LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 RECEIVED BY EXCHANGE 
 
 Class 
 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 TITICULTUEAL STATION, RUTHERGLEif, VICTORIA. 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING- 
 
 FOR 
 
 AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 Compiled and Translated from European Authorities l)y 
 RAYMOND DUBOIS, B.Sc. (Paris), 
 
 Diplom^ E. A. M., Director of the Viticultural Station, Chief Inspector oj 
 Vineyards Jor Victoria; 
 
 AND 
 
 W. PERCY WILKINSON, 
 
 Consulting Analyst to the Board of Public Health and the M. and M. 
 Board of Works, Private Assistant to the Government Analyst. 
 
 OF T HE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 ROBT. S. BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOURNE. 
 1 9O1. 
 
 6279. 
 
<S> 
 
 MAX 4 
 
CLC 
 
 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 
 
 In a retrospective survey of the early history of the recon- 
 stitution of French phylloxera-devastated vineyards on 
 American resistant stocks, no feature is more conspicuous 
 than the numerous disastrous failures recorded. These 
 failures arose from very varied causes, among others, almost 
 complete ignorance as to the classes of soil in which the 
 American vines grew naturally, want of practical informa- 
 tion with regard to their grafting affinity with European 
 vines, uncertainty in respect to the varieties and even species 
 planted, their doubtful resistance and occasional negative 
 immunity to strong attacks of phylloxera, and, finally, 
 adherence to the old methods of shallow preparatory culti- 
 vation in creating the new vineyards. 
 
 It is well known that these first failures of some 30 years 
 ago in France, caused very heavy financial losses to viticul- 
 turists, but, their secondary effect amply compensated the 
 losses, for thorough studies were forced to be undertaken on 
 exact lines to ascertain the causes of the failures, and, the 
 true explanations being arrived at, vine-growers, wary of the 
 former object lesson and benefited by increased knowledge, 
 were able to triumph over every obstacle, and eventually 
 reconstitute their vineyards under extremely varied condi- 
 tions, with the fullest measure of permanence, and success. 
 
 The primary object of the present compilation is to place 
 before those Victorian vine-growers, who have been so unfor- 
 tunate as to find their vineyards already destroyed, through 
 the irresistible progress of the phylloxera, detailed descrip- 
 tions of the practical working methods and implements now 
 
 A 2 
 
 214602 
 
4 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 
 
 used in Europe, for overcoming one of the causes responsible 
 in no small measure for numerous former failures in recon- 
 stitution with American vines, namely, ignoring the neces- 
 sity for preparatory deep cultivation before planting out. 
 At the same time, those growers not yet invaded would do 
 well to prepare for the inevitable, as, ultimately, judging by 
 European experience, the infection and destruction of all 
 our vineyards by the phylloxera may be accepted as a 
 certainty, being simply a question of time ; every vine-grower, 
 therefore, should feel compelled to study the ways and 
 means for permanent reconstitution. 
 
 The practical experience of European viticulturists proves 
 incontestably, .that successful reconstitution on American 
 vines, necessitates far deeper preliminary disturbance of the 
 soil than that required ordinarily by European vines,* owing 
 partly to radical differences in their root structure and 
 underground development, but, principally, to the fact that 
 phylloxera living on them is only prevented from inflicting 
 serious harm through their more or less resistant and 
 luxuriant root growth. This shows how essential thorough 
 and deep preparatory cultivation of the ground is, in order 
 that the recuperative root system may freely expand, with- 
 out check or hindrance, so as to obtain the utmost benefit 
 from the resistant stock, and enable it to increase in diame- 
 ter at the same rate as the scion, for it is well known that 
 most American stock actually used for reconstitution do 
 not develop in diameter at the same rate as the Vitis Vini- 
 fera scion, without this essential preliminary of deep cul- 
 tivation. This is now so definitely accepted throughout 
 
 * The advantages of deep cultivation, in the case of V. Vinifera, was 
 recognised by the ancients. In the works of the Roman philosopher, 
 Columella, Rei Rusticw Scriptores, written early in the first century, during 
 the reign of the Emperor Claudius I., the following very clear and precise 
 passage on trenching occurs in Lib. III., sec. XIII.: "The soil of the 
 plains should be disturbed to a depth of 1^ feet, hilly soils to a depth of 3 
 feet, and steeper hills to a depth of 4 feet, for, if the bed of soil ploughed 
 with the pastinum is not made much deeper than is usually done on flat 
 lands, the soil falling down from the top towards the bottom would leave a 
 quantity of arable ground barely sufficient to allow it to be ploughed with 
 the pastinum.'' 
 
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 5 
 
 European vine-growing countries that it would be exceed- 
 ingly unwise, and undoubtedly financially disastrous, to 
 disregard this first essential condition, Le. 9 preparatory deep 
 cultivation, if we desire to assure the success and perma- 
 nence of reconstituted vineyards in Victoria. 
 
 We do not consider it necessary to quote extensively 
 from European authorities in support of this well-established 
 and incontrovertible fact, but the opinion of Professor 
 Pierre Viala, Inspector-General of Viticulture for France, 
 and L. Ravaz, Professor of Viticulture at the National School 
 of Agriculture, Montpellier,* as given in their work on 
 American vines, may be accepted as unquestionably authori- 
 tative and representative ; it is based on extensive practical 
 experience and scientific study of the question, for principally 
 under Professor Viala's direction, France has permanently 
 reconstituted nearly 2,000,000 acres of phylloxera-devastated 
 vineyards, embracing almost every class of soil : 
 
 " Deep Cultivation. The vine, like all plants, prefers a 
 deeply loosened soil. Trenching or subsoiling is therefore 
 necessary, and, if not indispensable (for all American vines 
 can grow in untrenched ground), is at least of great utility 
 for such varieties as the Riparia, most of the Rupestris, &c., 
 which grow very slowly in compact soils. Trenching or 
 subsoiling, however, obtains in many vine-growing regions 
 for the varieties of the V. Vinifera, and in many places not 
 a single vine is planted without previously trenching or 
 subsoiling the ground to a depth of 20 inches, or even 
 3 feet. 
 
 " The vine grows more vigorously during the first years in 
 trenched ground, and bears fruit at the third leaf, while in 
 non-trenched ground it does not bear crops till the fifth or 
 sixth year ; an advantage of two or three good crops is thus 
 
 * Viala and Ravaz. Les Viynes Americaines, Adaptation, Culture, 
 Gre/age, Pepinieres. 2nd ed. Paris, 1896. 
 
6 TKANSLATOES' PKEFACE. 
 
 derived. It is always important to gather a crop as soon as 
 possible, to cover the considerable expenses incurred in 
 planting a vineyard ; trenching, therefore, is more than ever 
 necessary ; it hastens the growth of the vine, and places it 
 in better conditions for its future development. 
 
 " It is especially necessary for grafted rootlings. These 
 young plants, often weakly at the time of planting, and with 
 a root system always weaker than that of ordinary rootlings, 
 usually remain sickly when planted in soils which are not 
 favorable ; thorough trenching greatly facilitates their early 
 growth. 
 
 " Generally, trenching to a depth of about 20 inches is 
 sufficient for American vines ; a greater depth, however, suits 
 them better. It may be done either by hand or plough. If 
 in both cases the soil is not very calcareous, the subsoil 
 should be brought to the surface, where it improves by con- 
 tact with the air and under the action of successive 
 manurings, thus augmenting the layer of arable soil. 
 Further, as this is devoid of grass seeds, the vineyard may 
 be easily kept free from weeds for several years. 
 
 u On the other hand, in calcareous soils, or when the sub- 
 soil is very calcareous, the latter must not be brought to the 
 surface, or even mixed with the arable soil. We all know that 
 carbonate of lime is detrimental to the vine, consequently, it 
 is useless to mix it with the arable clay-siliceous or other 
 soils in which the roots grow well, or even to place it on the 
 surface, where the rain would carry it to the roots. Such a 
 trenching would cause the leaves to turn yellow, and conse- 
 quently prove its harmful effect. It is better in such cases 
 to subsoil. 
 
 "Trenching, or subsoiling, under suitable conditions fre- 
 quently removes the excess of water from damp soils, 
 diminishes their coldness, and renders assimilable the 
 matters which otherwise could not have been utilized by the 
 vines." 
 
TRANSLATORS PKEFACB. 7 
 
 More recently, Professor G. Foex, Director of the National 
 School of Agriculture, Montpellier, has expressed the fol- 
 lowing decisive opinions* : 
 
 " Soils in which American vines are to be planted must be 
 prepared with great care. From the different facts already 
 mentioned in this book it results that with regard to adap- 
 tation to soil the greatest obstacle is, on the one hand, 
 excessive moisture in winter and the cooling of the soil 
 resulting from it, and on the other hand considerable loss of 
 water through evaporation in dry summers. The best and 
 only remedy for these two inconveniences is deep and 
 thorough trenching. As a matter of fact, if the excess of 
 water percolates easily through well-divided soil, it also 
 remains longer under these circumstances, for the capillary 
 attraction drawing it towards the surface where it evaporates 
 is less felt than in compact soils. Finally the roots penetrate 
 deeper and find better surroundings in soils deeply disturbed. 
 
 u Depth of Trenching. Trenching previous to planting is 
 therefore essential, but the "depth of this cultural operation 
 naturally varies with the nature of the soil. Soils naturally 
 dry and poor must be disturbed deeper than fresh and fertile 
 soils. In the first case the depth should be 24 inches, while 
 in the second 16 or 20 inches might be sufficient. However, 
 if the arable soil is shallow and rests on permeable limestone 
 subsoil the latter should not be disturbed, for the roots can 
 naturally penetrate it and get sheltered against drought. 
 
 " Trenching must be done much deeper when a new vine- 
 yard is planted on the site of the old vineyard immediately 
 after it has been uprooted. This is generally the case with 
 American vines. Under these circumstances, a depth of 
 30 to 32 inches is required." 
 
 It has been urged against the hard-earned and costly ex- 
 perience of European viticulturists, which prove the impossi- 
 bility of permanent reconstitution without previous deep 
 
 * G. Foex, Manuel Pratique de Viticulture pour la reconstitution des 
 Vignobles meridionaux. 6th ed. Montpellier, 1899. 
 
8 
 
 cultivation, that those requirements do not apply to Victorian 
 vineyards, the assertion most frequently advanced being 
 that our vineyard soils do not require such deep cultivation 
 as is necessitated in Europe for reconstitution. In other 
 words, that our vineyard soils are naturally better suited to 
 the vine without deep cultivation than those of France, 
 Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland,* Italy, Roumania,t 
 and other European countries, where deep cultivation is 
 accepted as an essential preliminary in planting American 
 vines, and, therefore, that our usual procedure of shallow 
 cultivation is ample. We have no hesitation in condemning 
 this fallacy, as the assertion does not tally with the poor 
 average yield of Victorian vineyards, or with the frequent 
 occurrence of pourridie (a cryptogamic disease, attacking 
 both European and American vines, for which no direct 
 remedy is known at present). 
 
 Other viticultural countries, besides European, have blun- 
 dered over the preliminary preparation of the ground for 
 American stocks, notably California, in quite recent years, 
 where vine-growers confidently ignored previous European 
 experience. We would do well to profit by the Californian 
 failures. Judging by some of the opinions expressed adverse 
 to deep cultivation for American vines the exercise of a 
 little discretion and common sense will save some of our 
 local vine-growers, about to reconstitute, from a repetition of 
 
 * The reconstitution of vineyards in Switzerland with American stocks 
 was sanctioned by .the Swiss Government in 1896 (Rapport de la Commis- 
 sion administrative sur I'exercice 1895. Neuchdtel, 1896), in consequence of 
 the very limited success of the costly annual treatments involved in the 
 attempts at extinction of the phylloxera. 
 
 The first Swiss State nursery of American vines was established at 
 Au vernier as far back as 1889. There are now State nurseries for the pro- 
 pagation of American stock in almost every canton. These nurseries 
 occupy over 15 acres. The area of Swiss reconstituted vineyards is 
 increasing rapidly every year. (J. Dufour, Les Vignes Amdricaines et la 
 Situation Phyttoxerique. dans le Canton de Vaud. Lausanne, 1899.) 
 
 t G. N. Nicoleanu, La lutte contre le phylloxera en Romame. Bucarest. 
 1900. 
 
9 
 
 the disasters recorded by A. P. Hayne, Director of Viticul- 
 ture for California.* We extract the following from Hayne's 
 work on Resistant Vines : 
 
 " Cause of Failures. Another cause of failure in soils that 
 to all appearances are ' Riparia soils,' is that the land was not 
 in proper condition when the stocks were planted. It has 
 already been remarked that the resistant vines require 
 far greater care in planting than is usually given to the 
 Vinifera. The most important point is the proper prepara- 
 tion of the soil before planting. It has been established 
 beyond the possibility of rational doubt that, before planting 
 American vines, the land should be given one ploughing that 
 is twice as deep as would have been necessary had Viniferas 
 been planted in the usual manner. This is one of the prac- 
 tical lessons learned abroad. One of the vineyards that is 
 used by the Professors of the National School of Agriculture 
 in France as the most striking illustration of the necessity 
 of deep planting, is situated on the banks of the River 
 Herault, on the very best " Riparia soil " in France. When 
 first planted in resistant stocks no deeper ploughing than 
 had been given for the Viniferas was thought necessary. 
 A very large vineyard was planted with Riparias. After 
 several years it was found that they seemed to be total 
 failures. As the soil was a typical Riparia soil, and the 
 variety used was the very best, much interest was aroused. 
 After consultation it was decided to dig out the entire vine- 
 yard, give it a very deep ploughing, and replant it with cut- 
 tings from the same mother vines that had supplied the 
 cuttings for the original plantation. This was done, and 
 to-day there is not a finer vineyard in the district. Experience 
 has shown that all American resistants require deep plough- 
 ing at first, though some do not require quite as deep pre- 
 paration as others. The Riparias are the most exacting in 
 this respect. It is a safe rule to follow, that the drier and 
 
 * A. P. Hayne, Resistant Vines: their Selection, Adaptation, and Graft- 
 ing. University of California, Sacramento, 1897. 
 
10 
 
 poorer the soil the greater the care should be taken to 
 prepare it for the reception of American resistant vines. 
 
 "Preparation of the Ground. Here, again, attention 
 must be called to a fact that has been well established the 
 world over, namely, that all American vines must have 
 deeper and better cultivation in starting than the Yitis 
 Vinifera or European vine. This is not a theory, but a fact 
 too well established under the greatest variety of conditions 
 to be controverted. There are in this state some striking 
 examples of the good effect of extra-deep ploughing before 
 planting out American vines. 
 
 " Too great stress cannot be laid on this necessity of 
 deep preparatory ploughing. Especially is this necessary 
 in California on lands that, while not being especially 
 dry. are apt to dry down considerably in summer. It is 
 especially necessary with the Riparias and those resistant 
 vines that tend to throw out their roots horizontally, instead 
 of downward, as in the case of the Rupestris. But even the 
 Rupestris requires deep ploughing to give it a good start. 
 Professor Viala says that very deep ploughing of land 
 destined to be planted in American vines will advance crop- 
 bearing from one to two years ; and the facts certainly bear 
 out this statement. Those who cannot give their vineyard 
 land a ploughing twice as deep as is usually given, no 
 matter what be the fertility of the soil, are advised not to 
 plant American vines, for they will surely lose the money 
 invested. 
 
 " The soil should be ploughed at least once, with a four- 
 horse sulky plough, as deep as the plough can be driven 
 even if a couple of extra horses have to be called in to pull 
 it. It is, of course, an expensive operation, but it pays, and 
 pays well, to incur it. As before remarked, land thus pre- 
 pared will yield paying crops two years sooner than if the 
 ordinary method of ploughing be pursued, besides avoiding 
 the risk of the loss of the entire vineyard. The poorer the 
 
TRANSLATORS' PREFACE. 11 
 
 land the deeper it should be ploughed, and the more compact 
 the land the deeper it should be ploughed." 
 
 According to F. T. Bioletti, of the Viticultural Depart- 
 ment, University of California,* " In some of the loose, 
 deep, rich soils of California, such deep subsoiling as recom- 
 mended by Viala is unnecessary. In other soils, however 
 it has been found very advantageous to subsoil deeply, 
 especially in somewhat exhausted land, or that in which a 
 " plough-sole " has been formed by years of shallow 
 ploughing. There are very few cases in California where 
 deep subsoiling is a disadvantage, as our top soils are, as a 
 rule, fairly deep. In some soils, however, which are very 
 stony, deep subsoiling is impracticable, and in other soils 
 where a stiff, raw clay is but a short distance from the sur- 
 face it may sometimes be harmful." 
 
 There is another important feature in deep cultivation of 
 vineyards, namely, the removal of stagnant or excessive 
 water, as well as the roots of Eucalypts, &c., which are 
 generally left to decay in situ. When an excess of water is 
 present in a soil, the internal channels being choked, prevent 
 the access of the necessary amount of oxygen, on which the 
 activity of the soil, considered as a laboratory for the elabora- 
 tion of plant food largely depends. Again, when trees have 
 been badly grubbed, and roots left in the soil, f the mycelium 
 of different fungi [Dermatopkora necatrix (R. Hartig.), 
 Agaricus melleus (L.) or Armillaria Mellea (Vahl.), Rcesleria 
 hypogcea (Thum. and Pass.)] develop rapidly, especially in 
 
 * Communicated to us. September, 1900 [R. Dubois]. 
 
 t Palladius (370, 395 A. D.), a Latin author, describes trenching in his 
 work on Agriculture, Book II., section X, and refers to the removal of 
 roots. " The time has now arrived for working the land intended for vines 
 with the pastinum. This may be done in different ways, by disturbing the 
 whole surface, by making trenches, or by forming pits. The soil should be 
 wholly turned over, so as to remove stumps, roots of ferns, and other detrimental 
 plants." Palladius was a noted plagiarist ; it is supposed that his agricul- 
 tural methods were largely borrowed from Magon, of Carthage, who wrote 
 an Encyclopaedia of Agriculture in 22 volumes, 540 B.C. When Carthage 
 was conquered by the Romans, the Roman senate ordered this great rural 
 encyclopaedia to be translated for the benefit of Roman agriculturists. 
 
12 
 
 damp clayey or marly soils with an impermeable subsoil. 
 This fungus growth soon gains the roots of vines, developing 
 on them, and occasioning a disease known as pourridie. The 
 effects of this disease are as disastrous as those of phylloxera, 
 for it finally results, in soils favorable to its development, in 
 the death of the vine attacked. It accounts in a measure for 
 the small yield of Victorian as compared with reconstituted 
 deeply-cultivated European vineyards. As we have already 
 remarked, no specific remedy or treatment for it is 
 known. Probably many vine-growers are familiar with 
 this disease, as its white mycelium filaments are easily 
 detected by the eye, and are readily distinguishable by their 
 decided mushroom odour. It exists in a more or less acute 
 form in almost all the vine-growing districts of Victoria. 
 Its appearance can only be attributed to excess of water in 
 the soil, together with old decaying roots in the subsoil. 
 This has been very clearly proved by investigations made by 
 Rochemache * in connexion with the cause of failures in 
 vineyards planted in cleared ground, trenched to a depth of 
 16 inches ; the trenching had not been deep enough to 
 remove all roots, which, consequently, acted as sources of 
 the fungi from which the contagion originated, and, in 
 conjunction with stagnant water, formed veritable hot-beds 
 of infection by pourridie. 
 
 To sum up, it is an essential condition, if we desire to 
 insure permanence and success with American stocks, to 
 disturb the soil deeply, for the following reasons : 
 
 1st. To enable their root system to expand freely, in 
 order to assure the stock developing at the same 
 rate as the scion, and, consequently, success in 
 grafting and profitable yield. 
 
 2nd. To allow access of air to the subsoil, chemically 
 essential to the elaboration of the substances 
 necessary for the nutrition of vines. 
 
 * Revm de Viticulture, 1899. 
 
TKANSLATOES' PKEFACE. 13 
 
 3rd. To remove stagnant or excessive water. 
 
 4th. To extract all roots. The two latter conditions 
 being imperative to prevent the appearance of 
 pourridie, and therefore a diminution in the grape 
 yield. 
 
 The principal local objections urged against preparatory 
 deep cultivation are : 
 
 1st. The proper implements and knowledge of methods 
 are not obtainable in Victoria. 
 
 2nd. The work is too expensive. 
 
 The object of the present compilation is to answer the 
 first of these objections, by describing in detail the methods, 
 machinery, and implements used in European vine-growing 
 countries, giving their cost when available ; and to show 
 that deep cultivation is possible by using large heavy 
 ploughs hauled by winding-drums ^worked either by horse or 
 steam power. 
 
 In answer to the second objection we urge co-operation in 
 the purchase of the necessary machinery or implements. If 
 a few neighbouring vine-growers unite and purchase these in 
 common, the outlay will be divided between several persons, 
 and, as the operations will extend over a greater number of 
 days per year, the cost of cultivation will be reduced pro- 
 portionately, and will not be found to exceed that now paid 
 for ploughing 12 or 14 inches deep. Further, when the 
 trenching or subsoiling operation is finished, the plant may 
 be used for ordinary ploughing, harrowing, scarifying, rolling 
 of vineyards, as pointed out by A. Debains (see page 135). 
 
 In conclusion, we quote the pregnant words of Professor 
 B. Chauzit* 
 
 " Great importance must be attached to the trenching or 
 subsoiling of vineyards; the future of the vine is entirely 
 dependent on this operation. Reconstitution on American 
 
 * Revue de. Viticulture, 21st October, 1899. 
 
14 
 
 stock becomes rapid, the vines bear heavily and much 
 earlier in well-trenched ground, on the contrary, in shallow 
 trenched ground of from 10 to 14 inches, for instance, 
 American vines develop very slowly and are unproductive. 
 We cannot therefore take too great care in the thorough 
 performance of trenching. It is the basis of the successful 
 establishment of a vineyard. If in the beginning expenses 
 are curtailed, the future of the vineyard is compromised. To 
 economize in deep cultivation is to forestall failure before 
 having even started the viticultural work on which one 
 depends." 
 
 RAYMOND DUBOIS. 
 
 W. PERCY WILKINSON. 
 
 Viticultural Station, 
 Rutherglen, November, 1900. 
 
I. 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOR AMERICAN 
 
 VINES.* 
 
 BY P. FEREOUILLAT, 
 Director of the National School of Agriculture, Montpellier. 
 
 WHIM, OR HORSE-GIN. 
 
 Under the name of whim, horse-gin, or winding drum,\ 
 we understand a simple machine frequently used to over- 
 come a great resistance with a very small motive power. 
 Fig. 1 is a windlass commonly used for raising water 
 from a well. It consists of a drum or cylinder A A 7 of 
 wood or metal, at both extremities of which are axle-trees 
 
 r. 1. Ordinary Windlass. 
 
 * Le Progres Agricole ct Viticole. Vol. 15. 1891. 
 
 t These words are used as equivalent to the French " treuil." Horse- 
 gin, according to Webster's Dictionary, 1899, is a contraction of horse- 
 engine. (Trans.) 
 
16 TKENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 revolving in two sockets. Levers L are fixed through the 
 cylinder, and it is by acting on these levers that power is 
 applied. 
 
 A rope or cable C wound OD the drum, supports a bucket, 
 the weight of which is the resistance to be overcome. The 
 friction of the axle-trees and the rigidity of the rope not 
 being taken into consideration, 
 
 P, being the effort exerted tangentially at the extremity 
 of the lever L. 
 
 /, the length of the lever, measured from the axis of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 Q, the weight to be raised, or the resistance. 
 
 r, the radius of the cylinder around which the rope is 
 wound ; it is shown in mechanics that 
 
 P r r 
 
 Q = T' orp = Q x T ; 
 
 that is to say, that the motive power is to the resistance as 
 the radius of the cylinder is to the length of the lever, or, in 
 other words, that the motive power is a fraction of the re- 
 sistance equal to the ratio between the radius of the cylinder 
 and the length of the lever. The smaller r is in relation to 
 to /. the greater Q may be in relation to P. If for instance, 
 
 r \ 
 
 T To, 
 
 we may, with an effort of 10 Ibs. raise a weight of 100 Ibs. 
 Practically, we must take into account the friction of the 
 axle-trees and the rigidity of the rope, so that the useful 
 resistance Q' overcome by the windlass, is a little less 
 than Q, which, theoretically, is in equilibrium with P. We 
 will see the importance of these passive resistances, also 
 called detrimental forces, in the machines we are going to 
 study. 
 
 In mechanics we always lose in velocity what is gained in 
 force, and reciprocally. If the windlass equilibrates a great 
 resistance by a small motive power, it is only at the expense 
 of the velocity or rate. We see that the path traversed at 
 each revolution of the windlass by the moving power is 
 equal to 2 tr I; that traversed by the resistance is 2 ?r r. 
 These two paths traversed in the same lapse of time are, 
 therefore, in inverse ratio of the effort developed to the 
 resistance overcome. We may, with a moving force of 
 10 Ibs. raise 100 Ibs., provided r be ^ of /, but the weight, 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 17 
 
 <J, will travel ten times slower than if the force P, was 
 applied directly with the same velocity ; or, what is the 
 same, it will take ten times longer to raise the weight. 
 
 The windlass arranged as shown in Fig. 1 may also 
 serve to raise loads. It forms the essential part of the 
 machine known as the lifting crab, which is used in building 
 to raise stones and timbers. The lever I may be replaced by 
 a winch-handle made fast to one of the axle-trees passing 
 through a socket. In the quarry windlass a large wheel of 
 13 to 19 feet in diameter replaces the levers. It is provided 
 with bars. Men mount these bars as if on a ladder, and it 
 is their weight which constitutes the moving power. 
 
 If the axis of the windlass is vertical instead of horizontal, 
 and if, therefore, the levers rotate in a horizontal plane, the 
 machine takes the name of capstan. The conditions of 
 equilibrium are evidently the same. Under this form the 
 capstan is sometimes used in cellars to work wine-presses ; 
 the rope is fixed on the bar of the press, and men work the 
 winding drum of the capstan with capstan bars. 
 
 To attain still greater traction, toothed wheel gearing 
 may be interposed between the motive power and the 
 resistance. Fig. 2 shows diagrammatically the toothed- 
 wheel gearing. The drum t carries a toothed wheel R' geared 
 with a pinion /. On the shaft of this pinion a toothed 
 wheel R is fixed gearing with a pinion r, on the shaft of 
 
 6279. 
 
 Fig-. 2. - Toothed-wheel gearing. 
 B 
 
18 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 which the transmission pulley is fixed, connected by a belt 
 to a horse-gin or portable engine. If an effort P is applied 
 on the pulley p, the pinion r will revolve the wheel R, the 
 pinion r will revolve the wheel R' and the drum t, and if a 
 rope is coiled on the drum at the extremity of which is a 
 resistance Q, in the form of a load to be hauled, the load will 
 gradually move towards the machine. Disregarding fric- 
 tional losses and the rigidity of the rope, 
 
 /, being the radius of the pulley ; 
 a, the radius of the drum ; 
 
 R, R', r, r' 9 the radii of the toothed wheels, or the- 
 number of their teeth ; we have, theoretically 
 . P r r a p o r r a 
 
 -Q RKTi' ( Q R~IT7 
 
 As a r r are always very small compared to R R' and L. 
 P is very small compared to Q, we can, with the toothed 
 wheel gearing train, overcome considerable resistances, 
 which, with the simple capstan, would have been impossible. 
 But we must not forget that this gain in power, and conse- 
 quently diminution of velocity, corresponds to a loss of time 
 so much the greater as the gain in itself is higher. 
 
 It is surprising to notice that the wheel-and-axle principle- 
 so extensively applied for a long time in other industries, and 
 constructed under so many different forms and dimensions, 
 has been so tardily applied for the draught of agricultural 
 implements. 
 
 Deforges, constructing engineer, in an interesting report, 
 after a special competitive show of horse-gins and winding- 
 drums held at Narbonne in 1888, relates that before 
 1815 an old sailor in the Departement of the Pyrn6es 
 established a capstan at the end of a small field, by means 
 of which he hauled his plough, and consequently cultivated 
 his land. In the same report, Aubert, a land-owner, in the 
 Departement of Basses-Alpes, is also mentioned as having 
 used a capstan for hauling his ploughs in 1834. But these 
 isolated trials remained for very many years without 
 creating a movement in favour of these devices. 
 
 Nothing less than the destruction of vines by phylloxera 
 and the general necessity of reconstituting the different 
 vineyards was necessary to compel attention to the merits of 
 these machines. 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 19 
 
 Deep cultivation, such as is now actually done, is almost 
 impracticable with bullock or horse teams, whatever be the 
 number of animals. In the first instance, the farmer 
 must possess enough animals, and only a few can spare 
 fourteen or sixteen draught animals ; and what is more, when 
 more than ten or twelve horses work together, their power 
 is very badly utilized, as each animal does not furnish the 
 power it is capable of yielding when alone, and a moment 
 comes when nothing is gained by adding another animal. 
 This loss of power is more noticeable with horses, as they get 
 nervous, and with which it is difficult to obtain regular trac- 
 tion. Finally, in the management of a large team, the starts 
 and turns are extremely difficult. Therefore, the execution of 
 this work has only been possible so far with a steam plant. The 
 Fowler system is the only one that has hitherto been avail- 
 able to viticulturists ; however, its use is not without draw- 
 backs. Its high cost and expensive attendance preclude it 
 from the reach of vinegrowers, who, as a rule, only hire it. 
 In this case it is often difficult to get it at the fixed date 
 for a contract time for small surfaces to be ploughed, etc. 
 The travelling on roads or over culverts of these powerful 
 locomotives used for driving heavy ploughs has grave incon- 
 veniences. It was, therefore, indispensable to devise a new 
 machine to replace the expensive and cumbersome material 
 used in Fowler's steam ploughing, and place within the 
 reach of all small, medium, and large growers the means for 
 trenching or subsoiling their ground. In 1876 Grue", a vine- 
 grower at Sollies-Pont (Var), first applied the capstan as a 
 mode of traction for trenching or subsoiling ploughs. It is 
 easy to imagine a plough secured at the end of a steel wire 
 cable, winding round the drum of a capstan, and two horses 
 yoked at the extremity of the bars of the capstan, to under- 
 stand that these animals will put the plough in motion. If 
 the drum has a radius of 19 inches, and if the bars have a 
 length of 16^- feet, the two horses will do the work of a team 
 of twenty applied directly to the plough. But the plough 
 will travel ten times slower. This question of speed and 
 time is, however, generally of secondary consideration, as the 
 capstan allows the grower to plough to depths which he 
 could not reach without using steam, even if he had twenty 
 horses at his disposal, and such a team could not be practi- 
 cally managed. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 The purchase of a great number of horses for work of 
 short duration has this double disadvantage, that, firstly, 
 they could not be sold again without a loss ; and, secondly, 
 the inclemency of the weather may interrupt the work, in 
 which case the horses are fed without being utilized. With 
 a horse-gin one may, without increasing the staff and teams, 
 perform better work than would be the result if direct 
 draught were used. 
 
 Grue's idea, although so simple and practical, was not 
 immediately adopted by agriculturists, and the gin adapted 
 to the traction of ploughs by horses, or oxen, did not come 
 into general use as rapidly as might have been hoped, 
 considering the requirements of viticulturists. Ten years 
 elapsed before the gin conquered at last, and gained the 
 confidence of all. 
 
 In the meantime, Bourguignon, who constructed the first 
 machines for Grue, made a certain number of other gins, 
 particularly the Valessie gin. But it is to Beauquesne, of 
 the Ecole Poly technique, that the honour is due of having, 
 thanks to a profound conviction and obstinate persistence, 
 forced agriculturists to adopt these machines. 
 
 Although the Beauquesne gin is an enormous advance on 
 the machines constructed previously, it is not without several 
 defects. The ingenuity of constructors was awakened by 
 the success of these machines, and did not take long in 
 triumphing over the difficulties which their application pre- 
 sented in practice, and the last show of gins, which was held 
 in the spring of 1890, proved that the gin had at last become 
 an implement of great perfection. 
 
 While this transformation was taking place, Grue" on one 
 side, Beauquesne on the other, were trying to apply the 
 capstan system to the utilization of portable engines for the 
 draught or traction of ploughs. As the horse-gin allows 
 viticulturists to do with two horses cultivation which would 
 require twenty in the ordinary manner, the steam winding- 
 drum gives, in the same way, the means to do with a small 
 portable 6 H.P. engine, work which formerly required power- 
 ful winding drums of the Fowler system. The steam wind- 
 ing drum is nothing less than a toothed wheel gearing train, 
 the pulley of which is connected with the belt of the engine. 
 Although the principle of this machine seems very simple, 
 it had to be devised so as to render the winding drum 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 21 
 
 practical. The Perpignan show enabled us to appreciate the 
 progress accomplished in this direction ; and, even if some 
 modifications of detail yet remain to be made, viticulturists 
 have already at their disposal new machines of great power 
 and of incontrovertible utility. 
 
 There are two classes of trenching or subsoiling capstans : 
 1st, the horse-gin, for use by the medium grower ; 2nd, the 
 steam-winding drum, for properties possessing a portable 
 engine. The machines of the latter class may be used for 
 small properties, through contractors undertaking the work. 
 The trenching or subsoiling per acre with this contrivance 
 is generally less expensive than with Fowler's machines, 
 on account of the considerable difference in the prices of the 
 plants. 
 
 HORSE-GINS OR WHIMS. 
 
 Horse-gins are divided into: 1st, fixed gins; 2nd, 
 movable gins. While the former are established in a fixed 
 position of the field to be trenched or subsoiled, and are fixed 
 during the whole time of the duration of the work, the latter 
 are arranged on one side of the plot to be ploughed, and 
 are displaced in front of every furrow, travelling from one 
 extremity of the field to the other. In the first class may 
 be grouped the Beauquesne and Musquere systems ; in the 
 second, all other systems. 
 
 BEAUQUESNE'S HORSE-GIN. 
 
 Although the Beauquesne machine is not the first that was 
 used for deep cultivation, it is certainly the best known. 
 It was first used in 1887. Since that date it has been im- 
 proved in details, but as a whole has remained as it was when 
 first brought out, remarkable for its great simplicity and 
 rusticity. 
 
 Description. The complete machine is composed of three 
 essential parts A capstan, cable, and fixed pulley. 
 
 The capstan consists (Fig. 3) of a drum C, the 
 diameter of which may vary between 27J inches and 4ft. 
 3in., around which the cable is wound. This drum runs 
 loose on the vertical shaft, which is strongly fixed to a cast- 
 iron cross bolted on a wooden base frame, formed of two 
 beams 9ft. 9in. in length. A coupling clutch P, running loose 
 on the same shaft carries the pole B. The throwing-into- 
 gear lever L, allows the raising or lowering of the clutch P. 
 When raised it is independent of the drum C. When 
 
22 
 
 TEENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 Fig. 3. Beauquesne's Horse-gin. 
 
 lowered, on the contrary, it throws the drum into gear, and 
 the horses yoked to the pole B, in their circular motion wind 
 the cahle on the drum. The machine increases the draught 
 ten times. 
 
 The cahle is made of steel wire. It is about 274 yards 
 long, and generally Ool to 0-55 inch in diameter. 
 
 The fixed pulley is a shive 
 supported by a wooden frame- 
 work, through which passes 
 the axle (Fig. 4). A length 
 of chain, ended by a large link, 
 allows the frame to be fixed to 
 another chain, the extremities 
 of which are secured to two 
 anchors deeply buried in the 
 ground. By this process the 
 pulley may easily be displaced 
 on the ground, by allowing the 
 terminal link of the small 
 chain to slide along the large 
 one without removing the 
 
 Ffc. 4.-Fixed Pulley. anchors. 
 
 Working. Under one of the beams of the frame of the 
 capstan, an axle is attached by which the machine is fixed 
 on wheels, to facilitate travelling it from one place to 
 another. Two excavations are made in the ground for the 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 23 
 
 wooden beams, the wheels are removed, the capstan placed in 
 position in the excavation, and fixed by a few iron or wooden 
 pegs. The gin is generally placed at one angle of the field 
 to be ploughed (Fig. 5). After lifting the coupling clutch 
 the cable is unwound and passed over the fixed pulley, 
 
 Capstan. 
 
 Field. 
 
 Ancho 
 
 Fixed pulley. 
 
 Cable carrier. 
 
 A 
 
 Plourjh. 
 
 Fig. 5 Arrangement of Capstan in the Field 
 
 which is anchored at the extremity of the first furrow to be 
 turned by the plough, to which the free extremity of the 
 cable is fixed. When the distance is considerable the cable 
 is supported by cable carriers (a kind of small carriage pro- 
 vided with a ground pulley) 
 to diminish the wear and tear 
 (Fig. 6). At a distance of 
 about 19 feet from the capstan 
 a small device is placed for 
 facilitating and regulating the 
 winding of the cable on the 
 drum. The horses are then 
 liarnessed to the pole, the machine thrown into gear, and 
 all is ready for a start. 
 
 The installation is simple, and does not require much 
 skill ; the fixation of the anchors which hold the fixed 
 pulley, alone presents some difficulty. It is necessary to 
 prevent the enormous traction exerted on them from pulling 
 them out of the ground. When the soil is naturally com- 
 pact and resistant this need not be feared, but in swampy or 
 light gravelly soils it is difficult to keep the anchors in 
 
 Fig. 6. -Cable carrier. 
 
24 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 position. This accident is so frequent with the anchors that 
 Beauquesne was forced to discard them and substitute 
 anchoring plates, the resistance of which is much greater. 
 These plates, formed of strong girders, lodged in trenches in 
 the ground, and resting on an extended surface, support 
 very considerable efforts without yielding. It is not rare, 
 however, to see them pulled out of the ground in certain 
 soils. It is preferable, when circumstances allow it, to 
 anchor the pulley to a wall or trees ; even these are some- 
 times pulled out. 
 
 It should be noticed that the two anchoring points of the 
 chain holding the pulley have to sustain unequal tractions, 
 and that the pulling out of one end is more to be feared 
 than the other. This is shown in Fig. 7 ; the traction T of 
 the capstan and the resistance T' of the plough give a resul- 
 tant F applied to the point cL This resultant is equili- 
 brated by the resistance R of the anchoring chain. If this- 
 
 Fig. 7.- Anchoring of the Fixed Pulley. 
 
 resistance is resolved into its two components, A directed 
 towards the anchor P, the other B directed toward the anchor 
 P', we see that the effort applied to the first anchor is greater 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 25 
 
 than that applied to the second, and greater than the trac- 
 tion of the capstan or the cable. In practice the anchor 
 plate P gives way before P', therefore the anchor plate P 
 requires to be fixed more carefully. This is the greatest 
 defect of the system. 
 
 The plough made on the Brabant system is of great power, 
 all the parts being strengthened and strongly braced together. 
 When the plough hauled by the cable reaches the fixed pulley, 
 the plough is thrown out of gear, leans on the mould-board, 
 and comes out of the furrow. The coupling clutch is thrown 
 out of gear, the capstan stops revolving, and the plough is 
 lifted up, placed on a small two-wheeled truck, and hauled 
 by a horse to the starting point of the new furrow (Fig. 8). 
 To regulate the unwinding of the cable, the driver acts on the 
 
 Fig. 8. Plough ready to be hauled back. 
 
 drum with a wooden lever as a brake. While this is done 
 the chain of the fixed pulley is shifted along the anchoring 
 chain to a distance equalling the width of the furrow, so as 
 to have the chain opposite the furrow to be opened, and the 
 operation is again repeated. 
 
 If the field to be ploughed is too large to allow the work 
 being done from one position of the capstan, without detri- 
 mentally increasing the length of the cable, it is partitioned 
 in a series of rectangular blocks, the position of the capstan 
 being changed as many times as there are rectangles. We 
 
26 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 may reduce the number of shiftings by placing the capstan 
 in the middle of the plot, instead of a corner. In this case, 
 with a cable 274 yards long, one may, without shifting the 
 capstan, plough about 15 acres. At the end of the work non- 
 ploughed headlands are left. On the side where the capstan 
 and pulley are fixed the headland is 23 to 26 feet in width ; 
 on the other side, about the length of a horse. The headlands 
 are ploughed in the same way as above described, leaving 
 only four small squares unploughed at each corner of the field. 
 
 The traction cable is not buried, and passes across the 
 circular track made by the horses. They have to walk over 
 it. They very quickly become accustomed to this, and the 
 slow rate of the cable renders it very easy, the drum being 
 level with the ground the height of the cable does not 
 exceed 9 inches from the surface. This arrangement has 
 been proved to be the most practicable and simple, and 
 without danger to the horses. 
 
 Two objections may be raised against the Beauquesne 
 system. The first is relative to the difficulty of anchoring 
 the fixed pulley, the second relates to the shifting of the 
 capstan from one place to another. Notwithstanding these 
 objections, this horse-gin remains the most practical, and on 
 account of its simplicity and strength it has and will still 
 render great services to viticulturists. Its price is 48, 
 including 220 yards of cable, plough excluded. 
 
 The plough used by Beauquesne is that made by Pol 
 Fondeur, at Viry (Aisne) specially strengthened to resist the 
 enormous effort it has to support (Fig. 9). It is a good 
 
 Fig. 9. Pol Fondeur's Trenching Plough 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 27 
 
 implement. Only the fixing on the truck to bring it back 
 to the beginning of the furrow is a rather troublesome and 
 tedious operation. It is done as follows : The beam of the 
 plough carries a vertical shaft with a toothed rack, gearing 
 with a pinion. Directly the plough has come out of the furrow 
 leaning on the mould-board, or breast, it is lifted upright, 
 .a plank is placed under the vertical shaft, and, by means of 
 .a handle working the pinion the shaft is lowered. It rests 
 on the plank lifting the body of the plough. The truck is 
 slided under the frame and keyed on to it. The shaft is 
 then raised and the plough resting on the truck is ready to 
 be drawn back. This device is shown in Fig. 8. 
 
 MUSQUERE'S HORSE-GIN. 
 
 The horse-gin of Musquere, of Salses (Pyrene'es-Orientales) 
 presents some analogy to that of Beauquesne. 
 
 Description. The frame of the capstan is made of rolled 
 joist girders, braced with angle iron. 
 
 The winding drum is 3ft. 3in. in diameter, the pole 11 ft. 
 in length. The ratio of the speeds ^. Two poles may be 
 iixed on the socket head. The device for throwing into gear 
 resembles that of Beauquesne. 
 
 Working. To instal the capstan a deep trench is dug to 
 Teceive the wheels and frame. The machine is buried to 
 the level of the bottom flange of the drum. The stability is 
 .great, but the fixing tedious. The cable passes over a fixed 
 pulley made fast to a chain, the two extremities of which 
 are anchored to a series of iron pegs arranged like a claw. 
 The sliding of the pulley on the anchoring chain is done in 
 the same way as with the Beauquesne plant. 
 
 The plough used is a Vernette trenching plough. To 
 carry the plough back to the beginning of the new furrow, 
 it is tilted over on two wheels. 
 
 This gin with 274 yards of cable costs 64. 
 
 GRUB'S HORSE-GIN. 
 
 Leonce Grue first attempted in 1876, on his farm at 
 Eeaulieu, Sollies-Font (Var), to haul heavy trenching 
 ploughs by means of a winding drum. The first machine 
 vras very imperfect, but the principle was good, and Grue" 
 tad only to make a few modifications to create the horse- 
 .gin which now bears his name, and which is sometimes 
 known under the name of Beaulieu gin. 
 
28 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 Description. It consists essentially of a horizontal 
 winding drum (Fig. 10), made of sheet steel and angle iron. 
 
 Fig. 10. Grub's Horse-gin. 
 
 It is very strong, and is set in a frame made of iron rolled 
 joist girders and T iron, easily dismounted by means of bolts. 
 Above the frame a pair of cog-wheels are interposed between 
 the pole axis and the drum axis, which according to their 
 position, allow different rates of winding to be obtained, and 
 consequently different powers of traction. A pole-socket 
 fixed on one of the vertical shafts carries the pole, the 
 frame rests on four rollers, rolling on two rolled joist 
 girders, placed flat on the ground, and serving as rails. 
 
 This gin has three speeds. For very deep cultivation, 
 requiring great traction, the large cog-wheel is keyed on the 
 drum shaft, and the pole-socket keyed on the shaft of the 
 small pinion. In this case the traction on the cable is to- 
 the power Of the animals as 20 is to 1. For ploughing at a. 
 medium depth, the pole-socket is keyed directly on the drum 
 shaft, working independently of the cog-wheels. In this- 
 case the effort is increased ten times, as in the Beauquesne 
 machine. If the working of the land does not require so much 
 power, one may work quicker by fixing the small pinion on 
 the drum shaft, and the large cog-wheel on the shaft carry- 
 ing the pole. The effort in this case is increased five times. 
 The shifting of the cog-wheels is done very easily. They run. 
 loose on the shafts, and are engaged by means of a cotter 
 fixing them to circular plates, placed underneath and keyed, 
 on the shaft. 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 29 
 
 Working. The gin is installed on the shortest side of the 
 l3lock, and opposite the first furrow to be opened. It is 
 -carried by two rails fixed in the ground by means of pegs. 
 The weight of the machine is sufficient to keep it in place. 
 The cable is made fast to the plough, and acts directly with- 
 out passing over a fixed pulley. This pulley would only be 
 necessary in the case of a block of irregular shape, where 
 the gin could not be easily brought opposite the furrows. 
 The horses in their circular track haul the plough, which, 
 when it reaches the machine, is tilted on its side, placed on 
 a small truck, and carried back by a horse to begin another 
 furrow. While the plough is being taken back the gin is 
 moved forward a distance equal to the width of a furrow. 
 When the machine reaches the end of the rails, a second pair 
 of rails is placed in line ; when the machine is on these, the 
 first pair is taken up and placed in line in their turn. Four 
 rolled joist girders are therefore sufficient for travelling the 
 gin along the headland. The machine travels by degrees 
 from one end of the block to tlie other, leaving only two 
 headlands unploughed. The headland on the gin side is 
 about 40 feet wide, on the opposite side 1 1 feet. 
 
 The dispensing with the fixed pulley, and displacement of 
 the gin on rails, are the characteristic and principal advan- 
 tages of Grub's gin. This advantage is considerable, as 
 the installation of the machine is much simplified ; for the 
 doing away with the pulley avoids the difficulty of anchoring, 
 which is an almost insurmountable difficulty in certain soils. 
 Grae's machine for these reasons has had many imitators, 
 and movable gins are nowadays mostly used. The con- 
 trivance allowing three different speeds to be obtained is not 
 very useful. Increasing the motive power by ten is quite 
 sufficient, as in this case two horses exert an effort equal to 
 twenty yoked directly to the plough. By increasing this 
 power at the expense of the speed the latter is too much 
 reduced, and the daily work done by the plough becomes 
 insignificant ; by diminishing it on the contrary the use of a 
 winding drum is not justified, for its aim is simply to allow 
 deep ploughing, impossible to be performed with ordinary 
 teams. The cog-wheels of the Beaulieu gin could therefore 
 be dispensed with, the socket head keyed directly on the 
 shaft of the drum would greatly simplify the machine. 
 
 Its price without cable or plough is 64 ; without the cog- 
 wheels it only costs 40. 
 
30 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 The gin hauls a trenching plough, built specially for it 
 by Durand, of Montereau (Seine-et-Marne), This implement 
 (Fig. 11) is of very great power, and allows land to be 
 ploughed easily to a depth of 2 feet. It has three coulters 
 with a steel share, made in such a way as to keep the 
 plough well into the ground. All the regulating may be 
 done during work without stopping, by means of a hand- 
 wheel acting on screws ; a small wheel is fixed at the rear 
 of the plough to take it back to new ground. This wheel 
 revolves on a lever, at the extremity of which is a hook. 
 During the ploughing the small wheel lifts automatically and 
 revolves on the bottom of the furrow opened by the plough. 
 To carry the plough, the swingle bar is secured to the hook of 
 the lever ; the traction of the horse lowers it, and at the 
 same time forces the small wheel to rest on the ground, 
 lifting the frame and allowing the plough to run on three 
 wheels. This small wheel is articulated so as to form a fore- 
 carriage replacing the truck. The plough weighs 13 cwt. 
 3 qr., and costs 38. 
 
 GRUB'S DOUBLE WINDING-DRUM GIN. 
 
 Grue also makes a double winding-drum gin, allowing* 
 the plough to be worked both ways and avoiding the time 
 lost in pulling the plough back to new ground. 
 
 Description. This gin is composed of two drums, each 
 winding a cable. One of these is fastened directly on the 
 plough, the other one, which is longer, passes over a fixed 
 pulley anchored on the opposite headland, and is then made 
 fast to the plough ; these two drums may at will run loose on 
 their shafts or be keyed on to them. It is easy to understand 
 that these two drums will alternately wind and unwind the 
 cable, drawing the plough backwards and forwards, there- 
 fore the ploughing will take place both ways without loss of 
 time. The plough in this case must evidently be either a 
 turn-wrest plough or a balance plough, turning the sod on 
 the same side during its passage both ways. (See Figs. 12 
 and 27.) 
 
 In this case the difficulties again reside in anchoring 
 the pulley. Gru6 solved the difficulty in the following 
 wa y . Three iron beams, 10 feet in length, are placed 
 one above the other with a space of 4 inches between each. 
 Corresponding holes are punched out of each beam, and 
 a spindle serving as axle to the pulley passed through 
 
FOR AMEEICAN VINES. 
 
 31 
 
32 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 them. To shift or displace the pulley at each furrow, the 
 spindle is taken out and put in the next hole, and so 
 on. The beams are kept in the ground by means of strong 
 iron posts, and the device has only to be moved every 
 10 feet. 
 
 This method of fixing the pulley is not without draw- 
 backs, and in pebbly, light, or boggy ground, the pulley 
 rapidly drags the beams out. It has, as a matter of fact, 
 to resist a traction double that resisted by the gin, as the 
 two parts of the cable passing over the pulley are parallel, 
 and the stress on each part is equal to the effort of traction 
 exerted tangentially to the circumference of the drum. 
 Notwithstanding Beauquesne's anchoring plates, the fixed 
 pulley of his machine (the resistance of which does not 
 require to be double that of the effort of the capstan) is often 
 dislodged. We cannot, therefore, expect greater stability 
 on the part of the fixed pulley of Grue's system. This 
 compound machine, the main advantage of which seems to 
 be the rapidity of execution of work, cannot in reality attain 
 much greater rapidity, as the displacement of the pulley, 
 
 Fig. 12. Durand's Turn-wrest Plough, with Subsoiling Tines. 
 
FOB AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 33 
 
 the anchoring, the possible dislodgment, are so many draw- 
 backs to the regular working. Its high price, 100, is, 
 on the other hand, an obstacle to its use by small and 
 medium growers. The turn-wrest plough, with a subsoiling 
 tine (shown in Fig. 12), may be used with this capstan. 
 In soils of medium stiffness, the trenching part of the plough 
 works at a depth of 16 inches, the subsoiling share working 
 6 to 8 inches deeper, making the total depth of work 22 to 
 24 inches. 
 
 Durand's plough costs from 20 to 30. 
 
 BOUEGUIGNON'S HORSE-Q-IN. 
 
 Auguste Bourguignon, who first constructed the Grue" 
 gin, has, since 1887, built the Valessie gin. 
 
 .Description. This gin is composed of a cast-iron bed- 
 plate, the dimensions of which have been calculated so as to 
 enable it to be carried on an ordinary dray. This bed-plate 
 rests on two long axles (Fig. 13) each bearing two rollers, 
 rolling on angle irons bolted on wooden beams. On this bed- 
 plate a frame-work or bridge is bolted, inside which the drum 
 is placed, keyed on a vertical shaft, revolving on a bronze 
 cup socket in the centre of the bed-plate, and through a 
 collar in the upper part of the bridge. On the top of the 
 shaft a circular plate is keyed, perforated with six holes at 
 
 6k 79. 
 
 Fig-. 13. Bourguignon's Horse-gin. 
 C 
 
34 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 the periphery, above it the pole socket-head runs loose on 
 the shaft, but may be clamped to the plate by a jumping 
 cotter. A pawl prevents the drum unwinding in the case of 
 the horses backing. It also prevents accidents which might 
 arise from a swingle-bar or pole breaking during the work. 
 If such a breakage occurred, the strain on the cable would 
 cause the drum to revolve backwards, carrying in its rotation 
 the pole, which might injure animals, driver, or onlookers if 
 too close. 
 
 The jerky, clicking noise produced by the falling of the 
 pawl on the ratchet-wheel arouses the attention of the driver, 
 renders the supervision easier, and breaks the monotony of 
 the work. The radius of the drum is 12 inches, and reaches 
 16 inches when the cable is wound up. The pole is 16 
 feet in length ; the moving power is, therefore, multiplied by 
 12*5. The speed of the plough may be increased a little, and 
 the power diminished, by inserting wooden sectors between 
 the flanges of the drum, which increases its diameter. The 
 same result may be obtained by yoking the animals nearer 
 the axis of rotation, that is to say, by diminishing the length 
 of the pole, which is easily done by hooking the swingle-bar 
 to hooks fixed on the pole for this purpose. 
 
 The animals, two or four in number, are yoked to one or 
 two poles, as the case may be. 
 
 The cable is not fixed directly on the plough ; it is fixed 
 on a cable-carrier, which is secured to the plough by chains. 
 This cable-carrier, which is the characteristic of this system, 
 consists of an axle and two large cast-iron wheels (Fig. 14). 
 
 Fig. 14. Cable-carrier used with Bourguignon's Gin. 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 35 
 
 It is provided with a hook, to hook on the end of the cable, 
 and is connected to the plough by three chains, the two lateral 
 serving to fix it askew to the direction of the plough. 
 
 The advantages of this device are as follows : 1st., it 
 allows a very straight furrow to be turned, even if the cable 
 pulls sideways, and therefore to only displace the gin every 
 five or six furrows. The ploughman has only to work the 
 side chains in the necessary mariner, which is done without 
 loss of time ; 2nd, it prevents the plough from coming out 
 of the ground, on account of the height of the point of 
 traction. In fact, in most systems of gins it is necessary to 
 alter the rear of the frame to keep the plough in position. 
 This is usually done through the weight of the ploughman 
 sitting on a seat fixed at the rear between the stilts. 
 
 The plough used by Bourguignon is the simple Brabant, 
 specially constructed by Bajac for ploughing to a depth of 
 19 J to 24 inches, and provided with the following con- 
 trivance for carrying it back after each furrow has been 
 ploughed : The rear of the frame is traversed by an iron rod, 
 threaded at one end, the other end carrying a small wheel ; 
 a handle nut allows the rod to be raised or lowered. When 
 lowered the wheel rests on the ground, the body of the 
 plough being lifted, and, resting on the small wheel and the 
 wheels of the forecarriage, is easily transported. The height 
 of the small wheel can be regulated, so that, when working, 
 the plough rests on it ; a rolling friction being substituted 
 far the sliding friction of the frame. The Bajac plough is 
 shown in Fig. 15, without the lifting device. 
 
 Fig. 15. Bajac's Trenching Plough. 
 C 2 
 
36 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 Working. This gin works like that of Grue". Installed 
 on one side of the block, it pulls the plough from the opposite 
 side. The rails on which it travels are kept in place by a 
 few pegs. The non-ploughed headlands have the same 
 dimensions as in the previous case. 
 
 GUYOT'S HORSE-GIN. 
 
 Guyot, implement maker at La Redorte (Aude), has 
 devised a gin of great simplicity, which is easily worked. It 
 obtained at the special show at Perpignan, in 1890, the first 
 prize and a gold medal. It is a travelling gin, without either 
 roller or rails. 
 
 Description. It consists (Fig 16) of a large cast-iron 
 bed-plate, provided with an axle to enable it to be shifted 
 about ; during work the bed-plate rests on the ground. On 
 the centre of the plate a vertical shaft revolves, kept in 
 position at the top by a curb bolted on the plate. On this 
 shaft the winding drum is keyed, which is 19-J inches in 
 diameter, and on the top of the shaft two poles are fixed 
 lift. lOin. in length. The ratio of the speeds are <f$, for, 
 when the cable is wound, the average diameter becomes 
 2 feet. 
 
 The gin, resting on the ground, is fastened by means of an 
 iron bar to a chain ancnored at each end. To displace the 
 gin at each furrow the iron bar is simply slided along the 
 chain, the traction on the cable then suffices to bring the 
 gin opposite the furrow to be opened. The mode of displace- 
 ment of this gin is identical to that of the fixed pulley of 
 the Beauquesne system ; but, whereas the pulley drags out 
 the anchors easily, on account of the large traction exerted 
 on one of them (Fig. 7), the Guyot gin is easily kept in 
 place, for the traction is exactly divided on both anchors, 
 the iron bar being always placed in the prolongation of 
 the bisectrix of the angle formed by the two parts of the 
 anchoring chain. 
 
 The plough is made by Guyot. It is a simple Brabant, 
 composed of a very strong beam, strengthened by a rolled 
 joist girder, to which the different parts are fixed 
 (Fig. 17). 
 
 The depth of ploughing is regulated by means of a 
 screw placed at the rear of the beam. The width and the 
 direction of the furrow are regulated by the position of the 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 37 
 
 cable hook, by means of a pair 
 of pinions and a hand-wheel. 
 The ploughman can, during 
 work, adjust the regulator 
 rapidly and easily. 
 
 The device for carrying the 
 plough back to the starting 
 point is ingenious. A small 
 wheel, carried by a block and 
 spindle, is, during the work, 
 hooked between the handles. 
 When the plough is out of the 
 ground the spindle is inserted 
 in a hole pierced sideways in 
 the framework. By tilting 
 the plough it is forced to rest 
 on that wheel, the implement 
 then running easily on the 
 three wheels. 
 
 Working. Guyot's gin is 
 managed in the same way as 
 the Beauquesne fixed pulley. 
 The two anchors are fixed on 
 one side of the block, the gin 
 secured to the anchoring chain 
 opposite the first furrow to be 
 opened. As the work pro- 
 gresses the bar of the capstan 
 is slided along the anchoring 
 chain. The management of 
 the plough is the same as in 
 any other system. To facili- 
 tate the sliding of the gin-bar 
 along the anchoring chain, 
 this bar is tied to the gin by a 
 small piece of chain winding 
 round a small capstan. By 
 acting on the latter, the gin is 
 brought closer to the chain ; 
 the loosened bar is then easily 
 shifted. During the carrying 
 of the plough to the starting point a small brake is used to 
 regulate the unwinding. 
 
38 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 39 
 
 The Guyot gin is one of the simplest and most practical ; 
 its cost is only 34, the carrying wheels cost 4, the plough 
 28, the cable, of 274 yards, 10. 
 
 VERNETTE'S HORSE-GIN. 
 
 The gin designed and made by Etienne Vernette, of 
 Beziers, is worked like those of Grue or Bourguignon, by dis- 
 placement on rails along the headland. 
 
 Description. it is composed of a winding drum 23 J inches 
 in diameter (Fig. 18). This drum revolves round a strong 
 
 Fig-. 18 Vernette's Horse-gin. 
 
 steel shaft keyed on a cast-iron cross, bolted under a cast-iron 
 bed-plate. There is no framework, therefore the cable can 
 take any direction. The bottom flange of the drum is 
 countersunk in the bed-plate, which prevents the cable, 
 when winding up, from being caught under the drum. The 
 whole machine is carried by four massive rollers. The 
 socket-head for the two poles runs loose on the same shaft 
 as the drum ; the drum and the socket-head are clamped 
 together by means of two cotters. When the cotters are in 
 place, the animals wind up the drum in their circular 
 motion ; when taken out, the drum is disconnected, and the 
 weight of the socket acts as a brake during the unwinding. 
 
40 
 
 TEENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 If the roads are in good order the animals may be yoked 
 directly on the gin, which travels on the rollers ; if not, it 
 may be carried on a dray, or on a truck made specially for 
 
 *g*s 
 
 ?^9^^*^^-- '" 
 Fig. 19. Vernette's Trenching Plough. 
 
 the purpose. During work the machine is displaced on a 
 pair of rails made of rolled joist girders. Pegs prevent any 
 displacement in the direction of the cable. 
 
 Fig. 20. Patent Automatic Carrier for Vernette's Plough. 
 
FOft AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 41 
 
 the traction of the 
 plough (Fig. 21). 
 
 horses lowers 
 
 Working. It 
 works like any 
 other movable 
 gin. It is strongly 
 built, well studied 
 in details, and 
 only costs 34. 
 It is one of the 
 most practical 
 machines offered 
 to viticulturists. 
 It generally hauls 
 a plough specially 
 made for it by the 
 | same firm (Fig. 
 | 19). It is a simple 
 .2 Brabant, provided 
 1 with a seat for the 
 I ploughman, who 
 can easily regulate 
 | and direct the 
 | plough by means 
 | of a lever placed 
 |!in front of him. 
 | The depth of 
 ^ ploughing is ad- 
 s' justed by a screw 
 on the forecar- 
 riage, the width 
 by the lateral dis- 
 placement of the 
 wheels. A special 
 truck (Fig. 20) is 
 easily placed 
 
 under the frame 
 for returning the 
 plough to the 
 starting point. 
 The wheels of the 
 truck are fixed on 
 a right-angle lever 
 in such a way that 
 the wheels, lifting the 
 
42 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 This plough costs 30 with the seat ; 28 without the 
 seat. In this case the hand-wheel for regulating is worked 
 from the side as shown in. Fig. 21. 
 
 PELOUS' HORSE-GIN. 
 
 Pelous, an implement maker at Toulouse, endeavoured to 
 remedy two of the inconveniences generally met with in 
 horse-gins: 1st, the defect of want of stability and the ten- 
 dency to tilting under the strain of the cable ; 2nd, the 
 defective winding of the cable on the drum. 
 
 Description. It is composed of a winding drum 19 J 
 inches in diameter, revolving round a vertical shaft, carry- 
 ing a socket head, with two poles lift. lOin. in length. The 
 motive power is multiplied by twelve. The machine can be 
 mounted on wheels for shifting about. During work it is 
 displaced on four rollers rolling on two rails. The machine 
 is light. It only weighs llcwt. 3qrs. To prevent tilting, 
 Pelous places on the bed-plate two wooden cases of about 
 1 7^ cub. feet each in capacity, which are filled with earth ; the 
 additional weight is then 25cwt. 2qrs. to 29cwt. 2qrs. 
 This is quite sufficient to insure the stability of the machine. 
 When the work is finished the cases are emptied, and the 
 weight to shift about is only 1 1 cwt. 3qrs. 
 
 The cable, instead of winding freely round the drum, is 
 guided by a small pulley fixed on an iron arm working with 
 a slow up and down movement. This movement is given by 
 means of a cam-wheel worked by means of a pinion. The 
 cam makes one revoluti n for 23 revolutions of the drum ; 
 the guiding pulley rising during the first half revolution of 
 the cam, and lowering during the second half. It is easy to 
 conceive that the cable, guided in this way, will wind on the 
 drum in a regular helix, all the turns being in perfect 
 contact. This ingenious device, used for a very long time in 
 the Fowler steam system, acts very well, on the condition that 
 the cable be of an even diameter. If, on account of the wear 
 and stress, the cable does not retain its original diameter, or, 
 if a cable of a different diameter is used, the winding ceases 
 to be regular. This cable guide, indispensable with the 
 Fowler machines, which have large winding drums, and 
 which impart a great speed to the cable, does not seem 
 useful for horse-gins, which always have small drums, and 
 work at a slow rate. It complicates the machine, and 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 43 
 
 increases its cost by 12. Up to the present no horse-gin 
 has had this additional device, and, if the winding of the 
 cable is not always very regular, this defect, however, is not 
 of much importance. It is, as a matter of fact, easy to 
 insure good winding. All that is necessary is to moderate 
 the unwinding during the carrying back of the plough to 
 the starting point, so as to prevent the last turns from 
 becoming slack and overlapping one another. If this pre- 
 caution is followed, defective winding never occurs. 
 
 The Pelous gin, with 274 yards of cable 0'6 inch in 
 diameter, costs 32. With a cable guide, it costs 44. It 
 hauls a strong trenching-plough, with a seat for the plough- 
 man, which costs 28. 
 
 Working. This machine works like those already 
 described. 
 
 MECHANICAL YIELD OF HORSE-GINS. 
 
 It is interesting to know the mechanical yield of gins 
 that is to say, to estimate the loss of power due to friction 
 and other detrimental resistance of the machine, to find out 
 the ratio between the moving power (horses) and the 
 resistance (plough). Experiments were made by Chabaneix, 
 of the School of Agriculture, Montpellier, in August, 1887, 
 at Candillargues, with Beauquesne's gin. 
 
 The large traction dynamometer (power-gauge), of the 
 School of Agriculture, was fixed to the bridle of the plough, 
 to measure the resistance offered by it. Another smaller 
 dynamometer, belonging to the school, was interposed 
 between the swingle-bar and the pole to measure the effort 
 developed by the animals. The ratio between these two 
 expresses the mechanical yield of the machine and the 
 difference, the detrimental resistance. Two consecutive 
 trials were made, and gave the following results : 
 
 Detrimental resistance : 
 
 1st trial ... 11'8 per cent, of the total motive-power. 
 2nd ... 10-3 
 Mean ... 11 
 
 Yield of the machine : 
 
 1st trial ... 88'2 per cent. 
 2nd ,, ... 89-7 
 Mean ... 89'0 ,, 
 
 These figures show that the yield of the machine is con- 
 siderable, and the losses due to the mechanism almost 
 
44 TRENCHING AND STJBSOILING 
 
 negligible ; in any case, they are much less than those- 
 resulting from the union of the animals in a single team 
 executing the same work by direct traction on the plough. 
 
 AREA PLOUGHED. 
 
 The surface ploughed per day with a horse-gin depends 
 greatly on the length of the furrows and the size of 
 the plot. It depends also on the experience of the 
 workmen, and the skill with which they execute the 
 different works. It may be approximately calculated as 
 follows : The horse at the pole travels at an average 
 speed of 35^ inches per second, that is to say, 177 feet per 
 minute. The length of the pole is generally to the 
 diameter of the drum as 10 is to 1 ; the plough travels with 
 a speed ten times less, that is to say, 17*7 feet per minute. 
 If the width of the sod is 19 J inches, the surface ploughed 
 will be 28*5 square feet per minute ; and for ploughing 4 
 poles it would require 37 minutes, without stoppage, inter- 
 ruption, or breakage. But, taking the plough back to the 
 starting point, accidental stoppages, and unforeseen accidents., 
 absorb a time equal to that usefully used for plough- 
 ing, so that one hour and fifteen minutes are usually 
 required to plough 4 poles. In one day's work of ten 
 hours an area of 32 poles can, therefore, be ploughed. With 
 the movable gins, the conditions are more favorable, 
 4 poles per hour can be ploughed, that is to say, 40 poles 
 per day. One cannot depend on more rapid work. 
 
 In shows and in public trials greater speeds have been 
 attained ; but the work required from the men and animals 
 was excessive, and could not be performed continuously. 
 
 COST OF TRENCHING OR SUBSOILING WITH HORSE-GINS. 
 The estimation of the cost comprises 1st, the interest on 
 the outlay for plant ; 2nd, the expense for wear and tear ; 
 3rd, the daily expense of the work. 
 
 A trenching plant, gin, plough, and accessories, cost on 
 the average, 80. This sum must be written off in ten 
 years. Taking the interest on the capital at 5 per cent., 
 the amount to be written off per annum is 10 10s. If we 
 assume that we plough 12^ acres every year, and that we 
 plough 40 poles every day, the machine will work 50 days 
 in the year. The daily expense to be written off is ^^* 
 = 4s. 2d. 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 45 
 
 The wear and tear runs annually into 5 per cent, of 
 the capital. That is to say, a daily expense of Is. 7d. A 
 driver for the horses, two ploughmen one for the plough, 
 the other for the pulley a boy to drive the horse pulling the 
 plough back to the starting point such is the indispensable 
 staff. 
 
 The daily expense incurred by this is : 
 
 3 workmen, at 2s. 4-Jd. ... 7s. IJd. 
 
 1 boy, at is. 2d. ... ... Is. 2d. 
 
 3 horses, at 3s. 2d. ... 3s. 2d. 
 
 Total ... ... 11s. 5|d. 
 
 This lls. 5fd., added to 4s. 2d. to be written off, to Is. 7d. 
 for wear and tear, bring the daily expense to 17s. 2|d. As 
 the area ploughed is 40 poles, the ploughing of 1 acre 
 costs, roughly, 3 8s. lid. 
 
 If the machine is worked less than 50 days in the year the 
 -cost per acre will be a little higher, for the sum to be written 
 off yearly will be divided over a smaller number of days ; if, 
 on the contrary, the machine is worked a greater number of 
 days, the price will be reduced. 
 
 STEAM WINDING DRUMS. 
 
 The same two classes may be established for steam drums. 
 Some are stationary, that is to say, installed at the begin- 
 ning of the work in a suitable place in the block till all the 
 ploughing capable of being done with a certain length of 
 cable is completed. Some are displacing, that is to say, 
 gradually travel along a headland as the work proceeds. 
 
 In the first class we find the Beauquesne, Vernette, and Gru6 
 machines ; in the second, those of Guyot, Pelous, and Pecard. 
 
 BEAUQUESNE'S STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 This was first placed on the market in 1887. It closely 
 resembles his horse-gin. 
 
 Description. A winding drum T (Fig. 22) revolves round 
 a vertical shaft, carrying cogs on both its flanges, the upper 
 one being smaller in diameter. Each of these cog-wheels 
 gears with a pinion ; the two pinions run loose on their 
 shaft, but they may be alternately thrown into gear with a 
 lever L. On the top of this shaft a bevel cog-wheel is keyed, 
 gearing with a bevel pinion, fixed on a horizontal shaft 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 Figf. 22 Beauquesne's Steam Winding Drum 
 
 carrying a belt-pulley P. For shifting from one place to 
 another, the machine may be mounted on wheels. When 
 working, the wheels are removed, and the machine buried 
 level with the bottom flange of the drum. The portable 
 engine is fixed at a suitable distance, its pulley connected to- 
 the pulley of the drum by a belt. 
 
 Working. The winding drum and the portable engine 
 are usually installed in the middle of the headland. At one 
 extremity of this headland a fixed pulley is anchored, the 
 same as is used for the horse-gin. The drum of the capstan 
 being disengaged, the cable is unwound, passed over the fixed 
 pulley, and fastened to the plough, which is taken to the 
 starting point. The portable engine is then started, the 
 pinions thrown into gear, and the plough hauled. When it 
 reaches the fixed pulley, the plough is thrown out of gear to 
 lift it out of the ground, and is stopped by throwing the 
 drum out of gear. The plough, placed on a trolley, is taken 
 back to the starting point by a horse or pair of bullocks ; 
 meanwhile the fixed pulley is displaced to an extent equal to 
 the width of the furrow. 
 
 If the top pinion is thrown into gear, the drum revolves 
 with greater speed, the plough travels quicker, but the 
 traction decreases. If, on the contrary, the bottom pinion 
 is thrown into gear, the speed diminishes while the traction 
 increases. If the engine is powerful enough, the top pinion 
 should be used. If not, the lower one. 
 
 We must notice that the engine does not work while the 
 plough is taken back. This time is used by the engine- 
 driver to raise the steam pressure, which, if the engine is 
 not strong enough, might have diminished. One can there- 
 fore use a relatively small power engine, which would be 
 insufficient if continuous work was required from it. 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 47 
 
 The capstan is constructed to work with an engine of 12 
 H.P., but it is generally worked with a 4 to 8 H.P. engine. 
 
 The cable may work in any direction. Therefore, one may, 
 without displacing the machine, plough a block of 20 to 22J 
 acres with a cable 328 yards long. The headlands may be 
 ploughed without shifting the plant. It suffices for this to 
 anchor the fixed pulley in a suitable position. The non- 
 ploughed headland on the engine side is 23 to 26 feet in 
 width ; on the opposite side, 10 feet. 
 
 The plough is the same as used with the horse-gin ; it can 
 work to a depth of 20 to 24 inches, turning a sod 20 inches 
 wide. 
 
 The working of the plant requires three men one engine- 
 driver, one ploughman, one attendant to manage the fixed 
 pulley. A horse and a boy are also required to return the 
 plough to the starting point. The capstan, with accessories, 
 and 328 yards of cable, costs 160, plough excluded. The 
 whole plant, plough, engine (6 to 7 H.P.), capstan, and 
 accessories, costs 400. 
 
 VERNETTE'S STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 Vernette builds two different types. 
 
 Description. The first is simply his horse-gin, in which 
 the pole socket-head is replaced by a toothed-wheel gearing* 
 with an endless screw, the shaft of which carries a pulley 
 (Fig. 23). The supplementary mechanism is carried by a 
 framework bolted on the bed-plate, and carrying the shaft 
 through collars at the top. The cog-wheel and the drum are 
 clamped by two cotters. 
 
 The second type resembles this, the only difference being" 
 that instead of an endless screw a pair of pinions are used to 
 transmit the power. On the drum a bevel cog-wheel is 
 keyed, gearing with a bevel pinion. On the shaft of the 
 drum a cog-wheel is fixed, gearing with a pinion, on the 
 shaft of which the pulley is fixed (Fig. 24). 
 
 This second type is preferable, the transmission by cogs 
 giving a higher yield than that by endless screw. 
 
 They are both worked by connecting the pulley to the fly- 
 wheel of the engine. 
 
 Working. The capstan is placed on the ground, on its 
 rollers, and fixed by a few pegs in such a position as to run 
 
48 
 
 TEENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 mm 
 
 Fig. 23. Vernette's Steam Winding Drum. 
 
 the furrow on the greater length of the block. The engine 
 is placed in a suitable position, and connected by a belt 
 generally 26 to 32 feet in length. The pulley is fixed on 
 the opposite headland in the same way as for the Beauquesne 
 machine. 
 
 The anchoring is done by means of iron pegs, disposed 
 like an open fan at both ends of the anchoring chain, and 
 
 Fig. 24. Second type cf Vernette's Steam Winding Drum 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 49 
 
 joined to it by an iron bar. With an 8 H.P. engine working 
 at 150 revolutions per minute the drum performs eight 
 revolutions, and the cable travels at the rate of 69 feet per 
 minute. 
 
 This machine is simple, strong, well constructed, and works 
 satisfactorily; the only drawback is the difficulty of anchoring 
 the fixed pulley. 
 
 Its cost is 92 without cable or plough. The cable, 0*55 
 inch in diameter, costs 4d. per foot ; the plough, which is 
 the same as for the horse-gin, costs 30. The whole plant, 
 therefore, exclusive of the engine, costs 140. With an 
 8 H.P. engine costing 220 to 240, the whole plant costs 
 360 to 380. 
 
 GRUB'S STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 This machine can be used either with steam or horses. 
 It is simply the machine shown in Fig. 10 (page 28), slightly 
 modified. 
 
 Description. The winding drum, T (Fig. 25) revolves 
 round a vertical shaft, moved by a large cog-wheel A 
 
 Fig. 25. Grue's Steam Winding Drum. 
 
 gearing with a pinion B, on the shaft of which a pole 
 socket-head M is keyed above ; a cog-wheel V is keyed below, 
 gearing with an endless horizontal screw, on the shaft of 
 which the pulley P is fixed, which receives the belt of the 
 engine. The large cog-wheel A is clamped to the drum by a 
 cotter. The drum is allowed to run loose by lifting the cotter. 
 6279. D 
 
50 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 To work at a greater speed the endless screw and its cog- 
 wheel may be fixed direct on the drum-shaft. In this case 
 the machine resembles that of Vernette (Fig. 23). For 
 medium depths, if the soil is light and if one has a powerful 
 engine, the endless screw should be connected direct on the 
 drum-shaft. If the motive power is small, and if the soil 
 is stiff, and a greater depth of cultivation necessary, the 
 endless screw should be connected to the pole-socket shaft 
 as shown in the figure. If it is desired to work with horses , 
 the endless screw is removed, and the machine worked like 
 an ordinary horse-gin. The winding drum travels along the 
 headland on its rollers. The engine connected by the belt 
 follows it. It can also be used in a fixed position. 
 
 Working. When this winding drum is worked with an 
 engine, it is preferable to install it in a stationary position, 
 the cable passing over a fixed pulley. The frequent dis- 
 placements of the engine necessitated entail considerable 
 loss of time. With animals, on the contrary, the displace- 
 ment can be quickly done. 
 
 The only interesting peculiarity of this machine is the 
 adjustability of the speeds it is worked at, according to the 
 motive power, the state of the land, and the depth to be 
 ploughed. This adjustment of speed, the utility of which is 
 not apparent when horses are used, is, on the contrary, an 
 excellent item when steam-power is used, on account of the 
 varied power of engines. It is evidently important to work 
 rapidly when one has a 8 to 12 H.P. engine, and also to be 
 able to work the machine with an engine of 3 to 4 H.P. 
 only if necessary. 
 
 GUYOT'S STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 The Guyot steam winding drum is a displacement capstan, 
 worked in a very ingenious manner. The portable engine 
 and the drum are carried on two strong iron beams, the 
 whole plant travelling on rails. The stability, therefore, is 
 very great, as the whole weight of the engine and drum is 
 opposed to the traction of the cable. The lateral displace- 
 ment is also rendered very easy. 
 
 Description. The wheels of the portable engine rest on 
 two rolled joist girders, braced together at the required 
 distance apart. The capstan is fixed in front ; it consists of 
 a mechanical' drum (Fig. 26), on the shaft of which a cog- 
 wheel is keyed, gearing with a pinion, on the shaft of which 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 51 
 
 D 2 
 
52 TKENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 a cog-wheel is fixed, gearing with a second pinion, keyed on 
 the shaft which carries the pulley ; this is connected by a 
 belt to the pulley of the engine. The two machines, therefore, 
 form one. The iron frame rests on rollers, rolling on rolled 
 joist girders. The tires of these rollers are perforated with 
 holes in which levers are engaged for displacing the system. 
 The axles of the rollers may move obliquely to allow the 
 system to be displaced easily on a curved or sinuous headland. 
 When the end of the block is reached, it is easy by turning 
 it at 90 to plough the headland. In this case special curved 
 rails are used. A brake to control the unwinding, and a 
 gearing lever complete the machine. The model exhibited 
 at the Perpignan Show had, in addition, an arrangement 
 allowing the plough to be hauled back to the starting point. 
 For this purpose the intermediate shaft had a small drum 
 keyed on to it, on which a thinner cable was wound. This, 
 after passing over the fixed pulley, was tied to the rear of the 
 plough. A lever threw it in or out of gear. 
 
 Working. The working of this system is very simple ; the 
 frame carrying the engine and capstan is installed on the 
 shortest headland. The thinner cable fastened to the rear 
 of the plough hauls it to the opposite headland. When the 
 plough reaches it, the small drum is thrown out of gear ; this 
 throws the large drum into gear, and the plough is hauled. 
 When the plough reaches the system the small drum is thrown 
 into gear, hauling it back to the starting point, and so forth. 
 
 In the meantime the system has been displaced laterally. 
 
 The fixed pulley and the small cable runner are indispens- 
 able to guide the cable. Their anchoring, however, is simple, 
 for they have only a small effort to sustain. The pulley and 
 runner may be displaced during work without waste of time. 
 The non-ploughed headland on the engine side is 39 feet in 
 width ; on the opposite side, 10 feet. 
 
 The plough is the same as that used with the Guyot horse- 
 gin. With an 8 H.P. engine working at 140 revolutions the 
 plough travels at a rate of 59 feet per minute. 
 
 Three men are required for the working ; one engine- 
 driver, one to work the capstan, and another to work the 
 plough. If the small drum is used, another man is required 
 to shift the runner and the fixed pulley, in the other case a 
 horse and a boy. 
 
 This machine works perfectly ; its management is simple, 
 and the loss of time is reduced to a minimum. Only the 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 53 
 
 setting up and dismantling are somewhat difficult, on account 
 of the weight of the pieces to be moved. To haul the 
 machine on the frame, the capstan is fixed to one end of it, the 
 cable fastened to the forecarriage of the engine, and worked 
 by hand ; it takes twenty minutes to mount in position ; the 
 setting up of the whole machine takes two hours. For shift- 
 ing ; the frame, capstan, and accessories are removed on an 
 ordinary dray. The weight of frame and capstan is 2 tons 
 8 cwt. Its cost, without either cable or plough, is 112. 
 With cable and plough, the plant costs 134 ; with small 
 extra winding drum, 176. The cost of the whole plant, with 
 an 8 H.P. engine, costing 240, is 392. With a fixed 
 pulley and the runner it reaches 416. 
 
 PELOUS' STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 Resembles that just described, but has three interesting 
 additions.* First, it can work both ways ; second, the 
 winding of the cables is guided by a special device ; third, 
 the lateral displacement of the system is done auto- 
 matically, 
 
 Description. As in the Guyot system, the engine and cap- 
 stan rest on a large strong frame made of rolled joist girders. 
 The capstan is double. That is to say, made of two drums, 
 each worked by a pair of cog-wheels. To each drum an 
 endless screw is geared, working a lever guiding the winding 
 of the cable. The throwing in or out of gear of the drum is 
 done by friction, which renders the throwing out of gear 
 easy whatever the traction effort be. It also serves as a 
 break during the unwinding. The large frame rests on four 
 rollers, rolling on iron rails ; two of them are geared with an 
 endless screw allowing their automatic displacement. On 
 the opposite headland a pulley is fixed to an automatic 
 anchor made of a truck travelling laterally, the stability of 
 which is secured by a case 141 cubic feet in capacity, which 
 is filled with earth. The lateral displacement of this truck 
 on the headland takes place on rails, and is obtained by 
 means of an endless screw and a cog-wheel ; one turn of the 
 screw corresponds to a displacement of 2 inches. 
 
 The Bajac balance-plough, shown in Fig. 27, is used ; it is 
 made entirely of steel, and possesses great strength. 
 
 The depth is obtained by means of two screws placed on 
 each side of the forecarriage. The frames of the two 
 ploughs are united together by a strong steel bar, which 
 renders the system very rigid. The beam can be displaced 
 
54 
 
 TBENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 55 
 
 laterally on the forecarriage, according to the width of the 
 sod to be turned ; during the work the ploughman guides 
 the plough by altering the angle of the wheel axle on the 
 beam. The traction of the cable is regulated by a hook 
 which can be displaced on the forecarriage. This plough is 
 connected to the capstan by two cables ; one is 328 yards 
 in length, and 0*7 inch in diameter, and hauls the plough 
 directly ; the other, which is 656 yards long and O74 inch 
 in diameter passes over the automatic anchor and is wound 
 round the second drum. 
 
 Working. This machine is easily managed ; the system is 
 installed on one side of the block, the pulley on the other. 
 Each of the drums are thrown into gear alternately, the 
 winding of the cables causing the plough to travel back- 
 wards and forwards, the system being displaced the necessary 
 distance before each furrow. Four men are required ; one 
 rides the plough, one works the pulley, two attend to the 
 steam winding drum. 
 
 With a 12 H.P. engine working at 180 revolutions the 
 plough travels at the rate of 88 feet per minute. 
 
 The non-ploughed headland on the engine side is 43 to 46 
 feet wide ; on the opposite side, 20 feet. To plough the head- 
 land, the automatic anchor has to be carried from one end 
 of the block to the other ; this is a tedious operation. 
 
 This winding drum weighs 3 tons 10 cwt., and costs 240, 
 cable included. The plough costs 80. With an engine of 
 10 H.P., costing 300, the whole plant involves an outlay of 
 620. 
 
 Pelous' plant is well studied in all its details, and strongly 
 constructed. We may wonder, however, if its high cost and 
 expensive working are justified in face of the rate of work, 
 and if the two improvements are really practically useful. 
 The calculation of the cost of working per acre in the case 
 of winding drums working one way, as will be explained 
 later on, shows on which side the advantage lies. We see 
 the area ploughed every year must be at least 80 acres 
 for the double-effect drum to be more economic than the 
 single-effect drum. Therefore it is only suited for con- 
 tractors. 
 
 The usefulness of the winding guides is questionable ; 
 without them the winding is fairly regular, and accidents 
 are rare enough to justify discarding this unnecessary 
 complication. 
 
56 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 It should be noticed that this device only works well 
 while the cable is new, and retains the diameter for which 
 the winding guide was made. If the wear or the natural 
 lengthening of the cable diminishes its diameter, the winding* 
 is more defective than if there were no guide. 
 
 Finally, the automatic displacement of the system, which 
 is very ingenious indeed, does not seem to be very useful. 
 Its mechanism is complicated, and its management requires 
 a prudent and skilful man to prevent the system becoming- 
 derailed. And what is more, the two rollers being fixed on 
 the same shaft, renders it impossible for the machine to 
 travel obliquely.* 
 
 The machine could therefore be simplified with advantage. 
 Transformed into a simple effect drum, the complicated 
 mechanism being removed, but the details of construction 
 being preserved, this machine would be more favoured by 
 growers than the double effect machine exhibited at the 
 Perpignan Show in 1890. 
 
 
 PECARD BROS/ STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 Messrs. Pe*card Bros., of Severs, construct a machine 
 having a certain analogy to that of Guyot. Engine and 
 drum are carried on a strong frame. There is a large drum 
 for the traction cable, and a small one for taking the plough 
 back to the starting point, the only differences being that 
 different speeds can be obtained and that the lateral dis- 
 placement of the system is automatic, as in the case of 
 Pelous' winding drum. 
 
 Description. The portable engine, 7 to 8 H.P. generally, 
 is carried by a strong frame on which the capstan is bolted 
 (Fig. 28). The system is carried by six rollers running on 
 rails. The fly-wheel of the engine is connected by a cross- 
 belt to the pulley of the drum, which has a double cog- 
 wheel gearing. Two levers enable the combination of the 
 cog-wheels to be modified and four different speeds obtained. 
 One of these levers also serves to disconnect the large drum. 
 A small drum running at two speeds is keyed on the inter- 
 mediate shaft. 
 
 The automatic displacement of the system is effected by 
 another cross-belt passing over the small fly-wheel of the 
 engine. A double cog-wheel gearing with an endless screw 
 
 *This is comparatively unimportant in Victoria, as the blocks are 
 generally rectangular. (Trans.) 
 
OF 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 FOR AMERICAN VINES. 
 
 57 
 
58 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 allows it to be displaced backwards or forwards. After each 
 displacement the belt is shifted on to a loose pulley. The 
 system is installed on one of the headlands, and the plough 
 fastened to the large cable. The small cable, known as the 
 returning cable, is made fast to the rear of the plough, after 
 passing over the fixed pulley anchored on the opposite head- 
 land. When everything is in place, the small drum being 
 thrown into gear, the plough is pulled backwards to the 
 starting point. The large drum is then thrown into gear, 
 and one of the four speeds applied according to the soil and 
 the depth of ploughing. When the plough reaches the end 
 of the furrow the large drum is thrown out of gear, and the 
 small one thrown into gear, the plough hauled back, and 
 so forth. In the meantime, the system has been displaced 
 automatically. 
 
 With a 6 H.P. engine, working at 150 revolutions per 
 minute, a plough is hauled at a rate of 58ft. 4in., 68ft. lOin., 
 82ft. or 96ft. 8in. per. minute. The plough is hauled back 
 at a rate of 164 feet to 197 feet per minute, as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Four men at least are required for the management of 
 this outfit two for the capstan and engine, one to ride the 
 plough, and one to attend to the automatic anchor and the 
 cable runner. 
 
 Pecard Bros.' device is undoubtedly one of the most in- 
 genious. But it is more complicated than that of Guyot, 
 and would be advantageously simplified by doing away with 
 the automatic displacement of the large frame engine. 
 This mechanism is not only useless but also cumbersome, 
 for it is impossible to work in any other but a straight line, 
 and cannot be turned round at the completion of the work 
 in order to plough the headlands. Its cost, exclusive of 
 engine and plough, is 100. 
 
 PINEAU'S STEAM WINDING DRUM. 
 
 At the Agricultural Show held at Avignon in 1891, a 
 steam winding drum was exhibited, constructed by Pineau, 
 of Moulins (Allier), designed after the well-known style of 
 Howard. 
 
 Description. The portable engine is fixed in a set posi- 
 tion in the middle of the headland. The capstan, made of 
 two drums, revolved by two pairs of cog-wheels, is carried 
 by a truck, the shafts of which are tied to the rear of the 
 
FOE AMERICAN VINES. 59 
 
 engine. A platform is fixed on the shafts for the engine- 
 driver and the fuel. The capstan is connected to the engine 
 by means of a belt. 
 
 The extremities of a cable, whic'h travels all round the 
 block to be ploughed, are fixed one to each drum. 
 
 Fixed pulleys, anchored in suitable positions, carry the 
 cable. A gearing device enables the engine-driver to alter- 
 nately throw either drum into gear. The plough, being 
 fastened in the middle of the cable, is therefore hauled back- 
 wards and forwards. It is a balance plough. At each fur- 
 row the two end pulleys are displaced for a distance equal to 
 the width of the furrow. 
 
 To facilitate this displacement, these pulleys are carried 
 on automatic anchor-trucks, similar to those of the Fowler 
 system. These anchor-trucks are mounted on discs of iron 
 with sharp tires, penetrating the soil on account of the load. 
 The anchor resists well any traction perpendicular to the 
 plane of the discs, while movement in the direction of the 
 discs offers only slight difficulty. To obtain the necessary 
 translatory movement of the anchor, a small cable is 
 fastened at one end to a fixed point, an old stump or post 
 for instance, the other winding round a small capstan car- 
 ried by the anchor-truck. While the plough is travelling 
 away from the anchor, the small cable is slackened a little, 
 and as soon as the engine begins to pull the plough forward, 
 the anchor-truck rolls on its discs, and moves a distance 
 equal to the length slackened by the small cable. The 
 moving of the anchor truck is therefore done automatically 
 without any waste of time. 
 
 Working. The plough opens furrows parallel to the 
 headland where the engine is fixed, the work beginning 
 on the opposite headland. At the start, the cable com- 
 pletely hems round the block ; as the work progresses the 
 rectangle formed by the cable gradually diminishes. The 
 plough travels at a rate depending on the power of the 
 engine, the nature of the soil, the depth of the ploughing, &c. 
 This rate may reach 118 feet per minute, but is generally 
 from 82 feet to 98 feet. 
 
 One engine-driver is sufficient to attend to the engine and 
 capstan. Three men are required to attend to the plough 
 and anchor-trucks. 
 
 The whole plant costs 532. 
 
60 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 The working of the machine is satisfactory. The anchor- 
 ing of the two fixed pulleys, which are not carried by anchor- 
 trucks, is the only difficulty. Anchoring-plates, as already 
 described, give the best results. 
 
 MECHANICAL YIELD OF STEAM WINDING DRUMS. 
 
 There is no definite record published on the mechanical 
 yield of steam capstans. However, we may estimate it 
 approximately by comparison with ordinary horse-gins. 
 The only mechanism interposed between the motive power 
 and the resistance is one or two pairs of cog-wheels, as in 
 the case of horse-gins. 
 
 Numerous dynamometric trials made on horse-gins have 
 shown that the yield varies between 70 and 80 per cent., 
 and that in the case of a gin provided with two pairs of cog- 
 wheels the yield is 75 per cent. This figure can be regarded 
 as the yield of steam winding drums. 
 
 AREA PLOUGHED. 
 
 As in the case of horse-gins, the area ploughed daily varies 
 greatly, and depends on the length of the farrow, the size of 
 the block, the motive power, the experience and skill of the 
 workmen, also according to whether it is a simple or double 
 effect capstan. If we assume an average rate of travelling 
 of the cable of 65ft. 7in. per minute, and a sod 19'7 inches 
 wide, the area ploughed in one minute is 107-6 square feet. 
 Seven hours are required to plough 1 acre, assuming that 
 there is no interruption. But the hauling back of the plough 
 (simple-effect capstan), unforeseen accidents, ploughing of 
 the headlands, reduce this area to half. Therefore 14 hours 
 are required to plough 1 acre, that is to say, about one day 
 and a half, assuming that we work ten hours a day. 
 
 With a displacement capstan, Gruyot or Pecard, for 
 instance, and with a powerful engine it is possible to work 
 one acre per day. But it is safer to reckon on one and a 
 quarter days. 
 
 With a double-effect capstan, Pelous or Pineau, for 
 instance, the work is more rapid. The cable travels at the 
 rate of 88ft. 6in. per minute, ploughs 145 square feet per 
 minute, or 966 square yards per hour. Assuming that 
 one-third of the time is wasted, this means an area of 240 
 poles per day of ten hours. One acre may therefore be 
 worked in 6 hours 40 minutes. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. 61 
 
 If we take into account the installation of the plant, it is 
 far safer to reckon on one day per acre. 
 
 COST OF TRENCHING OR SUBSOILING WITH STEAM 
 
 WINDING DRUMS. 
 
 Three forms of expenditure must be taken into considera- 
 tion. 
 
 1st. The writing off of the cost of the plant. 
 
 2nd. The wear and tear. 
 
 3rd. The daily cost of the work. 
 
 A. SIMPLE-EFFECT PLANT. 
 
 Average cost 400. This capital is to be written off in 
 eight years. If we assume that we plough 80 poles per day, 
 and work 60 days in the year, we arrive at the following: 
 
 Per Annum. 
 
 
 Writing off and interest at 5 per cent. 
 
 of 400 in eight years ... ... 71 
 
 Wear and tear of material at 3 per 
 
 cent, of the capital ... ... 12 
 
 Total ... 83 
 
 Equal to 1 7s. 4d. per day. 
 
 The daily expenditure is reckoned as follows : 
 
 *. d. 
 One engine-driver ... ... 4 9 
 
 Two men ... ... ... 4 9 
 
 One horse and one boy ... ... 4 
 
 One pair bullocks and driver for 
 
 carrying water and fuel ... 4 9 
 
 6cwt. Iqr. 61bs. of coal (8'8 Ibs. per 
 
 horse-power hour for an engine of 
 
 8 horse-power working ten hours), 
 
 at 18s. per ton ... ... 5 8 
 
 Oil, cotton-waste, putty, &c. ... 1 7 
 
 Total ... 1 5 6 
 Plus writing off wear and tear ... 1 7 4 
 
 Daily expenditure ... 2 12 10 
 
 Which brings the cost of ploughing 1 acre to 3 7s. 5d. 
 
62 TKENCHING AND SUBSOILING 
 
 B. DOUBLE-EFFECT PLANT. 
 
 Average cost, 600. This capital to be written off in the 
 same number of years, and the same rate of interest. If we 
 assume we plough 80 poles per day, and work 4 days in the 
 year, we arrive at the following : 
 
 Per Annum. 
 
 Writing off and interest at 5 per cent. s. d. 
 
 of 600 in eight years ... ... lOo 
 
 Wear and tear of material at 3 per 
 
 cent, of the capital ... ... 18 
 
 Total ,. 123 
 
 Equal to 3 Is. 6d. per day. 
 
 The daily expenditure is reckoned as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 One engine-driver ... ... 049 
 
 Three workmen, at 2s. 4d.... ... 070 
 
 Pair bullocks and driver ... ... 4 9 
 
 7cwt. 3qrs. 14lbs. coal (8-8 Ibs. per 
 h.p. hour for a 10 h.p. engine work- 
 ing 10 hours), at 18s. per ton ... 070 
 Oil, cotton waste, putty, &c. ... 020 
 
 Total ... ... 1 5 6 
 
 Plus writing off wear and tear ... 3 1 6 
 
 Daily expenditure ... ... 470 
 
 Which brings the cost of ploughing one acre to 3 9s. 7d. 
 
 We see that for a small grower who does not trench or 
 subsoil more than 50 acres each year the simple-effect plant 
 is more economical than the double effect. In order to 
 derive advantage from the latter we must plough annually 
 at least 72 acres ; for an area of 70 acres, the cost is equal in 
 both systems 2 14s. 5d. per acre. 
 
 It is interesting to ascertain for what area yearly ploughed 
 it is justifiable to use steam-power. 
 
 Assuming that we require two days to plough J acre 
 with a horse-gin, and that the same work can be done by 
 steam in f day, we see that for an area under 30 acres per 
 annum the advantage lies on the side of the horse-gin, and for 
 an area exceeding 30 acres it falls to the side of the steam- 
 power. The cost of one acre in this case comes to 4 Is. 7d. 
 
FOR AMERICAN VINES. 63 
 
 The advantages are in favour of steam power for a lesser 
 area, if a portable engine is already in use for other work 
 on the farm, and worked a greater number of days, as in 
 this case the writing off of the capital and the wear and 
 tear is spread over a greater number of days. This is gene- 
 rally the case. 
 
 Steam-power is therefore always cheaper when there is an 
 engine on the farm. 
 
 Independently of the question of economy, which makes 
 us favour steam-power applied to simple-effect in preference 
 to double-effect capstans, we must also take the power of 
 the engine into consideration. If it is under 8 H.P., it could 
 not work, without stoppages, a plough working at a depth 
 of 20 inches. With a simple-effect drum, the pressure is 
 regained while the plough is being hauled back into position. 
 The engine can, therefore, perform in an intermittent way, 
 work that it could not do continuously. 
 
 In conclusion, experience teaches us that it is possible, 
 with capstans driven either by steam or horse power, to do 
 deep ploughing impossible with ordinary teams, and at a 
 cost so much the less as the area to be ploughed is larger, 
 and always at a cost below 4 16s. per acre. 
 
 For small growers who cannot spare the capital necessary 
 for the purchase of the plant, and for those who do not possess 
 an area large enough to justify the buying of such machinery, 
 the hiring of it becomes advisable, and many contractors are 
 nowadays ready to undertake the work at reasonable prices. 
 Many are already at work, and it is to be hoped that this 
 number will increase. They are called upon to render great 
 services to small growers, especially in viticultural regions 
 which have been unfortunately invaded by the phylloxera. 
 
64 APPLIANCES FOE 
 
 II. 
 
 APPLIANCES FOR TRENCHING AND 
 SUBSOILING.* 
 
 BY MAX RlNGELMANN, 
 
 Professor at the National Agricultural Institute, Paris. 
 
 At the beginning of the nineteenth century, agriculturists 
 were convinced of the need of deep cultivation for the im- 
 provement of land for certain special cultures, that of madder 
 for instance, but the difficulty of execution of deep ploughing 
 resided in the defective making of trenching or subsoiling 
 ploughs, as well as in the great number of animals required 
 for this work. In 1852 the improvements made in iron 
 implement construction generally, enabled Vallerand to 
 initiate sugar-beet culture by disturbing the land to a depth 
 of 14 inches, a depth which was very soon increased when the 
 Bonnet plough appeared on the market. This improvement 
 of the land tended to become general towards 1855, while 
 active polemics took place between the partisans of trenching 
 (bringing the subsoil to the surface) and those advocating 
 subsoiling (disturbing the subsoil in situ). The latter had an 
 advantage over the former in being able to use lighter imple- 
 ments, which it was easier to construct strongly at that time. 
 
 The manufacture of agricultural implements made very, 
 rapid advances between 1865 and 1880, owing to develop- 
 ments in the metallurgy of iron, and, above all, the substitu- 
 tion of steel for iron, enabled the construction of much more 
 powerful instruments than that of Vallerand. A reaction then 
 took place, the subsoil ers were discarded, and the trenching 
 plough gained thu ascendancy. 
 
 Agriculturists were then in possession of powerful ploughs, 
 but could rarely spare the necessary draught ; for this reason 
 the use of these implements was very limited. The viticul- 
 turists of the South of France, convinced of the possibility of 
 reconstituting their vineyards with American vines, and of the 
 necessity of deep cultivation prior to planting these vines, 
 
 * Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, Vol. 64. 1900. 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 65 
 
 asked implement makers to devise a system which would 
 enable them to perform deep cultivation with two to four 
 animals only, during the slack season. Naturally, they were 
 ready to give more time to the operation, this question being 
 only of secondary importance, considering that a permanent 
 improvement of the soil was required, and not a merely annual 
 ploughing. Then in the year 1882 the construction of horse- 
 gins applied to the hauling of ploughs was first attempted ; 
 a few years later these machines were used with success to 
 clear and throw into culture Algerian plains, other colonies 
 following this example. 
 
 To solve the problem, a motor, consisting of a capstan, 
 -was interposed between the plough and the team. 
 
 Any animal furnishes its maximum power when it is re- 
 quired to exert a certain effort F, at a certain rate V. 
 
 To give an example, we quote the following figures 
 resulting from a large number of trials : 
 
 Weight of the Animals. Mean Effort Exerted. Rate per Second. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 660to9901bs. ... 143 to 154 Ibs. ... 27 '5in. to 29 'Sin. 
 
 990 to 1,320 Ibs. ... 198 to 242 Ibs. ... 25 "Sin. to 27 'Sin. 
 
 1,320 to 1,760 Ibs. ... 264 to 330 Ibs. ... 23'6in. to 25 'Sin. 
 
 Bullock. 
 
 550 to 880 Ibs. ... 121 to 154 Ibs. ... 27'oin. to 29'5in. 
 
 880 to 1,1 10 Ibs. ... 198 to 242 Ibs. ... 23'6in. to 25'5in, . 
 
 1,110 to 1,540 Ibs. ... 352 to 440 Ibs. ... 19'6in. to 21'5in. 
 
 These figures correspond to a period of useful work of 45 
 minutes per hour, and an average duration of eight hours' 
 work per day (360 to 400 minutes per day). When several 
 animals are yoked together the mean effort diminishes, for 
 the animals never pull simultaneously. The walking pace 
 we may represent by the following figures, the useful effort 
 furnished by each animal when yoked together with 
 others*: 
 
 * As an example of this in practice, let us assume a horse working alone 
 furnishing a mean effort of 198 Ibs.; the effort of a pair will then be 
 198 X 2 X Q'93 = 368'2 Ibs. The effort of four animals working abreast 
 will be 367-4 Ibs. X 2 X 0'93 = 683-3 Ibs., while if the animals are yoked in 
 tandem we will only have 198 Ibs. X -4 X 0*75 = 594 Ibs. Assuming a 
 bullock exerting a mean effort of 220 Ibs., two bullocks abreast will give 
 220 Ibs. X 2 X 0-93 = 409-2 Ibs. ; two pairs will furnish a mean effort of 
 409"2 Ibs. X 2 X 0-93 = 761 Ibs. 
 
 6279. E 
 
66 APPLIANCES FOR 
 
 Number of animals Useful effort exerted by each 
 
 per team. animal (ratio). 
 
 1 ... ... ... 1-00 
 
 2 ... ... ... 0-93 
 
 3 ... ... ... 0-85 
 
 4 ... ... ... 0-77 
 
 5 ' ... ... ... 0-70 
 
 6 ... ... ... 0-63 
 
 7 ... ... ... 056 
 
 8 ... ... ... 0-49 
 
 Animals furnish per second mechanical work T given by 
 the formula : 
 
 T=FV. 
 
 But we cannot compel them to give us equivalent mechanical 
 work* as, for instance, to furnish us with an effort three 
 times greater with three times less speed. In other words, 
 we cannot apply the following formula: 
 
 Y V 
 
 3 10 
 
 which is possible with other motors. For one must observe 
 a relation between the frequence of the movements of the 
 skeleton and those of the movements of the heart ; thus, a 
 man having sixteen respiratory movements per minute, can 
 only work a handle at the rate of 16, 32, 48, 56 revolutions 
 per. minute, or strike 8, 16, 24, 32 blows with a hammer. 
 Experience shows that when this concordance is not observed, 
 breathlessness occurs, the animated motor becomes fatigued 
 and quickly succumbs. 
 
 In the application we are considering now, the resistance 
 of the implement is diminished by means of an intermediate 
 mechanism, in order to work the animal at its most favor- 
 able speed. This mechanism will absorb a part of the effort 
 for its own work. 
 
 If k is the yield of the mechanism, 
 F the effort of the animal, 
 V its mean speed, 
 n a fixed co-efficient, greater than unity, we may write : 
 
 V 
 
 FV k = n F . 
 
 * See Traits dt mtcanique experimentale, p. 141 ; Librairie Agricole. 
 
TKENCHING AND STJBSOILING. 
 
 67 
 
 nF is the resistance to be overcome, that is to say the 
 traction of the plough which we may designate as R ; 
 y 
 
 is the speed of this resistance, which we may designate 
 
 by 0, and we may write : 
 
 FV k = R v. 
 
 Let us notice that we lose a certain quantity of motive 
 power F x Y, for the co-efficient k is less than unity, but the 
 intermediate mechanism offers the enormous practical advan- 
 tage of enabling us to obtain, with the most advantageous 
 speed of the animal, a traction R of the plough as high as is 
 desired, on the condition, however, of diminishing the speed 
 v of the latter proportionately. We may recall the popular 
 expression " What is gained in power is lost in speed" 
 ' The mechanism used may be a gearing winding drum or 
 a capstan. 
 
 According to Ferrouillat, Desforges relates.* (See page 18.) 
 
 J. C. Loudon (Encyclopedia of Agriculture, 1831) men- 
 tions a mole-plough invented by Adam Scott, and improved 
 by Lumbert, of Gloucestershire ; this implement, penetrat- 
 ing very deeply into the soil, was hauled by a capstan 
 worked by four men or by a horse. 
 
 The capstan was improved by Weir, of Oxford-street, 
 London. The figure in London's work gives a fairly 
 accurate idea of those in actual use.f We give, on account 
 of its historical interest, the Fig. 29, which shows one of 
 these capstans hauling a mole-plough. 
 
 Fig 1 . 29. Lumbert's Mole-plough. 
 
 * Rapport sur le concours special dt treuils a Narbonne, 1888. 
 
 t See Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, 8th edition, 1883, page 401, 
 
68 APPLIANCES FOR 
 
 De Gasparin* mentions the plough (Fig. 30) and cap- 
 stan of Bier ley, travelling at a speed of 1*36 in. per 
 second, under a hauling traction of 13 cwt. 3 qrs. The 
 
 Fig. 30. Bierley's Plough. 
 
 plough was reduced to its simplest form, the wire cable being 
 fastened to the front of the body. De Gasparin says :-- 
 " We have also seen ploughs and capstans used for the 
 uprooting of madder ; a donkey or a weak horse opened a 
 furrow, which would have needed a team of 24 horses ; a 
 cable winding round a drum increased the force of the trac- 
 tion, but proportionately increased the time necessary to 
 perform the work. A furrow of 526 feet only was opened 
 in one hour, and after each furrow a great deal of time was 
 wasted in returning the plough to the starting point. The 
 cost was half that done by hand, but four days were required 
 to plough I acre, which 24 horses would have ploughed in 
 twelve hours for the same cost. 
 
 "In 1841 Georges worked a horse-gin with a Dombasle 
 plough. He is reported to have ploughed three parallel 
 furrows 52 feet in length, 8J inches in width and depth, in 
 eighteen minutes. Six men worked the capstan alternately; 
 it was 4ft. 11 in. in diameter; the men worked levers 10ft. 
 9in. in length. The resistance of the plough must have 
 been 454 Ibs., equivalent to four ordinary horses, which could 
 have ploughed J acre in eight hours. f To estimate the cost 
 of the two operations it suffices to compare 32 hours for one 
 horse, as against 372 hours for one man. But if, instead 
 of six men, one horse had been used, we see that the 
 mechanism of the capstan would have caused a loss of half 
 the strength used." 
 
 De Gaspariu only studied this system as applied to yearly 
 cultural operations, and not from the point x>f view of the per- 
 manent improvement of the land, which explains his inference. 
 
 * Cours d' Agriculture, vol. iii., p. 155. 
 t Laur, Culture de la Garance. 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 69 
 
 In England various ca 
 
 Fig. 31. Fowler and Fry's machine. 
 
 and Fry's capstan B and their mole-plough A, which are 
 not within the scope of the present study. The capstan 
 being anchored to plate G, and resting on a shoe P, two to 
 four horses are yoked to it. In 1855 Fowler used a 6 to 8 
 H.P. engine to work this capstan, and an official trial of 
 it was made on the 7th June, 1856, near the Trianon (Paris), 
 in presence of an international jury. 
 
 Trenching and subsoiling with the aid of a steam-winding 
 drum was undertaken near Gand in 1877, with a view of 
 applying them to the stiff soils (polders of Zealand) 4 
 
 After these few attempts, capstans seem to have been 
 forgotten, till the reconstitution of vineyards in the South of 
 France reintroduced the question of deep ploughing. At 
 first the ploughs were hauled by teams of often more than 
 ten horses, then hauling engines were used (Fowler), but 
 these were too costly to come info general use, and vine- 
 growers were on the look-out for a system to enable them 
 to economically trench or subsoil small areas. 
 
 In 1876 Leonce Grue, of Beaulieu, near Sollies-Font 
 (Var), used a horse-gin worked by two horses, formed of a 
 winding drum, hauling the plough by means of a steel rope. 
 Bourguignon following his idea, constructed the Valessie 
 system in 1887. 
 
 While the South of France was greatly preoccupied by 
 the reconstitution of their vineyards and the deep cultivation 
 
 * Trans, of the Soc. Arts, 1829. Pearson's method of pipe draining. 
 
 t Rapport general de Pussy, mr leu instruments agricoles a I 'exposition 
 wiiverselle de Londres, 1851. 
 
 + f)efoncements et som-solages a vapeur. G. Scribe ; Journal d' Agricul- 
 ture pratique, 1877, vol. 1. p. 829. 
 
 Bourguignon constructed the first capstan of Gru. 
 
70 APPLIANCES FOR 
 
 necessitated, our colleague, P. Ferrouillat, then Professor of 
 Agricultural Engineering at the National School of Agri- 
 culture, Montpellier, expressed the following views in the 
 Progres Agricole of 1891 (see page 63). 
 
 In 1888, -a special competitive show of capstans was held 
 at Narbonne. More than one hundred were then in use in 
 the South of France for the preparation of land for recon- 
 stitution purposes. In 1890 another competitive show was 
 held at Perpignan. The widespread use of these machines 
 in the South of France and Algeria dates from that time. 
 
 HORSE-GINS. 
 
 Horse-gins* consist essentially of a drum or cylinder, 
 A (Fig. 32), revolving round a vertical axle a. The horse 
 M is yoked at the end of a pole L, to which the bridle is 
 
 Fig. 32. Diagram of a Horse-gin. 
 
 also connected by a wooden rod b. When the pole is clamped 
 on the drum by means of cotters or pins the horse in his 
 movement revolves the drum which winds the cable C, at 
 the extremity of which the plough is fastened. The motor 
 M, exerts a mean effort F, a part of which /, only is utilized ; 
 the latter being the projection of the effort F on the perpen- 
 dicular to the radius passing by the yoking hook,t the other 
 component y v , simply increases the pressure of the drum 
 on its axle. It is, therefore, advisable to diminish f 
 (prejudicial force), and increase f (useful force), by giving 
 the greatest possible length to the pole. In practice it does 
 not exceed 16 \ feet. 
 
 For heavy work, instead of using a single horse, two or 
 six may be yoked to corresponding poles fixed in the socket 
 
 * In mechanics, in the study of simple machines a wheel revolving round 
 a vertical axle (as we are studying here) is called a capstan. We will, 
 however, use the word gin, which is now accepted in practice. [Trans.] 
 
 f See Traite de mecauique experimentale, p. 112. 
 
TKENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 71 
 
 head, which is clamped on to the drum at will. If we only 
 have small horses at disposal, they may be yoked in pairs to 
 each pole. 
 
 The drum A (Fig. 32), is generally made of cast iron, 
 with flanges n at least 6 inches wide. These flanges are 
 often cast together with the drum, or made of wood 
 (Beauquesne) or steel (Bajac). It is important to prevent 
 the cable from getting caught under the bottom flange. For 
 this purpose a guide is fixed on an upright e, or the bottom 
 flange is enveloped by a ring, the upper brim of which is 
 level with the plane of the flange (Pelous). Accidents oftener 
 occur when the rope is unwinding, and to avoid them the 
 drum must be steadied by means of a brake. 
 
 To render the winding of the cable as regular as possible, 
 it is advisable to place a runner P at a distance of about 6 feet 
 from the axis of the capstan (Fig. 32), the height of which 
 is level with the middle of the generatrix of the drum A. 
 On account of the slow rate of the cable the various systems 
 of automatic winding have been discarded. These devices 
 were similar to those used in steam ploughing, where they are 
 rendered necessary on account of the great speed of the cable. 
 
 To facilitate the stepping of the animals over the cable, it 
 is advisable to have it passing as close as possible to the 
 ground, this necessitates the use of very shallow drums, and 
 also assists in increasing the stability. 
 
 Fig. 33. Vernette's Horse-gin, with Variable Diameter. 
 
72 
 
 APPLIANCES FOB 
 
 Generally the pole L (Fig. 32), has a constant length 
 lift. Gin. to 16ft. 5in., and, according to the resistance R 
 of the soil or the 
 depth of plough- 
 ing, the speed, 
 v of the plough 
 is modified, the 
 speed Y of the 
 motive power 
 remainin unal- 
 tered. 
 obtained 
 creasing 
 
 This 
 
 IS 
 
 by in- 
 
 or di- 
 minishing the 
 radius r of the 
 drum. This is 
 often done by 
 inserting wooden 
 sectors, varying 
 in width, which 
 have also the ad- 
 vantage of di- 
 minishing the 
 wear of the cable 
 (Beauquesne). 
 Extensible 
 mechanisms are 
 also in use (Ver- 
 nette, 1894); the 
 radius of the 
 drum may by 
 this means be 
 varied from 12 
 inches to 20 
 inches. Finally, 
 we may use a toothed gearing. 
 
 In Vernette's gins (Figs. 33 and 34) the drum is made of two 
 horizontal wheels, on the spokes of which cross-pieces may 
 slide, making a skeleton drum of variable diameter limited by 
 eight generatrices, kept in place by iron straps bolted at the 
 top. The diameter of this drum may vary from between 20 
 inches to 5 feet. One revolution of the capstan corresponds, 
 therefore, to a movement of the plough of from 5 feet to 
 16ft. 6in. 
 
TEENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 
 
 73: 
 
 To enable the rate of translation of the cable to be- 
 varied, Leonce Grue modified his machine of 1876, and 
 designed, under the name of Beaulieu-gin, a machine with 
 cog-wheels, a diagram of which is shown in Fig. 35. (See: 
 for description, page 27.) 
 
 Fig. 35. Diagram of the Beaulieu-gin, constructed by Grue". 
 
 According to models, the drum is fixed on a vertical shaft,, 
 the bottom of which revolves in a cup-socket fixed in the- 
 centre of the bed-plate, the top in a collar held in a frame or 
 bridge, above which the pole-socket is fixed Fondeur, Guyot 
 (Fig. 16, page 37), Pelous (Fig. 36), Bourguignon, Valessie, 
 
 Fig. 36. --Pelous' Horse-gin. 
 
74 APPLIANCES FOE 
 
 Bajac (Fig. 37). It seems preferable to fix a pivot on the 
 bed-plate round which the drum and socket-head revolve, Ver- 
 ne tte (Fig. 33). Such was the system adopted by Beauquesne. 
 During work the socket-head is clamped on the drum by a 
 
 Fig. 37. Bajae's Horse-gin. 
 
 coupling clutch, cotters or pawl, each of which may be seen in 
 the above figures. While the plough is being taken back 
 the drum is thrown out of gear, and the horses rested. 
 
 According to the system, the gin is either displaced before 
 each furrow ; in this case it travels on four rollers (Fig. 37), 
 or on a bed-plate sliding on the ground, Guyot (Fig. 16, 
 page 3?) Fondeur, or it is placed in a fixed position during 
 the whole ploughing (Figs. 33 and 35). It is kept in place 
 by means of pegs or surcharge (Pelous). When the work is 
 iinished, the travelling of the gin is facilitated by a special 
 frame mounted on wheels (Fig. 34), very often the bed-plate 
 itself is provided with axles on the arms of which wheels 
 may be fitted (Pelous, Fig. 36). 
 
 The drums are built to wind from 219 to 274 yards of 
 cable, which is made of the best steel wire, varying from 
 0*5 inch to 0*6 inch in -diameter. 
 
 The mechanical yield of simple-effect drums, without cog- 
 wheels, is very high. B. Chabaneix, of the School of 
 Agriculture, Montpellier, made trials in August, 1887, the 
 results of which are given on page 43. 
 
 We may admit in practice that the mechanical yield of 
 simple-effect gins varies between 80 and 85 per cent., 
 -according to the lubrication of the axles which bear 
 -enormous pressures, the length of the poles and the diameter 
 of the drum (rigidity of the cable opposing the winding). 
 
TKENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 75 
 
 When the cable drags on the ground it creates a supple- 
 mentary resistance. The weight of the cable is usually 
 8 ounces per foot, the co-efficient of friction being 0-6. 
 Under these conditions the additional effort of traction is 
 0-48 ounce per foot of cable. If we assume a furrow 274 
 yards in length, the additional effort mentioned above at 
 the maximum is: 
 
 231 Ibs. when the plough is 274 yards distant. 
 184-8 219 
 
 92-4 109 
 
 9-24 33 feet 
 
 But in practice it is not necessary to have a greater effort 
 at the beginning of the furrow than at the end, for the cable 
 winding round the drum increases the diameter, and there- 
 fore the leverage as the work proceeds. Finally, we have 
 noticed the enormous traction exerted on the cable diminishes 
 its pressure on the ground, and therefore its friction. 
 
 The ratio between the speed of the end of the pole, and 
 
 the speed of the plough, varies between - and ; the ratio 
 
 usually worked at is 
 
 With the above data it is easy to calculate the effort of 
 traction exerted on the plough. 
 
 Assuming a ratio of speed of 10 to 1. 
 A team of four horses, each capable of developing a trac- 
 tion of 220 Ibs. 
 
 A mechanical yield of the machine of 85 per cent., we 
 find : 
 
 Mean effort of the team : 
 
 220 x 4 x 0-77=677 Ibs. 
 Mean effort exerted on the plough : 
 
 677 x 10 x 0-85=5,674 Ibs. 
 This applies only to simple-effect drums. 
 
INSTALLATION OF TEENCHING 
 
 INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING OR SUBSOILINO 
 
 PLANT. 
 
 SIMPLE-EFFECT CAPSTANS. 
 
 The installation of such plant is to be considered according^ 
 to whether 
 
 1st. The capstan is displacing or not; 
 
 2nd. The hauling back of the plough takes place with a 
 special team (one horse or two bullocks), or with an addi- 
 tional mechanism on the capstan ; 
 
 3rd. The work is done in one direction with the plough 
 turning the sod on one side only, or in both directions with 
 a turn-wrest or balance plough. 
 
 When the capstan is displaced for each furrow the traction 
 is said to be direct. In this case (Plate I.), the 'capstan A is 
 installed on one of the headlands b 5', the cable t hauling 
 the plough C in the direction of arrow 1. At the start 
 the plough is at d\ it opens a furrow d' e' , when it reaches 
 e' the drum A is disconnected, the plough C taken back to 
 d" in the direction of arrow 2, the cable unwinding. During 
 this operation the horses rest and the capstan is moved 
 a distance equal to the width of the sod in the direction of 
 arrow 3. 
 
 With this installation, the width of the non-ploughed 
 headland a a is reduced to 9ft. lOin., while that of the 
 headland b b' is equal to the diameter of the track m that is 
 to say, '62 feet to 38 feet. An area d d' e e smaller than 
 the block, is ploughed that way, the two headlands a of b b' 
 being ploughed in the direction of arrow 3. 
 
 This installation, which dispenses with the fixed pulley 
 and reduces the length of the cable (as compared with other 
 systems) has the drawback of leaving on the capstan-side a 
 wide headland tramped by the horses. 
 
 The displacement of the capstan A (Plate I.), in the 
 direction of arrow 3, may be done in two different ways ; 
 the drum is fixed to a bed-plate, fastened to a chain n g n 
 secured to two anchors N N', or may travel laterally on rails. 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 a. 
 
 a' 
 
OF ^ 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 .77 
 
 In the firs tease, a 
 beam N (Fig. 38), 
 8ft. 6in. x4ft.:im.in 
 section, and 3ft. Sin. 
 at least in length, 
 is buried in a trench 
 12 inches deep ; 
 behind this beam, 
 and in a slanting 
 direction, two pegs 
 p are driven into 
 the ground, in such 
 a manner that the 
 points be further 
 
 apart than the Fig. 38. -Anchoring Beam. 
 
 heads, a gudgeon B passed through a ring of the chain n y 
 rests behind the pegs, the traction of the chain being ren- 
 dered even on the beam N. 
 
 If we study Plate I. again, we see that when working, the 
 capstan A exerts a traction on g in the direction of arrow 2, 
 equal to the sum of the resistances of the plough C and the 
 cable t. This traction is divided on the two pieces g n and 
 g n' of the chain n- n', the result being a tendency to bring 
 the anchors N' and N' closer together, exerting a com- 
 pressing action on the soil, which under these conditions 
 offers great resistance. 
 
 Certain implement makers replace the beam by a wrought- 
 iron plate, the principle remaining the same. 
 
 Guyot now uses 
 the anchor shown in 
 Fig. 39, consisting 
 of a steel ring A 
 lying flat on the 
 ground, and kept in 
 place by four pegs 
 P strapped on the 
 ring at B, the trac- 
 tion chain C passes 
 over the ring. With 
 
 Fig. 39. Guyot's Anchor. . , . 
 
 this arrangement 
 
 the pegs blocked by the straps cannot lean, and offer great 
 resistance to the tractiony without requiring the ramming of 
 the soil necessary when using a beam. (Price of anchors and 
 
INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING 
 
 Fig. 40. Anchoring peg and clove- 
 hitch knot. 
 
 Sin.; E, 2ft. The 
 knot used to fasten 
 the ropes to the 
 pegs is the clove- 
 hitch (shown in 
 Fig. 40), or the 
 anchor bend, which 
 is still stronger 
 
 chain, 5.) We may also adopt the 
 mode of pegging used by military 
 engineers. The pegs A (Fig. 40), 
 are made of pine wood, they are 3 
 to 4| inches in diameter, ter- 
 minated by a square point, pro- 
 vided with an iron shoe 8, the 
 other end furnished with an iron 
 hoop F. At the foot of the peg 
 A (Fig. 41), the anchoring cable 
 Tis fastened level with, or slightly 
 below the surface of the soil ; this 
 peg is driven in a slanting direc- 
 tion to a depth of between lojto 
 19 J inches, its head b is joined 
 to the foot of the peg B, driven 
 6ft. 6 in. distant from it, and so 
 forth, for the pegs, C, D, E. The 
 length of the peg A is 5ft. 9in.; 
 B, 5ft. 3in.; C, 4ft. 6in.; D, 3ft. 
 
 Fig. 42. Anchor bend. 
 
 case the chain g is 
 made fast to it by a 
 gripper (Fig. 44). 
 It is comprised of 
 two jaws a b turn- 
 ing round a pivot 0, 
 fixed to a plate m, 
 
 Fig. 41. Mode of anchoring. 
 
 (Fig. 42). The cable T is fastened 
 to the peg A, by two half-hitches 
 (Fig. 43). The two anchors N N 
 (Plate I.), are joined by a chain, 
 n ri, 32ft. lOin. in length, to one of 
 the links of which the chain g is 
 hooked. The chain n ri is some- 
 times replaced by a steel wire cable 
 of 0'6-inch in diameter. In this 
 
 Fig. 43. Half-hitches. 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT, 
 
 79 
 
 TTL 
 
 in which the cable is caught ; the levers 
 a and b are joined by the rings c and d to 
 the chain g. Under the effect of the 
 traction the cable is gripped at m. 
 
 To displace the capstan A (Plate L), 
 in the direction of arrow 3, the cable g 
 must be slackened ; this is done some- 
 times by hand with a crowbar, or with Fif? 44 ._ A utomatic Gripper. 
 a special device (Fondeur and Pelous, 
 
 Fig. 47), serving to 
 haul it back. In other 
 systems it is done by 
 horses (Fig. 45). To 
 displace the capstan in 
 yr^^^ 7 the direction of arrow 1 
 ^ /; ^^\^ a small chain a a 
 
 passing over a pulley P 
 fixed on the chain n ri 
 is fastened to the pole 
 by a hook. When the 
 horses pull in the direc- 
 tion of arrow 2, the 
 chain g g' is slackened ; 
 the horses are backed, 
 the chain a unhooked 
 from the pole L, and the point of traction g shifted a dis- 
 tance equal to the width of the sod to be turned. 
 
 To facilitate these different 
 operations, several implement 
 makers mount the capstan on four 
 rollers travelling on rails.* The 
 rails are made of iron rolled 
 joist girders, as used in struc- 
 tures (T Fig. 46), lying flat on 
 the previously levelled ground. 
 
 The traction R exerted on the 
 rollers resting against one of the 
 flanges is equilibrated by the re- 
 sistance of this beam gripping in 
 the ground ; this is why it is pre- 
 ferable to sink the beam in the 
 
 Fig. 45. Diagram showing how the Capstan is 
 Displaced. 
 
 
 * In 1889 H. Beauquesne (Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, Vol. L, p. 460), 
 mentioned this device as having been applied before by Grue", Valessie, and 
 several others. 
 
 6279. F 
 
80 
 
 INSTALLATION OF TKENCHING 
 
 Fig. 47. Fondeur's Plant. 
 
 ground throughout its length. This operation is easy when 
 the ground is slightly damp, for the penetration takes place 
 of itself. If not, it is necessary to drive pegs P in a 
 slanting direction, or to increase the weight of the system by 
 cases C filled with earth. . Finally, to prevent the rollers 
 from becoming derailed, the cable must be kept as close as 
 possible to the ground. If not the machine has a tendency 
 to tilt over in the direction of the arrowy. 
 
 With such an installation four girders only are necessary, 
 alternately displacing each pair. 
 
 With the object of dispensing with the horse and boy 
 required for hauling the plough back, implement makers 
 construct capstans provided with an additional mechanism 
 which does the work. This device is undoubtedly handy 
 when steam is used, but complicates the horse-gin unneces- 
 sarily. The cable used is 0-35 to 0-39 inch in diameter. 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 81 
 
 Fig. 48.- Bajac's compound Horse-gin. 
 
 
 Fig. 49. Diagrammatic section of same. 
 
 In Bajac's gin (Agricultural Show of 1892), shown in Figs. 
 48 and 49, and Plate II., the large cog-wheel A connected with 
 the pole B, can be clamped to the drum D by means of 
 two pins c. The hauling-back cable winds on the groove 
 of the pulley E connected with the pinion F, which 
 engages the cog-wheel A, when the drum is thrown out of 
 gear ; the pinion F is worked by a lever shown in Fig. 48, 
 in which may also be noticed the pawl clicking with a 
 ratchet on the top flange during the work. When the 
 plough reaches the end of a furrow the drum d is released, 
 the pulley E thrown into gear, the hauling back cable 
 passing over the fixed pulley and winding round it, pulls the 
 plough back to the start ; the horses always turn in the 
 same direction. According to the stiffness of the soil, the 
 diameter of the drum may be increased by wooden sectors, 
 as shown in Fig. 49. 
 
 The whole mechanism is carried in a strong frame, travel- 
 ling on four discs with a sharp edge, penetrating the soil, as 
 shown in Fig. 49, or by rollers on rails (Fig. 48). 
 
 F ^ 
 
82 INSTALLATION OF TEENCHING 
 
 Plate II. shows the installation of the plant in the block ; 
 the traction cable a fastened to the plough L, winds 
 round the drum D ; the hauling-back cable b passes 
 over the fixed pulley m and winds round the drum E. 
 After each furrow has been turned, the system is displaced 
 in the direction of the arrow f, by an additional small 
 capstan, or on rails. The pulley m is displaced in the direc- 
 tion of the arrow f, for a distance equal to the width of 
 the sod. The pulley m is fixed by a chain d stretched 
 between two anchors. 
 
 With the object of ploughing both ways with a balance- 
 plough, it has been proposed to install two gins, one on each 
 headland (Plate III.). The horses work alternately, as shown 
 in Fig. 50, but the part unploughed measures 32 to 39 
 feet on each side. This arrangement, which requires two 
 machines, is convenient when one cannot spare much time 
 for the operation. Under favorable conditions, it is possible 
 to plough \ acre per day with such an installation. 
 
 It does not, however, do more work per horse per day. 
 Let us consider the following figures resulting from personal 
 observations in the field : A gin with two horses hauls a 
 plough at a rate of 2 inches per second, turning a sod 21 \ 
 inches wide and 1 5 inches deep ; the hauling back is done 
 by a horse travelling at a mean rate of 19 \ inches per 
 second. Assuming a length of furrow of 219 yards we 
 arrive at the following conclusions : 
 
 System with 
 
 1 Capstan. 2 Capstans. 
 
 Number of horses yoked to the capstan ... 2 4 
 
 // // for hauling back ... 1 
 
 Total ... 3 4 
 
 Time required to open one furrow : 
 Working forward ... ... 67 seconds 67 seconds 
 
 Throwing the plough out, disconnecting 
 
 the drum ... ... ... 2 n n 
 
 Hauling back ... ... ... In n 
 
 Starting the plough... ... ... 3 // n 
 
 Balancing and starting the plough ... // 5 n 
 
 Total per furrow ... ... 79 n 72 // 
 
 Actual work done per hour : 
 
 Length of furrow ... ... ... 166 feet 180 feet 
 
 Surface ploughed (in square yards) ... 99yds. 108yds. 
 Surface ploughed per horse and per hour 
 
 (in square yards) ... ... ... 32 // 27 i n 
 
 The difference is quite as marked if four horses are used and 
 the speed of the plough greater. 
 
PLATE II. 
 
PLATE III. 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 83 
 
84 
 
 INSTALLATION OF TKENCHING 
 
 DOUBLE-EFFECT CAPSTANS. 
 
 Finally, with the object of doing more work with one cap- 
 stan, balance-ploughs, ploughing both ways, have been tried. 
 In this class we may mention Debains' system, exhibited by 
 Tritschler at the general annual show held at Paris, 1892. 
 
 Diagram 51 and Plate IV. show the capstan A, with two 
 bevel-pinions B and C, gearing together, and on the horizontal 
 shaft a coupling-clutch d allowing the drums E and F to be 
 
 Fig. 51. Diagram of Debains' compound system. 
 
 engaged alternately. The two drums are equal in diameter, 
 but of different width. On the drum E, a direct traction 
 cable winds which is fastened to the balance-plough. On 
 the drum F, which is double the width of E, the hauling- 
 back cable double the length is wound. Brakes act on the 
 flanges a a to steady the unwinding ; 'two winding guides 
 n n revolve on a horizontal axis, on which two spirals are 
 fixed, wound in opposite directions, forcing the guides m m 
 to travel right and left alternately ; each spiral is worked 
 periodically by the pins b fixed on the 
 drum. 
 
 flanges of each 
 
 Debains' machine is mounted on four iron discs pene- 
 trating the soil and acting as anchors. The front axle is 
 fixed by a king-bolt, enabling the machine to be turned ; a 
 small capstan G gearing with an endless screw B serves 
 for the lateral displacement. A case T may be loaded 
 with earth. 
 
 Plate IV. shows the projection plan of the system at 
 work. The capstan A, the drum F, the plough M, the 
 fixed pulley P, and its automatic anchor, provided with 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 85 
 
 three wheels, displaced by the block and tackle K, are 
 shown in position. The additional capstan G is anchored 
 to a fixed point by the chain f. 
 
 Machines such as that above described, with complicated 
 mechanism and smaller mechanical yield than simple-effect 
 capstans, require frequent stoppages in course of work in 
 order to rest the animals. In conclusion, the use of 
 balance-ploughs is of no practical benefit when horses are 
 used. 
 
 STATIONARY WINDING DRUMS. 
 
 When the capstan has to be displaced before every 
 furrow, time is wasted, not only in ploughing the wide head- 
 land on which the machine is displaced, but the horses 
 become also very tired through not travelling on a beaten 
 track, having to walk on new ground after every displace- 
 ment. The whole machine has also to be moved while the 
 plough is hauled back. In 1888 the advantage of using a 
 longer cable, a fixed pulley and a stationary capstan was 
 recognised. The capstan may be stationed in the centre of 
 the block if it is large enough (25 to 37^ acres), or in a 
 corner of the block if smaller. With this arrangement a 
 certain amount of mechanical power is lost* but this loss is 
 relatively small, and is compensated by the facility of the 
 execution of the work, and by the diminution of the width 
 of one of the headlands, but we will see that the anchoring 
 of the fixed pulley requires to be done with the greatest 
 care, and, very often, it cannot be anchored at all in loose, 
 soft ground. 
 
 The installation of the complete plant in working order 
 is shown in Plate V. In one of the corners of the block, 
 a a\ b b' (or outside if possible), the capstan A is strongly 
 bedded. The traction cable t fixed to the plough C passes 
 over the fixed pulley P anchored in n n', hauling the plough 
 in the direction of arrow 1 , and is hauled back in position 
 in the direction of arrow 2. With such an arrangement, 
 
 * To give an idea of the mechanical power lost, we quote the following 
 figures : A traction cable 109 yards long, sliding on the ground with a 
 speed of 3'94 inches per second, requires 4 to 5 kilogrammetres per second. 
 A fixed pulley 31 inches in diameter, mounted on an axle 2%3 inches in 
 diameter, over which a cable passes exerting a traction of 3 tons (resistance 
 of a very powerful trenching plough) requires 67 to 68 kilogrammetres per 
 revolution. The addition of a fixed pulley absorbs an average of 8 to 10 
 per cent, of the traction power of the cable. 
 
INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING 
 
 the width of the headlands / f may be reduced to a 
 minimum. When the pulley P is very far away from the 
 capstan A, it is advisable to use fixed runners x ; these will 
 be studied later on. Plate VI. shows diagrammatically 
 the arrangement for trenching or subsoiling a large block 
 a b c d\ the capstan A is stationed in the centre of the 
 block, which is divided into four sections, e a f A, A / b g, 
 A g e h, e A h d, ploughed in the direction of the arrows 
 using a fixed pulley u. The headlands are also ploughed 
 without moving the capstan, in the direction shown by 
 arrows n, by fixing the pulley in e and g on the lines a c/, 
 b c. With 328 yards of cable, 20 to 22 acres may be 
 ploughed with this arrangement without moving the 
 capstan. 
 
 Sometimes the capstan A 
 (Fig. 52), is placed in the gravi- 
 tation centre of the surface to be 
 ploughed, and, without using any 
 fixed pulley, the plough C works 
 in the direction of the radii, as 
 shown by the dotted lines ; but 
 this arrangement, which does 
 away with the fixed pulley and 
 the waste of power incidental to 
 it, necessitates the ploughing of 
 convergent furrows, which are 
 difficult of execution, and, if the 
 workmen are not closely super- 
 vised, they leave portions of the 
 ground unploughed. We visited 
 a block ploughed by this system ; 
 7 per cent, of it had not been 
 touched by the plough. 
 
 The installation of stationary capstans allows the use of a 
 second cable, as shown in Plate VII. The drum A hauls the 
 plough C, in the direction of arrow I by the cable t passing 
 over the pulley P. The drum B revolving in an opposite 
 direction, hauls the plough back by the cable r passing 
 over the pulley u, in the direction of arrow 2. It is advisable 
 to support the cable r on runners m moving sideways auto- 
 matically with the cable. 
 
 Stationary capstans are built so as to be worked either 
 by horses or steam power ; Pelous' drum (shown in Fig. 53) 
 is an example of this principle. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
PLATE V. 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 6279. 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
 m 
 
 G 2 
 

 
 o? 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 87 
 
 Fig. 53. Pelous' Combined Capstan working by horse or steam power. 
 
 The fixed pulleys P (Fig. 54) are made of cast iron of a 
 diameter varying between 23 J and 31J- inches, revolving 
 around a steel pivot fixed in a block a secured to the anchor 
 
 Fig. 54. Fixed Pulley. 
 
 Fig. 55. Pulley with cable-guard. 
 
 by means of a chain C. The whole arrangement is mounted 
 on a wooden or iron square plate n of from 27J to 35 J inches 
 wide, on which is often fixed a triangular arrangement 
 
INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING 
 
 called a cable-guard (Fig. 55), to prevent the cable from 
 leaving the groove or getting jammed between the block and 
 the sheave. 
 
 The block of the pulley P (Fig. 56) is fastened by a small 
 chain n to the link of a large chain a b c, the extremities of 
 which are secured to the anchors A A' ; at each furrow the 
 point of traction n is displaced in the direction of b a dis- 
 tance equal to the width of the furrow. If the traction 
 cable C C/ is returned at a right angle on the pulley P, the 
 
 effort f gives with 
 effort/' * the resultant 
 effort R which being 
 reported on the point 
 of traction n, may 
 be resolved into its 
 two components p and 
 P, which represent 
 the effort of traction 
 exerted on the anchors 
 A 7 and A. This dia- 
 gram shows that the 
 anchor A has to support an effort much greater than the 
 anchor A' and also much greater than the effort/" of the cable. 
 
 Fig. 56. Diagram showing resultant of efforts of 
 traction. 
 
 Fig. 57. Stationary Runner. 
 
 Fig. 58. Stationary Runner used near the 
 Capstan. 
 
 * The effort / is equal to effort/' (resistance of the plough and friction 
 of the cable on ground), plus the friction resistance of the pulley and the 
 resistance of the cable to bending round the pulley. Therefore, in reality, 
 the effort /is a. little greater than the effort /' and the resultant R is 
 the diagonal of a rectangle. 
 
OB SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 89 
 
 For this reason great attention must be paid to the fixing 
 of this anchor, as otherwise it would be pulled out during 
 the course of work, involving undesirable waste of time. 
 The chain a b c (Fig. 56) is about 65 feet long. After a 
 certain number of furrows have been ploughed, this anchor- 
 ing chain is displaced along the headland towards the cap- 
 stan. The anchor A being fixed 65 feet to the right of the 
 anchor A!. 
 
 Generally the cable is allowed to slide on the ground ; how- 
 ever, when stationary capstans are used it is preferable to 
 support the cable on runners. Figs. 57 and 58 represent 
 stationary runners, the cable a passing in the groove of a 
 pulley A revolving on a horizontal axle mounted on a 
 w r ooden frame. 
 
 When hauling back cables are used it is advisable to 
 support the small cable on runners travelling sideways 
 automatically with the cable (Fig. 59). This figure shows 
 one of these ; the pulley A is mounted on a wooden frame- 
 work B travelling on three wheels E, revolving in a direc- 
 tion perpendicular to that of the cable. Movable runners 
 are also made with iron frames (Fig. 60). 
 
 Fig. 59. Movable Runner. 
 
 Fig. 60. Movable Runner with iron frame. 
 
90 INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING 
 
 WORK OF HORSE WINDING DRUMS. 
 
 The quantity of practical work done by a horse winding 
 drum depends on the following conditions : 
 
 Power of the team. 
 
 Resistance of the plough. (Nature of soil and dimen- 
 sions of block.) 
 State of material. 
 Dimensions of block, and arrangement of plant. 
 
 The power of the team and the resistance offered by the 
 soil are in relation to the section of the sod and the speed of 
 the plough. That speed, together with the width of the sod 
 and unavoidable losses of time, determine the amount of 
 work done per hour. 
 
 The state of material bears by its mechanical yield on the 
 traction power available on the plough. 
 
 The dimensions of the block, and arrangement of the plant, 
 more or less favorable to the work, influence the time lost 
 in proceeding from one furrow to another ; for instance, the 
 longer the furrow the less the loss of time. However, other 
 considerations may modify the arrangement of the plant, for 
 instance, in very stiff soil it is advisable to run the furrows in- 
 such directions as to follow the fall of the ground to assist 
 drainage of the water in the subsoil. 
 
 For light soils the season of ploughing has not a very great 
 influence on the results of the operation. In clayey soils it 
 is advisable not to plough when they are too wet, as the 
 mould-board always exerts a certain compression on the 
 sod, which makes it cling together like a brick, and forms 
 large compact clods, often remaining in that state for many 
 years. 
 
 The staff necessary for working the plant is generally in- 
 creased by 'a few men, who remove large stones, roots, arid 
 bushes, which it is detrimental to leave in the ground. 
 
 The following is an example of the method of calculating 
 the practical work of a trenching or subsoiling plant : 
 
 Yards. Yards. Yards. 
 
 Length of furrow ... 219 219 219 
 
 Speed of plough (inches per 
 
 second) ... ... 2 2-75 3-94 
 
OE SUBSOILING PLANT. 91 
 
 Time required in Minutes : 
 
 To turn 1 furrow ... 67 48 34 
 
 Lost in various operations 
 (lifting plough at end of 
 furrow, 2 minutes ; return 
 8 minutes ; placing at start 
 of furrow 5 minutes), total 15 15 15 
 
 Total required to open 1 fur- 
 row 219 yards in length 82 63 49 
 
 Practical Work per hour: 
 
 Length of furrow, in yards 158 207 262 
 
 Area ploughed in square 
 yards, the width of the fur- 
 row being 25^ inches ... 112-8 149-4 187-2 
 
 The practical results shown by this last line would be 
 modified if other lengths of furrows were considered, the 
 time spent in lifting the plough out of the furrow and placing 
 it in position at the starting point being independent of the 
 length of furrow considered. 
 
 The depth of ploughing is generally fixed beforehand, and 
 the width follows The section of the sod and the resistance 
 of the soil per square inch give the mean hauling power 
 required on the cable, from this the number of horses required 
 to work the winding drum may be deduced, and from their 
 energy the speed of the plough.* 
 
 We have already given several examples of the method 
 of calculating the different elements of work for winding 
 drums (traction of ploughs, power of teams, mechanical 
 yields) we must now give some practical indications resulting 
 
 * If we designate by n the number of animals yoked to the drum ; t the 
 mean power (in kilogrammetres, 7 '233 foot-pounds, per second) which gach 
 horse may furnish (see page 65) ; m coefficient of reduction variable with 
 the number of animals in the team (see page 66) ; k the mechanical yield 
 of drum and cable varying between 0'8 and 0'9 ; p the depth of the furrow, 
 varying between 14 inches and 27 inches ; I the width of the furrow, equals 
 1'3 x p, varying between 15 inches and 35 inches; e the mean traction per 
 square inch of section of sod, varying between 330 Ibs. and 660 Ibs. ; v the 
 speed of the plough per second in decimal fractions of a yard. The equi- 
 librium of the system is given by the following formulae : 
 
 ntmK=plev, 
 or by 
 
 n t m K = 1 -3 p* e v. 
 
92 INSTALLATION OF TKENCHING 
 
 from ordinary field work. Dufaure has favoured us with 
 details of his practical field work, from which we extract the 
 following: 
 
 With the object of planting a vineyard, Dufaure trenched 
 land during 1889-90 to a depth of 16 inches, the nature of 
 the subsoil not allowing it to be trenched deeper ; he used 
 Beauquesne's plant, consisting of a fixed winding drum, a 
 steel wire cable 274 yards in length, and a pulley hooked to 
 the link of a chain anchored on the opposite headland by 
 two anchors. 
 
 The winding drum worked by four horses could haul a 
 very strong plough, but as the soil would not allow trench- 
 ing to a very great depth, Dufaure, in order to make full use 
 of the plant, fastened two ploughs to the cable, working to 
 a depth of 15J to 17^ inches, with a width of furrow of 19 
 inches The extremity of the cable was made fast to a very 
 strong swingle-bar 20 inches in length, one .extremity of 
 which was fastened direct on the whipple-tree of one of the 
 ploughs, and to the other plough by a chain 10 feet in 
 length. 
 
 When the two furrows were completed, the two ploughs 
 were placed on their sledges and hauled back, this took 
 from five to seven minutes, and was also indispensable to 
 rest the horses working the drum. 
 
 The staff was 
 
 3 men: 1 at the capstan, 2 accompanying the 
 
 ploughs. 
 
 1 boy. 
 
 4 horses (in preference old buggy horses with long 
 
 and steady stride). 
 
 2 bullocks, used to harrow behind the two ploughs, 
 
 .and to haul them back. 
 
 In a soil of medium stiffness the work per day of eight 
 hours actual work, was 100 poles. It is to be noticed that 
 except in the case of very bad weather, neither rain nor snow 
 interrupted the work, as the horses had a hard tramped 
 track to walk on. 
 
 The shifting of the winding drum was laborious, and 
 required four skilful men working the whole day, to shift it 
 from one block to another. It is advisable to reduce these 
 shiftings by a little care in the choice of the different spots. 
 
OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 93 
 
 In a block of 17 acres the trenching took twenty days 
 of actual work without shifting the drum, and, if Sundays 
 and stoppages are taken into consideration, from the 23rd 
 December to the llth February. It was noticed that 
 during this work the horses travelled at the speed most 
 convenient to them, and without those jerks occurring so 
 continuously when the horses are yoked direct to the 
 trenching plough. 
 
 The cost of the whole material (drum, cable, pulley, 
 ploughs) was 100. 
 
 The daily expenses were 
 
 s. d. 
 4 horses at 4s. ... ... 16 
 
 2 bullocks at Is. 7d. ... ... 3 2 
 
 3 men (per day Is. 7d.; premium 
 
 on work 4 Jd.) ... ... 511 
 
 1 boy ... ... ... 6 
 
 Writing off interest and keeping 
 
 material in repair ... 3 
 
 Total 28 7 
 
 The cost of trenching 1 acre in 1^ day would be there- 
 fore 2 10s. This cost is a minimum, and it is better to 
 allow between 3 8s. and 4 4s. for depths varying beween 
 15 \ to 17 inches. 
 
 This is about the cost of the same work done by Verneuil, 
 a neighbour of Dufaure' s, who, not being able to utilize the 
 winding drum on account of numerous banks of rock render- 
 ing the work too irregular, yoked five pairs of bullocks 
 direct to a plough, similar to that used by Dufaure. But 
 it must be noticed that during the month of January, which 
 was very wet, Verneuil had to stop the work completely 
 and feed bullocks which were not utilized, while Dufaure 
 only lost five or six days in the same month. 
 
 Dufaure was able to plough a block 490 yards in length 
 by lengthening the cable supported by a few runners ; this 
 great length of cable did not appear "to increase the resist- 
 ance much. The work of levelling was simplified by a 
 wooden beam 4ft. lOin. in length, 6 inches in diameter, 
 fastened at the rear and dragging on the soil, the soil being 
 left much better levelled than when harrows were used. 
 
94 INSTALLATION OF TEENCHING 
 
 Dufaure performed his ploughing from the 15th November 
 to the end of February, and always noticed that horses which 
 were very poor at the end of the summer, used to rest and 
 fatten during the work of the winding drum, which works 
 regularly without jerks on account of the elasticity of the 
 cable, acting as a buffer. 
 
 De Juge * used for trenching his land, a winding drum 
 hauling the plough direct and displaced at each furrow. 
 From the 8th to the 20th December he ploughed 360 poles, 
 of a soil formed of an agglomeration of clay and. pebbles, to 
 a depth of 24 inches. Taking into account the cost of 
 bullocks and manual labour (which is very cheap in that 
 district) the cost per acre reached 8. 
 
 At Fondouck (Algeria, 1898) a plant, comprising a, 
 Vernette winding drum stationed in the centre of the block* 
 was worked by five mules, a man, and boy ; the plough was 
 worked by a man and boy, a team of two bullocks, and a 
 horse and a driver to haul the plough back, that is to say 
 (without counting the men digging out stones and large 
 roots, staff paid for by the proprietor), altogether : 
 
 3 men, 
 2 boys, 
 5 mules, 
 2 bullocks, 
 1 horse. 
 
 The depth ploughed was 14 inches, and 2J acres were 
 ploughed in seven days. The contractor did the work for 
 the sum of 4 10s. per acre, the proprietor having to board 
 men and animals. The plough turned a sod of 20 inches to- 
 22 inches wide, and travelled at a speed of 4^ inches per second. 
 The central position of the winding drum allowed, with a, 
 cable 328 yards long, and working convergingly, 21 to 35 
 acres to be ploughed. 
 
 When the soil is very stiff 28 to 32 poles only are 
 ploughed per day. 
 
 In April, 1899, the swampy timbered land alongside the 
 railway, between the Lincourt station and Bajac's implement 
 yards, was trenched with a winding drum of the latter 
 make (Bajac), yoked to two strong bullocks with single 
 yokes, working at a depth of 18 inches, and a width of 20 
 inches, the plough travelled at an average rate of speed of 
 
 * Soci6t4 des Agricultemjs de France, stance du 13 Fev. 1890. 
 
OK SUBSOILING PLANT. 95 
 
 3 inches per second. Lifting the plough at the end 01 
 the furrow and placing it on the sledge took from one and a 
 half to two minutes. The winding drum also served to pull 
 out stumps (2 feet to 2ft. 6in. in diameter) previously grubbed 
 round to a depth of 2ft. Sin. and a width of 2 feet, after the 
 fashion of a forest devil. 
 
 The cost of ploughing 1 acre with a horse-gin differs in 
 each particular case. Here is, however, an example of the 
 way of calculating it : 
 
 A horse-gin, worked by four horses, taking, as an average, 
 seven days to trench 2 J acres, the complete material costing 
 100, the annual writing off being 20 per cent, for a capital 
 
 of 20.* 
 
 The daily expense of the work is : 
 
 s. d. 
 4 horses at 4s. ... ... 16 
 
 2 bullocks at Is. 7d. ... ... 32 
 
 2 men at 2s. 4d. ... ... 4 8 
 
 2 boys at Is. 7d. ... ... 3 2 
 
 Total ... ... ... 27 
 
 That is to say, 27s. x 7 = 9 9s. per 2 acres. 
 
 We may draw the following table by assuming a maximum 
 of 200 days' work per year : 
 
 Cost per 2 acres. 
 
 Number of ,.,,. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Acres, 
 
 Days. 
 ... 35 
 
 s. 
 ... 80 
 
 d.-} ' s. d. 
 
 o 
 
 s- 
 
 \ 270 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 25 2 
 
 ... 70 
 
 ... 40 
 
 \. 190 
 
 \ 230 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 ... 140 
 
 ... 20 
 
 
 
 1 210 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 ... 210 
 
 ... 13 
 
 x 
 
 L203 
 
 6 
 
 * The details of this capital are as follows : 
 
 Writing off 100 in ten years at 4 per cent. ... 8 
 
 Wear and tear at 1 2 per cent. ... ... ... 12 
 
 Total ... ... ... ... ... 20 
 
 Representing in gross 20 per cent, of the capital (100). In the above we 
 do not take into consideration the interest of this capital, this latter being 
 by a contractor pre-entered to his profit ; that is to say, the difference 
 between the price tendered and the cost of the work, plus general 
 expense. 
 
96 INSTALLATION OF TRENCHING OR SUBSOILING PLANT. 
 
 It will be interesting to compare these figures with those- 
 given later on for drums worked by steam power, to study 
 the limits of economy of both systems. 
 
 The complete plant (drum, cable, pulley, plough) is worth 
 from 80 to 100, which has to be written off in ten years. 
 The steel traction cable costs from 4d. to 6d. per pound,* 
 and weighs from 12 to 13 ounces per yard. A cable lasts 
 from 150 to 200 days. 
 
 Under favorable conditions the cost of trenching or sub- 
 soiling 1 acre with horse-winding drums is under 6 8s.; if 
 it exceeds this figure it is advisable to have recourse to other 
 means for the execution of the work. 
 
 * These prices are subject to market fluctuations. 
 
SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 97 
 
 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 
 
 We will study in this chapter a certain number of special 
 machines, which cannot he classed in the foregoing groups. 
 
 In 1857 Chateau, a solicitor at Fontaine- Guyon (Eure-et- 
 Loir), constructed what he termed a subsoiling car.* The 
 machine resembled the frame of a dray, with two large wheels. 
 The axle was fastened by two iron rods to a rectangular 
 cast-iron block, provided with three stout teeth or tines 
 13f in. in length. At the end of each furrow the block, which 
 weighed 176 Ibs., could be lifted inside the frame by the aid 
 of a rope and small windlass. In course of work, the 
 vehicle was hauled by a team behind a plough, and, if neces- 
 sary, the driver could sit upon the block and increase the 
 weight, which would then reach 3*30 Ibs., each tooth bearing 
 a weight of 110 Ibs. With a team of three horses the 
 machine subsoiled to a depth of 15J inches, "dragging out 
 stones larger than a man's head."f In certain cases a disc 
 for the distribution of fertilizers was fixed in front of the 
 frame, the manure falling in front of the subsoiling teeth, 
 which mixed it with the subsoil. In 1885, A. Derome applied 
 the same idea to his manuring subsoiler. The Royal Society 
 of Agriculture in England, awarded a first prize in 1850, at 
 Exeter, in 1853 at Gloucester, and in 1854 at Lincoln, for a 
 special machine constructed by Fowler, known as the steam 
 mole-plough, the principle of which is similar to that of 
 Reed-Slight's subsoiler. This mole-plough, which was ex- 
 hibited aud worked at the Agricultural Show at Moulins in 
 1869, is still in use in England, as shown in Fig. 61. It is 
 constructed of a beam articulated in front, and provided at 
 the rear with a handle ; gearing wheels allow the beam to be 
 raised at the end of each furrow. The working piece (Fig. 
 62) consists of a mole, kept at the required depth by a brace 
 with cogs, held in position by a cotter ; the inclination of the 
 mole is given by another brace at the rear, bearing a thread 
 and nut. A pivot is fixed in front of the beam, round which 
 a loose pulley revolves, over which the traction cable passes 
 hauled by a steam-winding drum. In stiff soils one of the 
 extremities of the cable is fastened to one of the wheels of 
 
 * Journal d 1 Agriculture Pratique, 1859, vol. 2, p. 402. 
 t This depth of 15 inches is evidently counted from the surface of 
 the soil, including the depth of the preliminary ploughing. (Trans.) 
 
98 
 
 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 
 
 the steam-engine (fixed point). The cable passes over the 
 loose pulley of the mole-plough (Fig. 61) the other extremity 
 winding on the drum. With such an arrangement the 
 
 Fig. 61. Fowler's Mole-plough. 
 
 traction on the plough is 
 doubled, but the speed falls 
 to half. 
 
 The work done by -Fowler's 
 machine depends on the shape 
 given to the mole ; that shown 
 in Fig. 62 is used to make, 
 by compression, underground 
 drains at a depth varying from 
 27J inches to 3ft. 3in. These 
 drains last from fifteen to 
 thirty years, and the cost is 
 only 10s. per acre. But this 
 kind of subsoiler can only be 
 used in clayey soils free from 
 stones. For ordinary sub- 
 soiling the mole may be re- 
 placed by subsoiling teeth. 
 Ransomes used to make a special subsoiling machine called 
 Beauclerc's Archimedian subsoiler; this machine resembled 
 that of Reed-Slight, but at the rear of the share an Archi- 
 median endless screw was fixed revolving round an axle. 
 According to the inventor, the strip of soil cut by the 
 share would revolve this screw, and thus stir the sub- 
 soil, lifting it to a certain height to let it fall crumbled 
 
 Fig. 62. Mole of Fowler's plough. 
 

 - 
 
 SPECIAL SUBSOILEKS. 
 
 99 
 
 Behind the plough. We have not been able to find any 
 documents on the practical work of this machine, but it is 
 almost certain that the soil jamming in the axle would 
 prevent the rotation of the screw. This, however, happened 
 with similar machines exhibited since Ransomes', although 
 great care had been taken to protect the bearings against the 
 introduction of any particles of soil. 
 
 Subsoiling machines have been constructed on another 
 principle, the working piece revolving in the vertical plane, 
 the subsoiling teeth being fixed to the tire of a wheel ; such 
 is the principal adopted by Guibal, of Castres (Tarn). We 
 quote Londet's remarks, who witnessed many trials of this 
 machine : * 
 
 " Guibal's subsoiler appeared for the first time at the 
 agricultural show held at Versailles in 1851. Subsequently 
 the inventor added many improvements (Figs. 63 and 64). 
 These figures show the machine as it appeared at the 
 Universal Exhibition at Paris in 1855. 
 
 ^> 
 
 Fig. 63. - Guibal's Subsoiler. 
 
 " Guibal's subsoiler (Fig. 63) consists of a cast-iron wheel 
 31 finches in diameter, provided with sixteen pairs of curved 
 teeth, or tines, 12 inches in length. 
 
 * L. A. Londet, professor at the School of Agriculture, Grand- 
 Jouan, Instruments Agricoles> machines et outils (Exhibition of 1855). 
 
 6279. 
 
 II 
 
100 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 
 
 " Guibal found from experiments that the weight of the 
 machine should be 1,056 Ibs. to enable the teeth to penetrate 
 throughout their length in soils of medium stiffness ; he 
 advises weighting by cast-iron blocks, fixed between the spokes 
 by means of bolts, or to fix on the frame ^, wooden cases, which 
 may be loaded with earth (Fig. 64). The first of these two 
 
 Fig. 64. Guibal's Subsoiler at work. 
 
 means of increasing the weight should be preferred, for the 
 weight acts more directly on each tooth. The wheel revolves 
 round an axle a fixed on the wooden frame k made as narrow 
 as possible. On the rear of the frame a paddle board c is 
 fixed, so as to engage between each pair of teeth, forcing the 
 soil to fall back in the furrow directly it is raised. 
 
 " Another paddle board/ is fixed to the front of the frame,, 
 and, engaging between the teeth, forces the soil to fall over 
 two iron plates fixed slantingly on each side of the frame. 
 By this means the soil is deposited on one side of the part 
 already ploughed, on the other on the part which is to be 
 ploughed; as a result the subsoil is disposed between two 
 layers of arable soil. According to the nature of the soil, 
 either of the paddle boards is used. 
 
 " A lever fixed on the axle enables the machine to be kept 
 in equilibrium (Fig 65). 
 
 " One or two poles for the yoking of horses or bullocks 
 completes the machine. 
 
 u In course of work the wheel revolves, the teeth pene- 
 trating the soil ; the work cannot be better compared than 
 with that of a hand hoe. 
 
 u As in the case of any other subsoiler, Guibal's machine 
 works in a furrow previously opened by an ordinary plough. 
 Two men and four horses are generally required. We see- 
 from this that its work costs double that of the plough. 
 Stones, roots of trees, <fcc., do not handicap the work of this- 
 subsoiler. 
 
SPECIAL SUBSOILEKS. 101 
 
 " We have used, and also seen, Guibal's subsoiler, in use ; 
 compared against others, such as Smith's or Reed's machines, 
 the work of the former has always been more satisfactory. 
 
 " For travelling this machine on roads ordinary wheels are 
 fixed to the axle a preventing the teeth from touching the 
 ground. We cannot end this chapter without stating that, 
 in our opinion, it is one of the best machines, and destined to 
 render great service in intense culture." ' 
 
 Guibal's machine was very unstable ; it had a tendency to 
 tilt sideways, and had to be kept vertical by a man acting 
 on a lever prolonging the axle. Holland, professor at 
 Grand-Jouan, thought of fixing two wheels to the frame, 
 and had a machine made to his own designs for Baron 
 Thenard, who called the machine " digger" and improved it 
 in several details, notably in mounting the wheels on a bent 
 axle, which could be raised by means of a lever. A descrip- 
 tion of it is given in the Journal <$ Agriculture Pratique, 
 1858, vol. 1, p. 220. 
 
 Thenard's digger (Figs. 65 and 66) consists of two large 
 parallel wheels 6ft. 6in. in diameter, 4 inches apart, and 
 running loose on the axle ; the spokes are made of wood, 
 and the iron tires provided with curved tines 11 inches 
 iu length. Each wheel weighs 660 Ibs. The frame is 
 provided with a paddle-board as in Guibal's machine. 
 
 Fig. 65. - Thenard's Digger at work. 
 
 The axle, 2 inches in diameter, has two. bends at 
 right angles 11^ inches in length, and is terminated by 
 two axle arms, upon which ordinary wheels revolve, for 
 moving the machine about. The whole appliance is fixed 
 
 * Guibal applied the same principle to the construction of hoeing rollers, 
 used for surface work (length, 3ft. llin.; diameter, 21 inches ; length of 
 teeth, o inches). 
 
102 
 
 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 
 
 on a kind of dray- 
 frame (Fig. 66). 
 The position of the 
 subsoiling discs with 
 regard to the wheels, 
 which are always in 
 contact with the soil, 
 is regulated by means 
 of a bent axle. The 
 discs are lowered or 
 raised by means of two 
 levers (one on each 
 side) 13 feet in length, 
 which can be clamped 
 Si on a ratchet sector. 
 
 These levers might 
 ? be replaced with ad- 
 | vantage, by any device 
 | actually in use. The 
 ' depth of subsoiling 
 g may be modified, or 
 S the disc lifted out of 
 the ground altogether, 
 so as to turn at the end 
 of a furrow or for being 
 moved about. If only 
 one man is to lift the 
 discs, he has to act 
 upon each lever in 
 turn. In the experi- 
 ments one man took 
 one and a half minutes 
 to lift the discs, while 
 two, acting simultane- 
 ously, only took half a 
 minute. 
 
 With a plough working to a depth of 12^ inches followed 
 by Thenard's digger (11 inches), the depth of cultivation 
 reached 23^ inches. 
 
 At Baron Thenard's property, in fairly compact soil, three 
 good horses were required to pull a plough working to a 
 depth of 7 inches, the subsoil being very hard on account of 
 the prolonged drought of 1858. The digger required four 
 good horses to disturb the soil 1 1 inches deeper, but it was 
 
SPECIAL SUBSOILEKS. 
 
 103 
 
 found advisable to use five, the depth of cultivation reaching 
 18 inches. If we consider the above figures we are in a 
 position to see that if we represent by ten the resistance of 
 the unity section of the arable soil opposed to the plough, that 
 the resistance opposed by the subsoil to the digger is eleven. 
 
 In the short days of November, doing only six hours of 
 actual work, the area worked per day was from 136 to 144 
 poles. The whole plant required is the ordinary plough and 
 team, plus five horses, a driver and two men for the digger. 
 
 Let us study the work of one tine of Guibal's machine. 
 If the disc A (Fig. 67), has a weight P, sufficient to- pre- 
 
 Fig. 67. Diagram showing the work of a Subsoiler. 
 
 vent it from sliding, any point of the circumference m 
 describes in the vertical plane a series of curves c'm c c" 
 called cycloids. If the point a is outside the circle, the 
 trajectory described by that point is a curtate cycloid.* 
 
 * We may mention that cycloids (common cycloid, curtate cycloid, and 
 prolate cycloid) are curves generated by a point in the plane of a circle, 
 when the circle is rolled along a straight line, keeping always in the same 
 plane, and possess the following properties : In any point of the curve, 
 the normal to that curve passes by the point of contact of the circle A with 
 the fixed line x. For instance, for the portion a a" b, which interests us, the 
 normals in a and b coincide with the plane x of the soil. In a" the normal 
 y is perpendicular to x x. 
 
104 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 
 
 The point of a tine a n describes in the soil a trajectory 
 a a" b disturbing a volume of soil represented in section 
 by f. Practically the section worked is a little larger on 
 account of the tearing taking place in the part a" b. 
 
 We see in diagram 67 that the profile a n of a tine must 
 be inside the cycloid a a! generated by the point a. If this 
 condition is not fulfilled, the back of the tine compresses the 
 soil in the part a a" . This waste of power has also the disad- 
 vantage of forcing the wheel to slide on the ground. 
 
 To obtain satisfactory subsoiling it would be sufficient, 
 after the tine n a has disturbed the part f, for the next 
 tine ri d' to disturb the part d e a, for the zone r is torn 
 away. 
 
 From the above it results that the distance apart n n' of 
 the teeth on the circumference of the disc a, must be at the 
 maximum equal to b a or a cL By setting the tines closer 
 together the section r, which has to be disturbed by tearing, 
 is diminished. 
 
 In Guibal's subsoiler the radius of the disc A was 
 15-7 inches, the length / of tne teeth was 12 inches, the 
 distance apart a of of the points was 11 inches, tha^t is to say, 
 the distance a d' was ^ of the length I of the teeth. If we 
 draw the diagram relative to the work of Guibal's machine, 
 we see that the teeth successively describe curtate cycloids, 
 having within the zone of work the following dimensions : 
 
 Chord a b ... ... ... 15 inches. 
 
 Arrow y a" ... ... .. 12 inches. 
 
 Distance apart of two successive trajec- 
 tories at ... ... ... 6 inches. 
 
 Under these conditions the whole depth y a!' of soil could 
 be thoroughly disturbed. 
 
 When the weight P of the disc is not sufficient to overcome 
 the resistance to penetration of the subsoil, a portion only of 
 the teeth penetrates, the periphery of the disc A not being in 
 contact with the soil. Under these unfavorable conditions 
 the surface of the soil (Fig. 67) must be considered as being 
 x #', and the zone of action of each tine diminishing in 
 depth as well as in width, may leave, in certain cases, por- 
 tions of the soil, untouched. 
 
 It appears that machines built on this principle were dis- 
 carded after 1860. It would be interesting to ascertain if 
 their principle was wrong, or if the construction was defec- 
 tive at that period. Unfortunately we have been unable to 
 find any literature answering this question. 
 
SPECIAL SUBSOILERS. 105 
 
 We have seen that Guibal, in 1855, had applied this 
 principle to his hoeing rollers. Since then different models 
 have been constructed for surface ploughing. In this type - 
 of machine we may mention that of A. de Souza (1891) 
 Morgan's pulverizer, and the mechanical hoeing machines 
 exhibited by Messrs. Ch. Galland, Grandjon, and Co., at the 
 Agricultural Show held at Paris in 1894. 
 
 Galland and Grandjon's digger consists of a small 
 Guibal roller, in which each pair of steel tines is fixed in a 
 cast-iron disc keyed on a horizontal axle, in the centre of 
 which is a gearing wheel. On the right and left of this 
 wheel are discs, provided with tines, and varying in number 
 according to the width to be worked. At a distance of 
 31 inches above the level of the soil, is a horizontal axle, 
 which a man revolves by means of two handles ; this axle, 
 by means of cog-wheels and chains, revolves the axle of the 
 digger supported at the rear by two wheels acting as a regu- 
 lator for depth. The width worked is 18 inches, the depth 
 4 inches. Certain models proposed for hoeing plants in a 
 line, such as vines, are mounted on a light frame carried by 
 four wheels. The depth worked in this case is 6 inches, and 
 the width 21 J inches. 
 
 Recently, in Italy, the agriculturist, Luigi Pavese, pro- 
 posed a hoeing machine* which may be considered as three 
 Guibal subsoilers, between which shovels worked by a 
 certain movement of rotation pass. We have no precise 
 information as to the work of this machine. 
 
 We may state, in conclusion, that the principle of Guibal's 
 subsoiler is applied to the machine of Paul, of Norfolk 
 (1854), used to open trenches 4ft, lOin. in depth. This 
 machine, which is worked by a horse-gin and chains, is not 
 within the scope of this article. 
 
 * La, macchina Vangatrice Automatica dell' ayronomo Luigi Pavese, 
 VEconomia Rurah, Torino, 24th November, 1899. 
 
106 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE 
 
 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE AND WINDING 
 
 DRUM. 
 
 Displacement System. 
 
 For the trenching or subsoiling of small areas horse-gins- 
 are very cheap when the work can be done by the horses 
 already on the place, but when the surface or area annually 
 ploughed is over 37 acres, it is advisable to work the 
 winding drum by a steam-engine, especially if the latter is 
 already on the property. Contractors for thrashing or chaff- 
 cutting may in the same way use their engine to do trenching 
 or subsoiling by contract. The first systems originated from 
 Howard's machine, used formerly for ordinary shallow 
 ploughing ; subsequently constructors aimed at making 
 machines which could be easily displaced at each furrow. 
 
 As a rule, the intermediate shaft of the winding drum is 
 revolved by a belt or chain connected with the pulley of the 
 engine ; a gearing system being interposed between the shaft 
 and the drum. A special device is attached for throwing in 
 or out of gear without stopping the engine. There are often 
 different arrangements of cog-wheels keyed on the inter- 
 mediate shaft of the winding drum, allowing two or three rates 
 of speed to be obtained. The length of the cable varies 
 between 274 and 328 yards. 
 
 When the plough is to be hauled back by the engine, a 
 second winding drum is attached to the system, revolving at a 
 speed three or four times greater, the length of the hauling- 
 back cable being 547 yards. 
 
 These different systems of winding drums are made so as to- 
 be connected to any kind of engine, which presents some 
 difficulty in the case of direct traction. We will quote some 
 examples later on. For a direct traction arrangement, the 
 portable engine must be connected to the winding drum so as 
 to form a rigid system, the whole being displaced at each 
 farrow, while, in the stationary arrangement the portable 
 engine is fixed at a certain distance from the winding drum, as 
 in the case of a chaff-cutter or thresher. The stationary steam 
 plants require fixed pulleys, as in the case of stationary gins. 
 
 The displacement of direct traction steam combinations 
 along the headland is done by means of levers or small hauling- 
 
AND WINDING DKUM. 107 
 
 cables, 98 feet in length, fixed to an anchor. A man passes- 
 the small cable over a pulley fixed on the frame, and pulling 
 backwards readily displaces the system, as it travels easily on 
 rollers and rolled joist iron girders. These girders must be 
 sunk in the ground. If it is too hard, they require to be 
 steadied by means of pegs. 
 
 The drums must always be provided with brakes (auto- 
 matic or otherwise) to steady the unwinding of the cable ; if 
 not, the latter, unwinding by jerks, becomes entangled in the 
 different parts of the machine, and occasions great loss of 
 time. The most simple automatic brakes consist of a 
 weight, which may be displaced along a lever, at the end of 
 which a shoe is fixed, compressing against the flange of 
 the drum. 
 
 Stationary winding drums are generally made with a 
 vertical shaft, so as to allow the cable to unwind in different 
 directions, without requiring an arrangement of pulleys, 
 but this requires the use of bevel pinions to transmit the 
 movement from the engine to the drum. In the direct 
 traction system the drum generally revolves round a hori- 
 zontal shaft, the cable winding with or without the aid of a 
 pulley arrangement, according to the direction of the 
 traction. 
 
 Finally, for travelling on roads, the drums are usually 
 mounted on four wheels. 
 
 Guyot's winding drum (Fig. 26, page 51) consists of a large 
 rectangular frame, made of rolled joist iron girders, upon 
 which the portable engine is carried ; the fly-wheel of the latter 
 is connected by means of a belt to the pulley of the capstan, 
 which is fixed at the other extremity of the frame. A pinion 
 is keyed on the shaft of the pulley, gearing with a cog- 
 wheel keyed on another shaft, together with another pinion, 
 gearing with the large crown-wheel of the drum upon which 
 the cable winds direct. 
 
 The large frame is . carried by four rollers, travelling on 
 rolled joist girders. The displacement of the system is easily 
 managed by means of levers* ; the latter may be inclined at 
 an angle to allow the system to turn about if the headland 
 is not straight, or at the end of the headland, in order to 
 plough it. 
 
 * Guyot tried to displace the system automatically by means of a belt, 
 pulleys, and gearing system, revolving the axle of the rollers when required. 
 This complicated mechanism (1891) has been discarded. 
 
108 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE 
 
 To haul the engine on the frame, a wooden inclined plane 
 is placed at the end; the drum worked by hand serves 
 to haul the engine into position. 
 
 The work of one of these winding drums on the property 
 of L. Perriere, at Salauze (Aude) was followed by P. Castei, 
 engineer, who published an account in the Bulletin of the 
 Society centrale cf agriculture de VAude. From his account 
 we condense the following :- 
 
 The drum was worked with a 7 H.P. engine, consuming 
 343*2 Ibs. of coal in ten hours, costing 21s. 2d. per ton ; in a 
 day of ten hours the engine required 220 gallons of water.* 
 
 The drum was 19*7 inches in diameter, 35*4 inches in 
 width; the cable 0'63 inches in diameter, 274 yards in length. 
 The plough was hauled up a hill in compact soil, composed 
 of pebbles and clay ; the bottom of the block was sandy and 
 light. The furrow was 24 inches deep and 27 -J inches in width. 
 At the bottom of the block the depth was 27-J inches. The 
 average speed of the plough was 12 inches per second. f 
 
 The furrow was 265 yards in length ; on the engine side 
 the headland was 20 feet in width ; on the opposite, 1 1 feet. 
 
 At the end of each furrow two men lifted the plough, 
 ready to be hauled back, this operation taking one minute ; 
 a pair of bullocks took the plough back to the bottom of 
 the block, where one man was sufficient to put it into 
 position. Two men attended the engine and drum, dis- 
 placing it while the plough was being hauled back. 
 
 The time required to open a furrow was : 
 
 Work of the plough ... ... 11*5 minutes. 
 
 Lifting the plough for hauling back 1 -0 
 Hauling back ... ... 2'5 
 
 Placing in position ... ... 0'5 
 
 Total 15-5 
 
 According to this, 232 poles may be ploughed per day of 
 ten hours. 
 
 At Salauze 34 furrows only were actually ploughed, equi- 
 valent to 208 poles. 
 
 * These figures for 7 H.P. give per H.P. per hour 48 '4 Ibs. of coal, 3'74 
 gallons of water ; 2*2 Ibs. of coal therefore vaporizes about 1'76 gallons of 
 water 
 
 t The weight of the system, which is 7,400 kilos (7 tons 5 cwt. ) (frame and 
 drum 3,000 kilos, portable engine 3,800 kilos, water in the boiler 600 
 kilos) is sufficient to prevent it from sliding under the action of the traction. 
 
AND WINDING DEUM. 109 
 
 P. Castel estimates the expense of the material and the 
 expense of working this arrangement at 
 Cost of material 
 
 7 H.F. portable engine ... ... 232 
 
 Frame, capstan, accessories ... ... 120 
 
 Cable 10 
 
 Plough ... . ... ... ... 28 
 
 Total 390 
 
 In round numbers, 400, which he estimates must be 
 written off in five years, that is to say, 80 divided over 200 
 days work per annum, that is to say, 8s. per day of work. 
 
 The interest on the capital at 5 per cent, represents 2s. per 
 day, which increases the fixed cost per day to 10s. 
 The daily expense is 
 
 Fixed cost ... ... ... ... 10 
 
 Engine-driver, boarded ... 4 9 
 
 Workman ... ... ... 2 4^ 
 
 Ploughman ... ... ... ' 2 4| 
 
 Pair of bullocks and driver ... 4 9 
 343 Ibs. of coal at 1 Is. 2d. per ton 3 6 
 Lubricating oil ... ... 5 
 
 18 2 
 
 .Total ... 1 8 .2 
 
 If the plough works 160 poles per day the cost of plough- 
 ing 1 acre to a depth of 24 inches is 1 8s. 2d., out of 
 which 18s. 2d. represent labour.* 
 
 The pair of bullocks may be dispensed with by hauling 
 the plough back with a small cable passing over a fixed 
 pulley anchored on the opposite headland, winding round a 
 small drum keyed on one of the intermediate shafts. 
 
 In systems such as that above described, the action of the 
 drum being perpendicular to the direction of the furrow, the 
 cable does not need to pass over a pulley arrangement. 
 With the object of diminishing the width of the headland 
 the axle of the drum is sometimes placed parallel to the 
 direction of the furrow ; in this case the cable passes over a 
 pulley arrangement. 
 
 * In this estimate the keeping in repair, carriage of water and coal, is 
 not mentioned. 
 
110 
 
 COMBINED POETABLE ENGINE 
 
 
AND WINDING DRUM. Ill 
 
 Such an arrangement is shown in Plate VIII. 
 
 This winding drum was exhibited by Boulet, Brule, and 
 Co., at the Agricultural Show held at Paris in 1892. It 
 may be attached by means of iron straps in front of any 
 portable engine ; the cable passes over a horizontal pulley 
 fixed upon the frame of the drum under the engine. The 
 whole system travels on rails, the displacement being 
 effected by a small capstan fixed in front of the frame 
 of the drum, operating on a rope anchored in the line 
 of advance. Fig. 68 represents a machine with a single 
 drum, the plough being hauled back by a team. In certain 
 oases, as we shall hereafter see, two drums may be used, one 
 of these serving to haul the plough back, opening a furrow 
 at the same time if a balance-plough is being used. 
 
 Systems in which the plough is hauled back with a 
 smaller cable are numerous. We will only mention two 
 examples. To keep the two cables apart a fixed pulley B 
 (Plate VIII.) is anchored at some distance in the field. The 
 drum A winds the traction cable , passing over the pulley 
 a and fastened to the plough C ; the return cable winds over 
 the drum R, after passing over the pulleys B and b. The 
 engine M and the pulley n are displaced after each furrow 
 in the direction of arrows 1 and 2, the pulley B remaining 
 stationary while a certain number of furrows are turned. 
 
 Fig. 69 represents Pelous' system ; on the frame A, 
 mounted on four rollers g, the portable engine M is placed ; 
 n toothed-wheel, gearing with a chain m, is keyed on the 
 main shaft of the latter. The intermediate shaft of the 
 winding drum gears directly with the drums L and E, on 
 
 Fig. 69. Pelous' Steam Winding Drum. 
 
112 
 
 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE 
 
 which the cables wind, after passing over the horizontal 
 pulleys keyed under the frame A (in the Figure, a is the 
 traction, and x the return cable). The displacement of the 
 machine in the direction of arrow 1 is effected by the cable 
 C C', which is coiled two or three times round the surging 
 drum, and held taut by the engine-driver; the other ex- 
 tremity of the cable being anchored at a certain distance, 
 the whole system may be moved towards it. The displace- 
 ment may also be effected by means of levers n inserted in 
 holes in the rim of the rollers. 
 
 In the Hidien system (patented November, 1897) instead 
 of mounting the engine on the frame of the winding drum, 
 the latter H (Figs. 70 and 71) is put in the place of the 
 
 Fig. 70. Hidien's Winding Drum. 
 
 forecarriage of the engine M, the motive power being* 
 transmitted by the belting n to the intermediate shaft, upon 
 which a double bevel-wheel and pinion are fixed, the large 
 wheel of which 
 revolves at the 
 same time both 
 the traction drum 
 A and the return 
 drum R, the large 
 drum revolving 
 round a vertical 
 spindle to facili- 
 tate winding ; the 
 whole system 
 travels on rolled 
 joist girders. 
 
 Fig. 71. Diagram of Hidien's Steam Winding Drum. 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
AND WINDING DRUM. 
 
 113 
 
1J4 
 
 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE 
 
 Systems with two traction drums, drawing a balance- 
 plough backwards and forwards, are in use. One of the 
 cables passes over a pulley fixed on the opposite headland. 
 Fig. 72 represents one of these at work. In this system 
 the two winding drums are of equal diameter, but that 
 winding the return cable is wider as it has to accommodate 
 double the length of cable. 
 
 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE AND WINDING DRUM. 
 Stationary System. 
 
 When the system is fixed stationary in a given position 
 in the field, the old Howard system (shown in Figs. 73 and 
 74) may be adopted. The two drums run loose on a shaft fixed 
 on an eccentric ; a lever allows the cog-wheel of each drum 
 to be raised and thrown into gear with the pinions keyed on 
 the intermediate shaft, carrying the belt pulley. When the 
 drum is thrown out of gear, its flange rests on the shoe of 
 the brake, which is kept in position by a counterpoise (not 
 shown in this figure). The frame of the drum is carried by 
 two wheels. The shafts of the frame are attached to the 
 rear of the engine, the cables passing under the platform 
 where the engine-driver stands, then over the two pulleys 
 fixed on a special frame bolted on the forecarriage of the 
 machine. Plate IX. shows the working installation. 
 
 Fig. 73. Howard's Winding Drum worked by a portable engine. 
 
PLATE IX. 
 
 1 2 
 
AND WINDING DKUM. 
 
 115 
 
 Fig. 74. Howard's Winding Drum. 
 
 The same system, only with a single drum, was used by 
 Gustave Scribe in 1877 to subsoil, to a depth of 24 inches, 
 75 acres of land near Garid.* Fig. 75 shows a general view of 
 the plant, consisting of a portable engine, a winding drum, a 
 pulley fixed on a long wooden frame, on the end of which is 
 
 Fig. 75. G. Scribe's Arrangement in the field. 
 
 * Journal d' 'Agriculture Pratique, 1897, vol. 1, p. 829. 
 
116 
 
 COMBINED POETABLE ENGINE 
 
 a small windlass, which, by unwinding, allows the pulley to 
 be drawn towards the engine. The subsoiler only worked in 
 one direction, a horse drawing it back with a cable 274 yards 
 long. Seven and one-half acres could be ploughed without 
 shifting the engine. Gustave Scribe wished to apply this 
 system to the polders of Zealand, where stiff soils 4 feet in 
 depth are only ploughed to a depth of 9^ inches. 
 
 The winding drums in actual use (Vernette, Guyot, 
 Amouroux) generally rotate vertically, when the plough is 
 to be hauled back by a horse. Figs. 76 and 77 represent Ver- 
 nette's winding drum mounted on wheels for travelling on 
 
 roads. In work, the wheels are removed, and the machine fixed 
 on the ground. A belt connects the pulley of the engine to that 
 of the winding drum. Different gearing systems may be inter- 
 posed between the pulley and the drum to modify the speed.* 
 
 * In the old model, the transmission of the shaft of the pulley to that of 
 the drum was made by means of a spiral gearing. This system was applied 
 by Gru in 1891. 
 
AND WINDING DRUM. 
 
 11 
 
 In the old Beauquesne winding drum there were two cog- 
 wheels and two pinions, which varied the speed according 
 to their position. 
 
 We have already described Felons' convertible horse or 
 steam-power winding drum (Fig. 53, p. 87). 
 
118 
 
 COMBINED PORTABLE ENGINE 
 
 Fig. 78 represents a stationary winding drum with a small 
 drum for the return cable (Pelous). The shaft of the pulley 
 bears a bevel pinion, gearing with a bevel cog-wheel on a 
 vertical shaft, bearing a double cog-wheel which may be 
 alternately thrown into gear with either drum by means of 
 a lever. 
 
 Fig. 78. Pelous' Capstan with Drum for the Return Cable. 
 
 With a Beauquesne simple winding drum, as worked with 
 an 8 H.P. portable engine at Mr. DeltiPs property at Saint- 
 Sulpice-de-la-Pointe (Tarn)*, the work practically done has 
 been 3 furrows 219 yards in length, 19 J inches in depth, and 
 27 J inches in width per hour, i.e., 16*8 poles per hour. 
 
 From many observations we may admit in practice the 
 following figures relative to the analysis of a day's work : 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 27 per cent., meals and rest... ... 43-4 
 
 11 per cent., anchoring and ordinary 
 
 stoppages during work ... ... 17*7 
 
 62 per cent, useful work (ploughing and 
 
 hauling back) ... ... 10OO 
 
 We may compare simple effect against double effect winding 
 drums, working a balance plough backwards and forwards, 
 
 * Journal (V Agriculture Pratique, 1889, vol. 1., p. 578. 
 
AND WINDING DKUM. 
 
 in the case where both are worked by steam. By taking 
 the figures corresponding to the conditions we indicated for 
 drums worked by horse power, we obtain the following 
 results, limiting the duration of work to 200 or 210 days 
 per year : 
 
 Description. 
 
 Winding Drum. 
 
 Simple Effect. 
 
 Double Effect.. 
 
 General Items 
 
 
 
 Cost of complete material* ... 
 Writing off in ten years, cost of repairs 
 estimated at 20 per cent. ... 
 
 400 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 120 
 
 Power of the engine 
 
 8H.P. 
 
 10 H.P. 
 
 Coal consumed per day 
 
 704 Ibs. 
 
 880 Ibs. 
 
 Time required in practice for the plough- 
 
 
 
 ing of 1 acre 
 
 2| days 
 
 14 day 
 
 Cost of work per day 
 
 
 
 1 engine-driver 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 
 2 workmen, at 2s. 4^d. 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 
 
 3 men, at 2s. 4d. ... 
 
 
 7s. l^d. 
 
 1 pair of bullocks for hauling back ... 
 Coal, at 1 12s. per ton ... .... 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 10s. Id. 
 
 12s."8d. 
 
 Oil, grease, and cottton waste 
 
 Is. 7d. 
 
 2s. 
 
 Transport of water and coal, 2 bullocks and 
 
 
 
 1 man, for a few hours 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 
 4s. 9d. 
 
 Total ... 
 
 30s 8d. 
 
 31s. 3d. 
 
 Cost per acre .. ... ; ... 
 
 2 9s. 3d. 
 
 1 18s. Od. 
 
 1 
 
 f5 
 II 
 
 Number of days 
 worked per Year. 
 
 Cost per Acre. 
 
 I| 
 
 a 
 
 58 
 
 < 
 
 Work. 
 
 Total. 
 
 25 acres 
 50 
 75 
 100 
 125,, 
 150 ,, 
 
 40 
 80 
 120 
 160 
 200 
 
 s. d. 
 340 
 1 12 
 1 1 4 
 16 
 12 8 
 
 *. d. 
 64 9 
 
 s. d. 
 989 
 7 16 9 
 7 6 1 
 709 
 6 17 5 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost per Acre. 
 
 M 
 
 |. 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 If 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 Work. 
 
 Total. 
 
 "g JS 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 30 
 
 4 16 
 
 ... 
 
 9 11 
 
 60 
 
 280 
 
 ... 
 
 7 3 a 
 
 90 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 670- 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 4"l5 
 
 5 19 
 
 150 
 
 19 2 
 
 
 5 14 2 
 
 180 
 
 16 
 
 ... 
 
 5 11 
 
 210 
 
 13 10 
 
 ... 
 
 5 8 10 
 
 We assume in this ca-e the engine to be solely used for this work, and bearing all the 
 cost of writing off. 
 
120 COMBINED POETABLE ENGINE AND WINDING DKUM. 
 
 This table (which may be modified according to circum- 
 stances) shows that when an area exceeding 7U to 100 acres 
 is ploughed annually, it is more economical to use a double- 
 effect drum hauling a balance-plough. We will have an 
 opportunity later on of comparing these figures with those of 
 the steam winding drum engine (Fowler) often used by con- 
 tractors. - 
 
PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS, ETC. 121 
 
 III. 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE 
 USE OF STEAM WINDING DRUMS FOR 
 PLOUGHING AND TRENCHING.* 
 
 By A. DEBAINS. 
 
 The necessity of reconstituting vineyards destroyed by 
 phylloxera, attracted the attention of viticulturists to all 
 systems of powerful appliances capable of disturbing land 
 deeply. Deep stirring of the land is, as a matter of fact , 
 absolutely necessary to 'success in planting American vines, 
 to allow their roots to penetrate into the lower layers of the 
 disturbed soil, which retains .the rain water of the winter, 
 preserving the roots against the detrimental effects of summer 
 droughts. Many viticulturists, when their trenching or sub- 
 soiling is finished, abandon their winding drums without 
 any care under sheds, &c., where they rust and soon become 
 only fit for sale as old iron. If, on. the contrary, these 
 machines are well looked after, and kept in repair, they may 
 be used for ordinary hoeing and ploughing of vines, as we 
 will show further on ; and later on, when it is desired to plant 
 vines again they may be used as originally intended. 
 
 To thoroughly understand the management of a winding 
 drum, and to utilize it to the utmost, we must have a good 
 knowledge of the different parts of which it consists. We will 
 study these briefly. We will not study here the heavy 
 powerful double-effect steam winding drums, which are only 
 used on large properties or by contractors. The practical 
 machine for a medium grower is that which can be worked by 
 an ordinary portable engine, as usually found on a farm, in use 
 for pumping water, chaff-cutting, threshing, sawing wood, 
 -&G. With the object of simplifying the system and reducing 
 the initial outlay, vine-growers almost blindly rushed after 
 simple-effect drum machines, that is to say, those in which 
 the plough is hauled back by a horse. If this system may 
 IDC applied to cheap drums worked by a horse, it is no 
 longer rational when steam-power is used, and if the 
 advocates of the simple drums bring forward the argument 
 of the difficulty or even the impossibility of anchoring the 
 
 * Reoue de Viticulture. Vol. III., 1895. 
 
122 PKACTICAL INSTEUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
 fixed pulley, that is simply a confession of their ignorance 
 as to the. methods of effecting it, and we will insist on the 
 essential conditions, which are simple and practical to any- 
 one who has knowledge of that kind of work. 
 
 With the object always of reducing cost, implement 
 makers when constructing double-effect winding drums 
 only use a small simple pulley for the return cable. This 
 pulley is kept in position by means of a chain made with 
 large links, through which a peg, passing through the 
 links of another chain, is fixed in a direction parallel to 
 the opposite headland. The latter chain must be securely 
 fixed at both extremities to anchors or wooden beams held 
 by pegs. When the plough has opened two or three 
 furrows, the peg is taken out, the pulley and the cable 
 shifted by hand, which requires considerable effort, especially 
 if the ground is wet ; the peg is then replaced in another 
 link of the chain. The latter must be securely anchored, 
 as the effort it bears is double that of the direct traction, 
 but, as implement makers seemingly wanted to increase the 
 difficulties of anchoring, they made pulleys too small in 
 diameter, and supported by a too narrow plate, which 
 tends to come out of the ground when the plough starts . 
 This system can only work satisfactorily with pulleys of a 
 very large diameter, revolving on a very wide plate of 
 wood or iron, but then it is heavy, and consequently 
 difficult to move by hand. 
 
 The best method of securing the return cable is un- 
 doubtedly a -large pulley, supported by a truck, provided 
 with four steel discs cutting into the ground and prevent- 
 ing sliding. Plate X. shows the solution of this difficulty. 
 It is certainly rather expensive, but it enables the work 
 to be done easily without stoppages, a greater area to be 
 ploughed, and consequently the cost per acre reduced. 
 
 The engine, behind which is the winding drum carried 
 on its frame, travels against one of the boundaries. A 
 pulley is anchored at a distance of 109 yards in front. 
 The automatic anchor, having in its centre a large pulley, 
 travels on the opposite headland. A third pulley is anchored 
 in front of the automatic anchor. The winding system is 
 made with two drums, one hauling the plough directly from 
 the automatic anchor towards the engine, the other pulling it 
 back after passing over the three pulleys. With this arrange- 
 ment the strain on the automatic anchor is only one of the 
 
PLATE X. 
 
STEAM- WINDING DRUMS FOR PLOUGHING, ETC. 
 
 components of the total traction, if the soil is dry this 
 automatic anchor cannot slip, as it is kept in the soil by the 
 discs cutting into it ; and, if its weight is not sufficient, it may 
 be increased by means of boxes filled with earth. If the port- 
 able engine and winding drum carriage are carried on iron 
 rails, allowing easy displacement by block and tackle, the 
 fixed pulley in front may be dispensed with, and the cable 
 passed over the pulley in front of the automatic anchor, but 
 in this case the pulley must be secured by two or three 
 anchors, for, the angle of the cable being more acute, the 
 strain on the pulley is greater. 
 
 The system being established as above, or in a similar 
 manner, it remains to study the conditions which the different 
 parts are to fulfil to obtain the best work. We will first study 
 the winding drums. In double-effect systems one cable winds 
 over one drum hauling the plough, while the other cable un- 
 winds. This unwinding is irregular, especially if the soil is 
 dry and stony. The plough proceeds by jerks ; the return cable 
 unwinds spasmodically, and may get entangled between the 
 flanges of the drums or the gearing mechanism. To avoid 
 this trouble the drums must be provided with brakes, 
 acting slightly but steadily during the unwinding. One of 
 the simplest systems of brakes is that shown in Fig. 79. It is 
 made of a circular band of flat iron e terminated at both ends 
 by two pieces at right angles, carrying at their extremities 
 two threaded holes in which a thumb-screw Y works. The 
 flat iron bar carries inside wooden shoes b, and outside cleats 
 t, rounded on one side and flat on the other. The shoes b rest 
 on a circle provided with a flange fixed on the drum T or cast 
 with it, upon which the pressure of the brake acts. When 
 the drum T revolves in the direction of the arrow (position 1), 
 that is to say, unwinds the cable, one of the cleats t comes in 
 contact with the stop m, held in position by a cast-iron sup- 
 port bolted on the frame, and the brake acts. If, on the 
 contrary, the drum T revolves in the opposite direction 
 (towards the plough), one of the cleats t comes in contact 
 on its rounded part with the stop, which is lifted (position 
 2), and the brake does not act. The lever k allows the stop m 
 to be lifted by hand, and the brake to remain free. This is done 
 when a certain length of cable has to be unwound by hand. 
 
 It is also necessary to make the hauling cable wind 
 regularly round the winding drum. Most of the winding 
 drums on the market are not provided with winding guides ; 
 
124 PKACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
 Brake. 
 
 Fig. 79. Diagram of Brake for Winding Drums 
 
STEAM-WINDING DKUMS FOE PLOUGHING, ETC. 
 
 125 
 
 this is the main cause of the breakage of drum flanges and 
 of the wear of the cable, the strands of which overlap each 
 other, become tangled, and cause distortion, flattening, &c. 
 In the machines designed for medium-sized properties, where 
 the proprietor wishes to avoid complicated machinery, it is 
 difficult to provide drums with winding guides (costly and 
 cumbersome), such as those of Fowler and Howard ; but it 
 is always easy to attach that shown in Fig. 80, which costs 
 very little to keep in repair, as the part subject to most wear 
 is easily replaceable, and only costs 4s. lOd. 
 
 j. hread,ed shaft and sliding rod 
 
 Fig. 80. Winding Guide. 
 
 The principal part of the mechanism of this winding guide 
 is a shaft V, round which two threads are cut in opposite 
 directions, and opposite each drum, one winding to the right, 
 the other to the left. Above the shaft, and parallel to it, 
 are two cylindrical rods G serving as guides to a sliding 
 frame M, carrying inside it two steel rollers RR and on the 
 upper part the brass collar K. This collar revolves freely 
 in a block E, through which the rods Gr pass, on which the 
 block slides. Therefore it plays the part of a nut, and moves 
 
 6279. 
 
 
126 PKACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
 in the direction of the thread on the shaft, guiding it, and 
 with them the block E and the rollers RR, between which 
 the cable C runs. 
 
 The space between the rollers RR, projected on a plane 
 perpendicular to the cable, is exactly the diameter of the 
 cable, but the space is greater in any other direction, so as 
 to allow the free passage of any irregularity or splice in the 
 cable preventing the rollers from being torn away. 
 
 The winding guide works as follows : Let us assume the 
 machine starting when the rod K is in a ; this arm comes 
 in contact with the thread of this shaft, and its speed is 
 calculated so that the guide M travels at each turn of the 
 drum a distance equal to the diameter of the cable. When 
 the rod K reaches , it is arrested by a block b on the 
 threaded shaft V. The stop forces it to pivot round and 
 engage the other thread. It then travels in the reverse 
 direction, carrying the guide M ; the rod then meets the 
 stop a, pivots and returns, and so on until the winding of the 
 cable is completed. The rod K is made of bronze, and wears 
 out more rapidly than the steel screw, but is easily replaced. 
 
 The cable being the principal cause of the expense in 
 steam ploughing it is necessary to take every precaution to 
 diminish its wear, and, for this purpose, to support the cable 
 on pulleys, so that it is only submitted to rolling friction. 
 When the cable unwinds it is necessary to pass it over a 
 pulley placed near the drum, as it has a tendency to come 
 out of the groove on account of irregularities in the unwind- 
 ing. A good method of keeping the cable in position consists 
 in placing a small roller r in front of the pulley P, entering 
 slightly into the groove (Fig. 82). 
 
 It is not sufficient to protect the cable against sliding fric- 
 tion on the frame of the drum ; it must also be protected 
 against friction on the ground. This is prevented by cable 
 runners. Most of the old systems used for cable supports were 
 not practical ; they could only be kept in certain positions, 
 and were very unsteady when the cable was being moved from 
 furrow to furrow. The cable runner shown in Fig. 81 has 
 proved satisfactory in practice. It is a small truck on three 
 wheels, on which is a frame, carrying four rollers on top ; twa 
 have a vertical axis, the two other rollers revolving horizon- 
 tally ; and they are arranged in such a way that the juxta- 
 position of the groove of the four rollers forms a complete 
 circle. The axle of the top roller can pivot round the spindle 
 
STEAM-WINDING DRUMS FOE PLOUGHING, ETC. 
 
 127 
 
 A to allow the introduction of the cable <?, which in any 
 position slides on a roller. The axles of the three wheels 
 are always parallel to the cable, which travels laterally with 
 them. 
 
 K 2 
 
128 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
 We have already shown that a double-effect drum does the 
 work per acre at less cost than a single-effect drum, the only 
 troublesome point in the former being the anchoring of the 
 fixed pulley. The steel anchors with two spikes give the 
 best results, but they require to be strongly fixed, and many 
 persons do not know how to manage them. We must not 
 hesitate to place two or three behind each other joined 
 by chains, if necessary. Moreover, if it rains during the 
 night they must be pulled out and refixed. The anchors are 
 completely sunk in the ground, and each of the spikes must 
 be stayed by cross pegs t t (Fig. 82) ; the direction of the 
 anchor must be carefully ascertained, as its position has great 
 importance on their fixity. This is arrived at by an invariable 
 rule ; the line m n passing by the point of application of the 
 pulley, must form equal angles a oc , with the two parts of 
 the cable passing over the pulley. The workmen find it by 
 the following simple and practical method : A rod 8 feet 
 in length is taken, and one end placed in i, the point of 
 intersection of the two parts of the cable ; the distance the 
 rod reaches in each direction is marked off, the two points 
 joined by a rope and the point of the centre o determined. 
 The direction o i is the direction sought. This method 
 applies to any system of anchoring, for, when beams are 
 used, they must be placed perpendicular to that line. 
 
 The fixed pulleys should be of large diameter, and fixed 
 on wide plates. Fig. 82 represents a strong type of suitable 
 dimensions. The pulley P is 33J inches in diameter, and 
 has a groove 2^ inches deep ; it is thicker near the pivot, 
 which is slightly conical, and has an average diameter of 
 2-fo inches. This pivot A traverses an iron plate q r 
 slightly countersunk and inclined towards q and an oak plate 
 19^ inches wide, 3ft. 3in. long, 3 inches thick, strengthened 
 on the side by two iron plates f jf, bolted through at p p . 
 The pivot A is held by a nut #, taking in at the same 
 time a flat iron piece 2^ inches in width, c c'. 
 
 This piece c c' is bent and rounded at c to a distance level 
 with the top of the pivot ; a piece d terminated by a hook 
 fits on it ; a pin keeps the piece d on the pivot A, another 
 <f on the piece c ' . This piece is indispensable to prevent the 
 pivot A from bending under the traction of the cable. 
 
 The piece d may revolve round the pivot A to allow the 
 cable to be taken out of the sheave. At the rear, a V-shaped 
 
STEAM-WINDING DRUMS FOE PLOUGHING, ETC. 129 
 
 piece k is fixed over the piece c f . The chain of the anchor 
 S is fastened to it. A block of wood 2 inches thick, fixed 
 under and in front of B supports the pulley P, and prevents 
 its axle from bending under the effort or traction, and at the 
 same time protects the nut e when the pulley slides on the 
 ground. 
 
 It is important to have several other simple tools on the 
 spot a spade, a pick, a sledge-hammer, a hammer, a 
 spanner, and iron pegs it is also necessary to have a lever 
 to use, even in very wet soils, in order to dislodge the wheels 
 or discs of the automatic anchors. The instrument shown 
 (Fig. 82) answers this purpose. A wooden lever L, 8 feet in 
 length, is terminated by an iron piece a, in the hole of which 
 a double chain is fixed with hooks at each end ; the lever 
 can be raised or lowered between the branches of the piece B 
 made of flat iron, bolted on a wide bed-plate S. The chain c 
 
 Anchor and fixed pulley. 
 
 Lever. 
 
 Roller for capstan pulley. 
 c b 
 
 Fig. 82. Accessories. 
 
130 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
 is fixed round the box of the wheel to be raised, and a man 
 acting on the other end of the lever k may easily lift very 
 heavy weights ; this instrument is more practicable than an 
 ordinary screw-jack, which could not be used in very damp 
 soils. 
 
 The most delicate and costly part of a subsoiling plant is 
 the cable. Its strength and quality must be tested before 
 purchasing it. The only cables used now are those made of 
 steel wire, the diameter of which varies from -J inch to 0-86 
 inch. Above O86 inch they become too rigid, and do not 
 wind easily around the drums. They are generally made 01 
 four strands, each of which is again divided into four strands 
 twisted around a hemp cord. Each cable must be, when 
 purchased, wound on very strong portable drums, for, if these 
 drums break, it is very difficult and sometimes impossible to 
 unwind the cable, which has, consequently, to be cut in many 
 places, rendering it afterwards weaker. These cables must be 
 very regular in diameter, supple, yet not extensible, for when 
 they lengthen their diameter diminishes. They should resist 
 an effort of 25,800 Ibs. per square inch of section. When 
 working normally their breaking strain should be 51, 600 Ibs. 
 per square inch. In clay or clay-siliceous soils they are sup- 
 posed to work 150 days of 10 hours with a steam-winding 
 drum and a plough working at the rate of 15^ inches per 
 second ; and 450 days with a horse- winding drum and a 
 plough working at the rate of 4 inches per second. The 
 cables are guaranteed to work the above number of days, 
 on the condition, however, that they are not made to support 
 a strain greater than 25,800 Ibs. per square inch of section, 
 for above this effort of traction, which is the limit of elas- 
 ticity of the cable, it will lengthen and dislocate. Notwith- 
 standing every precaution, the cable may become entangled 
 between the flanges of the drum and get broken. The two 
 broken ends then have to be carefully spliced. This splicing 
 requires great care and special tools, which should always 
 be kept on the place two well-tempered steel cold-chisels, 
 a marline spike, made of a steel rod 0-6 to 0*8 inch in 
 diameter, well sharpened at one end, and a strong hammer. 
 
 The two broken ends of the cable are cut with the cold-chisel 
 (Fig. 83), the strands are unlayed for a length of 3ft. lOin., 
 and fitted into each other. The ends are laced over and 
 under the strands of the opposite rope, as shown in Fig. 83, 
 
STEAM-WINDING DBUMS FOE PLOUGHING, ETC. 
 B ft 8 
 
 131 
 
 Fig. 83. Splicing. 
 
 untwisting a little with the aid of a marline spike. The 
 four ends must be left projecting 1 to 1J inches ; if not, the 
 splicing would not hold. When the splice passes over the 
 drum for the first time, the rollers must be left a little 
 wider, otherwise it might tear the cable ; this precaution 
 is often overlooked, and is the cause of frequent accidents. 
 The loose ends of the strands get flattened against the cable 
 after the first winding. 
 
 We have insisted on these small details in working sub- 
 soiling plants, because all these precautions are indispensable, 
 and it is almost always because viticulturists have 
 neglected them, that they find some difficulty in working 
 these machines, and are often stopped in the course of the 
 work. 
 
 Many viticulturists wonder what can be done with these 
 expensive machines after they have finished trenching work, 
 as they often still remain in very good order. Those who 
 possess these machines will find great advantage in utilizing 
 them to perform the yearly ploughing of their vineyards, 
 especially if the vines have been planted well apart (5 feet 
 to 8 feet). 
 
132 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF 
 
STEAM- WINDING DKUMS FOE PLOUGHING, ETC. 133 
 
 This is possible by using special ploughs, which are made 
 after the fashion of steam-cultivators. These machines were 
 invented and patented in France, and constructed in Eng- 
 land by Fowler, and in France by Bajac. They are made of 
 a very resistant iron frame, rounded at the rear, and narrowed 
 between the wheels, strongly braced with double braces, 
 between which the bodies of the implement are fixed. 
 
 The bodies of the plough may be fixed in four different 
 positions lengthways ; the mould-boards may be so arranged 
 as to throw the soil towards the centre or towards the out- 
 side (Fig. 84). During this work the vines must be pro- 
 tected against any friction from the cable which might pull 
 down the stakes, or break the stumps. With this object^ 
 two arms B are fixed on the frame, and their width may 
 vary so as to bring the cable on the outside of the next row 
 of vines. The return cable is placed by the ploughman with 
 the aid of a special mechanism at the end of the arm B, and, 
 when the plough proceeds, it unwinds and places it between 
 the next row of vines. With this system, the return cable 
 becomes the traction cable ; when the plough has reached 
 the end of the row, the cable is simply thrown on the ground, 
 the plough pivoted round the wheel nearest the ploughed part, 
 and started in a new row, in an opposite direction ; the other 
 cable is lifted on the corresponding arm, and while the 
 plough proceeds, it is placed between the next rows as in the 
 first instance, ready for the return. 
 
 Many of these ploughs are working in Algeria, and are 
 giving excellent results. They enable vignerons to plough 
 between vines to a great depth, which has the advantage of 
 allowing the water to reach the subsoil, thus keeping the soil 
 moist during summer droughts. 
 
 With these machines, vine-growers will be able, not only 
 to create and reconstitute vineyards, but also to use their 
 winding-plant all the year round. 
 
134 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 BY PROF. JOHN SCOTT.* 
 
 The advantages resulting from the employment of steam- 
 power in tillage operations are now generally recognised. 
 One chief advantage is that it renders the farmer compara- 
 tively independent of labour ; at all times he has an enor- 
 mous power at his command on a moment's notice, and is thus 
 able to deal with the land when in a fit state for cultivation. 
 Another great advantage is that when the ordinary opera- 
 tions of breaking-up are done at the proper season, it will be 
 found that no mechanical pulverization is required. The 
 rapid motion of a steam-driven implement tears and breaks 
 up the land so that it remains in a loose, rough state, and 
 the atmosphere, acting upon the subsoil as well as on the 
 upper part of the staple, permanently raises the temperature, 
 pulverizes the whole by degrees, and thoroughly prepares it 
 for the reception of the seed. All injurious treading by 
 animals is avoided, and the roots of plants can easily pene- 
 trate to the subsoil. 
 
 In estimating the expense of steam cultivation few justly 
 appreciate the great change that it effects in the character 
 of the soil, both as regards the drainage and the cost of 
 after tillage. When land has been once thoroughly broken 
 up by steam, every succeeding operation requires less power ; 
 arid the experience of those who have used steam-power 
 proves that one-half only of the usual operations is required. 
 
 The value of steam tillage has been well exemplified from 
 another point ofviewiii drought}' autumns. In very dry 
 seasons, such as 1865, 1868, and 1870, after all harvest 
 operations were concluded, the stubbles were so hard and 
 dry that many farmers were compelled to wait for rain 
 before they could be ploughed by horses, whereas, those who 
 had the steam plough got to work at once, and had large 
 breadths of land broken up and cleaned in the most efficient 
 manner, the result of this thorough cleaning and tillage being 
 most apparent in future crops. 
 
 There are now ploughing engines capable of exerting 100 
 indicated horse-power, and capable of putting a draught of 
 3 or 4 tons upon an implement at a rate varying between 3 
 
 * Text Book on Farm Engineering, 1 885. 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 135 
 
 and 4 miles an hour. With such power any reasonable 
 depth can be reached, and as the disintegrating power is, by 
 a well-established mechanical law, as the square of the 
 velocity, the soil is broken up with four times the mechanical 
 effect at 4 miles an hour, as in the case of a horse-drawn 
 plough at 2 miles an hour. 
 
 In the words of the carefully-considered report of the 
 committee of the Royal Agricultural Society on steam culti- 
 vation (1867) "A culture deeper than it is possible for 
 horses to effect works a highly beneficial change in the tex- 
 ture of the soil, imparts additional efficiency to drainage 
 works, augments the value of the manure applied, brings 
 into operation certain latent properties of the soil which 
 much increases its fertility ; and it also fits land formerly 
 unfit for the growth of turnips, allows of their being fed off 
 by sheep, the operations of the field are economized, and the 
 growth of all crops is stimulated." 
 
 " These are," says Engineering, " the remarks of a com- 
 mittee who had been labouring industriously for months in 
 examining the results of steam cultivation upon nearly 200 
 steam-tilled farms in all parts of England and in some parts 
 of Scotland, and are simply the deductions of the best expe- 
 rience. At the time of their report steam tilla,ge was not 
 only better but was considerably cheaper than horse tillage. 
 Now, the steam-engine, rope, and other tackle and the 
 attached implements have been very much improved, and 
 the comparison would be still more in favour of steam. It 
 would be something to save 2s. or 3s. per acre upon the 
 10,000,000 acres of tillage land in England yearly, and 
 experience shows that this saving of 1,000,000 to 
 1,500,000 can certainly be accomplished. But the greatest 
 gain is in the improved crops, due to thorough tillage, and this 
 may amount to an extra quarter of wheat, an extra 3 or 4 
 tons of turnips, or something equivalent, and, in this way, 
 the average crop may be increased possibly to the extent of 
 10,000,000. There are many recorded instances of steam- 
 ploughed fields yielding 2 or more quarters of wheat per 
 acre more than they did under horse tillage." 
 
 No doubt the cause of steam tillage has suffered from an 
 indiscriminate use of deep ploughing in certain instances, 
 but that has been a misapplication of the power. 
 
 On the other hand, in addition to ploughing and cultivat- 
 ing, great benefit is found to follow the application of steam 
 
136 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 power to the drilling and harrowing in of seeds on heavy 
 soils, especially in wet seasons, as the injurious effects of 
 trampling by horses is therefore avoided. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 Of the many schemes and systems of steam cultivation 
 which have been practically brought before the public two 
 only (and those the simplest) have proved themselves 
 successful. In both of these the traction power is trans- 
 mitted to the implement through a steel wire rope winding 
 upon a drum. In the one plan the two winding drums are 
 fixed in a windlass frame, and connected to a stationary 
 steam-engine, which can be' worked from one corner of a 
 field. One end of each rope being made fast to the plough, 
 the implement is drawn backwards and forwards by the 
 drum pulling alternately, and the pulley, sheaves, and anchors 
 at each end of the furrow move forward as the implement pro- 
 ceeds. In the other system, each of the winding drums is 
 placed under the boiler of a self-moving steam-engine, and 
 one engine at each end of the furrow alternately pulls the 
 plough towards* it, while the other moves forward into posi- 
 tion ready for the return. These two systems are known as 
 the single-engine or roundabout, and the double-engine or 
 direct method of steam cultivation. 
 
 In noticing these two methods of working we shall take 
 the double-engine system first. It must be understood, 
 however, that any method of steam cultivation must needs 
 involve considerable modification in detail to work equally 
 advantageously under all circumstances. Under most other 
 machinery a steam cultivating apparatus is required to work 
 under greatly varying conditions, and often under circum- 
 stances where nothing whatever has been done to assist its 
 introduction. The general formation, the condition and 
 requirements of the country, the nature of the soil, the size 
 and arrangement of the holdings, and the available capital, 
 are all items which influence the application of steam- 
 ploughing machinery, and may demand important modifica- 
 cations in its construction. 
 
 THE DOUBLE-ENGINE SYSTEM. 
 
 Fowler's direct method of working is illustrated in Fig. 85. 
 It includes two self-moving engines with winding drums, 
 800 yards of steel rope, and the necessary implements. The 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 137 
 
 engines are worked 
 on opposite head 
 lands, and each alter- 
 nately draws the 
 implement towards 
 itself, the engine not 
 in work paying out 
 the rope while mov- 
 ing forward into posi- 
 tion for the return 
 journey. Any kind 
 of implement may be 
 used. 
 
 The advantages of 
 this double-engine 
 system are the 
 short length of the 
 rope required, and 
 consequent economy 
 of power, the facility 
 with which the 
 machine is set to 
 work and taken up, 
 and the small amount 
 of wear and tear, due 
 to the simplicity of 
 the tackle. Its dis- 
 advantages are its 
 first cost, and the 
 difficulty of moving 
 the engines on very 
 soft or wet land. The 
 last difficulty has 
 been,however, almost 
 entirely removed by 
 increasing the dia- 
 meter of the driving 
 wheels. 
 
 For large farms 
 and for letting for 
 hire this system is 
 the best, and has 
 proved itself capable 
 
138 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 of doing more work per day at less cost than any other. Land 
 can be ploughed by it at one-half the cost of horse-power. 
 
 Fig. 86 shows an engraving of Fowler's Single Cylinder 
 Steam Ploughing Engine. These engines are made of 6, 10, 
 .14, and 20 horse-power. They are constructed with single 
 
 Fig. 86. Fowler's Single Cylinder Steam Ploughing Engine. 
 
 steam-jacketed cylinders, and are provided with steam domes. 
 The road-gear is constructed of spur-wheels, and made 
 entirely of the best crucible steel. The road-wheels are 
 wrought iron, from 16 to 24 inches wide. The engine has 
 two travelling speeds, and is available as a traction-engine, 
 and can be used for any agricultural purpose, such as 
 threshing, pumping, grinding, sawing, or any operation of 
 the kind. The power is conveyed to the winding drum by 
 an upright shaft from the crank shaft. The winding appa- 
 ratus consists of a horizontal drum, which, by means of coil- 
 ing gear, winds and unwinds the wire rope uniformly without 
 any attention from the man in charge. This is done by a 
 self-acting lever, which carries two vertical guide pulleys, 
 moving slowly up and down, and freely swinging round the 
 drum into any position at which the rope has to work. By 
 this means all strain on the rope, as well as on the apparatus, 
 is avoided. 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 139 
 
 THE IMPKOVED SINGLE-ENGINE SYSTEM. 
 
 Howard's steam-ploughing 1 machinery on the single-engine 
 system is shown at work in Fig. 87. This is an improve- 
 ment on the old single-engine or roundabout system, as the 
 
 Fig. 87. Single-engine System. 
 
 engine here employed (Howard's " Farmer's Engine " for 
 ploughing on the single-engine system) is not stationary, 
 but moves itself along one headland. The automatic anchor, 
 which is remarkably simple and effective, moves along the 
 opposite headland at each bout as the work proceeds. In 
 this way much less time and labour are required to start 
 work in the field than with any other single-engine system, 
 and a shorter length of rope is used. Only two men, the 
 engine-driver and the ploughman, with a lad for the rope 
 porters, are employed. 
 
 The advantages of the single-engine system are in the 
 comparative cheapness of the tackle, and in its superior fitness 
 for very hilly or awkwardly shaped fields, as it can then be 
 worked on the stationary or roundabout method with two 
 automatic anchors. Its disadvantages consist in loss of 
 power, great length of wire rope, wasteful expenditure 
 of time in removals, and great quantity of apparatus- 
 necessary. 
 
140 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 IMPLEMENTS USED IN STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 The implements used in steam cultivation are all made on 
 one of three principles : 
 
 1. Balance implements. 
 
 2. Turning implements. 
 
 3. Implements which go backward and forward with- 
 
 out either turning or lifting. 
 
 BALANCE PLOUGH. 
 
 Fig. 88 represents 
 Fowler's Patent Bal- 
 ance Plough, made for 
 two to eight furrows, as 
 circumstances may re- 
 quire, the construction 
 of which has been con- 
 siderably improved by 
 the patented invention 
 of the simple plan of 
 always obtaining an 
 adjustable width of 
 ^ furrow. The rigid iron 
 g frame, which is so es SQII- 
 tially necessary to all 
 s steam-driven imple- 
 I inents, is still main- 
 I. tained, and the altera- 
 i tion of the width of the 
 furrows is effected by 
 means of a wedge, which 
 throws the ploughs at 
 different angles to the 
 frame. This wedge 
 does away entirely with 
 bolts and screws, and 
 renders the position of 
 the ploughs thoroughly 
 rigid, at the same time 
 is the best means of 
 altering the width of the 
 furrows. Several opera- 
 tions can be performed 
 by this implement with- 
 out much alteration. 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 141 
 
 The frame is so arranged that the shape of the ploughs 
 and mould-boards can be varied to suit any circumstances 
 that the land may require. Any class of mould-board can 
 be supplied. By removing the ordinary mould-board used 
 for surface ploughing, and substituting short ones, or 
 " digging breasts," a tillage can be effected quite equal, if 
 not superior, to spade husbandry, which leaves the land in 
 the most desirable state for the action of the atmosphere. 
 From the shares and mould-boards being attached on the 
 outside of the beam all choking in very foul land is 
 obviated. 
 
 In ploughing lea or other land for cereal crops, from the 
 speed of the plough, the work done is sometimes rough and 
 rather too loose, unless a land-presser or consolidator is 
 attached to and drawn behind the plough. It is necessary 
 to have the presser one furrow larger than the plough ; by 
 the use of the presser a firm seed-bed is secured. 
 
 SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 
 
 This implement (Fig. 89) is constructed by J. Fowler and 
 Co., and worked on the principle of a balance plough. 
 
 Fig. 89. -Subsoil Plough. 
 
 Besides the ordinary ploughs attached to it, it is fitted with 
 tines, one tine following each plough and breaking up the 
 subsoil to any required depth without throwing it on the top 
 of the land. In some land it is simply ruinous to bring the 
 subsoil at once to the surface. But by admitting the atmos- 
 phere it may be gradually prepared for this operation. 
 
 SUTHEBLAND RECLAMATION PLOUGH. 
 
 This (Fig. 90) is also an implement invented by Fowler 
 and Co., and has been much used by them in carrying out 
 the Sutherland Reclamation works. It is so constructed 
 
 6279. I' 
 
142 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 that the most stony land can be cul- 
 tivated without trouble or breakage. 
 It will be seen from the engraving 
 that it is preceded by steel discs, 
 which lift the plough over the stones 
 or obstructions so as not to break 
 the mould-board. The plough will 
 turn a furrow 2 feet wide by 15 
 inches deep completely over, and it 
 will be observed that the turning of 
 the furrow slice is not altogether 
 effected by the mould-board, but is 
 very materially assisted by the 
 rollers, which catch it at the moment 
 of leaving the plough. The stones 
 which have been passed over are 
 caught by the hook-tine, which 
 comes behind the plough, and torn 
 out. They are then removed by 
 men. The tine thoroughly subsoils 
 the land to a depth of 2 feet, and 
 materially assists the drainage of 
 the soil. This implement has been 
 largely used for the last three years 
 in the reclamation of land in Suther- 
 land. 
 
 TURNING CULTIVATOR. 
 
 Fowler's Patent Turning Culti- 
 vator (Fig. 91) is adapted by all 
 systems of steam-cultivating ma- 
 chinery. It consists of a strong iron 
 frame, carrying, according to cir- 
 cumstances, from five to thirteen 
 tines, and resting on three road- 
 wheels, the front wheel being flanged 
 and used for steering. The axle 
 of the two hind wheels is cranked, so that by turning it the 
 frame is lowered or raised, and the depth of the tines 
 adjusted. The long end of the draft bar or " patent turning 
 lever " is provided with two arms, to which the two ends of 
 the ropes are attached. The arms are set at an angle to 
 keep the tail rope clear of the implement. The lever itself 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 143 
 
 is held by a vertical stud fixed to the frame considerably 
 behind the steering wheel. This position of the draft stud 
 (the subject of a special patent) gives the necessary liberty 
 
 Fig. 91. Turning Cultivator. 
 
 and power to the steering wheel, and enables it to lead the 
 implement at almost any angle out of the line of the pulling 
 rope. On the short end of the turning lever is a chain com- 
 municating with a quadrant on the crank axle, and as the 
 lever is pulled round the chain acting on the quadrant turns 
 the axle, lifts the frame, and raises the tines out of the 
 ground. The plan of operation is as follows : As soon as 
 the cultivator is brought up to the headland the reverse pull 
 brings the lever round and lifts the tines out of the ground, 
 and they are held up by a catch ; when lifted the required 
 height the lever strikes against a stop, and the implement 
 turns into new ground ; the man (who never leaves his seat) 
 releases the catch, the tines drop into the ground, and the 
 implement is drawn across the field. 
 
 The principal advantages of this implement are as fol- 
 lows : Its size is only limited by the power of the engines, 
 which thus may be used to their utmost capacity. It smashes 
 up the soil, working steadily, and always preserving a per- 
 fectly uniform depth. Even the largest implements of this 
 description require only one man in attendance. In rounding 
 round no additional work is required, and scarcely any time 
 is lost, whilst the implement, however wide, at once moves 
 into new land, leaving small and irregular headlands. On 
 average soil 30 to 50 acres per day may be efficiently culti- 
 vated. Ridging bodies attached to the frame of the culti- 
 vator make an effective and easily handled ridging implement. 
 
 L 2 
 
144 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 The ridging bodies are attached without taking away the 
 tines, and both operations are done at the same time. 
 
 This implement is well suited for the last operation in 
 autumn, as it effectually exposes the soil to the action of the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 GRUBBER OR KNIFER. 
 
 This instrument (Fig. 92) is also one of Fowler's, and is 
 extremely valuable on stiff clay land. By working it 2 feet 
 deep, the subsoil can be stirred and aerated without at all 
 
 Fig. 92. Grubber or Knifer. 
 
 interfering with the surface. The benefits which result from 
 this operation are of the utmost importance. By its use the 
 land is quite altered in its nature, and the advantage to the 
 crops has been of very marked description. The drainage is 
 also greatly assisted, and we wish to call the special atten- 
 tion of occupiers of clay land to this implement. It is made 
 with one, two, or three tines. 
 
 It is also adapted for removing tree roots or stones, and 
 can be worked 3 feet deep. 
 
 This is an excellent implement for stirring up the subsoil 
 of old grass land, and to all owners of clay land is a decided 
 advantage. 
 
 TURNING HARROW. 
 
 Fowler's Patent Turning Harrow for steam cultivation 
 is shown in Fig. 93. The difficulty occasioned by the ordinary 
 cultivator turning up more callous stuff than is desirable in 
 the spring of the year is entirely obviated by the use of this 
 implement, which, it will be seen, is a combination of cultivator 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 145 
 
 and harrow, and is 
 adapted for doing work 
 which may be described 
 as half-way between that 
 effected by a cultivator 
 and harrow, and superior 
 to any horse cultivation. 
 
 Two kinds of shares are 
 made for this implement 
 one a board share for 
 cutting the whole ground, 
 the other a square- 
 pointed share for moving 
 the soil only; but the re- 
 quirements of the farmer 
 will always determine 
 which of these should be 
 used. As a matter of 
 economy, it is advisable 
 to keep a complete set of 
 tines and points of each 
 kind always in stock. 
 
 This implement is con- 
 structed in three pieces 
 so as to accommodate 
 itself to uneven surfaces, 
 and will take a breadth 
 of 10 to 15 feet; it is 
 especially designed to 
 work on land that has 
 been steam - ploughed, 
 dug, or cultivated in the 
 previous autumn, and it 
 will do everything neces- 
 sary in the spring to 
 insure the land being in a proper state for any kind of crop. 
 The steering frame is so arranged that it will take different 
 harrows, from the lightest seed-harrow up to regular light 
 cultivating tools : it also can be fitted with light ridging 
 ploughs. In a similar way to the action of the cultivator 
 previously described it is lifted at the end and turned round, 
 thus getting into new work at once. 
 
 Three ridging bodies can be put on the steering frame 
 by removing the harrow frame. 
 
146 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF 
 
 This exceedingly useful implement is made of wrought 
 iron, with welded sockets for the tine. 
 
 A light harrow or any such implement can be hung 
 behind it if desired. 
 
 HOWAKD'S STEAM HAKEOWS. 
 
 These harrows (Fig. 94) are very suitable for pulverizing 
 and cleaning land after it has been broken up by the steam 
 
STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 147 
 
 cultivator. With " The Farmer's Engine," or the roundabout 
 system, 15 to 20 acres may be harrowed in a day. The tines 
 of the harrows, which are fitted with double-ended rocking- 
 points, and which can be easily 
 renewed when necessary, are 
 made for drawing out the 
 couch-grass or twitch without 
 breaking it, so that it can be 
 collected and burnt. 
 
 FOWLER'S PATENT DISCER. 
 
 This instrument is intended 
 to cultivate newly reclaimed 
 soil without tearing up the 
 solid furrow and bringing the 
 turfy matter to the top. It 
 does this most effectively, 
 merely pulverizing the top to 
 a depth of 3 to 4 inches, and 
 it leaves the turf at the bottom 
 to rot, and considerably reduces 
 the expense of pulverization 
 for a crop. In moss and grass 
 land this implement is invalu- 
 able, and it may be used with 
 advantage in ordinary cultiva- 
 tion. It was first used in the 
 Sutherland reclamations in 
 1876. 
 
 The Discer (Fig. 9 5) has three 
 axles, set askew to each other 
 and to the line of draught, 
 each of them carrying a number 
 of thin discs, which revolve 
 freely as the machine is drawn 
 forward, cut the turf or peat 
 to a few inches in depth, and 
 throw the disintegrated mould 
 into little furrows. 
 
 STEAM ROLLER. 
 
 Fowler's Steam Roller, shown in Fig. 96, is made a total 
 width of 15 feet, and may be fitted with any description of 
 
148 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM CULTIVATION. 
 
 roller, or with roller and harrows. The frame is hinged in 
 the middle, and can be readily taken to pieces, so that, in 
 moving from field to field, the two halves are pulled one 
 behind the other, any difficulty in moving this broad imple- 
 ment about being thus effectually overcome. 
 
 Fig. 96. Steam Roller and Harrow. 
 
 COMBINED STEAM DKILL AND HARROW. 
 
 The great drawback to steam drilling has been that even a 
 drill of the largest width admissible under ordinary circum- 
 stances requires only a fraction of the power which is at the 
 disposal of the engines generally supplied for cultivating 
 operations. Only by combining other operations, such as 
 light cultivating and harrowing with drilling, can the power 
 be advantageously applied. 
 
 For this reason the steam drill is combined with a light 
 cultivator or heavy harrow in front of the seed-coulter, and 
 a light seed harrow following the same. Thus, three distinct 
 operations are performed in going over the land once. 
 
 Fowler's Steam Drill has a total width of 9 feet. In turn- 
 ing round, the heavy harrows are lifted by the power of the 
 engine, and the whole implement moves at once on new 
 ground, the same mechanical principles being applied as in 
 the turning cultivator previously described. 
 
 The advantages of this combination are very great, for 
 when the land is prepared, 30 acres and upwards a day are 
 efficiently drilled and harrowed without the trampling of the ' 
 seed-bed with the horses' feet. 
 
POETABLE WIND MOTOKS, ETC. 149 
 
 V. 
 
 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS APPLIED TO 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING.* 
 
 BY M. CHAEVET. 
 
 WIND. 
 
 Wind is the more or less rapid movement of translation 
 communicated to different parts of the atmosphere. It is 
 generally assumed that this phenomenon is due to the varia- 
 tions in density of different masses of air under the influence 
 of heat or cold. The air of cool regions travels towards 
 warmer regions, hence those huge currents, some of which 
 are constant and periodical, trade winds; and others, variable, 
 such as those often observed inland. 
 
 The configuration of the country has a powerful influence 
 on the direction of the winds, at least for the lower strata, 
 which alone are utilized by the wind motors in actual use. 
 Mountain ranges, forests, river valleys, break atmospheric 
 currents, and deflect the direction they would follow under 
 the action of the causes which produced them, distributing 
 them in all directions. Therefore, the study of wind currents 
 is a very complex question, when it applies to a large tract 
 of country. If, on the contrary, it is restricted to a small 
 locality it becomes simpler, and may in many cases furnish 
 useful indications for the construction and establishment of 
 wind motors. In a certain spot, every year, at the same 
 time, the winds will recur with the same speed and the same 
 direction, as the obstacles deflecting them remain, and that 
 the causes producing them recur periodically with the 
 seasons. 
 
 It is in this state of variations that agricultural industries 
 must take the wind to utilize it as a motive power. The 
 mechanical arrangements of the motors should be suited to 
 the variations, not only of direction, but also of intensity. 
 As the causes disturbing the equilibrium of atmospherical 
 columns are essentially variable, it naturally follows that 
 the effect, that is to say the rate of speed of the air produc- 
 ing the motive power, is also variable. 
 
 The regions where these motors will be used with the 
 greatest advantage are plains, or summits in hilly countries, 
 sometimes even in certain positions at the entrance or exit 
 
 * Le Progres Agricole et Viticole. Vol. 17, 1892. 
 
150 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS APPLIED TO 
 
 of a valley. There the winds follow their natural movement 
 without encountering any obstacles ; or the configuration of 
 the surrounding country may be such as to send many winds 
 from different points of the compass in one direction; this 
 should be chosen to install a motor. The Mediterranean 
 region is favoured as much as the plains of Holland as far 
 as the constancy and frequence of wind are concerned, 
 and the results of meteorological observation, which will be 
 given subsequently, allow us to estimate the number of days 
 such a motor may be worked. 
 
 The natural forces, such as water or wind, are gratuitous 
 forces, as is often remarked. These forces, it is true, do .not 
 cost anything, but they must be mastered and transformed, 
 and the motor used for their transformation and application 
 of it to a certain class of work represents a certain amount 
 of capital which must be written off ; the presence of a man 
 is also necessary for the supervision of the machine. That 
 is why wind, of all motive power, is generally the last to 
 which recourse is had, for industrial or agricultural opera- 
 tions, for it is too capricious ; but we must acknowledge 
 that such a motive power presents economic advantages, for 
 the power is spread naturally over a great area. On a large 
 plain the number of the points upon which that force may 
 be rendered available is considerable. 
 
 If it is preferable to utilize a water-course whenever the 
 opportunity exists, on account of the great regularity, it is 
 nevertheless true that a wind motor has the advantage of 
 being erectable in any point of the region and more so in 
 large plains, generally deficient in water, where the wind 
 blows with great force ; and Lucet's motor has the advantage 
 of being very portable. 
 
 This could not apply to the use of water as a motive 
 power, but water can be carried to the motor, its force 
 adjusted so as to obtain regular work. In the case of wind 
 this, however, does not apply. We must take it as it comes, 
 both in force and direction. 
 
 UTILIZATION OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF WIND. 
 In all mechanical operations requiring constant and regular 
 motive power, all those consisting of a series of operations 
 dependent on one another, and to which much manual labour 
 has to be applied, wind cannot be used. It can only serve 
 for operations requiring little manual labour, in Avhich the 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 151 
 
 power and the rate may increase or diminish, or even stop, 
 without inconvenience. Such are tanning, oil, flour, and 
 sawing mills, and, above all, irrigation, draining, and trench- 
 ing this we intend to study. 
 
 DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF WIND MOTORS. 
 
 Windmills, the origin of which is very remote according 
 to historians, who trace them back to Oriental nations, were 
 much more used for all kinds of operations formerly than 
 nowadays. The facility of transit and competition with 
 steam-power have reduced their use to instances where they 
 are really economical. Finally, their immovable nature and 
 great size, when a certain power has to be obtained, prevent 
 their use for farm works other than those for which they 
 are specially erected. It is to be assumed that the portability 
 of Lucet's motor will satisfy many requirements. 
 
 Wind motors may be divided into three classes : 
 
 1. Motors with horizontal or slightly inclined axis: 
 
 Ordinary windmills, with slightly concave blades ; 
 Dutch windmills, with plane blades ; 
 Berthon, Durand, Bellon windmills ; 
 American windmills, with plane blades ; 
 Lucet's motor, with parabolic blades. 
 
 2. Motors with vertical axis : 
 
 Robinson's Windmill ; 
 Panemones, &c. 
 
 3. Atmospheric turbines. 
 
 The description of the principal types of wind motors may 
 be found in almost all works on industrial or agricultural 
 engineering ; it is therefore easy to choose amongst them that 
 which will apply best to the class of work required. There- 
 fore, we will only study Lucet's motor, which is actually in 
 use at the inventor's property at Conques, near Carcassonne. 
 Its novel arrangements and restricted dimensions for so 
 strong a motive power deserve special attention. 
 
 LUCET'S MOTOR. 
 
 The motor requires no foundation or anchoring, for it is 
 portable. It could even be called a locomotive if its rate of 
 travelling allowed such a comparison to be made. It is 
 astonishing to see this machine, heavy enough to resist the 
 traction of the plough, hauling itself on its cable simply by 
 the action of the wind, travelling slowly but surely over 
 ploughed land, roads, or bridges. 
 
152 
 
 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS APPLIED TO 
 
 Truck. The truck is made of four large oak beams of 
 12 x 12 inches section, A A' and BB', mortised together so 
 as to form a frame 13ft. 9in. x 18 feet. This frame rests on 
 two strong girders CO' made of ashwood, under which iron 
 axles, 11 feet long, 2| x 2| inches section, are bolted. 
 Four cast-iron wheels DD', 20 inches in diameter, are 
 
 . 97. Lucefs Motor. Side Elevation. 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 
 
 153 
 
 attached to the axles, which are fixed in such a way that the 
 four points of support (that is to say, where the wheels touch 
 the ground) form a rectangle of 9ft. lOin. x 14 feet. The 
 wheels are made so that their wide rim exactly fits between 
 the flanges of rolled joist girders (5J inches) EE' (Fig. 97). 
 Each of these girders weighs 220 Ibs. They are, therefore, 
 easily managed by two men. 
 
 Framework. A rolled joist girder Q, 21 inches wide, is 
 fixed under the centre of the truck ; the shaft of the wind- 
 ing drum revolves in its centre. Four oak beams, 8x8 
 inches section F F' and G G', are mortised on the frame on 
 a bevel, each pair joining at the top, and being each mortised 
 
 Fig. 98.-Lucet's Motor. Front Elevation. 
 
154 PORTABLE WIND MOTOES APPLIED TO 
 
 in a solid wood block so as to form two isosceles triangles, the 
 front one being rather higher than that at the rear. Braces 
 and cross-beam are mortised to the four uprights to secure 
 the necessary rigidity. 
 
 Other braces, HIT, IP (Figs. 97 and 98), contribute to the 
 strength of the structure, and at the same time serve to carry 
 different collars and bearings ; finally a beam J projects 
 horizontally to a distance of 4ft. lOin. at the rear, so as to 
 receive a prop or stay in case the wind is too strong, or, in 
 any case, to protect the mechanism should the machine be 
 blown over. Up to the present this has not been much 
 required. 
 
 The frame of the Windmill. A cast-iron plate K, 3ft. Sin. 
 in diameter, and ^ inch in thickness, is fixed on the main 
 shaft by a brace and cotter. On the front part of this plate 
 are eight lodgments, to receive eight arms L, 2 T 3 - x 1 J inches 
 section near the centre, and 2^- x -fa inches at the circum- 
 ference. They are fixed in the lodgments by iron braces, 
 bolted at the rear of the plate K. Three rings are braced to 
 these arms M M / M x/ , made of angle-iron riveted on flat iron. 
 The first ring M (Fig. 99) forms a cylinder concentric to the 
 shaft 0, 6ft. 6in. in diameter, and 5 J inches in height, provided 
 with 32 openings to receive the vanes, the second ring M' is 
 13 feet in diameter, the third M" 19ft. Sin. They are both 
 provided with 32 large notches, the curve of which corre- 
 sponds to that of the vane which it supports. Fig. 99 shows 
 the shape of these notches. The vanes are secured on the ring 
 M" by means of an iron pin ab, with a handle at #, and 
 threaded at #, screwing in a brace c, by means of which the 
 vane is compressed on the curvature of the notch. . 
 
 Vanes. The frame above described carries 32 vanes (four 
 on each arm), made of pine-boards ^ inch thick, 6 inches 
 wide at the centre, and 32J inches wide at the periphery, 
 forming a vane lift. Sin. in length, the small end of which 
 is rounded to help the placing in position. 
 
 The vanes, instead of being plane as in other wind-motors, 
 form an helicoidal curve, and as the mill revolves, the wind 
 presses against the surface, less and less inclined towards the 
 centre, where it is almost normal to the plane of the mill. 
 In this way the shock of the wind is reduced in the first part 
 of the curve, and gradually loses its speed to escape in the 
 centre, after having transmitted to the motor all its motive 
 energy. 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 
 
 155 
 
 As all parts of the vanes do not revolve at the same speed, 
 the chord of the parabolic segment of the section forms 
 an angle of 32 towards the centre, and 1 2 only towards 
 the periphery, with the plane perpendicular to the axis of the 
 motor. 
 
 The curve of the vanes is secured by four pieces of ash- 
 wood j^jxl^- inch section, drawn in the required curve, 
 and nailed under each vane at distances of 3ft. 3in. apart. 
 The part of the vane resting on the circles M M' M" is 
 faced with zinc. 
 
 The motor is, therefore, a regular polygon, with 32 
 sides, and a diameter of 26ft. 3in. If the vanes are pro- 
 jected on a plane perpendicular to the axis they overlap 
 each other to the extent of ^ inch only, and in the 
 centre there will be a circular opening 8 inches in diameter. 
 The vanes have also lengthwise a curvature of \\ inch to 
 utilize the centrifugal force developed by the rotary move- 
 ment. 
 
 The mode of attachment of the vanes allows the sailing 
 area to be regulated according to the strength of the wind, 
 in the ratio 1:16, by removing some of the vanes two by two 
 on the same diameter, so as not to disturb the equilibrium, of 
 
156 PORTABLE WIND MOTOES APPLIED TO 
 
 the machine. Each vane weighs from 11 to 13 Ibs. ; one 
 man may fix four per minute, and remove six in the same 
 time, that is to say, that eight minntes are sufficient to 
 fasten all the vanes on, and five minutes only to remove them. 
 
 Mechanism. A shaft (Fig. 97), 4 T 3 - inches in diameter, 
 inclined 5 40' from the horizontal, carries the circle of vanes 
 and a pulley P made of ashwood, and revolves through three 
 collars, R R' R". The collars R R' are bolted right down to 
 the foundation iron beam Q, by four long iron rods. 
 
 The circular iron plate N, 3fb. 6in. in diameter, is keyed 
 on the shaft by a conical adjustment, serving as an abut- 
 ment against the collar R x , forming a very strong and rigid 
 assemblage able to sustain the enormous strain during stop- 
 pages. Round the plate N is a steel band, provided with 
 wooden brakes faced with leather, fixed by one end to the 
 frame, and by the other to a lever S (Fig. 98), multiplying 
 the weight of the man by 8, and what is more, the brake 
 acts in the direction of the rotation. 
 
 Transmission. A pulley P, 4ft. Oin. in diameter, 
 keyed on the shaft 0, transmits the rotary motion by a 
 crossed belt to another pulley T of the same diameter. The 
 shaft U of the pulley T is parallel to the shaft 0, and carries 
 a steel bevel-pinion V, of 7 inches diameter, provided with 
 ten teeth which can be thrown in or out of gear by a lever X 
 with a large cog-wheel Y, keyed on the shaft of the drum Z. 
 
 Drum. The bevel cog-wheel Y is 4ft. Sin. in diameter 
 and carries 44 teeth. The drum is 1 7-J inches in diameter, 
 3ft. 3in. with the flanges. 
 
 The cable is ^ inch in diameter, 220 to 270 yards in 
 length. 
 
 Working. During the night the vanes of the lower part of 
 the wheel only are left on to prevent it from revolving. 
 Therefore, in the morning four minutes are required to place 
 the sixteen vanes in position again, then the brake being on, 
 the pinion V is thrown into gear with the cog-wheel Y and 
 the brake released; the wheel then starts turning, revolving 
 the drum, which winds the cable at a speed varying between 
 6 to 14 inches per second, according to the power of the wind. 
 A cable-carrier is placed on the ground 10 feet from the 
 machine, and level with the middle of the drum; the machine 
 goes on working in this manner while the plough is hauled 
 with great smoothness and steadiness. When the plough is 
 close enough to the motor, the speed is decreased by means 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 157 
 
 of the brake, then the ploughman places a forecarriage in 
 front of the plough, made of two wheels and an axle bent at 
 a right-angle, and, by a kind of tilting movement, as the 
 plough progresses it is lifted out of the furrow (Figs. 20 
 and 21, pages 40 and 41). Finally, when the plough is com- 
 pletely out of the furrow the drum is thrown out of gear and 
 the motor stopped ; the ploughman takes it back with a horse, 
 while the men at the motor shift it sideways a distance equal 
 to the width of the furrow. This is done with an ordinary 
 crowbar if the land is level, and with a screw-jack if it is 
 rising; twelve furrows are opened in this manner, when 
 another pair of rails are placed in front of the wind-mill 
 carriage. This operation is repeated every twelve furrows. 
 Two men are, therefore, necessary for the management of 
 the plant, one for the plough and the horse, and one for 
 the wind-mill. The addition of a second cable and drum 
 revolving at a greater speed to haul the plough back would 
 complicate the machine uselessly, although machines are 
 made with the extra attachments. 
 
 The headlands can be easily ploughed, as the cable can 
 haul in any direction, but, in this case, wedges must be 
 placed under the wheels to enable the machine to resist the 
 side strain. 
 
 Shifting the motor from one block to another. When the 
 ploughing of a block is finished, it is easy to shift the motor 
 to another by using it as a self-moving motor. In this case 
 the plough is hauled by the horse in the desired direction, 
 and placed as if about to open a furrow ; the drum is then 
 thrown into gear, and, when the cable starts to wind, as the 
 wheels are not wedged, the latter, offering the least resist- 
 ance, travels towards the plough at a speed of 16 inches per 
 second. It is not necessary to attain a greater speed, as the 
 rails have to be displaced every 20 feet. 
 
 Stability. When the motor hauls the plough in a direc- 
 tion perpendicular to that of the rails, its weight (5 tons 
 18 cwt. to 6 tons 17 cwt.) suffices to secure the required 
 stability, as the flanges of the rolled joist girders serve, at the 
 same time, as anchors in the ground and blocks against the 
 wheels ; when the direction becomes oblique it suffices tc 
 block two of the wheels with pegs. It results from calcu- 
 lations made on this machine, that if we assume the motor 
 with all its vanes, and arrested by the brake (the most 
 unfavorable case), the pressure of the wind should attain 
 5 Ibs. per square yard, that is to say, a rate of 59 feet per 
 
 6279. M 
 
158 POKTABLE WIND MOTOKS APPLIED TO 
 
 second ; assuming the vanes normal to the direction of the 
 wind, Button's formula, used for inclined surfaces, gives a 
 value rather higher 62 feet to 65 feet, that is to say, a gale. 
 
 Orientation. To change the orientation of the motor, the 
 extremity of the iron girder Q is lifted by a screw-jack, and, 
 under the centre of the beam, two solid wooden blocks with 
 a pivot are placed ; four axle arms are placed on the main 
 frame A in a radiating direction, four supplementary wheels 
 are fixed on them, transforming the frame into a kind of 
 turn-table; the orientation is then done by hand as in the 
 case of locomotive engines. 
 
 Work. We give below the figures obtained by the 
 inventor when trenching his property. We are at present 
 unable to authenticate them, but intend to verify them with 
 Prony's mechanical brake. When the rate of the wind does 
 not exceed 20 feet per second all the vanes are left on, and the 
 rate of the cable varies between 4-6 to 7 '8 inches per second, 
 the area ploughed is 72 to 120 poles per day, to a depth of 
 19 \ to 24 inches. When the rate of the wind increases, the 
 vanes are gradually removed, so that twelve to fourteen only 
 remain on when the rate of the wind reaches 26 feet, eight 
 to ten when it reaches 32 feet, so that the .power obtained 
 does not exceed 7 to 8 B.H.P. 
 
 Observations. The general disposition of the framework, 
 and of the vanes, allow an easy motion of the wheel, 
 although the power obtained is fairly great. This is probably 
 due to the curvature of the vanes, the mechanical yield of 
 which seems to be greater than that of most wind-mills. If 
 we consider the formula generally adopted to represent the 
 motive power of wind-motors : 
 
 T _ S x p x v 3 
 
 ~*r 
 
 T, being the theoretical work the wind is capable of 
 
 giving ; 
 
 S, the area of the vanes ; 
 
 />, the weight of a cubic metre of air, i.e., 1-293 kilos.; 
 v, the rate of wind in metres per second ; 
 </, the acceleration due to gravitation, i.e., 9*808 metres. 
 
 According to the experiments of JSmeaton and Coulomb, the 
 mechanical yield would be, for ordinary wind-mills, 45 per 
 cent. ; for American wind-mills, 57 per cent. We may admit 
 a yield of 70 per cent, for Lucet's motor on account of the 
 
TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING. 
 
 159 
 
 curvature of the vanes, and the great area of the wheel 
 (59 square yards), and we know that the pressure of the wind 
 increases more rapidly than the surface ; however, further 
 scientific experiments are required to fix the mechanical 
 yield of this machine. The above formula would give for a 
 rate of wind of 4 metres (13ft. 1^-in.) per second : 
 
 T = 
 
 3-14 16 x 4 2 x 1-293 x 4 3 x 70 
 2 x 9-808 x 100 
 
 = 148-45, 
 
 that is to say, 148 kilos (325 Ibs.) per second, almost 2 H.P. 
 The following table, calculated by the same formula, shows 
 for different rates of wind the probable power of Lucet's 
 motor, and the corresponding number of fans : 
 
 
 Available Power. 
 
 
 Rate of the wind in 
 metres per second. 
 (1 metre = 3ft. Sin.) 
 
 
 Number 
 of Vanes. 
 
 Kilogramme metres 
 per second. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 3 
 
 62-62 
 
 0-84 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 148-45 
 
 1-98 
 
 32 
 
 4-50 
 
 211-36 
 
 2-82 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 289-94 
 
 3-87. 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 501-01 
 
 6-68 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 497-25 
 
 6-63 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 519-57 
 
 6-92 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 528-55 
 
 7-04 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 579-87 
 
 7-74 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 578-86 
 
 7-71 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 501-01 
 
 6-68 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 636-99 
 
 8-89 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 379-80 
 
 5-30 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 489-27 
 
 6-52 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 593-79 
 
 7'91 
 
 2 
 
 The management of the motor and its displacement have 
 been well studied, but its orientation is tedious and very 
 defective, as, in the case of the wind not blowing perpen- 
 dicular to the direction of the headland, that headland 
 becomes triangular, and, in certain cases, might attain half 
 the area of a square block if the wind blows diagonally. 
 This defect might easily be remedied by fixing four rollers 
 under the framework, travelling on a circular rail, carried by 
 four rollers travelling on rolled joist girders in a similar 
 manner to a turn-table. Finally, although the machine is 
 only built for the purpose of trenching or subsoiling, its 
 
 M2 
 
160 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS, ETC. 
 
 inventor has constructed it so that it may be dismounted in 
 three pieces for transit, and provided it with a pulley, allow- 
 ing the power to be transmitted by belting to any machine. 
 The motor is working near Carcassonne on an average five 
 days a week, and meteorological observations enable us to 
 foresee that the number of days could be increased during 
 December, January, February, March, and especially April ; 
 the winds are less frequent during the rest of the year. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 161 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 COMPARATIVE METRIC AND BRITISH LAND MEASURES. 
 
 '"] 
 
 Exactly. 
 
 Roughly. 
 
 Hectare 
 Are 
 Centiare (square metre) 
 
 2*471 acres ... 
 3 -954 poles ... 
 1-196 sq. yds. 
 
 Nearly two and a half acres. 
 Nearly four poles or ^ acre. 
 Nearly one and one-fifth sq. yds 
 
 HECTARES = ACRES. 
 
 Hectares = 
 
 Acres 
 
 Hectares = 
 
 Acres Hectares, = 
 
 Acres 
 
 1 
 
 aj 
 
 7 
 
 17J 
 
 40 .. = 
 
 99 
 
 2 = 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 195 
 
 50 
 
 123i 
 
 3 
 
 7| 
 
 9 
 
 22| 
 
 60 . . = 
 
 148 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 10 .=? 
 
 24| 
 
 70 ... = 
 
 173 
 
 5 
 
 12i 
 
 20 = 
 
 49i 
 
 80 
 
 197| 
 
 6 
 
 14f 
 
 30 
 
 74 100 ... = 
 
 247 
 
 ACRES = HECTARES. 
 
 Acres Hectares 
 
 Acres = Hectares 
 
 Acres = Hectares 
 
 1 = 0-40 
 
 7 = 2-83 
 
 40 = 16-19 
 
 2 = 0-81 
 
 8 - 3-24 
 
 50 = 20-23 
 
 3 = 1-21 
 
 9 = 3-64 
 
 60 = 24-28 
 
 4 = 1-62 
 
 10 = 4-05 
 
 70 = 28-33 
 
 5 = 2-02 
 
 20 = 8-09 
 
 80 = 32-37 
 
 6 = 2-43 
 
 30 = 12-14 
 
 100 = 40-47 
 
 BRITISH LAND MEASURES. 
 
 1 Acre = 4 Roods = 160 Poles = '4,840 Square Yards. 
 1 Rood = 40 = 1,210 n 
 
 1 Pole = 30 
 
162 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOR 
 
 LAND MEASURES USED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Contents of a Single 
 Measure of each Sort. 
 
 Number of 
 each equal to 
 10 English 
 Acres. 
 
 English 
 Square Yards 
 
 French 
 
 Acres. 
 
 England and Aus- 
 
 Acre 
 
 4840 
 
 40-466 
 
 10-000 
 
 tralia 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Acre 
 
 6150 
 
 51-419 
 
 7-869 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Acre 
 
 7840 
 
 65-549 
 
 6-173 
 
 France 
 
 Hectare 
 
 11960 
 
 100-000 
 
 4-046 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Great Morgen 
 Little Morgen 
 
 6786 
 3054 
 
 56-736 
 25-534 
 
 7-132 
 
 15-848 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Morgen ... 
 
 3053 
 
 25-526 
 
 15-853 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Acre 
 
 6590 
 
 55-098 
 
 7-344 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Scheffel of Corn Land 
 Morgen ... 
 
 5022 
 11545 
 
 41-984 
 96-525 
 
 9-637 
 4-192 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Morgen ... 
 
 3100 
 
 25-918 
 
 15-613 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Corn Land Morgen 
 Meadow Morgen ... 
 
 5654 
 2544 
 
 47-272 
 21-270 
 
 8-560 
 19-025 
 
 Rhineland 
 
 Morgen ... 
 
 10185 
 
 85-158 
 
 4-752 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 Morgen ... 
 
 6650 
 
 55-642 
 
 7-278 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Arpent ... 
 
 6179 
 
 51-661 
 
 7-833 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Morgen ... 
 
 9722 
 
 81-286 
 
 4-978 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Vierkantebunder ... 
 
 119-6 
 
 1-000 
 
 406-722 
 
 Naples 
 
 Moggia ... 
 
 3998 
 
 33-426 
 
 12-106 
 
 Spain 
 
 Fanegada 
 
 5500 
 
 45-984 
 
 8-800 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Geira 
 
 6970 
 
 58-275 
 
 6-944 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Tunneland 
 
 5900 
 
 49-329 
 
 8-203 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Faux 
 
 7855 
 
 65-674 
 
 6-161 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Quadrate 
 
 4074 
 
 34-062 
 
 11-880 
 
AMERICAN VINES. APPENDIX. 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 163 
 
 Fig. 100. Vernette's Small Capstan, mounted on wheels. 
 
 Fig. 101. Vernette*s Steam Winding Drum, with endless screw. 
 
 
164 
 
 TRENCHING AND StJBSOILING FOR 
 
AMERICAN VINES. APPENDIX. 
 
166 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOB 
 
 Fig, 104. Turn-Wrest Plough, mounted on patent carrier for transit. 
 
 Fig. 105. Vernette's Capstan. Pattern 1892. 
 
AMEKICAN VINES. APPENDIX. 
 
 167 
 
 Fig. 106. Guyot's Horse-Gin. I. Bridge; 2. Large Cog-Wheel ; 3. Coupling Clutch 
 4. Small Drum ; 5. Large Drum. 
 
 Fig. 107. Vernette's Trenching Plough. Pattern 1891. 
 
168 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOK 
 
 Fig. 108. Bajac's Turn-Wrest Plough, with subsoiling tines on the side. 
 
 Fig. 109. Bajac's Turn-Wrest Plough, transformed for subsoiling. 
 
 Fig. 110. Bajac's Subsoiler, used to cut roots. 
 
AMERICAN VINES. GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 169 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE 
 
 Page 
 3 
 
 1. 
 
 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOR AMERICAN VINES, BY P. FEROUILLAT 15 
 
 WHIMS OR HORSE-GINS 
 
 Beauquesne's Horse-gin 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Musquere's Horse-gin 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working ... ... . . 
 
 Grue's Horse-gin ... 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Grue's Double Winding Drum Gin ... 
 
 Description ... 
 Bourguignon's Horse-gin ... 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Guyot's Horse-gin 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Vernette's Horse-gin 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Pelous' Horse -gin 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 
 Mechanical Yield of Horse-gins 
 Area Ploughed 
 Cost of Trenching or Subsoiling with Horse-gins 
 
 STEAM- WINDING DRUMS 
 
 Beauquesne's Steam-winding Drum ... 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Vernette's Steam-winding Drum 
 
 Pescription ... ,.. . .... 
 
 Working .... 
 Grue's Steam-winding Drum 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Guyot's Steam-winding Drum 
 
 Description ... 
 
 Working 
 Pelous' Steam-winding Drum . 
 
 Description ... ... 
 
 Working 
 
 15 
 21 
 21 
 22 
 
 27 
 27 
 27 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 30 
 33 
 33 
 36 
 36 
 36 
 37 
 39 
 39 
 41 
 42 
 42 
 43 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 47 
 47 
 49 
 49 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 52 
 53 
 53 
 55 
 
170 TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING FOR 
 
 Page 
 STEAM -WINDING DRUMS continued. 
 
 P^card's Steam- winding Drum ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 Description ... ... ... ... .. ... 56 
 
 Working ... ... ... ... ... ... 56 
 
 Pineau's Steam-winding Drum ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 Description ... ... ... ... ... ... 58 
 
 Working ... ... ... ... ... ... 59 
 
 Mechanical Yield of Steam-winding Drums .. .. ... 60 
 
 Area Ploughed ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 
 
 Cost of Trenching or Subsoiling with Steam- winding Drums ... 61 
 
 (a) Simple-effect Plant ... ... ... ... 61 
 
 (6) Double-effect Plant ... ... ... ... 62 
 
 II. 
 
 APPLIANCES FOR TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING, BY MAX RINGLEMANN 64 
 
 Horse-gins ... ... ... ... ... ... 70 
 
 Installation of Trenching and Subsoiling Plants ... ... 76 
 
 Simple-effect Capstans ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 Double-effect Capstans ... ... ... ... 84 
 
 Stationary Winding Drums ... ... ... ... 85 
 
 Work of Winding Drums ... ... ... ... ... 90 
 
 SPECIAL SUBSOILERS ... ... ... ... ... 97 
 
 Combined portable Engine and Winding Drum ... ... 106 
 
 Displacement System ... ... ... ... ... 1 06 
 
 Stationary System ... ... ... .., ... 114 
 
 III. 
 
 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS REGARDING THE USE OF STEAM-WINDING 
 
 DRUMS FOR TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING, BY A. DEBAINS ... 121 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE ADVANTAGES OF STEAM CULTIVATION, BY PROF. JOHN SCOTT ... 134 
 
 Systems of Steam Cultivation ... ... ... ... 136 
 
 The Double-engine System ... ... ,.. ... 136 
 
 The improved Single-engine System ... ... ... 139 
 
 Implements used in Steam Cultivation ... ... ... 140 
 
 Balance Plough ... ... ... ., ... ... ... 140 
 
 Subsoiling Plough ... ... ... ... 141 
 
 Sutherland Reclamation Plough ... ... ... ... 141 
 
 Turning Cultivator ... ... ... ... 142 
 
 Grubber and Knifer ... ... ... .. ... 144 
 
 Turning Harrow ... ... ... ... ... ... 144 
 
 Howard's Steam Harrows ... ... ... ... ... 146 
 
 Fowler's Patent Discer ... ... ... ... ... 147 
 
 Steam Roller ... ... ... ... ... ... 147 
 
 Combined S team Drill and Harrow ... ... ... 148 
 
 V. 
 
 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS APPLIED TO TRENCHING AND SUBSOILING, 
 
 BY M. CHARVET ... ... ... ... ... 149 
 
 Wind ... 149 
 
 Utilization of the motive power of wind ... ... ... 150 
 
 Different Systems of Wind Motors ... ... ... 151 
 
AMERICAN VINES. -- GENERAL INDEX. 171 
 
 . 
 PORTABLE WIND MOTORS, ETC. continued. 
 
 Lucet's Motor ... ... ... ... ... ... 151 
 
 Truck ...... ... ... ... 152 
 
 Framework ... ... .*. ... ... ... 153 
 
 Frame of the Windmill ... ... ... ... 154 
 
 Vanes ... ... ... ... ... ... 154 
 
 Mechanism ... ... ... ... ... .. 156 
 
 Transmission... ... ... .. ... ... 156 
 
 Drum ... ... ... ... ... ... 156 
 
 Working ... ... ... ... ... ... 156 
 
 Shifting the motor from one block to another ... ... 157 
 
 Stability ... ... ... ... ... ... 157 
 
 Orientation ... ... ... ... ... ... 158 
 
 Work ... ... ... ... .. ... 158 
 
 Observation ... ... ... ... ... ... 158 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Comparative Metric and British Land Measures ... ... ... 161 
 
 British Land Measures ... ... ... ... ... 161 
 
 Land Measures used in Different Countries ... ... ... 162 
 
 Illustrations .. 163 
 
 By Authority : ROBT. S. BRAIN, Government Printer, Melbourne. 
 
BY THE SAME TRANSLATORS. 
 
 WINE -MAKING IN HOT CLIMATES, 
 
 BY 
 
 L. ROOS, 
 
 Director of the (Enological Station of the Herault. 
 
 2 73 P a g es > 6 1 illustrations, 5 plates. 1900. 
 
 Cloth-bound. Price 2s. 
 
 FIRST STEPS IN AMPELOGKAPHY : 
 
 A GUIDE TO FACILITATE THE KECOGNITION OF VINES, 
 
 BY 
 
 MARCEL MAZADE, 
 
 Sub- Director of the Laboratory for Viticultural Research, at the National 
 School of Agriculture, Montpellier. 
 
 95 P a g es ? 43 illustrations. 1900. 
 Cloth-bound. Price Is. 
 
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