UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

INCREASING VALLEY QUAIL
IN CALIFORNIA

JOHN T. EMLEN, JR. and BEN GLADING

CALIFORNIA VALLEY QUAIL

BULLETIN 695

November, 1945

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction 3

Sources of information 3

Principles and methods of quail management 4

Establishing a population 4

Improving land for quail occupancy 5

Quail habitat 5

Characteristics of quail habitat 5

Quail habitats of California 8

Detecting habitat deficiencies 12

Laying the management plans 13

Improving cover conditions 15

Encouraging natural vegetation 16

Planting quail cover 18

Artificial and temporary shelters 24

Thinning cover 24

Improving food conditions 25

Quail foods 28

Food shortages 29

Encouraging natural food plants 29

Planting quail food 31

Artificial feeding 31

Improving water conditions 34

Water requirements 34

Providing water 34

Protecting quail populations 38

Predators 40

Ground carnivores 41

Eodents 42

Snakes 43

Hawks 43

Owls 45

Other birds 45

Ants 45

Diseases and parasites 46

Accidents 47

Hunting 48

Harvesting the quail crop 48

How much to harvest 48

How to harvest 49

How to record the harvest 50

Hunting privileges and rights 53

Literature cited 55

INCREASING VALLEY QUAIL IN CALIFORNIA 1

JOHN T. EMLEN, Jr. 2 and BEN GLADING 3

INTRODUCTION

The valley quail, 4 California's state bird, is one of the most popular wild
creatures on the farmlands, ranches, and waste areas where it is found. Almost
everyone is attracted by its beauty of plumage, pleasing call notes, and friend-
ly behavior. To the California sportsman it is the king of upland game birds,
calling forth his best in alertness and marksmanship.

Quail have been driven from some areas that they formerly inhabited and
are less common than they might be in many others. Ranchers who have few
or none on their properties often desire to encourage and foster a quail popu-
lation in their fields and around their homes. Sportsmen spend much time
speculating on ways to protect and increase quail on their favorite hunting
grounds.

Existing knowledge on the management of valley quail is still far from com-
plete. Such topics as the relation of food abundance to population density and
the effect of intensive predator control on quail numbers are poorly under-
stood. Knowledge of the diseases of quail is almost lacking as far as practical
game management is concerned. Indeed, there is no single phase of quail man-
agement on which the authors would venture a final answer. Enough informa-
tion has been accumulated, however, to warrant publication of a practical
guide to some tested practices useful to ranchers, sportsmen, and bird lovers
who are interested in building up quail populations.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The authors have drawn from their experience during eight years of inten-
sive study of valley quail on farms, range lands, and desert areas of California ;
from the writings of other students of game problems; and from the unpub-
lished observations of many ranchers, sportsmen, and game specialists who
have contributed valuable information and suggestions. In particular, they
acknowledge the scientific contributions of the United States Fish and Wild-
life Service, the United States Soil Conservation Service, the United States
Forest Service, the University of California College of Agriculture, and the
California Division of Fish and Game. Most of the work of the authors was
done under the auspices of the last three of these agencies. 5

1 Received for publication March 16, 1945.

2 Assistant Professor of Zoology and Assistant Zoologist in the Experiment Station ;
resigned July 27, 1943.

3 Economic Biologist, California Division of Pish and Game.

4 The frontispiece shows a male valley quail (Lophortyx calif ornica) , from a painting by
Louis Agassiz Fuertes made for the California Division of Fish and Game.

5 From 1935 to 1943, Emlen investigated the life history and management of valley quail
under the auspices of the California Agricultural Experiment Station. From 1936 to 1941,
Glading made similar studies for the Cooperative Valley Quail Management Committee, a
joint project of the U. S. Forest Service, IT. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, University of Cali-
fornia College of Agriculture, and California Division of Fish and Game. From 1941 to date,

[3]

4 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF QUAIL MANAGEMENT

Valley quail are sedentary, and their management is a problem compa-
rable in many respects to the management of an agricultural crop. The pro-
gram involves three steps : (1) establishing a breeding stock, (2) aiding and
protecting this stock during its development, and (3) harvesting the surplus.

Establishing a breeding stock is seldom difficult in California ; if the area
is at all suitable, there are usually at least a few quail present. Given a small
population as seed stock and an adequate tract of land, nature can produce a
bountiful supply of new quail every summer.

The nurture and care of this stock constitute the second or cultural step.
This calls for two lines of action : first, the provision of living space or habitat
attractive and adequate for the special life requirements of quail; second, pro-
tection against enemies, accidents, and overshooting. The first of these, com-
monly known as habitat management, is of fundamental significance. Only
through habitat improvement, by providing more and better living space for
the quail, can one establish and maintain an increased population on anything
like a stable basis. Protection is a valuable supplementary measure, and the
two should be practiced together. The basic breeding population is determined
by the habitat and may generally be increased by habitat improvement; the
harvestable surplus, determined by the size of the breeding stock, may be con-
served for limited periods through protection against enemies and accidents.

The harvesting of the quail crop, when contemplated, must be considered as
an integral part of the program. Measurements of a quail population by cen-
suses and records of the hunting-season kill provide the basis for determining
just how many birds may be safely taken from an area. A safe annual harvest
of 20 to 30 quail (and, with special effort, up to 150) per hundred acres of
managed range, is gratifying compensation for time and money expended.

ESTABLISHING A POPULATION

It is rarely necessary to establish or supplement a quail population by intro-
ducing new stock. Quail occur on all or nearly all suitable areas in California
in numbers approximating the ability of the existing environment to support
them. Their natural reproductive powers, furthermore, are ample to correct
quickly any temporary setback caused by local catastrophe or overshooting.
Thus their scarcity or absence is almost invariably due to unfavorable living
conditions rather than to any reproductive deficiency. Dumping birds into an
inadequate habitat is like pouring water into a leaky bucket. Sportsmen will
do well to turn their primary efforts to repairing the bucket.

The argument that new birds bring vigor into a population by reducing in-
breeding is without proof. Wild individuals regularly move about from covey
to covey during the year. This is particularly true of surplus males in the nest-
ing season. Thus, serious inbreeding is almost inconceivable under natural con-

Glading has done similar work for the California Division of Fish and Game in cooperation
with the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration, Project California 6-R.

Dr. Carl B. Wolf, Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Anaheim, California, gave generous help
in the preparation of table 2 and in parts of the section "Improving Cover Conditions."

Grateful acknowledgment is due Dr. Tracy I. Storer, Division of Zoology, College of
Agriculture, University of California, for initiating and guiding the program of study
of quail by the authors, and for editorial help in the preparation of this publication.

Increasing Valley Quail in California 5

ditions. Game-farm birds are rarely as robust as wild quail and often carry
diseases acquired in crowded pens. The liberation of such birds is a hazard
rather than a benefit to a wild population.

The introduction of new birds may be desirable where an isolated quail habi-
tat has never been populated or has been depopulated by some local catastro-
phe, or where a population is regularly overshot. The first situation rarely
occurs in valley quail range in California ; the second is sometimes encountered
on club properties and around centers of population. A temporary supply of
shootable birds may be had by a release just before the hunting season ; intro-
ducing new birds, however, is an expensive procedure, and is recommended
only after everything possible has been done to encourage natural reproduc-
tion and survival. If and when necessary, quail may be obtained from private
game breeders or from the state game farms. Of recent years a limited supply
of wild-trapped birds has been available from the Division of Fish and Game

(17)*

IMPROVING LAND FOR QUAIL OCCUPANCY

Quail, like livestock, cannot be crowded into inferior range. Cattle or sheep
rapidly lose condition when held on deteriorating pasture. Quail, being unre-
stricted by fences, simply move on to better locations or die ; thus the number
residing on an area generally indicates the quality of the habitat and the carry-
ing capacity for quail. Raise the carrying capacity by habitat improvements,
and within a year the birds will respond; lower it by destroying natural cover
and food, and they will quickly die off or move out. This responsiveness to liv-
ing conditions on the range is due partly to freedom of movement and partly
to the rapid annual turnover of birds. More than half of a quail population
normally dies and is replaced during the course of a year. If conditions are
favorable for replacement and survival, populations will expand quickly ; if
unfavorable, they will just as quickly decline and disappear.

QUAIL HABITAT

Characteristics of Quail Habitat. — In considering the essential features of
an area, the importance of behavior peculiarities of the birds must be empha-
sized. Quail take their food in the form of seeds and greens. They probably
could obtain the same essential dietary elements from insects and worms, as do
many other birds. Their food habits, however, are so ingrained that in captivity
quail have been known to starve, even when a bountiful food suppy was offered
in an unaccustomed form. The same dependency on habit is seen in relation to
brushy cover. Whereas other species with similar needs but different habits,
such as the pheasant, get along without such cover, quail simply will not settle
or remain on land that lacks it.

The carrying capacity of a tract for quail is determined by the presence and

6 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to "Literature Cited" at the end of this bulletin.
As will be noted, some of the references are not specifically referred to in the text but are
included as reading sources on upland game-bird management. Two later papers on quail
projects are:

Glading, Ben, E. W. Enderlin, and H. A. Hjersman.

The Kettleman Hills quail project. California Fish and Game 31:139-56. 1945.
Glading, Ben, David M. Selleck, and Fred T. Ross.

Valley quail under private management at the Dune Lakes Club. California Fish and
Game 31:167-83. 1945.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

distribution of food, water, and cover in acceptable forms. Moving about most-
ly on foot, quail require a broken terrain with a close intermixture of open
feeding areas and protective brushy cover. Any farming operations that create
broad expanses of single vegetation types are not favorable to quail, even when
such areas consist of valuable food or cover plants. A clean-cultivated vine-
yard, for example, has the necessary brushy element, but lacks food; a large
grain field contains much good quail food, but lacks brushy cover. Such large

IRRIGATED LANDS HH

DRY FARM LANDS l£:£:l

RANGE LANDS KM

DESERT AREAS V//A

Fig. 1.-

-The areas in California occupied by valley quail. The four major habitat
types are indicated by the different shading.

areas of any single cover or food plant are of little or no use to quail except
along the edges. Mixed vegetation with small clumps of trees and shrubs scat-
tered among open feeding areas, as on many foothill range lands, provides a
maximum of "edge," and is ideal for quail when water also is available.

The essence of habitat management for quail is the creation of the best possi-
ble mingling of feeding areas, protective cover, and watering sites. The highest
development of land for quail is attempted only in those rare instances where
an area is used solely for quail production. On most lands, the objective of
quail management is to create the best possible environment under the limita-
tions imposed by essential land use operations. To achieve this purpose requires
a thorough understanding of the birds' habits, requirements, and enemies ; in
short, the ability to see the land through the eyes of the quail.

Increasing Valley Quail in California 7

The essential elements of valley quail habitat are as follows :

1. Food: The birds require an adequate and dependable supply of accept-
able seeds in summer, fall, and early winter, and of greens in later winter and
spring. (See pages 25-33.)

2. Water : Except under certain unusual circumstances, quail drink at least
once a day during the hot summer and fall months. Watering places should be
accessible on all parts of the range, and regard must be given to the limited
mobility and special cover requirements of newly hatched broods. (See pages
34-38.)

^' ROOSTING " S %pg3

Fig. 2. — The four types of cover for valley quail. In some areas the loafing and
escape cover are essentially the same.

3. Cover : The needs of quail for cover or shelter may be listed under five
types:

a. Loafing cover : Between feeding periods, quail spend most of their time
dozing and preening in secluded spots protected from the sun of summer,
the winds and rain of winter, and the eyes of predators. Loafing cover
should be close to the feeding areas and should be low. It should be dense
enough to provide concealment, yet open enough to permit considerable
freedom of movement by the birds and good visibility from within. Dense
stands of brush that afford hidden avenues of approach for terrestrial
enemies are unsuitable.

b. Escape cover : In their foraging excursions, quail seldom wander more
than 50 feet from brushy cover into which they can escape if surprised
by an enemy. Cover suitable for loafing is usually good escape cover ; but
dense, low shrubs, trees, trailing vines, weed patches, piles of debris, and
even rock piles are used.

c. Feeding cover : Quail like to feed in clearings or in sparse vegetation that
afford them an open view of the sky. They avoid dense thickets of brush
or patches of standing grass except where the edges adjoin clearings.
When feeding, they will not remain long in a single spot; they like to keep
on the move, and feeding grounds should therefore be extensively dis-
tributed.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

d. Roosting cover : In most parts of California, valley quail roost at night
in densely foliaged trees or in shrubs 5 to 30 feet tall. One good roosting
site is normally enough for a covey inhabiting a 30- to 40-acre covey
range, but where populations are large and the ranges overlap, numerous
sites are needed.

e. Nesting cover : Quail nest on the ground in almost any type of cover that
affords a little shade and concealment. The available supply of such cover
is usually ample at the beginning of the nesting season. The chief limita-
tion is imposed by farming operations and overgrazing that destroy
ground cover after nesting has started.

Fig. 3. — Coast Eange. Roosting cover : tan-oak and Douglas-fir in background.
Escape and loafing cover: shrubs at right. Food: in the clearing at front. (Near
Petrolia, Humboldt County; photograph by T. I. Storer.)

4. Other factors : Quail, like other seed-eating birds, require grit, either fine
gravel or other hard particles. Grit is held in the gizzard and aids in "milling"
the hard-coated seeds. Certain mineral requirements of nutrition are also
thought to be provided by the eroding of grit particles in the gizzard.

Quail like dust baths and use available dusting places frequently. Dusting
helps to keep the plumage in good condition and is thought to afford relief from
external parasites.

In any management program, all essential features of the habitat must be
considered; each is a link in a vital chain. The strength of the chain is deter-
mined by the weakest link. The aim of game management is to detect these
weak links and to correct them.

Quail Habitats of California. — Valley quail are to be found in nearly all
parts of California below the winter snow line, except the eastern half of the
Mojave and Colorado deserts (fig. 1). In this wide geographical range they
occupy many varied types of habitat (figs. 3-7 ) , each of which involves its own
distinct problems. Table 1 roughly classifies habitats of valley quail, giving

Increasing Valley Quail in California

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California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

Fig. 4. — Inner Coast Eange. Eoosting cover : live oak in canyon bottom. Escape
and loafing cover : poison oak in right foreground. Food in weed patches on grassy
hills beyond. (South side of Mount Diablo, Contra Costa County.)

Fig. 5. — Valley river bottom. Eoosting cover : willow thickets and mistletoe
clumps in the trees along the river. Escape and loafing cover : driftwood and vine
tangles under the trees. Food: in neighboring fields and open areas. (Near Marys-
ville, Yuba County; photograph by T. I. Storer.)

Increasing Valley Quail in California

Fig. 6. — Foothills of the Sierra Nevada. Roosting cover : live oak at left. Loafing
cover: shrubs in foreground. Escape cover: brush and scattered rock piles. Food:
in open areas. (San Joaquin Experimental Range, Madera County ; photograph
by T. I. Storer.)

Fig. 7. — Southern California desert area. Roosting cover: pinon pines and juni-
pers. Escape and loafing cover: sagebrush {Artemisia). Food: small annual plants
in spaces between plants of sagebrush. (Cactus Flat, San Bernardino County; photo-
graph by T. I. Storer.)

12 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

comments on the populations, habitat deficiencies, and appropriate manage-
ment procedures for each.

Irrigated truck and field-crop lands are generally deficient in roosting cover,
escape cover, and loafing cover, and often in food (fig. 2) . It is not always feasi-
ble to attempt quail management on such lands ; but, where possible, a few
simple improvements in field corners and along fences can do much to encour-
age quail. The birds that persist along sloughs, creek banks, and submarginal
borders in such agricultural areas will quickly move out into new territory
as it is made usable to them by improvement of food and cover. Orchards and
vineyards often provide ample cover, yet, when clean-cultivated, are deficient
in food. Where the operator can safely leave small stands of weedy cover along
the vineyard or orchard borders, there will commonly be a local increase in
quail.

Dry-farming areas in California produce an abundance of quail foods, but as
a rule are seriously deficient in protective cover and in drinking water. Where
these latter items are introduced around farm houses and along field borders,
the quail respond by rapid increase. Further planned developments could
make excellent quail range of vast acreages now barren of these birds (figs. 8-
11.) The necessary improvements would involve little or no sacrifice and some-
times would be of benefit to the farming program.

The extensive range lands of the coastal and interior foothills contain some
of the best quail country remaining in California. The open oak forests on
many of these lands generally have excellent interspersion of food and cover.
Water is the chief limiting factor, as indicated by the migrations which quail
make every summer from dry hillsides to the vicinity of water holes. Provid-
ing new watering sites has been highly effective as a management method on
such lands. The food supply is sometimes deficient both on undergrazed areas
and on those heavily grazed by sheep — situations that often can be improved
by regulating the grazing according to the best interests of the land and the
livestock. Brush clearing on chaparral lands with too dense a cover will be of
benefit to both quail and livestock. Conversely, brush planting will foster quail
on certain treeless and brushless range lands.

The desert areas of southern California support good quail populations
where water is available throughout the dry season. Food and cover conditions
are usually satisfactory. Being largely under public ownership, desert lands
are primarily the concern of government agencies. The California Division
of Fish and Game, aided by federal funds, has embarked on an extensive pro-
gram of quail management on the southern California deserts.

Detecting Habitat Deficiencies. — For a clear understanding of the habitat
deficiencies on any particular management area, a detailed survey is needed,
recording on a large-scale map the existing food, cover, and water facilities.
The first step is to prepare a base map showing field boundaries, fence lines,
and prominent landmarks. For this purpose the topographic sheets published
by the United States Geological Survey, on a scale of 1 to 4 inches per mile
are very useful. Pertinent features of the area should be transferred from
these sheets to a large outline map having a scale of about 8 inches to the mile.
Corrections should be made for recent changes in roads and any local improve-
ments not shown on older map sheets. The locations of property lines can be

Increasing Valley Quail in California 13

obtained from the county assessor's office and drawn on the large-scale map.
Further details often may be added through personal knowledge of the area
or by careful study of air-photo maps if available. The large-scale land-use
maps of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, which may be pur-
chased for certain areas from county AAA offices or the United States Soil
Conservation Service, are useful, especially in hilly country where fields and
landmarks are irregularly spaced.

After a satisfactory base map has been obtained or prepared the important
features of the habitat for quail should be plotted ; these include the existing
roosting cover, brushy cover, water sources, and, where possible, feeding
areas. Information for this cover charting may sometimes be obtained by
studying good air-photo maps or type maps of vegetation such as have been
recently published for a few areas in the state by the California Forest and
Range Experiment Station at Berkeley ; but most of the details must be sup-
plied by field mapping. A plane table is helpful for cover mapping in the field,
but an adequate picture of the spacing and distribution of habitat features
can usually be made without special equipment by a careful observer familiar
with the tract under survey. A compass is often needed in hilly country, and
the mapper should know accurately the length of his normal stride. Each
significant habitat feature of the area should be located on the map with an
appropriate symbol. A convenient system of map symbols, more or less stand-
ardized for habitat-survey maps by wildlife managers, is used in this paper
(figs. 8-11). Cover and water features are usually easy to map. Food sources,
because of their wide distribution and seasonal nature, are difficult to locate
with precision, and should not be shown.

Duplicate base maps with a few outstanding features of the cover should be
made to record the location of quail coveys during each winter season. On most
areas, each covey is restricted closely and tends to stay on a definite range of
30 to 40 acres throughout the winter. On small tracts that are examined regu-
larly by an observer during routine farm operations, the plotting on a map of
each observation on quail will provide a fairly accurate record of covey dis-
tribution. At the end of the season, the map can be marked with figures show-
ing the approximate size of each covey, based on many observations. On areas
less intensively farmed and on large tracts of foothill range where the distribu-
tion is more continuous, casual population surveys are not satisfactory and
specially organized census drives are needed. (See the section entitled "Har-
vesting the Quail Crop.")

The details of quail distribution as shown on a population survey map should
be studied carefully in relation to cover, food, and water distribution as shown
on the corresponding habitat survey map. The manager who makes full use
of such maps can clearly picture the types of land naturally favored by quail.
Such first-hand knowledge is invaluable in planning a program.

Laying the Management Plans. — The objective of a habitat-management
program is to make as much as possible of the total acreage suitable for sup-
porting a maximum number of quail. Success depends, first, on a proper eval-
uation of the habitat and its deficiencies ; and second, on a wise decision about
the corrective measures needed. These are problems for individual judgment ;
each local manager must solve them on the basis of his experience, keenness,

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

and knowledge of tested practices. Careful planning at the outset will prevent
much waste of time, effort, and money.

The thoughtful manager who knows all the essential requirements of habitat
can, with the help of cover maps and population maps, plan with considerable

HIGHWAY

DIRT ROAD "--- =
IRRIGATION CANAL
FENCE *

GRASSLAND ^

EVERGREEN TREE
DECIDUOUS TREE
BRUSH %^g

COVEY BOUNDARY ===^

Fig. 8. — Plan of an irrigated farm before conditions for valley quail have been
improved. Eange of one quail covey outlined about the farm buildings. The same
farm improved is shown in figure 9.

accuracy just where and how to establish new coveys by making improvements
on land formerly uninhabitable for quail. Each vacant area on the population
map should be studied carefully, and an attempt made to understand the rea-
sons for absence of quail. Means of correcting the one or more key deficiencies

Increasing Valley Quail in California

of each blank area should then be considered with full regard to the special
habits and restricted movements of the birds. Prospective improvements
should be plotted on a cover map, using colored marks or different symbols
to distinguish proposed developments from existing features (figs. 8-11).

VACUUM TYPE QUAIL WATER TROUGH - m

Fig. 9. — The same farm as shown in figure 8, after conditions have been improved
for quail. Trees and shrubs for roosting and escape cover have been planted along
margins of roads and fields ; these, together with new fences and covey boundaries,
are shown in red. Other legend as in figure 8.

This working-plan map should be at hand for frequent reference during the
habitat-improvement program.

IMPROVING COVER CONDITIONS

The cover-improvement program should attempt to create an adequate
amount and a proper balance of each of the cover types required by quail.
Some areas need more cover of all types ; others require selective changes in
existing cover, to encourage types of brush providing both food and cover
and at the same time to discourage unsuitable species.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

Encouraging Natural Vegetation. — Vegetation suitable for roosting, loaf-
ing, escape, and nesting cover may be increased either by reducing or removing
the factors that prevent its natural growth, or by actual planting and culture.
The vegetation on heavily grazed lands is often held back by the feeding activ-

SPRING ? CATTLE TROUGH W
INTERMITTENT STREAM ■

Fig. 10. — Plan of a section of foothill range land before conditions for valley quail
have been improved. Ranges outlined for two coveys present. Covey area suitable for
winter occupancy is shown by a broken inside line. Other legend same as figure 8.

ities of livestock. The fencing of small plots in swales, around clumps of heav-
ily browsed shrubs, near water troughs, or in pasture corners will usually re-
sult in rapid natural regeneration of good escape cover and loafing cover. On
range lands where the ground about a water hole has been trampled to dust
or mud, a stockproof , fenced plot including at least a part of the water hole
should be built. Such plots, protected from grazing and trampling, will soon
develop a growth of weeds and grasses useful as protective cover for adult
quail or young broods, which would hesitate to use an exposed water hole.

Increasing Valley Quail in California

BRUSH PILE SHELTER $&

TYPES OF QUAIL WATER TROUGHS:
VACUUM TYPE «>

FLOAT VALVE TYPE ■-

SELF- FILLING TYPE f^fc

Fig. 11. — The same section of foothill range as in figure 10, after conditions have
been improved for quail. Openings have been made in the chamise (chaparral), addi-
tional roosting trees and escape or loafing cover (brush) have been planted on the
flat portions, and watering devices have been placed at several points in the area.
Ranges of additional quail coveys possible with the improvements are outlined. All
new features shown in red. Other legend same as in figures 8 and 10.

Grassy nesting cover should be protected as much as possible from heavy
grazing by sheep until after the nesting season for quail ends in July. A plan
of pasture rotation that leaves small valleys and swales for early summer use
by quail and later use by livestock is good range management as well as good
quail management.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

Planting Quail Cover. — In many places planting is desirable or necessary
to establish permanent cover patches of proper types. Any such program in-
volves considerable time and labor and should be carefully planned in accord-
ance with the requirements of the birds and the qualities of the land. Each
cover development must be considered in its relation to other existing or pro-
posed food, cover, and water facilities; small, isolated patches, regardless of
their quality, are worthless to quail. Clumps of plants for escape and loafing
cover should be 10 to 20 feet in diameter and not more than 200 feet from other
escape cover. Continuous or interrupted hedges of good dense shrubs are eco-

Fig. 12.— Planted cover. Roosting cover : these one-year-old tamarisk trees will
soon grow large enough to provide a roosting place. Loafing cover : under the edge
of the (planted) pampas grass. Escape cover and food: naturally abundant on
rough lands nearby. (Kettleman Hills, Fresno County.)

nomical and effective for cover planting and particularly useful as intercon-
necting "bridges" or routes for quail between larger patches of cover. A loose
network of hedges and brush patches will make large areas, previously unin-
habitable, available for occupancy by quail. Roosting cover should be available
at quarter-mile intervals over quail range. Although one good roosting tree
is enough at a site, it is well to set out a group of young trees to insure against
loss or poor growth (fig. 12).

The locations of plantings on agricultural land must be determined largely
by the primary land use. Some cover improvements for quail can be fitted
into farm programs with little interference and often with positive benefit.
On high-quality truck and crop land, cover developments will usually be
restricted to submarginal borders or the vicinity of buildings. Odd corners
more or less inaccessible to farm machinery can sometimes be planted with
brushy cover. Many farmers consider that attractive plantings in such places
improve the general appearance of a farm. In hilly country, certain shrubs
valuable as quail cover also have important soil-binding properties and are

Increasing Valley Quail in California

recommended by the United States Soil Conservation Service for planting
along gullies and washes. Where windbreaks are desirable along field borders,
hedges of osage-orange, cypress, or tamarisk will protect the fields and also
provide adequate escape, loafing, and sometimes roosting cover for quail. Some
of the best kinds of roosting trees are excellent for shade around farm build-
ings and on pasture lands ; broad-leaved evergreens such as olives, citrus, and
live oaks are ideal. When planting brushy cover on range lands it is possible
and often desirable to use species such as the saltbushes that will ultimately
benefit cattle as well as quail. After a few years of fenced protection, saltbushes
will develop enough woody growth so that they can be used by cattle, yet not
be browsed out.

Fig. 13. — Shelter of brush and small logs as constructed for bobwhite quail by the Texas
Game, Fish, and Oyster Commission. Similar shelters will provide loafing cover for valley
quail in California.

Shrubs and trees suitable for quail cover vary widely in their cultural and
climatic requirements (9, 11, 22). Where there is any doubt about climatic or
soil tolerances, it is a good rule to use plants that are native locally. Hints on
methods of planting and culturing are given in table 2. 7 Some species may be
established by simply broadcasting seed into roughly scratched patches of
ground (21) ; others must be grown in pots for a year or more and then trans-
planted to the permanent sites. Many desirable brush species can be started by
transplanting freshly cut slips or young plants newly dug from other places.

Most of the plants listed in table 2 are reasonably resistant to drought and
need little attention after being set out. All need water at the start, but much
of this can be supplied by rain if planting is done early in the rainy season.
As a rule, the species that require special care are suitable only near residences
or in other places where water is readily available.

Some of the best cover plants, particularly the densely foliaged roosting
trees such as citrus, oaks, and juniper, grow very slowly. Often, when estab-
lishing such plants, it is well to set out some faster-growing type such as ever-

7 Leaflets dealing with the culture of native California shrubs and trees are published
by the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden at Anaheim, California. Many of these deal
with species that are excellent as quail cover. Additional advice or help in obtaining
planting stock may be had from the local farm advisor or from any nearby district office
of the United States Soil Conservation Service.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

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California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

green tamarisk at the same time ; then, as the slow-growing trees attain usable
size, the less desirable types may be removed.

Artificial and Temporary Shelters. — Where quick results are desired or
where conditions are not favorable for growing plant cover, artificial shelters
will serve. A simple, though rather temporary, form of artificial escape or loaf-
ing cover is the brush pile. In wooded areas with scant undergrowth, the fell-
ing of a tree may provide the desired cover at ground level (13). In farming
country, orchard prunings can be put to good use. Since a brush pile tends to
settle with time, care should be taken to insure enough space beneath for free
movement by the quail, if the pile is to serve as loafing cover. A foundation of

Fig. 14. — Use of a bulldozer for clearing brush lands. (Compare with figures 10
and 11.) The uprooted brush is piled for burning later; small piles may be left as
shelter for quail. (Photograph by Cliff Topham.)

heavy branches crossed at right angles will help to keep a brush pile open ; but
a sturdy, wooden frame, or an old farm gate, supported about 1 foot above
the ground, provides a better and more permanent foundation. Figure 13
shows a type of artificial quail cover used successfully in Texas. Brush piles in
or near orchards may have to be burned in March, since they may harbor shot-
hole borers and other orchard pests. By that season, however, annual grasses
and weeds are generally large enough to satisfy nesting requirements.

Thinning Cover. — In some foothill range lands and along heavily wooded
water courses in the valleys, much possible quail habitat is rendered useless
by an excess of brushy cover. Even if small populations exist in such areas, they
are of little value to the hunter, since they are difficult to shoot. Extensive
stands of brush should be broken up into small patches by clearing lanes
through them. Once the brush has been removed, annual plants useful as quail
foods usually appear quickly, especially where some soil has been turned up.

The surest and safest way t%clear brush from the land is to cut and dig it
out. This is a slow process, but a few 30-foot swaths or lanes cut through the

Increasing Valley Quail in California 25

brush will create much new habitat. A bulldozer driven by a caterpillar tractor
is a valuable management tool in country where it can be used (fig. 14) . It rips
out the undesirable brush and also crudely prepares the soil for food-produc-
ing annuals. Various commercial "brush-rippers" and "trail-builders" are on
the market, and the efficient "Plumas brush-stripper," developed by the United
States Forest Service, serves to clear 6-foot lanes through brush fields. One
rancher successfully broke up a dense brush field by rolling the chamise down
in winter and then burning in the spring after the brush had dried, but before
the annual vegetation was a dangerous fire hazard. His rolling equipment con-
sisted of two 100-gallon oil drums filled with concrete and connected by an
axle. This roller, attached to the front of a heavy caterpillar tractor, was
pushed through the chamise stands to break off the plants at the ground level
or uproot them. Another operator reclaimed chamise land by dragging a heavy
"I" beam chained at right angles behind a tractor to grub out the shrubs.

In some foothill areas, especially on extensive north slopes, the stands of
Digger pines, blue oaks, and other trees are too dense for good quail habitat.
In such areas the trees should be drastically thinned by cutting. Felled trees
may be left for temporary escape and loafing cover, if needed, or may be cut
into firewood and sold to help pay management expenses.

Controlled burning, under permit, is useful in some places as part of the
quail-improvement work. When employed by experienced men, fire can be
useful in opening up extensive stands of brush and providing an alternation of
brushy and grassy cover. Some brushy species of plants are killed by a
thorough burn, whereas chamise and certain manzanitas produce vigorous
"stump sprouts" (from the root crowns) after a fire. If not reburned after
several years, such growths may again become dense stands. There is much yet
to be learned about the use of fire in brushlands. A committee in the California
Agricultural Experiment Station has been studying this subject for some
years. Under existing laws, the landowner or game manager who desires to
use fire in the clearing of brush must first obtain a permit from the State Divi-
sion of Forestry, and the burning must be done under the supervision of an
officer of that Division.

IMPROVING FOOD CONDITIONS

The whole subject of food supplies and their importance in quail manage-
ment is imperfectly understood. We know approximately how much a quail
requires per day in terms of total quantity and essential food elements, and
we know something of the relative desirability of several common foods (8).
We do not know, however, just how the population is affected by food sur-
pluses and by ease of access. Studies of the bobwhite quail in eastern and mid-
western states point to cover as a primary factor in limiting the increase of
that species. Judging from preliminary studies on the valley quail, popula-
tions having adequate cover may vary in size directly with the amount and
accessibility of preferred foods. This does not mean that food is more impor-
tant than cover ; both are essential. (Anyone who has hunted or observed quail
knows that it is useless to look for them in a wheat field where food abounds
but brushy cover is lacking.) It does mean th«tt quail populations can often be
increased on good habitat simply by supplementing the food supply. A popu-

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

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California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

lation of up to 6 quail per acre has been obtained on managed areas mainly
by intensive artificial-feeding programs.

Quail Foods. — As a background for planning a food-improvement program,
it is necessary to understand the natural food habits and preferences of quail.
These birds are almost strict vegetarians, except during the first few weeks
of life. Seeds are their chief food during most of the year and are therefore
of greatest interest to the manager. Many types of seed are taken. Some of the
more important foods eaten by California valley quail are listed in table 3.

The composition of any single quail meal depends on the relative availability
and desirability of the foods present. Some definite preferences have been dis-
covered. These quail prefer seeds within a definite size range, from those slight-

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JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.
Fig. 15. — The general diet of valley quail in California throughout the year, as determined
by various food studies and observations.

ly smaller than a pinhead, such as pigweed and miner's lettuce, to others about
the size of a pea. Even smaller items are sometimes taken, and large kernels
of field corn or entire small acorns are eaten occasionally. The seeds of most
California annual grasses, such as wild oats, foxtail, and the bromes, are gen-
erally avoided, probably because of their awkward shapes and sharp ends. The
seeds of sweet-clover, mints, and certain other plants are almost never taken,
presumably because of undesirable taste. Foods readily acceptable in one local-
ity may be refused when presented for the first time at another place. Often
the birds are slow to accept new or strange foods ; one should bear this fact
in mind when planning a food-improvement program.

The diet of valley quail changes markedly with the seasons (fig. 15), as the
various food materials become abundant or scarce. In late April and May, quail
feed to a large extent on newly matured seeds of early annuals. A few of these,
notably filaree and burclover, furnish seeds throughout the summer ; but most
annual plants have limited periods of seed shattering and provide food for
only a few months. Later-seeding annuals, especially the common clovers,
lupines, and trefoils, contribute importantly to the midsummer diet. As these
seeds are gradually consumed or lost in the surface soil, those of late summer

Increasing Valley Quail in California 29

annuals such as tarweed, thistles, turkey-mullein, and Spanish-clover are
added to the quail's larder. Few seeds are produced on California quail lands
after November 1 ; unless there is still a good supply on the ground at that
time, there may be a shortage of food before the autumn rains start the growth
of fresh green foods.

In winter and early spring the green leaves of annual weeds and grasses
constitute the main source of food. This striking change from seeds to greens
probably results largely from the scarcity of seeds in winter, since at that sea-
son quail will greedily take grain if offered. On one managed area where seed
was provided in quantity throughout the year, there was no appreciable winter
shift to green feed.

Food Shortages. — Quail food shortages are of two types: (1) acute short-
ages of brief duration resulting from snowstorms or floods, or from the sudden
destruction of major feeding areas by cultivation or other drastic treatment ;
and (2) chronic shortages resulting from more or less continuous deficiencies
in the vegetation because of unfavorable soil, climate, or land management.

Acute shortages are rare in California. Heavy snowstorms are uncommon
on most quail ranges and seldom cover all food supplies for long. In areas
where snows present a hazard, as in Lassen and Modoc counties, the survival
of a bird population depends on a series of winters of light snows. Floods are
usually too localized and short-timed to starve the quail. The destruction of
feeding grounds by cultivation rarely robs a covey of more than a part of its
range at any one time, except where intensive farming has resulted in a chronic
food deficiency and hence a consistently low carrying capacity.

When a sudden, acute shortage occurs, the quail either move out or remain
and suffer the consequences. A starving bird is thin, and its flight muscles are
reduced until the keel of the breastbone can be felt as a sharp ridge down the
middle of the breast. The crop and gizzard usually are empty or contain debris
such as twigs and bark.

Chronic food shortages are reflected in low populations rather than in thin
and starving birds. They are revealed by examining the nature and composi-
tion of the vegetation on feeding grounds. Barren stretches or lands that are
intensively cultivated are both obviously deficient in food-producing plants.
Other areas of poor food supply may be difficult to detect, especially where
the deficiency is slight. On foothill range lands, large, unbroken stands of tall,
coarse grasses, such as wild oats and broncho grass or ripgut, are signs of poor
local food conditions. Such grasses do not furnish seed acceptable to quail, and
in dense stands will choke out the broad-leaved weeds that are the best food
producers. The scarcity or absence of staple plants, such as the clovers, filarees,
turkey-mullein, tarweed, thistles, and cultivated grains often indicates an
inadequate food supply which may become critical in the autumn.

Encouraging Natural Food Plants. — The best quail foods are produced by
some of the commonest plants in California. In most places all that is neces-
sary to increase the food supply is to encourage the more valuable species of
native plants.

In general, the agricultural soils of high quality produce the best crops of
quail food. Acid soils provide few good seed plants, and highly alkaline soils
are equally unsatisfactory. Areas deficient in phosphorus will not support bur-

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

clover, perhaps the most important of all food plants for valley quail. The
spreading of superphosphate fertilizer at the rate of 100 pounds per acre on
clearings near good escape cover will often bring notable results on the red-
soil areas of the California foothills. Fertilizers containing nitrates should be
avoided in a quail-management program, since they tend to encourage grasses
at the expense of leafy annuals.

Land-management practices strongly influence the food-producing quali-
ties of an area and often may be easily changed to benefit quail. Intensive
cultivation results in chronic food shortages on soils potentially capable of

ail!!

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Fig. 16. — A temporary food supply for valley quail — double-dwarf milo as a
covercrop in a walnut orchard. The trees are used for roosting by quail in summer,
but do not serve as winter roosts. (Danville, Contra Costa County.)

producing abundant supplies. Increasing the quail foods on such areas gen-
erally requires nothing more than the retirement of small strips or blocks from
crop production. If, in spring plowing, a 20- or 30-foot strip is left along field
borders adjacent to hedges or brush patches, the result will be a growth of
annual plants, which, under proper management, can provide much valuable
food. Leafy annuals may be encouraged by light disking or by burning feed
strips just before the winter rains commence. Only a part of the total feeding
ground should be so treated at one time, however, for the temporary retirement
of a major area might have serious consequences in this critical season. Such
treatment, if done by burning, must not be permitted to injure escape cover ;
a strip of grasses 1 or 2 feet wide may well be left along brush patches to add
to the concealing qualities of the cover.

Livestock graze extensively on many plants useful as quail foods and may
seriously deplete the supply by overgrazing. Sheep are particularly destruc-
tive, since they tend to browse and graze in close bands that take nearly all
food and cover before them. Overgrazing should be avoided at all times for

Increasing Valley Quail in California

the sake of the land as well as the quail. Moderate grazing is rarely detrimental
to quail and when properly handled can be an extremely valuable tool of the
game manager. Much range land is permitted to grow up to solid stands of
wild oats and brome. These areas would be far more productive of quail food
if grazed by cattle to a moderate degree in winter and early spring. Where it
is impossible to acquire or maintain enough livestock to control the coarse
grasses, haying or burning should be employed. If allowed to mature, wild oats
and brome grasses quickly lose their forage value and cast seed that will ger-
minate and compete with valuable forage and seed plants. Spot burning, where
safe, is excellent for controlling coarse grasses.

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Fig. 17. — Scattering "chick feed" for quail in a brushy area by use of a power-
driven blower. This practice is worth while only on an area managed intensively for
quail production. (Dune Lakes, San Luis Obispo County; photograph by E. Aldrich.)

Planting Quail Food. — It is sometimes advisable to plant food-producing
annuals (fig. 16), especially where abusive land practices such as overgrazing
have depleted natural food supplies. For maximum use, such plantings should
be carefully located with respect to water and cover. Table 4 lists crop plants
suitable for California conditions, together with hints for their culture.

Artificial Feeding. — Acute food shortages such as may occur after a heavy
snowfall require quick action in the form of artificial feeding. Feeding spots
must be carefully selected with respect to escape cover and the known feeding
areas of local quail. Patches of ground 6 to 10 feet in diameter should be cleared
to display the food, to expose any natural food present, and to attract the atten-
tion of the birds. Feed casually thrown on deep snow is usually overlooked by
quail.

Regular year-round artificial feeding has been practiced on several private
game areas with notable success. One group of sportsmen has built up a popu-
lation of over 2,500 quail on a 400-acre tract by distributing 500 sacks of grain
per year. Less ambitious feeding projects have also given good results. The
practice is always costly, however, and can be recommended only where cover

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

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34 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

and water have been developed to the limit and are known to be adequate for a
heavy population.

Almost any common grain when ground to suitable size is satisfactory for
quail. Commercial "chick scratch" is excellent. If such ground or cracked feed
is not available, quail can usually be educated to accept the smaller whole
grains such as millet, milo, and wheat. Even such coarse grains as whole barley
are taken where quail are accustomed to such foods. Harvest screenings are
often satisfactory and are inexpensive. Such screenings should be used, how-
ever, only in the locality from which they were acquired ; if transported else-
where, they may spread noxious weeds.

Feed should be distributed several times a week throughout the year or dur-
ing the local season of shortage. It should be scattered in places well supplied
with loafing and escape cover. Rodents, always troublesome on artifically fed
areas, are particularly so when the grain is allowed to fall in piles. A seed
broadcaster towed behind a car is a practical means of distributing quail feed.
One sportsmen's group has had great success with a homemade blowing device
mounted on the bed of a pickup truck (fig. 17) . The grain is blown out into the
brush for a distance of 20 to 30 feet as the vehicle moves slowly past the selected
feeding areas. Since quail populations supported by artificial feeding will
suffer severely upon any temporary suspension of operations, negligence must
be avoided.

IMPROVING WATER CONDITIONS

Water Requirements. — Water is a fundamental requirement of life; quail
cannot live more than a few days without water in some form. During the win-
ter, it is widely distributed and available in pools and streams and in the
abundant, succulent, green vegetation. In summer, however, the scarcity of
water over large tracts is a major factor in limiting quail populations. Occa-
sionally, small coveys are encountered in waterless areas of the coastal belt,
where the summer fogs leave moisture on the vegetation almost every morning.
In other parts of California, some quail maintain themselves on the succulent
berries of honeysuckle, gooseberry, and redberry, and even on the blossoms of
certain summer annuals. These are poor substitutes for drinking water, how-
ever, and most of the birds will emigrate from a poorly watered area as the
springs and streams dry up.

Newly emerged chicks cannot travel more than a few hundred yards from
their hatching places without water. Nests built during the season of green
feed, when moisture is abundant, may be far from water when the chicks hatch.
Such broods are doomed to die.

In arid regions quail tend to concentrate around persisting water holes in
late summer until many hundreds may be crowded on a few acres. Such un-
desirable concentrations overtax the carrying capacity of the local area and
expose the birds to increased danger from predators and disease. Large num-
bers of quail are slaughtered by pot hunters at water holes in years when the
autumn rains are delayed until after the opening of the hunting season.

Providing Water. — A wise distribution of supplementary watering places
is the most important and effective way to increase quail on arid lands.

The simplest improvement is to dig out semipermanent springs and seeps so
that they will supply water throughout the summer. Such sources should be

Increasing Valley Quail in California

permanently developed wherever possible by boxing with redwood or concrete
and fitting 1 float valves to conserve water for the quail. A standard float-valve
installation for this and other uses is shown in figure 18.

Existing pipe lines sometimes may be tapped, and a float-valve device in-
stalled. If water conservation is not a deciding factor, a dripping valve may
sometimes be used. This arrangement has given great success in the Kettleman
Hills, where oil companies have permitted the tapping of their water lines for
the purpose.

Existing stock troughs can provide excellent watering places for quail as

m< sxm*^

Fig. 18. — Float-valve water trough for quail. The trough is supplied either through a
pipe from some existing source (for example, a cattle tank) or from a storage tank espe-
cially provided. The inset figure shows the details of construction, the cover being raised
to reveal the ball float and valve.

they are or with a few improvements. Often because of the trampling by stock,
a fenced enclosure or the planting of stock-resistant brush will be needed. The
tall, steep walls of some troughs are both a handicap and a hazard, especially
for young quail. This condition can be remedied by providing a wooden ramp
with cleats up to the edge of the trough and a ramp of wire screen down into
the water. A plank floating in the trough can serve as a convenient platform
for the drinking quail. Where water is abundant, a copper tube bent as a per-
manent siphon over the edge of a trough and pinched at the lower end to release
a trickle to the ground, will make the supply readily available to chicks. In
a better and more permanent arrangement, a "T" is inserted in the pipe inlet
to the tank, and some water is taken off into surrounding cover or into a cattle-
proof enclosure through a length of pipe, connected to a float-valve installation
or to a dripping valve and trough.

Much land on which quail might live has no trace of water during the sum-
mer. Such lands need quail-watering installations connected with storage
tanks that are filled at regular intervals throughout the summer or that have
rain-collecting devices (figs. 20 and 21).

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

The "dew-dropper" (16) comprises a 50-gallon oil drum with a 3-foot length
of %-inch pipe fitted into its small opening. The lower side of the pipe is
tapped at regular intervals and fitted with ball valves or oil pressure-lubrica-
tion fittings from which the springs have been removed ; and the pipe is capped
at its far end. These "dew-droppers" are recommended only where they can
be watched and filled frequently ; if the water contains much mineral, the
valves become encrusted with precipitate and will stick either open or shut.
Unfortunately, in areas where these installations are most valuable, the water

Fig. 19. — Vacuum type of quail-watering device. Earth is filled in around the storage
drum in the box to insulate against summer heat. The outlet discharges into the concrete
drinking basin under the lean-to shelter. The lower end of the outlet pipe must be closed with
a cap or cork when the drum is being filled. The filler cap on the top of the drum must be
sealed airtight after filling.

available to fill them contains much dissolved mineral matter. There is some
question, too, as to whether these dropping devices are used by young quail.
The "vacuum type" trough is a more satisfactory unit, using a 50-gallon
drum (fig. 19) . The plug in the upper large opening is sealed with white lead
or waterproof grease, and the lower opening is connected to a %-inch pipe
leading down into a concrete basin. Several precautions must be observed : (1)
The tank must be absolutely airtight and watertight. (2) The tank must be
well shaded or, better still, buried in a bank of earth or a dirt-filled box so
that the daily expansion and contraction of the air within will not pump all
the water out in a few days. (3) The outlet pipe must not include any long
pieces of horizontal or back-sloping pipe, because "air-locks" will form. (4) A
surrounding apron of rocks or concrete is needed to keep rodents from scratch-
ing dirt into the trough. This last precaution should be taken with all types of
troughs described.

Increasing Valley Quail in California

A float valve may be installed with a storage tank although such a unit is
more effective if a greater head of water is provided than that furnished by a
50-gallon drum at valve level. On one ranch excellent results were obtained
with a float-valve unit and 400-gallon tank which was equipped with a col-
lecting apron for automatically refilling the tank from rain water.

Several different "self-filling" watering devices have been designed. The

Fig. 20. — Quail-watering device ("gallinaceous guzzler"). The collecting apron of oiled
earth slopes and delivers water into a concrete storage tank, buried in the ground between
the apron and the shaded drinking trough shown at the left. In the lower view the dirt has
been cut away to show details of the tank.

winter rainfall is gathered by a collecting apron and led into a storage tank
for summer use. The least expensive and most satisfactory collecting apron is
made by scraping the vegetation from a small area slightly uphill from the
storage tank and treating the cleared ground with thin road oil. Such an apron
with an oiled earth crust about %-inch thick is efficient if protected from
trampling stock by a fence. The apron should be of such an area that about
half of the minimum annual rainfall for the locality will fill the tank; in a

38 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

region having a minimum rainfall of 6 inches per year, a 400-gallon tank will
be filled by 3 inches of rain falling on an apron of about 215 square feet. Con-
crete aprons can be used, but installation costs are higher than with those of
oiled earth. Collecting areas may also be made of sheetmetal; these, however,
are more liable to destruction by vandals.

The collecting apron is particularly well suited for the installation known
as the "gallinaceous guzzler" (6). This comprises a subsurface concrete tank,

Tig. 21. — General appearance of the watering device of figure 20 as installed. The
3 -strand barbed wire fence excludes domestic livestock. (Kettleman Hills, Fresno
County.)

permanently covered to prevent evaporation or access by animals, and con-
nected at the bottom to a drinking trough sloping up from the bottom of the
tank to the ground level (figs. 20 and 21). As the water is gradually used, its
level lowers in both tank and trough, and the quail follow the receding water
down the slope. A combination shade and large-animal guard is made of 2 x 10
inch redwood planks bolted over the drinking trough. This unit has the great
advantage of requiring no attention save an occasional cleaning.

PROTECTING QUAIL POPULATIONS
Like any other species with a high reproductive rate, the valley quail has
a high mortality ; in any stable population the losses of a single year must
approximately balance the reproduction. If every pair of quail were able to
hatch a full clutch of 15 eggs and raise all the young to maturity, the quail
population would increase about eightfold every year. In reality, however,
predators, disease, accidents, and hunters remove the surpluses each year after
they are produced. Detailed studies of wild quail populations show that a
great majority of the potential crop of young fails to appear or succumbs

Increasing Valley Quail in California

by the first autumn, and that more than half the adults in most areas die off
every year.

One important phase of quail management is to protect the surplus pro-
duced during the breeding season, but practical protection has several limita-
tions. In the first place, continuous attention is required for success. Habitat
improvement (see the section "Improving Land for Quail Occupancy") is the
offensive arm of a management program capable of making new and perma-
nent increases in the breeding stock ; protection is a defensive activity, a fight
to reduce the normal pressure constantly exerted on a population by its many

1200

ipoo

8 00

600

400

200

VERY HEAVY NEST AND EGG LOSS-
RODENTS, SKUNKS, HOUSE CATS, SNAKES,
FARMING OPERATIONS, ETC.

M00ERA re ADULT I

HEAVY CHICK MORTALITY - HOUSE CATS,
MARSH HAWKS, DROUGHT, ACCIDENTS, DISEASE,
ETC.

HEAVY JUVENILE MORTALITY -
• HAWKS, GROUND PREDATORS, DROUGHT
DISEASE, ETC.

MODERATE ADULT MORTALITY-
BULLET HAWKS,
HORNED OWLS, ETC.

JAN.

FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC.

Fig. 22. — Diagram of the annual rise and fall in a population of valley quail and some
factors that influence the seasonal changes in numbers. The population figures are approxi-
mate for a section of land, 640 acres.

enemies. Proper protective measures can materially reduce the mortality on
a quail area and yield a substantial increase. There is good evidence, however,
that a quail population permitted to surpass the carrying capacity of its range
is more available to the persisting predators, more subject to uncontrollable
disease, and more prone to accidents. There is a normal balance between any
animal population and its enemies on a given area ; nature tends to right this
balance whenever it is artificially disturbed and acts quickly to cancel the
gains made by a protective program, once the manager relaxes his activities.
This should not discourage quail protection, for well-planned control of preda-
tors and accidents often can provide a substantial surplus for the shooting sea-
son. To conduct an effective program successfully, the manager must clearly
understand the normal types and causes of quail mortality. These are shown
in figure 22.

The heaviest losses are those among eggs and chicks. Nearly all the adult
females lay at least one set of eggs during each nesting season, except during
extreme drought. Only a few of these clutches, however, survive without loss

40 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

until hatching time. For example, of 96 quail nests studied in one year on range
lands in the foothills of Madera County, only 17 were successful; all the rest
were destroyed by rodents, snakes, carnivores, or livestock, or were deserted
(4). In farming areas the damage to nests is also high as a result of cultiva-
tion, mowing, and irrigation. Fortunately, quail are persistent in their nesting
activities and will seldom give up after a first failure. For this reason, although
they rarely produce more than one brood in a season, a reasonable number of
females, perhaps up to one third of those in some areas, eventually achieve
success.

Having hatched and thus cleared the first obstacle in the struggle for sur-
vival, baby chicks are confronted with a new array of dangers which, within
the first 2 weeks, claims a quarter or more of their number. In places, flesh-
eating ants are serious enemies of the helpless young as they emerge from the
shells. Some flightless chicks fall easy prey to various ground predators, which
may consume an entire brood. Still others fall into holes, become entangled in
plants, are drowned, or get lost while too young to fend for themselves. Those
young that survive the critical flightless period, however, are relatively safe ;
chick mortality declines sharply after the second week and then follows a
course resembling that of adults (fig. 22) .

In one observed population, the natural mortality .among adults in winter
averaged about 7 per cent each month (3). Assuming this to be typical, an
October covey of 30 birds, undisturbed by hunters, loses about 2 birds a month
and enters the next breeding season with 20 birds, or 10 pairs. Summer mor-
tality among adult males continues at about the same rate, but among the fe-
males is considerably increased because stealthy terrestrial carnivores, such
as house cats, foxes, and weasels, find these ground-nesting birds easy prey.
By the next October, the original group of 30 adults has been reduced to about
12, perhaps 7 males and 5 females. Meanwhile about 18 young have been added
(the surviving progeny of 3 females), bringing the covey back to a total of
30birds(fig.22).

The principal causes of quail mortality and the methods for reducing losses
may be grouped under the headings of "Predators," "Diseases," and "Acci-
dents."

PREDATORS

Predators are probably the chief natural cause of the mortality among val-
ley quail. Well-planned predator control can save a considerable number of
birds for sport and enjoyment. To be effective, however, the program must
be concentrated locally on the quail area and must be aggressive and per-
sistent, yet carefully selective. If properly done, it is an expensive activity,
advisable only when the manager is certain that he is doing everything prac-
tical to develop quail habitat.

Indiscriminate destruction of predators, as attempted by many enthusiastic
and well-meaning groups, is not effective control; these typical short-lived
campaigns over an entire township or county do no lasting good, since only a
small percentage of the predators living on the tract are ever eliminated and
since the normal increase and migration of survivors quickly cancel the small
gains made. Furthermore, such efforts usually include any and all hawks and
owls, many of which are beneficial rather than injurious to game-bird popu-

Increasing Valley Quail in California

lations. Although the numbers of useful birds destroyed by such ill-advised
campaigns are probably not large enough to do much permanent harm, it is
deplorable that sportsmen fail to recognize their natural allies.

Many predators are of value because they destroy rodents that rob nests and
consume quail feed. Most of the 33 kinds of hawks and owls that occur in Cali-
fornia subsist mainly on rodents ; only 4 normally feed on quail to an appre-
ciable extent. The barn owl, most frequent victim of haphazard campaigns,
feeds almost entirely on small mammals that compete with quail. On one inten-

CQ. *

Fig. 23. — The barn owl is a useful bird of prey. Where nesting places are scarce, a wooden
barrel wired into a tree will provide a suitable place for the owl to roost and nest.

sively managed quail preserve, the remains of 933 barn-owl meals included
only 2 quail, both chicks. Studies have shown that a single barn owl can take
more than 4,000 mice from its beat in the course of a year. Such a bird should
be rigidly protected and even encouraged on a quail range. Roofed wooden
boxes or small barrels provided with a 4- or 5-inch entrance hole make excel-
lent shelters and nesting sites for barn owls when placed on poles or wired in
trees at 10 to 15 feet above the ground (fig. 23). The establishment of such
boxes helps in quail conservation.

Quail predators may be divided into two major groups : the ground dwellers
such as carnivores, rodents, and snakes, which are destructive primarily during
the nesting season ; and the hawks and owls, most harmful during the winter.

Ground Carnivores. — Being limited in their habits and hunting methods,
the ground carnivores do not endanger fully grown quail that are physically
sound, except under special conditions of deficient cover. Incubating birds, as
already noted, suffer heavily at times ; and an occasional roosting quail may be
surprised in its sleep by a stealthy cat or weasel. Crippled birds, unable to

42 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

fly, are usually devoured by the first cat, coyote, or fox that comes along. Many
young chicks may be killed before they develop powers of flight.

The chief damage done by carnivores, however, is to nests and eggs. Many
a nest is broken up in attempts to catch the incubating hen, and others for
the eggs alone. Most nest predators leave characteristic traces by which a care-
ful observer may identify them. Skunks crush in the side of each egg to suck
out the contents, and leave the shells in or near the nest. Coyotes, foxes, and
dogs generally chew up the eggs, leaving only a few shell fragments. House
cats usually crack the eggs roughly and lick out the contents, leaving roughly
broken shell particles.

Cover is of limited value as protection for quail against ground carnivores.
Very dense cover may even increase the danger by serving as a screen for stalk-
ing predators. The quail seem to be aware of this, because a covey will nor-
mally stay in the open when a cat is near by. Quail rarely build nests in dense
brush, and nests in the open evidently are the most secure from terrestrial
predation.

The best defense against ground carnivores is, first, to be sure there is ade-
quate open nesting cover available and, second, to keep down nest predators
by trapping and shooting. The maximum return in quail protection will be
gained if the trapping is started in January, before the carnivores begin to
breed. The pelts then are still prime, and some cash return may be had from
those of skunks, bobcats, and raccoons. Cats that have gone wild are usually
the most destructive of ground carnivores, since their depredations continue
the year around ; they should be hunted down relentlessly. Opossums, which
have been introduced into California and have spread over large areas, are
a menace that should be checked.

Rodents. — Field rodents affect quail populations by raiding nests and also
competing for food. As nest raiders they are efficient and secretive, leaving
few traces. Ground squirrels cause heavy losses. Of 292 nests studied at the
San Joaquin Experimental Range in Madera County during a 4-year period,
one-third were destroyed by ground squirrels ; the latter did more damage
of this kind than all other predators combined. Parent quail will viciously at-
tack a marauding squirrel, but to no avail. The squirrel removes the eggs one
at a time until, within a day or two, all are gone with scarcely a displaced
grass blade as evidence. House rats and chipmunks will rob the nests and may
be of local importance if present in numbers. Some of the larger mice also have
been reported to take the eggs.

Seed-eating rodents may be direct competitors of quail where limited food
supply is a factor in preventing quail increase. This relation becomes obvious
when artificial feeding is practiced, and both rodents and quail are attracted
to a small area. Food competition under natural conditions is difficult to deter-
mine and evaluate. We know, however, that rodents consume much filaree,
bur-clover, and other favored quail foods.

There is good evidence that removal of ground squirrels in heavily infested
areas will result in an increase of quail. Several well-tested control measures
are possible against squirrels (19), but on quail-management areas, one must
be selected which will be effective without endangering the birds. Where eco-
nomically possible, the best procedure is gassing with carbon disulfide or some

Increasing Valley Quail in California 43

other standard rodent fumigant. This has the advantage of killing only the
squirrels and other animals living in their burrows.

If a poison must be used, the operator should limit himself to strychnine in
doses recommended by the California State Department of Agriculture and
the county agricultural commissioners. The fatal dosage of strychnine for
squirrels is entirely harmless to valley quail ; the authors have experimentally
fed captive quail entirely on strychnine-coated squirrel bait for long periods,
and have yet to see a quail killed by it. Since, however, strychnine will kill
doves, cottontails, and some other game, its use must be limited where the man-
ager must also consider those species.

Thallium-treated grain has become popular as a rodent poison during the
past decade and has been used extensively by government agencies. It is highly
poisonous to quail in the dosages employed for squirrel control. When used in
areas where quail regularly feed on cultivated grains, losses of quail are to be
expected. If the game crop is a consideration, thallium should not be used.

Recent developments in rodent control promise to solve many of these diffi-
culties. The use of colored dyes on rodent poisons is one of the new techniques.
Rodents, being color-blind, accept these dyed grains, whereas birds generally
avoid them. In addition, some new chemical compounds developed during the
war are useful in control. The game manager should consult the local agricul-
tural commissioner for the latest developments in this field.

Snakes. — Although snakes are known to destroy quail eggs, their real sig-
nificance as nest predators is not clear; they enter nests, swallow the eggs
entire, and depart, leaving little evidence except the disappearance of the eggs.
Gopher snakes and king snakes have often been caught actually robbing the
nests. Effective control, however, is difficult. A snake population probably
suffers during a rodent-poisoning campaign : many are killed by eating poi-
soned squirrels, and the drastic reduction of their staple food supply (rodents)
presumably has some additional effect.

Hawks. — Of the 20 species in California, only 3 prey importantly on quail
(fig. 24). These are the sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper hawk, and marsh hawk.
The first two, commonly known as darter or bullet hawks, are serious enemies
in winter, when considerable numbers occur over quail range. In summer they
are comparatively scarce in quail country.

These two hawks have short, rounded wings and long tails ; and they stay
close to cover as they forage. They are similar in appearance, but the Cooper
hawk is larger and hence more destructive. Bullet hawks usually watch from
some partially hidden perch, waiting for an opportunity. The catch is made
with a swift, silent approach ; should the hawk miss on the first pounce, there
is a headlong chase. This method is very effective for catching birds in the
open brushlands, the natural habitat of quail. The manager can expect to lose
quail to these skillful hunters wherever they occur, especially where escape
cover for quail is inferior or inadequate.

Marsh hawks, though present throughout the year, are important only as
quail chick predators. They hunt on the wing, slowly beating back and forth
just over the grass tops until they surprise some mouse or small bird on the
ground. The pounce is quick and accurate. Adult quail, with their preference
for open feeding grounds near brush, are seldom bothered by marsh haw T ks ;

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

but the chicks, unable to dodge a quick approach, are ready victims. Food items
brought to one marsh hawk nest on a quail preserve included 22 per cent of
quail chicks.

Most' of the other California hawks may take quail on occasion, but not in
significant quantities. The large, soaring types, commonly misnamed hen or
chicken hawks, feed primarily on rodents and as such are allies of the quail
manager. They are usually too slow to capture quail where the cover is ade-

FALCONS

MARSH HAWK

BULLET

HAWKS

SOARING HAWKS

Fig. 24. — The four principal types of hawks are most easily recognized by the following
characters, in flight. Falcons: tail and wings long, wings sharply pointed. Marsh hawks:
wings long, tail long and square-ended, rump white. Bullet or quail hawks: wings short and
blunt, tail long. Soaring hawks : large, wings bluntly rounded, tail short and spreading.
(Sketches by D. D. McLean.)

quate. An occasional "bad actor" may need attention, but, in general, the soar-
ing hawks should be protected.

Falcons seldom take quail. The smaller species, namely the sparrow hawk
and pigeon hawk, feed primarily on insects, mice, and small birds. The larger
duck hawk and prairie falcon are both birds of the open plains ; their bird-
eating propensities are directed against high-flying types, which they strike
on the wing with a sudden aerial dive or "stoop." Quail seldom expose them-
selves to such hunting, although an individual may occasionally be knocked
out of a flying covey. These two large falcons are not common over valley quail
range except in the inner Coast Range bordering the San Joaquin Valley.

Increasing Valley Quail in California 45

The manager can protect quail from hawks by providing more and better
escape cover and by controlling the few harmful species. Of the two methods,
the former not only protects quail, but permits the continued services of valu-
able rodent-hunting hawks. Within the limits imposed by habit, hawks take
whatever prey is most readily available. Any improvement in the escape cover
that protects quail will force hawks to seek other prey. Control by shooting is
valuable when restricted to the species which are destructive, or to exceptional
individuals among the beneficial types of hawks.

The bullet hawks and the duck hawk are the only hawks that are not pro-
tected under Section 1175 of the Fish and Game Code of the State of Califor-
nia. Normally, permission must be obtained from the Division of Fish and
Game to kill legally any other hawk species. All owls, except the horned owl,
are also protected.

The use of "pole-traps" for trapping or killing hawks and owls is prohibited
by Section 1155 of the Fish and Game Code {24). This is a wise provision,
since beneficial predators usually suffer more than harmful ones and since
many valuable birds, including valley quail, are caught in pole traps as a result
of their habit of using elevated lookout perches.

Owls. — Being night hunters, owls (fig. 25) feed primarily on the small mam-
mals which are active after dark. The only owl that preys on quail to an ap-
preciable extent is the horned owl, which forages at twilight, when quail are
going to roost, and sometimes on rainy or cloudy days. Observations on this
owl show that quail are generally snatched while settling for the night in their
roosting trees. Improving the roosting cover should aid in protecting the
quail. The killing of horned owls resident on quail ranges is recommended ;
shooting is the most practical method.

Other Birds. — Jays, being noisy, aggressive, and intimately associated
with quail, are commonly accused of destroying the eggs and chicks; but
reliable records of such damage are rare. In one quail-nesting study in jay
country, 2 of the 55 nests destroyed by predators were attributed to jays.
Actually, the jays may be of some value — at the approach of a common enemy,
their noisy alarm notes will put a covey on the alert; and the jays aid in
cracking acorns which may serve for quail food. The manager must evaluate
the total effect of the jays before undertaking control.

Roadrunners occasionally catch and eat flightless quail chicks. They are of
minor importance in the northern part of the state, but where common, par-
ticularly in the drier areas and deserts, it may occasionally be desirable to
request permission to shoot them. (They are protected under the provisions
of Section 1175 of the Fish and Game Code.)

Crows, ravens, magpies, and shrikes attack quail nests and chicks in a few
areas, but their importance is slight. Control should be attempted only in
special cases.

Ants. — These, particularly the red fire ant (Solenopsis) , may be highly
destructive in quail nests at hatching time. They are attracted by any odors
of flesh and may discover and invade a nest just as the chicks start to pip the
eggs. A swarm will destroy and eat an entire clutch of eggs as the breaking
of the shells allows them entrance. Mother quail, remaining in an invaded nest,
often become literally covered with ants. No general control methods are

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

known ; but where trouble is anticipated, any of the contact ant powders dusted
in a wide ring around the nest a few days before hatching will give the needed
protection.

HORNED
OWL

SCREECH

OWL

LONG-EARED SHORT-EARED
OWL OWL

SPOTTED
OWL

BURROWING PYGMY
OWL OWL

Fig. 25. — Of the various species of owls in California, only the horned owl is a serious
predator on valley quail. The others are all allies of the game manager in the control of
rodents. (Sketches by Emily P. Thompson.)

DISEASES AND PARASITES

According to recent studies, parasitic diseases, such as bird malaria, cocci-
diosis, and intestinal worms, are common among wild valley quail in Califor-
nia ; their exact significance for quail mortality, however, is incompletely un-
derstood. Seriously diseased quail are rarely encountered in the field, but this

Increasing Valley Quail in California 47

fact could readily be attributed to the secretive habits of sick birds and does
not necessarily indicate a scarcity of victims. Where quail populations have
been studied in detail, nearly all the losses can be attributed to predators or
accidents, but it is impossible to say how many cases of predation may be asso-
ciated with a preliminary weakening- by disease.

Though almost nothing is known about the control of diseases in free-living
wild quail, much work is now in progress. Sportsmen can assist in these studies
by reporting outbreaks and, where possible, by sending sick or dead birds
found in the field to the disease-study laboratories of the California Division
of Fish and Game, Ferry Building, San Francisco. Dead birds should be
packed in dry ice or in borax powder, to prevent spoilage during shipment.
All such packages should be labeled as to contents and shipped by the fastest
means ; spoiled carcasses are of little value in disease studies.

ACCIDENTS

Accidents, whether natural or man-caused, destroy many quail each year.
Much of this waste can be avoided by proper management and planning.

Farming operations are often dangerous to the birds. Mowing, the foremost
cause of nest destruction with pheasants, only occasionally affects quail, since
they do not regularly nest in open fields. A flushing bar, however, may save
many quail nests along field borders and roadsides when these sites are being
mowed. Late-spring and summer cultivation of vineyards and the borders of
orchards and fields destroys many nests and baby chicks. The alert driver of
a tractor or team can often locate a nest as the parent bird flushes and, by care-
fully steering around it, leave an "island" for protection. If possible, such
islands of cover should be at least 10 feet in diameter.

Irrigation waters flood out many nests in fields, orchards, and irrigated
pastures. Quail stand considerable wetting, but will almost invariably desert
a nest if water actually enters, even for a brief period. Chicks can generally
escape to high ground, but a narrow levee is not a safe refuge for them. Large
irrigation ditches are death traps for young quail attracted to the water but
unable to climb the steep banks or avoid the swift-flowing stream.

The use of poisons in pest control often destroys quail and other valuable
animals incidentally. Dangers attendant on the use of thallium and other
metallic poisons against rodents have already been mentioned. In citrus or-
chards, quail sometimes are killed by the standard practice of fumigating the
trees with cyanide for insect pests. This work is usually done at night, and
some roosting quail are trapped under the canvas tents used to retain the gas.
Many orchardists flush the roosting birds from a tree before covering it.

Grazing cattle and sheep occasionally trample nests or, aroused by curiosity,
nuzzle them apart. In one study on moderately grazed cattle range, 3 of the
55 nests destroyed were attributed to cattle. Excluding livestock during the
nesting season is the only remedy that can be suggested. Complete exclusion
of cattle, however, is not always desirable, for the stand of long grass which
results is not good nesting cover. In Madera County, ungrazed pastures often
supported less quail than those moderately grazed. Sheep are far more injuri-
ous than cattle because their close feeding destroys much quail food and cover.
They should be restricted on quail-management areas wherever possible.

48 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

Collisions of flying quail with man-made structures are relatively unavoid-
able. Wire fences cause many deaths, particularly among young, inexperienced
birds. Windows and even white or aluminum-painted walls are at times struck
during flight, with fatal results. Highway mortality is often a considerable
factor. Collision mortality can be lessened on managed areas by locating food
and cover developments away from hazardous structures.

Fire can be a serious enemy of valley quail. Uncontrolled burning is a men-
ace because extensive, and hotly burning brush fires destroy many of the birds
that are reluctant to leave their home territories. Controlled spot burning is
not dangerous and may eventually become a cover-management tool. Every
precaution should be taken to prevent accidental fires on a quail area.

Drought is another serious problem. Valley quail require drinking water
in the dry season ; and when water becomes scarce they either succumb or
crowd together at the remaining sources, where predation and disease may be
serious. There is also some indication that extremely dry summers result in a
poor hatch of young. Maintaining adequate quail-watering installations will
offset the bad effects of drought.

Storms, especially snowstorms that hide the essential food supplies, are
sometimes extremely destructive, and emergency feeding stations are recom-
mended in areas where such storms are to be expected. Light rains may harm
newly hatched chicks, although this factor has been grossly exaggerated by
popular writers. Floods cause much damage to quail habitat in some regions
and, in spring, may wash out all nests in their path.

HUNTING

In evaluating the mortality factors acting on a quail population, we cannot
overlook hunting, legal and otherwise.

In the past, certain favorable areas in California were centers for market
hunting, and many thousands of quail were taken from a relatively few locali-
ties. When the supply of birds was reduced in one place, the market hunters
merely moved on. This destructive practice was stopped by law in 1915. The
severe local damage done before this date has probably left no permanent
effect, for a decimated population of quail can quickly breed up to its former
numbers when the pressure of excessive hunting is relieved.

At present, quail hunting is the sport of thousands : the California Division
of Fish and Game estimates that about 1,200,000 quail are killed legally in
California each year. Unfortunately, this kill is not well distributed ; it tends
to be concentrated or excessive close to cities, a condition made worse with the
"posting" of much good quail range by unsympathetic landowners. To rem-
edy this uneven distribuiton of hunting pressure and the resultant overshoot-
ing of some areas is a primary concern of modern quail management. The
manager of a quail area must study the problem of hunting control.

HARVESTING THE QUAIL CROP

HOW MUCH TO HARVEST

Readers of this publication will have various reasons for wishing to encour-
age quail on their lands. Some are interested only in the esthetic charm of the
birds and will wish to leave all quail unmolested ; others are concerned pri-

Increasing Valley Quail in California 49

marily in the sport of shooting a fine game bird. This chapter is written for
the latter group. For them, a careful plan of hunting regulation should be an
integral part of the management program.

Because of the high breeding rate of quail, it is often possible to shoot a
considerable portion of the autumn population without harm to the breeding
stock essential for the next spring. In a healthy population, a surplus above
the carrying capacity of the range usually exists in the autumn. This surplus
may be safely shot, for it represents birds that would otherwise be removed
by natural causes during the Winter.

On many unmanaged ranges, hunting annually removes 10 to 25 per cent
of the quail without bad effect. On one intensively managed area, a kill aver-
aging about 25 per cent was taken every year for seven years ; yet at the end
there were more birds than at the start. It is dangerous, however, to generalize ;
the percentage that may be taken must be determined by the local situation.
Methods for measuring quail populations and surpluses are described later

in this chapter.

HOW TO HARVEST

The objective of a quail program is primarily sport, not "meat-hunting ;"
every effort should be made to get the greatest possible amount of sport from
the hunting. "Pot shooting" is an unfortunate use of valuable game. It is
fostered by heavy concentrations such as those about watering places. The
legal shooting season in California is purposely delayed until the early rains
have dispersed the quail from their summer watering holes ; but in some years
these rains do not come until after the opening of the hunting season. In such
years the manager may well delay hunting on his area to avoid the wastage
of birds by shooters who cannot resist the temptation to "ground sluice." The
hunting pressure should be well distributed over each area, and conveniently
situated coveys should not be unduly harried or shot out.

Every quail hunter knows that when he brings home 10 birds, he has left
a number of dead or badly wounded quail in the field. Questioning of hunters
as they return from the field indicates that an average of about 6 quail are
lost for every 10 bagged.

There are two practical ways of reducing this loss : first, to impress on hunt-
ers the need to pick up each bird as it is shot before shooting any more ; and
second, to insist that each man use a good retrieving dog on every hunt (fig.
26 ) . On one area hunters not using dogs lost about 5 birds for every 10 brought
home, whereas those with dogs lost less than 2 per bag of 10. More emphasis
should be placed on the retrieving ability of dogs and less on their "range,"
or skill in locating coveys.

Quail need some respite from the guns during the hunting season. Continu-
ous shooting, day after day and from dawn till dusk, interferes with their
normal feeding and may cause them to lose weight. Quail may even be driven
from their home ranges into areas of inferior cover. For these reasons, rest
days should be provided during the open season; not more than two successive
days of hunting should be allowed on any one area. Wednesdays, Saturdays,
and Sundays are suggested as good shooting days.

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

HOW TO RECORD THE HARVEST

To gauge how many quail may be safely removed from an area, the manager
must have some measure of the number present. This measurement of the pop-
ulation also serves as a basis for evaluating the efficiency of the methods em-
ployed ; it is fundamental to organized management.

A good quail census requires intensive field work by a careful observer ; it
cannot be done from an easy chair. The methods described below have suc-
ceeded in a variety of situations.

Fig. 26. — A retrieving dog will bring to the hunter's bag many quail
that otherwise would be lost.

Where birds are all concentrated about watering holes in early autumn, a
fair estimate of the hunting-season population can be obtained by making
actual counts of the quail as they come to the water, and allowing a 7 per cent
loss per month until the opening of the season.

In areas where quail have separate, well-defined covey ranges in winter,
one may tabulate all coveys, listing the number of birds in each. A good bird
dog can be used to advantage in this type of census. These counts should be
made on days that are not excessively hot, rainy, or windy, since in such
weather the birds remain close to their loafing cover, from which they are not
easily flushed. Where bullet hawks are common, many quail will be missed,
since they will not leave cover in the presence of these hawks.

On areas where covey ranges regularly overlap, the census must be taken in a
different way. In relatively open country, the horseback method is recom-
mended (5). Two to four riders, arranged side by side and spaced about 200
feet apart (fig. 27), cover the area as a unit in much the same manner as a
man mowing a lawn ; when the riders reach the end of a strip, they wheel
about, pivoting on the outside man, and return on the adjacent strip. This
procedure is followed over the entire area. Three men can cover about 1,000
acres per day on flat lands or low hills with scattered cover.

Increasing Valley Quail in California 51

Where a ranch of many thousand acres is to be censused, it is best to count
the quail on several scattered sample strips, estimate the acreage covered, cal-
culate the number of birds seen per acre, and then multiply this figure by the
total number of acres on the ranch.

Where the brush is too thick to permit a satisfactory count by coveys or
on horseback, the number of birds can be estimated by the "visual Lincoln
index." A sample of the population is trapped, marked with colored celluloid
bands, and then released. A few days later the covey is watched through field
glasses, and the ratio of marked quail seen to the total number seen is noted.
This ratio should be the same as that between the total number of marked birds

Fig. 27. — Quail may be counted in relatively open country by
means of a horseback census.

(known) and the total quail population of the area (the desired unknown).
Only an experienced person can make this type of census, and he must obtain
a permit from the Division of Fish and Game before trapping any birds.

A similar census may be made by trapping and marking a number of quail
just before the hunting season. Then, during the annual shoot, the ratio of
marked birds shot to the total shot will, when divided by the number of birds
marked, give a figure for the total population. The percentage of bands re-
turned is roughly the percentage of kill.

One way of evaluating the success of a management program is to keep notes
on changes in the ratio of old and young birds. In early summer the manager
should record the number of chicks present in broods of all sizes and should
compare his total counts of chicks and immature birds with the number of
old quail seen. These "old-young" ratios, repeated annually, will give a rela-
tive picture of the degree of nesting success and of fledgling survival in each
year.

During the hunting season, records should be kept of the number of young
of the year and of full adults in the bags. Birds in their first year may be dis-
tinguished from older quail by the presence of white or buff tips on the small

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

feathers (primary wing coverts) that cover the bases of the large outer wing
feathers (primaries). In old birds the small feathers are solid gray (fig. 28).
This characteristic is easily learned and gives the manager a clue to nesting
success and seasonal mortality. Age ratios are usually expressed as young
per 100 adults. In general, a high ratio of young in a population indicates
a good nesting and rearing season.

On a well-managed range, hunters should make reports at the end of each
day. A sample record card is shown on the following page. Compiling and
studying the data obtained from such cards will give the manager many im-
portant bits of information, including a measure of hunter success.

PRIMARY

COVERTS,

SPOTTED

ADULT

Fig. 28. — Determining the age of quail by examining the small feathers (primary coverts)
over the main flight feathers (primaries) on the outer surface of the wing. The small group
of feathers (bastard wing) at the front margin of the wing should be held aside to see the
age character. The primary coverts are uniform in color in adults ; in immature birds they
are spotted.

In deciding how many hunters to allow on an area, the manager should
know the approximate number of quail present when the season opens. He
should also have a measure of local hunter success, which depends on shooting
skill, the type of range, and on the number of birds present. On unmanaged
foothill range lands the average sportsman gets about 6 quail per day in the
field. For the first year of shooting on an area, the kill should be about 20 per
cent of the total population prior to hunting season. If the hunter success is
6 quail per day, the manager should divide this 20 per cent figure by 6 to deter-
mine how many sportsmen can be safely admitted to the area. In succeeding
years, if the quail population increases, the manager may slowly raise the
annual take as long as he has proof that he is not damaging the breeding stock.

Much other valuable information may be gathered from a study of the
daily reports by hunters. The purposes that such data may serve are limited
only by the imagination of the individual manager.

Increasing Valley Quail in California

SMITH EANCH QUAIL-

HUNTING AEEA

Name of hunter

Started to hunt

Stopped hunting

a.m

* 'p.m

a.m

Date

Dog used?

ninutes

Total hunting time . . .

p.m
hours l

Coveys hunted
(name or location of covey)

Number of birds taken from each
In the bag Crippled or lost

Totals

Adult males

Adult females

Total adults

. . . Immature males . .

Total males

. . . Immature females
. . . Total immatures .

Total females

Type of gun (double,
Bore Size

pump, automatic)
of shot

Number of shells used

Band number
1

Banded quail

taken

Where taken

HUNTING PRIVILEGES AND RIGHTS

According to American hunting law, the right of allowing trespass on any
private land is vested in the landowner or lessee ; and the title to game belongs
to the public. The laws are so interpreted that the public, in order to hunt on
privately owned land, must first get permission from the landowner or lessee.
In California, common disregard for this requirement has led to many areas

California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

being closed to hunting. In some counties, up to 90 per cent of the quail lands
are "posted," so that much of the public's game is locked up. Sportsmen and
their organizations should endeavor to open this vast reservoir so that the
pressure of hunting may be more evenly distributed.

Opening of these posted lands will not be accomplished by changing the
basic legal concepts; the property owners have a legitimate case. Success can
be achieved only by fostering cooperation between hunters and landowners.

Fig. 29.-

-By establishing friendly relations with ranchers, sportsmen may
ensure hunting grounds for themselves.

Sportsmen, through careless disregard for property, have been responsible
for much of the trouble ; and the first move toward cooperation must come
from them. At present, the approach must be made by individuals or local
groups rather than by statewide organizations. The types of owner-sportsmen
cooperation outlined below are already widely used in duck hunting; but only
a small start has been made on upland game areas in California.

The least expensive and simplest way for a hunter to obtain access to quail
lands is to make a personal arrangement with some rancher. He should have
something to offer in exchange for shooting privileges. He may help with the
crops, or conduct year-round predator and rodent control to the mutual advan-
tage of the rancher and himself. If in these or in other ways suggested by the
individual situation, he can be of aid, he will be a welcome guest and not a
nuisance on the opening day of quail season (fig. 29).

Increasing Valley Quail in California 55

Such arrangements do not often provide opportunities for habitat improve-
ment or general quail management. Perhaps the best way to obtain satisfac-
tory management and shooting control is to buy the land. Usually, however,
the pleasure derived will not justify the cost. Then, too, other values, such as
crops and livestock, must be considered. Not many sportsmen are equipped to
manage a large herd of cattle in order to defray the expense of a few weeks
of shooting.

On many range lands and on some farm lands the rancher, if convinced
that he is dealing with responsible parties, will lease the shooting rights for
a reasonable sum. The lease should provide for a management program. Agree-
ments often can be made of mutual benefit in arranging for equipment, labor,
and materials.

Shooting-right agreements may be made by individual hunters or, if the
ranch be large enough, by groups. There is no better way for a sportsmen's
club to expend its energies throughout the year than to work with a rancher
toward providing a large and healthy quail population. Such work will give a
maximum return in sport for a minimum outlay in money.

Some ranchers, whether or not they hunt quail themselves, will want to ben-
efit by the birds shot on their properties. "While they are not permitted to sell
game as such, they are entitled to charge for trespass rights. Obviously the
rancher who has no quail will have no customers. To make a popular shooting
ground of his area, the rancher must use some portion of his gross earnings
from shooting rights for habitat improvement and game protection. If he does
this well, he will attract a cooperative and helpful group of sportsmen cus-
tomers.

Where property holdings are small, several farmers may combine to form
a sizable hunting area and act as a unit in cooperating with a sportsmen's
group. This plan has worked satisfactorily in several midwestern states.

In the future, some way may be found for the State to bring ranchers and
sportsmen together. Until then, sportsmen can proceed on their own initiative
to gain the confidence and friendship of landowners. As cooperative groups
obtain management privileges on game areas and begin constructive work,
they will find as much pleasure in developing game populations as in hunting
them.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bent, A. C.

1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous birds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bui. 162
(pt. XI): 1-490. Illus.

2. Emlen, J. T., Jr.

1939. Seasonal movements of a low-density valley quail population. Journal of Wild-
life Management 3:118-30.

3. Emlen, J. T., Jr.

1940. Sex and age ratios in survival of the California quail. Journal of Wildlife Man-
agement 4 : 92-99.

4. Glading, Ben.

1938. Studies on the nesting cycle of the California valley quail in 1937. California
Fish and Game 24 : 318-40.

5. Glading, Ben.

1941. Valley quail census methods and populations at the San Joaquin Experimental
Eange. California Fish and Game 27:33-38.

56 California Experiment Station Bulletin 695

6. Glading, Ben.

1943. A self -filling quail watering device. California Fish and Game 29:157-64.

7. Glading, Ben.

1943. A bee repellent for use in quail watering devices. California Fish and Game 29:
165-67.

8. Glading, Ben., H. H. Biswell, and C. F. Smith.

1940. Studies on the food of the valley quail in 1937. Journal of Wildlife Management
4:128-44.

9. Grange, W. B., and W. L. McAtee.

1934. Improving the farm environment for wildlife. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui.
1719:1-61. 20 fig.

10. Grinnell, J., H. C. Bryant, and T. I. Storer.

1918. The game birds of California. 642 p. 16 pi. 94 fig. University of California Press,
Berkeley, California.

11. Hawbecker, A. C.

1940. Planting for California wildlife. California Fish and Game 26:271-77.

12. Howard, W. E., and J. T. Emlen, Jr.

1942. Intercovey social relationships in the valley quail. The Wilson Bulletin 54:162-
70.

13. Lehman, V. W.

1937. Increase quail by improving their habitat. 44 p. Illus. Texas Game, Fish and
Oyster Commission. Austin, Texas.

14. Leopold, Aldo.

1933. Game management. 481 p. 35 fig. Chas. Scribner's Sons, New York, N. Y.

15. McLean, D. D.

1930. The quail of California. California State Dept. Nat. Eesources, Div. of Fish and
Game, Game Bui. 2:1-47. 14 fig.

16. Eahm, N. M.

1938. Quail range extension in the San Bernardino National Forest — progress report,
1937. California Fish and Game 24:133-58.

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