ' o id (M o CO 2 «5 CN c "ft OJ a a § o *a 3 .a .S © 3 o 03 3 a" ■3 s o .** a 1 s- s o ll o OJ d 03 a -a « c o ^ > c ? e e S a b CO 1 a 03 d OJ ,— oj a M e 6 1 > ^ ft ft CO .« s o a Oh d u o A a OJ "3 co 3 u OJ fa | £ 3 s» >3 Si OJ o "S OJ h "o W s o s> ^) s s s OJ o c3 3 "3 03 o Increasing Valley Quail in California 21 1 + + + + + + + 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + 1 + 1 1 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 1 1 1 1 + + + + + 1 + + + + + + + + + + c 3 O >> II 00 o 00 02 111 >> II J2- . m1 b ° 0. a3 ^s w 50 W d 3^2 55 ■ ■»» >> 11 z * >> 1 1 >> c < >> c «1 >1 3 < >> 3 a P T3 § o 3 00 1 o 1 o O -3 S3 o 1-3 * a O h5 1 J3 bO bO 8 0> 73 O 0> -1-3 2 0) T3 O + + + + + 1 1 1 1 + + + + 1 1 1 + + + + 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 + + 1 1 1 + + ' 1 Deciduous rounded tree or shrub £?« * O 3 s > O (-, at 3 £ o It a> ft Q B 00 bo S ft g as "0 to 'c «h >3 a) O S 99 3 O 3 o Hi W T3 » 01 ° w 00 ^ o o § s O lO CO c c cr i o b ^ 8 « § « < i 1 w 3 o> 8 b 3 s e» e a § 1 a o a .2 CO 3 B 65 s e >> 0) -o 73 o 3 s 1 ■A 3 a '§, o 05 o P c c a ; \ >- s c ll 1< s o a e S V 3 2 o i CO o 5 "£ B .B s C 3 c > c ; s s B > t - a ' 22 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 01 3 "5 > *- o l 1 1 + + + 1 1 + + + t-H 01 o o '3 3 C 3 © > it l + i 1 + i + + 1 01 a a + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0) Oi m 3 i 1 I 1 1 1 1 + 1 +3 co m O.S + + 1 I + 1 + 1 + 1 H 1 « J5 o a co o3 ^2 o3 .2 g 6 >> 1 1 u cu G 1 $"£ s- >. o mot 3 3 8 5 co co >> S3 r« CO O 3 3 O t-> CD v ©GO 33 G m G o u o3 O © g =3 u S H ? ° » o g ,5 m cr >> a o o O >> p © 03 O O >> G <1 G < 0) 03 O O G <1 G co G ^ s © © © O 3 s c ^ 0) J - "1 1 o * O h3 0) -a o 01 t o> o ft o J3 a o3 o3 IS * o a c3 © ft H o> to 01 A + 1 + 1 + 1 + + 1 01 MT3 5 C 03 o3 + + + + + + + + + s-. u l + 1 + + + 1 + 1 , T3 •p 01 ,±J 03 l + 1 1 + + 1 1 1 S o IB O 0) X Q "> I M "3 M Oi > O 0> CO I! ,a co >> G "ft G 01 ~ 01 4) 61 ■§ (t> S h > O 4= G o> © CO 3 O 111 Q M CO o o o 2 o co o co CD co G 03 a © B 03 2; g e # CJ s O s g co a> S e o t? .a *e a CO i M CO 03 a £ a, if ,0 E c 8 CC a 1 , [3 I .e (^ e" a o 3 8 o s 3 CO c c Of .c S P C & cc C •1 B g I S o o u ji o o o CO i .e S 5 a c3 '3 o ■a a _G '> CD 5? a" R, ^ 5 R O Cv 2» C. ~ > c» M CO o 1 s CO -9 CD CD » 1 1 * s ° E o a « co W 3 3 O 0> CO £ "3 "S 0) co -o 4) 0) CO C co a a a- 2 a '> h' 3 to 03 3 a .2 co co 01 CO CO M CO 3 o co o3 O O 4> co o O >> c >> a < 3 <5 0) 03 o O co S 3 « ^J o3 0) 03 O O >> 3 < 4) 1 o ►3 CD 03 O 3 bfi o h3 o h-3 o O 0) t -3 o be 1 + 1 + + + + + 1 1 + + + + + + + + + 1 1 1 + + + 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 + o .3. id a P » c 4) 4j 6| 0) tj > -3 CO 3 O Q M CO 3 O "2 » o 3 P > d o> 4) »■§ o c 3 g § Q M XJ o 3 3 ^2 co m 3 03 P ^ 3 Oi Oi M Oi fc; > -3 CO 3 C 3 3 © 5 3 p > CO CO CO CO CO CO «o CO CO > u o 0> CO O a a o 1 tf B K e co .e 1 CO co J; 2 S ■8 3 bfi > 03 *" CO ' -c 1 Ck "ft 5 _li c ( C 'c PL c e a 1 = ft c c e i 1 = o e e» ■■; •2 S- •*- 63 b 03 Ji K 1 s 3 •£ JD S A ft co •* 3 <= pq i e •2 "3 co s BJ'S — V si © S 1 a o CS 4) X! ^_ C -S e3 s. 0) c a s O 0. W o > J 'o ■s o p- CO 1 M 3 O "ol o 03 CO £ P c ; c a a | o P , 1 I u jS "e c c ■> o c £ < 24 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 green tamarisk at the same time ; then, as the slow-growing trees attain usable size, the less desirable types may be removed. Artificial and Temporary Shelters. — Where quick results are desired or where conditions are not favorable for growing plant cover, artificial shelters will serve. A simple, though rather temporary, form of artificial escape or loaf- ing cover is the brush pile. In wooded areas with scant undergrowth, the fell- ing of a tree may provide the desired cover at ground level (13). In farming country, orchard prunings can be put to good use. Since a brush pile tends to settle with time, care should be taken to insure enough space beneath for free movement by the quail, if the pile is to serve as loafing cover. A foundation of Fig. 14. — Use of a bulldozer for clearing brush lands. (Compare with figures 10 and 11.) The uprooted brush is piled for burning later; small piles may be left as shelter for quail. (Photograph by Cliff Topham.) heavy branches crossed at right angles will help to keep a brush pile open ; but a sturdy, wooden frame, or an old farm gate, supported about 1 foot above the ground, provides a better and more permanent foundation. Figure 13 shows a type of artificial quail cover used successfully in Texas. Brush piles in or near orchards may have to be burned in March, since they may harbor shot- hole borers and other orchard pests. By that season, however, annual grasses and weeds are generally large enough to satisfy nesting requirements. Thinning Cover. — In some foothill range lands and along heavily wooded water courses in the valleys, much possible quail habitat is rendered useless by an excess of brushy cover. Even if small populations exist in such areas, they are of little value to the hunter, since they are difficult to shoot. Extensive stands of brush should be broken up into small patches by clearing lanes through them. Once the brush has been removed, annual plants useful as quail foods usually appear quickly, especially where some soil has been turned up. The surest and safest way t%clear brush from the land is to cut and dig it out. This is a slow process, but a few 30-foot swaths or lanes cut through the Increasing Valley Quail in California 25 brush will create much new habitat. A bulldozer driven by a caterpillar tractor is a valuable management tool in country where it can be used (fig. 14) . It rips out the undesirable brush and also crudely prepares the soil for food-produc- ing annuals. Various commercial "brush-rippers" and "trail-builders" are on the market, and the efficient "Plumas brush-stripper," developed by the United States Forest Service, serves to clear 6-foot lanes through brush fields. One rancher successfully broke up a dense brush field by rolling the chamise down in winter and then burning in the spring after the brush had dried, but before the annual vegetation was a dangerous fire hazard. His rolling equipment con- sisted of two 100-gallon oil drums filled with concrete and connected by an axle. This roller, attached to the front of a heavy caterpillar tractor, was pushed through the chamise stands to break off the plants at the ground level or uproot them. Another operator reclaimed chamise land by dragging a heavy "I" beam chained at right angles behind a tractor to grub out the shrubs. In some foothill areas, especially on extensive north slopes, the stands of Digger pines, blue oaks, and other trees are too dense for good quail habitat. In such areas the trees should be drastically thinned by cutting. Felled trees may be left for temporary escape and loafing cover, if needed, or may be cut into firewood and sold to help pay management expenses. Controlled burning, under permit, is useful in some places as part of the quail-improvement work. When employed by experienced men, fire can be useful in opening up extensive stands of brush and providing an alternation of brushy and grassy cover. Some brushy species of plants are killed by a thorough burn, whereas chamise and certain manzanitas produce vigorous "stump sprouts" (from the root crowns) after a fire. If not reburned after several years, such growths may again become dense stands. There is much yet to be learned about the use of fire in brushlands. A committee in the California Agricultural Experiment Station has been studying this subject for some years. Under existing laws, the landowner or game manager who desires to use fire in the clearing of brush must first obtain a permit from the State Divi- sion of Forestry, and the burning must be done under the supervision of an officer of that Division. IMPROVING FOOD CONDITIONS The whole subject of food supplies and their importance in quail manage- ment is imperfectly understood. We know approximately how much a quail requires per day in terms of total quantity and essential food elements, and we know something of the relative desirability of several common foods (8). We do not know, however, just how the population is affected by food sur- pluses and by ease of access. Studies of the bobwhite quail in eastern and mid- western states point to cover as a primary factor in limiting the increase of that species. Judging from preliminary studies on the valley quail, popula- tions having adequate cover may vary in size directly with the amount and accessibility of preferred foods. This does not mean that food is more impor- tant than cover ; both are essential. (Anyone who has hunted or observed quail knows that it is useless to look for them in a wheat field where food abounds but brushy cover is lacking.) It does mean th«tt quail populations can often be increased on good habitat simply by supplementing the food supply. A popu- 26 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 < w !> M O ft m CO eh pq (k ^ § "o M a. 3 ^ ^ a 1 03 3 - '1 o 03 j£ .« ■t 3 > > "a a > 1 ft 3 a — cr c J co >> D t. t "5 a s a R 03 a a > O BE t: c c cr T C C 1 > E c > 1 > c +. « a ■> c E 1 1 & t: -c c h **- ^ "43 e c X > > » T s a § E C c c a a t- a c I & D c3 a i -Li a > a > > E £ >- s 1 ^ 1 « 13 K c 3 a » CO > M X X CD a a a s - a a tH .P c a e. > « 2 X X J3 a c c -*. a i I i? ^ "c c c « e C S 1 a 03 ,-h a a S — !s a. c c +2 K X XI X s C C < O < < >- u a a tu e c_ a s '£ % cf > 0) h3 > 5 > c -a a > a > -rt c > 3 c K e =3 ^ •x 03 a a c , X! 0> a a CO P 1 3 , > 1 > 1 >, > 3 CD 4) s 8 | JJ > aj ^ i? a 03 3 S - 3 -3 .-3 ;| 1 CO > • 2 > - f* >> S S ^ -a > ' TJ > .a > .a > .a •- ^ 'co ^> ■3 ^ 4. Q K o a. § s J I 03 nj co -2 8 «J ! J c s - a: "° ft X W X tc ^ is b D bf b ) c a C 11 i 0) b c C ta c I ' E bO T £ a 0) a .p >- "C i. c u z q ^ a p 1. ft co cc C€ cc h> ^ •- a CO e" e •« s a g a "0 c c 5! x c "v « 55 1 1 3 c .j c 8 _e3 "ft O O a "5 5 s s 1 1 4 p i ^* '5 a; ft CO CO Be ; •- a OS 1 c 1 a c P P Cf i P a ; S 3 i. p p u -a U 1 a 2 5 s 1 a > 3 s s 1. a t ' 1 3 .5 ~c co +e 7d ° (3 T5 03 a t- c_ c c 'p .* x °s 65 a a c E o 1 c C 1 1 3 cd e 3 *l £ ec cc h G < fc O Increasing Valley Quail in California 27 3 -° ■o >, 3 c a 63 m £ 1 1 o> S 43 on £ ai d 3 5 a a S3 » w T3 O .3 > -a 8 ^ J o> . 5 c 5. ai a* 01 >i 03 "^ C T) s 43 a » M o v. a ^ fi O { o ■ a ** I— ( . . S-S2 >> ° a « § s 3 5 s a § " g 3 « bl 3 o3 8 £ S "C y3 "o II I 01 Oi 01 il £ o 0> 03 S T3 J2 -3 3 "2 3 3 O . 3 ^ 2 2 3 O u a ^ a s 2 3 a 03 a -g H § ° £ !>, 0> 1 1 1 « 5 s h O- cc SO H OJ oq'5 ■3 5 d °ca a 03 03 3 ^ <1 28 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 lation of up to 6 quail per acre has been obtained on managed areas mainly by intensive artificial-feeding programs. Quail Foods. — As a background for planning a food-improvement program, it is necessary to understand the natural food habits and preferences of quail. These birds are almost strict vegetarians, except during the first few weeks of life. Seeds are their chief food during most of the year and are therefore of greatest interest to the manager. Many types of seed are taken. Some of the more important foods eaten by California valley quail are listed in table 3. The composition of any single quail meal depends on the relative availability and desirability of the foods present. Some definite preferences have been dis- covered. These quail prefer seeds within a definite size range, from those slight- 100 80 u. 60 O 40 20 INSECTS 5EEDS IGRE ENS';! '•'t'-'r'r'-'-'-'-'-: &•:•:•:•:•: :•:•:•:•:•:!: ::•:•::::::::: JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. Fig. 15. — The general diet of valley quail in California throughout the year, as determined by various food studies and observations. ly smaller than a pinhead, such as pigweed and miner's lettuce, to others about the size of a pea. Even smaller items are sometimes taken, and large kernels of field corn or entire small acorns are eaten occasionally. The seeds of most California annual grasses, such as wild oats, foxtail, and the bromes, are gen- erally avoided, probably because of their awkward shapes and sharp ends. The seeds of sweet-clover, mints, and certain other plants are almost never taken, presumably because of undesirable taste. Foods readily acceptable in one local- ity may be refused when presented for the first time at another place. Often the birds are slow to accept new or strange foods ; one should bear this fact in mind when planning a food-improvement program. The diet of valley quail changes markedly with the seasons (fig. 15), as the various food materials become abundant or scarce. In late April and May, quail feed to a large extent on newly matured seeds of early annuals. A few of these, notably filaree and burclover, furnish seeds throughout the summer ; but most annual plants have limited periods of seed shattering and provide food for only a few months. Later-seeding annuals, especially the common clovers, lupines, and trefoils, contribute importantly to the midsummer diet. As these seeds are gradually consumed or lost in the surface soil, those of late summer Increasing Valley Quail in California 29 annuals such as tarweed, thistles, turkey-mullein, and Spanish-clover are added to the quail's larder. Few seeds are produced on California quail lands after November 1 ; unless there is still a good supply on the ground at that time, there may be a shortage of food before the autumn rains start the growth of fresh green foods. In winter and early spring the green leaves of annual weeds and grasses constitute the main source of food. This striking change from seeds to greens probably results largely from the scarcity of seeds in winter, since at that sea- son quail will greedily take grain if offered. On one managed area where seed was provided in quantity throughout the year, there was no appreciable winter shift to green feed. Food Shortages. — Quail food shortages are of two types: (1) acute short- ages of brief duration resulting from snowstorms or floods, or from the sudden destruction of major feeding areas by cultivation or other drastic treatment ; and (2) chronic shortages resulting from more or less continuous deficiencies in the vegetation because of unfavorable soil, climate, or land management. Acute shortages are rare in California. Heavy snowstorms are uncommon on most quail ranges and seldom cover all food supplies for long. In areas where snows present a hazard, as in Lassen and Modoc counties, the survival of a bird population depends on a series of winters of light snows. Floods are usually too localized and short-timed to starve the quail. The destruction of feeding grounds by cultivation rarely robs a covey of more than a part of its range at any one time, except where intensive farming has resulted in a chronic food deficiency and hence a consistently low carrying capacity. When a sudden, acute shortage occurs, the quail either move out or remain and suffer the consequences. A starving bird is thin, and its flight muscles are reduced until the keel of the breastbone can be felt as a sharp ridge down the middle of the breast. The crop and gizzard usually are empty or contain debris such as twigs and bark. Chronic food shortages are reflected in low populations rather than in thin and starving birds. They are revealed by examining the nature and composi- tion of the vegetation on feeding grounds. Barren stretches or lands that are intensively cultivated are both obviously deficient in food-producing plants. Other areas of poor food supply may be difficult to detect, especially where the deficiency is slight. On foothill range lands, large, unbroken stands of tall, coarse grasses, such as wild oats and broncho grass or ripgut, are signs of poor local food conditions. Such grasses do not furnish seed acceptable to quail, and in dense stands will choke out the broad-leaved weeds that are the best food producers. The scarcity or absence of staple plants, such as the clovers, filarees, turkey-mullein, tarweed, thistles, and cultivated grains often indicates an inadequate food supply which may become critical in the autumn. Encouraging Natural Food Plants. — The best quail foods are produced by some of the commonest plants in California. In most places all that is neces- sary to increase the food supply is to encourage the more valuable species of native plants. In general, the agricultural soils of high quality produce the best crops of quail food. Acid soils provide few good seed plants, and highly alkaline soils are equally unsatisfactory. Areas deficient in phosphorus will not support bur- 30 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 clover, perhaps the most important of all food plants for valley quail. The spreading of superphosphate fertilizer at the rate of 100 pounds per acre on clearings near good escape cover will often bring notable results on the red- soil areas of the California foothills. Fertilizers containing nitrates should be avoided in a quail-management program, since they tend to encourage grasses at the expense of leafy annuals. Land-management practices strongly influence the food-producing quali- ties of an area and often may be easily changed to benefit quail. Intensive cultivation results in chronic food shortages on soils potentially capable of ail!! i ' ' ' - * . * I §H :::: : S3;;i;:;..-,.. *W $;\vj/ tw% fc-:Nk C^:''.: lV "' '. *f% ; ^ .■■V . * *:* L - , "^■^SSil^S 1 ; f *'* ^Hssi a ^ .■■.S&B ^mni < Fig. 16. — A temporary food supply for valley quail — double-dwarf milo as a covercrop in a walnut orchard. The trees are used for roosting by quail in summer, but do not serve as winter roosts. (Danville, Contra Costa County.) producing abundant supplies. Increasing the quail foods on such areas gen- erally requires nothing more than the retirement of small strips or blocks from crop production. If, in spring plowing, a 20- or 30-foot strip is left along field borders adjacent to hedges or brush patches, the result will be a growth of annual plants, which, under proper management, can provide much valuable food. Leafy annuals may be encouraged by light disking or by burning feed strips just before the winter rains commence. Only a part of the total feeding ground should be so treated at one time, however, for the temporary retirement of a major area might have serious consequences in this critical season. Such treatment, if done by burning, must not be permitted to injure escape cover ; a strip of grasses 1 or 2 feet wide may well be left along brush patches to add to the concealing qualities of the cover. Livestock graze extensively on many plants useful as quail foods and may seriously deplete the supply by overgrazing. Sheep are particularly destruc- tive, since they tend to browse and graze in close bands that take nearly all food and cover before them. Overgrazing should be avoided at all times for Increasing Valley Quail in California 31 the sake of the land as well as the quail. Moderate grazing is rarely detrimental to quail and when properly handled can be an extremely valuable tool of the game manager. Much range land is permitted to grow up to solid stands of wild oats and brome. These areas would be far more productive of quail food if grazed by cattle to a moderate degree in winter and early spring. Where it is impossible to acquire or maintain enough livestock to control the coarse grasses, haying or burning should be employed. If allowed to mature, wild oats and brome grasses quickly lose their forage value and cast seed that will ger- minate and compete with valuable forage and seed plants. Spot burning, where safe, is excellent for controlling coarse grasses. : : '. ■:■:,. -■■■■■; ■■ . " ■ •■ ■„ '■-,. : ■§||§ 1 ^ ^Kr 8 ^ v^;. • : "-' :■; /■■'-' V :•* * w * ~ * *& * ■$* 7J%itfi3F f^H Fig. 17. — Scattering "chick feed" for quail in a brushy area by use of a power- driven blower. This practice is worth while only on an area managed intensively for quail production. (Dune Lakes, San Luis Obispo County; photograph by E. Aldrich.) Planting Quail Food. — It is sometimes advisable to plant food-producing annuals (fig. 16), especially where abusive land practices such as overgrazing have depleted natural food supplies. For maximum use, such plantings should be carefully located with respect to water and cover. Table 4 lists crop plants suitable for California conditions, together with hints for their culture. Artificial Feeding. — Acute food shortages such as may occur after a heavy snowfall require quick action in the form of artificial feeding. Feeding spots must be carefully selected with respect to escape cover and the known feeding areas of local quail. Patches of ground 6 to 10 feet in diameter should be cleared to display the food, to expose any natural food present, and to attract the atten- tion of the birds. Feed casually thrown on deep snow is usually overlooked by quail. Regular year-round artificial feeding has been practiced on several private game areas with notable success. One group of sportsmen has built up a popu- lation of over 2,500 quail on a 400-acre tract by distributing 500 sacks of grain per year. Less ambitious feeding projects have also given good results. The practice is always costly, however, and can be recommended only where cover 32 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695 M 3 " s ^ 8 02 ft O o ft p to 03 a Quail may not use first crop extensively if unaccus- tomed to grain zi cu ,3 a s a oi 1 ~ to a Takes longer for quail to become educated to use it. Satisfactory in localities where barley is grown a o u o u CD 3 73 c3 « 1 1 -0 in >> -' a cc pq CO CD 3 73 11 ll C 03 ;-, "^ 2^ g 'co CD 73 >> Si CD > S 3 o> 8 1 «♦- cc ■a 1 &^ Si 3 £ J2 3 ® -2 s c8 "a $ a cd A 13 o3 O H cd . Si 1 § *c3 *"" a 73 -* 1 I CD .. 5 3 8 "2 02 1 to 0) -2 § 03 >-< "03 £ o cr- 02 73 3 O Si "o s _o "S Si o3 a a> Si Ph a> * o § 3 .5 03 c3 si CB o -gj o3 o3 Eh to £ QC* .2 ? a o to oi - - .5 03 H 73 § ^ CD CO +^ s * M 3 'C a cc _3 i o Si o3 73 C o3 CO 5 M fl co _3 O 03 .3 73 3 03 s "o3 _3 & o Si c3 -3 73 3 03 co Q "a Si <» ,3 a o "w M § T3 — . S "3 2 3 £ cr M t, +» o3 03 CD CO CD a _o CO CD CD > M O . O 73 _ 3 3 W) s- += oj 03 M O 73* ^H 2 '5 2 3 s- ~ bn t, += 03 03 a> s c "oi > a CD 3 73 C 3 O (h . , to iS CD CO CD a _o "to +3 ti 3 « CD > ^ 8 73 — 2 & M Si 03 CD E c CO CD a _o In CD > bl o - o 73 _ 2 '3 3 3 2 & bO u -u o3 c3 4 c X 5 to 6 CO O i- a 1 'o3 d CD s o; A! oi a b C cs ~ ■7. ! O s s o CJ 3 c3 -S 3 3 8 .3 "CD > Increasing Valley Quail in California 33 % o3 d j>> CD CD 01 a o d 42 0> 03 O O co i< ° .- • >> tC 3 v O O >! Oi 8 E g "5 d d T3 .3 ■§ d il 03 TJ ^ | 1 a O i 5 fcH ■— C3 ! i*i 1 s a (h CD c§ T3 ^ «« tC a> ^ o3 ►. C >> +S 0> a s y P o> 45 1* j>. 15 o *S CO o d © •- 3 >» i* d *, =3 o (- 5 -g I T3 O o 1 > c 8 43 43 a) -H ° 43 ^ 4^ > $ «-c o ^ o a -s£ a > m .h <» o> (h , , t-, ■- -« a) o> o> J3 | 43 a o 5 o C5 £ S ^ 2 >o co 43 a a 03 o3 — i ^ — a ^ O o £ 3 a -2 »5 d ca .5 71 CO M co M d J _rf "" •" ' a T3 71 co T3 Is ^ co .a co -O — « T3 CO O m % 2 g m .s -^ 9 en 0) rj % CO s 5 8 3. CD C3 c. CD 0> CD "O CD CD -i >> "C fe 45 i *c3 a * s d ^ 3 c '3 <« 42 ^_ _d CO 3 8 — -S b "2 d 03 5 S3 45 * -< C3 ^ o S _ *3 & d co — * 1 B* 43 a S2c (h 0> c3 -t^ 3 d b£ d 3 5 be O o3 d ^ £ 42 ^ • M-8 o d * O CD Jh SI O >> d O d £ =5 fl © -^ ^ 45 2 5 *~ ^ 3 1^2 c3 03 SP d o S a> d >> +5 >> 3 a o o -o il d >> > >, >. _« T) 03 08 oi 03 o eg o o w o o ^O ^o cj < * t£ >> > >! >. J d d d d >> J5 -2 ® "^ T3 CD _0) +; *3 o c to '3 CD a en u d .^ -2 "« is « S C co w g 8 CQ c O =3 ^ *£ o CO C a >> [3 .1 S § '%% T3 T3 '5 e ^ S "3 01 3 0> * I" a O iH 8 s 4h 0) a GQ d a ^ a a co H e. a is ^ a > o o s CD c fcn > 43 45 _o a s 43 CO d _ o 42 3 !E js c. o w pc