Professor J. Henry Sender 
 
THE 
 
 WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 A COLLECTION OP 
 
 USEFUL AND RELIABLE RECIPES, RULES, PROCESSES, 
 METHODS, WRINKLES, AND PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 For the Household and the Shop. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE INDUSTEIAJL PUBLICATION COMPANY. 
 
 1887. 
 Copyright secured according to Act of Congress. 1879. 
 
IN MEMORIAM 
 v irA < S sv ^ - V\ ( 2x^-v o*\ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages have been prepared with very great 
 care, the chief aim being to give none but recipes which 
 will not disappoint those who attempt to use them. Sev- 
 eral of the recipes here given are original, the formulae 
 having been worked out or improved by the author after 
 much labor and experiment. In searching for really good 
 formulae, we have been astonished at the errors which 
 have crept into many of our standard books of recipes. 
 For example, in one case the two separate operations of a 
 well-known process for staining wood are given as distinct, 
 and, of course useless recipes ! In a seemingly favorite re- 
 cipe for a washing fluid, the reader is directed to add vine- 
 gar to the ammonia employed, thus entirely neutralizing it. 
 In the same way we find a recipe for transferring printed 
 engravings to wood, in which the alkali (potash) is neutral- 
 ized with vitriol ! We suppose that in the last case, the 
 author of this recipe thought that two strong liquids must 
 be better than one, forgetting or not knowing the fact that 
 one destroys the effect of the other. A very slight knowl- 
 edge of technological science would have enabled the com- 
 pilers of these books to avoid such blunders. In addition 
 to these defects, however, most of our large books of re- 
 cipes contain so much that is entirely useless to the 
 practical man, and so many mere repetitions of the same 
 recipe in different language and terms, that their cost is 
 greatly increased while their value instead of being en- 
 hanced, is actually lessened. We have, therefore, en- 
 deavored to combine in the following pages all that is 
 really of practical value to the professional or amateur 
 mechanic, and at the same time by giving only one or two 
 
TV PKEFACE. 
 
 of the best recipes under each head, we have nee only sim- 
 plified the work, but we have brought it to such a size and 
 price that every one can afford to buy it. 
 
 The subjects treated of in this work are arrarged alpha- 
 betically, so as to avoid the necessity of constant reference 
 to the index. A few words in regard to the method pursued 
 in arranging the matter may, however, not be out of place. 
 As we believe that the greatest advantage will be derived 
 from bringing together at one place not only the special 
 instructions in regard to particular processes, but the 
 general information relating to the materials, etc., em- 
 ployed, we have in most cases collected all such matter 
 together under one head. Thus, under the head of " Steel " 
 will be found not only a description of the different kinds 
 of steel, but directions for forging, tempering, etc., but as 
 most persons who consult this book would most likely look 
 under the head " Tempering " for information on that par- 
 ticular subject, we have entered the word "Tempering" 
 and under it give a cross-reference to " Steel." This is the 
 reason why we have introduced so many cross references, 
 every one of which was put in after the book was written, 
 so that the reader'will not be disappointed when he turns 
 to the heading to which he is directed. Many of our read- 
 ers, doubtless, know that in too many volumes of this kind, 
 cross references are inserted merely for the purpose, of 
 swelling the apparent amount of information contained in 
 the volume, and very often when the reader turns to the 
 heading to which he is directed, he finds that the subject 
 which he is looking for has been omitted. In the present 
 case, the utmost care has been taken to prevent disappoint- 
 ment of every kind, and whenever information is promised 
 we have endeavored to give it fully, accurately, and in the 
 simplest possible language. 
 
 tl . Jr . 
 
 New York, Nov. 1879. 
 
THE 
 
 WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Abyssinian Gold. 
 
 This compound was so called because it was brought out 
 in England during the recent war with Abyssinia. It consists 
 of copper, 90-74 ; zinc, 8 -33. This alloy, if of good materials 
 and not heated too highly, has a fine yellow color, resembling 
 gold, and does not tarnish easily. 
 
 Accidents. 
 
 As those who are engaged in mechanical pursuits are pecu- 
 liarly liable to accidents, we have introduced under the proper 
 heads (Burns, Eye, Fires, Poisons) such brief suggestions as 
 we thought might prove valuable to our readers. For more 
 minute directions in regard to drowning, severe cuts, gunshot 
 wounds, sprains, dislocations, etc. , we must refer the reader 
 to some one of the numerous treatises which have been pub- 
 lished on this subject*. The following general rules will be 
 found useful in all cases : 
 
 General Rtdes. 1. The first thing to be done in all cases 
 is to send for a physician. While the messenger is gone, 
 endeavor to make the patient as comfortable as possible, and 
 save him from all exertion, remembering that he needs all his 
 strength. 2. If there be any severe bleeding, stanch the 
 blood by means of compresses applied to the veins or arteries, 
 as the case may be. 3. If the patient be insensible, place him 
 on the ground or floor, lying rather over to or directly on one 
 side, and with the head slightly raised. Remove necktie, 
 collar, etc. , and unbutton or split open any clothing pressing 
 
 *Oue of the best is that issued by the publishers of this volume. It 
 is entitled " Wlwt to Do and. How to Po it in Case of Accident." Price 
 9 cents, 
 
10 TuE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 tightly upon the neck, chest, or abdomen. 4. As a restora- 
 tive, sprinkle the face with cold water, and then wipe it dry. 
 Some cold water may be given to drink, if the power of swal- 
 lowing be present, but do not pour stimulants down the 
 throat, unless there be clear evidence that they are needed. 
 5. Do not move the patient, unless to get him to a place of 
 shelter, and when he has reached it, make him lie down and 
 seek quiet. 6. Allow no useless talking, either to the patient, 
 or in his presence. 7. Cause the bystanders to move back 
 and leave a clear space of at least ten feet in every direction 
 around the patient. One of the best restoratives is fresh air, 
 and a crowd cuts this off completely. 
 
 Stimulants should be avoided, except in cases urgently de- 
 manding their administration, but they are agents of much 
 value in the treatment of that condition of collapse and faint- 
 ness which very commonly occurs after some physical injur- 
 ies. The symptoms may be briefly sketched : The face is 
 pale and bedewed with cold or clammy perspiration ; the 
 surface of the body generally cold ; the pulse flickering, per- 
 haps hardly perceptible ; the patient complains of the feeling 
 of faintness, and may have nausea, or even actual sickness ; 
 the breathing is sighing and irregular, and for a time there 
 may be actual insensibility. Now under such conditions 
 there can be no question as to the propriety of inducing re- 
 action by the administration of stimulants. 
 
 Coffee given hot and strong, and in small quantities, is a 
 safe and useful remedy. 
 
 Spirituous liquors are more potent in their effects, and the 
 good effect is produced more speedily. Brandy is the best 
 spirit, given in more or less diluted form ; failing this, rum 
 or wine may be given. If the spirits can be obtained only 
 from some low grog shop, then whiskey is to be preferred to 
 brandy or wine, as being less liable to adulteration. In ad- 
 ministering these articles the best practical rule is to givo u 
 small quantity at first and watch the effect ; if the surface 
 becomes warmer, the breathing deeper and more regular, and 
 the pulse at the wrist more perceptible, then there can be no 
 question as to the advantage of giving even a little more ; but 
 if these signs of improvement are wanting if there be in- 
 crease of insensibility, and deepening of color about the face, 
 with access of heat of skin withhold alcohol entirely ; it will 
 but add to the mischief. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 11 
 
 Alabaster. 
 
 This material is so common and yields such beautiful re- 
 sults when worked, that a few hints in regard to working and 
 mending it may not be out of place. 
 
 There are two distinct chemical compounds to which the 
 name of alabaster has been applied, the most common being 
 the sulphate of lime, while that known as oriental alabaster is 
 a stalagmitic carbonate of lime, compact or fibrous, generally 
 white, but of all colors from white to brown, and sometimes 
 veined with colored zones ; it is of the same hardness as 
 marble, is used for similar purposes, and is wrought by the 
 same means. 
 
 Of the common alabaster (sulphate of lime) there are several 
 varieties. The finest white alabaster is obtained from Italy, 
 but very excellent specimens are found near Derby in Eng- 
 land. (They must not, however, be confounded with Derby- 
 shire or fluoi- spar which is a calcic fluoride. ) The variegated 
 kinds are turned into pillars, vases and various ornamental 
 forms, the tools usod being very simple, namely, points for 
 roughing out, flat chisels for smoothing, and one or two 
 common firmer chisels, ground convex and concave for 
 curved lines. After being brought to the proper shape, the 
 work is polished as follows : Take a piece of very fine, soft 
 sandstone, and apply it with water to the work while in quick 
 motion, moving the stone all over until there is worked up a 
 body of mud. Then take a clean rag and work this sludge 
 well on the alabaster, after which wash the work clean. 
 Apply a rag charged with putty powder and water until there 
 is a gloss upon the work, after which apply another rag 
 charged with a mixture of putty powder, soap and water for 
 a short time, and wipe the alabaster dry. If carefully per- 
 formed the polish will be very beautiful. 
 
 Alabaster readily absorbs grease and dirt, and as it is dif- 
 ficult to clean, great care should be taken to prevent it from 
 coming in contact with anything that will stain it. Dust, 
 etc., may be removed by means of pure water to which a little 
 ammonia has been added. Grease and similar stains may be 
 removed by allowing the alabaster to lie for some time in 
 contact with a paste of powdered chalk moistened with a solu- 
 tion of potash or soda Soap should never be used for clean- 
 ing alabaster, as it leaves a greasy stain, Ualike marble, 
 
12 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 alabaster is not affected by common acids, and therefor they 
 may be used for extracting stains of common ink, etc. 
 
 The proper cement for uniting pieces of alabaster is plaster 
 of paris made into a cream with water as for making ordinary 
 casts. The surfaces to be joined must be moistened with 
 water. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 This familiar liquid requires no description, but it may not 
 be out of place to caution our readers that failure in the mak- 
 ing of varnishes, etc. , very often arises from the use of alcohol 
 which by standing has lost its strength. Ordinary alcohol is 
 a mixture of alcohol and water, and as the alcohol evaporates 
 more readily than the water, when the mixture is allowed to 
 stand for any length of time it becomes reduced in strength, 
 that is to say the proportion of alcohol becomes less and that 
 of the water more. 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 In making alloys, especially where the component metals 
 vary greatly in fusibility and volatility, the following rules 
 must be observed : 
 
 1. Melt the least fusible, oxidable and volatile first, and 
 then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. 
 Thus if we desire to make an alloy of exactly one part copper 
 and three zinc, it will be impossible to do so by putting these 
 proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing tho 
 whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off in vapor be- 
 fore the copper was melted. First melt the copper and add 
 the zinc which has been melted in another crucible. Tho. 
 zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway, 
 
 2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, 
 may be formed by exposing heated plates of the least fusiblo 
 metal to the vapor of the other. In making brass in tho 
 large way, thin plates of copper are dissolved as it were in 
 melted zinc until the proper proportions have been obtained. 
 
 3. The surface of all oxidable metals should be covered 
 with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones ; 
 resin for lead and tin ; charcoal for zinc, copper, etc. 
 
 4. Stir the metal before casting, and, if possible, when 
 casting, with a whitewood stick ; this is much better for the 
 purpose than an iron rod, 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 13 
 
 5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new 
 one. If the alloy is required to make sharp castings, and 
 strength is not a very great object, the proportion of old alloy 
 to the new should be increased. In all cases a new or 
 thoroughly well cleaned crucible should be used. 
 
 Albata. Known also as "British plate," "electrum," etc. 
 It is a favorite material for making articles that are to be 
 electrotyped. The best proportions of the ingredients are 
 Copper, 20 ;. nickel, 4 ; zinc, 16. 
 
 Alloy for filling holes in Iron. Lead, 9 ; antimony, 2 ', bis- 
 muth, 1. This alloy is sometimes called "mock iron;" it 
 expands in cooling, so that when a hole is filled with the 
 melted alloy, the plug is not loose when it is cold. 
 
 Alloy for Uniting Iron, Steel and Brass. The following com- 
 position may be cast on steel or iron, and will adhere firmly 
 thereto. Its rate of expansion is nearer that of iron and steel 
 than any similar compound. When cast around iron or steel 
 therefore, it closes firmly around them and does not become 
 loose by alternate expansion and contraction. It consists of 
 tin, 3 ; copper, 39 ; zinc, 7J. Since the last metal is partly 
 converted into vapor at a high temperature, the above pro- 
 portion may be slightly increased. 
 
 Aluminium Bronze. Copper, 90 ; aluminium, 10. Resem- 
 bles gold in color, and is very strong and durable. 
 
 Aluminium Silver. Copper, 70 ; nickel, 23 ; aluminium, 7. 
 Has a beautiful color and takes a high polish. 
 
 Amalgam for Silvering the insides of Globes, etc. 1. Lead, 
 2 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz. ; mercury, 4 oz. Melt the first 
 three and add the mercury. The glass being well cleaned, 
 is carefully warmed and the melted amalgam is poured in and 
 the vessel turned round until all parts are coated. At a cer- 
 tain temperature this amalgam adheres readily to glass. 
 
 2. Bismuth, 8 ; lead, 5 ; tin, 3 ; mercury, 8. Use as directed 
 for No. 1. 
 
 Amalgam for Electrical Machines. 1. Tin, 1 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. ; 
 mercury, 2 oz. 
 
 2. BceUger's Amalgam. Zinc, 2 oz. ; mercury, 1 oz. At a 
 certain temperature (easily found by experiment) it powders 
 readily, and should be kept in a tightly corked bottle. Said 
 to be very good, 
 
 Cock Metal. Copper, 10 ; lead, 4, Used for casting cocks. 
 Amalgam, Dissolve 3 oz. sulphate of copper i 
 
U THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 water and add 1 oz. sulphuric acid. Hang clean iron scraps ill 
 the solution until the copper has fallen down in fine powder. 
 "Wash this powder, moisten it with a solution of protonitrato 
 of mercury, and then to each ounce of the powder add 2| oz. 
 mercury, and rub up in a mortar. When thoroughly mixed, 
 >vash well with hot water. This ainalgam is easily moulded, 
 (adheres readily to glass, porcelain and some metkls, takes o- 
 line polish, and in 10 to 12 hours it becomes so hard that it 
 \vill scratch gold or tin. "When heated it softens, and may bo 
 easily moulded, As it docs not contract on cooling, it lias 
 l>eeu Used by dentists for filling teeth, and it might be used 
 to good advantage for inlaying lines in dark wood. 
 
 Pi'^tonitrate of mercury is easily made by dissolving 
 meroviry in nitric acid. 
 
 Babbitt's Anti- Attrition Metal for lining Boxes. First melt 
 four pounds of copper, and, when melted, add, by degrees, 
 twelve pounds best quality Banca tin ; then add eight pounds 
 regulus of antimony, and then twelve pounds more of tin, 
 while the composition is in a melted state. After the copper 
 is melted and four or five pounds of tin have been added, 
 the heat should be lowered to a dull red heat, in order to 
 prevent oxidation ; then add the remainder of the metal. 
 In melting the composition it is better to keep a small 
 quantity of powdered charcoal in the pot, on the surface of 
 the metal. 
 
 The above composition is made in the first place, and is 
 called hardening ; for lining work take one pound of the 
 hardening and melt with two pounds Banca tin, which pro- 
 duces the very best lining metal. So that the proportions 
 for lining metal are four pounds copper, eight regulus of anti- 
 mony and ninety-six pounds tin. 
 
 The object in first preparing the hardening is economy, for 
 when the whole is melted together there is a great waste of 
 metal, as the hardening is melted at a much less degree of 
 lieat than the copper and antimony separately. 
 
 Belgian Antifriction Metals. For work exposed to great 
 heat : Copper, 17 ; zinc, 1 ; tin, 0'5 ; lead, 0'25. 
 
 For parts liable to much concussion : Copper, 20 ; zinc, G ; 
 tin, 1. 
 
 For parts exposed to much friction : Copper, 20 ; tin, 4 ; 
 Antimony, 0*5 ; lead, 0'25. 
 
 Cheap Antifriction Metal. Equal parts of zinc and lead 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 15 
 
 melted together, and well stirred at the time of pouring into 
 the box or bearing. 
 
 Fusible Metals. These are chiefly used as a means of amuse- 
 ment, spoons formed of them melting readily in hot tea or 
 coffee. They have also been used to make plugs for steam 
 boilers, the intention being that they should melt and allow 
 the steam to escape when the pressure became too great. No. 
 4 has been used for making casts of coins and medals, and the 
 beautiful French cliche moulds were made of it. 
 
 1. Newton's fusible metal : Bismuth, 8 ; lead, 5 ; tin, 3. 
 Melts with the heat of boiling water. 
 
 2. Onion's metal : Lead, 3 ; tin, 2 ; bismuth, 5. Melts at 
 11)7 degrees, Fahrenheit. 
 
 3. Wood's fusible metal : Bismuth, 15 ; lead, 8 ; tin, 4 ; 
 cadmium, 3. Melts between 150 and 160 deg. Fahr. 
 
 4. Cliche metal : Bismuth, 8 ; tin, 4 ; lead, 5 ; antimony, 1. 
 The metals should be repeatedly melted together and poured 
 ir to drops or granulated, until they are well mixed. 
 
 Pe aiter. Tin, 4 ; lead 1. Old articles of pewter form 
 therefore, a very fine metal for solder. 
 
 Queen's Metal. Tin, 100 ; antimony, 8 ; copper, 4 ; bis- 
 muth, 1. Resembles silver in appearance. 
 
 Speculum Metal. Copper, 32 ; tin, 15 ; arsenic, 2. First 
 molt the copper, and then add the tin which should have 
 been melted in a separate crucible. Mix thoroughly and add 
 the arsenic. 
 
 Type Metal. Lead, 44 ; antimony 8 ; tin, 1. 
 
 Amber. 
 
 Amber is principally obtained from the shores of the Baltic, 
 but it is also found in other parts of Europe. The most es- 
 teemed is the opaque variety, resembling the color of a lemon, 
 and sometimes called fat amber ; the transparent pieces are 
 very brittle and vitreous. The German pipe makers, by 
 whom it is principally used, employ thin scraping tools, and 
 they burn a small lamp or place a little pan of burning char- 
 coal beneath the amber to warm it slightly whilst it runs in 
 the lathe. This prevents it from chipping out, but if it is too 
 highly heated by friction it is apt to fly to pieces. 
 
 The finer specimens of amber, which are sometimes formed 
 into gems and ornaments, are ground on lead plates made to 
 revolve in the lathe, any of the usual abrasive substances 
 
16 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 (sand or emery) being used. The facets are then finished by 
 means of a whetstone, and polished with chalk mixed with 
 water or vegetable oil. The final finish is given by means of 
 flannel. During the polishing process the amber becomes 
 very warm and highly electric, and if this heating goes too 
 far it will fly in. pieces. The workmen, therefore, cool it off 
 every now and theru 
 
 Amber, to Unite Broken Pieces. Coat with linseed oil the 
 surfaces that are to* be joined ; hold the oiled parts carefully 
 over a charccal fire, a few hot cinders or a gaslight, being 
 careful to cover up all the rest of the object loosely with 
 paper. "When the oiled parts have begun to feel the heat so 
 as to be sticky, press and clamp them together and keep them 
 so until nearly cold. Only that part where the edges are to 
 be united must be warmed, and even that with care lest the 
 form or polish of the other parts should be disturbed ; the 
 part where the joint occurs generally requires to be repolished. 
 
 Imitation Amber. Of late, an imitation of amber, which 
 cannot be distinguished frpin the genuine article by inspec- 
 tion, has made its appearance on the market. It contains 
 copal, camphor, turpentine, and other ingredients, becomes 
 electric by friction, and is used for manufacturing mouth- 
 pieces for pipes, cigar-holders, ornaments, etc. The com- 
 position may be distinguished from genuire amber by its 
 lower melting point, as it quickly softens and melts when laid 
 on a hot plate, while amber requires a comparatively high 
 heat ; and further by the action of ether, which softens the 
 imitation until it may be scraped away with the finger-nail, 
 while true amber is absolutely insoluble in cold ether. 
 
 Annealing and Hardening. 
 
 For the best methods of annealing, hardening and temper- 
 ing steel, see article STEEL in this volume. Several valuable 
 facts in regard to glass are alsc given under GLASS. 
 
 Copper, brass, German silver and similar metals are hard- 
 ened by hammering, rolling or wire drawing, and are softened 
 by being heated red hot and plunged in water. Copper, by 
 being alloyed with tin, may be made so hard that cutting in- 
 struments may be made of it. This is the old process of 
 hardening copper, which is so often claimed to be one of the 
 lost arts, and which would be very useful if we did not 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 17 
 
 in steel a material which is far less costly and far better fitted 
 for the making of edge tools. 
 
 Antiseptic Preparations. 
 
 Specimens of natural history intended for subsequent ex- 
 amination and dissection are best preserved in alcohol, but as 
 this is expensive, a saturated solution of 100 parts of alum 
 and 2 parts of saltpetre may be used with good effect. For 
 preserving stuffed specimens the following are generally 
 used : 
 
 Arsenical Soap. This is the most powerful preservative in 
 use. It is a strong poison, but is invaluable for preserving 
 skins of birds and beasts that are to be stuffed. It is made 
 thus : Powdered arsenic, 2 oz. ; camphor, 5 oz. ; white soap, 
 2 oz. ; salt of tartar (sub-carbonate of potash), 6 drachms ; 
 powdered lime, 2 drachms. Cut the soap in very thin slices 
 and heat gently with a small quantity of water, stirring all 
 the time with a stick. When thoroughly melted add the salt 
 of tartar and the lime. When these are well mixed together 
 add the arsenic, which must be carefully incorporated with 
 the other ingredients. Take the mixture off the tire, and while 
 cooling add the camphor, previously reduced to powder by 
 rubbing it with a little alcohol. When finished the soap 
 should be of the consistence of thick cream and should be 
 kept in a tightly stopped bottle. 
 
 Arsenical Preservative Powder. This is dusted over moist 
 skins and flesh, and preserves almost any animal matter from 
 putrefaction. It is thus made : Arsenic, 4 oz. ; burnt alum, 
 4 oz. ; tanner's bark, 8 oz ;. mix and grind together to a very 
 fine powder. 
 
 Beeswax. 
 
 Beeswax is obtained by washing and melting the honey- 
 comb. The product is yellow and is freed from its impurities, 
 and bleached by melting it with hot water or steam, in a 
 tinned copper or wooden vessel, letting it settle, running it 
 off into an oblong trough with a line of holes in its bottom, 
 so as to distribute it upon horizontal wooden cylinders, mado 
 to revolve, half immersed in cold water, and then exposing 
 the thin ribbons or films thus obtained, to the blanching 
 action of air, light, and moisture. For this purpose the rib- 
 bons are laid upon long webs of canvas stretched horizontally 
 between standards, two feet above the surface of a sheltered 
 
13 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 / , * 
 
 field, having a free exposure to the sunbeams. Hete they 
 are frequently turned over, then covered by nets to prevent 
 their being blown away by winds, and watered from time to 
 time, like linen upon the grass field in the old method of 
 bleaching. Whenever the color of the wax seems stationary, 
 it i.s collected, re-melted, and thrown again into ribbons upon 
 the wet cylinder, in order to expose new surfaces to the bleach- 
 ing operation. By several repetitions of these processes, i/ 
 the weather proves favorable, the wax becomes quite white. 
 
 Black-boards. 
 
 Various kinds of so-called " liquid slating " have been sold 
 for converting any smooth board or wall into a black-board 
 for school or other purposes. The following give very good 
 results; No. 1 is probably the best, but is somewhat expen- 
 sive. 
 
 1. Take alcohol (95 per cent.), 4 pints; shellac, 8 ounces; 
 lamp-black, 12 drachms; ultramarine blue, 20 drachms; pow- 
 dered rotten stone, 4 ounces; powdered pumice stone, G 
 ounces. First dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, then add 
 the other ingredients, finely powdered, and shake well. To 
 apply the slating, have the surface of the board smooth and 
 perfectly free from grease. Shake well the bottle containing 
 the preparation, pour out a small quantity only into an old 
 tea-cup, and apply it with a new flat varnish brush as rapidly 
 as possible. Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up every 
 time before pouring out the liquid. 
 
 2. Instead of alcohol take a solution of borax in water; dis- 
 solve the shellac in this and color with lamp-black. 
 
 3. Dilute silicate of soda (water-glass) with an equal bulk 
 of water, and add sufficient lamp-black to color it. The lamp- 
 1 >lack should be ground with water and a little of the silicate 
 before being added to the rest of the liquid. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Next to iron, brass is probably the most generally useful 
 metal, and as the varieties of this alloy are almost infinite, the 
 range of purposes to which it may be applied is very great. 
 The color of the alloy inclines to red when the proportion of 
 zinc is small, gradually changing to yellow, and ultimately 
 white, when the proportion of zinc is very large. The duc- 
 tility and malleability of the alloy increase with the quantity 
 of copper. Ordinary brass may be hammered, rolled into 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 19 
 
 sheets or drawn to wire while cold, provided it is occasionally 
 annealed by heating it' to a very low red heat. When worked 
 hot it crumbles to pieces under the hammer or between the 
 rolls. But the so-called yellow metal, or Muntz metal, an 
 alloy of 40 parts of zinc and 60 of copper, may be wrought 
 while red hot, rolled into sheets and forged into bolts. Brass 
 is not so readily oxidized as copper, being harder, tougher, 
 more easily fusible and more fluid when molten. It solidified 
 without becoming honey-combed, and hence is suited for 
 making all kinds of castings; while simply by the addition 
 of from 1 to 2 per cent, of lead, it is capable of being readily 
 worked on the lathe, and may then be filed without, as ifc 
 otherwise does, clogging the teeth of the file. 
 
 Finishing Brass. The article having been brought to 
 proper shape by means of the lathe, file, grindstone or other 
 means, the surface must be rendered smooth and free from 
 lumps, utters, or scratches. If finished in the lathe, emery 
 paper and oil may be used to smooth the surface, the final 
 polish being imparted by rouge. In all cases where brass or 
 other metals are polished by means of abrasive materials, great 
 care must be taken that all corners are left sharp and well- 
 defined, since nothing looks so badly as a corner which ought 
 to be square but which is worn and rounded in the process 
 of polishing. 
 
 In finishing brass work (and the same remark applies to 
 the polishing of other materials) great care must be taken to 
 avoid making any scratches which are deeper than the other 
 marks left by the material employed. Such scratches are 
 very difficult to remove by very fine files or by polishing 
 powders, and therefore, whenever the work shows such 
 scratches it is necessary to go back to the coarse file or scraper 
 and begin anew. (See articles on Polishing Metals and Polish- 
 ing Powders.} 
 
 Coloring and Varnishing Brass. To prevent the everyday 
 rusting of brass goods, the trade has long resorted to means 
 for protecting the surface from the action of the atmosphere, 
 the first plan of which i^ to force a change to take place. 
 Thus, if brass is left in damp sand, it acquires a beautiful 
 brown color, which, when polished with a dry brush, remains 
 permanent and requires no cleaning. It is also possible to 
 impart a green and light coating of verdigris on the surface 
 of the brass by means of dilute acids, allowed to dry spou- 
 
grt ME WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 taneously. 'The antique appearance thus given is very pleas- 
 ing, and more or less permanent. But it is not always pos- 
 sible to wait for goods so long as such processes require, and 
 hence more speedy methods became necessary, many of which 
 had to be further protected by a coat of varnish. Before 
 bronzing, however, all the requisite fitting is finished, and the 
 brass annealed, pickled in old or dilute nitric acid, till the 
 scales can be removed from the surface, scoured with sand 
 and water, and dried. Bronzing is then performed according 
 to the color desired; for although the word means a brown 
 color, being taken from the Italian " bronzino," signifying 
 burnt brown, yet in commercial language it includes all 
 colors. (See article on Bronzing. ) 
 
 Browns of all shades are obtained by immersion in solu- 
 tions of nitrate or the perchloride of iron; the strength of 
 the solutions determining the depth of the color. Violets are 
 produced by dipping in a solution of chloride of antimony. 
 Chocolate is obtained by burning on the surface of the brass 
 moist red oxide of iron, and polishing with a very small 
 quantity of blacklead. 
 
 Olive-green results from making the surface black by means 
 of a solution of iron and arsenic in muriatic acid, the details 
 of the process being as follows: 
 
 Make the articles bright, then dip in aqua fortis, which 
 must be thoroughly rinsed off with clean water. Then make 
 the following mixture: Hydrochloric acid, 6 Ibs. ; sulphate of 
 iron, i Ib. ; white arsenic, Ib. Be careful to get all the in- 
 gredients pure. Let the articles lie in the mixture till black; 
 take out and dry in hot sawdust, polish with blacklead, and 
 lacquer with green lacquer composed of one part lac varnish, 
 four of turmeric, and one of gamboge. 
 
 A steel-gray color is deposited on brass from a dilute boil- 
 ing solution of chloride of arsenic; and a blue by careful 
 treatment with strong hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 Black is much used for optical brass work, and is obtained 
 by coating the brass with a solution of platinum, or with 
 chloride of gold mixed with nitrate of tin. The Japanese 
 bronze their brass by boiling it in a solution of sulphate of 
 copper, alum and verdigris. 
 
 Success in the art of bronzing greatly depends on circum- 
 stances, such as the temperature of the alloy or of the solu- 
 tion, the proportions of the metals used in forming the alloy, 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 21 
 
 and the quality of the materials. The moment at which to 
 withdraw the goods, the drying of them, and a hundred little 
 items of care and manipulation, require attention which ex- 
 perience alone can impart. 
 
 To avoid giving any artificial color to brass, and yet to pre- 
 serve it from becoming tarnished, it is usual to cover properly 
 cleaned brass with a varnish called " lacquer." To prepare 
 the brass for this, the goods, after being annealed, pickled, 
 scoured and washed, as already explained, are either dipped 
 for an instant in pure commercial nitrous acid, washed in 
 clean water, and dried in sawdust, or immersed in a mixture 
 of one part of nitric acid with four of water, till a white curd 
 covers the surface, at which moment the goods are withdrawn, 
 washed in clean water, and dried in sawdust. In the first 
 case the brass will be bright; in the latter, a dead flat which 
 is usually relieved by burnishing the prominent parts. Tlieri 
 the goods are dipped for an instant in commercial nitric acid, 
 and well washed in water containing some argol (to preserve 
 the color till lacquered), and dried in warm sawdust. So pre- 
 pared, the goods are conveyed to the lacquer room, where 
 they are heated on a hot plate and varnished. 
 
 The varnish used is one of spirit, consisting, in its simple 
 form, of one ounce of shellac dissolved in one pint of alcohol. 
 To this simple varnish are added such coloring substances as 
 red sanders, dragon's-blood, and annatto, for imparting rich- 
 ness of color. To lower the tone of color, turmeric, gamboge, 
 saffron, Cape aloes, and sandarac are used. The first group 
 reddens, the second yellows the varnish, while a mixture of 
 the two gives a pleasing orange. (See article on Lacquer.) 
 
 To Whiten Brass. Small articles of brass or copper may 
 be whitened by boiling them in a solution of f Ib. cream of 
 tartar, 2 quarts of water, and 1 Ib. grain tin or any pure tin 
 finely divided. The tin dissolves in the cream of tartar and 
 is again precipitated on the brass or copper. 
 
 Depositing Brass by Electricity. The first step is to t^or 
 oughly cleanse the articles, either by means of emery, or bv 
 laying them overnight in a weak bath of sulphuric acid. 
 They are then washed off with water, a weak soda solution, 
 and then immersed as the cathode of a bath consisting of 2 
 parts of sulphate of copper, 20 parts sulphate of zinc, and 45 
 parts cyanide of potassium, in 300 parts of water. The anode 
 should be two plates of zinc and copper of equal size. The 
 
22 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 color of the resulting brass coating may be modified by 
 varying the depth of immersion of one or the other of the 
 plates. The galvanic current should be a strong one, and 
 the liberation of hydrogen bubbles on the object to bo 
 brassed should be plentiful. It is important, however, to 
 note that the objects should be first coppered to insure a 
 strong attachment of the brass coating. 
 
 Coating Brass with Copper. The following valuable process 
 for coating brass with copper, is given by Dr. C. Puscher: 
 Dissolve ten parts, by weight, of sulphate of copper, and five 
 of sal-ammoniac, in one hundred and fifty parts, by weight, 
 of water. Place the brass, well cleaned and free from fatty 
 matter on its surface, into this mixture ; leave it in it for a 
 minute; let the excess of liquid drain off first, and heat the 
 metal next over a charcoal fire, until the evolution of am- 
 moniacal vapors ceases, and the coppery film appears per- 
 fect. Wash with cold water and dry. The coating of cop- 
 per adheres firmly. 
 
 Cleaning Brass. Large articles of brass and copper which 
 have become very much soiled iray be cleaned by a mixture 
 of rotten-stone powder (or any hnarp polishing poAvder) with 
 a strong solution of oxalic acid. After being thoroughly 
 cleaned, the metal should be wiped oft' with a cloth moistened 
 with soda or potash, and a very light coating of oil should bo 
 applied to prevent the further corroding action of the acid. 
 
 A more powerful cleaning agent, because very corrosive, 
 is finely powdered bichromate of potash mixed with twico 
 its bulk of strong sulphuric acid and diluted (after standing 
 an hour or so) with an equal bulk of water. This will in- 
 stantly clean the dirtiest brass, but great care must be taken 
 in handling the liquid, as it is very corrosive. 
 
 Brass which has been lacquered should never be cleaned 
 with polishing powders or corrosive chemicals. Wiping 
 with a soft cloth is sufficient, and in some cases washing with 
 weak soap and water may be admissible. Dry the articles 
 thoroughly, taking care not to scratch them, and if, after 
 this, they show much sign of wear or corrosion, send them to 
 the lacquerer to be refinished. 
 
 Brazing and Soldering. 
 
 The term soldering is generally applied when fusible alloys 
 of lead and tin are employed for uniting metals. When hard 
 
THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 23 
 
 Eleials, such as copper, brass or silver are used, tlie term 
 brazing (derived from brass) is more appropriate. 
 
 In uniting tin, copper, brass, etc., with any of the sofl 
 solders, a copper soldering-iron is generally used. This tool 
 and the manner of using it are too Veil known to need de- 
 scription. In many cases, however, the Work may be done 
 more neatly without the soldering-iron, by filing or turning 
 the joints so that they fit closely, moistening them with tho 
 soldering fluid described hereafter, placing a piece of Smooth 
 tin-foil between them, tying them together with binding wire, 
 and heating the whole in a lamp or tire till the tin-foil melts. 
 We have often joined pieces of brass in this way so that tho 
 joints were quite invisible. Indeed, with good soft solder 
 almost all work may be done over a spirit lamp or even a 
 candle, without the use of a soldering-iron. 
 
 More minute directions may be found in the Young Scien- 
 tist, Vol. I, page 56. 
 
 Advantage may be taken of the varying degrees of fusi- 
 bility of solders to make several joints in the same piece of 
 work. Thus, if the first joint has been made with fine tin- 
 ner's solder, there would be no danger of melting it in mak- 
 ing a joint near it with bismuth solder, composed of lead, 4 ; 
 tin, 4; and bismuth, 1; and the melting point of both is f^r 
 enough removed from that of a solder composed of lead, 2 ; 
 tin, 1; and bismuth, 2; to 1)6 in no danger of fusion during 
 the use of the latter. * 
 
 Soft solders do not inaKfe /nalleable joints. To join brass, 
 copper or iron so as to have the joint very strong and malle- 
 able, hard solder must be used. For this purpose equal 
 parts of silver and brass will be found excellent, though for 
 iron, copper, or very infusible brass, nothing is better than 
 silver coin rolled out thin, which may be done by any silver- 
 smith or dentist. This makes decidedly the toughest of all 
 joints, and as a little silver goes a long way, it is not very 
 expensive. 
 
 For most hard solders borax is the best flux. It dissolves 
 any oxides which may exist on the surface of the metal, and 
 protects the latter from the further action of the air, so that 
 the solder is enabled to come into actual contact with tho 
 surfaces which are to be joined. For soft solders the best 
 flux is a soldering fluid which may be prepared by saturating 
 hydrochloric acid (spirit of salt) with zinc. The addition of 
 
24 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 i 
 
 a little sal ammoniac improves ID. It is said that a solution 
 of phosphoric acid in alcohol makes an excellent soldering 
 fluid, which has some advantages over chloride of zinc. 
 
 In using ordinary tinner's solder for uniting surfaces that 
 are already tinned such as tinned plate and tinned copper 
 resin is the best and cheapest flux, but when surfaces of iron, 
 brass or copper that have not been tinned are to be joined by 
 feoft solder, the soldering fluid is by far the most convenient. 
 Besin possesses this important advantage over soldering fluid, 
 that it does not induce subsequent corrosion of the article to 
 which it is applied. When acid fluxes have been applied to 
 anything that is liable to rust, it is necessary to see that they 
 are thoroughly washed off with clean warm water and tho 
 articles carefully and thoroughly dried. * 
 
 Oil and powdered resin mixed togethb. mane a good flux 
 for tinned articles. The mixture can be applied with a small 
 brush or a swab tied to the end of a stick. 
 
 In preparing solders, whether hard or soft, great care is 
 requisite to avoid two faults a want of uniformity in the 
 melted mass, and a change in the proportions of the con- 
 stituents by the loss of volatile or oxidable ingredients. Thus, 
 where copper, silver, and similar metals are to be mixed with 
 tin, zinc, etc. , it is necessary to molt the more infusible metal 
 first. When copper and zinc arc heated together, a large 
 portion of the zinc passes off i;i fumes. In preparing soft 
 solders, the material should be melted under tallow, to pre- 
 vent waste by oxidation ; and in melting hard solders, tho 
 same object is accomplished by covering them with a thick 
 layer of powdered charcoal. 
 
 To obtain hard solders of uniform composition, they are 
 generally granulated by pouring them into water through a 
 wet broom. Sometimes they are cast in solid masses and 
 reduced to powder by filing. Silver solders for jewelers aro 
 generally rolled into thin plates, and sometimes the soft; 
 solders, especially those that are very fusible, are rolled into 
 sheets and cut into narrow strips, which are very convenient 
 for small work that is to be heated by a lamp. 
 
 The following simple mode of making solder wire, which 
 is very handy for small w r ork, will be found useful. Take a 
 sheet of stiff writing or drawing paper, and roll it in a coni- 
 cal form, rather broad in comparison with its length. Mako 
 & ring of stiff wire, to hold ii in, attaching a suitable handle 
 
THE WOKKSHOT* COMPANION. 25 
 
 to the ring. The point of the cone may first of all be cut off, 
 to leave an orifice of the size required. When filled with 
 molten solder it should be held above a pail of cold water; 
 and the stream of solder flowing from the cone will congeal 
 as it runs, and form the wire. If held a little higher, so that 
 the stream of solder breaks into drops, before striking the 
 water, it will form handy, elongated "tears" of metal; but, 
 by holding it still higher, each drop forms a thin concave 
 cup or shell, and, as each of these forms have their own 
 peculiar uses in business, many a mechanic will find this hint 
 very useful. 
 
 Hard solders are usually reduced to powder either by 
 granulation or filing, and then spread along the joints after 
 being mixed with borax, which has been fused and powdered. 
 It is not necessary that the grains of solder should be placed 
 between the pieces to be joined, as with the aid of the borax 
 they will " sweat " into the joint as soon as fusion takes place. 
 The same is true of soft solder applied with soldering fluid. 
 One of the essential requisites of success, hoAvever, is that 
 the surfaces be clean, bright, and free from all rust. 
 
 The best solder for platinum is fine gold. The joint is not 
 only very infusible, but it is not easily acted upon by common 
 agents. For German-silver joints, an excellent solder is 
 composed of equal parts of silver, brass, and zinc. The proper 
 flux is borax. 
 
 Bronzing. 
 
 Two distinct processes have had this name applied to them. 
 The first consists in staining brass work a dark brown or 
 bronze color and lacquering it; the second consists in par- 
 tially corroding the brass so as to give it that greenish hue 
 which is peculiar to ancient brass work. The first is gen- 
 erally applied to instruments and apparatus, the second to 
 articles of ornament. 
 
 Bronze for Brass Instruments. 1. The cheapest and sim- 
 plest is undoubtedly a light coat of plumbago or black lead. 
 After brushing the article with plumbago place it on a clear 
 fire till it is made too hot to be touched. Apply a plate 
 brush as soon as it ceases to be hot enough to burn tile brush. 
 A few strokes of the brush will produce a dark brown polish 
 approaching black, but entirely distinct from the well known 
 appearance of bl^ck lead. Lacquer with any desired tint, 
 
26 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 2. Plate powder or rouge may be used instead of plum- 
 bago, and gives very beautiful effects. 
 
 3. Make the articles clean, bright and free from oil or 
 grease, then dip in aqua fortis, which must be thoroughly 
 rinsed off with clean warm water. Then make the following 
 mixture: Hydrochloric acid, 6 Ibs. ; sulphate of iron, lb.; 
 white arsenic, Ib. Be careful to get all the ingredients 
 pure. Let the articles lie in the mixture till black, take out 
 and dry in hot sawdust, polish with black lead, and lacquer 
 with green lacquer. 
 
 Antique Bronze. Dissolve 1 oz. sal-ammoniac, 3 oz. cream 
 tartar, and 6 oz. common salt in 1 pint of hot water; ad.d 2 
 oz. nitrate of copper dissolved in pint of water; mix well, 
 and, by means of a brush, apply it repeatedly to the article, 
 which should be placed in a damp situation. 
 
 Bronzing Liquid; Dissolve 10 parts of fuchsine and 5 parts 
 of aniline-purple in 100 parts of 95 per cent, alcohol on a 
 water bath; after solution has iaken place, add 5 parts of 
 benzoic acid, and keep the whole boiling for 5 or 10 minutes, 
 until the green color of the mixture has given place to a fine 
 light bronze-brown. This liquid may be applied to all 
 metals, as well as many othe* ,abstances, yields a very 
 brilliant coating, and dries quick 1 ::. It is applied with a 
 brush. 
 
 Bronzing Wood, Leather, Paper, etc.l. Dissolve gum lao 
 in four parts by volume of pure alcolipl, and then add bronze 
 or any other metal powder in the proportion of one part to 
 three parts of the solution, The surface to be covered must 
 be very smooth. In the case of wood, one or several coats of 
 Mention or Spanish white are given, u,nd the object is care- 
 fully polished. The mixture is painted on, and when a suf- 
 ficient number of coats have been given, the object is well 
 rubbed. A special advantage of this process is that the 
 coating obtained is not dull, but can be burnished, 
 
 2. Another method is to coat the object with copal or 
 other varnish, and when this has dried so far as to become 
 " tacky " flust bronze powder over it. After a few hours the 
 bronzed surface should Ipe burnished with a burnislier of 
 steel or agate. 
 
 Brpvvning Gun Barrels, (See 
 
THE WOKKI? 1CP COMPANION. 27 
 
 Burns. 
 
 Those who work in red-hot metals, glass blowing, etc., are 
 sometimes apt to burn their fingers. It is well to know that 
 a solution of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) promptly and 
 permanently relieves all pain. The points to be observed 
 are : 1. Bicarbonate of soda must be used; washing soda 
 and common soda are far too irritant to be applied if the 
 burn is serious. 2. The solution must be saturated. 3. The 
 /solution must be ice-cold. 
 
 A laboratory assistant in Philadelphia having severely 
 burned the inside of the last joint of his thumb while bend- 
 ing glass tubing, applied the solution of bicarbonate of soda, 
 and not only was the pain allayed, but the thumb could be 
 at once freely used without inconvenience. 
 
 Case-Hardening. (See Iron.) 
 Catgut. 
 
 This material is so valuable for many purposes that many 
 mechanics will find it useful to know how to make it, as they 
 can then provide themselves with any size and length that 
 may be needed. The process is quite simple. Take the en- 
 trails of sheep or other animals, remembering that fat animals 
 afford a very weak string, while those that are lean produce 
 a much tougher article, and thoroughly clean them from all 
 impurities, attached fat, etc. The animal should be newly 
 killed. Wash well in clean water and soak in soft water for 
 two days, or in winter for three days ; lay them on a table or 
 board and scrape them with a small plate of copper having a 
 semicircular, hole cut in it, the edges of which must be quite 
 smooth and not capable of cutting. After washing put them 
 into fresh water and then let them remain till the next day, 
 when they are to be well scraped. Let them soak again in 
 water for a night, and two or three hours before they are 
 taken out add to each gallon of water 2 oz. of potash. They 
 ought now to scrape quite clean from their inner mucous 
 coat, and will consequently be much smaller in dimensions 
 than at first. They may now be wiped dry, slightly twisted, 
 and passed through a hole in a piece of brass to equalize their 
 size; as they dry they are passed every two or three hours 
 through other holes, each smaller than the last. When dry 
 they will be round and well polished, and after being oiled 
 are fit for use. 
 
23 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Cements. 
 
 General Rides. Some years ago the writer called attention* 
 to the fact that quite as much depends upon the manner in 
 which a cement is used as upon the cement itself. The best 
 cement that ever" was compounded would prove entirely 
 worthless if improperly applied. The following rules must 
 be vigorously adhered to if success would be secured: 
 
 1. Bring the cement into intimate contact with the sur- 
 faces to be united. This is best done by heating the pieces 
 to be joined in those cases where the cement is melted by 
 heat, as in using resin, shellac, marine glue, etc. Where 
 solutions are used, the cement must be well rubbed into the 
 surfaces either with a soft brush (as in the case of porcelain 
 or glass), or by rubbing the two surfaces together (as in mak- 
 ing a glue joint between two pieces of wood.) 
 
 2. As little cement \s possible should be allowed to remain 
 between the united surfaces. To secure this the cement 
 should be as liquid as possible (thoroughly melted if used 
 with heat), and the surfaces should be pressed closely into 
 contact (by screws, weights, wedges or cords) until the cement 
 has hardened. 
 
 Where the cement is a Solution (such as gum in water) and 
 the surfaces are very absorbent (such as porous paper), the 
 surfaces must be saturated with cement before they are brought 
 together. 
 
 4. Plenty of time should bo allowed for the cement to dry 
 or harden, and this is particularly the case in oil cements 
 such as copsil varnish, boiled oil, white lead, etc. When two 
 surfaces, each half an inch across, are joined by means of a 
 layer of white lead placed between them, six months may 
 elapse before the cement in the middle of the joint has be- 
 come hard. In such cases a few days or weeks are of no 
 account; at the end of a month the joint will be weak and 
 easily separated, while at the end of two or three years it may 
 be so firm that the material will part anywhere else than at 
 the joint. Hence, where the article is to be used immediately, 
 the only safe cements are those which are liquified by heat 
 and which become hard when ccld. A joint made with 
 marine glue is firm an hour after it has been made. Next 
 to cements that are liquified by heat, are those which consist 
 
 "Technologist, Vol. I (1870), pa^e iss, 
 
THE WOK SHOP COMPANION. 20 
 
 of substances dissolved in water or alcohol. A glue joint sets 
 firmly in twenty-four hours; a joint made with shellac var- 
 nish Becomes dry in two or three days. Oil cements, which 
 do not dry by evaporation, but harden by oxidation (boiled 
 oil, white lead, red lead, etc.), are the slowest of all. 
 
 Aquarium Cement. Litharge; fine, white, dry sand and 
 plaster of paris, each 1 gill; finely pulverized resin, gill. 
 Mix thoroughly and make into a paste with boiled linseed 
 oil to which dryer has been added. Beat it well, and let it 
 stand four or five hours before using it. After it has stood 
 for 15 hours, however, it loses its strength. Glass cemented 
 into its frame with this cement is good for either salt or 
 fresh water. It has been used at the Zoological Gardens, 
 London, with great success. It might be useful for con- 
 structing tanks for other purposes or for stopping leaks. 
 
 Armenian Cement. The jewellers of Turkey, who are 
 mostly Armenians, have a singular method of ornamenting 
 watch cases, etc., with diamonds and other precious stones 
 by simply gluing or cementing them on. The stone is set in 
 gold or silver, and the lower part of the metal made flat or 
 to correspond with that part to which it is to be fixed. It is 
 then warmed gently and the glue applied, which is so very 
 strong that the parts thus cemented never separate. This 
 glue, which will firmly unite bits of glass and even polished 
 steel, and?may, of course, be applied to a vast variety of useful 
 purposes, is thus made : Dissolve five or six bits of gum 
 mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much alcohol as 
 will suffice to render it liquid; in another vessel dissolve as 
 much isinglass, previously a little softened in water, (though 
 none of the water must be used,) in good brandy or rum, as 
 will make a two-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding two 
 small bits of gum galbanum, or ammoniacum, which must 
 be rubbed or ground until they are dissolved. Then mix 
 the whole with a sufficient heat, keep the glue in a phial 
 closely stopped, and when it is to be used set the phial in 
 /boiling water. To avoid the cracking of the phial by ex- 
 posure to such sudden heat, use a thin green glass phial, and 
 hold it in the steam for a few seconds before ir^mersin^ it in 
 the hot water. / 
 
 Bucklantfs Cement. Finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz. ; 
 finely powdered starch, 3 oz. ; finely powdered gum arable, 
 4 oz. Bub well together in a dry mortar; then little by little 
 
30 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 add cold water until it is of the thickness of melted glue; put 
 in a wide mouthed bottle and cork closely. The powder, 
 thoroughly ground and mixed, may be kept for any length of 
 time in a wide mouthed bottle, and when wanted a little may 
 be mixed with water with a stiff brush. It answers ordinarily 
 for all the purposes for which mucilage is used, and as a 
 cement for labels it is specially good, as it does not become 
 brittle and crack off. 
 
 Casein Mucilage. Take the curd of skim-milk (carefully 
 freed from cream or oil), wafth it thoroughly and dissolve it 
 to saturation in a cold concentrated solution of borax. This 
 mucilage keeps well, and as regards adhesive power far sur- 
 passes the mucilage of gum arabic. 
 
 Casein and Soluble Glass. Casein dissolved in soluble 
 silicate of soda or potassa, makes r very strong cement for 
 glass or porcelain. 
 
 Cheese Cement for mcnclhifj C/t./ia, etc. Take skim milk 
 cheese, cut it in slices and boil it in water. Wash it in cold 
 water and knead it in warm water several times. Place it 
 warm on a levigating stone and knead it with quicklime. It 
 will join marble, stone or earthenware so tli^t the joining is 
 scarcely to be discovered. 
 
 Chinese Cement (Schio-liao). To three parts of fresh beaten 
 blood are added four parts of slaked lime and a little alum; 
 a thin, pasty mass is produced, which can be used imme- 
 diately. Objects which are to be made specially water-proof 
 are painted by the Chinese twice, or at the most three times. 
 Dr. Scherzer saw in Pekin a wooclen box which had travelled 
 the tedious road via Siberia to St. Petersburg and back, 
 which was found to be perfectly sound and water-proof. 
 Even baskets made of straw became, by the use of this 
 cement, perfectly serviceable in the transportation of oil. 
 Pasteboard treated therewith receives the appearance and 
 strength of wood. Most of the wooden public buildings of 
 China are painted with schio-liao, which gives them an un- 
 pleasant reddish appearance, but adds to their durability. 
 This cement was tried in the Austrian department of Agri- 
 culture, and by the " Vienna Association of Industry," and 
 in both cases the statements of Dr. Scherzer were found to 
 be strictly accurate. 
 
 Chinese Glue. Shellac dissolved in alcohol. Used for 
 joining wood, earthenware, glass, etc. This cement requires 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 31 
 
 considerable time to become thoroughly hard, and even then 
 is not as strong as good glue. Its portability is its only 
 recommendation. 
 
 Faraday's Cap Cement. Electrical Cement. Resin, 5 oz. ; 
 beeswax 1 oz. ; red ochre or Venetian red in powder, 1 oz. 
 Dry the earth thoroughly on a stove at a temperature above 
 212. Melt the wax and resin together and stir in the 
 powder by degrees. Stir until cold, lest the earthy matter 
 settle to the bottom. Used for fastening brass work to glass 
 tubes, flasks, etc. 
 
 Glass, Earthenware, etc., Cement for. Dilute white of egg 
 with its bulk of water and beat up thoroughly. Mix to the 
 consistence of thin paste with powdered quicklime. Must 
 be used immediately. 
 
 Glass Cement. Take pulverized glass, 10 parts; powdered 
 fluorspar, 20 parts; soluble silicate of soda, 60 parts. Both 
 glass and fluorspar must be in the finest possible condition, 
 which is best done by shaking each, in fine powder, with 
 water, allowing the coarser particles to deposit, and then to 
 pour off the remainder which holds the finest particles in 
 suspension. The mixture must be made very rapidly, by 
 quick stirring, and when thoroughly mixed must be at once 
 applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement. 
 
 Glue is undoubtedly the most important cement used in 
 the arts! Good glue is hard, clear (not necessarily light- 
 colored, however, ) and free from bad taste and smell. Glue 
 which is easily dissolved in cold water is not strong. Good 
 glue merely swells in cold water and must be heated to the 
 boiling point before it will dissolve thoroughly. 
 
 Good glue requires more water than poor, consequently 
 you cannot dissolve six pounds of good glue in the same 
 quantity of water you can six pounds of poor. The best glue, 
 which is clear and red, will require from one-half to more 
 than double the water that is required with poor glue, and 
 the quality of which can be discovered by breaking a piece. 
 If good, it will break hard and tough, and when broken 
 will be irregular on the broken edge. If poor, it will break 
 0ornparatively easy, leaving a smooth, straight edge. 
 
 In dissolving glue, it is beet to weigh the glue, and weigh 
 or measure the water. If not done there is a liability of get- 
 ting more glue than the water can properly dissolve. It is a 
 good plan, when once the quantity of water that any sample 
 
82 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 of glue will take up lias been ascertained, to put the glue and 
 water together at least six hours before heat is applied, and 
 if it is not soft enough then, let it remain longer in soak, for 
 there is no danger of good glue remaining in pure water, even 
 for forty-eight hours. 
 
 From careful experiments with dry glue immersed for 
 twenty -four hours in water at 60 Fah., and thereby trans- 
 formed into a jelly, it was found that the finest ordinary glue, 
 or that made from white bones, absorbs twelve times its 
 weight of water in twenty -four hours; from dark bones, the 
 glue absorbs nine times its weight of water; while the ordi- 
 nary glue made from animal refuse, absorbs but three to five 
 times its weight of water. 
 
 Glue, being an animal substance, it must be kept sweet; 
 to do this it is necessary to keep it cool after it is once dis- 
 solved, and not in use. In all cases keep the glue-kettle clean 
 and sweet, by cleansing it often. 
 
 Great care must be taken not to bum it, and, therefore, it 
 should always be prepared in a water bath. 
 
 Carpenters should remember that fresh glue dries more 
 readily than that which has been once or twice melted. 
 
 The advantage of frozen glue is that it can be made up at 
 once, on account of its being so porous. Frozen giuo of 
 same grade is as strong as if dried. 
 
 If glue is of first-rate quality, it can be used on most kinds 
 of wood work very thin, and make the joint as strong as the 
 original. "White glue is only made white by bleaching. 
 
 Glue, Liquid. -1. A very strong glue may be made by dis- 
 solving 4 oz. of glue in 16 ounces of strong acetic acid by the 
 aid of heat. It is semi-solid at ordinary temperatures, but 
 needs only to be warmed, by placing the vessel containing it 
 into hot water, to be ready for use. 
 
 2. Dilute officinal phosphoric -acid with two parts, by 
 weight of water, and saturate with carbonate of ammonia; 
 dilute the resulting liquid, which must be still somewhat 
 acid, with another part of distilled water, warm it on a water- 
 bath, and dissolve in it enough good glue to form a thick, 
 syrupy liquid. It must be kept in well-closed bottles. 
 
 3. A most excellent form is also Dumoulin's Liquid and 
 Unalterable Glue. This is made as follows : Dissolve 8 oz. of 
 best glue in pint of water in a wide-mouthed bottle, by 
 Jieating the bottle in a water-bath. Then add slowly 2J oz. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 33 
 
 of nitric acid, spec. gr. 1330, htirring constantly. Effer- 
 vescence takes place under escape of nitox "<s acid gas. When 
 all the acid has been added, the liquid is allowed to cool. 
 Keep it well corked, and it will be ready for use at any 
 moment. It does not gelatinize, or putrefy or ferment. It 
 is applicable to many domestic uses, such as mending china, 
 wood, etc. 
 
 Glue, Mouth. Good glue, 1 Ib. ; isin>lass, 4- 02, Soften in 
 water, boil and add Ib. fine brown sugar. Boil till pretty 
 thick and pour into moulds. 
 
 Glue, Portable. Put a pinch of shredded gelatine into a 
 wide-mouthed bottle; put on it a very little water, and about 
 one-fourth part of glacial acetic acid; put in a well -fitting 
 cork. If the right quantity of water and acid be used, the 
 gelatine will swell up into worm-like pieces, quite elastic, but 
 at the same time, firm enough to be handled comfortably. 
 The acid will make the preparation keep indefinitely. When 
 required for use, take a small fragment of the swelled gela- 
 tine, and warm the end of it in the flame of a match or candle; 
 it will immediately "run" into a fine clear glue, which can 
 be applied at once direct to the article to be mended. The 
 thing is done in half a minute, and is, moreover, done well, 
 for the gelatine so treated makes the very best and finest glue 
 that can^be had. This plan might be modified by dissolving 
 a trace of chrome alum in the water used for moistening the 
 gelatine, in which case, no doubt, the glue would becomo 
 insoluble when set. But for general purposes } there is no 
 need for s-ubsequent insolubility in glue. 
 
 Gutta-Percha Cement. This highly recommended cement 
 is made by melting together, in an iron pan, 2 parts common 
 pitch and 1 part gutta-percha, stirring them well together 
 until thoroughly incorporated, and then pouring the liquid 
 into cold water. When cold it is black, solid, and elastic; 
 but it softens with heat, and at 100 Fahr. is a thin fluid. 
 It may be used as a soft paste, or in the liquid state, and 
 answers an excellent purpose in cementing metal, glass, 
 porcelain, ivory, &c. It may be used instead of putty for 
 glazing windows. 
 
 Iron Cement foi* closing the Joints of Iron Pipes. Take of 
 coarsely powdered iron borings, 5 pounds; powdered sal ^ 
 ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ; and water sufficient to" 
 moisten it. This composition hardens rapidly; but if timo 
 
84 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 can be allowed it sets more firmly without the sulphur. It 
 must be used as st'.n as mixed and rammed tightly into the 
 joints. 
 
 2. Take sal-amm^mwo, 2 02. ; sublimed sulphur, 1 oz. ; cast- 
 iron filings or fine turnings, 1 Ib. Mix in a mortar and keep 
 the powder dry. When it is to be used, mix it with twenty 
 times its weight of clean iron turnings, or filings, and grind 
 the whole in a mortar; then wet it with water until it becomes 
 of convenient consistence, when it is to be applied to the 
 joint. After a time it becomes as hard and strong as any 
 part of the metal. 
 
 Japanese Cement. Paste made of fine rice flour. 
 
 Kerosene Oil Lamps. The cement commonly used for 
 fastening the tops on kerosene lamps is plaster of paris, 
 which is porous and quickly penetrated by the kerosene. 
 Another cement which has not this defect is made with three 
 parts of resin, one of caustic soda and five of water. This 
 composition is mixed with half its weight of plaster of paris. 
 It sets firmly in about three-quarters of an hour. It is said 
 to be of great adhesive power, not permeable to kerosene, a 
 low conductor of heat and but superficially attacked by hot 
 water. 
 
 Labels, Cement for.\. Macerate 5 parts of good glue in 
 18 parts of water. Boil and add 9 parts rock candy and o 
 parts gum arabic. 
 
 2. Mix dextrine with water and add a drop or two of 
 glycerine. 
 
 3 A mixture of 1 part of dry chloride of calcium, or 2 parts 
 of the same salt in the crystallized form, and 36 parts of gum 
 arabic, dissolved in water to a proper consistency, forms a 
 mucilage w r hich holds well, does not crack by drying, and 
 yet does not attract sufficient moisture from the air to become 
 wet in damp weather. 
 
 4. For attaching labels to tin and other bright metallic 
 surfaces, first rub the surface with a mixture of muriatic acid 
 and alcohol; then apply the label with a very thin coating of 
 the paste, and it will adhere almost as well as on glass. 
 
 5. To make cement for attaching labels to metals, take ten 
 parts tragacanth mucilage, ten parts of honey, and one part 
 flour. The flour appears to hasten the drying, and renders 
 it less susceptible to damp. Another cement that will resist 
 the damp still better, but will not adhere if the surface is 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 35 
 
 greasy, is made by boiling together two parts shellac, one 
 part borax, and sixteen par. is water. Flour paste to which a 
 certain proportion of nitric acid has been added, and heat 
 applied, makes a lasting cement, but the acid often acts 
 upon the metals. The acid converts the starch into dextrine. 
 
 6. The Archives of Pharmacy gives the following recipe for 
 damp-proof mucilage for labels : Macerate five parts of good 
 glue in eighteen to twenty parts of water for a day, and to 
 the liquid add nine parts of rock candy and three parts of 
 gum arabic. The mixture can be brushed upon paper while 
 lukewarm; it keeps well, does not stick together, and, when 
 moistened, adheres firmly to bottles. For the labels of soda 
 or seltzer-water bottles, it is well to prepare a paste of good 
 rye flour and glue, to which linseed-oil, varnish, and turpen- 
 tine have been added, in the proportion of half an ounce each 
 to the pound. Labels prepared in the latter way do not fall 
 off in damp cellars. 
 
 Leather and Metal, Cement for Uniting. Wash the metal 
 with hot gelatine; steep the leather in an infusion of nut 
 galls (hot) and bring the two together. 
 
 Leather Belting, Cement for. One who has tried everything 
 says that after an experience of fifteen years he has found 
 nothing to equal the following: Common glue and isinglass, 
 equal parts, soaked for 10 hours in just enough water to 
 cover them. \ Bring gradually to a boiling heat and add pure 
 tannin until the whole becomes ropy or appears like the 
 white of eggs Buff off the surfaces to be joined, apply this 
 cement warm, and clamp firmly. 
 
 Litharge and Grlycerim Cement. A cement made of very 
 finely powdered oxide of lead (litharge) and concentrated 
 glycerine, unites wood to iron with remarkable efficiency. 
 The composition is insoluble in most acids, is unaffected by 
 the action of moderate heat, sets rapidly, and acquires an 
 extraordinary hardness. 
 
 Marine Glue. The true maiine glue is a combination of 
 shellac and caoutchouc in proportions which vary according 
 to the purposes for which the cement is to be used. Some is 
 very hard, others quite soft. The degree of softness is also 
 regulated by the proportion of benzole used for dissolving 
 the caoutchouc. Marine glue is more easily purchased than 
 made, but where a small quantity is needed the following re- 
 cipe is said to give very good results : Dissolve one part of 
 
36 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 India-rubber in 12 parts of benzole, and to the solution add 
 20 parts of powdered shellac, heating the mixture cavt-iousty 
 over the fire. Apply with a brush. 
 
 The following recipe, taken from New Remedies, is said to 
 yield a strong cement: 10 parts of caoutchouc or India-rub- 
 ber are dissolved in 120 parts of benzine or petroleum (?) 
 naphtha with the aid of a gentle heat. When the solution is 
 complete, which sometimes requires 10 to 14 days, 20 parts 
 of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel, and the caoutchouc 
 solution is poured in very slowly, in a fine stream, and under 
 continued heating, until the mass has become homogeneous, 
 and nearly all of the solvent has been driven off. It is then 
 poured out and cast into greased tin moulds. It forms dark- 
 brown or black cakes, which are very hard to break. This 
 cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and to prevent 
 it from being burnt, it is best to heat a capsule containing a 
 piece of it first on a water-bath, until the cake softens and 
 begins to be liquid. It is then carefully wiped dry, and 
 heated over a naked flame, under constant stirring, up to 
 about 300 F. The edges of the article to be mended should, 
 if possible, also be heated to at least 212 F., so as to permit 
 the cement to be applied at leisure and with care. The 
 thinner the cement is applied, the better it binds. 
 
 Metal, Cement for attaching to Glass. Copal varnish, 15; 
 drying oil, 5; turpentine, 3. Melt in a water-bath, and add 
 10 parts slaked lime. 
 
 Paris Cement for mending Shells and otlift 'w'meiis. Gum 
 arabic, 5; sugar candy, 2. White lead, enough to color. 
 
 Paste. The best paste is made of good flour, well boiled. 
 Eesin, etc., do more harm than good. 
 
 2. An excellent white paste may be made by dissolving 2J 
 oz. gum arabic in 2 quarts hot water and thickening with 
 wheat flour. To this is added a solution of alum and sugar 
 of lead; the mixture is heated and stirred till about to boil, 
 when it is allowed to cool. 
 
 3. Four parts, by weight, of glue are allow ^ to noften in 
 15 parts of cold water for some hours, and then moderately 
 heated till the solution becomes quite clear. 65 parts of 
 boiling water are now added with stirring. In another vessel 
 80 parts of starch paste are stirred up with 20 parts of cold 
 water, so that a thin milky fluid is obtained without lumps. 
 Into this the boiling glue solution is poured, with constant 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 37 
 
 stirring, and the whole is kept at the boiling temperature. 
 After cooling, 10 drops of carbolic acid are' added to the 
 paste. This paste is of extraordinary adhesive power, and 
 may be used for leather, paper, or cardboard with great suc- 
 cess. It must be preserved in closed bottles to prevent 
 evaporation of the water, and will, in this way, keep good 
 for years. 
 
 4. Rice flour makes an excellent paste for fine paper work. 
 
 5. Gum tragacanth and water make an ever ready paste. 
 A few drops of any kind of acid should be added to the water 
 before putting in the gum, to prevent fermentation. This 
 paste will not give that semi-transparent look to thin paper, 
 that gam arable sometimes gives, when used for mucilage. 
 
 Porcelain Cement. Add plaster of paris to a strong solu- 
 tion of alum till the mixture is of the consistency of cream. 
 It sets readily, and is said to unite glass, metal, porcelain, 
 etc., quite firmly. It is probably suited for cases in which 
 large rather than small surfaces are to be united. 
 
 Soft Cement. Melt yellow beeswax with its weight of tur- 
 pentine and color with finely powdered Venetian red. When 
 cold it has the hardness of soap, but is easily softened and 
 moulded with the fingers, and for sticking things together 
 temporarily it is invaluable. 
 
 Soluble Glass Cements. When finely-pulverized chalk is 
 stirred into a solution of soluble glass of 30 B until the 
 mixture is fine and plastic, a cement is obtained which will 
 harden in between six and eight hours, possessing an ex- 
 traordinary durability, and alike applicable for domestic and 
 industrial purposes. If any of the following substances be 
 emplo} r ed besides chalk, differently-colored cements of the 
 same general character are obtained : 1. Finely pulverized or 
 levigated stibnite (grey antimony, or black sulphide of anti- 
 mony) will produce a dark cement, which, after burnishing 
 with an agate, will present a metallic appearance. 2. Pulver- 
 ized cast iron, a grey cement. 3. Zinc dust (so-called zinc 
 grey), an exceedingly hard grey cement, which, after burnish- 
 ing, will exhibit the white and brilliant appearance of metallic 
 zinc. This cement may be employed with advantage in 
 mending ornaments and vessels of zinc, sticking alike well to 
 metals, stone, and wood. 4. Carbonate of copper, a bright 
 green cement. 5. Sesquioxide of chromium, a dark green 
 cement. 6. Thenard's blue (cobalt blue), a blue cement. 
 
38 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 7. Minium, an orange-colored cement. 8. Vermilion, 
 splendid red cement. 9. Carmine red, a violet cement. 
 
 SoreFs Cement. Mix commercial zinc white with its bulk 
 of fine sand, adding a solution of chloride of zinc of 1'2(5 
 specific gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly together in a 
 mortar. The mixture must be applied at once, as it hardens 
 very quickly. 
 
 Steam Boiler Cement. Mix two parts of finely powdered 
 litharge with one part of very fine sand, and one part of 
 quicklime which has been allowed to slack spontaneously 
 by exposure to the air. This mixture may be kept for any 
 length of time without injuring. In using it a portion is 
 mixed into paste with linseed oil, or, still better, boiled lin- 
 seed oil. In this state it must be quickly applied, as it soon 
 becomes hard. 
 
 Transparent Cement for Glass. Fine Canada balsam. 
 
 Turner's Cement. Melt 1 Ib. of resin in a pan over the fire, 
 and, when melted, add a \ of a Ib. of pitch. While these 
 are boiling add brick dust until, by dropping a little on a 
 cold stone, you think it hard enough. In winter it may be 
 necessary to add a little tallow. By means of this cement a 
 piece of wood may be fastened to the chuck, which will hold 
 when cool ; and when the work is finished it may be removed 
 by a smart stroke with the tool. Any traces of the cement 
 may be removed from the work by means of benzine. 
 
 Wollaston's While Cement for large objects. Beeswax, 1 oz. ; 
 resin, 4 oz. ; powdered plaster of paris, 5 oz. Melt together. 
 To use, warm the edges of the specimen and use the cement 
 warm. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Copper is probably the most difficult of all the metals to 
 work by the file or lathe, but pure copper may be cut liko 
 cheese with a graver, and consequently it is extensively used 
 for plates where the number of impressions required is not 
 very large. In filing copper the file should be well chalked, 
 and in cutting it in the lathe use plenty of soapy water, and 
 let the solution of soap be pretty strong* In polishing copper 
 it will be found that owing to its softness, it burnishes easily 
 (see article on polishing metals), but where it is polished by 
 means of abrasive processes, that is, by the use of powders 
 which grind it or wear it down, great care must be taken to 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 33 
 
 have the powders free from particles which are larger than 
 the average, as these would be sure to scratch the metal, 
 owing to its softness. For polishing copper by abrasion, 
 only the softer polishing powders should be used, such as 
 rotten stone, prepared chalk, rnd soft rouge. These are used 
 with oil at first, but the last touches are given dry. 
 
 Copper may be welded by the use of proper fluxes. The 
 best compound for this purpose is a mixture of one part of 
 phosphate of soda and two parts of boracic acid. This weld- 
 ing powder should be strewn on the surface of the copper at 
 a red heat; the pieces should then be heated up to a full 
 cherry red, or yellow heat, and brought immediately under 
 the hammer, when they may be as readily welded as iron 
 itself. For instance, it is possible to weld together a small 
 rod of copper which has been broken; the ends should be 
 beveled, laid on one another, seized by a pair of tongs, and 
 placed together with the latter in the fire and heated; the 
 welding powder should then be strewn on the ends, which, 
 after a further heating, may be welded so soundly as to bend 
 and stretch as if they had never been broken. It is necessary 
 to carefully observe two things in the course of the operation. 
 First, the greatest care must be taken that no charcoal or 
 other solid carbon comes into contact with the points to be 
 welded, as otherwise phosphide of copper would be formed, 
 which would cover the surface of the copper and effectually 
 prevent a weld. In this case it is only by careful treatment 
 in an oxidizing fire and a plentiful application of the welding 
 powder that the copper can again be welded. It is, there- 
 fore, advisable to heat the copper in a flame, as, for instance, 
 a gas flame. Second, as copper is a much softer metal than 
 iron, it is much softer at the required heat than the latter at 
 its welding heat, and the parts welded can not offer any great 
 resistance to the blows of the hammer. They must, there- 
 fore, be so shaped as to be enabled to resist such blows as 
 well as may be, and it is also well to use a wooden hammer, 
 which does not exercise so great a force on account of its 
 lightness. Mr. Rust, the inventor of this process, states that, 
 as long ago as 1854, he welded strips of copper plates to- 
 gether and drew them infco a rod; he also made a chain, the 
 links of which had been made of pretty thick wire and 
 welded. 
 
 Coppering Iran or Steel. The following process is said to 
 
40 THE WORKSHOjt COMPANION. 
 
 give very good results : First make the article entirely bright 
 by file, scratch brush, or any of the usrifJ modes. Apply to 
 the surface a coating oi' cream of tartar, then Bpriilkie tho 
 surface with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, and 
 rub with a hard brush. The coating of copper deposited on 
 the iron is said to be very even and durable. 
 
 Coral, Artificial. 
 
 Twigs, raisin stalks, and any objects having the general 
 outline of branched coral, may be made to resemble that 
 material by being dipped in a mixture of 4 parts resin, 8 
 parts beeswax and 2 parts vermillion, melted together and 
 thoroughly mixed. The effect is very pretty, and for orna- 
 mental work such imitation coral is very useful. 
 
 Cork. 
 
 Corks are so important in many operations, that a little 
 knowledge of the best methods of working them is indispen- 
 sable. They form the best material for a holder for sand- 
 paper in rubbing down flat surfaces, and they afford the 
 simplest arid most effectual means of closing bottles in many 
 cases. Cork is easily cut by means of a thin, sharp knife, 
 which should not have a smooth edge, however, but one set 
 on a dry stone, moderately fine. After having been cut to 
 nearly the right form, corks are easily worked to the proper 
 size and shape by means of files. Holes are easily made 
 through corks by means of tin or brass tubes, which must bo 
 thin and well sharpened on the edge by means of a file. The 
 sharp edge being slightly oiled, is pressed against the cork 
 and at the same time turned round, when it quickly cuts a 
 smooth straight hole through the material. 
 
 When it is desired to make corks air-tight and water-tight, 
 the best method is to allow them to remain for about five 
 minutes beneath the surface of melted paraffine in a suitable 
 vessel, the corks being held down either by a perforated lid, 
 wire screen, or similar device. Corks thus prepared can be 
 easily cut and bored, have a perfectly smooth exterior, may 
 be introduced and removed from the neck of a flask with 
 ease, and make a perfect seal. 
 
 Crayons for Black-Boards. 
 
 Spanish white, which is simply very fine chalk, is mixed 
 with water and just enough flour paste' to cause the particles 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 4? 
 
 to adhere Avlicn dry. If too much paste is used, the crayons 
 will 1)0 too hard and will not mark well; if too soft, they will 
 crumble. The proper proportions should be found by ex- 
 periment, as different qualities of flour possess different 
 adhesive properties. The wet chalk may be formed into 
 proper shape by means of paper moulds, or it may be rolled 
 out to the required shape and cut into suitable lengths. 
 
 For making drawings of objects of natural history, etc., it 
 is frequenely desirable to use colored crayons, the most use- 
 ful colors being green, red and yellow. A little cheap, dry 
 paint mixed with the chalk will give the desired tints. 
 
 Crayons which are not too hard to make a good clear mark, 
 are very apt to be brittle and unable to stand any pressure 
 on the point when they are of sufficient length to be handled 
 easily. If the crayons are made true cylinders, they may be 
 covered with paper, which will serve the same purpose as the 
 wood in the common lead pencil, and may be cut away as 
 wanted. The common crayons, being conical, are not so 
 easily covered, but may, nevertheless, be wrapped with a 
 long, narrow slip of paper so as to be strong and durable. 
 Curling. 
 
 A method of finishing such metals as brass, German silver, 
 etc. , which if well done, gives a very handsome appearance 
 to the work. The work must first be carefully finished so as 
 to have no scratches, as these would show through the curl- 
 ing and destroy the effect. After the metal has beoa. finished 
 with line files, emery paper, Water-of-Ayr stone, and finally 
 the finest rotten stone applied by means of a buff, the curling 
 is produced by means of a stick of charcoal moved in circular 
 sweeps over the surface, which should be kept well moistened 
 with water. After the desired effect has been produced, the 
 metal is lacquered. 
 
 We have seen "curling" applied to surfaces of considera- 
 ble extent, but in such cases the effect never seemed to us as 
 good as in the case of veiy small articles. If the sweeps are 
 large they give a coarse appearance to the work, while a 
 large surface covered with small sweeps has a confused 
 appearance. 
 
 Cuticle, Liquid. 
 
 Collodion, or gun cotton dissolved in sulphuric ether, has 
 no equal as a covering for protecting burns, cuts or wounds^ 
 
42 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 from the air. It soon dries, and forms a skin-like protectioa 
 that adheres with great tenacity. 
 
 Etching. 
 
 Etching is the art of cutting lines in an;y material by means 
 of some corrosive agent. Thus, since nitric acid dissolves 
 copper, if we confine the action of the acid to certain lines, 
 we can cut grooves of considerable depth in the copper, and 
 these grooves may be used either as lines from which we may 
 print, or as marks similar to writing. Iron, brass, steel, 
 silver, ivory, glass, marble, and many other materials may be 
 cut in the same way, by the action of suitable acids. As a 
 simple and easily learned method of forming engraved plates 
 from which to print, the art of etching is one of the most 
 eligible for young persons. The materials required are few 
 and simple, great freedom of outline may be securedj and the 
 results are very pleasing. 
 
 Copper is the metal usually employed for etching draw- 
 ings. It is furnished by the dealers in plates perfectly smooth 
 and flat, and of any desired size. The surface is first coated 
 with a wax or varnish, for which there are many recipes, the 
 following being probably the best: Take of beeswax and 
 asphalt, 2 parts each; Burgundy pitch and black pitch, 1 
 part each. Melt the wax and the pitch in an earthen vessel 
 and add the asphalt by degrees in fine powder. Expose to 
 heat until a drop which has been cooled, breaks by bending 
 back and forth two or three times in the fingers. 
 
 A second, which is simpler and said to be very good, is com- 
 posed of asphalt, 2 oz. ; Burgundy pitch, 1 oz. ; beeswax, l oz. 
 A transparent varnish may be composed of resin, 1 oz. ; 
 beeswax, 2 oz. Melt together. 
 
 The plate having been polished and burnished, is grasped 
 by one corner in a hand-vice and warmed over a spirit lamp 
 until it will melt the varnish or etching ground, which is 
 then spread over its surface very thinly by means of a ball or 
 pledget of cotton tied in a piece of silk. Before the ground 
 has quite cooled and solidified, it is blackened- by the smoke 
 of a lamp or candle. The blackening is necessary so that *He 
 design may be clearly seen as it is drawn in. 
 
 The design may be either drawn directly on the plate, or 
 transferred by means of transfer paper. Or it may be first 
 drawn on the etching ground by means of a very finely 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 43 
 
 pointed camel-hair pencil, using, of course, a white color dis- 
 solved in some medium which will adhere to the ground. 
 Water is useless. Turpentine answers very well. 
 
 In whatever way the design is drawn on the surface of the 
 ground, it must next be cut in by means of a steel point, 
 good sewing needles making excellent o:ies, and different 
 sizes being used according to the strength of the lines required. 
 The lines having been traced through the varnish so as to 
 expose a bright copper surface, the next step is to make a 
 border of wax around the plate so that the acid will not run 
 off. The wax used for making tho border is a mixture of 
 beeswax, resin and tallow, of such a consistency that it will 
 be easily moulded by the fingers. The border should be 
 nearly half an inch high, thus converting the plate into a 
 shallow dish. This dish is half filled with a mixture of one 
 part of nitric acid and three parts of water. After this plate 
 has been exposed for a few minutes to this liquid, the acid is 
 poured off, the plate waslu;d with pure water and allowed to 
 dry. All the very delicate lines are then "stopped" out, as 
 it is called, by being coated by means of a camel-hair pencil 
 with varnish dissolved in turpentine. When this has dried, 
 the acid is poured back again and allowed to act on the coarser 
 lines, and the more frequently this process is introduced, the 
 more perfect will be the ultimate result. 
 
 When the lines have all been etched to the required depth, 
 the varnish is removed by warming the plate and washing 
 with turpentine. A copper-plate press is used to take off the 
 impressions. 
 
 The process of etching is very simple, and the results very 
 satisfactory. As an artistic recreation, it is capable of afford- 
 ing a great deal of pleasure. 
 
 The art of cutting names, etc. , on steel tools and other ob- 
 jects, is very simple and useful. The following give,,? ^cood 
 results : 
 
 Etching Liquid for Steel. Mix 1 oz. sulphate of copper, 
 oz. of alum, and & a teaspoonful of salt reduced to powder, 
 with 1 gill of vinegar and 20 drops of nitric acid. This liquid 
 may be used either for eating deeply into the metal or for 
 imparting a beautiful frosted appearance to the surface, 
 according to the time it is allowed to act. Cover the parts 
 you wish to protect from its influence with beeswax, tallow, 
 or some similar substance. 
 
44 THE WOBEBHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Etching on Glass. Fancy work, ornameiit.nl figures, letter- 
 ing and monograms, are most easily and neatly cut into glass 
 by the sand "blast process, a simple apparatus' for which will 
 be found described in the Young Scientist. Lines and figures 
 on tubes, jars, etc., may be deeply etched by smearing the 
 surface of the glass with beeswax, drawing 'the lines with a 
 steel point, and exposing the glass to the fumes of hydro- 
 fluoric acid. This acid is obtained by putting powdered 
 fluorspar into a tray made of sheet lead and pouring sulphuric 
 acid on it, after which the tray is slightly warmed. 
 
 The proportions will, of course, vary with the purity of 
 the materials used, fluorspar (except when in crystals) being 
 generally mixed with a large quantity of other matter, but this 
 point need not affect the success of the operation. Enough 
 acid to make a thin paste with the powdered spar will be 
 about right. "Where a lead tray is not at hand, the powdered 
 spar may be poured on the glass, and the acid poured on it 
 and left for some time. As a general rule, the marks are 
 opaque, but sometimes they are transparent. In tins case, 
 cut them deeply and fill up with black varnish, if they are 
 required to be very plain, as in the case of graduated vessels. 
 
 Liquid hydrofluoric acid has been recommended for 
 etching, but as it leaves the surface on which it acts trans- 
 parent, it is not suitable. 
 
 The agent which corrodes the glass is a gas which dees 
 not remain in the mixture of fluorspar and sulphuric acid, 
 but passes off in the vapor. To mix fluorspar and sulphuric 
 acid and keep it in leaden bottles under the idea that tho 
 mixture is hydrofluoric acid, is a gross mistake. Such an 
 idea could enter into the head of none but the compiler of a 
 cyclopaedia of recipes. 
 
 Eye, Accidents to. 
 
 Those who are engaged in mechanical operations run great 
 risk of accidents to the eye, and therefore a few hints in re- 
 gard to this subject may be valuable to our readers. 
 
 Minute particles of dust, sand, cinders, small flies, etc., 
 are best removed by means of a camel-hair brush or pencil, 
 moistened but not wet, and drawn to a fine point. The brush 
 will absorb the moisture of the eye and with it will take up 
 the mote, provided the latter has not been driven into the 
 eyeball. "Where a brush is not at hand, a thin strip of soft 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 45 
 
 paper, rolled spirally so as to form a fine point, is tlio best 
 thing. 
 
 The ragged chips and splinters which are separated during 
 the processes of turning and chipping off, often find their 
 way into the eye, and are sometimes very difficult to remove. 
 The use of magnets has been recommended, but even tho 
 strongest magnet is entirely inefficient, if the splinters bo 
 imbedded. In such a case, if the operator be gifted with a 
 steady hand and firm nerves, the best instrument for remov- 
 ing the offending particle is a good, sharp pen-knife. Indeed, 
 we prefer it in every case as being far superior to softer 
 articles. In simple cases let the patient stand up with his 
 head firmly held against a door-post; turn back the eyelids 
 with the fingers; find the speck, and by passing the knifo 
 gently but firmly over the ball, you may sweep it up. Where 
 the splinter is actually imbedded in the eye, lay the patient on 
 his back on a table; turn the eyelids back, and fix them by . 
 means of a ring, and then you will find yourself free to 
 operate without danger of interference from the patient'?? 
 winking. A suitable ring may be found in most bunches of 
 keys, or any mechanic can make one in two minutes out of a 
 piece of stiff iron wire. Iron splinters always have ragged 
 edges, and can be caught on the fine, sharp edge of a knife 
 and lifted out. But although we recommend the use of a 
 sharp knife, it must be remembered that no cutting of the 
 eyeball is to be permitted in any case, except by an ex- 
 perienced occulist. 
 
 Where the person who is operating is at all nervous or 
 timid, it will not do to use a knife. In this case, take some 
 soft, white silk waste and wind it round a splinter of wood 
 so as to completely cover the end and form a little brush of 
 looped threads. Tie it fast. When such a brush is swept 
 over that part of the eyeball where the offending substance 
 is imbedded, the latter will soon be entangled in the threads 
 and may be easily drawn out. 
 
 In all such cases a good magnifier will be found of great 
 assistance. The best form is perhaps a good watchmaker's 
 glass. 
 
 When corrosive chemicals, such as oil of vitriol, nitric acid, 
 corrosive salts, etc., find their way into the eye, the best 
 application is abundance of pure cold water. The eye should 
 be held open and well washed out. When any irritating sub- 
 
46 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 stance 'gets into the eye, the lid is apt to close spasmodically, 
 and if allowed to remain so, no water can get in. 
 
 In the case of lime, however, the action of water woulO 
 only increase the difficulty. A little vinegar and water forma 
 the best wash for liine, potash, soda, or ammonia. 
 
 Fires. 
 
 Most of the fires tho-fr occur might be avoided by proper 
 care, and the following hints, if carefully observed, will aid 
 materially in avoiding such accidents: 
 
 1. Never leave matches where they can be reached by 
 children, and if one should fall on the floor, be careful and 
 search for it until you find it. A match, when trodden on, 
 readily ignites, and if unobserved may cause a serious fire, or 
 what is more likely, set a lady's dress in flames. Rats and 
 mice have a great fondness for matches, and often carry them 
 oil' to their holes, where, by nibbling, they set them on firo. 
 Always keep matches in tin boxes, and never in paper pack- 
 ages. 
 
 2. Children should be strictly prevented from playing with 
 fire, and severely punished if caught so offending. It is far 
 better that they should undergo the inconvenience of a little 
 wholesome chastisement than either set the house on fire, 
 disfigure themselves for life, or be burnt to death, from the 
 want of being severely punished for disobedience. 
 
 3. Never leave a lamp or candle burning at your bedside 
 on a table when you go to bed, and avoid reading in bed; 
 this is a most fruitful cause of loss of life and property. 
 
 4. If a piece of paper is used to light a lamp, see that it is 
 properly extinguished before leaving it, as it will sometimes 
 burst out on fire after it is supposed to have been completely 
 extinguished. 
 
 5. If there be an escape of gas, so that the smell of it is 
 very apparent, open the door and windows immediately to 
 allow its escape, and facilitate the entrance of fresh air; and 
 above all things avoid coming any way near with a light of 
 any description. As soon as you can, shut off the gas at the 
 meter. 
 
 6. Be careful about stove-pipes passing through lath pai- 
 titions; about kindling wood left in the oven over night to 
 dry, and about the ash-box. Never keep ashes in a wooden 
 vessel under any circumstances whatever, and never go to. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 47 
 
 bed at night without seeing that every possible cause for an 
 accidental tire has been removed. Allow no linen or cotton 
 clothes to hang near a stove over night lor the purpose of 
 drying them. 
 
 1. There never yet was a fire which a single pail of water, 
 if applied in time, would not have quenched, therefore never 
 go to bed without having a few pails of water at hand, and a 
 dipper with which to throw it on the fire. Water can never 
 be so well applied if thrown from the pail itself. Spontaneous 
 combustion is no imaginary danger, therefore never leave 
 heaps of oiled rags and similar rubbish lying around. 
 
 As most of us are liable to be caught in a burning build- 
 ing, it would be well for us to impress the following hints 
 upon the mind, as they may stand us in good stead if a iiro 
 should occur: 
 
 1. Every householder should make each person in his 
 house acquainted with the best means of escape, whether the 
 lire breaks out at the top or at the bottom. In securing the 
 street door and lower windows for the night, avoid compli- 
 cated fastenings or impediments to an immediate outlet in 
 case of fire. 
 
 2. Inmates, at the first alarm, should endeavor to reflect 
 what means of escape there are in the house; if in bed at the 
 time, wrap themselves in a blanket or bedside carpet; open 
 neither windows nor doors more than necessary; shut every 
 door after them. This is most important to observe. 
 
 3. In the midst of smoke it is comparatively clear toward 
 the ground, consequently progress through "the smoke can 
 be made on the hands and knees. A silk handkerchief, 
 worsted stockings, or other flannel substance wetted and 
 drawn over the face, permits free breathing, and excludes, to 
 a great extent, the smoke from the lungs. A wet sponge is 
 alike efficacious. 
 
 4. In the event of being unable to escape, either bj the 
 street door or roof, the persons in danger should immediately 
 make their way to a front room window, taking care to close 
 the door after them, and those who have charge of the house- 
 hold should ascertain that every individual is there assembled. 
 
 5. Persons thus circumstanced should never precipitate 
 themselves from the windows while there remains the least 
 probability of assistance; and even in the last extremity a 
 plain rope" is invaluable, or recourse may be had to joining 
 
43 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 sheets or blankets together, fastening one end round the bed- 
 post or other furniture. This will enable one person to 
 lower all the others separately, and the last may let himsdt 
 down with comparatively little risk. Select a window over 
 the doorway rather than over the area. 
 
 Clothes VH, Fire. So many accidents are daily occurring 
 from broken kerosene lamps, and clothes taking fire from 
 gas lights and open fire-places, that it is very important to 
 know what to do under such circumstances. Three persons 
 out of four would rush right up to the burning individual, 
 and begin to paw with their hands without any aim. It is 
 useless to tell the victim to do this or that, or call for water. 
 In fact it is generally best not to say a word, but seize a 
 blanket from a bed, or a cloak, or any woolen fabric if none 
 is at hand, take any heavy material hold the corners as far 
 apart as you can, stretch them higher than your head, and 
 running boldly to the person, make a motion of clasping in 
 the arms, just about the shoulders. This instantly smothers 
 the lire and saves the face. The next instant throw the un- 
 fortunate person on the floor. This is an additional safety 
 to the face and breath, and any remnant of flame can be put 
 out more leisurely. "When the person whose clothes take fire 
 is alone, the danger is not unfrequently increased by the 
 sufferer running about in a state of alarm; whereas it would 
 be better for him to roll on the floor until the fire is extin- 
 guished, or better still, to cover himself with a loose carpet, 
 rug, or blanket, to exclude the air, till a sufficient supply of 
 water is obtained to throw over him. In either case, after the 
 fire has been put out, the individual should be placed on a 
 bed, and the clothes removed piecemeal by cutting them off; 
 much caution is required in taking away the body linen 
 without tearing off the skin, and where the linen sticks, so 
 much only should be cat off as can be detached readily. 
 
 Fire Proof Dresses. Some years ago Queen Victoria ap- 
 pointed a commission to investigate this subject. It was 
 found that there were but four salts which were applicable 
 to light fabrics: 1, Phosphate of ammonia; 2, a mixture of 
 phosphate of ammonia and chloride of ammonia; 3, sulphate 
 of ammonia; 4, tungstate of soda. Of these, the best was 
 tungstate of soda, a salt which is not by any means expensive. 
 Sulphate of ammonia is objectionable, from the fact that it 
 acts on the irons and moulds the fabric. The tungstate of 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 49 
 
 X. 
 
 soda is neither injurious to the texture or color, or in any 
 degree difficult of application in the washing process. The 
 iron passes over the material quite as smoothly as if no solu- 
 tion had been employed. The solution increases the stiffness 
 of the fabric, and its protecting power against fire is perfect. 
 Tliis salt offers only one difficulty, viz: the formation of a 
 bitungstate, of little solubility, which crystallizes from the 
 solution; but it was found that a very small percentage of 
 phosphate of soda rendered the tungstate quite stable. The 
 best method of applying these salts is to take one ounce of 
 tungstate of soda and a quarter of an ounce of phosphate of 
 soda, and dissolve them in a quart of water. The goods aro 
 moistened with this solution before being starched, and they 
 may be afterwards ironed and finished without the least 
 difficulty. 
 
 Articles prepared in this way are perfectly uninflammable. 
 They may be charred by exposure to fire, but they do not 
 burn readily unless there is some extraneous source of heat, 
 and they can not be made to burst into flame. By the aid of 
 this discovery, a lady dressed in the lightest muslin might 
 walk over a row of footlights, and the only result would be 
 that the lower part of her dress would be injured. Unless 
 her person actually came in contact * with the gas flames, she 
 hersqlf v would suffer no injury. In country places, where 
 tungstate of soda cannot be procured, a mixture of three 
 parts borax, and two and a half parts sulphate of magnesia, 
 in twenty parts of water, may be used with good effect. 
 
 Fly- Papers. 
 
 Sticky or adhesive fly-papers are to be discouraged, as 
 it is a cruelty to subject even flies to the long struggles and 
 slow death caused by it. Such papers, however, are occa- 
 sionally sold, and are prepared by coating paper with fac- 
 titious bird-lime. Or the bird-lime is smeared upon wooden 
 sticks standing in a base, for instance, a flower-pot, when 
 they will adhere to it. A better plan is to mix some poison 
 with the adhesive mass, but care should be taken lest chil- 
 dren get at it. Cooley gives the following formula: Treacle, 
 honey, or moist sugar mixed with about l-12th of their 
 weight of orpiment (yellow tersulphide of arsenic). Redwood's 
 formula is: Small quassia chips, oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil 10 
 minutes, strain, and add 4 oz. of treacle. Flies will drink 
 this with avidity, and are soon destroyed by it. 
 
50 THE WoEKSflOP COMPANION. 
 
 Freezing Mixtures. 
 
 The temperatures here given are Fahrenheit. When ice or 
 snow are not to be had and it is desired to cool any solid, 
 liquid or gas, a good freezing mixture is the simplest method 
 ot accomplishing the object. The following mixtures are the 
 most convenient and efficient: 
 
 1. Nitrate of ammonia, carbonate of soda and water, equal 
 parts by weight. The thermometer sinks 57. 
 
 2. Phosphate of soda, 9 parts; nitrate of ammonia, 6 parts; 
 diluted nitric acid, (acid 1 part, water 2 parts,) 4 parts. 
 Reduces the temperature 71 or from 50 to 21. 
 
 3. Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; nitrate of potash, 5 parts; sul- 
 phate of soda, 8 parts; water, 16 parts. Reduces the tem- 
 perature 46 or from 70 to 24. This is one of the cheapest, 
 most readily procured, and most convenient of mixtures. 
 
 Freezing mixtures are often used when it is required to 
 produce a greater degree of cold than can be obtained by 
 the mere application of ice. When ice is at hand, as it gen- 
 erally is in this country, the following should be used: 
 
 1. Finely pounded ice, 2 parts; salt, 1 part. This mixture 
 reduces the temperature to 5. 
 
 2. Finely pounded ice, 2 parts; crystallized chloride of 
 calcium, 3 parts. Reduces the temperature from 32 to 40. 
 
 3. Finely pounded ice, 7 parts; diluted nitric acid, 4 parts. 
 Reduces the temperature from 32 to 30. 
 
 In every case the materials should be kept as cool as pos- 
 sible. Thus the ice should be pounded in a cooled mortar 
 with a cooled pestle, and the mixture should be made in ves- 
 sels previously cooled. By attention to these particulars it 
 is easy to freeze mercury at any time by means of these 
 simple and easily practiced methods, though, of course, tho 
 modern laboratory is provided with agencies of far greater 
 cooling power. 
 
 Fumigating Pastils. 
 
 For the purpose of deodorizing a room in which there is 
 an offensive smell, common coffee berries, and even rags or 
 brown paper, if properly burned, will serve admirably. The 
 smoke from these substances not only neutralizes the odors, 
 but really acts as a disinfectant to a slight extent. In burn- 
 ing coffee, paper or rags for this purpose, care must be taken 
 to prevent them from burning too freely. If they burn with 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 51 
 
 a free, bright flame, the proper effect will not be produced, 
 They should be allowed to smoulder quietly, and they do 
 this best when they are thrown on hot coala, or a hot shovel 
 and set on fire. 
 
 An excellent substitute for pastils is heavy brown paper, 
 which has been dipped in a solution of nitre and then dried. 
 This burns freely without name, and if it be dipped in a 
 solution of benzoin, the odor is very pleasant. The best 
 thing, however, is pastils. They are easily made as follows : 
 
 1. Paris Formula. Benzoin, 2 oz. ; balsam of tolu and 
 yellow sandal wood, of each 4 drachms; nitre, 2 drachms; 
 labdanum, 1 drachm; charcoal, 6 oz. Reduce to powder, mix 
 thoroughly and make into a stiff paste with gum tragacaiith. 
 Form into small cones and dry them in the air. 
 
 2. Formula of Henry and Guibourt. Powdered benzoin, 1G 
 parts; balsam of tolu and powdered sandal wood, each 4 
 parts; charcoal powder, 48 parts; powdered tragacaiith and 
 labdanum, each 1 part; powdered nitre and gum arabic, eacli 
 2 parts; make into a paste with 12 parts cinnamon water, form 
 into cones and dry. 
 
 3. The following formula is somewhat complex, but gives 
 very fine results : Take the charcoal of any light wood, 200 
 parts; gum benzoin, 100 parts; powdered sandal wood, 50 
 parts; balsam of tolu, 50 parts; Storax (Styrax calamita), 50 
 parts; gum olibanum, 50 parts; cascarilla bark, 100 parts; 
 cloves, 40 parts; cinnamon (Ceylon), 40 parts; potassium 
 nitrate, 75 parts. Reduce the ingredients to powder, and 
 mix them with oil of Ceylon cinnamon, 5 parts; oil of cloves, 
 5 parts; oil of lavender, 5 parts; balsam of Peru, 10 parts; 
 camphor, powdered, 1 part. Then add mucilage of traga- 
 caiith sufficient to make a mass which is to be formed into 
 conical cylinders about to 1 inch high, and ending at the 
 bottom in three projections. Dry them in a warm place. 
 
 Gilding. 
 
 A covering of gold, when judiciously applied to the proper 
 parts of any object adds greatly to its beauty, and in the case 
 of metals, such as steel, copper, silver, etc. , the gold, being 
 capable of resisting the action of most chemical agents, proves 
 a very perfect protector against corrosion. Metals are now 
 generally gilt by means of the electrotype process, though 
 the old method by means of an amalgam, is still used in some 
 
52 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 cases. Stamped goods, such as cheap jewelry, are also 
 made out of sheets of metal which, after being heavily gilt, are 
 rolled out thin, the gold being thus spread over an astonish- 
 ing extent of surface. For gilding leather, wood, etc. , gold 
 in the form of leaf or powder is generally used. 
 
 Gilding with Gold-Leaf. There are various methods appli- 
 cable, according to the different circumstances and the 
 character of the objects to be gilded. Book-binders use gold- 
 leaf in two ways to gild on the edge, and to place gold let- 
 ters on the binding. To gild on the edge, the edge is smoothly 
 cut, put in a strong press, scraped so as to make it solid, and 
 the well- beaten white of an egg or albumen put on thinly; 
 the gold-leaf is then put on before the albumen is dry; it "is 
 pressed down with cotton, and when dry polished with an 
 agate polisher. To put on the lettering, the place where the 
 letters are to appear is coated with albumen, and after it is 
 dry, the type to be used is heated to about the boiling point 
 of water, the gold-leaf put on, either on the book or on the 
 type, and then placed on the spot where the lettering is 
 desired, when the gold-leaf will adhere by the heat of the 
 type, while the excess of gold-leaf loosely around is rubbed 
 off with a tuft of cotton. 
 
 To do printing with gold-leaf, the sheet to be printed on is 
 pinned to the tympan of a hand-press, and it is first printed 
 with ink of any color, or with varnish, and then the type is 
 covered with a large sheet of paper, the gold-leaf laid on, 
 and the tympan laid down agp.in, slowly and carefully, so as 
 not to disturb the gold-leaf by motions of the air; then the 
 pressure is again applied, when the gold-leaf will stick to 
 the printed sheet, and the surplus can be rubbed off with a 
 tuft of cotton. Ordinary printing in gold, silver and bronze, 
 however, is done with powdered metal and not with leaf. 
 The printing is Jirst done with a varnish specially made for 
 the purpose; after the impression has been taken, the sheets 
 are allowed to lie a short time so as to dry a little, but not 
 completely, and while still tacky the gold, silver or bronze 
 powder is sprinkled over the letters. The powder adheres 
 to the varnish, and the surplus is easily removed by means 
 of a tuft of cotton. 
 
 In gilding picture-frames with gold-leaf there are two 
 methods; one with the ordinary gold size, the other with 
 varnish. The latter method does not allow polishing, but .is 
 
THE WOBFSHOP COMPANION. 53 
 
 water-proof; the former is not. The main point is to have a 
 well prepared ground-work of say white lead and drying oil, 
 smoothed down properly; then follow several coats of cal- 
 cined white lead in linseed oil and turpentine, with intervals 
 of at least twenty-four hours between each coat, which must 
 be carefully smoothed off with pumice-stone and fine emery- 
 paper. Then the gold size is applied, which may be made from 
 the sediment that collects at the bottom of the pot in which 
 painters wash their brushes; this is thoroughly ground and 
 strained. When the gold size coat is sufficiently dry so as to be 
 a little sticky, apply the gold-leaf and press it on with cotton 
 or a soft brush; after a few days' hardening it is varnished 
 with spirits or oil varnish. This gives a water-proof gild- 
 ing, but ordinarily picture-frames are gilded with a gold size 
 containing no oil. It is made of finely ground sal ammoniac, 
 to which is added a very little beef suet; this is mixed with 
 a pallet-knife, with parchment size dissolved in water, so as 
 to flow from the knife when hot. The frame may be pre- 
 pared first with a few coats of Paris white and glue-water, 
 rubbed down smoothly, and finally apply the size, which 
 must not be too thick, as then it will chip off, and if too thin 
 it will not have sufficient body. The most difficult part in 
 all these operations of gold-leaf gilding, is the application of 
 the gold-leaf, which requires much practice, judgment, and 
 great care, but with some attention to little details it can be 
 easily learned. There ought to be no draught at the place 
 of operation and the operator ought to avoid allowing his 
 breath to blow upoa the gold leaves, as they are so thin and 
 light that the least breath of air causes them to fly about 
 worse than feathers. Turn the gold leaves one at a time 
 put of the book upon 'the leather cushion; with the gilding- 
 knife you may lift any leaf and carry it to a convenient place 
 to cut it into the sizes required. Blow gently on the center 
 of the leaf, and it will at once spread out and lie flat without 
 any wrinkles, then cut it by passing the edge of the knife 
 over it until divided. Place the work to be gilded as near as 
 practicable in a horizontal position, and with a long camels'- 
 hair pencil, dipj^ed in a mixture of water with a little brandy, 
 go over as much surface as the piece of gold is to cover; then 
 take up the gold from the cushion with a tip. Drawing it 
 over the forehead and cheek will dampen it sufficiently to 
 make the gold adhere. This must then be carefully trans- 
 
54 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 ferred to its place on the work, and by gently breathing on 
 it, it will adhere. Take care that the part to which it is 
 applied be sufficiently wet, so that the gold-leaf will not 
 crack. Proceed in this way, a little at a time, not attempt- 
 ing to cover too much at once. If any cracks or flaws 
 appear, immediately apply another piece of gold-leaf over 
 it large enough to cover the crack. If occasionally the gold 
 does not appear to adhere, on account of the ground having 
 become too dry, run a wet pencil close to the edge of tho 
 gold, so as to allow water to penetrate under the gold-leaf. 
 When the work is dry (say in ten or twelve hours), it may be 
 burnished with an agate tool, taking care to first remove all 
 the dust from the tool as well as from the gilded surface. 
 
 Ornamental lines of gilding may be painted on wood and 
 other articles by means of a fine camel-hair brush, using 
 shell gold, which may be had at the artists' supply stores. 
 This forms a very good method of ornamenting work done 
 by the scroll saw, or carved work, such as frames, etc. 
 
 Gilding Steel Polished steel may be beautifully gilded by 
 means of the ethereal solution of gold. Dissolve pure gold 
 in aqua regia, evaporate gently to dryness, so as to drive off 
 the superfluous acid, re-dissolve in water and add three times 
 its bulk of sulphuric ether. Allow to stand for twenty -four 
 hours in a stoppered bottle and the ethereal solution of 
 gold will float at top. Polished steel dipped in this is at 
 once beautifully gilded, and by tracing patterns on the sur- 
 face of the metal with any kind of varnish, beautiful devices 
 in plain metal and gilt will be produced. For other metals 
 the electro process is the best. 
 
 Glass Working. 
 
 Glass is usually brought into shape by being moulded or 
 blown. Simple and complete directions for blowing small 
 articles may be found in the Young Scientist, vol. I, p. 37. 
 
 There are a few other operations, however, which are con 
 stantly needed by the amateur and which we will describe. 
 
 Cutting Glass. For cutting flat glass, such as window- 
 panes, and for cutting rounds or ovals out of flat glass, the 
 diamond is the best tool; and, if the operator has no diamond 
 it will always pay to carry the job to a glazier rather than 
 waste time and make a j^oor job by other and inferior means. 
 When, however, it is required to cut off a very little from a 
 
THE -WOMSHO? COMf>ANM. S5 
 
 circle or oval, the diamond is not available, except in vert 
 skilful hands. In this case a pair of pliers softened by heat- 
 ing, or very dull scissors is the best tool, and the cutting i? 
 best performed under water. A little practice will enable 
 the operator to shape a small round or oval with great 
 rapidity, etise and precision. When bottles or flasks are to 
 be cut/ the diamond is still the best tool in skilful hands; 
 but ordinary operators will succeed best with pastils, or a 
 rod hot poker with a pointed end. We prefer the latter, as 
 being the most easily obtained and the most efficient; and we 
 have never found any difficulty in cutting off broken flasks 
 so as to make dishes, or to carry a cut spirally round a long 
 bottle so as to cut it into the form of a corkscrew. And, by 
 the way, when so cut, glass exhibits considerable elasticity, 
 nnd the spiral may be elongated like a ringlet. The process 
 is very simple. The line of the cut should be marked by 
 chalk or by pasting a thin strip of paper alongside of it; 
 then make a file mark to commence the cut; apply the hot 
 iron and a crack will start; and this crack will follow the 
 iron wherever we choose to lead it. In this way jars are 
 easily made out of old bottles, and broken vessels of different 
 kinds may be cut up into new forms. Flat glass may also 
 be cut into the most intricate and elegant forms. The red 
 hot iron is fa* superior to strings wet with turpentine, fric- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 Drilling Glass. -For drilling holes in glass, a common str* 
 drill, well made and well tempered, is the best tool. The 
 steel should be forged at a low temperature, so as to be sure 
 not to burn it, and then tempered as hard as possible in a 
 bath of salt water that has been well boiled. Such a drill 
 will go through glass very rapidly if kept well moistened 
 with turpentine in which some camphor has been dissolved. 
 Dilute sulphuric acid is equally good, if not better. It is 
 stated, that at Berlin, glass castings for pump-barrels, etc., 
 are drilled, planed and bored, like iron ones, and in the same 
 lathes and machines, by the aid of sulphuric acid. A little 
 practice with these different plans will enable the operator to 
 cut and work glass as easily as brass or iron. 
 
 Turning Glass -in the Lathe. Black diamonds are now so 
 easily procured that they are the best tools for turning, 
 planing or boring glass where much work is to be done. 
 With a good diamond a skilful worker can turn a lens roughly 
 
56 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 out of a piece of flat glass in a few seconds, so that it will be 
 very near the right shape, 
 
 A splinter of diamond may be very readily fastened in the 
 end of a piece of stout brass wire so that it may be used for 
 drilling or turning glass. Bore a hole the size of the splinter 
 and so deep that the diamond may be inserted beyond its 
 largest part, but leaving the point projecting. Then, by 
 means of a pair of stout pliers, it is easy to press the end of 
 the brass so that it will fill in around the diamond and hold 
 it tight. Diamonds are sometimes cemented in such holes 
 by means of shellac, or even solder run around them. This 
 answers for some purposes, but not for drilling or turning. 
 
 Fitting Glass Stoppws. Very few stoppers fit properly the 
 bottles for which they are intended. The stoppers and bot- 
 tles are ground with copper cones, fed with sand and made 
 to revolve rapidly in a lathe, and the common stock are not 
 specially fitted. To fit a stopper to a bottle that has not been 
 ground, use emery or coarse sand kept constantly wet with 
 water, and replaced with fresh as fast as it is reduced to 
 powder. When all the surface has become equally rough, it 
 is considered a sign that the glass has been ground to the 
 proper shape, as until that time the projecting parts only 
 show traces of erosion. This is the longest and hardest part 
 of the work, as after that the glass simply needs finishing 
 and polishing. For that purpose emery only can be used, 
 owing to the fact that the material can be obtained of any de- 
 gree of fineness, in this respect differing from sand. Other- 
 wise the operation is the same as before, the emery being 
 always kept moistened, and replaced when worn out. The 
 grinding is continued until both the neck of the bottle and 
 the stopper acquire a uniform finish, of a moderate degree of 
 smoothness, and until the stopper fits so accurately that no, 
 shake can be felt in it, even though it be not twisted irt 
 tightly. 
 
 Glass Stopper's. To remove glass stoppers when tightly 
 fixed, it has been recommended to apply a cloth wet in hot 
 water. This is an inconvenient and frequently unsuccessful 
 method. The great object is to expand the neck of the 
 bottle so as to loosen it on the stopper. If, however, the 
 latter be heated and expanded equally with the former, the 
 desired effect is not produced; and this is often the case in 
 applying hot water. By holding the neck of the bottle about 
 
THE WOBKSifOP COMPANION. *7 
 
 half an inch above the flame of a lamp or candle, for a few 
 seconds, we have never failed in the most obstinate cases. 
 The hands should be wrapped in a towel, and great care 
 should be taken not to let the flame touch the glass, as this 
 might cause it to crack. The bottle should be kept rapidly 
 turning, during the operation, so as to bring all parts of the 
 neck equally under the influence of the heat, when it will be 
 i-apidly expanded and the stopper may be withdrawn by a 
 steady pull and twist. Sometimes it is necessary to tap the 
 stopper lightly with a piece of wood; the jar is very apt to 
 loosen the stopper. To twist the stopper, make, in a piece 
 of wood, an oblong hole into which the stopper will just fit. 
 
 Glass, To Powder. Powdered glass is frequently used in- 
 stead of paper, cloth, cotton or sand for filtering varnishes, 
 acids, etc. It is not soluble or corrodible. Sand, if purely 
 silicious, would be better, but such sand is difficult to get; 
 it too often contains matters which are easily corroded or 
 dissolved. Powdered glass when glued to paper is also used 
 for polishing wood and other materials. It cuts rapidly and 
 cleanly, and is better than sand for most purposes. Glass is 
 easily pulverized after being heated red hot and plunged into 
 cold water. It cracks in every direction, becomes hard and 
 brittle, and breaks with keenly cutting edges. After being 
 pounded in "a mortar it may be divided into powders of dif- 
 ferent degrees of fineness by being sifted through lawn sieves. 
 
 Glass, Imitation Ground Put a piece of putty in muslin, 
 twist the fabric tight, and tie it into the shape of a pad; well 
 clean the glass first, and then putty it all over. The putty 
 will exude sufficiently through the muslin to render the stain 
 opaque. Let it dry hard, and then varnish. If a pattern is 
 required, cut it out in paper as a stencil; place it so as not 
 to slip, and proceed as above, removing the stencil when 
 finished. If there should be any objection to the existence 
 of the clear spaces, cover with slightly opaque varnish. In 
 this way very neat and cheap signs may be painted on glass 
 doors. 
 
 ^rlass Ware, Packing. Every one has this duty to perfonf 
 occasionally, and it is well to know how it should be done. 
 The safety of glass articles packed together in a box does not. 
 depend so much upon the quantity of packing material used, 
 as upon the fact that no two pieces of glass come into actual 
 contact. In packing plates, a single straw placed betrvveej) 
 
63 THE WOKKSHOP ^ 'OMPANION. 
 
 two of them will prevent them from breaking each other. In 
 packing bottles in a case, such as the collecting case of the 
 microscopist, and the test case of the chemist, rubber rings 
 slipped over each, will be found the best and handiest pack- 
 ing material. They have this great advantage that they do 
 not give rise to dust. 
 
 Washing Glass Vessels. In many operations where glass 
 vessels are used, success will depend upon having the glass 
 perfectly clean. "Upon this subject a correspondent of the 
 Chemical News says: Such a subject may seem too simple, but 
 yet the more I see students at their work, the more I am im- 
 pressed with the fact that but few know how to wash a beaker- 
 glass clean. Some time since I took beakers from various 
 students in my laboratory (which they had washed and put 
 away), and held them under a powerful stream of water until 
 they were thoroughly wet. On taking them from under the 
 spout, in almost every case the water ran off the glass in 
 spots, showing that the glass was greasy. The best thing to 
 wash beakers, etc., with, according to my experience, is sand- 
 soap. Naturally, the sand must not be sharp. The soaps 
 containing infusorial earth are most excellent for this pur- 
 pose. Borax soap is also very efficacious. A piece of board 
 about 20 cm. long, 15 cm. wide, and 4 cm. thick, should be 
 screwed on to the right (inside) of the sink. In this block a 
 rectangular hole, about 2 cm. deep and 1 cm. smaller than 
 the section of the soap when stood on its long end, is to bo 
 cut. The bottom of the cake of soap is then whittled away 
 so that it fits tightly in the hole. It is now moistened am 1 
 pushed into the aperture, where it remains tightly iixed. 13y 
 wetting the right hand thoroughly, and rubbing on this soap 
 ridge, a good lather is made. With the soapy hand the glass 
 is rubbed and washed until, on taking it from under the 
 rtivitm, no oily spots appear, the glass appearing wet all over. 
 The beaker is then dried with a good towel (" glass towel ''), 
 jind finally polished with a piece of chamois or kid leather. 
 The final polish with kid is necessary, since the best towel 
 leaves fibres on the glass. In cleaning test tubes, it is onlv 
 necessary to rub the probang on the soap. 
 
 For cleaning flasks and bottles which have been soiled 
 with varnishes or resins, or for cleaning the glass slides used 
 for microscopic objects, proceed as follows: Remove all the 
 resin, varnislij etc., possible by means of Jiea.t r 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 59 
 
 scraping, and a solution of soda or potash. When the article 
 is as clean as possible, place it in strong sulphuric acid, to 
 which must be added as much powdered bichromate of 
 potassa. 
 
 The chromic acid will quickly destroy all organic matter, 
 and the article when washed in pure water will be found per- 
 fectly clean. 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Grass, To Shtin Dried. There are few prettier ornaments, 
 and none more economical and lasting, than bouquets of 
 dried grasses mingled with the various unchangeable flowers. 
 They have but one fault, and that is this, the want of other 
 colors besides yellow and drab or brown. To vary their 
 shade artificially, these flowers are sometimes dyed green. 
 This, however, is in bad taste and unnatural. The best effect 
 is produced by blending rose and red tints together, and with 
 a very little pale blue with the grasses and flowers as they 
 dry naturally. The best means of dyeing dried leaves, flow- 
 ers and grasses, is to dip them into the alcoholic solution of 
 the various compounds of aniline. Some of these have a 
 beautiful rose shade; others red, blue, orange and purpte. 
 The depth of color can be regulated by diluting, if necessary, 
 the original dyes, with alcohol, down to the shade desired. 
 When taken out of the dye, they should be exposed to the 
 air to dry off the alcohol. They then require arranging or 
 rotting into form, as, when wet, the petals and fine filaments 
 have a tendency to cling together. A pink saucer, as sold 
 by most druggists, will supply enough rose dye for two 
 ordinary bouquets. The pink saucer yields the best rose dye 
 by washing it off with water and lemon juice. The aniline 
 dyes yield the best violet, mauve and purple colors. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 The excellence of a gun depends very much upon the form 
 and finish of the interior of the barrels, and as the owner 
 may, if he chooses, work the inside of his gun over so as tc 
 improve it, we give a few directions. 
 
 Freeing. It has been found that a perfect cylindrical tuoe 
 is not the best form for a gun barrel. Guns shoot most 
 closely and strongly when the bore is very slightly enlarged 
 towards the muzzle. This enlargement is easily effected by 
 means of very fine emery paper wrapped aboutTa round r<3 
 
60 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 and used with a little oil. The freeing may extend to about 
 one-third of the length of the barrel, and the gun should be 
 tested from time to time during the process, so as to get the 
 very best results. The testing is done by firing a standard 
 charge of powder and shot at a sheet of brown paper and 
 noting the number of pellets that are put into a circle of 
 given size, and also the force with which they are driven into 
 a board. For ordinary bird guns, a 30-inch circle at forty 
 yards, makes a good target. 
 
 To Keep Barrels from Rusting. One of the great difficulties 
 which the sportsman has to contend against is the rusting of 
 his barrels, even when protected by the best browning. The 
 alkaline matter existing in snow and in rain, under certain 
 conditions of the atmosphere, works through the best coat- 
 ings, and reaches the iron. Varnish, as ordinarily laid on, 
 is objectionable, as it gives a gun a "Brummagem" look. 
 The best plan is the following: Heat the barrels to the tem- 
 perature of boiling water (not any hotter, or you may injure 
 them), and rub them with the best copal varnish, giving them 
 a plentiful coating. Let them remain hot for half an hour, 
 and then wipe them clean with a soft rag. In this way you 
 can get enough of the varnish into the pores of the metal to 
 act as a preservative, and, at the same time, no one would 
 suspect that the barrels had ever been touched with varnish. 
 We have applied boiled oil, beeswax, paraffin, and some 
 other substances, in the same way, and obtained good results ; 
 but on the whole, we find nothing better than good copal 
 varnish. 
 
 Browning Gun Barrels. To obtain a handsomely browned 
 barrel, we must not only use a first rate recipe, but we must 
 apply a good deal of skill and no small amount of hard work. 
 When barrels are imperfectly browned, the fault lies more 
 frequently in defective work than in the use of a poor recipe. 
 
 The following are the directions given in the United 
 Statos Ordnance Manual, and.it is to be presumed that 
 these are the directions that are followed in the government 
 armories. 
 
 Materials for Browning Mixture. Spirits of wine, Ifc oz. ; 
 tincture of steel, l oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1^ oz. ; sweet 
 spirits of nitre, l oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 2 oz. 
 To be mixed and dissolved in one "quart of warm water, the 
 tq be kept in glass bottles and not in earthen jugs. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 61 
 
 Previous to commencing the operation of browning, it is 
 necessary that the barrel or other part should be made quite 
 bright with emery or a fine smooth file (but not burnished), 
 after which it must be carefully cleaned from all greasiness; a 
 small quantity of powdered lime rubbed well over every part 
 of the barrel, is the best for this purpose, but in the case of 
 old work, which is very oily or greasy, or when the oil or 
 grease has become dried or gummed on the surface, the bar- 
 rels must be first washed with a strong solution of potash in 
 warm water. After this the lime may be applied. Plugs of 
 wood are then to be put into the muzzle of the barrel and 
 into the vent, and the mixture applied to every part with a 
 clean sponge or rag. The barrel is then to be exposed to the 
 air for twenty-four hours, after which time it is to be well 
 rubbed over with a steel scratch-card or scratch-brush, until 
 the rust is entirely removed; the mixture may then be ap- 
 plied again, as before, and in a few hours the barrel will be 
 sufficiently corroded for the operation of scratch-brushing to 
 be repeated. The same process of scratching off the rust and 
 applying the mixture is to be repeated twice or three times a 
 day for four or five days, by which time the barrel will be of 
 a very dark brown color. 
 
 When Jbhe barrel is sufficiently brown, and the rust has 
 been carefully removed from every part, about a quart of 
 boiling water should be poured over every part of the bar- 
 rel, in order that the action of the acid mixture upon the 
 barrel may be destroyed, and the rust thereby prevented 
 from rising again. 
 
 The barrel, when cold, should afterwards be rubbed over 
 with linseed oil or sperm oil. It is particularly directed that 
 the steel scratch-card or scratch-brush be used in the place 
 of a hard hair-brush, otherwise the browning will not be 
 durable nor have a good appearance. 
 
 If the work be handled with unclean or greasy hands, im-r 
 perfectly browned places will show where tlie hands have 
 touched the barrels. 
 
 Varnish for Browned Iron. Shellac, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, 
 3-16ths of an oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. ^ 
 
 Very complete directions for browning gun-barrels m^j 
 be found in a little book called "Shooting on the Wing," 
 which may be obtainect froin the publishers of this yoj- 
 mne. 
 
62 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Handles, To Fasten. 
 
 The handles of knives, forks, and similar articles, that 
 have come off' by being put in hot water, may be fastened on 
 in the following manner: 
 
 1. Take powdored resin and mix with it a small quantity 
 of powdered chalk, whiting or slaked lime. Fill the hole 
 in the handle with the mixture, heat the tang of the knife or 
 fork and thrust in. When cold it will be securely fastened. 
 
 2. Take one Ib. resin and 8 oz. sulphur, melt together, 
 form into bars, or when cold reduce to powder. One part of 
 the powder is to be mixed with half a part of iron filings, 
 brick dust or fine sand; fill the cavity of the handle with the 
 mixture and insert the tang, previously heated. 
 
 3. Brick dust and powdered resin, make a very good com- 
 position. It may be melted and poured into the handle, or 
 powdered and then put in, and the tang inserted warm. 
 
 4. Chopped hair, flax, hemp or tow, mixed with powdered 
 resin and applied as above. 
 
 5. One pound colophony, 8 oz. sulphur; melt, and when 
 cool reduce to powder. 'Mix with this some fine sand or 
 brick dust, and use as stated. 
 
 6. Take a portion of a quill, put it into the handle, warm 
 the tang and insert it into the quill in the handle, and press 
 it firmly. This is a simple method, and answers the purpose 
 required very well. ^ 
 
 Ink. 
 
 The varieties of writing-fluids that have been devised and 
 introduced are almost innumerable, but for practical pur- 
 poses the inks in common use may be divided into three 
 classes, viz: 1. Those which consist of a powder mechanic- 
 ally divided and suspended in water by means of mucilage. 
 2. Those which consist of chemical precipitates held in sus- 
 pension in the same way. 3. Those which consist of a true 
 solution of some coloring matter, such as aniline or carmine. 
 Of the first class, Indian or China ink is the great type. It 
 consists of carbon in the form of very fine lamp-black, ground 
 to a state of impalpable fineness in water, and mixed with 
 some pure form of gelatine. Its use is wholly restricted to 
 draughtsmen, who prefer it for several reasons. In. the first 
 place, it gives the fine.st and clearest black of any ink known; 
 it }.s unchangeable; and in the third place, it does 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 63 
 
 not corrode the fine and expensive steel instruments with 
 which it is used. A really good article of Indian ink is some- 
 what difficult to find. Much of the ink in market is gritty, 
 and instead of being a fine jet black, it is of a blueish-gray 
 color. Moreover, notwithstanding all the grinding that the 
 artist can give it, the particles are always coarse, and it does 
 not readily sink into the paper. With such ink it is difficult 
 to draw fine, clear, black lines, and utterly impossible to 
 produce a soft mellow tint in shading. It is probable that 
 the quality of the ink depends not only upon the materials 
 from which it is made, but upon the method pursued in its 
 manufacture, and in regard to both these points we are as yet 
 wholly in the dark. "When good Indian ink is wanted, there- 
 fore, the only method of securing it is to test carefully the 
 various samples, until vre get a good one, and then secure a 
 supply that will last indefinitely. Fortunately the last is not 
 a difficult thing to do, when we have found a sample that 
 suits us; for a single stick of Indian ink, if carefully used, 
 will last many years, even in the hands of a professional 
 draughtsman. Of late years ix liquid Indian ink has been in- 
 troduced, and has given good satisfaction, but it is scarce and 
 expensive. Since the ordinary Indian ink is made up with a 
 fine animal glue, instead of muciiuge made of vegetable gum, 
 it very soon decomposes when groand up with water. Henco 
 it can not be kept in bottles like ordinary ink, but must be 
 prepared fresh whenever it is needed. As an ink for ordinary 
 writing it is worthless, for the simple reason that it does not 
 flow well, though for purposes where an absolutely indelible 
 ink is needed as, for instance, in writing out deeds and 
 records nothing better can be obtained. When used for 
 this purpose, the addition of a very small quantity of caustic 
 alkali or, what is better yet, of 'ox-gall causes it to flow 
 freely and to sink deeply into the paper or other material 
 usev 1 " to receive it, provided the latter be not too heavily 
 sized. When properly applied, neither heat, moisture, acids, 
 alkalies, nor chemicals of any kind, affect it; and it might 
 therefore be properly used to write those records which are 
 placed under the corner-stones of important buildings, and 
 which are expected to endure for an indefinite period. 
 
 The second class of inks comprises all those black inks and 
 writing fluids that are commonly employed for commercial 
 correspondence and records. TTlie different formula? for $10. 
 
64 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 preparation of ink that have been published, would fill a 
 good sized volume; but most of the inks and writing fluids in 
 market consist of a precipitate of gallate or tannate of iron, 
 held in suspension by means of mucilage. Since iron may 
 be used in either one of two distinct conditions when it is 
 employed for the manufacture of ink, it follows that two dis- 
 tinct kinds of ink may be made from it. In one of these the 
 iron is fully oxidated, and the ink is of a deep jet black. The 
 precipitate of iron which exists in such ink seems to assume 
 a coarse and heavy form, with a strong tendency to sink to 
 the bottom of the containing vessel. It therefore requires a 
 large proportion of mucilage to keep the coloring matter in 
 suspension. The advantage which it possesses, is, that the 
 ink is, from the very first, of a deep black ; but on the other 
 hand, the objections are quite as important, anJ consist in 
 the fact that it can not be made to flow freely, and that it 
 does not sink well into the paper, and is consequently easily 
 removed. On the other hand, ink made with salts in which 
 the iron exists as protoxide, is always pale at first, but after- 
 wards assumes a dark hue; it flows freely and sinks well into 
 the fibre, so that it is difficult to remove marks made by it. 
 This character it is apt to lose, however, when exposed to 
 the air, as we shall note when speaking of the preservation of 
 ink. 
 
 In some cases a compromise is made, and the ink is pre- 
 pared from materials, part of which only are in a state of 
 complete oxidation. An attempt is thus made to secure an. 
 ink, which, while black from the first, will flow freely and. 
 sink well into the paper, and some very good inks are thus, 
 compounded. 
 
 Most of the inks known as violet, mauve, blue, red, car-, 
 mine, etc., consist of true chemical solutions, generally 
 nowadays of aniline, though the finest red ink is still made, 
 from carmine dissolved in ammonia. From the fact that, 
 there is no solid material to be kept in supension, these inks, 
 do not require mucilage in their composition provided they 
 are used on paper that has a good deal of size in it; they con-, 
 ^equently flow freely, do not leave a heavy streak of liquid 
 behind the pen, and the streak that they do leave sinks 
 almost instantly intp the paper and disappears. In using 
 them, no blotter is required; and they are, therefore, great 
 favorites with authors and those persons who pay less 
 
.... -' 'THE WORKSHOP COMPANION'. 63 
 
 to the color of their writing than to the ease with which the 
 work is done, and the clearness and tinblotted appearance 
 which it presents. But from the fact that no really good 
 black ink of this class has yet been produced, they have not 
 come into general use amongst book-keepers and commercial 
 men, and it must be acknowledged that on the whole a good 
 black ink gives a better appearance to a set of books than ink 
 of any other color. ' 
 
 Ink used for copying letters by means of the press, requires 
 to be thicker than that used for ordinary writing, and there- 
 fore it is less pleasant to use; but the great advantage which 
 attends the mechanical process of copying letters will always 
 keep up the demand for it. 
 
 Such being the peculiar character of the inks in common 
 use, it may be well to say a few words concerning the best 
 methods of preserving them in good condition. The great 
 enemies of all inks are evaporation, dust, and decomposition, 
 and, in the case of iron inks, oxidation. The first difficulty 
 can only be avoided by keeping the ink from exposure to the 
 air, and this is best effected by adopting an inkstand in which 
 the ink exposes a very small surface to the air. Many of 
 the inkstands in use are made large at the base, for the pur- 
 pose of rendering them difficult to overturn. In such stands 
 the ink is spread out in a thin, wide layer, and not only 
 evaporates rapidly, but where ordinary black ink is used, the 
 iron oxidates, and the ink consequently deteriorates. A very 
 common practice on the part of those who use ink, is to leave 
 the mouth of the stand uncovered, in which case the ink 
 becomes in a short time reduced to mud. All these diffi- 
 culties may be in a measure avoided by using a heavy stand, 
 having a small well or ink-holder, which should be kept well 
 covered when not in use, and ought to be frequently cleaned, 
 the old ink being thrown away. The supply of ink should 
 be kept in a bottle, securely corked, and when the stand is 
 filled, the new ink ought never to be poured into the old, as 
 is generally done. Throw the old ink away; wash out tlio 
 stand carefully, and fill it up with new fluid, and then you 
 can enjoy the luxury of writing with ink that flows freely, 
 and does not take half a minute to moisten the paper at each 
 stroke that you attempt to make. To keep ink in good 
 order, the stand should be washed out every two or three 
 weeks. * 
 
to THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 Many inks, especially those made with iron and galls, a6 
 liable to mould and decompose. The formation of mould 
 may, to a certain extent, be prevented by the use of creosote, 
 carbolic acid, or cloves, and most of the better class of inks 
 in market are prepared so as to resist this evil. 
 
 In the recipes generally given for making ink, it is reconl- 
 mended to bail the ingredients. A much better plan is to 
 powder the galls and macerate them in cold water. By this 
 latter process, more time is of course necessary to make it; 
 but then the ink is very superior, and entirely free from 
 extractive matter which has no inky quality, and which 
 only tends to clog the pen and to turn the 'ink ropy and 
 mouldy. 
 
 Black Ink. 1. In 1 gallon of water macerate 1 Ib. of finely 
 powdered Aleppo galls for two weeks, and strain off the 
 liquid. Dissolve 5 oz. sulphate of iron and 5 oz. gum arabic 
 in as little water as is necessary, and mix the two liquids with 
 constant stirring. Keep in a tall bottle, allow it to settle for 
 some days, and it will be ready for use. 
 
 2. Take gall nuts, broken, one pound; sulphate of iron, 
 half a pound ; gum acacia and sugar candy, of each, a quarter 
 of a pound; water, three quarts. Place the whole of these 
 ingredients in a vessel where they can be agitated once a 
 day; after standing for a fortnight or three weeks the ink is 
 ready for use. Logwood and similar materials, are often 
 advised to be used in conjunction with the gall nuts, but 
 they serve no good purpose unless it be to make a cheaper 
 article which fades rapidly. 
 
 3. It is said that the juice of eideiv ernes to which sul- 
 phate of iron has been added, makes a good ink. The best 
 formula is said to be 12 pints juice and oz. each sulphate 
 of iron and crude pyroligneous acid. 
 
 jRunge's Black Ink. 1. The original recipe of the inventor 
 is as follows: Digest i Ib. logwood in chips for 12 hours in 3 
 pints boiling water. Simmer down gently to 1 quart, filter 
 and add 20 grains yellow chromate of potassa. 
 
 2. The following modification of the above is more easily 
 prepared: Dissolve 16 parts of extract of logwood in 1,000 
 parts of water, and add 1 part of neutral potassium chromate 
 (yellow chromate of potassa). 
 
 Blue Ink. Take 6 drachms pure Prussian blue and 1 
 drachm oxalic acid. Grind in a mortar with a little water 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPAHIOtf . 67 
 
 Until they form a perfectly smooth paste. Dissolve a suf- 
 ficient quantity of this paste in water to give the proper tint. 
 
 Carmine Ink, French Process. Take 22 grammes (4 grains) 
 of the best carmine, add to it sixty -five grammes (2 ounces) 
 of caustic ammonia, add one gramme (15 ^ grains) of white 
 gum arabic. Leave the mixture until the gum is entirely 
 dissolved. This ink is undoubtedly dearer than that pre- 
 pared in the ordinary way, but it is incomparably more 
 beautiful and more durable, for experience has proved tfe^.t 
 letters written with this ink, have for forty years been pre- 
 served without the slightest alteration. 
 
 Red Ink. Boil Ib. of Brazil wood, oz. of gum, oz. 
 of sugar, and \ oz. of alum in a sufficient quantity of vinegar. 
 
 Aniline Inks. The following formulae for aniline inks are 
 from recent authorities, and are said to give superior results : 
 
 Alcoholic Solutions. 1. General Formula: Dissolve 15 
 parts of aniline color in 150 parts of strong alcohol in a ves- 
 sel of glass or enamelled iron for three hours; then add 1,000 
 parts distilled water; heat gently for some hours, in fact, 
 till the odor of the alcohol has quite disappeared; then add 
 a solution consisting of GO parts of powdered gum arabic in 
 250 parts of water. 
 
 2. Special Formula for Violet: Digest oz. aniline violet 
 in 1 oz. alcohol in a suitable vessel, as above, for three hours; 
 then add 1 qt. of distilled water, and heat gently till odor of 
 spirit is dissipated. Then add 2 drachms gum arabic dis- 
 solved in pt. water, and allow the whole to settle. This 
 will bear dilution, if desired, with an additional quantity of 
 distilled water. 
 
 3. Special Formula for Blue: Dissolve 15 grains aniline 
 blue in 1 oz. alcohol, and add 6 oz. in distilled water. Boil 
 in proper vessel, as above, until odor of alcohol has dis- 
 appeared. Then add 3 drachms powdered gum arabic dis- 
 solved in 4 oz. distilled water. Finally filter. It will be 
 perceived that there is considerable difference in the above 
 special formulae, but there can be no harm in making it too 
 strong, as it is no difficult matter to dilute with distilled 
 water to taste. 
 
 Aqueous Solutions. 1. Magenta, 1 oz. to the gallon of 
 boiling distilled water. 2. Violet: oz. to a gallou difcto. 
 3. Blue: 1 o& t& ty pts. ditto. 4. Green: 1 oz. to 5 pts. 
 ditto. 
 
68 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 The addition of a small quantity of vinegar will consider- 
 ably improve the color of blue aniline fluid. These aqueous 
 solutions are very enduring, though not exactly permanent, 
 as they give way to long-continued exposure to sunlight. 
 They are very limpid, dry quickly, and never clog. They 
 should of course be filtered. 
 
 Gold Ink. Grind gold-leaf with honey in a mortar until ic 
 is reduced to a fine powder. Wash out the honey with hot 
 water and add mucilage of gum arabic. A cheap article may 
 be made by using yellow bronze powder. 
 
 Silver Ink. Prepared in the same way as gold ink, using 
 silver leaf or silver bronze powder. 
 
 Marking Ink for Linen. Dissolve oz. nitrate of silver in 
 1 oz. water and add strong liquid ammonia antil the precipi- 
 tate which is at first formed is redissolved. Add l drachms 
 gum mucilage and enough coloring ina er to render the 
 writing clearly visible. The writing is r a,de black and in- 
 delible by passing a hot iron over it. Keep in the dark. 
 
 IndeUtf ' Aniline Ink. Triturate Ij grammes of aniline- 
 black with 60 drops of strong hydrochloric acid and 42 or 43 
 grammes strongest alcohol; then add to it a hot solution of 
 2-J grammes gum arabic in 170 grammes of water. 
 
 This ink attacks steel pens but little. It is not destroyed 
 either by strong mineral acids or by strong lye. 
 
 If the first alcoholic solution of aniline black be diluted 
 with a solution of 2 grammes of shellac in 140 grammes of 
 alcohol (instead of gum arabic in 170 grammes of water) an 
 ink is produced which may be employed for writing on wood, 
 brass or leather, and which is remarkable for its deep black 
 color. 
 
 Indelible Indian Ink. Draughtsmen are well aware of the 
 fact that lines drawn on paper with good India ink which 
 has been well prepared, can not be washed out by mere 
 sponging or washing with a brush. Now, however, it is 
 proposed to take advantage of the fact that glue or gelatine, 
 when mixed with bichromate of potassa, and exposed to the 
 light, becomes insoluble, and thus renders India ink, which 
 always contains a little gelatine, indelible. Keisenbichler, 
 the discoverer, calls this kind of ink "Harttusch," or "hard 
 India ink ;" it is made by adding to the common article, when 
 making, about one per cent., in a very fine powder, of 
 bichromate of potash This must be mixed with the ink in 
 
THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 69 
 
 a dry state; otherwise, it is said, the ink could not be ground 
 up easily in water. Those who can not provide themselves 
 with ink prepared as above in the cake, can use a dilute 
 solution of bichromate of potash in rubbing up the ink; it 
 answers the same purpose, though the ink should be used 
 thick, so that the yellow salt will not spread. 
 
 Indestructible Ink.. An ink that can not be erased with 
 acids is obtained by the following recipe: To good gall ink 
 add a strong solution of fine soluble Prussian blue in dis- 
 tilled water. This addition makes the ink, which was pre- 
 viously proof against alkalies, equally proof against acids, 
 and forms a writing fluid which cannot be erased without 
 destroying the paper. The ink writes greenish blue, but 
 afterwards turns black. 
 
 Ink that will not Freeze. It is said that a mixture of equal 
 parts of concentrated glycerine, alcohol and water, deeply 
 colored with aniline black, does not freeze in the coldest 
 weather, flows freely from the pen, and does not spread. 
 Our only fear would be that such ink would not dry thor- 
 oughly. 
 
 Sympathetic Ink or Secret Ink. Write with thin solution of 
 starch, and let the correspondent wash with solution of 
 iodine. ^ 
 
 2. Write with milk, onion juice or lemon juice, and let 
 the correspondent expose to heat. 
 
 3. Write with solution of tartar emetic and wash with any 
 alkaline sulphuret. 
 
 4. Brown. On dissolving 1 part of potassium bromide, 
 and 1 part of copper sulphate in 20 parts of water, and 
 writing with the solution on paper, veiy careful heating will 
 turn the writing brown. 
 
 5. Yellowish-green. Writing done with a solution of 2 
 parts of potassium chromate, 2 of nitric acid, 2 of sodium 
 chloride in 40 parts of water, turns yellowish-green on gentle 
 warming. 
 
 G. Blue. A solution of equal parts of sodium chloride 
 and cobalt chloride in 20 times the amount of water pro- 
 duces lines which turn blue on gentle warming. 
 
 Letters may be written on postal cards with these inks, 
 and will remain invisible until washed with the appropriate 
 solution or exposed to heat. To prevent the letters from 
 being seen by close scrutiny the solutions should be very 
 
70 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 dilute, and to distract the attention of those not in the 
 secret, write some unimportant matter, in lines far apapt, 
 and between them write the private matter in secret or sym- 
 pathetic ink. 
 
 Inks for Rubber Stamps and Stencils. 1. Black. Rub to- 
 gether one part of finest lampblack and 2 parts of Prussian 
 blue with a little glycerin, then add 1 part powdered gum 
 arabic, and enough glycerin to form a thin paste. 
 
 2. Carmine. Dissolve 24 grains of carmine in 3 fl. oz. of 
 water of ammonia, then add 2 fl. drachms of glycerin. 
 Incorporate with this oz. of powdered gum arabic. 
 
 3. Blue. Hub together 6 parts of pure Prussian blue and 
 1 part oxalic acid with a little water, to a perfectly smooth 
 paste. Let it stand in a rather warm place over night, then 
 rub it with more water, and with 1 part of gum arabic to a 
 thin paste. 
 
 4. Aniline inks may be made of any desired shade in the 
 same manner. The best way of using these inks is by ap- 
 plying them, by means of a small pad, uniformly to a little 
 cushion, on which the stamps are then inked. 
 
 The above formulae have been tested by experience, and 
 are said to give good results. Another set of formulae, also 
 highly recommended, is the following: 
 
 5. Black. Finest lampblack, 10 parts ; powdered gum 
 arabic, 4 parts ; glycerin, 4 parts ; water, 3 parts. Dissolve 
 the gum arabic in the water, add the glycerin, then rub the 
 lampblack with the mixture in a mortar. 
 
 6. Colored. Replace the lampblack in the above formula 
 by the appropriate color ; chrome-yellow for yellow ; red 
 lead or red ochre for red ; green, ultramarine, or chrome- 
 green for green ; indigo or Prussian blue, or blue ultramarine 
 for blue ; umber for brown, etc. 
 
 Ink Eraser. 
 
 A good ink eraser is thus made : Take of chloride of lime, 
 one pound, thoroughly pulverized, and four quarts of soft 
 water. The above must be thoroughly shaken when first put 
 together. It is required to stand twenty-four hours to dis- 
 solve the chloride of lime ; then strain through a cotton cloth, 
 after which add a teaspoonful of acetic acid to every ounce 
 of the chloride of lime water. The eraser is used by revers- 
 ing the penholder into the fluid, and applying it, without 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 71 
 
 rubbing, to the word, figure, or blot required to be erased. 
 When the ink has disappeared, absorb the fluid with a blot- 
 ter, and the paper is immediately ready to write upon again. 
 Chloride of lime has before been used with acids for the 
 purpose as above proposed ; but in all previous processes th^3 
 chloride of lime has been mixed with acids that burn and 
 destroy the paper. 
 Inlaying. 
 
 Inlaying is a term applied to work in which certain figures 
 which have been cut out of one kind of material are filled up 
 with another of a different color. Such work is known as 
 marquetry, and also as Boule work, and Beisner work, from 
 the names of two famous French artists. 
 
 The simplest method of producing inlaid work in wood, is 
 to take two thin boards, of wood or veneers, and glue them 
 together with paper between, so that they may be easily sep- 
 arated again. Then, having drawn the required figures on 
 them, cut along the lines with a very fine, hair-like saw. 
 This process is known as counterpart sawing, and by it the 
 pieces removed from one piece of wood, so exactly corres- 
 pond with the perforations in the other piece, that when 
 the two colors are separated and interchanged, the one mate- 
 rial forms4he ground and the other the inlay or pattern. If 
 the saw be fine and the wood very dry when cut, but after- 
 wards slightly damped when glued in its place, the joint is 
 visible only on very close inspection, and then merely as a fine 
 line. After being cut, the boards or veneers are separated 
 (which is easily done by splitting the paper between them), 
 and then glued, in their places on the work which they are to 
 ornament. 
 
 Imitation Inlaying. Suppose an oak panel with a design 
 inlaid with walnut is wanted. Grain the panel wholly in oil. 
 This is not a bad ground for walnut. When the oak is dry, 
 grain the whole of the panel in distemper. Have a paper 
 with the design drawn thereon, the back of which has been 
 rubbod with whiting, place it on the panel, and with a 
 pointed stick trace the design. Then with a brush and quick 
 varnish trace the whole of the design. When the varnish is 
 dry, with a sponge and water remove the distemper, where 
 the varnish has not touched. This, if well executed, pre- 
 sents a most beautiful imitation of inlaid wood. Marbles 
 are executed in a similar manner. 
 
72 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 This is undoubtedly the most important metal used in the 
 arts. Directions for working it, such at least as would be 
 valuable to professional blacksmiths, would occupy more 
 space than we can afford, and we therefore content ourselves 
 with a few hints for amateurs. 
 
 Forging. As a general rule, those who are not practical 
 blacksmiths had better take their work to a smith's shop. 
 Cases may, however, arise where it is necessary to forgo 
 some little job, and the following hints may prove of use. 
 
 In working iron a great deal depends upon the degree of 
 heat to which it is raised. Blacksmiths distinguish five 
 degrees, which they name as follows : 
 
 1. The black-red heat, just visible by daylight. 
 
 2. The low-red heat. 
 
 3. The bright red heat, when the black scales may be seen. 
 
 4. The white heat, when the scales are scarcely visible. 
 
 5. The welding heat, when the iron begins to burn with 
 vivid sparks. 
 
 Of these temperatures the 1st, 2nd and 3rd are easily at- 
 tained in a common stove or grate. It requires good man- 
 agement to secure the 4th in a common stove, and the 5th 
 can hardly be obtained without a blast. The higher the 
 temperature the softer and more easily worked the metal 
 becomes, and the less liable to crack or split ; and as good 
 iron is not easily spoilt, like steel, by a high heat, it is always 
 best to get the metal pretty soft. 
 
 Welding. This operation requires considerable skill. The 
 two great points to be attended to in making a perfect weld 
 are that the metal shall be brought to a proper temperature, 
 and that the surfaces to be united shall be perfectly clean. 
 The latter point can only be secured by protecting the iron 
 from the action of the air by means of some flux. Sand is 
 generally used by blacksmiths and answers very well-. When 
 sand is brought into contact with oxide of iron at a high 
 temperature, it combines with it and forms a fusible glass 
 which flows over the surface of the iron and is easily driven 
 out of the joint by pressure. Borax makes a still more fusi- 
 ble flux and may be successfully used by amateurs, but is too 
 expensive for common use. 
 
 When two surfaces of iron, which have been cleansed by 
 means of sand or borax, are brought together at a high heat 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. . 73 
 
 and forcibly pressed into contact by hammering or pressure, 
 they unite to form a solid mass. Bearing these principles in 
 mind, a little practice will soon enable any one to make a re- 
 spectable joint by welding. 
 
 Case-hardening. This process is simply the conversion of 
 tho surface of a piece of iron into steel. Case-hardened arti- 
 cles, when plunged into cold water while highly heated, be- 
 come as hard as the hardest steel, but they may be annealed 
 and softened so as to be easily worked with files and turning 
 tools, and afterwards hardened again so as to be as durable 
 as ever. There are several processes for performing this op- 
 eration. The following have been tested by experience : 
 
 1. Where it is desired that the articles should be hardened 
 to a considerable depth : Char a quantity of bones, just 
 enough (and no more) to enable you to powder them with a 
 hammer. Lay a layer of this bone dust over the bottom of 
 an iron tray or box, which may be easily made by bending 
 heavy sheet iron into form. Lay the articles to be hardened 
 on the bone dust, taking care that they do not touch each 
 other. Cover with bone dust and fill up the tray with spent 
 dust, charcoal or sand. Expose to a bright cherry red heat 
 for half an hour or an hour, and then turn the entire contents 
 of the tray into a vessel of cold water. We have seen beau- 
 tiful results obtained by this process when carried out in a 
 common kitchen stove. 
 
 Even raw bone dust, such as is sold for farming purposes, 
 may be used with good .results. Pieces of gas pipe make 
 good receptacles to hold the work, the ends being stopped 
 with iron plugs. When packing the articles in the tubes or 
 trays, see that they do not touch each other. 
 
 Bone black or ivory black may also be used, and, as they 
 may be purchased ready prepared, we may avoid the disa- 
 greeable process of roasting the raw material. 
 
 As this roasting of bones, leather, etc., gives rise to most 
 abominable odors, the author of this manual some years ago 
 devised the following preparation, which was found to give 
 very excellent results. Prepare a strong solution of prussiate 
 of potassa, boil in it as much coarsely-powdered wood char- 
 coal as can be mixed with it. Drain off the superfluous 
 liquid, spread the charcoal on a board, and dry by exposure 
 to the air. When dry, roast it at a temperature just below 
 that of ignition, the object being to drive off all moisture, 
 
74 A HE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 but not to decompose the prussiate, which, at a red heat, is 
 converted into cyanide of potassium and some other com- 
 pounds. The charcoal thus prepared, and afterwards re- 
 duced to a moderately fine powder, will be found to answer 
 quite as well as animal charcoal, and no difficulty will be 
 found in case-hardening to a depth which will allow of a good 
 deal of polishing before the soft metal underneath is reached. 
 
 2. Where mere superficial hardening is required, heat the 
 article to be hardened to a bright red ; sprinkle it liberally 
 with powdered prussiate of potash. The salt will fuse, and 
 if the piece of iron is small and gets cooled, heat it again and 
 plunge into cold water. 
 
 Rust and Corrosion. Iron is easily corroded by even the 
 weak acids. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric 
 acid all act on it quickly and powerfully. Air and moisture 
 also quickly corrode it. It is a curious fact that carbonate 
 of soda protects iron very perfectly from rust. We have 
 seen a piece of iron that had been kept in a solution of soda 
 for twenty years, and yet was quite bright. 
 
 There are several methods of protecting iron from rust. 
 Painting, varnishing, tinning, zincing, etc., have all been 
 tried with good effect. Painting and varnishing need no re- 
 marks. Where bright work is to be temporarily protected, 
 however, a paint of white lead and tallow may be used. 
 This will not dry, and may be easily and quickly removed 
 with a little turpentine. 
 
 Zincing Iron. The following is an excellent and cheap 
 method i'or protecting from rust, iron articles exposed to the 
 atmosphere, such as cramp-irons for stone, etc. : They are to 
 be first cleansed by placing them in open wooden vessels, in 
 water containing three-fourths to one per cent, of common 
 sulphuric acid, and allowed to remain in it until the surface 
 appears clean, or may be rendered so by scouring with a rag 
 or wet sand. According to the amount of acid, this may re- 
 quire from six to twenty-four hours. Fresh acid must be 
 added according to the extent of use and of the liquid ; when 
 this is saturated with sulphate of iron, it must be renewed. 
 After removal from this bath, the articles are rinsed in fresh 
 water, and scoured until they acquire a clean metallic surface, 
 and then kept in water in which a little slaked lime has been 
 stirred, until the next operation. When thus freed from rust, 
 they are to be coated with a thin film of zinc, while cold, by 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 75 
 
 means of chloride of zinc, which may he made \,j filling a 
 glazed earthen vessel, of about two-thirds gallon capacity, 
 three-fourths full of muriatic acid, Lid adding zinc clippings 
 until effervescence ceases. The liquid is then to be turned 
 off from the undissolved zinc, and preserved in a glass vessel. 
 For use, it is poured into a sheet-zinc vessel, of suitable size 
 and shape for the objects, and about. 1 "80 per cent, of its 
 weight of finely powdered sal ammoniac added. The articles 
 are then immersed in it, a scum of line bubbles forming on 
 the surface in from one to two minutes, indicative of the 
 completion of the operation. The articles are next drained, 
 so that the excess may flow bauk into the vessel. The iron 
 articles thus coated with a fine film of zinc are placed on' 
 clean sheet iron, heated from beneath, and perfectly dried, 
 and then dipped piece by piece, by means of tongs, into very 
 hot (though not glowing) molt 311 zinc, for a short time, until 
 they acquire the temperature of the zinc. They are then 
 removed and beaten, to cause the excess of zinc to fall off. 
 
 Cold Process for Zmcfuf/ Iron. The metal is first cleaned 
 by being placed in a bath made up of water, 1,000 litres ; 
 chlorhydric acid, 550 litres ; sulphuric acid, 50 litres ; glycer- 
 ine, 20 litres. On being removed from this bath, the metal 
 is placed jn a bath containing 10 per cent, of carbonate of 
 potassa, and is next transferred to a metallizing bath, consist- 
 ing of water, 1,000 litres ; chloride of tin, 5 kilos. ; chloride 
 of zinc, 4 kilos. ; bitartrato of potassa, 8 kilos. ; acid sulphate 
 of alumina, 4 kilos. ; chloride of aluminum, 10 kilos. The 
 metal is to be left in this mixture for from three to twelve 
 hours, according to the thickness of the layer of zinc to be 
 desired. 
 
 Tinning Iron. The surface of the iron is cleaned from scale 
 by vitriol or sulphuric acid, and then scoured with sand. It 
 is now coated with a strong solution of chloride of zinc, and 
 dipped into melted tin. The tin will instantly adhere t<~ 
 every spot that is clean. v 
 
 Tinning Iron in the Cold. The chief point which requires 
 attention in this matter is that the tinning of iron in the cold 
 cannot succeed at all, unless the bath contains, in solution or 
 suspension, an organic substance like starch or glucose, 
 Although no precise scientific explanation of this indispensi- 
 ble condition has been hitherto given. To 100 litres of 
 water are added 3 kilos, of rye meal ; this mixture is boiled 
 
76 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 for half an hour, and next filtered through cloth ; to the 
 rlear but thickish liquid are added 100 kilos, of pyrophos- 
 p!iate of soda, 17 kilos, of protochloride of tin in crystals (so- 
 called tin-salt), 67 kilos, of neutral protochloride of tin, 100 
 to 120 grms. of sulphuric acid ; this liquid is placed in well- 
 made wooden troughs, and serves more especially for the 
 tinning of iron and steel wire (previously polished) for the 
 use of carding machines. When instead of the two sorts of 
 tin just named, cyanide of silver and cyanide of potassium 
 are taken, the iron is perfectly silvered. 
 
 Brightening Iron. A Bavarian serial contains a method of 
 brightening iron recommended by Boden. The articles to 
 be brightened are, when taken from the forge or the rolls, in 
 the case of such articles as plates, wire, etc., placed in dilute 
 sulphuric acid (1 to 20), cleansing the articles, which are 
 then washed clean with water and dried with sawdust. They 
 are then dipped for a second or so in nitrous acid, washed 
 carefully, dried in sawdust and rubbed clean. It is said that 
 iron goods thus treated acquire a bright surface, having a 
 white glance, without undergoing any of the usual polishing 
 operations. This is a process that those interested can easily 
 test for themselves. Boden states that the action of the sul- 
 phuric acid is increased by the addition of a little carbolic 
 acid, but it is difficult to see what effect this can have, and it 
 may very well be dispensed with. 
 
 To Remove the Blue Color Imparted to Iron and Steel l>y ex- 
 posure to Heat Rub lightly with a sponge or rag dipped in 
 diluted sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid. When the 
 discoloration is removed, carefully wash the article, dry it 
 by rubbing, warm it and give a coat of oil or it will rapidly 
 rust. 
 
 Ivory. 
 
 Ivory is obtained from the tusk of the elephant, and 
 although material nearly resembling it may be obtained from 
 other animals, yet the true ivory stands unequalled r,s a ma- 
 terial for ornamental turning and carving. It is not so brittle 
 as bone, neither does it splinter so much when broken, and 
 as it is entirely free from the vessels or pores which permeate 
 all bone, the finished articles have a much more solid and 
 even appearance. Although distinctly fibrous it cannot be 
 torn up in filaments like \>one or divided into thin leaves, 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 77 
 
 except by the saw. It is in all respects the most suitable 
 material for ornamental turning, as it is capable of receiving 
 the most delicate linos and of being cut in the most slender 
 proportions. But while it is thus valuable as a material for 
 ornamental work, it is useless for any article requiring ac- 
 curacy in its dimensions such for example as the scales of 
 draughtsmen and the graduated arcs of instruments for mea- 
 suring angles. Owing to the great alterations which it sus- 
 tains under slight atmospheric changes it cannot be relied 
 upon, aud has been condemned officially by the survey com- 
 missioners of almost all countries. 
 
 It is imagined by some that ivory may be softened #o as to 
 admit of being moulded like horn or tortoise shell. Its 
 different analysis contradicts this expectation ; thick pieces 
 suffer no change in boiling water, thin pieces become a littler 
 more flexible, and thin shavings give off their jelly, which sub- 
 stance is occasionally prepared from them. It is true that the 
 caustic alkali will act upon ivory as well as upon most animal 
 substances, yet it only does so by decomposing it. Ivory, 
 when exposed to the alkalies, first becomes unctuous or sapo- 
 naceous on its outer surface, then soft, if in thin plates, and 
 it may be ultimately dissolved provided the alkali be concen- 
 trated ; -but it does not in any such case resume its first con- 
 dition. ' 
 
 Working and Polishing Ivory. As a material to be worked 
 oy the mechanic, ivory stands midway between wood and 
 brass, and is turned and cut by tools having more obtuse 
 angles than those employed for wood, and yet sharper than 
 those used for brass. It may be driven at a fair speed in the 
 lathe, and is easily sawed by any saw having fine teeth. 
 
 The tools used for cutting and turning ivory should have 
 their edges very finely finished OP an oil stone so that they 
 may cut smoothly and cleanly. 
 
 Turned works with plain surfaces may in general be left so 
 smooth from the tool as to require but very little polishing, a 
 point always aimed at with superior workmen by the employ- 
 ment of sharp tools. In the polishing of turned works very 
 fine glass paper or emery paper is first used, and it is rendered 
 still finer and smoother by rubbing two pieces together face 
 to face ; secondly, whiting and water as thick as cream is 
 then applied on wash leather, linen, or cotton rag, which 
 should be thin that the fingers may the more readily feel and 
 
78 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 avoid the keen fillets and edges of the ivory work, that would 
 be rounded by excessive polishing ; thirdly, the work is 
 washed with clean water, applied by the same or another 
 rag ; fourthly, it is rubbed with a clean, dry cloth until all 
 the moisture is absorbed, and, lastly, a very minute quantity 
 of oil or tallow is put on the rag to give a gloss. 
 
 Scarcely any of the oil remains behind, and the apprehen- 
 sion of its being absorbed by the ivory and disposing it to 
 turn yellow may be discarded ; indeed the quantity of oil 
 used is quite insignificant, arid its main purpose is to keep 
 the surface of the ivory slightly lubricated, so that the rag 
 may not hang to it and wear it into rings or groovy marks. 
 Putty powder is sometimes used for polishing ivory work, 
 but it is more expensive and scarcely better suited than 
 whiting, which is sufficiently hard for the purpose. 
 
 The polishing of irregular surfaces is generally done with 
 a moderately hard nail brush, supplied with whiting and 
 water, and lightly applied in all directions, to penetrate every 
 interstice ; after a period the work is brushed with plain 
 water and a clean brush, to remove every vestige of tho 
 whiting. The ivory is dried i/y wiping and pressing it with 
 a clean linen or cotton rag, and is afterwards allowed to dry 
 in the air, or at a good distance from the fire ; when dry a 
 gloss is given with a clean brush on which a minute drop of 
 oil is first applied. 
 
 It is better to do too 1iH7o polishing at first, so as to need 
 a repetition of the proct:.,,,. , .dlier than by injudicious activity 
 to round and obliterate all the delicate points and edges of 
 the Avorks, upon the preservation of which their beauty 
 mainly depends. 
 
 Bleaching and Cleaning Ivory. In reply to the question, 
 What means there are of bleaching ivory which has become 
 discolored ? Holtzapffel. the great authority on such subjects, 
 tells us that he regrets to be obliged to say that he is unac- 
 quainted with any of value. It is recommended in various 
 popular works to scrub the ivory with Trent sand and water, 
 and similar gritty materials ; but these would only produce 
 a sensible effect by the removal of the external surface of the 
 material, which would be fatal to objects delicately carved by 
 hand or with revolving cutting instruments applied to the 
 lathe. 
 
 It is a well known fact that ivory suffers the least chunge 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 79 
 
 of color when it is exposed to the light and closely covered 
 with a glass shade. ' It assumes its most nearly white condi- 
 tion when the oil with which it is naturally combined is re- 
 cently evaporated ; and it is the custom in some thin works, 
 such as the keys of pianofortes, to hasten this period, by 
 placing them for a few hours in an oven heated in a very 
 moderate degree, although the more immediate object is to 
 cause the pieces to shrink before they are glued upon tho 
 wooden bodies of the keys. Some persons boil the transpa- 
 rent ivory in pearl-ash and water to whiten it ; this appears 
 to act by the superficial extraction of the oily matter as in 
 bone, although it is very much better not to resort to tho 
 practice, which is principally employed to render that ivory 
 which is partly opaque and partly transparent, of more nearly 
 uniform appearance. It is more than probable, however, 
 that the discoloration of ivory is due to the oil which it con- 
 tains or has absorbed, and which becomes yellow and rancid, 
 and every effort should be made to prevent oily or greasy 
 bodies from coming in contact with ivory. Thus the keys 
 of a pianoforte should be kept clean by carefully washing 
 from the fingers the natural grease which all skin gives out. 
 Wlien ivory keys become very yellow they may be consider- 
 ably wliitened by allowing a paste of whiting, slightly 
 moisteiied with potash, to lie on them for twenty -four hours. 
 The potash extracts the oil which is absorbed by the chalk 
 and may be thus removed. 
 
 It is a well known fact that most oils and resins may bo 
 bleached by exposure to sunlight. It is by this means that 
 opticians render Canada balsam clear and transparent. It 
 has been found that pieces of apparatus made of ivory, such 
 as rules, etc., which have become yellow by age, may bo 
 bleached by dipping them in turpentine and exposing them 
 to sunlight. 
 
 The fumes of sulphur, chloride of lime, etc., though fre- 
 quently recommended, are of no value as bleachers of ivory. 
 
 Javelle Water. 
 
 This name was derived from the town of Javelle, in France, 
 where a manufactory sold a liquor which had the property 
 of bleaching cloth by an immersion of some hours only. The 
 following is the original recipe given by Gray in his " Oper- 
 ative Chemist": 2 Ibs. common salt, 2 Ibs of sulphuric 
 
80 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 acid, and f Ib. of black manganese are mixed in a retort and 
 heated, and the gas which comes over is condensed in 2 
 gallons of water in which 5 Ibs. of potash have been dissolved. 
 This liquor is diluted with twelve times its bulk of water. 
 
 This process is available only by chemists, however. The 
 following gives good results : Take 4 Ibs. carbonate of soda, 
 and 1 Ib. chloride of lime ; put the soda into a kettle, add 1 
 gallon of boiling water and boil for from 10 to 15 minutes ; 
 then stir in the chloride of lime, breaking down all lumps 
 with a wooden spatula or stirrer. Pour into large glass 
 bottles ; when cold and settled it will be ready for use. 
 
 This forms a very efficient bleaching liquid and one which 
 it is not difficult to remove from the bleached fabric. Old 
 and stained engravings and books, as Avell as linen and cotton 
 goods that have become yellow with dirt and age, may be 
 rendered snowy white by the application of this liquid 
 
 Jewelry and Gilded Ware. 
 
 Ordinary gold Jewelry may be effectually cleansed by wash- 
 ing with soap and warm water, rinsing in cold water and 
 drying in warm boxwood sawdust. Plain, smooth surfaces 
 may be rubbed with chamois leather charged either with 
 rouge or prepared chalk, but the less rubbing the better. 
 
 Silver is liable to tarnish by the action of sulphur, and 
 where there is fine chased or engraved work the extreme 
 delicacy of the lines may be injured by much rubbing. In 
 such cases the articles may be cleaned by washing with a 
 solution of hyposulphite of soda. Cyanide of potassium is 
 a more powerful cleansing agent but is very poisonous. 
 
 In cleaning gilded ware, different processes must be 
 used for articles gilded by fire or by the galvanic process, 
 and articles gilded by gold leaf, such as frames, etc. For 
 cleaning articles gilded by the first-named methods, one part 
 cf borax is dissolved in sixteen parts of water. With this 
 solution the article is carefully rubbed by means of a soft 
 sponge or brush, then rinsed with water, and finally dried 
 with a linen rag, or if small, such as a piece of jewelry, with 
 boxwood sawdust. If at all convenient, the article is warmed 
 previously to being rubbed, by which means the brilliancy 
 of it-is greatly increased. In cleaning gilded frames of tho 
 last named order, pure water only must be employed, and the. 
 rubbing off of the impurities must take place by means of a 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION., 81 
 
 
 
 very slight pi^sure. Wares of imitation gilt are generally 
 covered with ? shellac or resin varnish, which would be dis- 
 solved by the application of soap water, alkaline solutions, 
 or spirits of wine. Were the varnish rubbed off, the exceed- 
 ingly thin layer of gold or silver leaf beneath would also 
 disappear. In our experience we have seen hundreds of once 
 valuable but now worthless frames, they having become thus 
 simply by the application of soap water. 
 
 Lacquer. 
 
 Lacquer is so called because it usually contains gum lac, 
 either shellac or seed lac. Seed lac is the original form of 
 the gum or resin ; after being purified it is moulded into thin 
 sheets, like shell, and hence is called shellac. Shellac is 
 frequently bleached so as to become quite white, in which 
 state it forms a colorless solution. Bleached shellac is never 
 as strong as the gum in its natural condition, and unless it 
 be fresh it neither dissolves well in alcohol nor does it 
 preserve any metal to which it may be applied. 
 
 There are many recipes for good lacquer, but the success 
 of the operator depends quite as much upon skill as upon 
 the particular recipe employed. The metal must be cleaned 
 perfectly from grease and dirt, and in lacquering new work 
 it is always best to lacquer as soon after polishing as possible. 
 Old lacquer may be removed with a strong lye of potash or 
 soda, after which the work should be well washed in water, 
 dried in fine beech or boxwood sawdust and polished with 
 whiting, applied with a soft brush. The condition of the 
 work, as to cleanliness and polish, is perhaps the most im- 
 portant point in lacquering. 
 
 The metal should be heated and the lacquer applied evenly 
 with a soft camel hair brush. A temperature of about that 
 of boiling water will be found right. 
 
 The solution of lac or varnish is colored to suit the require- 
 ments or taste of the user. 
 
 A good pale lacquer consists of three parts of Cape aloes 
 and one of turmeric to one of simple lac varnish. A full 
 yellow contains four of turmeric and one of annatto to one of 
 lac varnish., A gold lacquer, four of dragon's-blood and one 
 of turmeric to one of lac varnish. A red, thirty-two parts of 
 annatto and eight of dragon's-blood to one of lac varnish. 
 
 A great deal depends, also, upon the depth of color im- 
 
82 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 parted to the lacquer, and as tliis may require to be varied, 
 a very good plan is to make up a small stock bottle, holding, 
 say, half a pint, according to any good recipe, and add as 
 much of it to the varnish as may be required for the desired 
 tint. 
 
 The following are a few favorite recipes : 
 
 Deep Gold Lacquer. Alcohol, pint ; dragon's-blood, 1 
 drachm ; seed lac, l oz. ; turmeric, oz. Shake up well for 
 a week, at intervals of, say, a couple of hours ; then allow to 
 settle, and decant the clear lacquer ; and if at all dirty niter 
 through a tuft of cotton wool. This lacquer may be diluted 
 with a simple solution of shellac in alcohol and will then give 
 a paler tint. 
 
 Bright Gold Lacquei\ 1. Turmeric, 1 oz..; saffron J oz. ; 
 Spanish annatto, oz. ; alcohol, 1 pint. Digest at a gentle 
 heat for several days ; strain through coarse linen ; put the 
 tincture in a bottle and add 3 oz. good seed lac coarsely 
 powdered. Let it stand for several days, shaking occasion- 
 ally. Allow to settle and use the clear liquid. 
 
 2. Take 1 oz. annatto and 8 oz. alcohol. Mix in a bottle 
 by themselves. Also mix separately 1 oz. gamboge and 8 oz. 
 alcohol. With these mixtures color seed lac varnish to suit 
 yourself. If it be too red add gamboge ; if too yellow add 
 annatto ; if the color be too deep, add spirit. In this manner 
 you may color brass of any desired tint. 
 
 Pale Gold Lacqiier. Best pale shellac (picked pieces), 8 oz. ; 
 sandarac, 2 oz. ; turmeric, 8 oz. ; annatto, 2 oz. ; dragon's-blood, 
 oz. ; alcohol, 1 gallon. Mix, shake frequently till the gums 
 are dissolved and the color extracted from the coloring 
 matters and then allow to settle. 
 
 Lacquer used by A. Ross. 4 oz. shellac and oz. gamboge 
 are dissolved by agitation, without heat, in 24 oz. pure pyro- 
 acetic ether. The solution is allowed to stand "until the 
 gummy matters, not taken up by the spirit, subside. The 
 clear liquor is then decanted, and when required for use is 
 mixed with 8 times its quantity of alcohol. In this case the 
 pyro-acetic ether is employed for dissolving the shellac in 
 order to prevent any but the purely resinous portions being 
 taken up, which is almost certain to occur with ordinary 
 alcohol ; but if the lacquer were made entirely with pyro- 
 acetic ether, the latter would evaporate too rapidly to allow 
 time for the lacquer to be equally applied. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 83 
 
 Lacquers suffer a chemical change by heat and light, and 
 must, therefore, be kept in a cool place and in dark vessels. 
 The pans used should be either of glass or earthenware, and 
 the brushes cf camel's hair with no metal fittings. 
 
 Laundry Gloss. 
 
 Various recipes have been given for imparting a find gloss 
 to linen. Gum arabic, white wax, spermaceti, etc., have all 
 been highly recommended, and are, no doubt, useful to a 
 certain extent, but the great secret seems to lie in the quality 
 of the iron used and the skill of the laundress. If the iron is 
 hard, close grained and finely polished, the work will be 
 much easier. Laundresses always have a favorite smoothing 
 iron with which they do most of their work, and many of 
 them have the front edge of the iron rounded so that great 
 pressure can be brought to bear on a very small spot instead 
 of being spread over a space the size of the whole face of the 
 iron. If smoothing irons have become rough and rusty it 
 will pay to send them to a grinder to have them not only 
 ground but buffed (see aritcle on Polishing Metals). The 
 greatest care should be taken not to allow them to get spotted 
 with rust, and they should never be " brightened " with 
 coarse sand, ashes, emery, etc. If it is necessary to poliyh 
 them, ru-13 them on a board, or preferably a piece of leather 
 charged with the finest flour of emery, obtained by washing, 
 or better still, jeweller's rouge. 
 
 Leaves Skeleton. 
 
 The following is a simple method of preparing skeleton 
 leaves, and is decidedly preferable to the old and tedious 
 method of maceration, as it is quite as efficient and not at all 
 offensive. First dissolve four ounces of common washing 
 soda in a quart of boiling water, then add two ounces of 
 slaked quicklime and boil for about fifteen minutes. Allow 
 the solution to cool : afterwards pour off all the clear liquor 
 into a clean saucepan. When this liquor is at its boiling 
 heat place the leaves carefully in the pan, and boil the whole 
 together for an hour, adding from time to time enough wator 
 to make up for the loss by evaporation. The epidermis and 
 parenchyma of some leaves will more readily separate than 
 others. A good test is to try the leaves after they have been 
 gently boiling for an hour, and if the cellular matter does not 
 easily rub off betwixt the finger and thumb beneath cold 
 
84 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 water, boil them again for a short time. When the fleshy 
 matter is found to be sufficiently softened, rub them sepa- 
 rately but very gently beneath cold water until the perfect 
 skeleton is exposed. 
 
 The skeletons, at first, are of a dirty white color ; to make 
 them of a pure white, and therefore more beautiful, all that 
 is necessary is to bleach them in a weak solution of chloride 
 of lime a large teaspoonful of chloride of lime to a quart of 
 water ; if a few drops of vinegar are added to the solution it 
 is all the better, for then the free chlorine is liberated. Do 
 not allow them to remain too long in the bleaching liquor, 
 or they will become too brittle, and cannot afterwards be 
 handled without injury. About fifteen minutes will be suf- 
 ficient to make them white and clean looking. Dry the speci- 
 mens in white blotting paper, beneath a gentle pressure. 
 Simple leaves are the best for young beginners to experiment 
 on ; the vine, poplar, beach and ivy leaves make excellent 
 skeletons. Care must be exercised in the selection of leaves, 
 as well as the period of the year and the state of the atmo- 
 sphere when the specimens are collected ; otherwise, failure 
 will be the result. The best months to gather the specimens 
 are July and August. Never collect specimens in damp 
 weather, and none but perfectly matured leaves ought to be 
 selected. 
 
 Lights Signal and Colored. 
 
 The following recipes are from the United States Ordnance 
 Manual, and may be considered reliable. The composition 
 for signal lights is packed in shallow vessels of large diame- 
 ter so as to expose considerable surface. Where the burning 
 surface is large, the light attains great intensity, but the ma- 
 terial burns out rapidly. In arranging the size and shape of 
 the case, therefore, regard must be had to the time the light 
 is expected to burn and the brilliancy that is wanted. [See 
 caution at end of lids article.] 
 
 Bengal Light. Antimony, 2 ; sulphur, 4 ; mealed powder, 
 4 ; nitrate of soda, 16. 
 
 Blue. Black sulplmret of antimony, 1 ; sulphur, 2 ; pure 
 nitre, 6. Grind to a very fine powder and mix thoroughly. 
 See that the nitre is perfectly dry. This composition gives 
 a bluish white light ; a deeper blue may be had by the addi- 
 tion of a little finely pulverized zinc. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 85 
 
 t 
 
 Red. 1. Saltpetre, 5 ; sulphur, 6 ; nitrate of strontia, 20 ; 
 lampblack, 1. 
 
 2. Nitrate of strontia, 20 ; chlorate of potassa, 8 ; Sulphur, 
 6 ; charcoal, 1. 
 
 White. Saltpetre, 16 ; sulphur, 8 ; mealed powder, 4. 
 Grind to a very fine powder and mix well. 
 
 The following have been very highly recommended : 
 
 Crimson Fire. Sulphide of antimony, 4 ; chlorate of po- 
 tassa, 5 ; powdered roll brimstone, 13 ; dry nitrate of strontia, 
 40 parts. 
 
 A very little charcoal added to the above makes it burn 
 quicker. 
 
 Green Fire. Fine charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 13 ; chlorate of 
 potassa, 8 ; nitrate of baryta, 77. 
 
 White. 1. Nitrate of potassa (saltpetre), 24 ; sulphur 7 ; 
 charcoal, 1. 
 
 2. Nitre, 6 ; sulphur, 2 ; yellow sulphuret of arsenic, 1. 
 [NOTE. This light is a very brilliant one and a very pure 
 white, but the fumes are highly poisonous. It should be 
 used only in the open air and 'the wind should blow the 
 vapors away from the spectators not towards them.] 
 
 3. Chlorate of potash, 10 ; nitre, 5 ; lycopodiuni, 3 ; char- 
 coal 2. - 
 
 4. Metallic magnesium in the form of ribbon or wire. This 
 is the best and most easily used. It may be purchased of 
 most dealers in chemicals. A few inches of magnesium rib- 
 bon coiled into a spiral (like a spiral spring) and ignited by 
 means of a spirit lamp, or even by a little tuft of cotton 
 soaked in alcohol and fired with a lucifer match, makes a 
 light of surpassing brilliancy and power. It requires a slight 
 knack to ignite the ribbon. Hold the end of it steadily in 
 the outer edge of the flame and it will soon take fire. The 
 light given out by a small ribbon of magnesium is clearly 
 visible at a distance of thirty miles. 
 
 Lights for Indoor Illuminations. Many of the above are 
 unfit for indoor exhibitions owing to the amount of sul- 
 phurous gas given off. For tableaux in churches, schools 
 and private houses, the best light is undoubtedly magnesium 
 or, where it can be had, the lime light (sometimes, though 
 erroneously, called the calcium light). Both of these lights 
 are very powerful, and any color may be obtained by the 
 use of pieces of differently colored glass. A very effective 
 
86 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION 
 
 arrangement consists of a cin box, which may be made out 
 of one of those cases in which crackers are imported. Pro 
 cure good-sized pieces of red and blue glass, the red being a 
 soft, warm tint, such as will add a richness to the complex- 
 ions of those upon whom the light is thrown. Arrange one 
 end of the tin box so that these glasses may be slipped over 
 a large hole in it. The opposite end of the box should be 
 highly polished s-o as to act as a reflector, and a hole should 
 be cut in one side so as to allow of the introduction of the 
 magnesium. 
 
 In every case the burning matter should be so shaded 
 that it may not be seen by the audience. If the direct light 
 from the burning body meets the eyes of the spectators the 
 reflected light from the objects composing the tableau will 
 have no effect. 
 
 Where arrangements for lime or magnesium lights cannot 
 be made, the following may be used. 
 
 White. Chlorate of potash, 12 ; nitre, 5 ; finely powdered 
 loaf sugar, 4 ; lycopodium 2. 
 
 Green. Nitrate of baryta, shellac and chlorate of potassa, 
 all finely powdered, equal parts by bulk. 
 
 Red. Nitrate of strontia, shellac and chlorate of potassa, 
 all finely powdered, equal parts by bulk. 
 
 The brilliancy of these fires will depend largely upon the 
 thoroughness with which the materials are finely powdered 
 and mixed. [See caution at end of this article. J 
 
 Braunschweizer recommends the following formulse as 
 giving excellent results, the lights being good without pro- 
 ducing injurious fumes : 
 
 Red. Nitrate of strontia, 9 ; shellac, 3 ; chlorate of pot- 
 assa, l. 
 
 Green. Nitrate of baryta, 9 ; shellac, 3 ; chlorate of pot- 
 assa, \\. 
 
 'Slue. Ammoniacal sulphate of copper, 8; chlorate of 
 potassa, 6; shellac, 1. 
 
 The Pharmacist gives the following formula for "Bed 
 Fire," which will not evolve sulphurous acid during com- 
 bustion : nitrate of strontia, 1 Ib. ; chlorate of potassa, J Ib. ; 
 shellac, Ib. 
 
 These ingredient must be thoroughly dried, powdered 
 separately, and carefully mixed by gentle stirring. 
 
 Ghosts, Demons, Spectres and Murderers. To give a ghastly 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 87 
 
 hue to the faces of the actors, the best light is that produced 
 by some salt of soda, common salt being very good. We 
 have succeeded well in this way : A piece of wire gauze such 
 as ash-sifters are made of, and about a foot square, was sup- 
 ported at a height of about a foot from the floor, which was 
 protected by a sheet of iron. On the wire gauze were laid 
 twenty -five wads of cotton waste which had been soaked in n. 
 Solution of common salt, dried and dipped in alcohol jusfc 
 before being laid on the wire. When these were ignited we 
 had twenty -five powerful flames all tinged with sodium and 
 burning freely, as the air rose readily among them through 
 the wire grating. Such a flame produces quite a powerful 
 light and gives a death-like appearance to even the most 
 rosy-cheeked girl. 
 
 The following give a strong light and produce a most 
 ghastly effect: 
 
 1. Nitrate of soda, 10 ; chlorate of potash, 10 ; sulphide of 
 antimony, 3 ; shellac, 4. The materials must be warm and 
 dry, and as the nitrate of soda attracts moisture rapidly, it 
 must be well dried, then finely powdered as quickly as pos- 
 sible and kept in well-corked bottles. As this gives off a 
 good deal of sulphurous fumes, the following may be pre- 
 ferred Avllfcre the ventilation is not good : 
 
 2. Nitrate of soda, 10 ; chlorate of potassa, 15 ; white 
 sugar finely powdered, 5 ; lycopodium, 2. 
 
 CAUTION. 
 
 In using chlorate of potassa the greatest care is necessary. 
 It may be powdered and otherwise handled safely whon. 
 alone, but when combustible matter of any kind is added to 
 it, the mixture becomes highly explosive and must be very 
 gently handled. It must therefore be powdered separately 
 and only mixed with the other ingredients after they liavo 
 been powdered. The mixing should be done on a large sheet 
 of paper, very gently, but very thoroughly, with a thin, 
 broad-bladed knife. 
 
 Mixtures of chlorate of potash with sulphur, sulphurets, 
 and especially phosphorous, are liable to explode spontane- 
 ously after a time, and should never be kept on hand. They 
 phould be made as wanted. 
 
 Flowers of sulphur are very liable to contain a trace of 
 sulphuric or sulphurous acid, which, acting upon chlorate of 
 
88 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 potash causes spontaneous ignition. This may be obviated 
 by pouring a few drops of liquid ammonia on the sulphur, 
 mixing it up thoroughly and allowing it to stand for some 
 time. A safe way also is to use powdered roll brimstone 
 instead of flowers of sulphur. 
 
 Phosphorous Light. One of the most brilliant lights known 
 is produced by burning phosphorous in oxygen. The appa- 
 ratus usually employed for this purpose is bulky and expen- 
 sive, but the following is a very simple method of producing 
 a very intense light by the combustion of phosphorous : 
 Take an amount of nitre proportional to the desired intensity 
 and duration of the light required, dry it thoroughly, powder 
 it and pack it solidly in an earthen vessel, leaving a small 
 cup-like hollow in its upper surface. In this hollow place a 
 piece of phosphorous which has been carefully dried with 
 soft paper or rags and set it on fire. As the phosphorous 
 burns, the nitre melts, decomposes and furnishes it with pure 
 oxygen, and the resulting light is very brilliant. 
 
 NOTE. In handling phosphorous be very careful. Do not 
 touch it with the hands or nib it with the article used to 
 dry it, as it takes fire very easily, and the burns produced by 
 it are very severe. It should always be cut under water. 
 
 Photographic Light. A light of intense photographic 
 power is produced by burning bisulphide of carbon in an 
 argand lamp and passing a stream of nitric oxide through the 
 centre of the flame Nitric oxide is easily produced as 
 wanted by allowing nitric acid to act on scraps of copper. 
 
 The following specific dilutions will enable the reader to 
 produce this light in a less simple but more effective manner : 
 A quart bottle with a somewhat large mouth, has a cork 
 with two openings. Through one of these a tube passes to 
 near the bottom of the bottle ; through the second a large 
 tube packed with iron scale issues. Fragments of pumice 
 fill the bottle, and on these carbon disulphide is poured. A 
 current of nitric oxide gas, prepared by Deville's method 
 by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on metallic iron 
 contained in a self-regulating reservoir is passed through 
 the bottle, where it takes up the vapor of the disulphide. It 
 is then led through the safety-tube, packed with iron-scale, to 
 a gas burner of the required capacity Excellent photo- 
 graphs have been taken in five seconds with this light, the 
 object being six feet distant. In photographic power the 
 
THE WOE! 3HOP COMPANION. 80 
 
 light is asserted to be superior to the magnesium or calcium 
 light, and even to surpass the electric light itself. The 
 products of combustion are noxious and must be gotten 
 rid of. 
 
 Chatham Light This is a most intense flash-light used for 
 military signals. Three parts finely powdered resin are 
 mixed with one part magnesium dust, and blown by means 
 of a tube through the flame of a spirit lamp. The flame should 
 be large so as to insure the ignition of all the dust. The dis- 
 tance at which such a flame can be seen is extraordinary. 
 
 Some years ago the author devised a method of producing a 
 light of marvellous brilliancy by the use of magnesium 
 powder. A rude argand spirit lamp was constructed in such 
 a way that the central tube could be connected in an air-tight 
 fashion with a reservoir of oxygen. A small stopcock, with 
 the hole of the plug closed at one side so as to leave a cup 
 instead of a hole, was fitted into the tube leading from the 
 oxygen reservoir to the lamp. When turned upward this 
 cup was easily filled with magnesium powder, and when 
 turned down it of course dropped its charge into the stream 
 of oxygen, which carried it at once to the lamp, there to be 
 consumed in a flash of extraordinary brilliancy. 
 
 Looking GlaSS. (See Mirrors.) 
 
 Lubricators. 
 
 In selecting a lubricator for any rubbing surfaces, care must 
 be taken to adapt the character of the lubricating material to 
 the nature of the rubbing surfaces and the weight which they 
 have to sustain. A fine, thin oil is useless for heavy bearings, 
 and a hard, stiff soap, which would be excellent for such 
 bearings, would be a poor article for a very light piece of 
 machinery. In the case of heavy bearings, such as railway 
 s-xles, when they once begin to heat and cut, it will be found 
 impossible to prevent heating by the mere application of oil. 
 The surfaces of the metal must be worked over either by 
 grinding or the turning tool. Thus, when journals heat at 
 sea, the usual custom is to use sulphur, black-lead, or water ; 
 but the relief they afford is only temporary. The following 
 is a method that gives permanent relief : When you find the 
 journals getting hot, slack back the nuts on the cap from 
 one-quarter to pne-third of a turn, and supply the jovtrnaj 
 
90 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 freely with dust procured by rubbing two Bath bricks to- 
 gether, mixed in oil to a consistency a little thinner than 
 cream. After a short time begin cautiously to set up on the 
 nuts ; and before finally bringing the nuts to their original 
 position, give a copious supply of oil alone to wash out the 
 journal ; then bring the nuts into position, and you will have 
 no further trouble. This plan has also been tried on railway 
 journals, and it has been found that a handful of clay or 
 gravel has effected that which gallons of oil and Avater could 
 not do. 
 
 In addition to the usual oils and grease the following lu- 
 bricators deserve attention : 
 
 1. Plumbago. This material i&T gradually coming into use, 
 and when properly selected and applied it never fails to give 
 satisfactory results. It may be used on the heaviest planers 
 and ocean steamers, or on the lightest watchwork. When 
 applied to delicate machinery the surfaces should be very 
 lightly coated with the plumbago by means of a brush. In 
 this way all danger of grit is avoided. Plumbago seems to 
 be specially adapted to diminish the friction between porous 
 surfaces, such as wood and cast iron. Tor the cast iron bods 
 of heavy planers it is a specific. 
 
 2. Anti-Attrition. Mix 4 Ibs. tallow or soap with 1 Ib. 
 finely ground plumbago. The best lubricator for wood 
 working on wood. Excellent for wooden screws where great 
 power is required. 
 
 3. Fine Lubricating Oil Put fine olive oil in a bottle with 
 scrapings of lead and expose it to the sun for a few weeks. 
 Pour off the clear oil for use. Another method is to freeze 
 fine olive oil, strain out the liquid portion and preserve for use. 
 
 Booth's Axle Grease. Dissolve Ib. Avashing soda in 1 
 gallon Avater and add 3 Ibs. talloAv and 6 Ibs. palm oil. Heat 
 to 210" Fahr., and keep constantly stirring until cooled 
 to 00 or 70. 
 
 Marble, 
 
 Marble is a compact carbonate of lime which varies in color, 
 some specimens being pure Avhite, others perfectly black, 
 while others are green, red, veined, mottled, etc. The famous 
 Mexican onyx, so-called, is also a carbonate of lime, and not- 
 withstanding its hardness and beauty is liable to injury 
 |he sajne causes that affect ordinary marble. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 91 
 
 Marble is easily dissolved, with escape of carbonic acid 
 gas, by the mineral acids, sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, 
 etc., and it is also acted upon, though more slowly by vinegar, 
 the acids of fruit, etc. It is also soluble in water containing 
 an excess of carbonic acid, and therefore dissolves rapidly in 
 the ordinary "soda" water that is so generally sold as a 
 beverage, for this fluid, in its pure state, consists solely of 
 water holding a large amount of carbonic acid in solution. 
 Consequently bottles and glasses of this liquid should not be 
 placed where there is any danger of spilling it on mantel 
 pieces, table i^ps, etc., PS it will infallibly destroy the ex- 
 quisite polish upon which the beauty of such articles of 
 furniture depends. 
 
 Finely carved articles of marble, when exposed to the rain 
 of our northern climates, are apt to suffer corrosion, and the 
 delicate tracery of the sculptor is soon lost. Therefore, 
 while marble answered very well in the comparatively dry 
 climates of Greece and Egypt, it is unsuited for statues, etc. , 
 exposed to the open air, in England and America, the rainfall 
 in these countries being very great, and the moisture heavily 
 charged with carbonic and sulphurous acids. 
 
 In cleaning marble ornaments, etc., great care must be ex- 
 ercised .to use nothing corrosive like acids, chlorides, or 
 metallic salts, such as are usually recommended for removing 
 stains of inks and dyes from wood and textile fabrics. When 
 marble has been stained by ink or vegetable coloring matter, 
 the only way to remove it is to apply warm water abundantly 
 and for a long time. If the marble is very compact, and the 
 stain consequently quite superficial, the article may be 
 scraped and repolished, but of course this is applicable only 
 to objects which have plane surfaces, or those Avith simple 
 curves. Elaborately carved or sculptured objects could not 
 be so treated. 
 
 Greasy stains may be removed by covering them with a 
 paste of chalk and potash or soda. 'The alkali will convert 
 the grease into soap, which will be gradually absorbed by the 
 chalk and thus removed. In such cases, however, the stains, 
 especially if old, may require a long time and several repeti- 
 tions of the process. Alkalies (potash, soda and ammonia) 
 may be applied to marble without injuring it, and any stains 
 which they can remove may be taken out by their means. 
 
 garble is easily worked either on the bench or in the latuo 
 
92 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 In the latter case, however, great care must be taken to avoid 
 anything like a heavy cut, since marble is so rigid and brittle 
 that if the cut be heavy the article is apt to be broken. The 
 only tool that can be used is a steel point, tempered to a 
 straw color. The tool requires frequent grinding, and when 
 it gets broad it must be forged over again, as a flat tool will 
 not turn marble at all. 
 
 For working and finishing marble on the bench the follow- 
 ing is the process : After the marble is sawn into slab, the 
 first operation is to grind it down with a flat coarse sandstone 
 and water, or with an iron plate, fed with fine sand and water, 
 until all the marks of the saw are perfectly removed ; 
 secondly, a fine sandstone is used with water until the 
 marks made by the first stone are removed; thirdly, a 
 finer sandstone is applied to work out the marks of the 
 former ; fourthly, pumice stone with water, and fifthly, snake 
 stone is used, and this last finishes what is called the 
 grounding. 
 
 Next comes the polishing, which is principally performed 
 with rollers of woolen cloth or list made to the size of about 
 three inches diameter. As the sixth process, a rubber is 
 charged with flour emery and a moderate degree of moisture ; 
 this rubber is worked uniformly over every part until the 
 marble acquires a kind of greasy polish; seventh ly, the work 
 is completed with a similar roll of cloth charged with putty 
 powder and water. Some prefer, as the polisher, an old 
 cotton stocking not made into a rubber, and in some few of the 
 more delicate works crocus is used intermediately between 
 the emery and the putty powder. It is necessary to wash 
 the marble after each operation, so that not a particle of the 
 previous polishing material may remain, otherwise the work 
 will be scratched. 
 
 The dull parts of sculpture are finished in four different 
 manners, or rather the complete process of smoothing is dis- 
 continued at various stages so as to form four gradations, 
 which may be described as follows : 
 
 First. The marble is sometimes left from the long and 
 very slender statuary's chisel, the reverse end of which is 
 formed with a sharp circular edge or ridge, just like a hollow 
 centre, in order that the metal hammer, which is of soft iron, 
 tin or zinc, may be slightly indented by the chisel, so as to 
 avoid its glancing off ; the chisel marks leave the surface 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 93 
 
 somewhat rough and matted, intermediate between the 
 granular and crystalline character. 
 
 Secondly. For surfaces somewhat smoother, rasps are used 
 to remove the ridges left by the chisel ; the rasps leave a 
 striated or lined effect suitable for draperies, and which is 
 made more or less regular according to the uniformity of the 
 strokes, or the reverse. 
 
 Thirdly. Files are employed for still smoother surfaces of 
 the same character ; and it is to be observed that the files 
 and rasps are generally curved at the ends, to adapt them to 
 the curvilinear forms of the sculpture. 
 
 Fourthly. For the smoothest of the dull or unpolished 
 surfaces, the faint marks left by the file are rubbed out with 
 Trent sand or silver sand and water, applied by means of a 
 stick of deal cut to a point, and rubbed all over the work in 
 little irregular circles, as a child would scribble on a slate, 
 and if the end of the stick is covered with two or three 
 thicknesses of cloth the marble receives a still rounder or 
 softer effect than from the naked stick, for which the cabbage 
 wood or partridge wood is sometimes used, and the end of the 
 stick is slightly bruised, so that the fibres of the wood may 
 assume the character of the stiff brush, known by artists as a 
 scrub." 
 
 Mr. Thomas Smith tells us that he has successfully copied 
 the minute roughness or granulation of the skin, by a kind of 
 etching which he was induced to try, by imagining that ho 
 could trace such a process to have been used in some of the- 
 most perfect of the ancient marbles that had not been exposed 
 to the open air. The w r ork having been smoothed with sand, 
 as above, he takes a hard, stubby brush and therewith dots 
 the marble with muriatic acid, and which quickly, yet par- 
 tially, dissolves the surface. The strength of the acid, which 
 must not be excessive, is tested upon a piece of waste marble; 
 the brush is hastily dipped in the acid, applied to the work, 
 quickly rinsed in water, and then used for removing the acid 
 from the marble. It is obvious the process calls for a certain 
 admixture of dexterity and boldness, and sometimes requires 
 several repetitions, the process occupying only a few minutes 
 each time. 
 
 Fifthly. The bright parts of sculpture. Few of the works 
 in sculpture are polished, and such as are, are required in the 
 first instance to pass through the four stages already explained 
 
94 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 for producing the smooth but dull surface ; after which, 
 slender square pieces of the second gritstone and of snake- 
 stone are used with water as a pencil, and then fine emery 
 and putty powder on sticks of wood ; but the work is exceed- 
 ingly tedious, and requires very great care, that the artistical 
 character of the work, and any keen edges that may be re- 
 quired are not lost in the polishing. 
 
 Metals Polishing. 
 
 Metals are polished either by burnishing or buffing. The 
 process ot burnishing consists in rubbing down all the minute 
 roughnesses by means of a highly polished steel or agate 
 tool none of the metal being removed. 
 
 The action of the burnisher appears to depend upon two 
 circumstances ; first, that the harder the material to be 
 polished the greater lustre it will receive ; the burnisher is, 
 therefore, commonly made of hardened steel, which exceeds in 
 hardness nearly every metallic body. And secondly, its 
 action depends on the intimacy of the contact betwixt the 
 burnisher and the work ; and the pressure of the brightened 
 burnisher being, in reality, from its rounded or elliptical 
 section, exerted upon only one mathematical line or point of 
 the work at a time, it acts with great pressure and in a man- 
 ner distinctly analogous to the steel die used in making coin; 
 in which latter case the dull but smooth blank becomes in- 
 stantly the bright and lustrous coin, in virtue of the intimate 
 contact produced in the coining press between the entire 
 surface of the blank and that of the highly polished die. 
 
 It by no means follows, however, that the burnisher will 
 produce highly finished surfaces, unless they have been pre- 
 viously rendered smooth, and proper for the application of 
 this instrument, as a rough surface, having any file marks or 
 scratches, will exhibit the original defects, notwithstanding 
 that they may be glossed over with the burnisher which 
 follows every irregularity ; and excessive pressure, which 
 might be expected to correct the evil as in coining, only fills 
 the work with furrows, or produces an irregular indented 
 surface, which by workmen is said to be/V// of uttws. 
 
 Therefore, the greater the degree of excellence that is re- 
 quired in burnished works, the more carefully should they 
 be smoothed before the application of the burnisher, and this 
 s|)ou]4 also be cleaned on a buff stick with crocus, inv 
 
THE WOBKSBOP COMPANION. 95 
 
 mediately before use ; and it should in general be applied 
 with the least degree of friction that will suffice. Cutlers 
 mostly consider that burnishers for steel are best rubbed on 
 a buff stick Avith the finest flour emery ; for silver, however, 
 they polish the burnisher with crocus as usual. Most of the 
 metals, previously to their being burnished, are rubbed with 
 oil to lessen the risk of tearing or scratching them, but for 
 gold and silver the burnisher is commonly used dry, unless 
 soap and water or skimmed milk are employed ; and for 
 brass furniture, beer or water, with or without a little vinegar, 
 is preferred for lubricating the burnisher. 
 
 Buffing is performed by rubbing the metal with soft leather, 
 which has been charged with very fine polishing powder. 
 The rubbing is sometimes done by hand, but more frequently 
 the buff is made into a wheel which revolves rapidly in a 
 lathe and the work is held against it. 
 
 The polishing powder that is selected must be chosen with 
 special reference to the metal that is to be buffed. Thus, for 
 steel and brass the best polishing powder is crocus or rouge, 
 which may be purchased of any dealer in tools, or may be 
 made by exposing very clean and pure crystals of sulphate of 
 iron to heat, according to the directions given hereafter under 
 the head of Polishing Powders. The hardest part of the 
 rouge must be selected, and great care must be taken to have 
 it clean and free from particles of dust and sand, which would 
 inevitably scratch the article to be polished and render it 
 necessary to again repeat #11 the previous processes of filing, 
 grinding, etc. 
 
 Soft metals like gold and silver may be polished with com- 
 paratively soft powders, such a* prepared chalk or putty 
 powder (oxide of tin). 
 
 When metals are to be polished in the lathe the process is 
 very simple. After being turned or filed smooth the article 
 is still further polished by means of fine emery and oil, ap- 
 plied with a stick, and in the case of rods or cylinders, a sort of 
 clamp is used so that great pressure can be brought to bear 
 on the part to be polished. The work must be examined 
 from time to time to see that all parts are brought up equally 
 to the greatest smoothness and freedom from scratches, and 
 as fast as this occurs polishing powder of finer and finer 
 quality is used, until the required finish is attained. 
 
 In polishing metals or anv other hard substance^ by 
 
96 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 abrasion, the great point is to bring the whole surface up 
 equally. A single scratch will destroy the appearance of the 
 finest work, and it cannot be removed except by going back 
 to the stage to which it corresponds, and beginning again 
 from that point. Thus, if in working with a smooth file we 
 make a scratch as deep as the cut of a bastard file, it is of 
 no use to try and remove this scratch with the smooth file, 
 we must go back, and taking a bastard file make the surface 
 as even as possible with it, and afterwards work forward 
 through fine files and polishing powders. 
 
 Mirrors. 
 
 As it is frequently convenient to be able to silver a piece of 
 glass for a special purpose, we quote from Faraday's work on 
 Chemical Manipulation, the following directions for perform- 
 ing this operation : 
 
 A piece of clean, smooth tinfoil, free from holes, is to be 
 cut to the same size as the glass and laid upon a couple of 
 sheets of filtering or blotting paper folded into quarters. A 
 little mercury is to be placed on the foil, and rubbed over it 
 with a hare's foot, or with a ball of cotton slightly greased 
 with tallow, until the whole of the upper surface of the leaf 
 be amalgamated and bright. More mercury is then to be 
 added, until the quantity is such as to float over the tinfoil. 
 A piece of clean -writing paper, with smooth edges, is to be 
 laid upon the mercury, and then the glass surface, previously 
 well cleaned, is to be applied to the paper. The paper is to 
 be drawn out from between the mercury and the glass, while 
 a slight but steady pressure is to be applied to the latter. 
 As the paper recedes it carries all air and dirt with it from 
 between the glass and the metal, which come into perfect 
 contact. 
 
 The mirror is now made, and may be used for an experi- 
 ment ; but there is still much more mercury present than is 
 required to make the definite and hard amalgam of tin con- 
 stituting the usual reflecting surface. If it be desired to re- 
 move this excess, the newly-formed mirror must be put under 
 the pressure of a flat board, in a slightly -inclined position, 
 and loaded with weights. 
 
 The success of this operation will be found to depend 
 chiefly upon the care exercised in cleaning the glass. 
 
 g Glass Mirrors for Optical Purposes. This is best 
 
THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 97 
 
 by depositing pure silver on the glass. The light 
 reflected from a mirror made thus has somewhat of a yellowish 
 tinge, but photometric experiments show that from 25 to 30 
 per cent, more light is reflected than from the old mercurial 
 mirrors. 
 
 Where ammonium aldehyde can be obtained, there is no 
 doubt that this is the best and most economical process, 
 whether used on a large or a small scale. But those who 
 have not had considerable experience in the laboratory can- 
 not always prepare this compound. 
 
 The next best process is based upon the reduction of 
 metallic silver from its ammoniacal solution by salts Of tartar. 
 After a trial of several formulas of this kind, all of them more 
 or less simple, as well as efficacious, the following has been 
 found to yield the bast results in the shortest time. 
 
 Silvering Solution. In 1 ounce of distilled or pure rain 
 water, dissolve 48 grains of crystalized nitrate of silver. 
 Precipitate by adding strongest water of ammonia, and con- 
 tinue to add the ammonia drop by drop, stirring the solution 
 with a glass rod, until the brown precipitate is nearly, but 
 not quite redissolved. Filter, and add distilled water to 
 make 12 fluid drachms. 
 
 Reducing Solution. 1 Dissolve in 1 ounce of distilled or 
 very clean rain water, 12 grains of potassium and sodium 
 tartrate (Eochelle or Seignette salts). Boil, in a flask, and 
 while boiling add 2 grains crystalized nitrate of silver dis- 
 solved in 1 drachm of water. Continue the boiling rive or 
 six minutes. Let cool, filter, and add distilled water to make 
 12 fluid drachms. 
 
 To Silver. Provision must be made for supporting the 
 glass in a perfectly horizontal position at the surface of the 
 liquid. This is best done by cementing to the face of the 
 mirror three nice hooks by which it may be hung from a 
 temporary framework easily made out of a few sticks. 
 
 The glass to be silvered must be cleansed by immersing 
 it in strong nitric acid, washing in liquor potassse, and thor- 
 oughly rinsing with distilled water. If the glass has had 
 mercurial amalgam on it, it will probably be necessary to 
 clean the back with rouge. On having this surface per- 
 fectly, chemically clean, depends in a great measure the suc- 
 cess of the operation. 
 
 Having arranged the contrivance for suspending the glass 
 
08 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 so that it may be at exactly the rig-lit height in the vessel 
 that is to receive the solution, remove this vessel and pour 
 into it enough of equal quantities of the two solutions to fill 
 it exactly to the previously ascertained level. Stir the solu- 
 tions so that they will become thoroughly mixed, and replace 
 the glass to be silvered, taking great care that the surface to 
 be silvered shall come in contact with the silvering fluid ex- 
 actly at all points. The glass plate should be rinsed carefully 
 before replacing, and should be put in while wet. Great care 
 should be taken that no air bubbles remain on the surface of 
 the solution, or between it and the surface to be silvered. 
 
 Now set the vessel in the sun for a few minutes, if the 
 weather be warm, or by the fire, if it be cold, as a tempera- 
 ture of 45 to 50 C. (113 to 122 Fab.) is most conducive 
 to the rapid deposition of a brilliant, firm and even film of 
 silver. The fluid in the sunlight soon becomes inky black, 
 gradually clearing as the silver is reduced, until when ex- 
 hausted it is perfectly clear. The mirror should be removed 
 before this point is reached, as a process of bleaching sets 
 up if left after the fluid is exhausted. From 20 to 80 minutes, 
 according to the weather, purity of chemicals, etc., is re- 
 quired for the entire process. 
 
 When the mirror is removed from the bath, it should be 
 carefully rinsed with distilled water from the wash bottle, 
 and laid on its edge on blotting paper to dry. When per- 
 fectly dry, the back should be varnished with some elastic 
 varnish and allowed to dry. The wires and cement can now 
 be removed from the face, and the glass cleaned with a little 
 fledget of cotton and a minute drop of nitric acid, taking 
 great care that the acid does not get to the edges or under 
 the varnish. Rinse, dry and the mirror is finished. 
 
 Silver Amalgam for Mirrors. The great objections to 
 mirrors coated with pure silver are the yellow character of 
 the reflected light, and the fact that such mirrors are apt to 
 be affected by sulphur. M. Lenoir has invented a process 
 which is said to avoid these difficulties. The glass is first 
 silvered by means of tartaric acid and ammoniacal nitrate of 
 silver, or by the process described in the preceding section, 
 and is then exposed to the action of a weak solution of double 
 cyanide of mercury and potassium. When the mercurial 
 solution has spread uniformly over the surface, fine zinc dust 
 is powdered over it, which promptly reduces the quicksilver, 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 99 
 
 And permits it to form a white and brilliant silver amalgam, 
 adhering strongly to the glass, and which is affirmed to be 
 free from the yellowish tint of ordinary silvered glass, and 
 not easily affected by sulphurous emanations. 
 
 Care of Looking Glasses. When looking glasses are ex- 
 posed to the direct rays of the sun or to very strong heat 
 from a fire the amalgam is apt to crystallize antl the mirror 
 loses its brilliancy. If a mirror is placed where the rays of 
 the sun can strike it, it should be covered in that part of the 
 day during which it is exposed. 
 
 The best method of cleaning looking glasses is as follows : 
 Take a newspaper, fold it small, dip it into a basin of clean 
 cold water. When thoroughly wet squeeze it out as you do 
 a sponge ; then rub it pretty hard all over the surface of the 
 glass, taking care that it is not so wet as to run down in 
 streams ; in fact, the paper must only be completely moist- 
 ened or dampened all through. Let it . rest a few minutes, 
 then go over the glass with a piece of fresh newspaper till it 
 looks clear and bright. The i asides of windows may be 
 cleaned in the same way ; also spectacle-glasses, lamp-glasses, 
 etc. White paper that has not been printed on is better; 
 but in the absence of that, a very old newspaper, on which 
 the ink -has become thoroughly dried, should be used. 
 Writing paper will not answer. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 This is by far the most valuable metal that has been 
 brought into notice during the past few years. It has been 
 long familiar to chemists, and as a component of German 
 silver, electrum, and similar alloys, it has been in common 
 use, but as an unalloyed coating for other metals it has only- 
 been employed for about ten years. 
 
 It is hard, not easily corroded by acids, and, tinlike silver, 
 it is entirely unaffected by sulphur. In addition to these 
 valuable qualities it has one of special importance in some 
 cases, and that is the ease with which a nickel surface slides 
 over any other smooth body. Hence, for the sliding parts of 
 telescopes, microscopes, etc., it has come into very general 
 use, and it is not improbable that it will prove of great value 
 in the case of slide valves, pistons, etc. 
 
 Nickel is almost always applied as a coating by the electro- 
 plating process, for instructions in which art we must refer 
 
100 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 our reaaers to any good work on the art of electro-metal- 
 lurgy. 
 
 A foreign journal gives the following directions for nickel 
 plating Avithout a battery : To a solution of five to ten per 
 cent, of chloride of zinc, as pure as possible, add sufficient 
 sulphate of nickel to produce a strong green color, and bring 
 to boiling in a porcelain vessel. The piece to be plated, 
 which must be perfectly bright and free from grease, is in- 
 troduced so that it touches the vessel as little as possible. 
 Ebullition is continued from 30 to 60 minutes, water being 
 added from time to time to replace that evaporated. During 
 ebullition nickel is precipitated in the form of a white and 
 brilliant coating. The boiling can be continued for hours 
 without sensibly increasing the thickness of this coating. 
 As soon as the object appears to be plated it is washed in 
 water containing a little chalk in suspension, and then care- 
 fully dried. This coating may be scoured with chalk, and is 
 very adherent. The chloride of zinc and also the sulphate of 
 nickel used must be free from metals precipitable by iron. 
 If during the precipitation the liquor becomes colorless, 
 sulphate of nickel should be added. The spent liquor may be 
 used again by exposing to the air until the contained iron is 
 precipitated, filtering and adding the zinc and nickel salts 
 as above. Cobalt also may be deposited in the same manner. 
 
 Noise Prevention of. 
 
 To those who carry on any operations requiring much ham- 
 mering or pounding, a simple means of deadening the noise 
 of their work is a great relief. Several methods have been 
 suggested, but the best are probably these : 
 
 1. Rubber cushions under the legs of the work-bench. 
 Chamber's Journal describes a factory where the hammering 
 of fifty coppersmiths was scarcely audible in the room below, 
 their benches having under each leg a rubber cushion. 
 
 2. Kegs of sand or sawdust applied in the same way. A 
 few inches of. sand or sawdust is first poured into each keg ; 
 on this is laid a board or block upon which the leg rests, 
 and round the leg and block is poured fine dry sand or saw- 
 dust. Not only all noise, but all vibration and shock, is 
 prevented ; and an ordinary anvil, so mounted, may be used 
 in a dwelling house without annoying the inhabitants. To 
 amateurs, whose workshops are almost always- located in 
 
THE WORKSHOP 
 
 dwelling houses, this device affords a cheap and simple relief 
 from a very great annoyance. 
 
 Painting Bright Metals. 
 
 When paint is applied to bright metals like tin or zinc, it 
 is very apt to peel off. This difficulty is greatly lessened if 
 the metal be hot when the paint is applied, but in many 
 cases this cannot be done. In such cases the surface of the 
 metal should be corroded, for which purpose a solution of 
 sulphate of copper, acidulated with nitric acid answers well. 
 The metal should be washed with the solution, allowed to 
 stand a couple of hours, and then washed with clean water 
 and dried. 
 
 Painting the Hours on Metal Dials. The black coloring 
 matter is the soot obtained by holding a clean copper or 
 sheet metal plate over the flame of an oil or petroleum lamp 
 (a glowing tool serves the purpose very well). As soon as a 
 sufficient deposit is produced it is collected on a piece of 
 glass, care being taken not to mix any foreign substance with 
 it. A few drops of essence of lavender are then poured on 
 the soot and the mixture pounded with a spatula. This done, 
 just sufficient copal varnish is added to give the composition 
 a proper. -thickness, so as to prevent it spreading when ap- 
 plied. The varnish thus prepared is put on by means of a 
 very fine brush. To secure brilliancy the dial is drioJL at a 
 slow heat, by passing it lightly over a spirit flame, the reverse 
 side of the dial being, of course, the only part exposed to the 
 flame. This composition must be made in quantities large 
 enough for. present use only, as it dries very rapidly and 
 cannot be utilized afterwards. To secure good results this 
 process requires some experience, which can only be obtained 
 by careful experiments. The painting especially requires a 
 certain aptitude and lightness of hand, which may, however, 
 soon be attained by strict attention. 
 
 This process, which gives very excellent results, is evi- 
 dently applicable to a great variety of purposes. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 There are so many purposes to which paper is applied that 
 a small volume might be filled with a description of them. 
 The following are those which will probably prove most 
 useful to the amateur : 
 
 Adhesive Paper. Paper in sheets, half of which are 
 
102 TfiE WORKSHOP COMPANION". 
 
 gummed on both sides, and the other half on one side, and 
 divided into strips and squares of different sizes by perfora- 
 tions, like sheets of postage stamps, are very convenient in 
 many ways the doubly-gummed answering for fixing draw- 
 ings in books, labels on glass, etc. It is stated that the 
 mixture by which it is coated is prepared by dissolving six 
 parts of glue, previously soaked for a day in cold water, two 
 parts of sugar, and three parts of gum arabic, in twenty-four 
 parts of water, by the aid of heat. 
 
 Barometer Paper. This is paper impregnated with a so- 
 called sympathetic ink, which alters its color by a change of 
 temperature. The most delicate substance to accomplish 
 this is sulpliocyanide of cobalt, originally proposed by Grotthus. 
 This is prepared by adding an alcoholic solution of potassium 
 Bulphocyanide to an aqueous solution of cobaltous sulphate, 
 until no more potassium sulphate separates. The whole is 
 transferred to a filter, and the residue on the filter (potassium 
 sulphate) washed with alcohol. The dilute filtrate may be 
 used as it is, for impregnating paper, or it may be concen- 
 trated by very careful evaporation at as low a temperature as 
 possible. The salt may be obtained crystalline by removing 
 the alcoholic menstruum in the vacuum of an air-pump. It 
 forms violet columns, soluble in water with red color. Paper 
 impregnated with the alcoholic solution, or on which tracings 
 have been made with the latter, turns reddish in dry air, but 
 assumes a blue color at the slightest elevation of temperature. 
 
 Creases, To Take out of Draining Paper or Engravings. Lay 
 the paper or engraving, face downwards, on a sheet of smooth, 
 unsized Avhite paper : cover it with another sheet of the same, 
 very slightly damped, and iron with a moderately warm flat 
 iron. 
 
 Drawing Paper, To Mount. Sometimes it is difficult to get 
 a drawing on a sheet of paper of the ordinary sizes when 
 utretched upon a board, by reason of the waste edges used to 
 l;ecure the paper firmly ; and again, in stiff papers, such as 
 the "Eggshell," so called, ordinaiy mucilage does not pos- 
 sess sufficient strength, and glue has to be substituted, to the 
 annoyance of the draughtsman. The following is a very 
 simple way of obviating these difficulties : First moisten the 
 paper thoroughly ; then lay it upon the board in proper 
 position, and, with blotting paper, remove most of the moist- 
 ure for a distance of half an inch or thereabouts from the 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 103 
 
 ; then take strips of Manila paper (not too stiff) about 
 one and a half inches wide, covered on one side with niucil- 
 age, and paste them down on both paper and board, allowing 
 them to lui) on the edges of the sheet about half an inch. 
 Koop the middle of the sheet thoroughly wet until the 
 mucilage on the edges has sot, when the whole sheet may ba 
 allowed to dry gradually. It will be found that this method 
 is quicker and surer than any other, and is of great use where 
 it is necessary to color on mounted paper. 
 
 Glass-Paper. Paper coated with glass is known by this 
 name just as paper coated with fine sharp sand is called sand- 
 paper, and paper coated with emery is called emery paper. 
 Paper or a cheap cloth is coated with thinnish glue, dusted 
 heavily and evenly with glass-powder of the proper fineness, 
 and allowed to become nearly dry. The superfluous powder 
 is then shaken off, the sheets are pressed to make them even, 
 and afterwards thoroughly dried. 
 
 The objection to ordinary glass-paper is that it is easily 
 injured by heat and moisture. If the glue be mixed with a 
 little bichromate of potassa before it is applied to the cloth, 
 and exposed for some time to strong bright sunshine while it 
 is drying, it will become insoluble in water. 
 
 The glue may also be rendered insoluble by the process of 
 tanning. The paper or cloth is first soaked in a solution of 
 taimic acid and dried. The glue is then applied, the 
 powdered glass dusted on, and over it is dusted a little tannic 
 acid. If the glue be not very moist, it should be damped by 
 means of an atomiser, a very cheap form of which is figured 
 in The Young Scientist, vol. 2. The sheets are then slowly 
 dried and will be found to resist moisture very thoroughly. 
 
 Paper, To Prepare for Varnishing. To prevent the ab- 
 sorption of varnish, and injury to any color or design on the 
 paper, it is necessary to first give it two or three coats of 
 size. The best size for white or delicate colors is made by 
 dissolving a little isinglass in boiling water, or by boiling 
 some clean parchment cuttings until they form a clear solu- 
 tion ; then strain through a piece of clean muslin. It may be 
 applied with a clean soft paint brush, the first coat, especially, 
 very lightly. The best brush for this purpose is the kind 
 used by varnishers for giving the finishing flow coats of 
 varnish, wide, flat and soft ; or where there is much danger 
 of injuring a design, and the paper article will allow of it, it 
 
104 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 is a good plan for the first coat, to pour the solution into a 
 Vide, flat dish, and pass the paper through it once, and back 
 again, and then hang it up to dry. For JOBS delicate pur- 
 poses, a little light-colored glue, soaked over night in. enough 
 water to cover it, and then dissolved by heat, adding hot 
 water enough to dilute it sufficiently, will make an excellent 
 sizing. 
 
 Pollen Powder, or Paper Powder. Boil white paper or 
 paper cuttings in water for five hours. Pour off the water, 
 pound the pulp in a wedgwood mortar, and pass through a 
 tine sieve. This powder is employed by the bird stuffers to 
 dust over the legs of some birds, and the bills of others, to 
 give them a powdery appearance ; also to communicate the 
 downy bloom to rough-coated artificial fruit, and other pur- 
 poses of a similar nature ; it makes excellent pounce. 
 
 Tracing Paper. Tracing paper may be purchased so 
 cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make it ; and there 
 is a very fine, tough kind now in market which may be 
 mounted and colored almost like drawing paper. Those who 
 desire to prepare some for themselves will find that the follow- 
 ing directions give a good result. The inventor of the pro- 
 cess received a medal and premium from the Society of Arts 
 for it. 
 
 Open a quire of tough tissue paper, and brush the first 
 sheet with a mixture of equal parts of mastic varnish and oil 
 of turpentine. Proceed Avith each sheet similarly and dry 
 them on lines by hanging them up singly. As the process 
 goes on, the under sheets absorb a portion of the varnish, and 
 require less than if single sheets were brushed separately. 
 The paper, when dry, is quite light and transparent, and may 
 readily be written on with ink. 
 
 Transfer papei\ This is useful for copying patterns, draw- 
 ings, etc. Designs for scroll saws may be copied very neatly 
 by means of it. It is easily made by rubbing a thin but 
 tough unglazed paper with a mixture of lard and lampblack. 
 The copy is made by laying a sheet of the transfer or, as it 
 is sometimes called, manifold paper, over a clean sheet of 
 drawing or writing paper, and over it the drawing to be 
 copied. The Hues of the drawing are then carefully traced 
 with a fine but blunt point, and the pressure along the lines 
 transfers to the clean paper underneath a perfect copy. To 
 keep the under side of the drawing or pattern clean, a sheet 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 105 
 
 of \issue paper may be placed between it and the transfer 
 paper. 
 
 Water Stains, To Remove from Engravings or Paper. Fill a 
 largo vessel with pure water and dip the engraving in, waving 
 it backward and forward until thoroughly wet. Then spread 
 a si loot of clean white paper on a drawing board, lay the en- 
 graving on it and fasten both to the board with drawing pins. 
 Expose it to bright sunshine, keeping it nioist until the stains 
 disappear, which will not be long. This is simply a modifi- 
 cation of the old system of bleaching linen. 
 
 Waxed Paper. Paper saturated with wax, paraffin or 
 stearin is very useful for wrapping up articles which should 
 be kept dry and not exposed to the air. Place a sheet of 
 stout paper on a heated iron plate, and over this place the 
 sheets of unglazed paper tissue paper does very well that 
 are to be waxed. Enclose the wax or paraffin in a piece of 
 muslin, and as it melts spread it evenly over the paper. 
 
 Patina. 
 
 An imitation of patina for bronze objects of all kinds can 
 be produced by preparing a paint of carbonate of copper 
 and any light alcoholic varnish, and applying it to the object 
 with a -Crush. This green color penetrates the smallest re- 
 cesses, and has, when dry, the appearance of patina. Car- 
 bonate of copper gives a blue patina, verdigris a light green, 
 and intermediate shades of color can be obtained by mixing 
 the two. 
 
 Patterns To Trace. 
 
 There are various methods of making copies of patterns on 
 paper, the simplest perhaps being the use of the tracing 
 paper described on another page. 
 
 When a few duplicates of patterns for embroidery are re- 
 quired, they may be very easily made by hand as follows : 
 
 The drawing is made upon paper ; then lay the drawing 
 upon an even cloth, and perforate all the lines with a tine 
 needle, close and even. Then take finely powdered charcoal, 
 three parts, resin, one part in fine powder ; mix and tie it in 
 a piece of porous calico, so that it forms a dusting bag. Lay 
 the perforated drawing upon your material, hold down with 
 one hand, rub the dusting-bag over the drawing ; the dust 
 will fall through the holes and form the drawing on the ma- 
 terial. Bemove the paper drawing, lay blotting-paper over 
 
106 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 the dast pattern, and go over it with a warm flat iron 
 The heat will melt the resin and fix the drawing on the 
 material. 
 
 Pencils as a Substitute for Ink. 
 
 Aniline pencils have been in use for some time, and have 
 given good satisfaction, but the following is said to give even 
 better results. Pencils made after the following formula 
 give a very black writing, capable of being reproduced by 
 the copying machine, and which does not fade on exposure 
 to light. The mass for these pencils is prepared as follows : 
 10 pounds of the best logwood are repeatedly boiled in 10 
 gallons of water, straining each time. The liquid is then 
 evaporated down till it weighs 10 pounds, and is then 
 allowed to boil in a pan of stoneware or enamel. To the 
 boiling liquid, nitrate of oxide of chrome is added in small 
 quantities, until the bronze-colored precipitate formed at first 
 is redissolved with a deep blue coloration. This solution is 
 then evaporated in the water bath down to a sirup, with 
 which is mixed well kneaded clay in the proportion of 1 part 
 of clay to 3 of extract. A little gum tragacanth is also 
 added to obtain a proper consistence. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary to use the salt of chrome in the 
 right proportion. An excess of this salt gives a disagreeable 
 appearance to the writing, while if too little is used the black 
 matter is not sufficiently soluble. 
 
 The other salts of chrome cannot be used in this prepara- 
 tion, as they would crystallize, and the writing would scale 
 off as it dried. 
 
 The nitrate of oxide of chrome is prepared by precipitating 
 a hot solution of chrome alum with a suitable quantity of 
 carbonate of soda. The precipitate is washed till the filtrato 
 is free from sulphuric acid. The precipitate thus obtained 
 is dissolved in pure nitric acid, so as to leave a little still 
 undissolved. Hence the solution contains no free acid, 
 which would give the ink a dirty red color. Oxalic acid and 
 caustic alkalies do not attack the writing. Dilute nitrio 
 acid reddens, but does not obliterate the characters. 
 
 Pencil Marks To Fix. 
 
 To fix Pencil Marks so they will not rub out, take well- 
 skimmed milk and dilute with an equal bulk of waiur. 
 Wash the pencil marks (whether writing or drawing) with 
 
THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 107 
 
 this liquid, using a soft, flat camel-hair brush, and avoiding 
 all rubbing. Place upon a flat board to dry. 
 
 Pewter. 
 
 The principal constituents of pewter are lead and tin ; the 
 proportions of the two metals depending somewhat on the 
 use to which the alloy is put. The best contains but 16 
 to 20 per cent, of lead. Of this plates au;l dishes are made, 
 which look like block tin, und can be brightly polished by 
 rubbing. The addition of more lead cheapens the com- 
 modity, and gives it a dull bluish appearance. In France 
 pewter vessels for wine and vinegar contain 18 per cent, of 
 lead. It has been found that a larger proportion of that 
 metal in utensils for this purpose \s liable to result in the 
 formation, in the liquid, of the poisonous acetate or sugar of 
 lead. 
 
 A little copper added in making pewter hardens the com- 
 poiuid and renders it sonorous, so that toy trumpets and 
 other rude musical instruments can be made of it. If the 
 copper is replaced by antimony, hardness and a silvery lustre 
 are the result. If the contents of the melting pot are stirred 
 with a strip half of xiuc and half of tin, or if a lump of zinc 
 is allowed to float on the melted metal during the casting, 
 the vaporized spelter seems to protect the fluid mass from 
 oxidation, and prevents the formation of dross. Hence it is 
 said to " cleanse " the mass. 
 
 Jewellers use polishers and laps of pewter, and sheets of 
 the article are to some extent used for cheap engraving, 
 music notes, or other figures being stamped upon it instead 
 of being cut with a burin or graver. The ease with which it 
 melts causes it to be employed by tinsmiths and tinkers for 
 solder. Care must be taken not to set pewter dishes, mugs, 
 spoons, lamps, etc. , on stoves or other hot bodies, as, if left 
 for any time, they are liable to settle- into shapeless lumps. 
 
 Pillows for the Sick Room. 
 
 Save all your scraps of writing paper, old envelopes, old 
 notes of no use for keeping, old backs of notes, etc. Cut 
 them in strips about one-half inch wide and two inches long, 
 and curl them well with an old penknife. Make a pillow case 
 of any materials you have ; fill it with your curled paper mixed 
 with a few shreds of flannel. Stuff it quite full, sew up the 
 end and cover as you please, These pillows are invaluable. 
 
108 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 4 
 
 in cases of fever, as they keep constantly cool and allow a 
 circulation of air. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. 
 
 Plaster of Paris is a well known material, obtained by ex- 
 posing tlie purer varieties of gypsum or alabaster to a heat 
 a little above that of boiling water, when it becomes a fine, 
 white dry powder. Sometimes the gypsum is first reduced 
 to a fine powder and then heated in iron pans, and in this 
 case the operation is sometimes called ''boiling" plaster, 
 because the escape of the water, with which crystalline gyp- 
 sum is always combined, gives to the fine powder the appear- 
 ance of boiling. Plaster of Paris, after being boiled, rapidly 
 deteriorates when exposed to the air, consequently when 
 plaster is required for making cements or for other purposes 
 for which a good article is needed, care must be taken' to 
 secure that which is good and freshly boiled. The Italian 
 image makers always use a superior quality of plaster, and it 
 may generally be obtained from them in small quantity. 
 
 The employment of gypsum, in casting, and in all cases 
 where impressions are required, is very extensive. A thin 
 
 a> of 1 part gypsum and 2J parts water is made ; this pulp 
 ens by standing. The hardening of good, well-burnt 
 gypsum is effected in one to two minutes, and more quickly 
 in a moderate heat. Models are made in this substance for 
 galvano-plastic purposes, for metallic castings, and for ground 
 works in porcelain manufacture. The object from which the 
 cast is to be taken is first well oiled to prevent the adhesion 
 of the gypsum. "When greater hardness is required a email 
 quantity of lime is added ; this addition gives a very marble- 
 like appearance, and the mixture is much employed in archi- 
 tecture, being then known as gypsum-marble or stucco. 
 The gypsum is generally mixed with lime water, to which 
 sometimes a solution of sulphate of zinc is added, After 
 drying, the surface is rubbed down with pumice stone, 
 colored to represent marble, and polished with Tripoli and 
 olive oil. Artificial scagliola work is largely composed of 
 gypsum. 
 
 There are several methods of hardening gypsum. One of 
 the oldest consists in mixing the burnt gypsum with lime- 
 water or a solution of gum arabic. Another, yielding very 
 good results, is to mix the gypsum with a solution of 20 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 109 
 
 ounces of alum in 6 pounds of water ; this plaster hardens 
 completely in 15 to 30 minutes, and is largely used under 
 the name of marble cement. Parian cement is gypsum 
 hardened by means of borax, 1 part borax being dissolved in 
 9 parts of water, and the gypsum treated with the solution. 
 Still better results are obtained by the addition to this solu- 
 tion of 1 part of cream of tartar. 
 
 The hardening of gypsum with a water-glass solution is 
 found difficult, and no better results are obtained than with 
 ordinary gypsum. Fissot obtains- artificial stone from gyp- 
 sum by burning and immersions in water, first for half a 
 minute, after which it is exposed to the air and again for two 
 to three minutesj when the block appears as a hardened stone. 
 It would seem from this method that the augmentation in 
 hardness is due to a new crystalization. Hardened gypsum, 
 treated with stearic acid or with paraffine, and polished, 
 much resembles meerschaum ; the resemblance may be in- 
 creased by a coloring solution of gamboge and dragon's 
 blood, to impart a faint red-yellow tint. The cheap artificial 
 meerschaum pipes are manufactured by this method. 
 
 Poisons. 
 
 Many of the substances used in the arts are highly poison- 
 ous. Indeed, some of the most virulent poisons are em- 
 ployed in very common operations. Thus arsenic is used for 
 coloring brass ; the strong acids are used in every machine 
 shop and foundry, and even prussic acid may be occasionally 
 produced during the employment of prussiate of potash. 
 The extremely poisonous cyanide of potassium is used by 
 every photographer and electroplater. Even into the house- 
 hold, poisons too frequently find their way. Our matches aro 
 tipped with a strong poison, and housekeepers are often too 
 ready with poison for the destruction of vermin. Phos- 
 phorous, arsenic and corrosive sublimate, are too frecjrently ; 
 tljus used. Paris green also we have actually seen used for j 
 the destruction of cockroaches in pantries, and corrosive 
 sublimate is in Common use as a poison for bed-bugs. As a 
 bug poison it is generally dissolved in alcohol or whiskey, 
 and the odor and taste have sometimes proved a strong 
 temptation to persons who did not fully realize its dangerous 
 character. All bottles containing such mixtures should 
 (herefore be carefully labelled, "POISON," in large letters, 
 
110 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 and \v.nen emptied they should either be broken, or very 
 carefully cleansed, since accidents have arisen from careless 
 persons pouring drinkable liquids into bottles that have 
 e mtained solutions of corrosive sublimate, which solutions, 
 after drying up have left the bottle apparently empty, but in 
 r -ality containing an amount of poison sullicient to destroy 
 several lives. 
 
 In all cases where poisons have been swallowed, the propsr 
 course is first to neutralize the deleterious agent, and thru to 
 procure its rejection by means either of the stomach-pump 
 or an emetic. The stomach-pump is, of course, the best and 
 most expeditious agent. It requires but a few moments to 
 insert it and remove the contents of the stomach ; fresh sup- 
 plies of water and the proper antidotes can then be pomvd 
 into the organ, so that in a few minutes the last traces of the 
 poison can be removed' But as the stomach-pump is to b i 
 found in the possession of physicians only, reliance must in 
 general be placed upon emetics, of Avhich the best is, un- 
 questionably, mustard an article Avhich is to be found in 
 almost every household. It is generally conceded by physi- 
 cians that mustard is the mildest, most rapid, and most 
 efficient emetic known. It is prepared for use as follows : 
 Take about a plump dessert-spoonful of genuine flour of 
 mustard (if it be mixed with wheat flour or turmeric, more 
 will be needed), and mix it rapidly in a cup with water to 
 the consistency of thin gruel, and let this be swallowed 
 without delay or hesitation. In a very few seconds the con- 
 tents of the stomach will be ejected. Before the emetic 
 action has entirely ceased, a little lukewarm water, or still 
 bitter, warm milk, should be forced down. This will be 
 thrown off immediately, and will serve to rinse out the 
 stomach and remove the last traces of deleterious matter. 
 
 By the time the operation of the emetic has ceased, a phy- 
 sician will probably be in attendance, and to his care tho 
 patient should be at once confided. 
 
 The following notes on special poisons will prove useful : 
 
 Strong Acid. Where nitric, sulphuric or hydrochloric 
 acid has been swallowed, it is well to administer carbonate 
 of soda before giving the emetic. 
 
 Oxalic Acid. This acid is often found among the articles 
 provided for household use. being used for cleaning brass 
 and various metals, as well as for removing stains of ink and 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. Ill 
 
 iron mould. In former times it was used for cleaning boot 
 tops and for some other purposes. In appearance it re- 
 isembles epsom salts so closely that even experienced chemists 
 might be deceived, if it were not for the taste, for while tho 
 acid is intensely sour the salts are as intensely bitter. 
 
 The proper antidote to oxalic acid is some form of lime, 
 and the best method of administering it is to mix finely 
 pulverized chalk with water to the consistency of cream and 
 swallow it. It is a singular fact that when oxalic acid is 
 largely diluted with water, it acts very rapidly and energeti- 
 cally, destroying life almost with the rapidity of prussic 
 acid. Hence to administer soapy water, or any other very 
 diluted remedy, would be almost fatal. And yet this course 
 was actually recommended by a popular scientific journal. 
 
 Prussic Acid. As this is one of the most rapid of all 
 poisons in its action, prompt and energetic measures are de- 
 manded. Cold affusion to the head and spine has been found 
 the most efficacious mode of treatment. Internal remedies 
 appear to be of no service. The vapor of ammonia may be 
 cautiously applied to the nostrils, and stimulating liniments 
 by friction to the chest and abdomen, but unless the dose is 
 small, and the patient is seen early, there can be little hope 
 of benefit from any treatment. Certain chemical substances 
 (cyanides) from which prussic acid is slowly evolved by the 
 action of the air, are used in electro-plating and in photo- 
 graphy. These substances are themselves very strong poisons, 
 and if accidentally swallowed they cause death with such 
 rapidity that there is scarcely any time to apply any remedies. 
 Green copperas (sulphate of iron) dissolved in water and ad- 
 ministered would decompose and neutralize the poison, after 
 which the directions given for prussic acid should be followed. 
 When poisoning occurs from breathing the vapors arising 
 from these salts, it is caused by prussic acid, and should be 
 treated accordingly. 
 
 Arsenic Paris Green. By arsenic is generally meant tha 
 white oxide of the metal arsenic. It is also known as arsenious 
 acid. Paris green is well known and owes its deadly proper- 
 ties to arsenic. In all cases in which poisonous doses of 
 arsenic have been swallowed, our great dependance must bo 
 placed upon emetics and purgatives. Persons who take 
 arsenic upon a full stomach frequently escape its effects, and 
 therefore it is always well to give copious draughts of milk, 
 
112 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 or, if more convenient, raw eggs, beaten np. Then, as soon 
 as possible, administer an emetic (mustard is as good as any) 
 and keep up its action by giving milk during the intervals 
 of the paroxysms of vomiting. When the stomach no longer 
 rejects what is swallowed, give a good dose of castor oil. 
 
 Corrosive Sublimate.- When corrosive sublimate has been 
 swallowed, the first thing to be done is, if possible, to get 
 rid of it, either by means of emetics or the stomach-pump. 
 If the poison has been taken on a full stomach, an emetic or 
 tho pump is the first thing in order ; if the stomach be empty, 
 it will be better to administer, in the first place, as much 
 white of egg, or milk, or mixture of both, as the patient can 
 be made to swallow, and immediately afterwards give an 
 emetic. The white of eggs is the great antidote for corrosive 
 sublimate, but it is of no use where the poison has been ab- 
 sorbed into the system, and if, after administering white of 
 eggs, we neglect to procure its rejection, the compound that 
 is formed may be destroyed by the action of the gastric juice, 
 and left free to act with all its original virulence. 
 
 Phosphorous. There is no efficient antidote or remedy for 
 poisoning by phosphorous. Taylor recommends the admin- 
 istration of emetics, and of albuminous or mucilaginous 
 drinks, holding hydrate of magnesia suspended. The exhibi- 
 tion of oil would be decidedly injurious, as this dissolves and 
 tends to diffuse the poison v Saline purgatives should there- 
 fore be preferred. 
 
 Opium. When a poisonous dose of opium has been taken, 
 the first object should be to remove the poison, and this must 
 frequently be accomplished by the stomach-pump, as emetics 
 are of little service wl^en the patient has lost the power of 
 swallowing. Dashing cold water on the head, chest, and 
 spine, has been adopted with great success ; in the treatment 
 of infants, the plunging of the body into a warm bath, and 
 suddenly removing it from the water into the cold air, has 
 been found a most effectual method of rousing them. Severe 
 whipping on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet or 
 the back has also been successfully employed. A common 
 plan for rousing an adult is to keep him in continual motion, 
 by making him walk between two assistants. Above all things, 
 the tendency to fall into a state of lethargy must be prevented. 
 A strong decoction of coffee has been frequently employed as 
 ti stimulant to promote recovery, and apparently with benefit. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 113 
 
 Strychnine. When this poison has been absorbed and con- 
 veyed into the blood there is no known antidote to its action. 
 3>ut if spasms have not already set in so as to close the ja\vs, 
 \ve should, by the stomach-pump or by emetics, endeavor to 
 romove the poison. In a case in which six grains of strychnine 
 Avere taken, the life of the person appears to have been saved 
 by the early use of the stomach-pump. It has been supposed 
 that emetics would not act in these cases ; but this is an 
 error based on imperfect observation. In one case a man 
 took three grains of strychnine, dissolved in rectified spirits 
 and diluted sulphuric acid. He went to bed and slept for 
 about an hour and a half, Avhen he awoke in a spasm, utter- 
 ing loud cries, which alarmed the household.. Free vomiting 
 was brought on by the use of emetics, and this, combined 
 Avith other treatment, led to his recovery. The first step, 
 therefore, in every case, should be to induce vomiting. 
 
 Ivy Poisoning. -The best remedy for ivy poisoning is said 
 to be SAveet spirits of nitre. Bathe the parts affected freely Avith 
 this fluid three or four times during the day, and the next 
 morning scarcely any trace of poison will be found. If the 
 blisters be broken, so as to allow the spirits to penetrate the 
 cuticle, a single application Avill be sufficient. 
 
 Sttngs. Extract the sting, Avhich is always left behind by 
 bees, and bathe the parts with cold water, or apply a good 
 poultice of common clay nmd. Liquid ammonia mixed either 
 Avith the water or the mud, will prove of service. All lini- 
 ments which require rubbing are bad, as tending to irritate 
 the part and diffuse the poison. Above all, avoid scratching 
 the wound. 
 
 Polishing Powders. 
 
 Nothing is more necessary to the successful use of polish- 
 ing poAvder than equality in the grain. Fine dust clogs the 
 action of coarse grinding po\vders, and prevents them from 
 cutting Avith rapidity the object to be ground ; coarse parti- 
 cles mixed with fine polishing poAvder scratch the article to 
 be polished, and render grinding and polishing necessary 
 again. To secure fineness and uniformity no process equals 
 that of elutriatioii, Avhich is thus performed : Suppose it 
 were desired to separate the ordinary flour of emery into 
 three different degrees of fineness. Take three vessels (sucli as 
 tin pails or glass jars) and mix the emery with a large 
 
114 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 quantity of water say a quart of water to l 6z. of emery. 
 Stir the mixture until the emery is thoroughly diffused 
 through the liquid, and allow to stand five minutes. By this 
 time all the heavier particles will have settled, and on pour- 
 ing the fluid into a second jar only the finer portion will bo 
 carried over. So continue to wash the first residuum until 
 nearly all the particles have subsided at the end of five 
 minutes, and the water is left comparatively clear. You will 
 now have the coarse portion, No. 1, by itself. 
 
 So, from the sediment collected from the washings of No. 1, 
 you may collect a portion, No. 2, having a second degree of 
 coarseness. The last and finest will be obtained by letting 
 the final washings stand ten or fifteen minutes, pouring olf 
 the liquid and allowing it to settle. 
 
 The principal polishing powders are chalk or wanting, 
 crocus or rouge, emery, oilstone powder, and putty or tutty, 
 Avhich latter consists chiefly of oxide of tin. Other powders, 
 such as tripoli, bath-brick, sand, etc., are rarely used for tho 
 finer kinds of work. Emery is so well known that it docs 
 not need description. 
 
 Chalk or Whiting. Chalk is a native carbonate of lime, 
 consisting of the remains of minute creatures known as/br- 
 amimfera, and when simply scraped or crushed under a 
 hammer or runner, it is sometimes used for polishing such 
 soft substances as bone, ivory, etc. As it contains particles 
 of silica of varying size, it cuts freely, but is apt to scratch. 
 To remove the gritty particles, the chalk is ground, and the 
 finer parts separated by washing. It then becomes whiting, 
 which is generally sold in lumps. Whiting has very poor 
 cutting qualities, and it is therefore used chiefly as plate 
 powder for cleaning gold, silver, glass, etc., and for absorb- 
 ing grease from metals which have been polished bv other 
 means. 
 
 Prepared Chalk. This is a manufactured article, pre- 
 pared by adding a solution of carbonate of soda to a solution 
 of chloride of calcium (both cheap salts), so long as a precip- 
 itate is thrown down. The solutions should be carefully 
 filtered through paper before being mixed, and dust should 
 be rigorously excluded. The white powder which falls 
 down is carbonate of lime, or chalk, and when carefully 
 washed and dried, it forms a most excellent polishing powder 
 for the softer metals. The particles are almost impalpable, 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 115 
 
 but seem to be crystalline, for they polish quickly and 
 smoothly, though they seem to wear away the material so 
 little that its form or sharpness is not injured to any per- 
 ceptible degree. 
 
 Crocus or Rouge. These articles are manufactured at 
 Liverpool, by persons who make it their sole occupation, in 
 the following manner : 
 
 They take crystals of sulphate of iron (green vitriol or 
 copperas), immediately from the crystallizing vessels, in the 
 copperas works there, so as to have them as clean as possible ; 
 and instantly put them into crucibles or cast iron pots, and 
 expose them to heat, without suffering the smallest particle 
 of dust to get in, which would have a tendency to scratch 
 the articles to be polished. Those portions which are leant 
 calcined and are of a scarlet color, are fit to make rouge for 
 polishing gold or silver, while those which are calcined or 
 have become red-purple or bluish-purple, form crocus lit for 
 polishing brass or steel. Of these, the bluish-purple colored 
 parts are the hardest, and are found nearest to the bottom of 
 the vessels, and consequently have been exposed to the 
 greatest degree of heat. 
 
 Mr. ~ Andrew Ross's mode of preparing Oxide of Iron. 
 Dissolve crystals of sulphate of iron in water ; filter the 
 solution to separate some particles of silex which are gen- 
 erally present, and sometimes are abundant ; then precipitate 
 from" this filtered solution the protoxide of iron, by the addi- 
 tion of a saturated solution of soda, which must also be 
 filtered. This grey oxide is to be repeatedly washed and 
 then dried ; put it in this state into a crucible, and very 
 gradually raise it to a dull red heat ; then pour it into a 
 clean metal or earthen dish, and while cooling it will absorb 
 oxygen from the atmosphere, and acquire a beautiful dark 
 red color. In this state it is fit for polishing the softer 
 metals, as silver and gold, but will scarcely make any impres- 
 sion on hardened steel or glass. For these latter purposes I 
 discovered that it is the black oxide that affected the polish 
 (and this gives to the red oxide a purple hue, which is used 
 as the criterion of its cutting quality in ordinary), therefore 
 for polishing the harder materials the oxide must be heated 
 to a bright red, and kept in that state until a sufficient 
 quantity of it is converted into black oxide to give the mass 
 a deep purple hue when exposed to the atmosphere. I have 
 
116 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 converted the whole into black oxicle ; but this is liable to 
 scratch, and does not work so pleasantly as when mixed with 
 the softer material. The powder must now be levigated 
 with a soft wrought iron spatula, upon a soft iron slab, and 
 afterwards washed in a very weak solution of gain arabic, as 
 recommended by Dr. Green in his paper on specula. The 
 oxide prepared in this manner is almost impalpable, and 
 free from all extraneous matter, and has the requisite quality 
 in an eminent degree for polishing steel, glass, the softer 
 gems, etc. 
 
 Lord Ross's Mode of preparing the Peroxide of Iron. 
 "I prepare the peroxide of iron by precipitation with water 
 of ammonia from a pure dilute solution of sulphate of iron ; 
 the precipitate is washed, pressed in a screw press till nearly 
 dry, and exposed to a heat which in the dark appears a dull 
 low red. The only points of importance are, that the sul- 
 phate of iron should be pure, that the water of ammonia 
 should be decidedly in excess, and that the heat should 
 not exceed that I have described. The color will be a bright 
 crimson inclining to yellow. I have tried both soda and 
 potash, pure, instead of water of ammonia, but after washing 
 with some degree of care, a trace of the alkali still remained, 
 and the peroxide was of an ochrey color till overheated, and 
 did not polish properly." 
 
 Oilstone Powder. The Turkey oilstone can hardly be con- 
 sidered as a hone slate, having nothing of a lamellar or schis- 
 tose appearance. As a whetstone it surpasses every other 
 known substance, and possesses, in an eminent degree, the 
 property of abrading the hardest steel, and is, at the same 
 time, of so compact and close a nature .as to resist the 
 pressure necessary for sharpening a graver or other small 
 instrument of that description. Little more is known of its 
 natural history than that it is found in the interior of Asia 
 Minor, and brought down to Smyrna for sale. The white 
 and black varieties of Turkey oilstone differ but little in 
 their general characters ; the black is, however, somewhat 
 harder, and is imported in larger pieces than the white. 
 
 Fragments of oilstone, when pulverized, sifted and washed, 
 are much in request by mechanicians. This abrasive is 
 generally preferred for grinding together those fittings of 
 mathematical instruments and machinery, which are made 
 wholly or in part of brass or gun metal, for oilstone being 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 117 
 
 softer and more pulverulent than emery, is less liable to be- 
 come embedded in the metal than emery, which latter is then 
 apt continually to grind, and ultimately damage the accuracy 
 of the fittings of brass works. In modern practice it is usual, 
 however, as far as possible, to discard the grinding together 
 of surfaces, with the view of producing accuracy of form, or 
 precision of contact. 
 
 Oilstone powder is preferred to pumice-stone powder for 
 polishing superior brass works, and it is also used by the 
 watchmaker on rubbers of pewter in polishing steel. 
 
 Pumice-stone Powder. Pumice-stone is a volcanic product, 
 and is obtained principally from the Campo Bianco, one of 
 the Lipari islands, which is entirely composed of this sub- 
 stance. It is extensively employed in various branches of the 
 arts, and particularly in the state of powder, for polishing 
 the various articles of cut glass ; it is also extensively used 
 in dressing leather, and in grinding and polishing the surface 
 of metallic plates, etc. 
 
 Pumice-stone is grcrtmd or crushed under a runner, and 
 sifted, and in this state it is used for brass and other metal 
 works, and also for japanned, varnished and painted goods, 
 for which latter purposes it js generally applied on woolen 
 cloths with water. 
 
 Putty Powder is the pulverized cxide of tin, or generally 
 of tin and lead mixed in various proportions. The process 
 of manufacture is alike in all cases the metal is oxidized in 
 an iron muffle, or a rectangular box, close on all sides, 
 except a square hole in the front side. The retort is sur- 
 rounded by fire, and kept at a red heat, so that its contents 
 are partially ignited, and they are continually stirred to 
 expose fresh portions to the heated air ; the process is com- 
 plete when the fluid metal entirely disappears, and the 
 upper part of the oxide then produced, sparkles somewhat 
 like particles of incandescent charcoal. The oxide is then 
 removed with ladles, and spread over the bottom of large 
 iron cooling pans and allowed to cool. The lumps of oxide 
 which are as hard as marble, are then selected from the 
 mass and ground dry under the runner ; the putty powder 
 is afterwards carefully sifted through lawn. 
 
 As a criterion of quality it may be said that the whitest 
 putty powder is the purest, provided it be heavy. Some of 
 the common kinds are brown and yellow, while others, from 
 
118 THE AVOEKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 the intentional admixture of a little ivory l>lack, are known 
 as grey putty. The pure white putty which is used by mar- 
 ble workers, opticians and some others, is the smoothest and 
 most cutting ; it should consist of the oxide of tin alone, but 
 to lessen the difficulty of manufacture, a very little lead (the 
 linings of tea chests), or else an alloy called shruff (pre- 
 pared in ingots by the pewterers) is added to assist the 
 oxidation. 
 
 The putty powder of commerce of good fair quality, is 
 made of about equal parts of tin and lead, or tin and shruff ; 
 the common dark colored kinds are prepared of lead only, 
 but these are much harsher to the touch, and altogether 
 inferior. 
 
 Perhaps the most extensive use of putty powder, is in glass 
 and marble works, but the best kind serves admirably as 
 plate powder, and for the general purposes of polishing. 
 
 Putty powder for fine optical purposes is prepared by 
 Mr. A. Boss by the following method, which is the result of 
 many experiments. Metallic tin is dissolved in nitra-muriatic 
 acid, and precipitated from the filtered solution by liquid 
 ammonia, both fluids being largely diluted with water. The 
 peroxide of tin is then washed in abundance of water, col- 
 lected in a cloth filter, and squeezed as dry as possible in a 
 piece of new clean linen ; the mass is now subjected to 
 pressure in a screw-press, or between lever boards, to make it 
 as dry as possible. When the lump thus produced has been 
 broken in pieces and dried in the air, it is finally levigated 
 while dry on a plate of glass with an iron spatula, and after- 
 wards exposed in a crucible to a low white heat. 
 
 Before the peroxide has been heated, or while it is in the 
 levigated hydrous state, the putty powder possesses but little 
 cutting quality, as under the microscope, the particles then 
 appear to have no determined form, or to be amorphous, 
 and, on being wetted, to resume the gelatinous condition of 
 the hydrous precipitate, so as to be useless for polishing ; 
 whereas, when the powder is heated, to render it anhydrous, 
 most of the particles take their natural form, that of lamellar 
 oystals, and act with far more energy (yet without scratch- 
 ing) than any of the ordinary polishing powders. The whole 
 mass requires to be washed or elutriated in the usual manner 
 after having been heated, in order to separate the coarser 
 particles. 
 
THE WOBK8HOP COMPANION. 119 
 
 Mr. Boss usually adds a little crocus to the putty powder 
 by way of coloring matter, as it is then easier to learn the 
 quantity of powder that remains on the polishing tool, and 
 it may be added that this is the polishing powder employed 
 by Mr. Boss in making his improved achromatic object- 
 glasses for astronomical telescopes, 
 
 Vienna Lime. Vienna lime and alcohol give a beautiful 
 polish to iron or steel. Select the soft pieces of lime, such 
 as will be easily crushed by the thumb and linger, as they 
 are the most free from gritty particles. Apply with a cork, 
 piece of soft pine wood, leather, chamois, etc. 
 
 Resins. 
 
 The resins are so frequently employed in the arts that a 
 knowledge of the action of different solvents upon them is of 
 great value. 
 
 Dr. Sac, of Neuenberg, Switzerland, has made an extensive 
 inquiry into the nature of different resins. The following 
 results, as obtained by him, are given in Dingler's Poly- 
 technic Journal : The resins spoken of are copal, amber, 
 dammar, common resins, shellac, elemi, sandarach and 
 mastic. All these resins can be reduced to powder. 
 
 The following will become pasty before melting : Amber, 
 shellac-, "elemi, sandarach and mastic ; the others will become 
 liquid at once. 
 
 In boiling water common resin will form a semi-fluid mass ; 
 dammar, shellac, elemi and mastic will become sticky ; while 
 copal, amber and sandarach will remain unchanged. 
 
 Dammar and amber do not dissolve in alcohol ; copal bo- 
 conies pasty ; elemi dissolves with difficulty, while resin, 
 shellac, sandarach and mastic dissolve easily. 
 
 Acetic acid makes common resin swell ; on all the others 
 it has no effect. 
 
 Caustic soda dissolves shellac i c dily ; resin partly ; but 
 has no influence on the others. 
 
 Amber and shellac do not dissolve in sulphide of carbon ; 
 copal becomes soft and expands ; elemi, sandarach and mastic 
 dissolve slowly ; while resin and dammar dissolve easily. 
 
 Oil of turpentine dissolves neither amber nor shellac, but 
 swells copal ; dissolves dammar, resin, elemi and sandarach 
 easily, and mastic very easily. 
 
 Benzol does not dissolve copal, amber and shellac, but 
 
120 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 does elemi and sandarach to a limited extent ; while dammar, 
 resin and mastic offer no difficulty. 
 
 Petroleum ether lias no effect on copal, amber and shellac ; 
 it is a poor solvent for resin, elemi and sandarach, and a good 
 one for dammar and mastic. 
 
 Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves all resins, imparting 
 to them a dark brown color, excepting dammar, which takes 
 a brilliant red tint. 
 
 Boiling linseed oil has no effect on copal and amber ; 
 shellac, elemi and sandarach dissolve easily. 
 
 Nitric acid imparts to elemi a dirty yellow color ; to mastic 
 and sandarach a light brown ; it does not affect the others. 
 
 Ammonia is indifferent to amber, dammar, shellac (?) and 
 elemi ; copal, sandarach and mastic become soft, and finally 
 dissolve ; while resin will dissolve at once. 
 
 Saws. 
 
 The grand secret of putting any saw in the best possible 
 cutting order, consists in filing the teeth at a given angle to 
 cut rapidly, and of a uniform length, so that the points will 
 all touch a straight-edged rule without showing a variation 
 of a hundredth part of an inch. Besides this, there should 
 be just enough set in the teeth to cut a kerf as narow as it 
 can be made, and at the same time allow the blade to work 
 freely without pinching. On the contrary, the kerf must not 
 be so wide as to permit the blade to rattle when in motion. 
 The very points of the teeth do the cutting. If one tooth is 
 a twentieth of an inch longer than tAvo or three on each side 
 of it, the long tooth will be required to do so much more 
 cutting than it should, that the sawing cannot be done well. 
 Hence the saw goes jumping along, working hard and cutting 
 slowly. If one tooth is longer than those on either side of 
 it, the short ones do not cut, although the points may be 
 sharp "Then putting a cross-cut saw in order, it will pay 
 well fo dress the points with an old file, and afterwards 
 sharpen them with a fine whetstone. Much mechanical skill 
 is requisite to put a saw in prime order. One careless thrust 
 with a file will shorten the point of a tooth so much that it 
 will be utterly useless, so far as cutting is concerned. The 
 teeth should be set with much care, and the filing should be 
 done with great accuracy. If the teeth are uneven at the 
 points a large flat file should be secured to a block of wood 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 121 
 
 in such a manner that the very points only may be jointed, 
 so that the cutting edge of the same may be in a complete 
 line or circle. Eveiy tooth should cut a little as the saw is 
 worked. The teeth of a handsaw, for all sorts of work, 
 should be filed fleaming, or at an angle on the front edge ; 
 while the back edge^ may be filed fleaming, or square across 
 the blade. The befit way to file a circular saw for cutting 
 wood across the grain, is to dress every fifth tooth square 
 across and about or? 3-twentieth of an inch shorter than the 
 others, which shou' d be filed fleaming at an angle of about 
 forty degrees. 
 
 Sieves. 
 
 It is often desirable to sift powders into different degrees 
 of fineness, and very fine sieves are not always to be easily 
 had. Those made of hair and wire answer well, but the 
 finest may be made out of the bolting cloth used by millers. 
 It may be sewed over a hoop of tin or brass, or even a ring 
 made of iron wire, or a piece of flexible wood bent into form 
 may answer to hold the cloth. 
 
 Shellac. 
 
 Shellac or lac is a resinous substance which, in India, 
 flows from certain trees in the form of lucid tears, in conse- 
 quence of punctures made upon their branches by a small 
 insect. 
 
 It is found in commerce in three forms slick lac, seed lac 
 and shellac. Stick lac is the substance in its natural state in- 
 vesting the small twigs of the trees, which are generally 
 broken off in collecting it. When separated from the twigs 
 and partially cleansed it is known as seed lac. Shellac is the 
 seed lac after it has been melted, purified and formed into 
 thin cakes. 
 
 Shellac is very apt to be adulterated with common resin, 
 and hence, unless when a pale lacquer is required, most 
 artisans prefer seed lac. When lac is mixed with a little 
 resin and colored with verrnillion or ivory black it forms 
 sealing wax. 
 
 Shellac is soluble in alcohol but not in turpentine. It is 
 also soluble in alkaline solutions, including ammonia. A 
 solution of borax in water dissolves it readily, and the result- 
 ing solution lias been used as a cement, as a varnish, and as a 
 
122 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 bas;s for indelible ink. It is much used by hatters as an in- 
 soluble cement. 
 
 Clarifying Shellac Solutions. Much trouble is generally ex- 
 perienced in obtaining clear solutions of shellac. If a mixture 
 of 1 part shellac with 7 parts of alcohol of 90 per cent, is 
 heated to a suitable temperature, it quickly clears, but as 
 quickly becomes turbid again on cooling. The only practical 
 method of freeing the solution from what some writers call 
 "wax," and others "fatty acid," which is present in shellac 
 in the proportion of 1 to 5 per cent., and is the cause of the 
 turbidity, has hitherto been the tedious process of repeated 
 nitration. M. Peltz recommends the following method : 
 Shellac 1 part is dissolved in alcohol 8 parts, and allowed to 
 stand for a few hours. Powdered chalk is then added in 
 quantity equal to half the weight of shellac in the solution, 
 and the latter is heated to 60 E. The greater portion of the 
 solution clears rapidly, and the remainder may be clarified 
 by once filtering. Carbonate of magnesia and sulphate of 
 baryta were tried in the same way, but were not found equally 
 efficacious. 
 
 Bleached Shellac. When bleached by the ordinary process, 
 shellac affords a polish for light woods, etc., that is brittle 
 and liable to peel off, while the presence of a trace of chlorine 
 causes metallic inlaying to become dim. These defects may 
 be avoided by a different mode of bleaching, namely, by 
 adding fine granulated bone-black to the solution of shellac 
 in 90 per cent, alcohol, until a thin, pasty mass is formed, 
 and exposing this for several days to direct sunlight, occa- 
 sionally shaking it thoroughly and filtering when sufficiently 
 bleached. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Pure silver is quite soft, and is, therefore, generally alloy eel 
 with copper to harden it, 
 
 Silversmiths' worl^, after having been filed is generally 
 rubbed, firstly, with a lump of pumice-stone and Avater ; 
 secondly, with a slip of water-of-Ayr stone and water ; 
 thirdly, a revolving brush with rottenstone and oil ; fourthly, 
 an old black worsted stocking with oil and rottenstone, and 
 fifthly, it is finished with the hand alone, the deep black 
 lustre being given with rouge of great fineness. The corn erg 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 123 
 
 and edges are often burnished with a steel burnisher, which 
 is lubricated with soap and water if at all. 
 
 In this case and in all others of polishing with the naked 
 hand, it is generally found that women succeed better than 
 men, and that some few, from the peculiar texture and con- 
 dition of the skin, greatly excel in the art of polishing. The 
 skin should be soft and very slightly moist, as the polishing 
 powder then attaches itself conveniently, and there is just 
 sufficient adhesion between the hand and work to make the 
 operation proceed rapidly. A dry hand becomes hard and 
 horny, and is 1 *ble to scratch the work, and excess of moist- 
 ure is alsc obj ctionable, as the hand is then too slippery. 
 
 The plated reflectors for light-houses are cleaned with 
 rouge, which is dusted on from a muslin bag, and rubbed 
 over them with a clean dry wash-leather. 
 
 A thin film of oxide will nevertheless occasionally form on 
 the surface of the reflector, and this is removed with a piece 
 of leather, with rouge moistened with spirits of wine, which 
 dissolves the oxide, after which the dry rubber is applied as 
 above. 
 
 Oxidized Silver. This is not an oxidization, but a combi- 
 nation with sulphur or chlorine. Sulphur, soluble sulphides, 
 and hydrosulphuric acid blacken silver, and insoluble silver 
 salts, and particularly the chloride of silver, rapidly blackens 
 *by solar light. Add four or five thousandths of hydrosul- 
 phate of ammonia, or of quintisulphide of potassium, to 
 ordinary water at a temperature of 160 to 180 Fahr. When 
 the articles are dipped into this solution an iridescent coating 
 of silver sulphide covers them, which, after a few seconds 
 more in the liquid, turns blue-black, llemove, rinse, scratch- 
 brush, and burnish when desired. Use the solution when 
 freshly prepared, or the prolonged Aeat will precipitate too 
 much sulphur, and the deposit will be wanting in adherence ; 
 besides, the oxidization obtained in freshly-prepared liquors 
 is always brighter and blacker than that produced in old 
 solutions, which is dull and grey. If the coat of silver is too 
 thin, and the liquor too strong, the alkaline sulphide dissolves 
 the silver, and the underlying metal appear In this case 
 cleanse and silver again, and use a weaker blacl *ming solu- 
 tion. Oxidized parts and gilding may be put upon the same 
 article by the following method : After the whole surface has 
 been gilt certain portions arc covered with the resist varnish ; 
 
124 . THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 9 
 
 silver the remainder. Should the process of silvering by- 
 paste and cold rubbing be employed, the gilding should be 
 very pale, because it is not preserved, and is deeply reddened 
 by the sulphur liquor. When this inconvenience occurs 
 from a too concentrated liquor, it is partly remedied by 
 rapidly washing the article in a tepid solution of cyanide of 
 potassium. v 
 
 A very beautiful effect is produced upon the surface of 
 silver articles, technically termed oxidizing, which gives the 
 surface an appearance of polished steel. This can be easily 
 effected by taking a little chloride of platinum, heating the 
 solution and applying it to the silver where an oxidized sur- 
 face is required, and allowing the solution to dry upon the 
 silver. The darkness of the color produced varies according 
 to the strength of the platinum solution from a light steel 
 gray to nearly black. The effect of this process, when com- 
 bined with what is termed dead work, is very pretty, and 
 may be easily applied to medals, and similar objects. 
 
 The high appreciation in which ornaments in oxidized 
 silver are now held, renders a notice of the following pro- 
 cesses interesting. There are two distinct shades in use 
 one produced by a chloride and which has a brownish tint, 
 and the other produced by sulphur, which has a bluish- black 
 tint. To produce the former it is necessary to wash the 
 article with a solution of sal ammoniac ; a much more 
 beautiful tint may, however, be obtained by employing a 
 solution composed of equal parts of sulphate of copper and 
 sal ammoniac in vinegar. The fine black tint may be pro- 
 duced by a slightly warm solution of sulphuret of potassium 
 or sodium. 
 
 The chloride of platinum mentioned above is easily pre- 
 pared as follows : Take 1 part nitric aoid and 2 parts hydro- 
 chloric (muriatic) acid ; mix together and add a little 
 platinum ; keep the whole at or near a boiling heat ; the 
 metal is soon dissolved, forming the solution required. , 
 
 Old Silvering. To imitate old artistic productions made 
 of solid silver, the groundwork and hollow portions not 
 subject to friction are covered with a blackish-red, earthy 
 coat, the parts in relief remain with a bright lead lustre. 
 Mix a thin paste of finely powdered plumbago with essence 
 of turpentine, to which a small portion of red ochre may be 
 gelded to imitate the copper tinge of certain old silverware ; 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 125 
 
 smear this all over the articles. After drying, gently nib 
 with a soft brush, and the reliefs are set off by cleaning with 
 a rag dipped in spirits of wine. 
 
 To give the old silver tinge to small articles, such as 
 buttons and rings, throw them into the above paste, rub in a 
 bag with a large quantity of dry boxwood sawdust until the 
 desired shade is obtained. 
 
 Cleaning Silver. Silver being a comparatively soft metal, 
 should never be rubbed with polishing powders capable of 
 cutting or grinding, as the delicate surface, especially if 
 engraved or ornamented, will be sure to have the delicate 
 lines and work injured. In cleaning silver there are but two 
 things that ever require to be removed dirt and the sulplmret 
 of silver. The latter appears as a coating on all silver articles 
 exposed to the air, and especially on silver spoons etc. , which 
 have come in contact with sulphur or the yolk of eggs. 
 Sulplmret or sulphide of silver is soluble in several salts, 
 especially cyanide of potassium, hyposulphite of soda, and 
 several salts of ammonia. Therefore, to clean silver which 
 has been blackened with sulphur, the best plan is to dissolve 
 off the sulphide by means of some of the chemicals named. 
 
 For the ordinary purposes of cleansing silver the best 
 material is a thin paste of alcohol, 2 parts ; ammonia, 1 part ; 
 and whiting enough to make a liquid like cream. This 
 should be smeared or painted over the silver and allowed to 
 stand until dry. If then brushed off with a very fine brush 
 the silver will appear clear and bright. The alcohol and 
 ammonia dissolve all dirt and sulphide, which are then ab- 
 sorbed by the whiting and removed with it. 
 
 Where really good whiting, that is to say, an article that is 
 soft or free from grit, cannot be procured, starch may be 
 used. 
 
 Ink Stains, To Remove from Silver The tops and other 
 portions of silver inkstands frequently become deeply dis- 
 colored with ink, which is difficult to remove by ordinary 
 means. It may, however, be completely eradicated by making 
 a little chloride of lime into a paste with water, and rubbing 
 it upon the stains. ^ 
 
 To Dissolve the Silver off old Plated GoocU. Mix 1 oz. of 
 finely powdered saltpetre with 10 oz. sulphuric acid, and 
 steep the goods in this mixture. If diluted with water it 
 acts on copper and other metals, but if very strong it to- 
 
126 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 solves the silver only, and may be used to dissolve silver off 
 plated goods without affecting the other metals. 
 
 Silvering. 
 
 Leather, cloth, wood and similar materials are silvered 
 by processes similar to those used for gilding, silver leaf 
 being substituted for gold leaf. Metals may be silvered 
 either by brazing a thin sheet of silver to the surface, or by 
 electro-plating. Frequently, however, it is desired to lightly 
 silver a metal surface, such as brass or copper, so as to make 
 any figures engraved thereon appear more distinct. Clock 
 faces, dials and the scales of thermometers and barometers 
 are cases in point, and if the surface be well lacquered with 
 white lacquer after being silvered, such a coating is very 
 durable. Silvering fluids or powders containing mercury 
 should never be used unless the articles are to be afterwards 
 exposed to a red heat so as to drive off the mercury. A 
 silvering fluid which is very commonly sold to housekeepers 
 under the name of Nonurgent or Plate Renovator, consists 
 merely of nitrate of mercury or quicksilver. When rubbed 
 on a copper cent or a brass stair-rod it give^ it at once a 
 bright silvery surface, but the brightness soon fades and the 
 article, if brass, becomes black and dirty, Avhile if it should 
 be a piece of plated ware it will be ruined. Stair-rods and 
 similar articles, if well silvered with powder No. 1, and then 
 lacquered with good lacquer, will present a white silvery ap- 
 pearance for a long time. Plated goodp should be re-coated 
 by the electro-plating process. 
 
 Silvering Poicder. 1. Nitrate of silver, 30 grains ; com- 
 mon salt, 30 grains ; cream tartar, 200 grains. Mix. Moisten 
 with water and rub on the article with wash leather. Gives 
 a white silvery appearance to brass, copper, etc. 
 
 2. Novargent. Add common salt to a solution of nitrate 
 of silver until the silver has all been precipitated. Wash the 
 white precipitate or chloride of silver and add a strong solu- 
 tion of hyposulphite of soda until the white chloride is 
 dissolved/ Mix the resulting clear liquid with j>ipe-clay 
 which has been finely powdered and thoroughly washed. 
 
 3. 1 oz. of nitrate" of silver dissolved in 1 quart of rain 
 or distilled water. When thoroughly dissolved, add a few 
 crystals of hyposulphite of soda, which will at first form a 
 jbrpwn precipitate, but which reclissojves if sufficient hvpq- 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 127 
 
 sulphite has been employed. The solution may be used by 
 simply dipping a sponge in it, and rubbing it over the article 
 to be coated. A solution of gold may be made and used in 
 the same manner. 
 
 4. Silvering Amalgam. A coating of silver, heavier than 
 can be obtained by the above, may be given by the follow- 
 ing process : Precipitate silver from its solution in nitric 
 acid by means of copper. Take of this powder oz. ; common 
 salt, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; and corrosive sublimate, 1 
 drachm. Make into a paste with water. Having carefully 
 cleaned the copper surface that is to be plated, boil it in a 
 solution of tartar and alum, rub it with the above paste, 
 heat red hot and then polish. 
 
 Size. 
 
 The size used for filling the pores of plaster, wood, cloth, 
 paper, etc., for the purpose of preparing it to receive paint 
 or varnish, is usually made from glue. Where large quanti- 
 ties are used the size is obtained in barrels from the glue 
 factory, and as the trouble and expense of concentrating it 
 into cakes is thus avoided, it may be obtained at a very cheap 
 rate. .. Size may be made by any one from clippings of skins, 
 tendons, etc., boiled down to jelly and carefully freed from 
 fat. Very fine size is prepared from parchment clippings. 
 Where size is made from glue the following directions will 
 prove useful : 
 
 Sizing f or Window Shades. Stretch the muslin well upon 
 tha frame. Soak over night one-half pound of the best white 
 glue in 4 gallons water ; in the morning turn it off and boil 
 the glue. It must be very thin. Add a small piece of castile 
 soap scraped fine. To have it more transparent add 2 oz. 
 powdered alum. It must be put on quick, while warm. 
 Gamboge for painting shades must be dissolved in alcohol; 
 carmine in spirits of hartshorn. 
 
 Size for Improving Poor Drawing Paper. -Take 1 oz. of 
 white glue, 1 oz. of white soap, and'j oz. of alum. Soak the 
 glue and the soap in Avater until they appear like jelly ; then 
 simmer in 1 quart of water until the Avhole is melted. Add 
 the alum, simmer again and filter. To be applied hot. 
 
 Gold Size. This is an entirely different article, and is in 
 reality a very strong drying oil colored to resemble gold, and 
 used for cementing gold leaf to articles that are to be 
 
128 THE "VOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 To prepare it, drying or boiled oil is thickened with yellow 
 ochre or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to the 
 utmost smoothness by grinding. It is thinned with oil of 
 turpentine. It improves by age. 
 
 Skins Tanning and Curing. 
 
 Curing Fur Skins. The following are the directions given 
 in the " Trapper's Guide," by Newhouse, an experienced trap- 
 per and hunter. 1. As soon as possible after the animal is 
 dead, attend to the skinning and curing. The slightest taint 
 of putrefaction loosens the fur and destroys the value of the 
 skin. 2. Scrape off all superfluous flesh and fat, but be 
 careful not to go so deep as to cut the fibre of the skin. 
 3. Never dry a skin by the fire or in the sun, but in a cool, 
 shady place, sheltered from rain. If you use a barn door for 
 a stretcher, nail the skin on the inside of the door. 4. Never 
 use "preparations" of any kind in curing skins, nor even 
 wash them in water, but simply stretch and dry them as they 
 are taken from the animal. In drying skins it is important 
 that they should be stretched tight like a drum-head. 
 
 To prepare Sheep Skins for Mats. 1. Make a strong soap 
 lather with hot water and let it stand till cold ; wash the 
 fresh skin in it, carefully squeezing out all the dirt from the 
 wool ; wash it in cold water till all the soap is taken out. 
 Dissolve a pound each of salt and alum in 2 gallons of hot 
 water, and put the skin into a tub sufficient to cover it ; let 
 it soak for 12 hours and hang it over a pole to drain. When 
 well drained, stretch it carefully on a board to dry, and 
 stretch several times while drying. Before it is quite dry 
 sprinkle on the flesh side 1 oz. each of finely pulverized alum 
 and saltpetre, rubbing them in well. Try if the wool be firm 
 on the skin ; if not, let it remain a day or two, then rub again 
 with alum ; fold the flesh sides together and hang in the 
 shade for two or three days, turning them over each day till 
 quite dry. Scrape the flesh side with a blunt J .nife and rub it 
 with pumice or rotten stone. Very beautiful mittens can be 
 made of lambs' skins prepared in this way. 
 
 2. The following process has been found to succeed very 
 well with sheep skins, dog skins and similar hides : Tack 
 the skin upon a board with the flesh side out, and then scrape 
 with a blunt knife ; next rub it over hard with pulverized 
 chalk, until it will absorb no inore, Then tak the s]un. Q# 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 129 
 
 from the board and cover it with pulverized alum ; double 
 half-way over, with the flesh side in contact ; then roll tight 
 together and keep dry for three days, after which unfold and 
 stretch it again on a board or floor, and dry in the air, and it 
 will be ready for use. 
 
 Skins of Rabbits, Cats and small Animals. Lay the skin 
 on a smooth board, the fur side undermost, and fasten it 
 down with tinned tacks. Wash it over first with a solution 
 of salt ; then dissolve 2 oz. of alum in 1 pint of warm water, 
 and Avith a sponge dipped in this solution, moisten the sur- 
 face all over ; repeat this every now and then for three days. 
 When the skin is quite dry take out the tacks, and rolling 
 it loosely the long way, the hair side in, draw it quickly 
 backwards and forwards through a large smooth ring until 
 it is quite soft, and then roll it in the contrary way of the 
 skin and repeat the operation. Skins prepared in this way 
 are useful in many experiments, and they make good gloves 
 and chest protectors. 
 
 Stains. 
 
 Stains of different kinds are removed either by dissolving 
 the offensive matter out of the material which it has soiled 
 or by destroying it. Ordinary washing is a good example of 
 the first method ; the removal of fruit stains by means of 
 chloride of lime illustrates the second. Sometimes it is 
 necessary to combine both methods. In practice it is of 
 course necessary to avoid the use of any solvent or bleaching 
 agent that can injure the material from which the stain is to 
 be removed. The following is a list of the stains which most 
 frequently occur, and also of the best methods of removing 
 them : 
 
 Acids. Most acids produce red stains in all black or blue 
 colors of vegetable origin. Where the acid has not been so 
 strong as to injure the texture of the fabric, such stains may 
 be easily removed by the use of a little potash, soda or am- 
 monia. Nitric acid, however, not only turns red, but bleaches 
 the goods, and it is very difficult to remove stains caused by 
 this acid. It is said that the yellow stains formed on brown 
 or black woolen goods by nitric acid can be removed, when 
 freshly formed, by moistening them repeatedly with a con- 
 centrated solution of permanganate of potash, and then 
 rinsing with water. Yellow stains on the hands may be 
 
130 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 treated in tlie same way, and the dark brown coloration pro- 
 duced may then be removed by treating with aqueous solution 
 of sulphurous acid. 
 
 Aniline Dyes. A solution of common sodium sulphite will 
 rapidly remove the stains of raost of the aniline dyes from 
 the hands. 
 
 Fruit Stains. Most fruits yield juices which, owing to the 
 acid they contain, permanently injure the tone of the dye ; 
 but the greater part may be removed without leaving a stain, 
 if the spot be rinsed in cold water in which a few drops of 
 aqua animonise have been placed, before the spot has dried. 
 Wine stains on white materials may be removed by rinsing 
 with cold water, applying locally a weak solution of chloride 
 of lime, and again rinsing in an abundance of water. Some 
 fruit stains yield only to soaping with the hand, followed 
 by fumigation with sulphurous acid ; but the latter process 
 is inadmissible with certain colored stuffs. If delicate colors 
 are injured by soapy or alkaline matters, the stains must be 
 treated with colorless vinegar of moderate strength." 
 
 Grease. 1. Where the fabric will bear it, the best method 
 of removing grease spots is simple washing with soap and 
 water. No ordinary grease spot will resist this. 
 
 2. Chalk, fuller's-earth, steatite or "French chalk." These 
 should be merely diffused through a little water to form a 
 thin paste, which is spread upon the spot, allowed to dry, 
 and then brushed out. 
 
 3. Ox-gall and yolk of t-gg, which have the property of 
 dissolving fatty bodies without affecting prrceptibly the 
 texture or colors of cloth. The oxgall should be purified, to 
 prevent its greenish tint from degrading the brilliancy of 
 dyed stuffs, or the purity of whites. Thus prepared it is the 
 most effective of all substances known for removing this kind 
 of stains, especially for \voolen cloths. It is to be diffused 
 through its own bulk of water, applied to the spots, rubbed 
 well into them with the hands till they disappear, after which 
 the stuff is to be washed with soft water. 
 
 4. The volatile oil of turpentine. This will take out only 
 recent stains ; for which purpose it ought to be previously 
 purified by distillation over quicklime. 
 
 5. Benzine or essence of petroleum is commoniy used for 
 removing grease spots ; but these liquids present the incon- 
 venience of leaving, in most cases, a brownish aureola. To 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 131 
 
 avoid this, it is necessary, whilst the fabric is still saturated, 
 and immediately the stain has disappeared, to sprinkle gyp- 
 Bum or lycopodinm over the whole of the moistened surface. 
 When dry, the powder is brushed away. 
 
 5. Balls for removing grease spots are made as follows : 
 Take fuller's-earth, free from all gritty matter ; mix with half 
 a pound of the earth, so prepared, half a pound of soda, as 
 much soap, and eight yolks of eggs well beaten up with half 
 a pound of purified ox-gall. The whole must be triturated 
 upon a porphyry slab ; the soda with the soap in the same 
 manner as colors are ground, mixing in gradually the eggs 
 and the ox-gall previously beaten together. Incorporate next 
 the soft earth by slow degrees, till a uniform thick paste be 
 formed, which should be made into balls or cakes of a con- 
 venient size, and laid out to dry. A little of this detergent 
 being scraped off with a knife, made into a paste with water, 
 and applied to the stain, will remove it. 
 
 Ink and Iron Mould. Fresh ink and the soluble salts of 
 iron produce stains which, if allowed to dry, and especially 
 if afterwards the material has been washed, are difficult to 
 extract without injury to the ground. When fresh, such 
 stains yield rapidly to a treatment with moistened cream of 
 tartar, .aided by a little friction, if the material or color is 
 delicate. If the ground be white, oxalic acid, employed in 
 the form of a concentrated aqueous solution, will effectually 
 remove fresh iron stains. 
 
 A concentrated solution of pyrophosphate of soda removes 
 many kinds of ink from delicate fabrics without altering the 
 coloring matters printed upon the tissues, or in any way 
 injuring them. 
 
 Mildew. Make a very weak solution of chloride of lime in 
 water (about a heaped-up teaspoonful to a quart of water) ; 
 strain it carefully, and dip the spot on the garment into it ; 
 and if the mildew does not disappear immediately, lay it in 
 the sun for a few minutes, or dip it again into the solution. 
 The work is effectually and speedily done, and the chloride 
 of lime neither rots the cloth nor removes delicate colors, 
 when sufficiently diluted, and the articles well rinsed after- 
 ward in clear water. 
 
 Another method is to wet the spot in lemon juice, then 
 spread over it soft soap and chalk mixed together, and spread 
 where the hottest rays of the sun will beat upon it for half 
 
132 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 e 
 
 an hour ; if not entire!/ removed repeat the same. Or wet 
 in clear lemon juice and lay in the sun ; or soak for an 
 hour or two, and then spread in the sun. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver. Nitrate of silver, it will be remembered, 
 is the base of most of the so-called indelible inks used for 
 marking linen in almost every household. Stains or marks 
 of any kind made with silver solution or the bath solution of 
 photographers may be promptly removed from clothing bv 
 simply wetting the stain or mark Avith a solution of bi- 
 chloride of mercury. The chemical result is the change of 
 the black-looking nitrate of silver into chloride of silver,, 
 which is white or invisible on the cloth. Bichloride of mer- 
 cury can be had at the drug stores. It is slightly soluble in 
 water, is a rank poison, and we would not advise anybody to 
 keep it about one's house. 
 
 The immediate and repeated application of a very weak 
 solution of cyanide of potassium (accompanied by thorough 
 rinsings in clean water), will generally remove these stains 
 without injury to the colors. 
 
 Paint. Stains of oil-paint may te removed TV .ith bisulphide 
 of carbon ; many by means of spirits of turpentine ; if dry 
 and old, with chloroform. For these last, as well as for tar- 
 spots, the best way is to cover them with olive oil or butter. 
 When the paint is softened, the whole may be removed by 
 treatment, first, with spirits of turpentine, then with benzine. 
 
 Tar. Tar and pitch produce stains easily removed by suc- 
 cessive applications of spirits of turpentine, coal-tar naphtha, 
 and benzine. If they are very old and hard, it is well to 
 soften them by lightly rubbing with a pledget of wool 
 dipped in good olive oil. The softened mass will then easily 
 yield to the action of the other solvents. Eesins, varnishes 
 and sealing wax may be removed by warming and applying 
 strong alcohol. Care must always be taken that, in rubbing 
 the material to remove the stains, the friction shall be ap- 
 plied the way of the stuff, and not indifferently backwards and 
 forwards. 
 
 Steel Working and Tempering. 
 
 Most workmen find themselves, at times, compelled to 
 forge and temper their own tools, such as drills, cold chisels, 
 etc. The following hints will be of service : 
 
 Forging Steel. Beware of over-heating the piece to be 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 133 
 
 forged, and also be careful that the fire is free from sulphur. 
 Small drills are easily heated in the flame of a lamp or 
 candle ; a Bnnsen burner will heat sufficiently quite a good 
 sized tool. Charcoal makes the best fire for all kinds of tools. 
 If you are compelled to use common bituminous coal let the 
 fire burn until most of the sulphur has been driven off. Do 
 not hammer with heavy blows after the steel has cooled. By 
 tapping it lightly, however, until it becomes black, the close- 
 ness of the grain is increased. 
 
 To Restore burnt Cast Steel Heat it to a bright cherry red 
 and quench it in water. Do this a few times and then forge 
 it carefully, and it will be nearly as good as before. The 
 various recipes for mixtures for restoring burnt steel are 
 worthless. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering Steel. Heat the steel to a bright 
 cherry red and plunge it in water that has been thoroughly 
 boiled and then allowed to cool. It will then be "as hard as 
 fire and water will make it," and too hard for anything 
 except hardened bearings, or tools for cutting and drilling 
 glass and very hard metals. 
 
 Where very hard tools are required, as, for example, for 
 cutting_steel or glass, mercury is the best liquid for harden- 
 ing ste*el tools. The best steel, when forged into shape and 
 hardened in mercury, will cut almost anything. We have 
 seen articles made from ordinary steel, which have been 
 hardened and tempered to a deep straw color, turned with 
 comparative ease with cutting tools, from good tool steel 
 hardened in mercury. 
 
 To make it stand work without breaking, it must be 
 tempered. To do this, polish the surface on a grindstone or 
 with emery paper, so that any change in the color of the 
 metal may be easily seen. Then heat the tool until the cut- 
 ting edge shows the proper color, as given below. Large 
 drills and cold chisels are hardened and tempered at one opera- 
 tion, the cutting edge being cooled and hardened while the 
 upper part is left hot. When taken from the water the heat 
 from the shank passes towards the cutting edge and brings 
 it to the right degree of softness. Small drills may be best 
 tempered in the flame of a lamp. A spirit lamp is best, 
 and the neatest plan is to heat the drill a short distance 
 from the point and allow the heat to flow towards the cutting 
 edge. As soon as the right color is seen on the edge, the 
 
134 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 entire tool is plunged in water and cooled. In this way the 
 shank is kept soft and the tool is not so apt to snap off. " 
 
 The following are the degrees of heat (Fahrenheit) and 
 corresponding colors to which tools for different purposes 
 should be brought : 
 
 Temperature. Color. Temper. 
 
 430 Very faint yellow. ) Very hard ; suitable for hammer 
 
 450 Pale straw color, f faces, drills for stone, etc. 
 
 470 F 11 *11 ) -^- ar( l an d inelastic ; suitable for 
 
 -o, rt xl ' > shears, scissors, turning tools for 
 
 j hard metal, etc. 
 
 510 Brown with purple ) Suitable for tools for cutting 
 spots. vwood and soft metals, such as 
 
 538 Purple. ) plane irons, knives, etc. 
 
 1 For tools requiring strong cut- 
 
 550 Dark blue. I ting edges without extreme luud- 
 
 560 Full blue. j ness; as cold chisels, axes, cutlery, 
 
 etc. 
 
 To Temper Steel on one Edge. Red hot lead is an excellent 
 thing in which to heat a long plate of steel that requires 
 softening or tempering on one edge. The steel need only to 
 be heated at the part required, and there is little dange'r of 
 the metal warping or springing. By giving sufficient time, 
 thick portions may be heated equally with thin parts. The 
 ends of wire springs that are to be bent or riveted may be 
 softened for that purpose by this process, after the springs 
 have been hardened or tempered. 
 
 Blazing Off. Saws and springs are generally hardened in 
 various compositions of oil, suet, wax and other ingredients, 
 which, however, lose their hardening property after a fcv, 
 weeks constant use ; the saws are heated in long furnaces, 
 and then immersed horizontally and edgewise in a long trough 
 containing the composition : two troughs are commonly used, 
 the one until it gets too warm, then the other for a period, 
 and so on alternately. Part of the composition is wiped oil 
 the saws with a piece of leather, when they are removed 
 from the trough, and they are heated, one by one, over a 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 135 
 
 clea 1 ' coke fire, until the grease inflames ; this L, called 
 "bL,zingoff." 
 
 The composition used by an experienced saw maker is two 
 pounds of suet and a quarter of a pound of beeswax to every 
 gallon of whale oil ; these are boiled together, and will serve 
 for thin works and most kinds of steel. The addition of 
 black resin, to the extent of about one pound to the gallon, 
 makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for those it refused to 
 harden before ; but the resin should be added with judgment, 
 or the works will become too hard and brittle. The compo- 
 sition is useless when it has been constantly employed for 
 about a month ; the period depends, however, on the extent 
 to which it is used, and the trough should be thoroughly 
 cleansed out before new mixture is placed in it. 
 
 The following recipe is recommended : Twenty gallons of 
 spermaceti oil ; twenty pounds of beef suet, rendered ; one 
 gallon of neatsfoot oil ; one pound of pitch ; three pounds 
 of black resin. 
 
 These last two articles must be previously melted together, 
 and then added to the other ingredients ; when the whole 
 must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close cover 
 fitted to it, until the moisture is entirely evaporated, and the 
 composition will take fire on a flaming body being presented 
 to its surface, but which must be instantly extinguished 
 again, by putting on the cover of the vessel. 
 
 Whexx i/ne saws are wanted to be rather hard, but little of 
 the grease is burned off; Avhen milder, a larger portion ; 
 and for a spring temper, the whole is allowed to burn away. 
 
 When the work is thick, or irregularly thick and thin, as 
 in some springs, a second and third dose is burned off, to 
 insure equality of temper at all parts alike. 
 
 Gun-lock springs are sometimes literally fried in oil for 
 a considerable time over a fire in an iron tray ; the thick 
 parts are then sure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin 
 parts do not become the more softened from the continuance 
 of the blazing heat. But for ordinary steel articles which 
 aro required to be soft, tough and springy, the usual plan is 
 to harden and then dip them in any coarse oil, and heat 
 thorn over the fire until the oil blazes. 
 
 Springs and saws appear to lose their elasticity, after 
 hardening and tempering, from the reduction and friction 
 they undergo in grinding and polishing. Toward the conclu- 
 
136 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 sion of the manufacture, the elasticity of the saw is restored, 
 principally by hammering, and partly by heating it over a 
 clear coke fire to a straw color ; the tint is removed by very 
 diluted muriatic acid, after which the saws are well washect 
 in plain water and dried. 
 
 Welding Steel. As we have already stated in the article on 
 Iron, welding is in reality a species of autogenous soldering. 
 And, as in soldering or brazing, it is necessary to keep the 
 surfaces that are to be united, free from dirt and oxide, so in 
 welding, the surfaces must be perfectly clean or the joint will 
 be imperfect. In welding common iron, sand is the flux 
 generally used. When it is required to weld steel to iron, 
 the steel must be heated to a less degree than the iron, as it 
 is the most fusible. The surfaces should be thoroughly 
 cleaned before they are brought together. Sal ammoniac 
 cleans the dirt from the steel, and borax causes the oxide to 
 fuse before it attains that heat which will burn the steel ; 
 consequently, a mixture of these two substances forms one of 
 the best materials for welding. 
 
 The best mode of preparing this mixture is as follows : 
 Take ten parts of borax and one part of sal ammoniac and 
 grind them together. Then melt them together, and when 
 cold reduce the mixture to fine powder, and preserve in a 
 well-stopped jar or bottle. 
 
 To Blue Steel The mode employed in bluing steel is 
 merely to subject it to heat. The dark blue is produced at a 
 temperature of 600, the full blue at 500, and the blue at 
 550. The steel must be finely polished on its surface, and 
 then exposed to a uniform degree of heat. Accordingly, 
 there are three ways of coloring ; first, by a flame producing 
 no soot, as spirits of wine ; secondly, by a hot plate of iron ; 
 and thirdly, by wood ashes. As a very regular degree of heat 
 is necessary, wood ashes for fine work are to be preferred. 
 The work must be covered over with them, and carefully 
 watched ; when the color is sufficiently heightened, the \7ork 
 is perfect. 
 
 To Blue Small Steel Articles. Make a box of sheet iron ; 
 fill it with sand and subject it to a steady heat. The articles 
 to be blued must be finished and well polished. Immerse 
 the articles in the sand, keeping watch of them until they 
 are of the right color, when they should be taken out and 
 immersed in oil. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 137 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Sulphur or brimstone is a well-known yellow substance 
 largely used in the manufacture of matches, gunpowder and 
 sulphuric acid. Aside from these uses, which are of interest 
 only to large manufacturers, sulphur is employed for bleach- 
 ing, disinfecting, making moulds for plaster casts, and as a 
 cement for fastening iron bars in stone sockets. 
 
 Sulphur, when burned, produces sulphurous acid, a gas 
 which destroys most vegetable colors and the germs of most 
 diseases. As a bleaching agent it is sometimes to be preferred 
 to chlorine, as it does not injure the fabrics so much. The 
 method of using it is to hang the articles to be bleached in 
 a large box or closet in which the sulphur is afterwards 
 burned. The easiest way to burn the sulphur is to dip 
 heavy brown paper in melted sulphur, and burn the matches 
 thus produced. In this way the sulphur is exposed to the 
 air sufficiently to cause it to continue to burn when once 
 ignited. Another very good plan is to place the sulphur on 
 a block of iron or brick which has been previously heated to 
 above the melting point of sulphur. The sulphur, if then 
 ignited, will continue to burn freely, but it is almost im- 
 possible to get a cold mass of sulphur to burn freely. 
 
 The" same method answers for disinfecting rooms, and 
 sulphurous acid vapors are the least injurious and most easily 
 procured of all our disinfectants. The National Board of 
 Health, in their recent "Instructions for Disinfection," say 
 that " fumigation with sulphur is the only practicable method 
 for disinfecting the house. For this purpose the rooms to 
 be disinfected must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, 
 bedding, etc., should be opened and exposed during the 
 fumigation. Close the rooms as tightly as possible, ignite the 
 sulphur, and allow the room to remain closed for twenty-four 
 hours. For a room about ten feet square at least two pounds of 
 sulphur should be used ; for larger rooms, proportionally in- 
 creased quantities." Of course in making arrangements for 
 burning the sulphur great care must be exercised so as not to 
 set the floor on fire. Safety is best secured by placing the 
 burning sulphur over a tub of water or a considerable heap 
 of sand or soil. 
 
 In making moulds for taking plaster casts, the sulphur 
 must be rendered plastic. This is an extraordinary property 
 possessed by this material, and one known only to chemists 
 
133 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 and experts. When sulphur is melted and poured into water, 
 instead of becoming hard it remains quite soft like dough, 
 and in this state it may be pressed into the most minute 
 crevices of a medal or other object, so as to take a perfect 
 mould of it. From this mould plaster casts or electrotypes 
 may be taken. After a short time the sulphur returns to its 
 original hard, yellow, brittle condition. 
 
 As a cement for fastening iron rods in the holes sunk in 
 stones, as in the gratings of windows and the iron work of 
 fences, sulphur is now extensively used instead of lead. To 
 pure sulphur, however, there is this very strong objection that 
 it is exceedingly brittle and is readily fractured, and even 
 reduced to coarse powder by sudden changes of temperature. 
 We have seen a huge roll of sulphur broken simply by the 
 heat of the hand. This may be avoided, in a measure, by 
 mixing the melted sulphur with some inert powder like sand. 
 Iron filings have also been mixed with it for the purpose. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Tin is a brilliant, silvery -white metal. It is very malleable, 
 but its power to resist tensile strains is so small that it is not 
 very ductile. When bent it emits a peculiar crackling sound, 
 arising from the destruction of cohesion amongst its particles. 
 When a bar of tin is rapidly bent backwards and forwards 
 several times successively, it becomes so hot that it cannot 
 be held in the hand. 
 
 Tin is acted upon by caustic alkalies (potash and soda), 
 but resists the acids of fruit, etc. ; hence its use for coating 
 iron so as to prevent corrosion and rust. Tin plate is sheet 
 iron which has been coated with tin. To apply the tin the 
 iron must be heated, and this is apt, in some cases, to injure 
 the articles to be tinned, as it softens the iron, or in other 
 words draws its temper. The process described under the 
 head "Iron," page 70, enables us to avoid this difficulty. 
 
 Tin forms alloys with various metals, those of lead and 
 copper being best known. That with lead is known as solder 
 and pewter (see under these heads); that with copper is 
 bronze, gun metal or "composition." 
 
 Tin and iron may be fused together in all proportions, 
 forming apparently homogeneous alloys. Berthier describes 
 one containing 35 - 1 per cent, of tin, and another containing 
 50 per cent, of tin, both being very brittle and capable of 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 139 
 
 being reduced to an impalpable powder. The affinity of iron 
 for tin is also well illustrated in common tin plate, which is 
 nothing more than sheet iron superficially combined with 
 tin, to which a further quantity adheres Avithout being in 
 combination. The alloy of tin and iron upon the plate, how- 
 ever, is so thin that it can easily be removed by mechanical 
 friction, and the amount of tin thus alloyed is probably not 
 much larger than one-half of one per cent. Tin, when added 
 to pig iron, imparts to it a steel-like texture of fine grain and 
 great hardness without very great brittleness. Such iron is 
 easily fused, and gives a sound like a bell. Indeed, in the 
 Great International Exhibition of 1851, there was a large 
 bell of cast iron stated to be alloyed with a small proportion 
 of tin. According to Karsten. pig iron with one per cent, of 
 tin yields a somewhat cold-short wrought iron with about 
 0'19 per cent, of tin. Such iron, it is stated, works well 
 under the hammer, but at a white heat white vapors escape. 
 With more tin, tho iron in welding gave much waste and 
 produced cold-short iron, with a fine, white and dull grain. 
 Eor specific purposes, however, especially where great hard- 
 ness is required, iron with a small amount of tin, not exceed- 
 ing 0'^. per cent, seems to be well adapted. Sterling, in 
 England, hardens the tops of rails with tin, and according to 
 a report of the English Commission for testing iron in regard 
 to its adaptability for railroad purposes, the best Dundyvan 
 bar iron, if alloyed with 0*22 per cent, of tin, supported, 
 without breaking, a weight of 23 "39 tons to the square inch. 
 Ott fused wrought iron with 0*5 per cent, of tin, and arrived 
 at results similar to those of Karsten. Whilst at a welding 
 heat it worked very well, the smith stating that it was some 
 of the toughest iron he had ever worked. The grain was 
 found to be fine and steel-like, with strong lustre and bright 
 color. 
 
 Varnish. 
 
 It is in general more economical to buy varnishes than to 
 make them on tha small scale. Occasionally, however, our 
 readers may find themselves in a situation where a simple 
 recipe for a good varnish will prove valuable. We give a few 
 recipes which are easily followed, and which will undoubtedly 
 prove useful in special cases. 
 
 Basket Ware, Varnish for, The following vanush for 
 
140 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 basket \7ork is said to dry rabidly, to possess sufficient 
 elasticity, and to be applicable with or without admixture of 
 color : Heat 375 grains of good linseed oil on a sand bath 
 until it becomes stringy, and a drop placed on a cold, 
 inclined surface does not run ; then add gradually 7,500 
 grains of copal oil varnish, or any other copal varnish. As 
 considerable effervescence takes place, a large vessel is neces- 
 sary. The desired consistency is given to it, when cold, by 
 addition of oil of turpentine. 
 
 Black Varnish for Optical Work. The external surfaces 
 of brass and iron are generally blacked or bronzed with 
 compositions given under the head of lacquers. The insides 
 of the tubes of telescopes and microscopes should be coated 
 with a dead black varnish so as to absorb the light and pre- 
 vent any glare. The varnish that is generally used for this 
 purpose consists of lampblack, made liquid by means of a 
 very thin solution of shellac in alcohol, -but such varnish, even 
 when laid on warm metal, is very apt to scale off and thus 
 produce two serious evils the exposure of the bright metal- 
 lic surface and the deposit of specks on the lenses. It will 
 therefore be found that lampblack, carefully ground in tur- 
 pentine, to which about a fifth of its volume of gold size or 
 boiled linseed oil has been added, will adhere much more 
 firmly. The metal should be warm when the varnish is ap- 
 plied. Care must be taken not to use too much gold size, 
 otherwise the effect will be a bright black instead of a dead 
 black. 
 
 Blade Varnish for Cast Iron. 1. For those objects to 
 which it is applicable one of the best black varnishes is ob- 
 tained by applying boiled linseed oil to the iron, the latter 
 being heated to a temperature that will just char or blacken 
 the oil. The oil seems to enter into the pores of the iron, 
 and after such an application the metal resists rust and cor- 
 rosive agents very perfectly. 
 
 2. Fuse 40 oz. of asphaltum and add % a gallon of boiled 
 linseed oil, 6 oz. red lead, 6 oz. litharge, and 4 oz. sulphate 
 of zinc, dried and powdered. Boil for two hours and mix in 
 8 oz. fused dark amber gum and a pint of hot linseed oil, 
 and boil again for two hours more. When the mass has 
 thickened withdraw the heat and thin down with a gallon of 
 turpentine. 
 
 Green Varnish. There is a most beautiful transparent 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 141 
 
 / 
 
 green varnish employed to give a fine glittering color to gilt 
 or other decorated works. As the preparation of this varnish 
 is very little known, an account of it may in all probability 
 prove of interest to many of our readers. The process is as 
 follows : Grind a small quantity of a peculiar pigment called 
 "Chinese blue," along with about double the quantity of 
 finely-powdered chromate of potash, and a sufficient quantity 
 of copal varnish thinned with turpentine. The mixture re- 
 quires the most elaborate grinding or incorporating of its 
 ingredients, otherwise it will not be transparent, and there- 
 fore useless for the purpose for which it is intended. The 
 " tone" of the color may be varied by an alteration in the 
 proportion of the ingredients. A preponderance of chromate 
 of potash causes a yellowish shade in the green, as might 
 have been expected, and vice versa with the blue under the 
 same circumstances. This colored varnish will produce a 
 very striking effect in japanned goods, paper hangings, etc., 
 and can be made at a very cheap rate. 
 
 Iron Work, Bright Varnish for. Dissolve 31bs. of resin in 
 10 pints boiled linseed oil, and add 2 Ibs. of turpentine. 
 
 Map Varnish. Clear Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 
 8 oz. Warm gently and shake until dissolved. Maps, draw- 
 ings, etc., which are to be varnished with this solution, 
 should be first brushed over with a solution of isinglass and 
 allowed to dry thoroughly. 
 
 Mastic. Mastic, 6 oz.-; turpentine, 1 quart. Tough, hard, 
 brilliant and colorless. Excellent for common woodwork. 
 
 Metals Bright, Varnish for. In order to make alcoholic 
 varnish adhere more firmly to polished metallic surfaces, A. 
 Morell adds one part of pure crystallized boracic acid to 200 
 parts of the varnish. Thus prepared it adheres so firmly to the 
 metal that it cannot be scratched off with the finger nail ; it ap- 
 pears, in fact, like a glaze. If more boracic acid is added than 
 above recommended the varnish loses its intensity of color. 
 
 Paintings, Varnish for. A good varnish can be made as 
 follows : Mastic, six ounces ; pure turpentine, one-half 
 ounce ; camphor, two drachms ; spirits of turpentine, nine- 
 teen ounces ; add first the camphor to the turpentine. The 
 mixture is made in a water-bath, and when the solution is 
 effected, add the mastic and the spirits of turpentine near 
 the end of the operation, then filter through a cotton cloth. 
 JThe varnish should be laid on very carefully. 
 
142 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 IZust, Varnish for Preventing. A varnish for this purpose 
 may be made of 120 parts resin, 180 sandarac, 50 gumlae. 
 They should be heated gradually until melted, and thor- 
 oughly mixed, then 120 parts turpentine added, and sub- 
 sequently, after further heating, 180 parts rectified alcohol. 
 After careful filtration, it should be put into tightly-corked 
 bottles. 
 
 Shellac Varnish. Dissolve good shellac or seed lac in 
 alcohol, making the varnish of any consistence desired. 
 NOTE. Shellac gives a pale cinnamon colored varnish. 
 Varnish made with seed lac is deeper colored and redder. 
 If colorless varnish is desired use bleached shellac, an article 
 which is to be had at most drug stores. 
 
 Tortoise Shell Japan. fake good linseed oil, one gallon ; 
 amber, one-half pound ; boil together until the fluid is brown 
 and thick. Then strain through a cloth and boil again until 
 of consistency of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having pre- 
 pared this varnish well, clean the article to be japanned, and 
 then brush the parts over with verniillion mixed Avith shellac; 
 varnish, or with drying oil diluted with turpentine. "Wlic.n 
 this coat is dry. brush the whole with the amber varnish 
 diluted to a proper consistency with turpentine, and then, 
 when set firm, put the article into a hot stove to undergo heat 
 for as long a time as required to produce the desired effect. 
 In some instances as much as two weeks may be required, 
 after which finish in an annealing oven. 
 
 Turpentine Varnish. Clear pale resin, 5 Ibs. ; turpentine, 
 7 Ibs. Dissolve in any convenient vessel. 
 
 Varnish for Violins and similar articles. Sandarach, 6 oz. ; 
 mastic, 3 oz. ; turpentine varnish, one-half pint ; alcohol 1 
 gallon. Keep in a tight tin can in a warm place until the 
 gums are dissolved. 
 
 Varnish for Replacing Turpentine and Linseed Oil Paints. 
 Fr. Theis, of Bissendorf, prepares a varnish consisting of 100 
 parts of resin, 20 parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, and 
 50 parts of water, by heating these substances together and 
 mixing them with a solution of 24 parts of strong liquor 
 ammonia in 250 parts of water. With the mass thus obtained 
 the pigments are levigated without the addition of linseed 
 oil or turpentine ; the paint dries readily without the aid of 
 a drier and looks very well, especially when varnished. The 
 paint keeps well, even under water, and becomes very 
 
THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. ' 143 
 
 The cost is said to be about one-third that of ordinary oil 
 paints. 
 
 White, Hard Varnish for Wood or Metal. Mastic, 2 oz. ; 
 sandarach, 8 oz. ; elemi, 1 oz. ; Strasbourg or Scio turpentine, 
 4 oz. : alcohol, 1 quart. 
 
 White Varnish for Paper, Wood or Linen. Sandarach, 
 8 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. 
 
 White Spirit Varnish. Rectified spirit, 1 gallon ; gum 
 sandarach, 2} Ibs. Put these ingredients into a tin bottle, 
 warm gently and shake till dissolved. Then add a pint of 
 pale turpentine varnish. 
 
 Wood, Parisian Varnish for. To prepare a good varnish 
 for fancy woods, dissolve one part of good shellac in "three to 
 four parts of alcohol of 92 per cent, in a water-bath, and 
 cautiously add distilled water iintil a curdy mass separates 
 out, which is collected and pressed between linen; the liquid 
 is filtered through paper, all the alcohol removed by distilla- 
 tion from the Avater bath, and the resin removed and dried at 
 100 3 centigrade until it ceases to lose weight; it is then 
 dissolved in double its weight of alcohol of at least 96 
 per cent. , and the solution perfumed with lavender oil. 
 
 Wood Stained, Varnish for. A solution of four ounces of 
 sandarac, one ounce gum mastic, and four ounces shellac, in 
 one pound of alcohol, to which two ounces oil of turpentine 
 is added, can be recommended as a varnish over stained 
 woods. 
 
 Varnishing. 
 
 Before beginning to varnish, it is necessary that the 
 surface to which it is to be applied, should be perfectly 
 free from all grease and smoke stains, for it will be found 
 if this is not attended to, the varnish will not dry hard. 
 If the varnish is to be applied to old articles, it is necessary 
 to wash them very carefully with soap and water before ap- 
 plying it. When it is wished that the varnish should dry 
 quickly and hard, it is necessary to be careful that the var- 
 nish should always be kept as long a time as possible before 
 being used ; and also that too high a temperature has not 
 been used in manufacturing the varnish employed. It is 
 likewise customary, when it can be done, to expose the article 
 to the atmosphere of a heated room. This is called stoving 
 it, and is found to greatly improve the appearance of the 
 
144 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 work, as well as to cause the varnish to dry quickly. After 
 the surface is varnished, to remove all the marks left by the 
 brush, it is usually carefully polished with finely-powdered 
 pumice stone and water. Afterwards, to give the surface the 
 greatest polish it is capable of receiving, it is rubbed over 
 with a clean soft rag, on the surface of which a mixture of 
 very finely powdered tripoli and oil has been applied. The 
 surface is afterwards cleaned with a soft rag and powdered 
 starch, and the last polish is given with the palm of the hand. 
 This method is, however, only employed when those varnishes 
 are used which, when dry, become sufficiently hard to admit 
 of it. 
 
 A good surface may be produced on unpainted wood by 
 the following treatment : Glass-paper the wood thoroughly as 
 for French polishing, size it, and lay on a coat of varnish, 
 very thin, with a piece of sponge or Avadding covered with a 
 piece of linen rag. When dry, rub down with pumice dust, 
 and apply a second coat of varnish. Three or four coats 
 should produce a surface almost equal to French polish, if 
 the varnish is good and the pumice dust be well applied 
 between each coat. The use of a sponge or wadding instead 
 of a brush aids in preventing the streaky appearance usually 
 caused by a brush in the hands of an unskilled person. 
 
 When varnish is laid on a piece of cold furniture or a cold 
 carriage-body, even after it has been spread evenly and with 
 dispatch, it will sometimes "crawl" and roll this way and 
 that way as if it were a liquid possessing vitality and the power 
 of locomotion. It is sometimes utterly impossible to varnish 
 an article at all satisfactorily during cold weather and in a 
 cold apartment. In cold and damp weather a carriage, chair 
 or any other article to be varnished should be kept in a clean 
 and warm apartment where there is no dust flying, until the 
 entire woodwork and iron-work have been warmed through 
 and through, to a temperature equal to that of summer heat 
 say eighty degrees. That temperature should be maintained 
 day and night. If a fire is kept for only eight or ten hours 
 during the day, the furniture will be cold, even in a warm 
 paint-room. Before any varnish is applied, some parts of the 
 surface which may have been handled frequently, should be 
 rubbed with a woolen cloth dipped in spirits of turpentine, 
 so as to remove any greasy, oleaginous matter which may 
 have accumulated. Table-beds, backs of chairs, and fronts 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 145 
 
 of bureau drawers are sometimes so thoroughly glazed over 
 that varnish will not aclbere to the surface, any more than 
 water will lie smoothly on recently painted casings. Tli3 
 varnish should also be warm not hot and it should be 
 spread quickly and evenly. As soon as it flows from the 
 brush readily and spreads evenly, and before it commences 
 to set, let the rubbing or brushing cease. Oae can always 
 do a better job by laying on a coat of medium heaviness, 
 rather than a very light coat or a covering so heavy that the 
 varnish will hang down in ridges. Varnish must be of tho 
 proper consistency, in order to flow just right and to set 
 with a smooth surface. If it is cither too thick or too thin 
 one cannot do a neat job. 
 
 When it is wished to varnish drawings, engravings, or 
 other paper articles, it is usual to give them a coat of size 
 before applying the varnish. For the preparation of Size see 
 article under that head. 
 
 To Restore Spotted Varnish. If the varnish has been 
 blistered by heat or corroded by strong acids, the only 
 remedy is to scrape or sandpaper the article and revarnish. 
 Spots may often be removed by the following process : Make 
 a mixture of eqiial parts of linseed oil, alcohol and turpentine, 
 sWyhtly moisten a rag with it, and rub the spots until they 
 disappear. Then polish the spot with ordinary blotting 
 paper. Varnish injured by heat can hardly be restored in 
 any other way than by removing it and applying a fresh 
 coat. 
 
 Voltaic Batteries. 
 
 In every kind of battery it is essential that the connections 
 be bright, and that the metal surfaces which are to be united 
 should be brought together under considerable pressure. 
 Those batteries which depend for contact upon light springs, 
 and the mere placing of wires in holes, lose a great deal of 
 available power. The surfaces ought invariably to be filed 
 bright and pressed together by means of screws. We have 
 frequently seen the action of the batteries used for medical 
 purposes entirely stopped by a thin film of oxide. 
 
 The zincs also should always be thoroughly amalgamated to 
 prevent waste. When the zincs are new and uncorroded, 
 amalgamation is an easy process. Dip the zincs in dilute 
 sulphuric acid (8 parts water and 1 of acid), and rub them 
 
148 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 with mercury. The mercury will adhere quite readily and 
 render the entire surface brilliant and silvery. But when the 
 zincs are old and corroded it will be found that the mercury 
 does not adhere to some parts. In such cases wash the sur- 
 face of the zinc with a solution of nitrate of mercury and it 
 will become coated with amalgam. Once the surface is 
 touched, it is easy to add as much mercury as may be desired 
 by simply rubbing on the liquid metal. 
 
 The coating of mercury adds greatly to the durability of 
 the zincs, as when so prepared the acid will not act on them 
 except when the current is passing, and from the excellent 
 condition of the entire surface the power of the batteiy is 
 greatly increased. 
 
 Watch Care of. 
 
 1. Wind your watch as nearly as possible at same hour 
 every day. 2. Be careful that the key is in good condition, as 
 there is much danger of injuring the works when the key is 
 worn or cracked ; there are more main springs and chains 
 broken through a jerk in winding than from any other cause, 
 which injury will sooner or later be the result if the key be 
 in bad order. 3. As all metals contract by cold and expand 
 by heat, it must be manifest that to keep the watch as nearly 
 as possible at one temperature, is a necessary piece of atten- 
 ti Y.I. 4. Keep the watch as constantly as possible in one 
 position, that is, if it hangs by day let it hang by night, 
 against something soft. 5. The hands of a pocket chronom- 
 eter or duplex watch should never be set backwards ; in other 
 watches this a matter of 110 consequence. 6. The glass 
 should never be opened in watches which set a-nd regulate at 
 the back. One or two directions more it is of vital importance 
 that you bear in mind. On regulating a watch, should it be 
 fast, move the regulator a trifle towards the slow ; and if 
 going slow, do the reverse ; you cannot move the regulator 
 too slightly or too gently at a time, and the only inconven- 
 ience that can arise is having to perform the operation more 
 than once. On the contrary, if you move the regulator too 
 much at a time, you will be as far, if not further than ever, 
 from attaining your object, so that you may repeat the move- 
 ment until quite tired and disappointed, stoutly blaming 
 both watch and watchmaker, while the fault is entirely your 
 own. Again, you cannot be too careful in respect of the 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 147 
 
 nature and condition of your watch-pocket ; see that it be 
 made of something soft and pliant, such as wash-leather, 
 which is the best, and also that there be no Hue or nap that 
 may be torn off when taking the watch out of the pocket. 
 Cleanliness, too. is as needful here as in the key before wind- 
 ing ; for, if there be dust or dirt in either instance, it will, 
 you may rely upon it, work its way into the watch, as well 
 as wear away the engine-turning of the case. 
 
 Waterproofing. 
 
 Porous goods are made waterproof according to two very 
 distinct systems. According to the first the articles are made 
 absolutely impervious to Avater and air by having their pores 
 filled up with some oily or gummy substance, which becomes 
 stiff and impenetrable. Caoutchouc, paints, oils, melted wax, 
 etc. , are of this kind. The other system consists in making 
 the fabric repellent to water, while it remains quite porous 
 and freely admits the passage of air. Goods so prepared 
 will resist any ordinary rain, and we have seen a very porous 
 fabric stretched over the mouth of a vessel and resist tho 
 passage of water one or two inches deep. The following 
 recipes have been tried and found good. Most of those found 
 in th"e recipe books are worthless. 
 
 To Render Leather Waterproof. 1. Melt together 2 oz. of 
 Burgundy pitch, 2 oz. of soft wax, 2 oz. of turpentine, and 1 
 pint of raw linseed oil. Lay on with a brush while warm. 
 
 2. Melt 3 oz. lard and add 1 oz. powdered resin. This 
 mixture remains soft at ordinary temperatures, and is an ex- 
 cellent application for leather. 
 
 Water-proof Canvas for Covering Carts, etc. 9 gallons 
 linseed oil, 1 Ib. litharge, 1 Ib. urnber, boiled together for 21 
 hours. May be colored with any paint. Lay on with a 
 brush. 
 
 To Make Sailcloth Impervious to Water, and yet Pliant 
 and Durable. Grind 6 Ibs. English ochre with boiled oil, and 
 add 1 Ib. of black paint, Avhich mixture forms an indifferent 
 black. An ounce of yellow soap, dissolved by heat in half a 
 pint of water, is mixed while hot with the paint. This com- 
 position is laid upon dry canvas as stiff as can conveniently 
 be done with the brush. Two days after, a second coat of 
 ochre and black paint (without any soap) is laid on, and, 
 allowing this coat time to dry, the canvas is finished with a. 
 
148 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 coat of any desired color. After three days it does not stick 
 together when folded up. This is the formula used in the 
 British navy yards, and it has given excellent results. We 
 have seen a portable boat made of canvas prepared in this 
 way and stretched on a skeleton frame. 
 
 Metallic Soap for Canvas. The following is highly recom- 
 mended as a cheap and simple process for coating canvas for 
 wagon tops, tents, awnings, etc. It renders it impermeable 
 to moisture, without making it stiff and liable to break. 
 Soft soap is to be dissolved in hot water, and a solution of 
 sulphate of iron added. The sulphuric acid combines with 
 the potash of the soap, and the oxide of iron is precipitated 
 with the fatty acid as insoluble iron soap. This is washed 
 and dried, and mixed with linseed oil. The soap prevents 
 the oil from getting hard and cracking, and at the same time 
 water has no effect on it. 
 
 The following recipes are intended to be applied to woven 
 fabrics, which they leave quite pervious to air but capable 
 of resisting water. 
 
 1. 'Apply a strong solution of soap, not mere soap suds, to 
 the wrong side of the cloth, and when dry wash the other 
 side with a solution of alum. 
 
 2. The following recipe is substantially the same as the 
 preceding, but if carefully followed in its details gives better 
 results : 
 
 Take the material successively through baths of sulphate 
 of alumina, of soap and of water ; then dry and smother or 
 calender. For the alumina bath, use the ordinary neutral 
 sulphate of alumina of commerce (concentrated alum cake), 
 dissolving 1 part in 10 of water, which is easily done without 
 the application of heat. The soap is best prepared in this 
 manner : Boil 1 part of light resin, 1 part of soda crystals, 
 and 10 of water, till the resin is dissolved ; salt the soap out 
 by the addition of one-third part of common salt ; dissolve 
 this soap with an equal amount of good palm oil soap (navy 
 soap) in 30 parts of water. The soap bath should be kept 
 hot while the goods are passing through it. It is best to have 
 three vats along side of each other, and by a special ai'rangc- 
 ment to keep the goods down in the baths. Special care 
 should be taken to have the fabric thoroughly soaked in tho 
 alumina bath. 
 
 3. Drs. Hager and Jacobsen remark that during the last 
 
THE WOBKSHP" COMPANION. 149 
 
 few years very good and ch^p waterproof goods of this de- 
 scription have been manufactured in Berlin, which they 
 believe is effected by steeping them first in a bath of sulphate 
 of alumina and of copper, and then into one of water-glass 
 and resin soap. 
 
 Whitewash. 
 
 The process of whitewashing is known by various names, 
 such as " calcimining. " " kalsomining, " etc., most of them 
 derived evidently from the latin name for lime, which was 
 the principal ingredient of all the older forms of white- 
 wash. 
 
 Professors of the "Art of Kalsomining" affect a great 
 deal of mystery, but the process is very simple. It consists 
 simply in making a whitewash with some neutral substance 
 which is made to adhere by means of size or glue. It contains 
 no caustic material like lime. Several substances have been 
 used with good results. The best is zinc white. It gives the 
 most brilliant effect but is the most expensive r The next is 
 Paris white or sulphate of baryta. This, when pure, is nearly 
 equal to zinc white, but, unfortunately, common whiting is 
 often sold for it, and more often mixed with it. It is not 
 difficult, however, to detect common whiting either when 
 alone or mixed with Paris white. When vinegar, or better 
 still, spirits of salt, is poured on whiting, it foams or effer- 
 vesces, but produces no effect on Paris white. Good whiting, 
 however, gives very fair results and makes a far better finish 
 than common lime as ordinarily used. When well made, 
 however, good lime whitewash is very valuable for out-houses, 
 and places where it is desirable to introduce a certain degree 
 of disinfecting action. One of the best recipes for lime 
 whitewash is that known as the " White House" whitewash, 
 and sometimes called "Treasury Department'' whitewash, 
 from the fact that it is the recipe sent out by the Lighthouse 
 Board of the Treasury Department. It has been found, by ex- 
 perience, to answer on wood, brjck and stone, nearly as well 
 as oil paint, and is much cheaper. Slake one-half bushel 
 unslaked lime with boiling water, keeping it covered during 
 the process. Strain it and add a peck of salt, dissolved in 
 warm water ; three pounds ground rice, put in boiling water 
 and boiled to a thin paste ; one-half pound powdered Spanish 
 whiting and a pound of clear glue, dissolved in warm water ; 
 
150 THE WORKSHOP -COMPANION. 
 
 mix these well together and let the mixture stand for several 
 days. Keep the wash thus prepared in a kettle or portable 
 furnace, and, when used, put it on as hot as possible with 
 painters' or whitewash brushes. 
 
 Kalsomine, as distinguished from lime whitewash, is best 
 suited for the interior of rooms in the dwelling house. To 
 kalsomine a good sized room with two coats, proceed as 
 follows : 
 
 Select some very clear colorless glue and soak J Ib. in water 
 for 12 hours. Then boil it, taking great care that it does not 
 burn, and this is best done by setting the vessel with the glue 
 in a pan of water over the fire. When completely dissolved 
 add it to a large pail of hot water, and into any desired 
 quantity of this stir as much of the white material used as 
 will make a cream. The quality of the resulting work will 
 depend on the skill of the operator, but we may remark that 
 it is easier to get a smooth hard finish by using three coats 
 of thin wash than by using one coat of thick. If you have 
 time for but one coat, however, you must give it body enough, 
 In giving more than one coat let the last coat contain less 
 glue than the preceding ones. 
 
 Kalsomine, such as we have described, may be colored 
 by means of any of the cheap coloring stuffs. 
 
 The following is recommended as a good kalsomining fluid 
 for walls : White glue, 1 pound ; white zinc, 10 pounds ; 
 Paris white, 5 pounds ; water, sufficient. Soak the glue over 
 night in three quarts of water, then add as much water again, 
 and heat on a water bath till the glue is dissolved. In another 
 pail put the two .powders, and pour on hot water, stirring all 
 the time, until the liquid appears like thick milk. Mingle 
 the two liquids together, stir thoroughly, and apply to the 
 wall with a whitewash brush. 
 
 It is often desirable to " kill " old whitewash, as it is called, 
 as otherwise it would be impossible to get new whitewash 
 or paper to stick to the walls. After scraping and washing 
 off all lose material give the walls a thorough washing with 
 a solution of sulphate of zinc (2 oz. to 1 gallon of water). 
 The lime will be changed to plaster of Paris, and the zinc 
 will be converted into zinc white, and if a coat of kalsomine 
 be now given it will adhere very strongly and have great 
 body. < 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 151 
 
 Wood-Floors. 
 
 The following method of staining floors in oak or walnut 
 colors is highly commended by the London Furniture Gazette; 
 Put 1 oz. Vandyke brown in oil, 3 oz, pearlash, and 2 drins: 
 dragon's blood, into an earthenware pan or large pitcher { 
 pour on the mixture 1 quart of boiling water ; stii with rt 
 piece of wood. The stain may be used hot or colds The 
 boards should be smoothed with a plane and glass-papered j 
 fill up the cracks with plaster of Paris ; the brush should not 
 be rubbed across the boards, but lengthwise. Only a small 
 piece should be done at a time. By rubbing on one place 
 more than another an appearance of oak or walnut is moro 
 apparent ; when quite dry, the boards should be sized with 
 glue size, made by boiling glue in water, and brushing it in 
 the boards hot. "When this is dry, the boards should be 
 papered smooth and varnished with brown hard varnish or 
 oak varnish ; the brown hard varnish will wear better and 
 dry quicker ; it should be thinned with a little French polish, 
 and laid on the boards with a smooth brush. 
 
 Wax for Polishing Floors. To prepare this, 12 pounds 
 yellow Avax, rasped, are stirred into a hot solution of 6 pounds 
 good pearlash, in rain water. Keeping the mixture well 
 stirred while boiling, it is first quiet, but soon commences to 
 froth ; and when the effervescence ceases, heat is stopped, 
 and there are added to the mixture, while still stirring, 
 pounds dry yellow ochre. It may then be poured into tin 
 cans or boxes, and hardens on cooling. When wanted for 
 use, a pound of it is diffused into 5 pints boiling hot water, 
 and the mixture well stirred, applied while still hot to the 
 floor by means of a paint brush. It dries in a few hours, 
 after which the floor is to be polished with a large floor brush 
 and afterwards wiped with a coarse woolen cloth A coat of 
 this wax will last six months. 
 
 Wood Polishing. 
 
 Knotted or cross-grained wood cannot be planed with the 
 planes used for deal, but with a special tool, of which the 
 iron is placed at a more obtuse angle. These planes can be had 
 in wood or metal, and are in general use by cabinet-makers. 
 They are named according to the angle at which the iron is 
 placed. For deal and soft wood this is 45 degrees, or York 
 pitch ; while the iron set at 55 degrees, middle pitch, or 60 
 
152 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 
 
 degrees, half pitch, is Used for molding planes for soft and hard 
 wood. When the latter is, however, very knotty, it is worked 
 over in all directions with a toothing plane, so as to cut across 
 the fibres and reduce the surface to a general level. It is 
 then finished by the scraper, often a piece of freshly broken 
 glass, but more properly a thin plate of steel set in a piece of 
 wood, and ground off quite square. The edge is then often 
 rubbed with a burnisher, to turn up a slight wire edge. 
 This will scrape down the surface of the wood until it is 
 ready for " papering," i. e., being further smoothed by glass 
 or sandpaper. This is to be rubbed in all directions, until 
 the work has an even surface, and the lines thus produced 
 are further reduced by the finest sandpaper, marked 00. 
 After this it is rubbed over with a bit of flannel, dipped in 
 linseed oil, and allowed to dry. This oiling is then repeated, 
 and the work again set aside for a day or more, until the oil 
 is fairly absorbed. 
 
 If the wood be porous it must first \)Q filled, as it is called, 
 and for this nothing is better than whiting colored so as to 
 resemble the wood and kept dry. Rub the wood with linseed 
 oil and then sprinkle it with whiting. Rub the latter well in, 
 wipe it off carefully and give time to dry. This is far su- 
 perior to size. 
 
 The polish French polish is made by dissolving shellac 
 in alcohol, methylated spirits, or even naphtha. This is 
 facilitated by placing the jar or bottle in a warm place, on 
 a stove or by the fire. Other gums are often added, but arc 
 not generally necessary. In short, no two polishers use pre- 
 cisely similar ingredients, but shellac is the base of all of 
 them. The following recipes have been collected from various 
 sources more or less reliable : 
 
 1. Shellac, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 pLJ 2. Shellac, 4 oz. ; sarHl- 
 
 arac, oz. ; alcohol, 1 pint 3. Finishing polish : Alcohol 
 
 (95 per cent.), pint; shellac, 2 dr.; gum benzoin, 2 dr.; 
 put into a bottle, loosely corking it, and stand it near a fire, 
 shaking it occasionally. When cold, add two teaspoonfuls 
 of poppy oil, and shake well together. 
 
 These, it must be remembered, are polishes to be applied 
 by means of rubbers, and not by a brush. Those used in the 
 latter way are varnishes, such as are applied to cheap wares 
 and also to parts of furniture and such articles as are carved 
 and cannot in consequence be finished by rubbing. 
 
THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. > 153 
 
 The polisher generally consists of a wad of list rolled 
 spirally, tied with twine and covered with a few thick- 
 nesses of linen rag. Apply a little varnish to the middle of 
 the rubber and then enclose the latter in a soft linen rag 
 folded twice. Moisten the face of the linen with a little raw 
 linseed oil applied to the middle of it by means of the finger. 
 Pass the rubber quickly and lightly over the surface of the 
 work in small circular strokes until the varnish becomes 
 nearly dry ; charge the rubber with varnish again and 
 repeat the rubbing till three coats are laid on, when a little 
 oil may be applied to the rubber and two more coats given 
 it. Proceed in this way until the varnish has acquired some 
 thickness ; then wet the inside of the linen cloth, before ap- 
 plying the varnish, with alcohol, and rub quickly, lightly 
 and uniformly, the whole surface. Lastly, wet the linen 
 cloth with a little oil and alcohol, without varnish, and rub 
 as before till dry. Each coat is to be rubbed until the rag 
 appears dry, and too much varnish must not be put on the 
 rag at one time. Be also very particular to have the rags 
 clean, as the polish depends in a great degree u^on keeping 
 everything free from dust and dirt. 
 
 To insure success the work must be ,done in a warm room, 
 free from dust. 
 
 Turned articles must be brought to a fine smooth surface 
 with the finest sandpaper, and the direction of the motion 
 should be occasionally reversed so that the fibres which are 
 laid down by rubbing one way may be raised up and cut off. 
 To apply the polish, which is merely a solution of shellac in 
 alcohol, take three or four thicknesses of linen rag and place 
 a few drops of polish in the centre ; lay over this a single 
 thickness of linen rag and and a drop or two of raw linseed 
 oil over the polish. The rubber is then applied with light 
 friction over the entire surface of the work while revolving 
 in the lathe, never allowing the hand or mandrel to remain 
 still for an instant, so as to spread the varnish as evenly as 
 possible, especially at the commencement, and paying par- 
 ticular attention to the internal angles, so as to prevent 
 either deficiency or excess of varnish at those parts The 
 oil, in some degree, retards the evaporation of the spirit 
 from the varnish and allows time for the process ; it also 
 presents a smooth surface and lessens the friction against 
 ^he tender gum. When the varnish appears dry, a second. 
 
154 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 third and even further quantities are applied in the same 
 manner, working, of course, more particularly upon those 
 parts at all slighted in the earlier steps. 
 
 Wood Staining. 
 
 In preparing any of the tinctures used for staining, it is of 
 importance to powder or mash all the dry stuffs previous to 
 dissolving or macerating them, and to purify all the liquids 
 by nitration before use. Their coloring powers, which 
 mainly depend on very accurate combinations of the re- 
 quisite ingredients, should always be carefully tested before 
 a free use is made of them, and the absorbent properties of 
 the materials intended to be stained should be tested like- 
 wise. It will be better for inexperienced hands to coat twice 
 of three times with a weak stain than only once with a very 
 strong one, as by adopting the first mode a particular tint 
 may be gradually effected, whereas, by pursuing the latter 
 course, an irremediable discoloration may be the result. 
 Coarse pieces of carving, spongy end, and cross-grained 
 woods, should be previously prepared for the reception of 
 stain ; this is best done by putting on a thin layer of varnish, 
 letting it dry, and then glass-papering it completely off 
 again. Fine work merely requires to be oiled and slightly 
 rubbed with the finest glass-paper. Thus prepared, the 
 woody fibre is enabled to take on the stain more regularly, 
 and to retain a high degree of smoothness. When stain is 
 put on with a flat hog-hair tool, it is usually softened by a 
 skilful but moderate application . of a badger-hair softener. 
 The steel comb is chiefly employed for streaking artificial 
 oak, and the mottler is used for variegating and uniting the 
 shades and tints of mahogany. Flannels and sponges are 
 often used instead of brushes," but the implements most ser 
 viceable for veining or engraining purposes are email badger 
 s.'ish tools and sable pencils. The effect produced by a coat 
 of stain cannot be asceiiained until it has been allowed suf- 
 ficient drying period. 
 
 This process may be used either for improving tL* natural 
 color of wood or for changing it so completely as to give it 
 the appearance of an entirely different kind of timber. Thus 
 a light mahogany may be greatly improved by being made 
 clarker, and there are many other kinds of timber tlia^ ftfe. 
 
THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 155 
 
 greatly improved by a slight change in their color. The fol- 
 lowing notes will be of use in the latter direction : 
 
 A solution of asphaltum in spirits of turpentine, makes 
 a good brown stain for coarse oaken work, which is only in- 
 tended to be varnished with boiled oil. 
 
 When discolored ebony has been sponged once or twice 
 with a strong decoction of gall-nuts, to which a quantity of 
 iron tilings or rust haa been added, its natural blackness 
 becomes more intense. 
 
 Tbe naturally pale ground and obscure grain of Honduras 
 mahogany is often well brought out by its being coated first 
 with spirits of hartshorn, and then with oil, which has been 
 tingod with madder or Venetian red. 
 
 Grayish maple may be whitened by carefully coating it 
 with a solution of oxalic acid to which a feAV drops of nitric 
 acid have been added. 
 
 Half a gallon of water in which J Ib. of oak bark and the 
 same quantity of walnut shells or peels have been thoroughly 
 boiled, makes an excellent improver of inferior rosewood ; it 
 is also far before any other of its kind for bringing out 
 walnut. 
 
 Raw" oil, mixed with a little spirits of turpentine, is 
 universally allowed to be the most efficacious improver of 
 the greater number of materials. Beautiful artificial grain- 
 ing may be imparted to various specimens of timber by 
 means of a camel-hair pencil, with raw oil alone, that is, 
 certain portions may be coated two or three times very taste- 
 fully, so as to resemble the rich varying veins which con- 
 stitute the fibril figures ; while the" common, plain parts, 
 which constitute the ground shades, may only be once 
 coated with the oil, very much diluted with spirits of tur- 
 pentine. The following are a few useful stains : 
 
 Mahogany. 1. Water, 1 gallon ; madder, 8 oz. ; fustic, 
 4 oz. Boil. Lay on with a brush while hot, and while wet 
 streak it with black to vary the grain. This imitates Hon- 
 duras mahogany. 
 
 2. Madder, 8 oz. ; fustic, 1 oz. ; logwood, 2 oz. ; water, 
 1 gallon. Boil and lay on while hot. Resembles Spanish 
 mahogany. 
 
 3. A set of pine shelves, which were brushed two or three 
 times with a strong boiling decoction of logwood chips, and 
 varnished with solution of shellac in alcohol, appear almost 
 
156 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 i 
 
 like mahogany both in color and hardness. After washing 
 with decoction of logwood and drying thoroughly, they re- 
 ceived two coats of varnish. They were then carefully sand- 
 papered and polished, and received a final coat of shellac 
 varnish. 
 
 Imitation Ebony. There are two processes in use for giving 
 to very fine grained wood the appearance of ebony. One is 
 a mere varnish, and may be applied in a few minutes, as it 
 dries very rapidly. Either French polish, made black with 
 any fine coloring matter, or good " air-drying black varnish," 
 may be applied. This, however, gives only a superficial 
 coloring, and when the edges and corners of the work wear 
 off, the light-colored wood shows. The other method is as 
 follows : Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction 
 of logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
 each application. Then wash it with a solution of acetate of 
 iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings in vinegar. 
 This stain is very black and penetrates to a considerable 
 depth into the wood, so that ordinary scratching or chipping 
 does not show the original color. Some recipes direct the 
 solutions of logwood and iron to be mixed before being ap- 
 plied, but this is a great mistake. 
 
 Black Walnut Stain. 1. Take asphaltum, pulverize it, 
 place it in a jar or bottle, pour over it about twice its bulk 
 of turpentine, put it in a warm place, and shake it from time 
 to time. When dissolved, strain it and apply it to the wood 
 with a cloth or stiff brush. If it should make too dark a 
 stain thin it with turpentine. This will dry in a few hours. 
 If it is desired to bring out the grain still more, apply a 
 mixture of boiled oil and turpentine ; this is better than oil 
 alone. Put no oil Avith the asphaltum mixture or it will 
 dry very slowly. When the oil is dry the wood can bo 
 polished with the following : Shellac varnish, of the usual 
 consistency, 2 parts ; boiled oil, 1 part. Shake it well before 
 using Apply it to the wood by putting a few drops on a 
 cloth and rubbing briskly on the Avood for a feAV moments. 
 This polish works \vell on*old varnished furniture. 
 
 2. The appearance of Avalnut may be given to white woods 
 by painting or sponging them with a concentrated warm 
 solution of permanganate of potassa. The effect is different 
 on different kinds of timber, some becoming stained very 
 rapidly, others requiring more time for the result, The peiv 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 157 
 
 manganate is decomposed by the woody fibre ; brown per- 
 oxide of manganese is precipitated, and the potash is after- 
 wards removed by washing with water. The wood, when 
 dry, may \>e varnished. 
 
 Brown Stain. Paint over the wood with a solution made 
 by boiling 1 part of catechu (cutch or gambier) with 30 parts 
 of water and a little soda. This must be allowed to dry in 
 the air, and then the wood is to be painted over with another 
 solution made of 1 part of bichromate of potash and 30 parts 
 of water. By a little difference in the mode of treatment 
 and by varying the strength of the solutions, various shades 
 of color may be given with these materials, which will be 
 permanent and tend to preserve the wood. 
 
 Staining Oak. According to Neidling, a beautiful orange- 
 yellow tone, much admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibi- 
 tion, may be imparted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm 
 room with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish, 
 and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and re- 
 peating the coating of polish to improve the depth and 
 brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the rubbing 
 mixture are about three ounces of tallow, three-fourths of an 
 ounce of wax, add one pint of oil of turpentine, mixed by 
 heating together and stirring. 
 
 Darkening Oak Framing. Take one ounce of carbonate of 
 soda, and dissolve in half pint boiling water ; take a sponge 
 or piece of clean rag, saturate it in the solution and pass 
 gently over the wood to be darkened, so that it is wet evenly 
 all over ; let it dry for 24 hours. Try first on an odd piece 
 of wood to see color ; if too dark, make the solution weaker 
 by adding more water ; if not dark enough, give another 
 coat. This may always be kept ready for use in a bottle 
 corked up. 
 
 Imitation Rosewood. Boil one-half ^jound of logwood in 
 three pints of water till it is of a very dark red ; add one-half 
 ounce of salt of tartar. Stain the work with the liquor while 
 it is boiling hot, giving three coats ; then, with a painter's 
 graining brush, form streaks with the following liquor : Boil 
 one-half-pound of logwood chips in two quarts of water ; add 
 one ounce of peaiiash, and apply hot. 
 
158 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Zinc, when cast into plates or ingots, is a brittle metal, 
 easily broken by blows' from a hammer. In this state it is 
 evidently somewhat porous, as its specific gravity is only 6 '8, 
 while that of rolled zinc rises as high as 7*2. Zinc, when 
 heated to 212 Fall., or over, becomes malleable and ductile, 
 and when rolled into sheets it becomes exceedingly tough and 
 does not regain its brittle character on cooling. Hence, sheet 
 zinc has come into very extensive use in the arts. 
 
 To Pulverise Zinc. Zinc becomes exceedingly brittle when 
 heated to nearly its melting point. To reduce it to powder, 
 therefore, the best plan is to pour melted zinc into a dry and 
 warm cast-iron mortar, and as soon as it shows signs of 
 solidifying pound it with the pestle. In this way it may be 
 reduced to a very fine powder. 
 
 Black Varnish for Zinc. Professor Bottgor prepares a 
 black coating for zinc by dissolving two parts nitrate of cop- 
 per and three parts crystallized chloride of copper in sixty- 
 four parts of water, and adding eight parts of nitric acid. This, 
 however, is quite expensive ; and. in some places the copper 
 salts are very difficult to obtain. On this account Puscher 
 prepares black paint or varnish with the following simple 
 ingredients : Equal parts of chlorate of potash and blue 
 vitriol are dissolved in thirty-six times as much warm water, 
 and the solution left to cool. If the sulphate of copper used 
 contains iron, it is precipitated as a hydrated oxide, and can 
 be removed by decantation or filtration. The' zinc castings 
 are then immersed for a few seconds in the solution until 
 quite black, rinsed off with water, and dried. Even before it 
 is dry. the black coating adheres to the object so that it may 
 be wiped dry with a cloth. A more economical method, 
 since a much smaller quantity of the salt solution is required, 
 is to apply it repeatedly with a sponge, If copper-colored 
 spots appear during the operation, the solution is applied to 
 them a second time, and after a while they turn black. As 
 soon as the object becomes equally black all over, it is 
 washed with water and dried. On rubbing, the coating ac- 
 quires a glittering appearance like indigo, which disappears 
 on applying a few drops of linseed-oil varnish or " wax 
 milk;" and the zinc has then a deep black color pnd gloss, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Abyssinian gold, o. 
 
 Accidents, general rules in case of, 9. 
 
 Acids, stains of, to remove, 130. 
 
 Adhesive paper, 101. 
 
 Alabaster, 11, 108. 
 
 to work, ii. 
 
 to polish, ii. 
 
 to clean, ii. 
 
 cement for, 12. 
 Mbata, composition of, 13. 
 Alcohol for making varnish, 12. 
 
 as a stimulant in cases of accident, 10. 
 Alloy for filling holes in cast iron, 13. 
 
 for uniting iron, steel and brass, 13. 
 
 general rules for making, 12. 
 Aluminium, bronze, 13. 
 
 silver, 13. 
 Amalgam, Boettger's, 13. 
 
 copper, 13. 
 
 for silvering globes, etc., 13. 
 
 for electrical machines, 13. 
 
 silver, for mirrors, 90. 
 Amber, working and polishing, 15. 
 
 cement for, 16. 
 ' imitation, 16. 
 
 solvents for, 119. 
 Aniline inks, 67. 
 
 stains, to remove, 130. 
 Annealing copper, brass, etc., 16. 
 
 steel, 133. 
 Anti-attrition lubricator, 90. 
 
 rnetal. Babbitt's, 14. 
 Anti-friction metals, Belgian, 14. 
 
 cheap, 14. 
 
 Antique bronze, 26. 
 Antiseptic preparations, 17. 
 Aquarium cement, 29. 
 Armenian cement, 29. 
 Arsenic, antidote for, in. 
 Arsenical soap, 17. 
 
 powder, 1 7. 
 
 Axle grease, Booth's, 90. 
 Bibbitt metal, how to make and apply, 14. 
 Balls for removing grease, 131. 
 Barometer paper, 102. 
 1'asketware, varnish for, 139. 
 Batteries, voltaic, 145. 
 
 zincs for, 146. 
 
 connections for, 145. 
 Beeswax, to bleach, 17. 
 Bolgian antifriction metals, 14. 
 Belting, learner, cement for, 35. 
 Bengal ji>;ht, 84, 
 
 Blackboards, to make, 18. 
 
 crayons for, 40. 
 Blazing off steel springs, 134. 
 Bleaching by means of sulphur, 137. 
 
 ivory, 78. 
 
 shellac, 122. 
 
 skeleton leaves, 84. 
 Blue color, to remove from iron and 
 
 steel, 76. 
 
 Blue light, 84, 86. 
 Bluing of steel, 136. 
 Booth's axle grease, 90. 
 Boxes, metal for lining, 14. 
 Brass, 1 8. _ 
 
 to finish, 19. 
 
 to color and varnish, 19. 
 
 to bronze, 19, 25. 
 
 to blacken, 20. 
 
 to whiten, 21. 
 
 to deposit by electricity, 21. 
 
 to coat with copper, 22. 
 
 to coat with silver, 126. 
 
 to clean, 22. 
 
 to lacquer, 22. 
 Brazing, 22. 
 Brightening iron, 76. 
 British plate, composition of, 13 
 Bronze, aluminium, 13. 
 Bronze for brass, 25. 
 
 antique, 26, 105. 
 Bronzing, 25. 
 Bronzing liquid, 26. 
 Bronzing wood, leather, paper, etc., 26. 
 Browning gun barrels, 60. 
 Brovvning mixture for gun barrels, 60. 
 Buckland's cement, 29. 
 Buffing metals, etc., 94, 95. 
 Burnishing metHls, 94. 
 Burns, cure for, 27. 
 Calcimine, 149. 
 Canvas, to make waterproof, 147. 
 
 metallic soap for, 148. 
 Cap cement, Faraday's, 31. 
 Carmine ink, French process for mak- 
 ing, 67. 
 
 Case-hardening iron, 73. 
 Casein and soluble glass cement, 30. 
 Casein Mucilage. 30. 
 Cast steel see steel. 
 Catgut, how to make, 27. 
 Cats, to cure skins of, 129. 
 Cement for alabaster, 12, 
 
 aquarium, 29, 
 
160 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cement, Armenian, 29. 
 Buckland's, 29. 
 
 cheese, 30. 
 
 Chinese (schio-15ao), 30. 
 
 Faraday's cap, 31. 
 
 electrical, 31. 
 
 for glass, earthenware, etc., 31. 
 
 glass, 31. 
 
 gutta percha, 33. 
 
 iron, for pipes, etc., 33. 
 
 Japanese, 34. 
 . for kerosene oil lamps, 34. 
 
 labels, 34. 
 
 for uniting leather and metal, _ '. 
 
 for leather belting, 35. 
 
 litharge and glycerine, 35. 
 
 for attaching metal to glass, 36. 
 
 Paris, for shells, etc., 36. 
 
 porcelain, 37. 
 
 soft, 37. 
 
 soluble glass, 37. 
 
 Sorel's, 38. 
 
 Steam boiler, 38. 
 
 transparent, 38. 
 
 turner's, 38. 
 
 Wollaston's, 38. 
 
 sulphur, 138. 
 
 Cements, general rules for using, 28. 
 Chalk for polishing, in> 
 
 prepared, 114. 
 Chatham light, 89. 
 Cheese cement, 30. 
 Chinese cement, 30. 
 
 glue, 30. 
 
 Chlorate of potassa, caution, 87. 
 Cleaning engravings, etc., 105. 
 
 glass, 57. 
 
 glass for mirrors, 97. 
 
 looking glasses, 99. 
 
 ivory, 78. 
 
 marble, 91. 
 
 silver, 125. 
 Cliche" metal, 15. 
 Cloth, to make waterproof, 147. 
 Clothes on fire, what to do, 48. 
 Cock metal 13. 
 
 Coffee as a stimulant in case of acci- 
 dent, 10. 
 Cold process for zincing iron, 75. 
 
 tinning iron, 75. 
 Color of tempered steel, 134. 
 Connection-; for voltaic batteries, 145. 
 Copal, solvents for, no. 
 Copper, 38... 
 
 amalgam, how to make, 13. 
 '' to polish, 38. 
 
 to weld, 39. 
 Coppering iron or steel, 39. 
 
 Coral, artificial, 40. 
 Cork, to cut, 40. 
 
 to make airtight, 40. 
 Corrosive sublimate, antidote for, 112. 
 Crayons, for blackboards, 40. 
 
 to preserve, 41. 
 Creases, to take out of engravings, 
 
 etc., 102. 
 
 Crocus martis, for polishing, 115. 
 Curing and tanning skins, 128. 
 Curling metal surfaces, 41. 
 Cuticle, liquid, 41. 
 Dammar, solvents for, 119. 
 Demons, tableaux light for, 86. 
 Dials, painting hours on, 101. 
 Diamond for drilling glass, 56. 
 Disinfecting by sulphur vapors, 137. 
 
 by pastils, etc.. 50. 
 Drawing paper, size for, 127. 
 
 to mount, 102. 
 
 Dresses, how to make fire-proof, 48. 
 Drilling glass, 55. 
 Dumoulin's liquid glue, 32. 
 
 Ebony, imitation, 156. 
 Electrical amalgam, 13. 
 
 Boettger's, 13. 
 Electrical cement, 31. 
 Electrum, composition of, 13. 
 Elemi, solvents for, 119. 
 Elutriation, how to perform, 113. 
 Engravings, to take creases out of, lot. 
 
 to take water stains out of, 105. 
 Eraser for ink; 70. 
 Etching copper, 42. 
 
 varnish for, 42. 
 
 acid for, 42. 
 
 steel, liquid for, 43. 
 
 glass, 44. 
 Eye, accidents to, 44. 
 
 to remove particles from, 45 
 
 lime in, 46. 
 
 Faraday's cap cement, 31. 
 Fire-proof dresses, 48. 
 Fire, clothes on, 48. 
 Fires, to prevent, 46. 
 
 what to do in case of, 47. 
 Fluxes for solders, 24. 
 Fly papers, to make, 49. 
 Forging iron, 72. 
 French polish, 152. 
 Freezing mixtures, various kinds, 50. 
 Freezing, to prevent ink from, 69. 
 Fruit stains, to remove, 130. 
 Fuller's earth for scouring, 131. 
 Fumigating pastils, how to make juH 
 
 use, 50, 
 Furs, skins, curing, 128, 
 
INDEX, 
 
 161 
 
 Fusible metals, how to make and use, 15. 
 
 Ghosts, tableaux light for, 86. 
 
 Gilded ware, cleaning, 80. 
 
 Gilding metals, best methods, 51. 
 
 with gold leaf, 52. 
 
 picture frames, 52. 
 
 Wood, 54. 
 
 steel, 54. 
 Glass, soluble, cement, 30. 
 
 cement, 31. 
 
 earthenware, etc., cement for, 31. 
 
 working, 54. 
 
 cutting, 54. 
 
 cutting without a diamond, 55. 
 
 drilling, 55. 
 
 how to turn and bore in a lathe, 55. 
 
 stoppers, fitting, 56. 
 
 stoppers, to remove, when tight, 56. 
 
 to powder, 57. 
 
 ground, to imitate, 57. 
 
 vessels, to cleanse, 57. 
 
 paper, 103. 
 
 paper, waterproof, 103. 
 Glassware, to pack, 59. 
 Glue, how to choose, 31. 
 
 how to prepare, 32. 
 
 Chinese, 30. 
 
 liquid, 32. 
 
 marine, 35. 
 -mouth, 33. 
 * portable, 33. 
 
 Gold, Abyssinian, 9. 
 
 gilding with, 52. 
 
 ink, 63. 
 
 lacquer, 82. 
 
 size, preparation of, 127. 
 Grass, dried, to stain, 59. 
 Grease stains, to remove, 130. 
 Green light, 85, 86. 
 Ground glass, to imitate, 57. 
 Guns, to improve the shooting of, 59. 
 
 to keep barrels from rusting, 60. 
 
 to brown the barrels of, 60. 
 
 varnish for barrels, 61. 
 Gutta percha cement, 33. 
 Gypsum, 108. 
 
 Handles of knives to fasten, 62. 
 
 Hard solder, 23. 
 
 Hardening copper, brass, etc., 16. 
 
 steel, 133. 
 
 Heat used in forging iron, 72. 
 Hygrometric or barometer paper, 102. 
 
 Indelible aniline ink, 68. 
 
 Indian ink, 68. 
 Indestructible ink, 69. 
 Indian ink, how to choose, 63. 
 
 Ink, different kinds of, 62. 
 
 rules for selecting and using, 63, 
 
 black, recipe for, 66. ^ 
 
 Runge's black ink, 66. 
 
 Hue ink, 66. 
 
 carmine ink, French process, 67. 
 
 red ink, 67. 
 
 aniline inks, general formula, 67. 
 
 aniline ink, violet, 67. 
 
 aniline ink, blue, 67. 
 
 aniline inks, aqueous solutions, 67. 
 
 gold, 68. 
 
 silver, 68. 
 
 marking ink for linen, 63. 
 
 indelible aniline, 68. 
 
 indelible Indian, 68, 
 
 indestructible, 69. 
 
 that will not freeze, 69. 
 
 sympathetic or secret, 69. 
 
 eraser, 70. 
 
 pencils, 106. 
 
 stains, to remove from silver, 125. 
 
 stains, to remove, 131. 
 Inks for rubber stamps and stencils, 70. 
 Inlaying, simple method of, 71. 
 
 imitation, 71. 
 Iron cement for joints, 33. 
 
 forging, different heats employed 
 for, 72. 
 
 welding, 72. 
 
 case hardening, 73. 
 
 rust, to prevent, 74. 
 
 zincing. 74. 
 
 cold process for zincing, 75. 
 
 tinning, 75. 
 
 tinning in the cold, 75. 
 
 brightening, 76. 
 
 to remove blue color from, 76. 
 
 mould, to remove, 131. 
 
 and tin, alloys of, 139. 
 Ivory, character "of as regards work, 76. 
 
 working and polishing, methods 
 for, 77. 
 
 bleaching and cleaning, 78. 
 Ivy, poisoning with, remedy, 113. 
 
 Japanese cement, 34. 
 Javelle water, 79. 
 Jewelry, cleaning, 80. 
 
 Kalsomine, 149. 
 
 Kerosene oil lamps, cement for, 34. 
 
 Labels, cement for, 34. 
 
 Lac, different kinds of, 121. 
 
 Lacquer, method of using, 81- 
 
 deep gold, 82. 
 
 bright gold, 82. 
 
 pale gold, 82. 
 
 ued by A. Ross, 82, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Lacquer, preservation of, 83. 
 
 Laundry gloss, 83. 
 
 Leather belting, cement for, 35. 
 
 Leather and metai, cement for, 35, 
 
 Leather, to make waterproof, 147. 
 
 Leaves, skeleton, 83. 
 
 Lights, signal and colored, 84. 
 
 Bengal, 84. 
 
 blue, 84, 86. 
 
 red, 85, 86. 
 
 white, 85.' 86. 
 
 crimson fire, 85. 
 
 green, 85, 86. 
 
 for indoor illumination, 85. 
 
 phosphorous, 88. 
 
 photographic, 88. 
 
 Chatham, 89. 
 
 Litharge and glycerine cement, 35. 
 Looking glasses, care of, 99. 
 
 how to clean, 99, 
 Lubricators, rules for selecting, 89. 
 
 plumbago, 90. 
 
 anti-attrition, 90. 
 
 fine lubricating oil, 90. 
 
 Booth's axle grease, 90. 
 Magnesium light, 85. 
 Mahogany, to improve, 155. 
 
 artificial, 155. 
 Maple, to whiten, 155. 
 Maps, varnish for, 141. 
 Marble, composition of, 90. 
 
 method of working, 91. 
 
 method of polishing, 92. 
 
 substances wlach injure it, 91. 
 
 to clean, 91. 
 
 sculpture, how finished, 93. 
 Marine glue, 35. 
 Marking ink, 68. 
 Mastic, solvents for, 119. 
 Mats, skins cured for, 128. 
 Mercury, bichloride or corrosive sub- 
 limate, 112. 
 Metal, fusible, 15. 
 
 anti-friction, 14. 
 
 Babbitt, 14. 
 
 Metal, to attach to glass, 36. 
 Metallic soap for canvas, 148. 
 Metals, to polish, 94, 95, 96. 
 Metals, bright, painting, 101. 
 Mexican onyx, 90. 
 Mildew, to remove, 131. 
 Mirrors, to make, 96. 
 
 for optical purposes, 96. 
 silver amalgam for, 98. 
 care of, 99. 
 
 Mono-chromatic light, 86. 
 Moulds made of sulphur, 138. 
 . Mouth glue, 33. 
 
 Mucilage, casein, 30. 
 Murderers, tableaux, light for, 86. 
 Newton's fusible metal, 15. 
 Nickel, characters of, 99. 
 
 to deposit without battery, too. 
 Noise, prevention of, 100. 
 Novargent, m6. 
 
 Oak, to stain, 157. 
 to darken, 157. 
 Oil, fine, for lubricating, 90. 
 Oilstone powder for polishing, 116. 
 Onion's fusible metal, 15. 
 Opium poisoning, remedy for, n3. 
 Oriental alabaster, 1 1. 
 Oxidized silver, 123. 
 
 Paint, to remove stains of, 132. 
 Painting bright metals, 101. 
 Painting metal dials, 101. 
 Paper, various uses of, 101. 
 
 adhesive, 101. 
 
 barometer, 102. 
 
 creases, to take out of, 102. 
 
 drawing, to mount, 102. 
 
 glass paper, 103. 
 
 to prepare for varnishing, 103. 
 
 pollen powder or paper powder, 104. 
 
 tracing, 104. 
 
 transfer, 104. 
 
 to remove water stains from, '05. 
 
 waxed, 105. 
 
 for pillows, 107. 
 
 size for, 127. 
 
 Paris cement for shells, etc., 36 
 Paris green, antidote for, in. 
 Paste, recipes tor, 36. 
 Pastils, fumigating, 50. 
 Patina or artificial bronze, 105. 
 Patterns, to trace, 105. 
 Pencil marks, to fix, 106. 
 Pencils, ink, to make, 106. 
 Peroxide of irt-n for polishing, 116. 
 Pewter, 15, 107. 
 
 hardened, 107. 
 
 for caps and polishing tools, 107. 
 Phosphorous light, 88. 
 Phosphorous as poison, antidote, 112. 
 Photographic light, 88. 
 Pillows for sick room, 107. 
 Plaster-of-Paris, preparation of, 108. 
 
 to harden, 108. 
 
 to cast, ic8. 
 Plate renovator, 126. 
 Plating without battery, 126. 
 
 nickel, 100. 
 
 Platinum, solder for, 25. 
 Plumbago as a lubricator, 90. 
 Poisons, cautions in regard to, 109, 
 
163 
 
 Poisons, acids, no. 
 
 oxalic acid, no. 
 
 Prussic acid, in. 
 
 arsenic or Paris green, in. 
 
 corrosive sublimate, 112. 
 
 phosphorous, 112. 
 
 opium, 112. 
 
 strychnine, 113. 
 
 ivy poisoning, 113.' 
 
 stings, 113. 
 Polishing smoothing irons, 83. 
 
 metals, 94. 
 
 powders, selection of, 113. 
 
 elutriation of, 113. 
 
 chalk or whiting, 114. 
 
 prepared chalk, 114. 
 
 crocus or rouge, 115. 
 
 Andrew Ross's mode of prepar- 
 ing, 115- 
 
 oilstone powder, 116. 
 
 pumice-stone powder, 116. 
 
 putty powder, 117. 
 
 Vienna lime, 118. 
 Polishing powder, Lord Ross's mode of 
 
 preparing, 116. 
 Polishing powders, oilstone powder, 116. 
 
 pumice-stone powder, 117. 
 
 putty powder, 117. 
 
 Vienna lime, 118. 
 Polishing-wood, 151. 
 
 in the lathe, 153. 
 Pollen powder or paper, 104. 
 Porcelain cement, 37. 
 Powders, polishing, 113. 
 Printing in gold, silver and bronze, 52. 
 Prussic acid, antidote for, in. 
 Pumice-stone powder, 117. 
 Putty powder for polishing, 117. 
 Queen's metal, composition of, 15. 
 Rabbits, to cuie skins of, 129. 
 Red ink, 67. 
 Red light, 85, 86. 
 Resins, characters of, 119. 
 Rosewood, imitation, 157. 
 Ross, Andrew, lacquer used by, 82. 
 
 method of preparing rouge for polish- 
 ing, 115. 
 
 method of preparing putty pow- 
 der, 118. 
 Ross, Lord, method of preparing rouge 
 
 for polishing, 116 
 Rouge for polishing. 115. 
 Rust and corrosion of iron, to prevent, 74. 
 
 Sailcloth, to make impervious to water, 147. 
 Sandarach, solvents for, 119. 
 Saws, how to put in order, 120. 
 Saws, tempering, 135. 
 
 Secret writing, ink for, 69. 
 
 Seed lac, 121 
 
 Sheep skins for mats, curing of, 128. 
 
 Shelkc, character of, 121. 
 
 adulteration of, lax. 
 
 solvents for, 119, 121. 
 
 clarifying solutions of, 122. 
 
 bleaching, 122. 
 
 varnish, 142. 
 
 Sieves, very fine, to make, 121 
 Silver, aluminium, 13. 
 
 characters of, 122. 
 
 for solder, 23. 
 
 ink, 68. 
 
 amalgam for mirrors, 9^. 
 
 how hardened, 122. 
 
 oxidized, 123. 
 
 to clean, 125, 
 
 to imitate old, 124. 
 
 to remove ink stains from, 125. 
 
 to dissolve off plated ware, 125. 
 
 to work and polish, 122. 
 
 nitrate, to remove stains of, 13*. 
 Silvering mirrors, amalgam for, 06. 
 
 inside of globes, etc., 13. 
 
 leather, etc., 126. 
 
 powder, 126. 
 
 solution, 127. 
 
 amalgam for metals, 127. 
 Silversmiths' work, how finished, 12* 
 Size, glue, how to make, 127. 
 
 for window shades, 129. 
 
 for drawing paper, 127, 
 
 gold, 127. 
 
 Sizing for window shades, 127. 
 Skeleton leaves, 83, 
 Skins, tanning and curing, 128. 
 Skins, sheep, curing for mats, 128. 
 
 of rabbits, cats, etc., to cure, 129. 
 Soft cement, 37. 
 Solder, soft, composition of, 23. 
 
 hard, how to make, 24. 
 
 flux for, 24. 
 
 wire, 24. 
 
 for platinum, 25. 
 
 German silver. 25. 
 Soldering, 22. 
 Soldering fluid, 23. 
 Soluble glass cement, 37. 
 Sorel's cement, 38. 
 Speculum metal, how to make, 15. 
 Spirituous liquors as a stimulant, 10. 
 Spotted varnish, to restore, 145. 
 Springs, to temper, 135. 
 Staining wood, 154. 
 Stains, how removed, 129. 
 
 acids, 129. 
 
 aniline dyes, 130. 
 
164 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Stains, fruit, 130. 
 
 grease, 130. 
 
 ink and iron mould, 131. 
 
 mildew, 131. 
 
 nitrate of silver, 132. 
 
 paint, 132. 
 
 tar, 132. 
 
 Stamps, ink for, 70. 
 Steam boiler cement, 38. 
 Steel, forging, 132. 
 
 burnt, to restore, 133. 
 
 to gild, 54. 
 
 to harden, 133. 
 
 to temper, 134. 
 
 blazing off, 134. 
 
 welding, 136. 
 
 to blue, 136. 
 
 springs, to temper, 135. 
 Stencils, ink for, 70. 
 Stick lac, 121. 
 
 Stimulants use of in case of accident, 10. 
 Stings of insects, remedy for, 113. 
 Stoppers, glass, to fit, 56. 
 
 to remove tight, 56. 
 
 Strychnine as a poison, antidote for, 13. 
 Sulphur, 137. 
 
 bleaching by means of, 137. 
 
 disinfecting by means of, 137. 
 
 as a cement, 138. 
 
 for making moulds, 138. 
 Sympathetic ink, 69. 
 Tanning and curing skins, 128. 
 Tar, to remove stains of, 132. 
 Tempering steel on one edge, 134. 
 
 steel, color indications, 134. 
 
 steel springs, 135. 
 
 steel saws, 135. 
 Tin, 138. 
 
 how corroded, 138. 
 
 alloys of, 138. 
 
 and iron, 139. 
 Tinning iron, 75. 
 Tracing paper, 104. 
 Transfer paper, 104. 
 Transparent cement for glass, 38. 
 Turner's cement, 38 
 Tutty powder or putty powder, 117 
 Type metal, 15. 
 Varnish, 139. 
 
 for browned iron, 61. 
 
 for basket ware, 139. 
 
 black, for optical work, 140. 
 
 black, for cast iron, 140. 
 
 green, 140. 
 
 for bright iron work, 141. 
 
 for maps, 141. 
 
 mastic, 141. 
 
 Varnish for bright metals, 141. 
 
 for paintings, 141. 
 
 for preventing rust, 142. 
 
 shellac, 142. 
 
 tortoise shell, Japan, 142. 
 
 turpentine, 142. 
 
 for violins and simitar articles, 142. 
 
 for replacing turpentine and linseed 
 oil paints, 14'. 
 
 white, hard, for wood or metal, 143. 
 
 white, for paper, 143. 
 
 white spirit, 143. 
 
 Parisian, for wood, 143. 
 
 for stained wood, 143. 
 
 to restore spotted, 145. 
 
 black, for zinc, 158. 
 Varnishing paper, 103. 
 
 directions lor, 144. 
 Vienna lime for polishing, 118. 
 Violins, varnish for, 142. 
 Voltaic batteries, 145. 
 
 zincs for, 146. 
 
 Walnut, black, to imitate, 156. 
 Washing glass vessels, 58. 
 Watch, care of, 146. 
 Waterproof glass paper, 103. 
 Waterproofing, methods used for, 147. 
 
 for leather, 147. 
 
 for canvas, 147. 
 
 for sailcloth, 147. 
 
 ordinary goods, 148. 
 
 Water stains, to remove from engra- 
 vings, 105. 
 
 Wax for polishing floors, 151. 
 Waxed paper, 105. 
 
 Weather paper or barometer paper, 102. 
 Welding copper, 39. 
 
 iron, 72. 
 
 steel, 136. 
 
 Whiting for polishing, 114. 
 White light, 85, 86, 87. 
 Whitewash, Treasury Department recipe 
 
 for, 149. 
 
 Whitewash, to "kill," 150. 
 Window shades, sizing for, 127. 
 Wollaston's white cement, 38. 
 Wood's fusible metal, 15. 
 Wood floors, 151. 
 
 polishing, 151. 
 
 staining, 154. 
 
 Zinc, characters of, 158. 
 
 to pulverize, 158. 
 
 black varnish for, 158. 
 Zincing iron, 74. 
 
 iron by cold process, 75. 
 Zincs for batteries, amalgamating, 146 
 
A NEW SERIES OF PRACTICAL JZOOKfe* 
 
 WORK MANUALS. 
 
 The intention of the publishers is to give in this Series a number of small books which 
 will give Thorough and Reliable Infermationin the plainest possible language, upon the 
 ARTS OF EVEPfcYJJA.Y LIFE. 
 
 Each volume will be by some one who is not only practically familiar with his subject, 
 but who has the ability to make it clear to others. The volumes will each contain from 
 50 to 75 pages , will be neatly and clearly printed on good paper and bound in tough 
 and durable binding. The price will be 25 cents each, or fiiie for One Dollar. 
 
 The following are the titles of the volumes already issued. < Hhers will follow at 
 short intervals. 
 
 I. Cements and Glue. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of All Kinds of Cements, Glue 
 and Paste. By JOHN PHIN, Editor of the Young' Scientist and the A menca*> 
 Journal of Microscopy 
 Every mechanic and householder will find this volume ot almost everyday use. It 
 
 contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of Cements for aXriost every conceivable 
 
 purpose 
 
 II. The Slide Rule, and How to Use It. 
 
 This is a compilation of Explanations, Rules and Instructions suitable for mechanics 
 and *hers interested in the industrial arts. "Rules are given for the measurement of 
 all kinds of boards and planks, timber n the round or square, glaziers' work and paint- 
 ing, brickwork, paviors* work, tiling and slating, the measurement of vessels oi various 
 shapes, the wedge, inclined planes, wheels and ftxles, levers, the weighing and meas- 
 urement of mejTtlK and all solid bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, o< tagon rules and 
 formula;, the measurement of circles, and a comparison of French and Fn.^lish measures, 
 with much other information, useful to builders, carpenters, brickbyers, glaziers, 
 paviors, slaters, machinists arid other mechanics. 
 
 Possessed of this little Book and a good Slide Rule, mechanics mi^ht carry in their 
 pockets some hundreds ot times the po.ver of calculation that they now have in the- 
 heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired 
 
 III. Hints for Painters, Decorators and I'aperlianjjers. 
 
 Being a selection of Useful Rules, Data, Memoranda, Meth ds and Suggestions 
 for House, Ship, and Furniture i'ai. ting, l'aper!anging, Gliding, Color Mixing, 
 and other matters Useful and In-trucme to Painters and Dcconrors. Prepared 
 with Special Reference tj the W nts of Amateurs. By an Old Hand. 
 
 IV. Construction, Use and Care of Drawing Instruments. 
 
 Being a 'Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their Use and Care, 
 Explanations of Scale;, Sectors and Protractors. Together with Memoranda for 
 Draughtsmen, Hints on Purchasing Paper, Ink, Instruments, Pencils, etc. Also a 
 Price List of all materials required by Draughtsmen. Illustrated with twenty-four 
 Explanatory Illustrations. By FKED. T. HODGSON. 
 
 V. The Steel Square. 
 
 Some Difficult Problems in Carpentry and Joinery Simplified and Solved by the 
 aid of the Carpenters' Steel Square, together with a Full Description of the Tool, 
 and Explanations of the Scales, Lines and Figures on the Blade and Tongue, and 
 How to LJ.se them in Everyday Work. Showing how the Square may be Used 
 in Obtaining the Lengths and Bevels of Rafters, Hips, ( Jroins, Braces, Brackets, 
 Purlins, Collar- Beams, and Jack-Rafteis. Also, its Application in Obtaining 
 the Bevels and Cuts for Hnppers, Spring Mouldings, Octagons, Diminished 
 Styles, etc., etc. Illustrated by Numerous Wood-cu s By FKED. T. HODGSON, 
 Author of the ' Carpenters' Stce Square." 
 
 Note. This work is intended iis an elementary introduction for the u->eof those who 
 have not time to study Mr. Hodgson's larger work on the same subject. 
 
THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes, Rules, Processes, 
 Method*, Wrinkles, and Practical Hints, for the House- 
 hold ami the Shop. Pnpei% 25 cents; cloth. 60 cents. 
 
 This is an extension of the First Part, and contains subjects which have 
 not been discussed in the earlier volume. These two volumes are not a 
 mere collection of newspaper clippings, like most of the books of "Recipes." 
 but a series of thorough articles on practical matters in regard to which 
 information is constantly desired in the shop, the house, and on the farm. 
 
 The two parts are also issued in one volume, printed on extra paper, and 
 handsomely bound in cloth, under the title of THE PRACTICAL ASSISTANT. 
 Price $1. 
 
 THE STEEL SQUARE AND ITS USES. By FRED. T. 
 1 IODGSON*. Third edition, enhirged and improved, with 
 100 engravings. Just issued. Cloth $!.('() 
 
 The most valuable, practical, and simple work for mechanics ever pub- 
 lished. 
 
 STEEL SQUARES AND THEIR USES. Being a De- 
 scription of the various Steel Squares ;md Their Uses in 
 Solving a large number of Mechanical Problems in Con- 
 structive Carpentry, Joinery, Sheet-metal Work, Cut-Stone 
 and Brick Work. Also showing how many geometrical 
 and other problems may be solved by the use of the steel 
 square. By FI:KI>. T. HODGSON, editor of "The Builder 
 and Woodworker." Finely illustrated. Cloth. . $l.(i : 
 
 This forms Part II of "The Steel Square and Its Uses." It gives new 
 problems, new methods, and new wrinkles for shortening work. 
 
 With these two volumes in his possession the workman is prepared 
 lay out anj 7 piece of work more easily, quickly, and accurately than it < ;.u 
 be done by any other method. 
 
 Sent by mail on receipt of price. Address 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL, PUBLICATION CO., 
 
 9 Barclay Street, New York. 
 
 Send for our Complete Catalogue. 
 
SUCCESS WITH RECIPES. 
 A Practical Guide to Success in the use of Re- 
 cipes, Formulae, &c. With Hints on Chemical and 
 Mechanical Manipulation. Intended as a Supplement to 
 all Books <f Reeipes. By JHN PHIN. Paper, 25 cents. 
 
 While it is an undoubted fact that in vny of the recipes published in the 
 ordinary collections are erroneous, eitl er froir. original blunders on the 
 parr of the authors or from mistakes in 
 
 frequently arises from defective inforn 
 part of I hose who attempt to put- the 
 
 opying. failure in the use of others 
 
 at ion and vicious methods on the 
 n in practice. The object of the 
 
 present book is to yive such hints and cautions as will enable the worker to 
 secure success where success is possible: and where the products are in- 
 tended for sale ii nives special Mid valuable advice in regard to the best 
 methods of putting them on the market. 
 
 ELECTRICIANS' POCKET COMPANION. 
 Electrical Rulas, Tables, Tests, and Formulae. 
 
 By AxuiiEW JAMIESOX, C.E., F.K.S.E. Fully illustrated. 
 12ino, dotii .75 cents. 
 
 This is the most compact and thorough work in the market for the 
 pru-ti'-al electrician. It contains minute directions for all calculations. 
 tests. &<.. with elear e: Cravings of the apparatus employed. The following 
 list of contents will give an idea. of. its scope: 
 
 ..f th- Absolute Units. Practical, Electrical, Mechanical. Heat 
 L'lit !":ii's. [tion. ' 
 
 c]ni--;ji Equivalents, riectrolysis. Heat and Energy of Combus- 
 IVactii-al Me- hods of Electrical Measurements. 
 Electric t'onductors: Copper. &c. Insulators: Guttapercha, &c. 
 Submarine (--ibb's. Aerial Land-lines. 
 Electric Lighting, and Transmission of Power. 
 
 COMMON SSNSE IN THE POULTRY-YARD. 
 A Full Account of 1,OOO Hens, and what they did. 
 
 With many new wrinkles and economical dodges. By 
 J. P. HATG. Illustrated. Cloth $1.1*0 
 
 Tho most thoroughly practical book on poultry in market. 
 
 SHOOTING ON THE WING. 
 
 Plain Directions for Acquiring this Art. With 
 
 several Valuable and hitherto Secret Recipes of Gr< at 
 
 Practical Importance to the Sportsman. Finely illusti-'d. 
 
 Cloth * 75 cents. 
 
 Sent by mail on receipt of price. Address 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO., 
 
 9 Barclay Street, New York. 
 
 Sriid for our Complete Catalogue. 
 
NEW DESIGNS 
 
 FOE 
 
 Eret or Scroll Sawyers, 
 
 MR. F. T. HODGSON, whose admirable series of articles on the USE OF THE 
 SCROLL SAW are now in course of publication in the YOUNG SCIENTIST, has pre- 
 pared for us a series of 
 
 SEVENXEEN I>ESIJ]\S, 
 of which the following is a list : 
 
 No. i. This shows one side, back, and bottom, of a pen rack. It may be made 
 of ebony, walnut, or other dark wood. 
 
 No. 2. Design for inlaying drawer fronts, table tops, box lids, and many other 
 things. It is a sumach leaf pattern. 
 
 No. 3. Design for a thermometer stand. It may be made of any hard wood or 
 alabaster. The method of putting together is obvious. 
 
 No. 4. This shows a design for a lamp screen. The open part may be covered 
 with tinted silk, or other suitable material, with some appropriate device worked on 
 with the needle, or, if preferred, ornaments may be painted on the silk, etc. 
 
 No. 5. A case for containing visiting cards. Will look best made of white holly. 
 
 No. 6. A placque stand, it may be made of any kind of dark 01 medium wood. 
 
 No. 7. A design for ornaments suitable for a window cornire. It should be 
 made of black walnut, and overlaid on some light colored hard wood. 
 
 No. 8 A design for a jewel ca.sket. This will he very pretty made of white holly 
 and lined with blue velvet It also looks well made of ebony lined with crimson. 
 
 No. 9. Frame. Will look well made of any dark wood. 
 
 No. 10. Frame. Intended to be made in pairs. Looks well made of white holly, 
 with leaves and flowers painted on wide stile. 
 
 No. n. Horseshoe. Can be made of any kind of wood and used for a pen rack. 
 When decorated with gold and colors, looks very handsome. 
 
 No. 12. Design for a hinge strap. If made of black walnut, and planted on a 
 white or oaken door, will look well. 
 
 No. 13. Design for a napkin ring. May be made of any kind of hard wood. 
 
 No. 14. Hinge strap for doors with narrow stiles. 
 
 No. 15. Centre ornament for panel. 
 
 No. 16. Corner ornament for panel. 
 
 No. 17. Key-hole escutcheon. 
 
 These designs we have had photo-lithographed and printed on good paper, so that 
 the outlines are sharp, and the opposite sides of each design symmetrical. Common 
 designs are printed from coarse wooden blocks, and are rough and unequal, so that 
 it is often impossible to make good work from them. 
 
 The series embraces over forty different pieces, and designs of equal quality cannot 
 be had for less than five, ten or fifteen cents each. We offer them for twenty-five 
 Cents for the set, which is an average price of only one cent and a half each. 
 
 Mailed to any address on receipt of price. 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 III! -A W67 & 
 
 
 
 *J^N o i** 01 u 
 
 
 Dr"x"rr i i\/rrri 
 
 
 rrtrtrtrl V tro 
 
 
 JAN 9 67 -IP 
 
 
 Qp r LOAN DEPT. 
 ^k -T4/OQ. 
 
 
 ^ Ml 
 
 REf. 9FP l7 ' c 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 AUTODISCORC SP ] 
 
 5 '94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LD 21A-60m-7,'66 
 (G4427slO)476B 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 CQi47fl3SOM5 
 
 PS 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY