PROGRESS. [3 AND A REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S HISTORY INCLUDING The Achievements and Triumphs of Inventors and Scientists in Making the Last Century the Greatest in the History of the World A LUCID, DISPASSIONATE ACCOUNT OF THE MEN AND EVENTS THAT HAVE MADE OUR REPUBLIC THE GREAT- EST POWER OF THE WORLD BY EDWARD S. ELLIS ACTHOH OF "THE PEOPLE'S STANDARD HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATUS, "YOUNG PEO- PLE'S HISTORY OF OUR COUNTRY," "A HISTORY OK THE STATE OF NEW YORK," ETC., ETC. Santa Barbara, Cat! T Of t I ^ " vrHTXT/-' n>l.'/l~ < jruia OFFICIAL CENSUS OF 1900 ELLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS HALF TOXKS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS, PAINTIXGS AXT) ORIGIXAL DRAWINGS COPYRIGHT, 1900 BY GEORGE SPIEL '*!&* *?*.- EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M. Edward S. Ellis, like many other men who have become famous, is a native of the state of Ohio, having been born at Geneva, Ashtabula county, on April 11, 1840. When he was quite young his parents removed to New Jersey, w r here he has spent most of his life. He was graduated from the State Normal School and immediately appointed to a place in the faculty, after which he served as principal of several of the leading schools in the state, his last position being at the head of the high school of Trenton. He was one of the most successful of instruc- tors, and declined numerous appoint- ments from other localities and states. He was repeatedly elected trustee and finally superintendent of public schools of Trenton. At present he makes his home at West Point, New York, where his son is an instructor in the United States Military Academy. Mr. Ellis began writing for the press at an early age, and was so suc- cessful that he soon gave up the profession of teaching for that of litera- ture. His love of boyhood, manliness and outdoor life, and his natural geniality of disposition led him to give much of his time to the writing of books for youths. In this field he quickly attained remarkable popu- larity, which is probably greater to-day than ever before. His juveniles, published by H. T. Coates & Co., of Philadelphia, more than thirty in number, enjdy a distinction accorded to no other writer for boys, of be- ing republished in London, and the "Little Folks" magazine of that city pay him double the rates of any of their contributors. His stories have been translated into many languages and are readily sold in every part of the world. The juveniles of Mr. Ellis are deserving of their wonderful popu- larity, for not only are they stirring, interesting and instructive, but they are clean and pure, and teach boys true manliness, obedience, hon- vii viii EDWARD S. ELLIS, A.M. esty, truthfulness and all the virtues that make a youth a true and use- ful citizen and a blessing to the community in which 'he lives. A lead- ing paper of Chicago once said that when a mother wishes to buy a book for her boy and sees the name of Mr. Ellis on the title page she need not first read the book as a precaution, for his name is a guarantee that it is safe to put in the hands of her child. Hundreds of his juveniles are found in the libraries of our leading Sunday-schools. Mr. Ellis, however, has not confined his work to the juvenile field. He has greatly added to his reputation by his achievements as an author of text-books for schools, and of historical works. His Eclectic Primary History of the United States, issued by the foremost educational pub- lishers in the country, attained a greater circulation than any single volume ever published by them. Two arithmetics, a physiology, and several other school histories have appeared from his pen. His success in this line was so marked that Princeton University conferred upon him the degree of "A. M." The list of works produced by Mr. Ellis is a long one. Some years ago the Cassell Publishing Company issued a subscription history of the United States, which had a large sale. Of his Standard History of the United States in eight volumes, nearly twenty thousand sets were sold within the first year of its publication; he has written a history of the state of New York for schools and a number of smaller histories will soon appear from his pen. He is a writer of prodigious industry, has earned a fortune by his ability and writes because he loves the work. Mr. Ellis's charm as an author lies in his clearness and purity of style, his rigor and graphic power, and his ability to clothe historical facts in all the glamour and halo of romance. It has been said of his works that they possess the fascination of a novel, and when to this are added ac- curacy and the true dramatic instinct, it will be conceded that he pos- sesses in a pre-eminent degree the full equipment of the successful histo- rian. In no production of his are these qualities more conspicuous than in the following pages. They have been written with his usual care, the language is clear and graphic, the statements verified by the highest authorities, and vast as is the field covered, it would be impossible to convey in a similar space more immense and varied information, pre- sented not only with admirable force and perspicuity, but with a perfect grasp of historical proportion and perspective. Chicago, October 1, 1900. L. P M INTRODUCTION. My Friends: DOES it seem a great task for you to learn the history of the world? To tell everything that has taken place since man was created would fill manj r big books. Much would be interesting and much dull, while hundreds of events were so similar that you would often think you were reading the same story over again. Then, too, you would become lost among so many incidents, just as if you were in the depth of a vast forest and did not know how to find your way out. The best plan is to learn in what ways ancient history, or what men did in the early times, affected the history that followed. To do this it is necessary to learn only the most important acts of men when the world was young. A good many histories repeat numerous myths or legends, as they are called, most of which are untrue or at best very doubtful. Let us not burden our minds with such fables, for there is plenty to learn that is true. We will begin with the first record that can be depended upon and so come down to the present. Now you know that a history of the world is simply an account of what men have done. God made the earth, divided it into land and water, brought into being all forms of vegetable and animal life, and crowned His work by creating man and giving him dominion over all that was around him. One of the strange facts that no one fully understands is that while God created men in His own image, He made so wide a difference in their color and looks that we class them into distinct races or families. Most likely you have been taught that these are five in number, but a better division is to make only three, since every person can be grouped among one or another of these races. They are as follows: I. The Caucasian, who have a whitish skin, long silky hair and regular features. They are the greatest historical race and include the most highly civilized peoples. II. The Mongolian, who have as a rule, rough yellowish skin and coarse black hair. In this family are included the American Indians, who are often said to belong to the American race. III. The Ethiopian, whose skin shows different degrees of black- 10 INTRODUCTION. ness and who has jet black woolly hair, broad flat nose and thick lips. There are many variations among these families and the Caucasian race is itself subdivided as follows: 1. The Aryan or Indo-European, which includes the Hindus, Per- sians, Afghans, Beluchis, Armenians, ancient and modern Greeks, ancient Latin races, Germans, Celts, Lithunians and Slavonians. 2. The Semitic, including the Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldean and Arabs. 3. The llamitic, many of whom live in North and East Africa, such as the Berbers, the Tuarigs, the Copts and Fellahin of Egypt. The only great llamitic nation of antiquity was the Egptians. When history began of course it has kept right on down to the present, but it is convenient to separate it into the following grand divisions: I. Ancient History, which opens with the dawn of historical information and ends A. D. 476. II. Mediaeval History, sometimes known as that of the Middle Ages, from A. D, 476 to the discovery of America in 1492. III. Modern History, from A. D. 1492 to the present time. The foregoing is the order in which w r e shall pursue our study of the history of the world, a history to which pages of absorbing interest are added every day. The jealousies between nations, the widespread discontent, the intolerable conditions, the greed for territory, fanaticism, racial hatred, and the myriad causes of strife array men against one another, and wars and rumors of wars continue to vex mankind as they will doubtless do for many a year before the dawn of that reign of universal peace for which we all yearn or pray. Among the teeming centuries that have swept into the past none has been so eventful as the nineteenth, with its amazing achievements in invention, discovery, arts, sciences, literature, knoAvledge and civili- zation. It is a wonderful story, and no one can study it without feeling its awe and impressiveness; and this awe is deepened by the certainty that as we cross the threshold into the twentieth century we enter the field of greater knowledge and advancement, where the attainments of man shall surpass all that has gone before. E. S. E. GEN. c. G (CHINESE) GORDON FAMOUS GENERALS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTUBY. MAJ. GEN. NELSON A. MILES TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. Page The First Men Their Religion The "Aryan Migration" THE ANCIENT EGYP- TIANS The Pyramids Conquest of Egypt by the Persians Their Attainments in Art Their Practice of Embalming The Pharaohs The Deluge Noah and His Sons Different Empires Founded by Them THE CHALDEANS AND BABYLONIANS The Tower of Babel The Early Babylonian or Chaldean Kingdom The Assyrian Empire The Latter Babylonian Kingdom THE HEBREWS THE PHOENICIANS THE HINDOOS THE PERSIANS 33 CHAPTER II. THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. Ancient Greece or Hellas Descendants of the Aryans Sparta and Athens Their Rivalry Growth of Sparta Growth of Athens The Persian Invasion Battle of Marathon Thermopylae Xerxes and His Prodigious Army of Invasion His Overthrow The "Age of Pericles" The Peloponnesian War Philip of Macedon His Success Alexander the Great His Marvelous Career Egypt Under the Ptolemies Conquest of Macedonia by the Romans The Matchless Literature of Greece Her Perfection in Architecture The Parthenon 47 CHAPTER III. THE WESTERN NATIONS Concluded. ROME. The Founding of Rome Its Growth The Republic The Patricians and Plebeians Rome Becomes a Nation Her Career of Foreign Conquest The Conquest of Carthage Hannibal Ruin of Carthage Grandeur of Rome Its Literature Its Decline Civil Wars Pompey The Different Factions Julius Caesar His Defeat of Pompey Caesar Made Imperatur His Great Work for Rome His Assassination Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus His Defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi Antony and Cleopatra Beginning of the Roman Empire Its Vast Extent The Imperial City Decline of the Empire The Work of C'onstantine the Great End of the Western Empire Birth of the Saviour at Bethlehem Persecution of the Early Christians Conversion of Constantine to Christianity His Great Work for the New Faith Julian the Apostate Death Blow to Paganism ~ 67 13 u TABLE OF CONTENTS. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY FROM A. D. 476 TO A. D. 1492 CHAPTER IV. THE MIDDLE AGES. Page Grand Divisions of the Aryan Stock The Different Migrations THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE Justinian FOUNDING OP THE VENETIAN STATE THE FOUN- DATIONS OF FRANCE The Idiotic Kings THE FOUNDATION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE MOHAMMED AND HIS GREAT WORK Invasion of Europe by the Saracens Their Check by Charles Martel THE SARACENS IN SPAIN CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS EMPIRE Its Downfall After His Death THE FEUDAL SYSTEM GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER 73 CHAPTER V. THE CRUSADES. Peter the Hermit The Cause of the Crusades The Disastrous Enterprise of Peter the Hermit THE FIRST CRUSADE Great Sufferings Capture of Antioch The Taking of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem Established THE SECOND CRUSADE Its Dismal Failure THE THIRD CRUSADE Saladin His Conquest of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem Saladin and Richard Coeur de Leon Their Truce THE FOURTH CRUSADE THE "CHILDREN'S CRUSADE" THE FIFTH CRUSADE THE SIXTH CRUSADE THE SEV- ENTH CRUSADE THE EIGHTH CRUSADE The Results of the Crusades... 83 CHAPTER VI. THE DARK AGES Their Cause The Awakening THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE THE LOMBARD LEAGUE Growth of the GERMAN EMPIRE THE FRAN- CONIAN LINE THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG THE NORSEMEN OR NORTHMEN THE NORMANS Last of the Capetian Line in France THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS KING EGBERT ALFRED THE GREAT Conquest of England by the Danes and Afterward by the Normans THE PLANTAGENET LINE THE MAGNA CHARTA THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER THE LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY Venice and Florence The Saracens in Spain Growth of Spain Expulsion of the Moors from Spain 94 MODERN HISTORY FROM A. D. 1492 TO THE PRESENT TIME CHAPTER VII. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE The First Use of Gunpowder Maritime Dis- coveriesInvention of Printing SPAIN Its Greatness Causes of Its Decline Luther's Reformation Steady Decline of Spain GREAT BRITAIN Henry VIII. Elizabeth Destruction of the Spanish Armada The Elizabethan "Golden Age" End of the Tudor Line and Beginning of that of the Stuarts CHARLES I. The Cavaliers and Roundheads OLIVER CROMWELL His Character Civil War The Rump Parliament Execution of Charles I. THE COMMONWEALTH The RESTORATION Under Charles II. His Unwise Course WILLIAM PRINCE OF ORANGE AND MARY The Revolution of 1688 The Orangemen "GOOD QUEEN ANNE" THE FOUR GEORGES TABLE OF CONTENTS. If, Page Beginning of the Guelph Line or House of Brunswick GEORGE I. GEORGE II. Great Events of His Reign GEORGE III. Leading Events of His Reign GEORGE IV. The "Holy Alliance" Wise Acts of England WILLIAM IV. The Reform Measures QUEEN VICTORIA Her Character and Long Reign Repeal of the Corn Laws The Chartist Agitation The Crimean War Disestablishment of the Church in Ireland England's Power and Greatness Growth of the Friendship Between England and the United States 101 CHAPTER VIII. JOHN CALVIN The Religious Wars in France The Massacre of St. Bartholomew HENRY IV. LOUIS XIII. CARDINAL RICHELIEU France Under Louis XIV. Brave Defense of Holland The War for the Spanish Succession The Corruption and Vice in France Under LOUIS XV. AND XVI. The Uprising of the People THE REIGN OF TERROR The Marvelous Career of NAPO- LEON BONAPARTE His Downfall and Death Restoration of the Bourbons The Revolution of July, 1830 LOUIS PHILIPPE THE SECOND EMPIRE UNDER LOUIS NAPOLEON His War with Germany End of the Second Empire and Establishment of the Third Republic Latter Days of France 118 CHAPTER IX. THE GERMAN EMPIRE Its Early History The Rivalry Between Austria and Prussia Over the Control of Germany The "Seven Weeks' War" Establish- ment of the German Empire Its Organization Prince Bismarck WILLIAM I. FREDERICK III. WILLIAM II. His Policy AUSTRIA Its Early History EMPEROR JOSEPH HUNGARY PRUSSIA Its Early History WILLIAM FREDERICK I. FREDERICK THE GREAT His Military Genius and His Grand Work for Prussia 142 CHAPTER X. A Royal Workman PETER THE GREAT The Early History of Russia The Work of Peter CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN His Brilliant Career and His Down- fallThe Different Czars of Russia Catherine the Great ALEXANDER II. His Wise Reign His Assassination ALEXANDER III. NICHOLAS II. Growth of Modern Russia Friendship Between Russia and the United States The Checkered History of Italy EMANUEL II. Oppressed by Austria The Work of Joseph Garibaldi Unification of Italy 148 CHAPTER XI. NORWAY Its Early History The Norsemen The Union of NORWAY, DEN- MARK AND SWEDEN Independence of Sweden HOLLAND PHILIP II. The Bitter Struggle Between Spain and Holland THE DUKE OF ALVA Assassination of William of Orange Prosperity of Holland Her Independence Holland and Belgium The New State LEOPOLD II. PORTUGAL Its Early History Its Present Status CHARLES I. SWITZERLAND Her Early and Later History GREECE Its Struggles for Independence The New King- dom as Established in 1832 Its Last War With Turkey Defeat of Greece GEORGE I .- 157 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER XII. HUNGARY Her Early and Later History POLAND Its Former Greatness and Its Final Extinction TURKEY "The Assassin Among Nations" Her Rise to ' Greatness and Her Decline Her Depravity and Corruption Her Numerous Wars ABDUL HAMID II., the "Great Assassin" The Bulgarian Atrocities- Independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania The "Eastern Question" The Armenian Massacres Why England Did Not Interfere 165 CHAPTER XIII. ASIA THE CHINESE EMPIRE Kung-fu-tse, or Confucius The Great Wall The Chinese History of the Country Its Present Condition JAPAN Its Early History Its Sudden and Sweeping Acceptance of Modern Ideas and Civiliza- tionIts Astonishing Progress The Crushing Defeat of China INDIA Its Early and Later History SIAM CEYLON An English Colony ARABIA Its Rise and Fall 170 CHAPTER XIV. AFRICA Its Early History The Most Famous Explorers The BARBARY STATES Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli NUBIA ABYSSINIA KING THEO- DORE His Defeat by English Troops The War With the Dervishes Italy's Disastrous Campaign in Abyssinia Independence of the Country Recognized The "Partition of Africa" MADAGASCAR MAURITIUS AUSTRALASIA Settlement of Australia POLYNESIA The Remaining Islands 181 CHAPTER XV. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The Story of CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS and His Discovery of the New World His Subsequent Voyages History of the First Spanish Settlement in America AMERICUS VESPUCCIUS The Voyages of the CABOTS The Northmen The Mound Builders 189 CHAPTER XVI. SPANISH EXPLORATION BALBOA The Discovery of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea PONCE DE LEON Brutal Treatment of the Indians by the Spaniards DE NARVAEZ DE SOTO His Discovery of the Pacific FRENCH EXPLORA- TION VERRAZANI JACQUES CARTIER CAPTAIN RIBAUT DE LAU- DONNIERE PEDRO MELENDEZ A Merited Punishment Founding of St. Augustine ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS MARTIN FROBISHER SIR HUM- PHREY GILBERT SIR WALTER RALEIGH The "Lost Colony" A Span- ish Settlement on the Site of Jamestown, Va , 209 CHAPTER XVII. JOHN SMITH Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia Its Early Trials The Wise and Vigorous Rule of Captain John Smith Smith and Pocahontas Smith's Return to England The "Starvation Time" Marriage of Rolfe and Pocahontas In- troduction of African Slavery Indian Massacres SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY Bacon's Rebellion Subsequent Colonial History of Virginia 219 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 17 Pag CHAPTER XVIII. Discovery of the Hudson River Voyage of the Half Moon Subsequent Fate of Heury Hudson Settlement of New Netherland by the Dutch New Amsterdam GOVERNOR M1NU1T The Patroons GOVERNOR WOUTER VAN TWILL- ER GOVERNOR WILLIAM KIEFT GOVERNOR PETER STU YVES ANT Capture of New Amsterdam by the English Its Recapture by the Dutch Its Final Cession to England GOVERNOR ANDROS Execution of Leister and Milborne 232 CHAPTER XIX. Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Myles Standish Trials of the Early Colon- ists SAMOSET AND MASSASOIT THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY- ROGER WILLIAMS Growth of Massachusetts Destruction of the Pequots Founding of Harvard College CONNECTICUT, MAINE AND NEW HAMP- SHIRESETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND Persecution of the Quakers- King Philip's War Massachusetts Made a Royal Province The Witchcraft Delusion at Salem Story of the Charter Oak VERMONT 238 CHAPTER XX. Settlement of New Jersey Settlement of Delaware WILLIAM PENN His Wise and Beneficent Course in the Settlement of Pennsylvania Settlement of Maryland Of the Carolines Of Georgia GENERAL OGLETHORPE KING WILLIAM'S WAR QUEEN ANNE'S WAR KING GEORGE'S WAR _ 251 CHAPTER XXI. George Washington and His Journey Through the Wilderness THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR The Albany Convention Braddock's Massacre Washington's Remarkable Escape Progress of the War Capture of Quebec Quebec One of the Decisive Battles of the World End of French Rule in America The Con- spiracy of Pontiac 258 CHAPTER XXII. THE REVOLUTION Cause of the Revolution The Boston Tea Party The PEGGY STEWART of Baltimore The First Bloodshed The Boston Massacre The Fight at Alamance, N. C. EVENTS OF 1775 The Battles of Lexington ajid Bunker Hill Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief of the American Armies The Disastrous Invasion of Canada EVENTS OF 1776 Evacuation of Boston The Declaration of Independence American Defeat on Long Island Nathan Hale, the Martyr Spy of the Revolution The "Days That Tried Men's Souls" Washington's Brilliant Victory at Trenton EVENTS OF 1777 Ameri- can Victory at Princeton Lafayette and Other Foreign Officers Capture of Philadelphia by the British Battles of Brandywine and Germantown Sur- render of Burgoyne EVENTS OF 1778 The Battle of Monmouth Court House "Molly Pitcher" The Wyoming Massacre EVENTS OF 1779 Sullivan's Expedition Against the Iroquois Indians Paul Jones' Great Naval Victory EVENTS OF 1780 Treason of Arnold British Successes in the South Valu- able Services of General Greene EVENTS OF 1781 The Last Campaign- Surrender of Cornwallis Signing of the Treaty of Peace Evacuation of the Country by the British Troops Washington's Surrender of His Commission.... 269 18 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page CHAPTER XXIII. Home Life In the "Good Old Times" 293 CHAPTER XXIV. The Woeful Condition of the Country After the Revolution Population of the Princi- pal States and Cities Settlement of the West Shay's Rebellion The Annapo- lis Convention The CONSTITUTION Framed and Adopted Organization of the Northwestern Territory The First Presidential Election 301 CHAPTER XXV. Inauguration of Washington as First President How the Government Was Organ- ized Federalists and Republicans Establishment of the United States Bank and a Mint The National Capital Hamilton's Financial Measures The Whiskey Insurrection The Indian Troubles Wayne's Victory "Citizen Genet" Jay's Treaty Admission of Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee Re- tirement of Washington John Adams Troubles with France The Alien and Sedition Laws Invention of the Cotton Gin Thomas Jefferson War with Tripoli Repeal of the Alien and Sedition Laws Establishment of the United States Military Academy at West Point Twelfth Amendment to the Constitu- tion Purchase of Louisiana Expedition of Lewis and Clarke The Burr and Hamilton Duel The First Steamboat on the Hudson England's "Right of Search" Affair of the LEOPARD and CHESAPEAKE The Embargo Act- James Madison . . . : 305 CHAPTER XXVI. THE WAR OF 1812. The Cause of the War The LITTLE BELT and the PRESIDENT Battle of Tippe- canoe Admission of Louisiana Declaration of War EVENTS OF 1812 Dis- graceful Surrender of Detroit Massacre at Fort Dearborn Battle of Queens- town HeightsFailure of the Attempts to Invade Canada The Causes The CONSTITUTION and the GUERRIERE The UNITED STATES and MACE- DONIAN Other Naval Victories EVENTS OF 1813 Continued Failures of the Military Movements Against Canada Capture of York (Toronto) Opera- tions in the West Major Croghan's Gallant Defense of Fort Stephenson Other Brilliant Work by the Navy The SHANNON and CHESAPEAKE "Don't Give Up the Ship" Decatur's Annoying Experience The ESSEX Commodore Perry's Great Victory on Lake Erie American Victory at the Thames Massa- cre at Fort Mimms EVENTS OF 1814 AND 1815 Punishment of the Creeks- Battle of Lundy's Lane Commodore Macdcnouch's Naval Victory Capture of Washington The Star Spangled Banner Treaty of Peace Signed Battle of New Orleans Closing Nayal Engagements of the War Punishment of the Barbary States Admission of Indiana . 317 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 19 Page 1AMES MONROE The Era of Good Feeling Change in the Pattern of the United States Flag War With the Seminoles Gen. Jackson's Vigorous Course Ad- mission of Mississippi, Alabama, and Maine Re-election of Monroe The Mis- souri Compromise Admission of Missouri The "Monroe Doctrine" Visit of Lafayette The Hard Times of 1819 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS Completion of the Erie Canal Growth in Railway Development Death of Ex-Presidents Jef- ferson and Adams ANDREW JACKSON His Iron Will Overthrow of the United States Eank The Democratic and Whig Parties The Nullification Excitement Jackson's Vigorous Course Toward France Second War With the Seminoles Massacre of Major Dade's Command Osceola Admission of Arkansas and Michigan "Old Times" and "New Times" MARTIN VAN BUREN The Panic of 1837 The "Patriot War" in Canada WILLIAM HEN- RY HARRISON JOHN TYLER Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island The Anti- Rent War in New York Completion of the Bunker Hill Monument The Mor- mons The Texan Revolution Admission of Texas, Florida and Iowa Inven- tion of the Electro-Magnetic Telegraph 330 CHAPTER XXVIII. JAMES K. POLK THE WAR WITH MEXICO Terms of the Treaty of Peace Or- ganization of the Naval Academy at Annapolis Discovery of Gold in Califor- niaAdmission of Wisconsin GENERAL ZACHARY TAYLOR MILLARD FILLMORE Passage of the Omnibus Eill Admission of California The Slav- ery Agitation FRANKLIN PIERCE Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act- Adjustment of the Boundary With Mexico Treaty With Japan Organization of the Republican Party Its Strength In 1856 JAMES BUCHANAN The Dred Scott Decision Further Mormon Troubles The Atlantic Cable Adjust- ment of the San Juan Boundary Admission of Minnesota, Oregon and Kansas John Brown's Raid The Presidential Election of 1CO Secession of South Carolina MajorAnderson's Removal of His Garrison From Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter Firing Upon the STAR OF THE WEST Organization of the "Confederate States of America" Abraham Lincoln Slavery the Cause of the War for the Union 351 CHAPTER XXIX. THE WAR FOR THE UNION. EVENTS OF 1861 Inauguration of President Lincoln Bombardment of Fort Sum- ter Its Effect in the North and South Attack on the Union Troops in Balli- more Death of Colonel Ellsworth Blunder at Big Bethel "Cn to Richmond" Union Defeat at Bull Run The Disaster at Ball's Bluff Military Operations in the West Defeat and Death of Gen. Lyons Surrender of Col. Mulligan Defeat of Gen. Price by Gen. Fremont Capture of Forts on the Coast of the Carolinas The Mason and Slidell Affair. EVENTS OF 1S62 The Work to Be Done Military Operations in the Southwest- Capture of Forts Henry and Doiielson Cattle of Pea Ridge Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing Capture of Island No. 10 Battle of Perryville Battle of Murfreesburo Siege of Vicksburg The MONITOR and MERRIMAC Cap- 20 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page ture of North Carolina Forts Fall of New Orleans Union Advance Against Richmond Its Failure First Confederate Invasion of the North Second Union Defeat at Bull Hun Battle of Antietam Burnside's Disastrous Repulse- Before Fredericksburg 365 CHAPTER XXX. THE WAR FOR THE UNION Concluded. EVENTS OF 1863 The Emancipation Proclamation Military Operations in the Southwest Battle of Chickamauga Battles "Above the Clouds" and at Mis- sionary Ridge Siege of Knoxville Fall of Vicksburg Failure of the Attempt Against Charleston Blockade Running Capture of Galveston by Confederates Battle of Chancellorsville Second Confederate Invasion of the North Battle of Gettysburg. EVENTS OF 1864 Grant Made Lieutenant-GeneralSherman's Advance From Chattanooga to Atlanta Destruction of Hood's Army by Thomas From At- lanta to the Sea. Grant's Final Campaign Against Richmond Battle of the Wilderness Grant's Repulse at Cold Harbor His Change of Plan In Front of Petersburg Early's Raid in the Shenandoah Valley "Sheridan's Ride" Bank's Red River Expedition Capture of Fort Fisher Sinking of the ALA- BAMA Other Confederate Privateers Admission of West Virginia and Ne- vada Presidential Election of 1864. EVENTS OF 1865 Straits of the Southern Confederacy Sherman's Northward March Grant's Closing Operations Lee's Surrender at Appomattox Assass- ination of President Lincoln Death of Booth Surrender of Johnston Collapse of the Southern Confederacy Capture of Jefferson Davis Proceedings Against Him Abandoned 379 CHAPTER XXXI. ANDREW JOHNSON Deaths Caused by the War The Problem of Reconstruction The President's Flan Impeachment, Trial and Acquittal of the President- True Reconciliation The Elue and the Gray Attempt of Louis Napoleon to Establish a French Empire in Mexico Its Failure and Execution of Maximilian A Fenian Invasion of Canada Purchase of Alaska Successful Laying of the Atlantic Cable Election of Gen. Grant to the Presidency 35 CHAPTER XXXII. ULYSSES S. GRANT Completion of the Railway to the Pacific Reconstruction Completed "Carpet Eagism" in the South "Black Friday" The Great Fire in Chicago Settlement of the ALABAMA Claims Presidential Election of 1872 Admission of Colorado The Centennial Exposition Indian Affairs The Modocs Their Violation of a Flag of Truce Sitting Bull and the Sioux Indians Custer's Massacre "Comanche" Presidential Election of 1876 The Electoral Commission and Its Action RUTHERFORD B. HAYES Invention of the Telephone The Labor Troubles of 1877 The Nez Ferce Indians Chief Joseph-Resumption of Specie Payments The Demonetization of Silver "The Crime of '73" Remonetization of Silver Anti-Chinese Legislation Presi- dential Election of 1880 ^ 408 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 21 Page CHAPTER XXXIII. JAMES A. GARFIELD Assassination of the President CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR The Brooklyn Bridge The Yorktown Centennial The Search for the North Pole History of the Greely Expedition Presidential Election of 1884 GROVER CLEVELAND The Presidential Succession Law Subjection of the Apaches- Earthquake in Charleston Anarchist Troubles in Chicago 430 CHAP'TER xxxiv. BENJAMIN HARRISON The Johnstown Flood Lynching of the Italian Members of the Mafia in New Orleans Threatened War with Chile The Indian Up- rising of 1890-91 Admission of North and South Dakota, Montana, Idaho and Wyoming Presidential Election of 1892 443 CHAPTER XXXV. Repeal of the Purchase Clause of the Sherman Bill The Columbian Exposition at Chicago The Great Railway Strike The Hawaiian Imbroglio and the Annexa- tion of the Islands The Dispute with Great Britain Over the Venezuela Boun- daryAdmission of Utah Presidential Election of 1896 WILLIAM Mc- KINLEY Extra Session of Congress Gold Discoveries in the Klondike Greater New York 7 453 CHAPTER XXXVI. THE WAR WITH SPAIN. Causes of the War Ferocity and Idiocy of Spanish Colonial Rule The Ten Years' War Treaty of El Zanjon Betrayal of the Cubans The Revolution of 1895 "Butcher Weyler" The Senor De Lome Letter Blowing Up of the MAINE War Preparations in the United States Declaration of War Unanimity of the War Sentiment First Naval Capture of the War Admiral Cervera's Fleet Its Arrival in Santiago Harbor Exploit of Naval Constructor Richmond Pearson Hobson Land Movements Against Santiago Capture of the City Destruction of the Spanish Fleet The Porto Rico Campaign Suspension of Hostilities Wonderful Victory of Admiral Dewey in Manila Bay Spain's Over- tures for Peace Signing of the Protocol Capture of Guam in the Ladrones Surrender of Manila to Admiral Dewey and General Merritt The Peace Com- missioners and the Members of the Commissioners to Superintend the Evacuation of Cuba and Porto Rico Signing of the Treaty of Peace at Paris Its Terms The Evacuation by Spain of Cuba and Porto Rico The Paris Treaty Ratified by the United States Senate The Ratification Signed by the Queen Regent of Spain Exchange of the Ratifications by the Two Governments and the Official Close of the War Proclamation of President McKinley The War in the Philippines.. 465 CHAPTER XXXVII. CUBA Its History Natural Features Climate Productions Forest Woods Minerals Animals, Birc!s, Insects and Reptiles Its Future PORTO RICO Its History Its Prosperity Its Physical Features Productions Climate San Juan The Minerals Occupations of the People Its Future HAWAII Its His- tory Its Climate The Volcanoes Decrease of the Native Population Occu 22 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Pag* palions of the People Honolulu Products of the Islands The LADRONES Their History and PeculiaritiesThe PHILIPPINES Their History Number, Population and Area The Climate Commerce Manila Products of the Islands Minerals Animals Interesting Facts and Conclusions from the Report of Commissioner Harden An Inviting Field for American Enterprise Partition of Samoa ^4 CHAPTER XXXVIII. CANADA MEXICO SOUTH AMERICA Its Discovery BRAZIL VENEZUELA COLOMBIA ECUADOR PERU BOLIVIA CHILE THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC PARAGUAY URUGUAY BRITISH, DUTCH AND FRENCH GUIANA War Between Great Britain and the South African Republic The Peace Conference at The Hague Empire Building Presidential Election of 1900 509 CHAPTER XXXIX. AMERICAN INVENTION AND DISCOVERY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The Amazing Extent of Discovery and Invention During the Nineteenth Century The First American Inventor The Law of 1836 Defect of the Early Patents The Majority of Patents Worthless Qualities Necessary in Successful Patents Advice to Inventors Why Some Inventions have Succeeded and Others Failed Benjamin Franklin and Some of His Inventions Eli Whitney and His Cotton Gin His Success in Another Line Robert Fulton and the Steamboat The Electromagnetic Telegraph Prof. S. F. B. Morse His Trials, Pluck and Final Success The Sewing Machine Elias Howe, Jr. India Rubber Charles Good- year acd His Discouragements Before He Discovered the Vulcanizing Process The McCormick Reaper John Ericsson, the Swedish Inventor, and Some of His Inventions The Monitor Buttons Matches Homeopathy Life Insurance Marine Insurance Natural Oil for Lighting Purposes Telescope Making The Card Machine and Improved Lathe Hoe's Printing Presses The Gimlet Pointed Screw Typewriting Machines Anthracite Coal Ocean Steam Naviga- tion The First Locomotive Colt's Revolver The Daguerreotype Thomas A. Edison His Wonderful Discoveries and Inventions Signer Marconi and His Wireless Telegraphy Aerial Navigation The Latest Russian and German At- tempts to Solve the Problem Liquefaction of Hydrogen The Telediagraph The X Rays Discovery of Prof. Geo. F. Barker Automobiles, Motor-Cars and Other Automatic Vehicles The Telephone The Phonograph Other Important Discoveries Made and Yet to be Made.. . 527 Queen Victoria Takiner Oatu oi om>.e at Westminster FAMOUS KULERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Frontispiece Progress Portrait Edward S. Ellis Famous Generals of the Nineteenth Century Famous Rulers of the Nineteenth Century 23 Building of the Pyramids 32 The Sphinx and Great Pyramid 33 The River Nile and Pyramids 35 Facade of Great Rock Temple, Ipsambul 36 General View Great Temple of Karnak 37 King Cyrus' Conquest of Babylonia 39 The Buddhistic Temple, Lucknow, India 42 India Buddhist Preaching at Door of a Temple 45 Circus Rome 47 Gladiatorial Contest 47 The Plains of Marathon 49 Theater of Bacchus 50 Temple of Theseus 51 The Acropolis Showing Pantheon and Prophylara 53 Death of Alexander the Great 54 Piazza del Popolo, Rome 57 Carthage 59 The Coliseum at Rome 61 The Death of Caesar 63 A Chariot Race at the Circus Maximus Rome 64 Cleopatra's Barge 67 The Spanish Stairs at Rome 70 Pillage by Savage Tribes, A. D. 507 74 Bridge and Castle of St. Angelo St. Peter's Seen in the Distance Lome 79 Pantheon at Rome 81 Peter the Hermit Preaching the Crusade 83 The Crusaders' First View of Jerusalem 89 Elizabeth Claypole Entreating Her Father, Oliver Cromwe'l, to Reject the Crown... 100 The Fall of Constantinople 102 After the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 118 The last moments of the Girondists 130 Napoleon and Staff at the Battle of Austerlitz 135 Visit of Emperor William II. to Bismarck at Freidrichsruhe 142 Peter the Great 148 Russian Artillery Crossing a Pontoon Bridge 154 The Principal Street of Wnrsaw, Russian Poland 165 24 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 25 Page High Caste Chinese at Dinner 170 Japanese Farm Hands 175 The Cathedral, Algiers Algeria 181 The Convent of La Rabida, Where Columbus Found Shelter 189 Columbus Before Isabella 196 The Landing of Columbus 205 De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi 209 Pocahontas Pleading for Captain Smith's Life 219 Building Jamestown 223 The Pilgrims' Departure From Holland 238 Monument Covering the Rock on Which the Pilgrims Landed 240 William Penn Making Treaty with" Indians 251 Lord Fairfax and George Washington at a War Dance 258 Patrick Henry Delivering His Famous Speech 1765 269 The First Blow for Liberty 277 Brave Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth 285 Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown 290 Going to Church in Early Colonial Days 295 Home of George Washington 301 The Tomb of Washington 309 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 324 The Massacre at Fort Mimms 327 LaFayette Laying the Corner Stone of the Bunker Hill Monument 334 The Old United States Bank Building Philadelphia 340 Bunker Hill Monument : . . 347 The Battle of Churubusco 353 The Old Engine House Occupied by John Brown 361 Abraham Lincoln 365 Battle of Murfreesboro Capture of a Confederate Flag 373 Lieut.-Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 381 Battle of the Wilderness Grant Issuing the Famous Order, "Forward by the Right Flank" \ 388 Andrew Johnson 395 Place of Maximilian's Execution Queretaro, Mexico 403 The Chicago Fire Removing Patients from Old Marine Hospital 412 Panorama of the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 Memorial Hall in Distance 416 A Group of Sioux Indians 421 Sitting Bull 421 James A. Garfield 430 Chester A. Arthur 430 Brooklyn Bridge From South Street New York City 432 The Johnstown Flood 443 Upper Basin, Obelisk, Machinery Hall and Fountain 453 Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building World's Fair, Chicago 453 Lake Bennett and Site of Station on the White Pass and Yukon Railway 463 Morro Castle, Entrance to the Harbor at Havana 465 The Wreck of the Maine .,,, 470 26 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page The Destruction of Cervera's Fleet Near Santiago, July 3, 1898 481 The Battle of Manila Bay ; * Native Dwelling in the Interior of Cuba 4 Native Hawaiians Surf Riding 501 Canadian Parliament Buildings Ottawa 509 Gold Mines at Johannesburg 517 Charge of the Lancers 520 Famous Inventors of the Nineteenth Century 526 Watts' First Experiment with Steam 527 The Patent Office, Washington, D. C 529 Ben Franklin's First Experiment with Electricity 530 The First Cotton Gin 531 The First Steamboat 533 The Modern Ocean-Going Steamer "City of Paris" 533 Samuel F. B. Morse 534 Interior of Modern Telegraph Office 535 The First Reaper 536 A Harvesting Scene of To-Day 537 The Modern Cutter and Binder of Corn 537 Telescope U. S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C 539 Octuple Printing Press and Folder 540 The Linotype Machine 541 A Modern Typewriter 542 An Express Train of To-Day 543 Russian Regulation Rifle 544 United States Regulation Krag-Jorgenson Rifle 544 The Spencerian Rifle 545 Edison's Early Experiments 547 Underground System of Trolley Transportation 549 Surface Trolley 549 Marconi's Wireless Telegraphy Receiver and Transmitter 551 Count Zeppelin's Air Ship Ready for Sailing 553 Tripler Experimenting with Liquid Air 555 X-Ray Picture of Chameleon , 557 X-Ray of Human Hand, Showing Fracture 557 Automobile Brougham _ 559 Automobile Park Trap 559 Phonograph gg^ The Capitol at Washington _ 553 S-o bl O ! q> V Ss *J ^ tl ) 3 g S ^ *ii OV M tn Poo" "c-2 B I P sg w ^ iJ S.'o 03 - 0} ST 1 5 (X, _,,;*- - - 5 - a - V ri nt **< 1 o 5 !l 1 : BUILDING OF THE PYRAMIDS. From a Pain n g by o. Richter. \<||L " ' .*> - **. LAST MOMENTS OF JOHN BROWN. John Brown, of Ossawatomie. spake on his dying day: " I will not have to shrive my soul a priest in slavery's pay, But let some poor slave-mother, whom I have striven to free, With her children, from the gallows stair, put up a prayer for me! " John Brown, of Ossawatomie. they led him out to die: And lo! a poor slave-mother, with her little child, pressed nigh; Then the bold blue eye grew tender, and the old harsh face grew mild, As he stooped between the crowding ranks, and kissed the negro's child! / G. Whtttier. *.J ' > > ./ ,"*. , A.> ' /*V >? t I -^'*>- ) .^".- I \ ' OUR PRESIDENTS HYPOSTYLE HALL, GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK. EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. The First Men Their Religion The "Ary- an Migration" THE ANCIENT EGYP- TIANS The Pyramids Conquest of Egypt by the Persians Their Attain- ments in Art Their Practice of Em- balming The Pharaohs The Deluge Noah and His Sons Different Empires Founded by Them THE CHALDEANS AND BABYLONIANS The Tower of Babel The Early Babylonian or Chal- dean Kingdom The Assyrian Empire The Latter Babylonian Kingdom THE HEBREWS THE PHOENICIANS THE HINDOOS THE PERSIANS. A GOOD many thousand years ago a race of people lived in Central Asia, east of the Caspian Sea and north of the Hindoo Koosh Mountains. They were the first men of whom we have the most shadowy knowledge and are therefore looked upon as the forefathers of our race. They were not savages, though at the first they may have been such. They were peaceful and gave most of their time to raising flocks and tilling the land. After a time, they began building villages and towns, and one of their number was chosen ruler. They learned how to 33 34 EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. grind meal and to make the meal into bread; they wove cloth and sewed garments; they used gold and silver and it is believed they were acquainted with the use of iron; they built boats with which to navi- gate the lakes and rivers of their country, for they knew nothing of the ocean which was a long distance away. They had a slight knowledge of numbers, were of a light color and of strong build. Every people in the world have some idea of God or a Supreme Being, and this tribe or nation worshiped the sun, the earth, light, fire, the waters and winds and dreaded those forces of nature that wrought them harm, such as darkness, the hurricane, pestilence and famine. They formed a strange nation and nothing could be more interesting than a full knowledge of them, which it is not likely we shall ever gain. Every boy has felt at some time or other a longing to travel and see other parts of the world. Not only boys but grown up persons feel that way, and they are happy when able to gratify the wish. So it was that the time came when the Aryans, as they have been named, gave way to a yearning to see and learn about the regions which lay about them. Many thousands left their homes and set out to conquer and civilize the western world. This movement is known as the "Aryan migration." Swarms of the Aryans moved into Europe; still later, others passed south into India, while still others settled in Persia. They thus became the forefathers of the millions of inhabitants of those regions. o The first people of whom we have clear knowledge were the ancient Egyptians who lived, not in the country which is known to-day as Egypt, but in the Nile valley. This was about seven hundred miles long and extended from the First Cataract to a point north of Cairo and the fan- like Delta lying between that point and the shores of the Mediterranean. At that time the Nile had seven mouths, which are now only two. The region was densely populated, its greatest width being no more than ten miles, while in many places it was hardly a fifth of that extent. The great fertility of Egypt made food cheap and plenty, and this was due wholly to the river Nile, which flowing from the highlands of Abyssinia and the equatorial regions has turned a strip of desert into the most productive of lands. Every year the river overflows the coun- try along its banks and leaves a thick deposit of mud, which so enriches the soil that all the people have to do is to plant the seed, which is sure to bring plentiful crops. The date-palm grew without care and supplied abundant food, while EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 35 with slight labor the land yielded so bountifully of cereals, or grain, that when the neighboring nations were in want they were always able to draw upon the supply of Egypt. Where such conditions prevail the population is sure to increase very fast. Now, while it is impossible to tell when Egyptian civilization began, we have means of coming pretty near to the date. Thus the Bible tells us that Abraham visited Egypt in the twentieth century before Christ, THE RIVER NILE AND PYRAMIDS. and found a strong and flourishing monarchy. At that time, too, the Great Pyramids were standing and it has been learned that they were built about five hundred years before the visit of Abraham. Therefore the beginning was back of that date. The problem has puzzled scholars for many years, and, without going into the particulars, it may be said that no doubt exists that Egypt was a civilized country for more than three thousand years before the Christian era, while there is rea- son for believing it is still older. The history of this wonderful country has been divided into thirty dynasties, or systems of government, dating from Menes, the first king of the first dynasty, down to the sixth century before Christ, when Egypt was conquered by the Persians. It was during the fourth dynasty that the pyramids were built. Menes was the founder of Memphis, near the present site of Cairo, and he established laws and divine worship. M. E. Amelineau has lately made a number of startling discoveries 36 EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. at Abydos, notably the tomb of Osiris, and has found the names and tombs of at least sixteen kings who reigned in Egypt before Menes. A remarkable fact is that even these Pharaohs claimed supremacy over both Upper and Lower Egypt, showing that Menes was by no means the founder of the united kingdom. This discovery carries the date of Egyptian history back for several centuries, and forms the connecting link between history since the time of Menes and the earliest of the kings whose tombs M. Amelineau discovered afterward, proving that the gods Osiris, Horns, etc., were the first monarchs at that remote age when civilization had its birth on Egyptian soil. Few persons who have not seen the pyramids can form an idea of their vast size. Now, look out upon a field or large open space and fix in your mind the extent of an acre of ground. The Great Pyramid covers more than thirteen acres and its perpendicular height is 480 feet. The material of which it is built would make a city of 22,000 solid stone houses, each with 130 feet depth, a frontage of 20 feet and with walls a foot thick. It is easy to believe that 100,000 men were kept busy for twenty years in building the Great Pyramid, which is the largest structure ever reared by man. Many of the blocks, weighing more than fifteen hundred tons, were brought over a distance of five hundred miles, and were polished and fitted with such wonderful exactness that it is almost impossible to find the seams or joints. Egypt caused the jealousy o f other nations, and a little more than 2,000 years before Christ, it was in- vaded and con- quered by the Hyk- sos o r Shepherd Kings, who ruled for five centuries. Then the invaders were driven out and the New Em- pire lasted about a thousand years. FACADE OF GREAT ROCK TEMPLE. IPSAMBUL. EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 37 During this time Egypt became a great power, with Thebes as the capital. Art reached its highest point, and several invasions of other countries were made. Then decline set in, and the Persians under Cambyses conquered the country, 525 B. C. Alexander the Great became its master 332 B. C. and founded the new capital, Alexandria, The country was given by Alexander nine years later to Ptolemy, one of his generals. Greek rule lasted for three centuries, until Cleopatra, the last of the line, was conquered by the Romans, and died by her own hand. Thirty years before the Christian era, Egypt became a Roman province. The population of ancient Egypt was 5,000,000 and perhaps more. It is stated by Herodotus that the country contained 20,000 inhabited towns. Its greatest cities were Memphis and Thebes. Only a few ruins show where Memphis stood, but the famous burial place at Gizeh is plainly seen. Here, too, are the great pyramids, the immense Sphinx and many miles of tombs hewn in the solid rock. The Egyptians were very skillful in some branches of art, especially in architecture, which. was marked by its vastness, their aim being the colossal instead of the beautiful. Their painting shows brilliant color- ing but the drawing is poor. They made great use of writing. Their pyramids and monuments have numerous inscriptions, which have given much help in gaining a knowledge of the early history of the country and its people. The papyrus plant (which gives the name to the "paper" we use) offered fine writing material. Records on papyrus have been found nearly 4,000 years old, upon which the waiting is as clear and bright as when first placed there. One of the strange practices of the ancient Egyptians was that of GENERAL VIEW GREAT TEMPLE OF KARNAK. 38 EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. embalming their dead. The cause of this was their belief that at the resurrection the soul and body would be united, and they were therefore anxious to preserve the body so far as possible from decay. They be- came very skillful in this process, as well as in polishing and engraving precious stones, in the manufacture of glass, and in porcelain making. They seem always to have worked in metals and knew considerable of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. The most striking feature of their civilization was its fixed character. It did not advance, the Egyptians of the latter days when the country became a Roman province, know- ing no more than their forefathers of the first dynasty. Egypt being so old a country, is often referred to in divine history. The name "Pharaoh" did not mean a single person, but was. borne by ten different kings of the country. For one of them, it will be remem- bered Joseph interpreted a remarkable dream, and the king loaded the young man with honors, for his skill was greater than that of the Egyptian magicians. Another Pharaoh showed dreadful cruelty toward the Hebrews, and put to death all the male children. Moses demanded of another that he should allow the departure of the Hebrews, but he refused, until the country was visited by intolerable plagues. Finally, after the Hebrews had been permitted to go, Pharaoh set out in pur- suit and he and his army were drowned in the Red Sea. The time of the Deluge, w r hen the world was destroyed, with the exception of those who w r ere saved in the ark, has been fixed at 3,155 years before Christ. God, because of the sinfulness of man, repented having created him and visited the world with a great flood, which turned it into a barren waste. After that it was given over to Noah and his three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, as their inheritance. Some two hundred years after the Flood, the sons of Noah and their descendants were gathered on the banks of the Euphrates in a region called the "Land of Shinar," and there began building the Tower of Babel, which they foolishly boasted should reach to heaven, but the Lord confounded the workmen and the people were scattered abroad over the earth. The common belief is that Noah, after this event, made his way east- ward and founded the empire of China; that Shem was the father of the nations of Southern Asia; that Ham peopled Egypt, while the descendants of Japheth passed to the westward and settled in the various countries of Europe. There is good reason for believing that EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 39 soon after the dispersion of mankind from Babel, Misraim, one of the sons of Ham, traveled to Egypt and became the founder of that ancient people of whom we have learned in the previous pages. Two hundred years later, no names of the rulers having been preserved, Menes, as already stated, founded the first dynasty. He therefore was the first KING CYRUS' CONQUEST OF BABYLONIA Pharaoh and the history following his reign has already been given. Although Egypt has the earliest records, that of the Chaldeans and Babylonians is almost as old. This applies to secular or profane his- tory, as it is called ; but accepting the Hebrew Scriptures, its antiquity is greater than that of Egypt, for the commencement of the history of mankind is placed in the Tigro-Euphrates basin, where took place the building of the tower of Babel, the founding of the first great city after the Deluge, and where, owing to the confusion of tongues, the races 40 EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. were dispersed. Not only is this related in the Bible, but it is recorded in the Babylonian tradition. If you will look at your map of Asia, you will notice that two great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, rise in the highlands of Armenia, and, uniting near the head of the Persian Gulf, flow into that body of water. The valleys of these streams are very fertile and the basin was the seat of three successive empires the early Babylonian, or Chaldean, King- dom; 2, The Assyrian Empire; 3, The latter Babylonian Kingdom. The Hebrew history names Nimrod, the son of Cush, as the founder of the first kingdom, and we learn in the Book of Genesis that the em- pire thus established was ruled by the four cities of Babylon, Erech, Accad and Calneh. Modern researches have discovered all of these cities. The early Chaldeans worshiped the heavenly bodies and knew a good deal of astronomy. It was they who tried to build the tower that was to reach to heaven. Their progress in the arts and sciences resembled that of the Egyptians and their commerce was car- ried on with neighboring countries. The Bible refers to the "ships of Ur," which city has been since identified and had the honor of being the birthplace of Abraham. The monarchy lasted for several hun- dred years, but in the thirteenth century before Christ, it sank before the newly arisen Assyrian nation. These people first lived in Chaldea, but removed to the region about the upper Nigris. There they flourished and grew in strength, and in the thirteenth century before Christ gained their independence. They prospered, surpassing Babylonia, and until the fall of Nineveh, 625 B. C., were the leading nation of Western Asia, But the great power was weakened by revolts and wars, until overthrown by the Baby- lonians and the Medes on the date named. Scarcely a vestige is left to-day of the once proud city of Nineveh. Assyria held its power from 1250 to 625 B. C., and the later Baby- lonian Kingdom only from 625 to 538 B. C., when it was conquered by Persia. The most famous monarch of the new Babylonian Kingdom was the second, known as Nebuchadnezzar, surnamed The Great. He came to the throne in 605 B. C., and immediately began a war, by which he spread his empire over the greatest part of Asia and from the Caucasian Mountains on the north to the Great Desert of Africa on the south. He captured Jerusalem and led the inhabitants as pris- EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 41 oners to Babylon. After a long war he conquered Tyre, and with Egypt and Persia added, his empire was a vast one. It was to Nebuchadnezzar that the Jewish captive Daniel inter- preted the dream that foretold the downfall and ruin of his empire. One of his successors made his son Belshazzar the partner of his throne, and his name appears in Scriptures in the account of the fall of Baby- lon. The famous hanging gardens of Babylon, one of the seven won- ders of the world, were made by Nebuchadnezzar to please his beauti- ful wife, a Median princess. A great power now appeared on the scene in the person of Cyrus at the head of his immense army. While Belshazzar and his friends were indulging in a great feast there came the fearful "handwriting on the wall," which told him his doom was at hand. Cyrus turned the Euphrates from its natural course, and his men rushed over the river bed into the city, which fell 538 B. C. Two centuries later, Assyria and Babylonia became a part of the possessions of Alexander the Great. But for his early death, he would have made Babylon the capital of his empire and brought it back to its former splendor. To-day only a heap of ruins mark the site of one of the most famous cities in history. The Scriptures give the records of the Jews, who were a pure Semi- tic race. The father of the people was Abraham, who removed to the "promisd land" of Canaan from the plains of Mesopotamia in the twen- tieth century B. C. The national Jewish history begins with the de- parture of the children of Israel from Egypt, which is believed to have taken place 1320 B. C. From 1320 to 1095 B. C. the Jews were ruled by the divine will as made known through the high priest, the last of whom was Samuel. The monarchy lasted until 975 B. C. There were three kings, the first of whom was Saul, succeeded by his son-in-law David, the greatest who ever ruled the nation. He conquered Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it the seat of the national government and of religion. He extended by conquest his dominion from the Red Sea to the Euphrates and in 1015 B. C. was succeeded by his son Solomon. Under this famous ruler, the Jews became the leading power in Syria and had relations with Egypt and Phoenicia, while the profits of Syrian commerce were shared by Solomon, who is often referred to as the wisest man that ever lived, though his after life by no means justified the claim. The decline of the Jewish empire began after the death of Solomon. EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 43 Numerous successful revolts took place and finally the imperial power split into two small kingdoms. Ten of the twelve tribes made Samaria their capital and took the name of Israel, while the tribe of Judah, con- sisting of the other two tribes, made Jerusalem their capital. Two centuries and a half later the kingdom of Israel was con- quered by the Assyrians and the ten tribes carried into captivity. The kingdom of Judah lasted a hundred years longer, when Nebuchadnez- zar captured Jerusalem (586 B. C.) took his prisoners to Babylon, which being taken seventy years later by Cyrus the Persian, he restored the pining captives to their homes. A varied and stormy career followed. The nation became a prov- ince of the Persian Empire; in 332 B. C., it was under the rule of Alex- ander the Great, and for a century was governed by the Ptolemies of Egypt. Greek language having come into general use, the Septuagint Version of the Pentateuch (so called because it was the work of seventy, or rather seventy-two writers) was prepared under the direction of Ptolemy Philadelphus. (The Pentateuch is the five books of Moses Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy). In 1G6 B. C. the Jews won their independence, but in 63 B. C. Jerusalem was cap- tured by the Romans and Judea was made part of a Roman province of Syria. The Jews were restless and turbulent and received harsh treatment from their conquerors. Finally, in 70 A. D., Titus laid siege to Jerusalem, and captured and destroyed it. The Jews were dis- persed and since then are found in every country on the globe. The next nation claiming our attention is the Phoenicians, who occupied the strip of land between Mount Lebanon and the Mediter- ranean Sea, where they were the first commercial and colonizing peo- ple. Their greatest colony of Carthage was founded as early as the ninth century, B. C. The enterprise and daring of the Phoenicians were amazing. Pass- ing through the Strait of Gibraltar, they entered the Atlantic Ocean, founded the city of Cadiz, and their merchants got tin from Cornwall in the British Islands. In the other direction they built up a trade on the Arabian and Persian Gulfs and with India and Ceylon and the coasts of Africa. This it will be noted was before the Greeks had fairly begun the work that gave them fame for all ages to come. A remarkable exploit of the Phoenicians was the invention of the first perfect alphabet. Where these interesting people came from is 44 EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. not known of a certainty. They were pure Semites like the Hebrews, and it is generally believed that they emigrated from Chaldea. The Biblical account of Abraham says he came out of "Ur of the Chaldees." Phoenicia was composed of several independent states, the chief cities being Sidon and Tyre. When threatened by a common peril they united under one military leader, but at other times the union was a weak one. The wide commerce of Tyre is show T n in Holy Writ. Her ships visited Tarshish, which was southern Spain, and brought gold from Ophir, somewhere on the eastern coast of Africa. The embroidery and glass of Sidon were famous and the "Tyrian purple'' was very valuable. This remarkable dye was made from two shell-fish, the secret being after- ward lost. The Phoenicians were highly skilled in making vessels from gold and silver and in the manufacture of bronzes. Like most of the nations of antiquity, they passed through numerous trials and changes, their greatest period being from the eleventh to the sixth century B. C. The history of Hannibal is one of the most interesting events in human annals, for he ranks among the greatest generals of ancient and modern times. He repeatedly defeated the armies of Rome and threatened the safety of the "mistress of the world," but in the end he was con- quered and Phoenicia was swallowed up in the vast and growing dominion of Rome. The work of Phoenicia in spreading civilization gives her one of the most honorable of places among nations. We have learned that when the Assyrian migration took place, some of our ancestors made their way to the northwestern part of India, This was about 3000 B. C, and they found there a native dark race, which was soon subdued. The general mixture with these people led to the peculiar civilization of the Hindoos. In 326 B. C., Alexander the Great, while engaged in his mighty conquest of the world, invaded India but made no attempt to conquer the country. With him were a number of historians whose account of the society of Hindostan would serve very well for to-day. Jot^T 86 f the aMient Hind S WaS thfi SanSCri t' Which, although not now spoken, bean, a striking likeness to the Greek s =;.-::,: r=sz EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. 45 old. These are the Vedas, which form part of the sacred books of the Brahminic religion. This religion teaches that there is one Being, "all- present, all-powerful, the creator, preserver and destroyer of the uni- verse." But it sets forth that he is the soul of the universe and that whatever exists, whatever we smell, or taste, or see, or hear or feel is the Supreme Being. This is called Pantheism. Its followers believe that this life is a trial and punishment, which must be purified by penance and sacrifice. If this is not done, a man's soul after death will be joined to an inferior animal. If the duty is per- formed, the soul will be united with the Divine Spirit of the universe. The abuses of this peculiar religion caused a reaction, and, in the sixth century before Christ, Buddhism was founded. This aims to teach man how to attain a moral and holy life, and is therefore rather a system of morals than a religion of itself. Buddha was not a god but the ideal of what it was claimed any man might become. The religion spread extensively, and at the present time 300,000,000 people, nearly one-third of the population of the world, believe in the various forms of Buddhism. For centuries India was shut out from the rest of the then civilized world, but it carried on an extensive commerce with other nations. Its silks, spices, frankincense, ivory, precious stones and pearls were eagerly sought, much of the trade being by means of caravans as well as by ships. The first account of Persia is from the Bible, which informs us that in the time of Abraham, B. C. 1921, that portion of modern Persia, known as Elam, or Suissiana, or Southern Persia, was a powerful monarchy. At first Media and Persia were separate governments, but both were pure Aryans, and at an early date the Medes were ab- INDIA BUDDHIST PREACHING AT DOOR OF A TEMPLE. 46 '& EGYPT AND OTHER ORIENTAL MONARCHIES. sorbed by the Persians. The history of the latter, therefore, includes that of the former. It has been shown -that Cyrus extended his conquests to an enor- mous extent and finally captured Babylon in 538 B. C, He was one of the greatest monarchs in the early history of the ,world. He was suc- ceeded by his son Cambyses, who had none of the noble traits of his father. He conquered Egypt in 525 B. C., was addicted to drunken- ness and behaved with ferocity. Learning of a revolt that had broken out at home, he started thither to quell it, but died while on the road, some believe from suicide. Persia was fortunate once more in gaining a great and far-seeing ruler in Darius I., who ascended the throne 521 B. C. He builded well upon the foundations that had been laid by Cyrus. He divided the empire into twenty provinces, each governed by a Persian official, and made many excellent reforms. It was during his reign that the Per- sian invasions of Greece began. These are of so interesting a char- acter that they will be told in our history of the latter country. Like so many ancient nations, the Persians passed through the various phases of birth, infancy and lust}' manhood, to be followed by weak old age and finally by decay. When first known they were hardy and brave, with simple tastes, spurning wine, indulgence and extravagance of food and dress. As these qualities were lost, decline set in, as is always the case, and ruin was certain. Their boast was that they were soldiers and that their valor had given to them the best products of other nations, so there was no need to spend their time in manufacture or art. At the beginning the Persians had a noble religion. They did not worship idols, but believed in one supreme God. This belief, how- ever, soon gave way to the religion of a never-ending strife between two First Principles, that of Light and of Darkness. Further cor- ruption crept in through a system of worshiping the elements, the lead- ing feature of which was fire-worship. They built altars on the tops of high mountains, where a fire was never allowed to go out day or night. It was believed by the people to have been kindled from heaven and the Magi kept up a continual incantation. This practice in which the priests made use of their divining rods gave rise to the modern name magic. CHAPTER II. THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. Ancient Greece or Hellas Descendants of the Aryans Sparta and Athens Their Rivalry Growth of Sparta Growth of Athens The Persian Invasion Battle of Marathon Thermopylae Xerxes and His Prodigious Army of Invasion His Overthrow The "Age of Pericles" The Peloponnesian War Philip of Macedon His Success Alexander the Great His Marvelous Career Egypt Under the Ptolemies Conquest of Macedonia by the Romans The Matchless Literature of Greece Her Perfection in Architecture The Parthenon. WE NOW reach the most important period or epoch in ancient history. All that we have learned has related to dynasties, but now the history of Greece and Rome is the history of the people. Ancient Greece, or Hellas, as it was always called by its inhabit- ants, included four mainland regions, two archipelagoes and several islands. The numerous mountains divided Greece into many small separated and were freedom, broadest divides Greece. GLADIATORIAL CONTEST. regions which were independent of one another, where man for the first time gained political Greece itself is a peninsula, 180 miles wide at its part and 250 miles long, and it naturally itself into Northern, Central and Southern The last named was Peloponnesus, now marked on the maps as Morea. In ancient times Northern Greece held the chief countries Thessaly and Epi- rus. Central Greece contained eleven states, the most im- portant of which was Attica, a mountainous, barren re- gion. Southern Greece had seven principal states, the 47 48 THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. chief of which was Laconia, whose capital was Sparta. Of the islands Euboea, the largest, was one hundred miles in length. It is believed that the Aryans entered the Greek peninsula about 2000 B. C., and found a people or race called the Pelasgi, whom they easily overcame. The leading branches of the Greeks were the Dor- ians, the loniaus and the ^olians. Of these, the first two are the most important. About the year 1100 B. C., the Dorians, at first a small tribe, pressed southward across the kingdoms in the Peloponnesus, captured Laconia and conquered the surrounding tribes. Numerous other changes took place, too mixed to be given in these pages. The result was to leave the Dorians, with Sparta as their chief state, and the lonians, with Athens as their capital, the two being the leading peoples of Greece. At the same time there was a strong rivalry between the sections. The Dorians were simple in their tastes, liked an aristocratic form of gov- ernment and held slaves. The lonians were democratic in spirit and devoted to the fine arts. It may be said that ancient Greece was composed of the two cities of Sparta and Athens. They opposed each other in politics and each devoted itself to gaining what strength it could at the expense of the other. They absorbed the smaller states around them and were bit- ter rivals for many years. It would have been well for them had they adopted the motto of our own country, "E pluribus imum," and joined themselves more closely instead of drifting apart. It is true that all Hellenes felt pride in the fact that they were Hellenes; they had the same religion, literature and language, and their festivals and temples were open to every one, but above all this was their devotion to Ath- ens or to Sparta. It was the same as in our own country before the great civil war, Avhen the people in the South believed their first duty was to their respective States, instead of to the common country. The time came when Greece awoke to her mistake, but, sad to say, it was then too late. When true Grecian hi&tory begins in the latter part of the eighth century before Christ, Sparta was more powerful than Athens. The Spartans were trained in the most rigid manner to become soldiers. No American Indian was taught to show more stoicism. They exposed their weakly children that they might perish and leave only sturdy ones behind. They were trained from the age of seven years to sixty; THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. 49 they were made to bear hunger and thirst and to care nothing for heat and cold; the girls were also drilled in gymnastics and the women there- fore were strong and brave. When a Spartan mother sent her son to war, her parting words were a command for him to return with his shield or upon it. In other words, he must come back a victor or be THE PLAINS OF MARATHON. brought back dead. The consequence was the Spartans grew into warriors and nothing else. They despised the oratory, the arts and the literature of the Athen- ians as weak and womanly. They made their slaves, of whom they had an immense number called Helots, do the manual labor while their masters gave all their attention to war. They were ruled by two joint kings whose power was limited by the Senate and by the Assembly of all the Spartans. 50 THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. It followed as a matter of course that Sparta was aggressive and soon conquered the surrounding states. In the sixth century B. C. she became strong enough to interfere in the affairs of the Grecian states beyond the Peloponnesus, and no doubt would have brought them under submission, had not the invasion by the Persians compelled the two sections to unite against the common foe. Meanwhile Athens was also growing in power. Misgovernment at first caused discontent and anarchy, but the wisdom of Solon, at the beginning of the sixth century, saved Athens from ruin. He framed wise and good laws, and gradually the country became a pure democ- racy, so that when the fifth century before Christ opened, Athens was in a situation to begin the work that has never been equalled. We have learned that Darius, who became king of Persia, 521 B. C., united his country into an all-powerful monarchy. The Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor revolted against their conquest by Persia, 500 B. C., and the Athenians sent twenty ships to help them. They captured the city of Sardis, which so enraged Darius that he resolved to punish the Athenians. He marched an army into Macedonia which was conquered, but it could go no further, while the fleet sent to help, was wrecked in a great storm and the expedition ended in failure. Darius was more angered than before and he prepared to send a force into Greece that would be resistless. Athens and Sparta united, and the immense Persian army landed on the coast in the bay of Mara- thon (590 B. C.). On the plain of Marathon, between the mountains and the sea, the little Athenian army, led by Mil- tiades, defeated the Persians, who were ten times as numerous. This battle, one of the greatest in the his- tory of the world, was fought in Sep- tember, 490 B. C. Five years later, THEATRE OF ~~ THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. 51 could resume his task, he died and was succeeded by his son Xerxes, who ten years after the battle of Marathon, set out to conquer Greece. Knowing what was coming, Athens and Sparta made every possible preparation to meet the danger. The army of Xerxes w r as the largest that was ever brought together on this earth. The mind cannot take in its vastness. It crossed the Hellespont on a double bridge of boats in two col- umns, and it took seven days and nights for the mighty host to make the passage. One of the most careful accounts, based upon the fig- ures of Herodotus, the historian, gives to Xerxes a fight- ing array of 2,641,610 men, while the slaves and attendants were still more numerous. This would make the whole force five and a quarter millions, or about double the entire population of the United States in the war of the Revolution. The army was aided by 1,200 boats, each containing thirty fighting men and 200 rowers. The prodigious host poured over northern Greece like the ocean when it bursts its bounds. The Greeks were in the midst of one of their religious festivals, and sent only a small force to combat the invaders. It numbered 7,000 troops, among w r hom were 300 Spartans, all under the command of Leonidas. They faced the enemy at the Pass of Thermopylae, and for two days held them at bay. On the third day a traitor showed the Persian king a mountain path by which he could reach the rear of the Greeks. This made the situ- ation of Leonidas hopeless and most of his force retreated. But he and his Spartans and seven hundred allies stood their ground and fought until every man was killed. Thermopyla3 has served since then as the highest type of human heroism. The memorable battle was fought in August, 480 B. C. TEMPLE OF THESEUS. 52 THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. The elements once more came to the help of the valiant Greeks, for after two battles had been fought by the fleets without gain to either side, the ships of the Persians were shattered in a great storm. Learning that the invading army was advancing against Athens, the Grecian fleet withdrew to the Bay of Salamis near that city. The population of Athens left the place, which was captured and burned by the Persians, but the fate of Greece was decided by the naval battle, fought at Salamis two months after the fight at Thermopylae. Despite their losses by storm, the Persians mustered about a thousand vessels, while the fleet of the Greeks consisted of only 3GG ships. The Per- sians were routed and the terrified Xerxes fled from the country. The large force which he left behind him was overthrown and what remained of his fleet destroyed. The defeat of the Persians was so complete that they never again attempted to invade Greece. Fight- ing lasted for several years, but in the end they were driven out of Europe. Greece now entered upon a career whose glory has never been sur- passed. The half-century following .Salamis is often referred to as "The age of Pericles," because the great statesman bearing that name lived and used his wise influence for nearly that length of time. Ath- ens and Sparta formed a league, with Athens the leading power. All Hellenes felt a just pride in the greatness of their country, and under its inspiration Grecian genius reached its highest flights in oratory, literature and art; but in this marvelous soil were also sowed the bale- ful seeds of envy, which too soon bore their fruit. In 431 B. C., the Peloponnesian war broke out and lasted for twen- ty-seven years. It was a conflict between Sparta and her allies on one hand, and Athens and her allies on the other, or between the democracy of Athens and the oligarchy of Sparta. In the latter years of the war, Sparta united with Persia, who gave her the money with which to carry on the contest. She won and when the Peloponnesian war ended Sparta was the leading power in Greece, though the emi- nence of Athens in art, literature and philosophy was unapproached by any other people. Sparta ruled with merciless rigor. Thebes found the yoke unbear- able and revolted. She was fortunate in having two great leaders, who in 371 B. C., utterly defeated the Spartans. The overthrow of THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. 53 THE ACROPOLIS SHOWING PANTHENON AND PROPHYLARA. Sparta was so complete that she never recovered any part of her for- mer glory. Thebes retained her power until her great leader, Epaminondas, died in 362 B. C., in the moment of victory. There was no one to suc- ceed him and Thebes went down with him. The long wars had ex- hausted the country, so that Greece was ill-fitted to meet the new peril that soon broke upon her. About this period a shrewd, cunning, ambitious man was working his way to the front in Macedonia. He was Philip, who was placed at the head of that government in 359 B. C. He knew all about Greek affairs, in which he was deeply interested. Having studied the his- tory of Sparta, Athens and Thebes, he formed the plan of having Mace- donia advanced to a Greek state and then made the leading one. He succeeded in the first step and craftily continued his work. About the only one in Greece who read his design was Demosthenes, the ora- tor, who warned his countrymen of their danger, but his warnings fell on drowsy ears. Philip pressed on with cunning and success. He played the jealous states against one another, and finally in 338 B. C., overthrew the Athenians and Thebans and made Greece a province of Macedonia. Philip's ambition grew and he now awoke the ardor of the Greeks '<** ,S THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. 55 by declaring that he meant to unite them all in a grand invasion of Persia, not only as a punishment for the incursions of Darius and Xerxes, but to conquer the barbarians and make Greece a great power. While busy, however, with his preparations, Philip was assassinated by one of his own subjects (336 B. C.), and the scheme crumbled to pieces. When Philip died he was succeeded by his son, twenty years old. He is known in history as Alexander the Great, and proved to be one of the ablest military leaders that ever lived. But in the midst of a wonderful career of conquest, he died at Babylon at the early age of thirty-three, and the glorious empire that he had founded fell apart, since no one was strong and wise enough to carry on and complete his marvelous work. In the strife over the fragments, Ptolemy, one of Alexander's gen- erals, secured Egypt. He ruled wisely. The Greeks and Macedon- ians who went with or followed him thither, were the leading power, but they did not oppress the Egyptians, who were treated with kind- ness. The series of monarchs who followed Ptolemy I. were all known as Ptolemies. The last of the line was Cleopatra, who died 30 B. C., when Egypt became a Roman province. Upon the death of Alexander the Great, the Greek states united in an effort to regain their independence, but they failed and the Mace- donian bonds were riveted more firmly than ever. The time, however, was at hand when a greater power than Macedon was at her doors. Rome, having conquered Carthage, turned eastward and launched her mailed legions against Macedonia. The conflict was a long one, but in 168 B. C., the kingdom was overthrown and the last monarch made the captive of his conquering foe. The Greek republics were left to themselves for a time, but they fell to wrangling, and in 146 B. C., they were made a Roman province under the name of Achaia, In Greece the world w r as taught what real civilization and freedom are. The people believed in many gods, whom they looked upon as personal friends and their paganism was one of love instead of dread. No literature of antiquity except the Holy Scriptures, is comparable in value to that of the Greek. It forms a storehouse of riches from which all generations will delightedly draw through the coming ages The names of her orators, poets, dramatists and philosophers form a galaxy of glory, the like of which has never been seen elsewhere. It is agreed that in sculpture the Greeks reached perfection. Their 56 THE WESTERN NATIONS GREECE. works were flawless and beyond the power of improvement even in fancy or thought. The greatest known of her Doric temples is the Parthenon, built of pure white marble and crowning the Acropolis of Athens. Regarding this consummate triumph of genius, Ferguson, in his History of Architecture, says: "In its own class it is undoubtedly the most beautiful building in the world. It is true that it has neither the dimensions nor the won- drous expression of power and eternity inherent in Egyptian temples, nor has it the variety and poetry of the Gothic cathedral; but for intel- lectual beauty, for perfection of proportion, for beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite princi- ples of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivaled the glory of Greece, and the shame of the rest of the world." CHAPTER III. THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. ROME. The Founding of Rome Its Growth The Republic The Patricians and Plebeians Rome Becomes a Nation Her Career of Foreign Conquest The Conquest of Carthage Hannibal Ruin of Carthage Grandeur of Rome Its Literature Its Decline Civil Wars Pompey The Different Factions Julius Caesar His Defeat of Pompey Caesar Made Imperatur His Great Work for Rome His Assassination Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus His Defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi Antony and Cleopatra Beginning of the Roman Empire Its Vast Extent The Imperial City Decline of the Empire The Work of Constantino the Great End of the Western Empire Birth of the Saviour at Bethlehem Persecution of the Early Christians Conversion of Constantine to Christianity His Great Work for the New Faith Julian the Apostate Death Blow to Paganism. BOUT the middle of the eighth century before Christ, a little village stood on the hill of the Tiber known as Roma. It was the center of a small sand inhabitants, whose herds, to two township, having about five thou- men tilled the soil or were shep- 1 After a time Roma was united \ other towns, one believed to be an Etruscan settlement called Lucerum and the other a Sabine village, Quirium. The Etruscans were re- - reived on a lower foot- ing, but the Sabines as equals. Little is known ^ of the regal, or ( kingly, period 1 (753-509 B. C.), / though tradition gives the name of seven kings \vho ruled the fi country. From the first, however, the Roman citizens were divided into the two classes, Patricians and Plebeians. The former held all the magisterial offices, 57 PIAZZA DEL POPOLO, ROME 58 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. owned the land, exercised the higher degrees of priesthood and had the right of using a family name. Although the Plebeians were free- men, they had no part in polities, until the time of the fifth king when the constitution was so changed as to give both classes the same rights in voting, but the Patricians remained the real power. The seventh king attempted to "turn the revolution backward" by changing this to what it was at first, with the result that he and his family were driven from Rome (509 B. C.) Rome now became a republic and continued such for 482 years. The very name of king was hated, and two magistrates called Consuls were elected each year. Rome was engaged for a long time in wars with her neighbors and lost a good deal of territory. In addition, there was trouble between the Patricians and Plebeians. The latter were so oppressed that they decided to quit Rome. They did so 493 B. C., and built a new town some four miles from the city., A com- promise, however, was made with them, the harsh laws changed and they returned. But after a time, the Patricians became so oppressive that the Ple- beians again seceded and a still greater yielding was made to win them back. This was not enough, since the Patricians managed to keep their power, but in 400 B. C. justice was done to the Plebeians, who got a fair share in the government. In 390 B. C. Rome had its first real check through the invasion of the Gauls, who captured Rome and burned nearly all of it except the Capitol, which after a long siege paid a large sum of money to the Gauls, to spare it. This war brought the Plebeians to a pitiful state of poverty, and the Patricians seized the chance to revive the ancient and oppressive laws against them. Two able leaders of the Plebeians, however, secured political equality and relieved the distress of their fellow sufferers, by having a law passed which made the interest already paid on the debts due the Patricians a part of the principal, got three years in which to pay the rest of the debts, and forbade any Patrician to hold more than 250 acres of land. That which remained was to be divided among the Plebeians and be their property. These proposals were made laws, 367 B. C., and perfect equality at last was secured. The people ruled in fact as well as in name, and the golden age of the republic ha-d come. But the Romans were a small nation, the whole number of citi- zens being about a quarter of a million. They were surrounded by THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 59 a number of petty states and Rome now set out to conquer and add them to her dominion. This had to be done to make her a nation that could play her great part in the world's history. A half century brought complete success to the Roman arms, and in 290 B. C., they were. masters of Central Italy, with the many con- CARTHAGE. quered peoples her subjects. Southern Italy, known as Great Greece, came next, and when the year 26G B. C. closed it saw Rome in con- trol of the peninsula of Italy, with its thirty-three tribes north and south of the Tiber. She welded with wisdom this power into a great nation, keeping to herself the right to make war or peace, and to coin money and leaving the dependent states the right to do about as they pleased in other respects. Having now with a population of fully 5,000,000, made herself a real nation, Rome in 266 B. C. entered upon her career of foreign con- quest, which she continued for 133 years. At this time Carthage was the chief maritime power of the West- ern Mediterranean. She had possessions in Spain, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, besides numerous Phoenician cities in Africa. She gave most 60 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. of her attention to commerce and was so powerful a rival to Rome that the pretext for declaring- war against her was soon found. The first Punic war, as it is known in history, broke out in 264 B. C., and lasted for twenty-three years. The Carthaginians gained many succes- ses, but in the end were defeated and forced to give up Sicily and the islands near it Sicily was organized into a province, the first act of that kind under Roman rule. Rome next gave her attention to the Gauls in the valley of the Po. The Gauls forced matters by marching against Rome, only to be over- thrown. They made their submission 222 B. C. and two Roman colo- nies were planted in their country. Meanwhile Carthage was nursing her schemes of revenge. She had a foothold in Spain, which she decided to make her base of oper- ations against Rome. The campaign intended to bring Spain fully under subjection brought to the front one of the greatest military gen- iuses that ever lived. This was Hannibal, who at the age of twenty- six, was appointed to the command of the Carthaginian army in Spain. Having captured a city that was the ally of Rome, that nation imme- diately declared war, but before any steps could be taken, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees, and then without halting, performed one of the most wonderful exploits of which there is record. He climbed the dreaded Alps, losing 30,000 men, and rushing into the plain of Italy, defeated the Romans in four successive battles. For fifteen years Hannibal remained in the peninsula, defeating army after army, living off the country, using up its resources and loos- ing many of the Italian states from their allegiance. His success was amazing, and in all human probability he would have destroyed the commonwealth had not Rome taken the offensive against his countrv. o f A powerful army under an able general entered Spain, which was speedily conquered. Thus the main path over which reinforcements were sent to Hannibal Avas closed, though his brother succeeded in leading an army through the Alps into Italy, where he was killed and his troops defeated. Still Hannibal held his ground, but when a Roman army invaded Africa and overcame the Carthaginians in sev- eral battles, the alarmed authorities recalled him. In the final strug- gle of the war, fought in Africa in 202 B. C., the Carthaginians were beaten and obliged to make peace on hard terms, Carthage became a dependent ally of Rome, but the anger against THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 61 her was so deep that a strong party was resolved to crush her. The third Punic war, which began 149 B. C., was one of revenge, and was pushed with unsparing fury for four years. Carthage was burned to the ground and the people driven to the lowest depths of misery. The THE COLISEUM AT ROME. territory was made into the Koman Province of Africa (B. C. 146), and was governed by a proconsul. Rome pushed her conquests without pause. Macedonia and Greece were added, the latter being made into the Roman province of Achaia. At the close of the period of conquest (133 B. C.), all of Southern Europe was under the dominion of Rome, besides the most of the Medi- 62 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. terranean islands, a portion of Northern Africa and in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor she was all-powerful. Her sway now took on a new character, for to the former state of Italy was added the system of provincial government, or government of her conquered provinces. The religion, laws and habits were not touched, but the people were ruled by Roman officials and they paid tribute or taxes to the republic. Thus millions of people were bound together by Roman policy and Rome could well claim to be mistress of the world. There is much truth in the saying that prosperity is more trying to a people than adversity. The might and grandeur of Rome had many blessings. Splendid roadways were built and the Tiber was spanned by numerous fine bridges; magnificent public buildings were erected, fine aqueducts constructed, the city sewered and all possible improvements made. The conquest of Greece brought thousands of her scholars into Rome and their culture gave life and being to the literature of the country. Thus, in time, Rome came to have a noble literature of its own. But the decline was fast. The morality sank lower and lower, the rugged virtues disappeared, the people were fond of luxury, while cor- ruption took every possible form. Some of the heroic men like Cato, saw the appalling peril and raised their voices in warning, but in vain. Decay had set in and no human hand could stay it. The rich became richer and the poor poorer, and both were cor- rupt to the core. The chasm widened between the only two classes left, for there was no middle one, until it broke out in war. Two brothers named Gracchus took up the cause of the people, but they and their friends were crushed, one brother being killed, while the other, when about to be taken, preferred death at the hands of a faith- ful slave rather than capture by his enemies. The war went on with frightful cruelties on both sides, till finally it became a fierce struggle between a few as to who should obtain power. Cneus Pompey was a leader in the aristocratic party and did valuable service for his country. He put down a revolt in Spain which broke out in 77 B. C. and lasted five years, subdued a rising among the gladiators and crushed the most dangerous revolt of all, which was a far-reaching scheme to unite Greece and the Asiatic states against Roman dominion. He conquered Phoenicia and Syria and captured Jerusalem. When he returned to Rome, 62 B. C , he was THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 63 received in triumph, and could easily have made himself military ruler of the Roman world. Rome was infested by many factions or parties under the lead mostly of evil men. The oligarchy (who sought to place the power in a few hands) included several leading families, whose chiefs ruled the repub- THE DEATH OF CAESAR. lie; the aristocratic faction comprised most of the senators who were eager to get back the power that had been taken from them; another party that was growing fast was made up of those whose families had been persecuted, while the military faction consisted of old campaign- ers who, having spent their fortunes, were longing for any sort of dis- turbance that would give them a chance of bettering their condition. The leader of the third party, which included those whose families had suffered at the hands of Sulla, a brutal tyrant then dead, was Julius Caesar, one of the greatest men whose names appear on the pages of history. When he and Pompey talked together, they found their views THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 65 mainly the same and they agreed to unite their forces. Crassus, the leader of the aristocratic faction, was afterward admitted, the three making a strong party whose object was to wield all the power them- selves. Caesar was elected to the consulship in 59 B. C., and at the end of the year was made governor of Gaul for five years and again for five years. During that period he pressed a number of brilliant cam- paigns in Gaul, and won the affection of his army, in which were many Germans and Gauls. Meanwhile, Pompey and Crassus, after serving a term as consuls, received important commands, the former as governor of Spain, and Crassus as governor in the East. Crassus was murdered some time after, and Caesar and Pompey were left as the two great Roman lead- ers. Naturally the ambition of both made them rivals and soon bit- ter enemies. Pompey renewed his allegiance to the aristocratic party, and, having been made consul for the year 52 B. C., did all he could to prevent the election of Caesar. He was aided by many who were jealous of the rising popularity of Caesar. The attempt to ruin him became so open that he marched into Italy at the head of his army, defeated his enemies and secured the appointment of himself as dic- tator and consul for the year 48 B. C. He showed such masterly abil- ity that he won the good will of nearly every one. Caesar next marched into Thessaly, where Pompey had placed him- self at the head of a powerful army, and overthrew his rival, who fled into Egypt, where he was killed just as he landed by order of Ptolemy. Not knowing of this, Caesar followed to Alexandria where he was shocked by the news. In that city the great imperator met Cleopatra and was "taken captive" by her wonderful beauty. He conquered every force that could be rallied against him and returned in triumph to Rome in the summer of 46 B. C. He was given the dictatorship for ten years, which was soon made for life. He was called "Im- perator," and, though not a king in name, was so in fact, for none saw more plainly than he that the republic had come to an end. Caesar was wise and patriotic. He had won his proud position by trampling law under his feet, because he believed the safety of Rome depended upon the strong will of one man, who was governed by love of. justice. He meant that such should be his rule of life, and he 66 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. was eager to use to the utmost, his ability to bring back his country to its former glory and happiness. In the two years that were given him for his work, he did a vast deal. All who had borne arms against him were pardoned; he cared for nothing in a man but his fitness for his trust; the rule in the prov- inces was made honest; everything was done to encourage agriculture and trade; the city was beautified and plans formed for extending and strengthening the empire in all possible directions. Caesar won the love and gratitude of his people by his military and civic genius, and by the great service he did for them. One could not fail to admire his devotion to his country, but in this very suc- cess lay his danger. He towered so far above all other men who wished to be leaders that they were filled with gnawing envy. At the head of these plotters were Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus, both of whom had received many favors at the hands of Caesar. The number of his active enemies was about sixty, and they fixed upon the Ides or 15th of March for his assassination. Their intention be- came known and Ca?sar was urged not to visit the Senate, but he was too proud to heed the warning and went thither. Hardly had he taken his place, when the conspirators closed around him. Under the pretence of urging some request, one of them caught hold of his toga, or out-garment, with both hands and snatched it over his arms. Casca, w r ho was behind, struck at Crcsar with his knife, but the blow was ill-directed and only grazed his shoulder. Caesar called for help and tried to defend himself, but he was hemmed in by enemies, all furiously striving to strike him with their daggers. The weapons were flashing on every side, and Brutus was one of the most eager to reach him. Fixing a reproving look upon the man to whom he had shown so many favors, Caesar exclaimed: "Et tu, Brute!" (You, too, Brutus!), and then drawing his robe over his face, he stood still, while he was pierced by knife after knife, until he sank bleeding and dying at the foot of Pornpey's statue. He had received twenty-three wounds and breathed out his life without utter- ing another word. At the funeral of the great man, Mark Antony delivered an ora- tion which so roused the people against the plotters, that Brutus and Cassius would have been slain had they not fled from the city. In- stead of his death bringing back the republic, new leaders strove for THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 67 power and civil war broke out. The great nephew of Caesar, a youth of nineteen years, had been adopted by him as his son. Thus his name became Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, and with the old soldiers ardently rallying about him, he began a warfare against the murder- ers of his relative. He was joined by Antony and Lepidus and the three set out to gain supreme power. Brutus and Cassius had gone to the East, where, in Thrace they CLEOPATRA'S BARGE. gathered an army of 100,000 men. They were attacked and defeated at Philippi, 42 B. C., and Brutus and Cassius killed themselves. The three victors now divided the Roman world among themselves, but Lepidus was a weak man who soon lost his share. This left Octavius with the West as his portion and Antony with the East. Antony made his headquarters at Alexandria, where he met the fascinating Cleopatra, and like many a man before and since, made a fool of himself. He divorced his legal wife and began giving Roman provinces to the beautiful Egyptian, as if they were mere baubles. This was treason, and Octavius, with his well trained legions, marched against him. The rival fleets met off the west coast of Greece, near C8 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. the promontory of Acthim, 31 B. C., with the armies on shore look- ing idly on. The battle had hardly opened when Cleopatra with her sixty Egyptian vessels fled, and Antony followed her, the two mak- ing their way to Alexandria, whither Octavius pursued and besieged the city. Antony attempted to defend it, but the native troops de- serted him. Hearing that Cleopatra was dead, she having caused the report to be spread, Antony mortally wounded himself. Then, learn- ing that she was alive, he. had himself carried to her presence, where he died, B. C. 30. The wonderful Cleopatra now tried to bewitch Octavius with the charms that had been so resistless with others, but he was made of sterner stuff and resolved to make her prisoner. Rather than submit to the indignity, she caused her own death by means of the scratch of a poisoned needle or the bite of an asp. Thus died the last of the Ptolemies in the year 30 B. C. Octavius was now the supreme head of Roman power. He was made imperator for ten years and again for ten years. He soon gath- ered in himself all the authority and great offices, and in B. C. 27 received the title of Augustus, on which date it may be said the Roman Empire began its existence. Now, open your map of Europe and fix in your minds the magnifi- cent empire of which Augustus Ca?sar became the head when he was thirty-six years old. The northern boundary was the British Channel, the North Sea, the Rhine, the Danube and the Black Sea; on the east, the Euphrates and the Syrian Desert; on the south the Great Desert of Sahara and on the west the Atlantic Ocean. The distance between the eastern and western limits was 2,700 miles and th^ breadth about a thousand miles. In this immense empire were included what is now Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Western Holland, Rhenish Prussia, a portion of Baden and Wurtemberg, the major part of Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, the Tyrol, Austria proper, Western Hungary, Croa- tia, Slavonia, Servia, Turkey in Europe, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Idumsea, Egypt, the Cyrenaica, Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria and the larger part of Morocco. Outside of Italy, the empire was divided into twenty-seven provinces. The subjects of Augustus probably num- bered one hundred million human beings, of whom more than one-half were in a condition of slavery. Rome itself was a city of imperial grandeur. Its population was THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 69 nearly three millions and the boast of Augustus was that he found it brick and left it marble. The inclosing walls were twenty miles in extent and were pierced by thirty gates. In addition, there were extensive and beautiful suburbs. The city could boast 420 temples, five theaters for the drama, two amphitheaters, seven circuses of im- mense extent, sixteen public baths, fourteen aqueducts, beside pillars, triumphal arches, porticoes and lofty obelisks. The Circus Maximus would accommodate 200,000 spectators and the Flavian Amphitheater, whose ruins still exist, seated 100,000 persons. There took place the fights of the gladiators, the chariot races and. the savage battles be- tween wild beasts. During those days when Rome by her grandeur and might maintained peace throughout the world, the greatest Latin scholars appeared. Augustus encouraged letters and among the world- remembered writers were Virgil, Horace, Sallust, Lucretius and others. Augustus died in A. D. 14, after a reign of forty-one years. For three centuries there was little change in the empire, and then, too overgrown and vast for its own strength and weakened by conquest and vices, it fell into decay and a downfall began which has no parallel in the annals of nations. It had been foretold that the state would last for twelve centuries, and as the end of that period drew nigh, all the signs pointed to the impending destruction. Hordes of barbarians swarmed into Italy like locusts, civil war seemed never to end, some of the emperors were monsters of wickedness and defeats continually met the armies in the field. The rugged Roman soldiers had become so effeminate, that in the reign of Theodosius, about 390 A. D., they were no longer able to bear the fatigues of their armor and heavy military weapons, and, throw- ing them aside, they took the light arms of the Persians, while the bar- barians, picking up the armor and weapons thus thrown away, wielded them with so much effect that they were victorious everywhere. Constantine the Great reunited the disjointed empire A. D. 323, but removed the capital to the old Greek city of Byzantium, which he enlarged and named New Rome, though it has been known ever since as Constantinople. The last emperor to reign over the whole Roman Empire was Theodosius I. On his death, A. D. 395, it was divided between his two sons one taking the West, the other the East. From this period dates the Western or Latin Empire and the East- ern, Greek or Byzantine Empire. The history of the latter passes into 70 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. that of the Middle Ages, so that we shall refer to it again. We have learned the causes of the fall of the Western Empire. The weakened soldiers were unable to make a stand against the vigorous barbarians, who captured and sacked Rome, A. D. 410, and overran all Southern Italy. The provinces were rapidly lopped off. W T hat the Goths had left unfinished was finished by the Vandals and Moors, who having captured Rome in 455 A. D., spent two weeks in looting the city. Ves- sels were laden with treasures and captives and sent across the sea to Carthage. A feeble pretense of a rule by Roman emperors was kept up until 476 A. D., w r hen the shadowy senate at Rome sent the tiara and purple robe to Constantinople as a sign that the Western Empire had passed away. Having completed our story of "imperial Rome," L . it remains to tell of the greatest spiritual event in the annals of mankind. This came during the o reign of Augustus, when at the little village of Bethlehem in Judea, in a humble manger, Christ the Saviour of mankind was born. We know little of the youth and 3 early years of the Son of God, but j it was in the Roman Empire that \ his mighty work took root, and, spreading throughout the rest of the world, accomplished blessings whose value can never be measured by hu- man standards. There were r many varieties of religions * among the different peoples, \ but with the exception of ; the Jews, all were pagans or polytheists, the last name, as you will remem- ber, meaning those who worshiped many gods. It was in the nineteenth year of the reign of Tiberius that Christ was crucified. Saul and Barnabas taught the THE SPANISH STAIRS AT ROME. FROM RECENT SKETCH. THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. 71 true religion at Antioch in Syria, where the name "Christians" was first given to the followers of Jesus. After them, came the journeys of Paul, who preached the gospel in Asia Minor and Greece, never ceasing his inspired work until he was taken a prisoner to Rome during the reign of Nero and there suffered death for the faith. Christianity spread first among the Jews, then the Greeks and then the Gentiles. Had the early believers been content to sit down and enjoy their new religion in selfish idleness, they would not have been disturbed; but such is not the spirit of Christianity. From its very nature it is aggressive, and a professing Christian is of little worth who does not try to win over others to the true faith and to live an active life in the service of his Creator. It was because of this activity and ardor on the part of the early Christians that they had to suffer the most cruel persecution. The hideous Nero set Rome on fire and sat grimly looking on and singing words to the twanging of his lyre, while the flames were raging. To turn suspicion from himself, he charged the Christians with starting the fire, and many were horridly tortured to death. Everything possible was done to stamp out the new faith, but in vain, and, in the first half of the third century, persecution almost ceased in Rome, where the Christians were allowed to build houses for worship, to buy land and to conduct their own affairs. This blessed state of things could not last, and the supreme strug- gle between the new faith and the old came at the opening of the fourth century. In February A. D. 303, an edict was issued ordering the tearing down of the Christian churches, the burning of every Bible, and that all rank and honor should be taken away from the Christians. A nobleman belonging to the new faith, no sooner saw the edict than he tore it to fragments and flung them on the ground. He was punished by beirrg roasted to death. The Christians were ordered to burn in- cense to idols and when they refused were tortured or slain. Nothing could stay the progress of the Word, though the awful persecution was kept up until A. D. 311, when as the emperor Galerius w r as dying he published an edict allowing Christians to worship God as they saw fit. This great triumph of Christianity was followed by another won- derful event. Constantine, of whom w r e have already learned, was cho- sen emperor of Rome, in A. D. 306 and reigned until 337. Before he could be secure, he was forced to conquer five rivals. While doing so, 72 THE WESTERN NATIONS CONCLUDED. \ it is said he saw a gleaming cross in the sky, shining above the noonday sun and marked with the words, In hoc vinee, "By this conquer." Shortly after, he won a great victory and decided to become a Christian. Like a true believer, he issued the famous Edict of Milan, A. D. 313, which brought peace to the Christian church. Eleven years later, he defeated the last of his rivals and made Christianity the religion of the state. Constantine the Great, as he is known in history, sent out circular letters urging his subjects to imitate his example and become Chris- tians. It is believed that one-twentieth of the whole population pro- fessed Christianity. He proved his liberality and breadth of view by not forbidding paganism, but he ridiculed and neglected it. lie re- paired the old churches and built new ones; he freed the Christian clergy from taxes; he made Sunday a day of rest, and, most important of all, removed the capital to Constantinople, which was a Christian city. Julian the Apostate became emperor A. D. 3G1 and tried to undo the work of Constantine. He failed and the numbers of Christians in- creased until they were in the majority. The final bloAV to paganism was given by Theodosius who forbade the worship of the old gods under severe penalties. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY FROM A. D. 476 TO A. D. 1492. CHAPTER IV. THE MIDDLE AGES. Grand Divisions of the Aryan Stock The Different Migrations THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE Justinian FOUNDING OF THE VENETIAN STATE THE FOUN- DATIONS OF FRANCE The Idiotic Kings THE FOUNDATION OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE MOHAMMED AND HIS GREAT WORK Invasion of Europe by the Saracens Their Check by Charles Martel THE SARACENS IN SPAIN CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS EMPIRE Its Downfall After His Death THE FEUDAL SYSTEM GROWTH OF THE PAPAL POWER. THE curtain now rises upon a new civilization and a new epoch in history that of the Middle Ages, which embraces a period of a thousand years. It is necessary for us at first to fix a number of important facts in our minds. At the opening of this work, it was shown that at a remote period the Aryans, the ancestors of all the races, left their home in Central Asia and gradually spread over the rest of the world, which thus, as the centuries rolled on, became populated. Historians divide the Aryan stock into four grand divisions, known as the Graeco-Latins, the Celts, the Teutons and the Slavs or Slavonians. All the events thus far related as occurring in Europe were the work of the first named, the Graeco- Latins. The first migration was that of the Celts, who at first settled in Central Europe. By and by, the Teutons followed and shoved them into Western Europe, while the Teutons took possession of Central and Eastern Europe. Lastly came the Slavonic race, who spread over all the immense Eastern plain, thus holding the Teutons between them and the Celts. While Greece and Italy were advancing to their high state of civili- zation, the other three races remained barbarians. Greece had noth- ing to do with civilizing these savages, but Rome had a great deal. There was a mixture of the different races with those of Rome and the Teutons or Germans. The principal German tribes were the Goths, the Franks, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Lombards, the Saxons, 73 THE MIDDLE AGES. 75 the Angles and the Scandinavians. Without trying to follow the numer- ous and confusing changes among the various barbarian peoples, let us give our attention to the most important events of Mediaeval history. When the Western Roman Empire went to pieces in A. D. 47G, the Eastern, or Byzantine Empire, remained, and kept up a weakly exist- ence for a thousand years. Its period of greatest glory was during the reign of Justinian, A. D. 527 to 505. He erected some of the most mag- nificent buildings in Constantinople, but his best work was that of put- ting the almost endless and confusing laws of Rome into a regular code, which formed the groundwork of the law of most of the nations of Europe. The Western Empire having been conquered by the Visigoths, there was much conflict', but these people were overthrown A. D. 553, and Italy became a Byzantine province governed by rulers appointed from Constantinople. Three years later, the country was overwhelmed by another Teutonic invasion under the Lombards, who made Pavia the capital. The Italians were treated so cruelly that most of them fled to the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adriatic where they founded the Venetian state. The Byzantine Empire still held control of Ravenna, Rome, Naples and the southern part of the peninsula. Char- lemagne in A. D. 774 made prisoner of the last Lombard king, as will be told further on. The foundation of Gaul or France was laid in A. D. 507, when the Franks conquered the other savage tribes and made Paris the capital. They were so far from Constantinople as to be really independent, though forming a part of the Byzantine Empire. Pagans at first, the Franks were soon converted to Christianity. When Clovis died, he left France to his four sons. The Frankish dynasty lasted about a hundred years and its history is one of crime and violence. The kings became weaker and weaker of mind until they were little more than fools. In the words of Swinton, "they were too weak to be wicked even." Matters got so bad that the nobles adopted the practice of electing what was termed the Mayor of the Palace, who was the real king. The most famous of these was Karl Mart el, who, as will be told later, saved Europe from being overrun by the Mohammedans through his defeat of them in A. D. 732. When Martel died, his son Pepin succeeded him as Mayor of the Palace. He had no patience with the farce, and, thrust- ?G THE MIDDLE AGES. ing the nominal king into a convent, made him stay there while he had himself proclaimed king. The son of Tepin was Charlemagne, one of the grandest figures in history. Having learned of the beginning of France, let us learn how the foundations of the present mighty British Empire were laid. Some fifty years before the fall of Rome, her troops were withdrawn from Briton, and the natives, who were of the Celtic race were left to themselves, until the middle of the fifth century, when a number of Teutonic tribes from the region of the Elbe and Weser invaded the country. No suc- cessful stand could be made against them, and the Celtic Britons who were not killed or enslaved took refuge among the mountains of North Britain and Wales. The invaders were Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The Jutes left no impress on the country or people, but as you know the English, like ourselves, are said to belong to the Anglo-Saxon race. The mix- ture of dialects gave rise to the Anglo-Saxon mode of speech and Britain changed her name to England, which means the land of the Angles. The German immigration was kept up for many years, and in the course of a century the old Roman province of Britain became the land of the Angles and Saxons. In the seventh century, the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity. As was to be expected, there was con- tinual warring between the rival factions until at the beginning of the ninth century, Egbert united all the dominions under the single one of England. About the year A. D. 570, there was born in the city of Mecca, Arabia, the only son of Abdallah, a man of wonderful beauty and the member of a noble family. The boy was left an orphan while an infant, and his uncle, Abu Taleb, trained him to commerce and took him to the great fairs of Arabia and Syria. His relative, however, did not think it worth while to give him a school education, and it is said that he never learned to write his own name. He showed a fondness for meditation, and often went off by himself to spend hours in deep thought. This habit grew upon him, and, after his marriage at the age of twenty-five, he sometimes retired to the mountains and stayed for several days. In other respects he Avas a quiet husband, and devoted to his family. Thus matters went on until Mohammed was forty years old. Then he told his wife that God intended him to be an apostle and it was his THE MIDDLE AGES. 77 mission to proclaim Islam, or salvation. "There is no God," said he, "but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet." His wife believed in him from the first, and the illustrious Ali, son of Abu Taleb, was among those who did not doubt that his cousin was all that he claimed. Three years later, Mohammed publicly made known his mission, in- sisting upon the unity of God and condemning idolatry in all forms. Few believed him at first and the elders and people at Mecca became so bitter against the new religion that some of his disciples fled to Ethiopia. Then his faithful wife and Abu Taleb died and the enemies plotted to put Mohammed to death, but he escaped into the mountains and hid himself for three days in a cave, when with a single friend he made his way to Medina. From this flight, called the Hegira, July 16, A. D. 622, the Mohammedan year is reckoned. Mohammed's entry into Medina was amid the shouts and rejoicing of the people, who hailed him as the true prophet of God. He took the office of priest and king, married several wives, and now determined to force his religion by means of the sword upon other nations. He waged war with merciless vigor, and before the end of ten years all Arabia was brought under his banner. He marched into Mecca in 630, received the keys of the city and was acknowledged prince and prophet. He showed no malice toward his former enemies, destroyed the hundreds of idols, made his pilgrimage to Mecca and was still pushing his conquests when he died of a fever in Medina in A. D. 622. Mohammedanism has been defined as a religion half way between paganism and Christianity, but it is really much nearer the latter than the former. The Moslem Bible, called the Koran, gives the biblical account of creation, and our forefathers are named as Adam, Noah and Abraham, while Moses and Jesus'are called the prophets of God. The judgment, the last day, the resurrection, hell and paradise are parts of the Mohammedan creed, though the idea of the abode of the blest are more earthly than those of Christianity. At any rate, Mohammedism was a great advance upon the brutal pagan religion, and it is only fail- to believe that Mohammed was honest in what he professed and taught. When he died, he was succeeded by rulers called Caliphs who waged with the same vigor as he the wars against other nations. By these means their religion entered most of Asia and Africa and finally passed into Europe. Constantinople seemed to be the only place powerful enough to, resist 78 THE MIDDLE AGES. the fierce fanatics. Two long and desperate sieges were repulsed, but in A. I). 710, a vast horde crossed the narrow straits into Spain, and in a few years conquered the country with the exception of a small mountainous district in the north where the Christian kingdom of the Asturias held its ground. The next step of the Mussulmans was to climb the Pyrenees and invade Gaul or France. For a time they swept everything from their path, and it looked as if they would overrun all Europe and bring it into subjection. In this crisis, Charles Martel, of whom mention has been made, gathered a powerful army and gave battle to the Saracens. The terrific contest lasted several days, and was fought in A. D. 732. In the end the invaders were defeated with terrible loss and Mohammed- ism progress in Europe was checked forever. The false religion, how r ever, gained a firm stronghold in Spain, and lasted for seven centuries. The year when it was driven out 1492 marked the discovery of America and the close of the Middle Ages. In our history of early Gaul, you will remember that the vigorous Pepin shut up the idiotic king in a convent and made himself sovereign. He was the son of Charles Martel, who routed the Saracens in the great battle just referred to, and Pepin had a son who was also named Charles or Karl as it is in German. He was born about 742, and is known in history by his French name of Charlemagne, which means Charles the Great. France and Germany as such did not exist at that time, but the king- dom which came to Charlemagne on the death of his father was com- posed of portions of the two countries now known by that name. Spain was held by the Saracens, England was composed of a number of petty warring states, and Italy was occupied by the Lombards, who shared its rule with the Byzantine Empire, while barbaric France was strug- gling toward the dim light that had already appeared in the horizon. The dream of Charlemagne was to build up again the Roman Empire on German soil. He believed this could be done by uniting the political ideas of the Teutons with the power of Christianity. Inspired by this ambition he began his great work which occupied forty-six years of his reign. It was a grand task and he carried it out with prodigious skill and vigor. ^ It is not necessary to give the particulars of his campaigns, which in A. D. 800, extended his empire from the Ebro in Spain on the THE MIDDLE AGES. 79 west to the Elbe in the northeast, the Theiss in the southeast and in- cluded one-half of Italy, and all of Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Isles. On Christmas day of that year, while attending divine service at St. Peter's, Rome, Pope Leo III. placed a crown on his head and saluted him as "Emperor of the West," his title being Charles I., Ca3sar Augustus. Charlemagne devoted the last years of his life to welding together the empire of which he was the head, and to the elevation of the people. He was a good scholar and strove to awaken a desire for knowledge among his subjects and to give them the means of gratifying it. His personal character was pure, he was of noble, majestic figure, lived very plainly, and by the surrounding nations was acknowledged the fore- most ruler of all. He died in A. D. 814 at the age of seventy-two years. The successor of Chalemagne was his son Louis, so gentle and weak of character that the great empire rapidly crumbled to pieces. He divided his dominion among his three sons, who fought him and one another. The treaty signed at Verdun, A. D. 843, made Italy, Germany BRIDGE AND CASTLE QF $T. ANGELO. ST. PETERS SEEN IN THE DISTANCE ROME 80 THE MIDDLE AGES. and France independent states. Thus ended the history of the Franks, while that of Germany and France began. What is termed the feudal system was in force during the Middle Ages. It started in Germany, where in order to secure the new posses- sions and to pay the deserving followers, the conquering generals gave large tracts of land to the leading officers, who in turn dealt out por- tions to inferior officers and soldiers. The condition was that the re- ceiver of such gifts should give faithful service, both at home and in wars, to him from whom he received them. Refusal to carry out this pledge caused the lands to return to their original owner. It will be seen that this system bound the soldier to his officer, the officer to his superior officers, who in turn were bound to the king. At the same time the several lords were bound to protect what they had given. There were so many advantages in the system that it drove out the Roman laws and gradually extended over the Western world, being the system in most of the countries from the ninth to the end of the thirteenth centuries. In England it differed from France, from which it was taken. By the law of England, the king- was the head lord or proprietor and no man could obtain land except from him upon feudal service. As the power of royalty increased that of the feudal system de- creased. Another cause was the growth of cities, with the new officers, who ruled instead of the lords, from whom their former powers were taken one by one, so that in time the people became the rulers of them- selves. One of the marked features of the Middle Ages was the growth of Papal power. Pepin, the father of Charlemagne, gave Rome to the Popes, and Charlemagne, when crowned Emperor of the West, in A. D. 800, confirmed the grant. Confusion followed the fall of the empire for two centuries, but the Papal power steadily greAV and had great influ- ence in politics. When in the middle of the tenth century, the German sovereigns gained control, they declared that the election of Pope by the College of Cardinals should not be valid until confirmed by them. For a time they had matters all their own way and appointed German bishops, but a change was brought about by Hildebrand, who was called to Rome in A. D. 1049, to assist in the Papal councils as chancellor and cardinal. In A. D. 1073, he became Gregory VII. He immediately made known that if any one accepted investiture from a layman, both should be excommunicated or shut out from all the blessings the Church THE MIDDLE AGES. 81 could give. The "right of investiture" hitherto had belonged to the emperors. It meant the right of bestowing on bishops and abbots the ring and staff that were symbols of their office. Emperor Henry IV. defied this decree, whereupon the Pope excom- municated him and declared his subjects in Italy and Germany no longer bound by their oath of allegiance. The Emperor was furious and made ready for war, only to receive the greatest shock of his life. All PANTHEON AT ROME. the monks and friars began preaching against him, and insurrections sprang up everywhere. The whole country was seething with revolt and the king soon saw that he would be left alone among those who had suddenly become his enemies. He was so scared that he hurried to Pope Gregory and humbly begged his forgiveness. The Pope was stern and refused to pardon him until he did penance and humbled himself into the very dust. What a sight it must have been, when the most powerful king in 82 THE MIDDLE AGES. Europe stood barefoot for three days in an outer court of the castle, wearing only a woolen shirt and shivering with the cold of winter. That is what King Henry did, and the Tope then released him from the fear- ful decree of excommunication. The king, however, had his revenge. When it was safe to do so, he renewed the war and compelled the Pope to flee from Rome, and he died in exile in A. D. 1085. The Topes who succeeded Gregory would not give up his claims, and amid the wars and revolutions around them, the Papacy steadily grew in strength, holding itself in authority as above that of all temporal rulers. The kings of England, Portugal, Scotland, Aragon, Sardinia and the two Sicilies became vassals to the Pope, and finally the German emperor was brought over, when a treaty was signed at Worms, A. D. 1122, by which the claim to the investitures was resigned Innocent III. became Pope in A. D. 1198, and held the office for eigh- teen years. He added immensely to the power of the Papacy. Even King John of England was humbled and compelled to pay him tribute, and he claimed to be the real Sovereign of Europe, a king who was supreme over all earthly kings. This claim was disputed and main- tained for a good many years, with the result of what may be called a drawn battle, for, although the Popes overthrew the power of the em- perors, they had in the end to yield to the power of other temporal princes. CHAPTER V. THE CRUSADES. Peter the Hermit The Cause of the Crusades The Disastrous Enterprise of Peter the Hermit THE FIBST CRUSADE Great Sufferings Capture of Antioch The Taking of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem Established THE SECOND CRUSADE Its Dismal Failure THE THIRD CRUSADE Saladin His Conquest of Palestine and Capture of Jerusalem Saladin and Richard Coeur de Leon Their Truce THE FOURTH CRUSADE THE "CHILDREN'S CRUSADE" THE FIFTH CRUSADE THE SIXTH CRUSADE THE SEV- ENTH CRUSADE THE EIGHTH CRUSADE The Results of the Crusades. NE day toward the close of the eleventh century, a little old man, with very bright eyes, humbly clad and riding on an ass, made his appearance in France. He carried a crucifix in one hand, and weazened face glowed I his with a light that caused the people to gape and won- der at him. After riding a little way, he would stop his animal, slip off his back, and standing upon anything that raised his head above those around him, begin to speak to them. The people soon learned that he was no or- dinary man, for he was so eloquent that he quickly stirred their hearts. He had been a brave soldier in his younger days and was a native of Amiens in France. After fighting with great daring, he became a monk, but acting upon a religious impulse, made am PETER THE HERMIT PREACHING THE CRUSADE 83 84 THE CRUSADES. journey to the sacred city' of Jerusalem. It had long been the custom for all Christians who could do so to make pilgrimages to that city, as the Mohammedans did to Mecca, which is their sacred city. So long as the Saracens were masters in Palestine, they protected their visitors, for they brought much profit to them. About the middle of the eleventh century, the Turks became masters of the country and began treating the Christians with cruelty. The stories which the pilgrims brought back to Europe caused deep indignation, until thousands were eager to march to Palestine and drive out the hated Infidels, as the Mussulmans were called. Among those who visited Jerusalem and was spat upon and abused by the Infidels was the little old man, whom I have just told you about. He is known in history as Peter the Hermit, and his fervid appeals to his fellow Christians set the country on fire. He believed heaven bad appointed him to rescue the Holy Sepulchre from the Infidels and noth- ing could turn him from his sacred work. Overflowing with this faith, he first went to Pope Urban II., who listened attentively to his project and encouraged him. He traveled through France and Italy, rousing the people everywhere. A wonderful success attended his mission; the whole country was in a flame of frenzy, and thought and talked of nothing else but the duty of making all haste to Palestine and driving out the hated Infidels. They felt that they could never be pardoned by heaven if they remained idle while the Holy Sepulchre was thus defiled. The Pope was as deeply interested as Peter the Hermit. He held two councils and at the second addressed a vast audience, who were roused to the wildest pitch of ardor. He asked that all who were will- ing to take part in a crusade, to bear on the shoulder or breast of each, the figure of the cross. As soon as possible thousands upon thousands appeared with the red emblems. The following spring 1096 was fixed for beginning the movement known in history as the First Crusade. The impatience of the multitude, however, would not permit them to wait until the late day in summer named by the Pope for starting. They flocked around Peter the Hermit and demanded that he, as the first one who had called them to duty, should become their leader. In this enormous assembly were men, women and children, most of whom had not the faintest idea of the great task they were eager to undertake. THE CRUSADES. 85 Peter himself so burned with holy fire that he failed to see that he had no fitness to become their leader, and he accepted the office. The enter- prise was one of the wildest in history. Starting in advance of the time fixed by the Pope, this horde be- came the vanguard of the First Crusade, but the bands of which it was composed numbered fully a quarter of a million of people. Most of them belonged to the lower classes, and, since no provision was made for feeding the men, women and children, it can be seen that their march was certain to prove to be as fearful as the plagues of Egypt to the people through whose countries they passed. The mob that covered many square miles and seemed to stretch out without end began their tramp over the route leading through Ger- many, Hungary, Bulgaria and Thrace. A general conflagration sweep- ing over the country could not have caused more devastation. The pea- santry in Hungary were so enraged that they attacked the multitude, killed a large number and scattered the rest. Those that were left strag- gled to the Bosphorus, which was crossed at Constantinople. There they were furiously attacked by the Turks, who spared none. Thus a quarter of a million of people perished without having accomplished any part of the mission which brought them from their distant homes. Meanwhile, the real Crusade was under way. It was composed of very different material from the mob that had gone ahead, and included the flower of the chivalry of Europe. Some of the most famous knights of history, such as Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert, Duke of Normandy, and others were the leaders, with a vast number of feudal chiefs and their vassals. This array, numbering fully 600,000 men, besides the priests and women, was divided into six armies, each of which took its own route to Constantinople. Entering Asia Minor, the different armies united. A number of miserable members of the first expedition straggled from their hiding places and joined the splendid host. Among these starv- ing tramps was Peter the Hermit. You must bear in mind that in those days gunpowder was unknown. Men fought with sword, lance, spear, mace and battle axe, and wore coats of armor and mail, so that skilled knights might strive for hours without causing any hurt to each other. In the immense host that had entered Palestine were the finest troops that could be found anywhere. They numbered a fifth of the army, were mounted upon powerful horses, 86 THE CRUSADES. had thews of iron, were brave, skillful and ready to fight to the death for the cause that had brought them so far. Most of the footmen fought with the long and cross bow, but their strength was slight as compared with the superbly equipped chivalry. The point first attacked was Nice in Asia Minor. The town was easily captured by the Crusaders, who then pushed forward, for several hundred miles remained to be traversed before reaching Syria. The cavalry of the enemy, estimated at 300,000, attacked one of the main divisions so unexpectedly that they gained much advantage; but when the two armies united, they turned upon the Turks with savage fury. This cavalry battle, one of the greatest ever fought, was between the East and West. The Asiatics were light, supple, active and cun- ning and used the curved scimetar and small javelin. The massive Europeans employed the long sword and gigantic lance, which were wielded with resistless strength. The Turks displayed wonderful dex- terity and skill, but could not withstand the crushing charge of the powerful Europeans, who bore down all opposition and killed 30,000 of their swarthy foes. The cunning Turks secured revenge in another way. The country through which the Crusaders had to advance was laid waste. Their horses died in such numbers that 30,000 cavalrymen were dismounted and obliged to labor forward, panting and exhausted under the weight of their armor. The heat was frightful and many died from fatigue, raging thirst or its rash gratification. The others pressed on, however, with great courage, and reaching Antioch, the capital of Syria, laid siege to it. The siege meant more dreadful sufferings for the Crusaders, through the seven months that it lasted. The men starved or were consumed with thirst, and their numbers were further reduced by pestilence. Nearly all the horses were killed for food, and it looked as if the siege itself would end through the deaths of the besiegers, but a Syrian officer betrayed his countrymen, and the Crusaders on a dark, stormy night in June, 1098, entered and captured the city. This was hardly done, when 200,000 Mohammedans besieged the Crusaders in turn. The famine became more dreadful than before, but the brave defenders charged out of the city, and scattered the Infidels. This left the way open to Jerusalem, and the Crusaders started thither, but the splendid army that had crossed the Bosphorus was now reduced THE CRUSADES. g? to a remnant of 1,500 cavalry and 20,000 foot soldiers, with their attendants. This little band followed the sea coast for 300 miles from Antioch to Jaffa, where they turned inland toward Jerusalem. They were now in the heart of the Holy Land and were stirred by the sight of places made sacred through the ministry of the Saviour of men. At last Jeru- salem, the Holy City, broke upon their vision. All their previous suffer- ings were forgotten in the glorious picture. They had passed through famine, pestilence, thirst, fever and every possible hardship, and more than nine-tenths had left their bones bleaching on the burning sands of Syria, but this was repaid by the arrival of the remnant at the grand goal of their hopes. The Crusaders broke into shouts of joy, embraced one another, and sinking upon their knees, poured out their souls in ecstasy at the prom- ise of the fulfilment of the prayers and hopes that had brought them through the most terrible trials that can come to man. The capture of Jerusalem was a herculean task, for the skies still gave forth their flaming heat, the water pools and brooks were dried up, and the Saracens, who had recently won the city from the Turks, offered a desperate resistance. For five long, wretched weeks the siege was pressed, and then Godfrey and his knights, in July, 1099, passed the walls and stood victors in the city. What a hideous travesty on the doctrine of peace and good will to men that the Crusaders did not think their work finished until they had massacred 70,000 Moslems and burned the Jews in the synagogue! Despite this stain on the victory, the work of the Crusaders was a grand one. The Kingdom of Jerusalem was established and Godfrey of Bouillon made king of the Holy City by the vote of his knightly com- panions, July 23, 1099. Godfrey, who was one of the noblest knights of Christendom, refused to accept the title and would consent to be known only by the name, which he valued above all others, as that of Defender of the Tomb of Christ. Thus the design of the First Crusade was fulfilled. The little, shriveled fanatic, Peter the Hermit, was among the happy victors. He had seen the mission of his life accomplished. With many others, he went home and he spent the closing days of his life in a monastery. Just before completing a year of reign, Godfrey died, 88 THE CRUSADES. mourned by Moslems as well as Christians, for his kindness and justice had won the affections of all. Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, succeeded him, and his kinsmen continued to rule until Saladin overthrew the kingdom. For about a half century, the Christians in the East stood firm against the attacks of the Mohammedans. But in A. D. 1145, they cap- tured the principality of Odessa in the northeast and massacred the Christians. The startling event frightened their brethren in Palestine, and they begged Europe to save them from their impending fate. The response was as ardent as in the first instance. A new Crusade was preached, and the two greatest sovereigns of the time, Conrad III., Emperor of Germany and Louis VII. .of France enlisted in the enter- prise, the armies numbering 300,000 of the best troops that could be gathered in their dominions. They followed the same course as the other Crusaders, and Conrad in the advance reached Constantinople in A. D. 1147. The Emperor of the East was an enemy of Conrad, and not only sent secret word to the Sultan of the German line of march, but gave Conrad a number of traitors for guides. As a consequence, the German Emperor, after fighting a brave battle on the banks of the Meander, was defeated and obliged to retreat to Nice, with the loss of four-fifths of his army. This remnant upon reaching Nice, found Louis VII. and his division there. Uniting with them, the army pushed through Asia Minor, were roughly handled at Laodicea, and, when they finally reached Jerusa- lem, only a fraction of the once proud host remained. They laid siege to Damascus, but failed, and the Second Crusade took its place in his- tory among the most dismal disasters of the Middle Ages. One of the noblest and most knightly men who ever lived was a young Curdish chieftain, Saladin or Salaheddin. He was born in Egypt in A. D. 1137, and becoming a sultan, he united the Mussulman states from the Nile to the Tigris into a single empire, over which he ruled and proved himself to be as brave as he was chivalrous and farseeing. A devout Mussulman, he took advantage of the wrangling and disorder in the Latin Kingdom and invaded Palestine with the resolution to re- capture it from the Christians. His advance was one series of conquests, and he won battles in Syria, Arabia, Persia and Mesopotamia. He over- whelmingly defeated the Christians near Tiberias, A. D. 1187, and took Guy de Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, prisoner. Jerusalem itself was THE CRUSADES. 89 captured after a siege of two weeks. In impressive contrast to the conduct of the first Crusaders, he treated his prisoners with the utmost kindness, seeking to strike only those whom he met on the field of battle, and quick to befriend his bitterest foe when stricken to the earth. When Jerusalem fell, the only place left in the hands of the Chris- tians in Palestine was Tyre. The news roused Europe once more and the Third Crusade was o r g anized. This in many re- spects was the most notable of all. Its leaders were Richard I. of England (Coeur de Lion, the Lion Hearted), Phil- ippe A u g u s t e King of France, and F r e derick Barbarossa ( Red Beard) Emperor of Germany. All Christendom was taxed to meet the expenses of the holy war. The French and Eng- lish armies went to Palestine by sea, but Frederick marched overland with his division. THE CRUSADERS- FIRST VIEW OF JERUSALEM All his preparations were so fully made that not the slightest difficulty or trouble occurred on the march through Europe, across the Hellespont and into Asia Minor. There, while bathing in a small stream, the Emperor was drowned. . Much confusion followed the loss of their leader, and nearly all of the troops perished. The survivors joined the French and English forces who had laid siege to Acre. 90 THE CRUSADES. Saladin strained every nerve to relieve the beleagured city, and he fought many battles in the surrounding country with the Christians. Nothing that it was possible to do was left undone by him, but the be- siegers were too powerful, and Acre, after a siege lasting not quite two years, surrendered A. D. 1191. At the time when the hopes of conquering Palestine were at the highest point, the King of France spoiled everything by withdrawing from the Crusade. It is believed he was disgusted by the arrogance of Richard, and, perhaps, he felt jealous of his glory. The Lion Hearted remained and pressed his campaign for the recap- ture of Jerusalem, but in Saladin he found a foe who was sleepless, vigi- lant, skillful, daring and possessed of the highest qualities of general- ship. Walter Scott, in his fascinating tale "The Talisman," has given a striking picture of those times and of the character of the two leaders pitted against each other. He relates how they first met near a famous spring in the desert, neither suspecting the identity of the other, and engaged in combat. Richard was able to protect himself by means of his armor, but the nimble Saladin dodged every blow. Finally when the enraged English- man seized the girdle around the waist of the Asiatic, and was sure he was about to crush him with one of his fearful blows, Saladin, with won- derful deftness, unfastened the girdle and slipped beyond reach before the stroke could descend. A truce was then called, and, sitting down by the spring, they held a long conversation in a tongue with which both had become familiar. Saladin and King Richard formed a great admiration and a strong friendship for each other. They often met and each always respected the rules of chivalry, talking and exchanging views as if they were brothers. When Richard fell ill with a wasting fever, which none of his physicians could cure, Saladin asked the privilege of sending his own doctor to him. Knowing that his enemy would scorn to permit his physician to take any advantage, the king gladly accepted the offer and the medical man was given safe conduct at night through the English lines to the side of the sufferer. The remedy which he gave restored Richard to perfect health. The interesting feature of this incident is that the physician who thus saved the life of the great leader was Saladin himself. The Lion Hearted, although in sight of Jerusalem, was never able to capture it, for Saladin baffled every attempt. In truth, there was no THE CRUSADES. 91 need of capturing it, for the English themselves could not have shown more generosity to the Christians in the city than Saladin. He agreed to give up the strip of coast between Jaffa and Acre to them, to secure the safety of pilgrims to the holy places in Jerusalem and to permit the Latin priests to celebrate divine service at the Holy Sepulchre and at Bethlehem and Nazareth. Nothing more could be asked, and the simple promise of Saladin was as sacred as any Christian oath could have been. Still Richard would have stayed, had there been any ground for hope of success, and when he finally left Palestine, it was with the prayer that he might come back and help in capturing it from the Infidel. One of the most charming incidents in Scott's story is of the final meeting of Richard and Saladin. Looking admiringly at the huge two- handed sword of the Saxon, which he had swayed with such terrific power against the Mohammedans, Saladin asked his friend to give a dis- play of his might with it. The king with one tremendous sweep brought it down upon a bolt of iron, which was cut in two as if it were a tallow candle. A blow of half the force would have split like an eggshell the skull of a man. Saladin praised the skill of his friend and asked to show his ability with his scimetar, modestly replied that he could do nothing like Rich- ard, but perhaps he might interest him. Saladin's weapon was made of Damascus steel, tempered by the maker through weeks and months of labor to marvelous fineness. None of my readers has ever looked upon a weapon the equal of the ancient Damascus blades. With a flirt of his hand, of such lightning-like quickness that no eye could follow it, Saladin cut a silken cushion in two with his scimetar. The spectators standing by would not believe it was done fairly, and declared it a trick. The smiling Saladin then took the turban from his head, tossed it in the air and, as it came down, darted his weapon back and forth through it, so rapidly that it was like flashing" fire, and cut the gauzy thing into a hundred fragments. After such a wonderful ex- hibition, neither Richard nor any of his friends had anything to do or say except to express their admiration. Saladin died the following year from his exhausting toil in the service of his religion and his country. The Fourth Crusade (A. D. 1202-1204) was set on foot through the influence of Pope Innocent III., and was made up mainly of greedy ad- venturers, though it included a number of religious enthusiasts. The leaders were the great French barons, the gallant and pious Count of 92 THE CRUSADES. Flanders, and Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat. The last named was a cunning and shrewd man and his sole purpose was to win fame and for- tune from the venture. Henry Danolo, the venerable Venetian Doge, hoped to be able to benefit his country by joining the Crusade. Zara, a Christian city of Dalmatia, was brought under the sway of Venice, which repaid the favor by giving a fleet to the aid of the Crusaders. Donolo, after the expedition started, persuaded the leaders to turn aside from Palestine and go to Constantinople, to help the ruler who had been dethroned. There, in 1204, they overthrew the Greek Empire and es- tablished a Latin Kingdom which lasted until A. D. 1260. Human folly could go no further than when in 1212, the "Children's Crusade" started for the Holy Land. The thousands of French and Ger- man boys either died on the way, were sold into slavery or straggled home in rags. The Fifth Crusade (A. D. 1216-1220) marched into Egypt, where it met with some successes at first, but the army was finally compelled to surrender to the Sultan. What may be considered a part of this Cru- sade was led by Frederick II., Emperor of Germany. When he landed at Acre in September, 1228, his force numbered less than a thousand knights, and he made a bargain with the Moslem ruler at Jerusalem by which the city, excepting the site of the Temple covered by the Mosque of Omar, Bethlehem and Nazareth was given up to the Christians. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken in A. D. 1238, by the French under the King of Navarre and was composed mainly of Frenchmen and Spaniards. The Saracens destroyed a part of the force, and the fol- lowing year the King of Navarre withdrew with his men and went home. A favorable peace had been made with the Saracens, but it lasted only two years, when, in A. D. 1244, Jerusalem was overwhelmed and con- quered by the Turks. With the conquest, Christian rule in Palestine really came to an end. By this time, the interest in these wild schemes had nearly died out. When the news of the capture of Palestine by the bitter enemies of the Christians reached Europe, the French King Louis IX. was the only one to organize and lead a Crusade, which is ranked as the Seventh. In April, 1250, while advancing upon Cairo, Louis and his whole army were captured. He secured his release by paying a large ransom, and twenty years later (A. D. 1270), he undertook the Eighth and what proved to THE CRUSADES. 93 be the last Crusade. He was accompanied by the Kings of Navarre and Aragon. They turned aside to besiege Tunis, where nearly the whole army was destroyed by a malignant disease, Louis being one of the first to die. Prince Edward of England and a number of English nobles set out to follow Louis. They gained some successes in Palestine, but the Prince was compelled to return home in 1272, after concluding a ten-years' truce with the Moslems. In A. D. 1291, the Mohammedans overcame the Christian kingdom of Acre and the Holy Land fell fully under the sway of the "Infidel." It will be seen that the result of all these Crusades, extending over nearly two hundred years, was failure, since the Holy Land in the end remained with the Mohammedans. Aside from the folly of the schemes and the dreadful loss of life involved, some good results appeared. The Western nations learned to know one another better, and to feel a cer- tain mutual sympathy to which in their isolation they had been stran- gers. Besides, they brought valuable knowledge from the East, which gave an impulse to arts, manufactures and commerce. The contact with the Mohammedans removed the feeling of horror with which they had generally been regarded. Among them were plenty of leaders, like Saladin and others, whose example taught the Christian lesson of tol- erance and charity that in many instances was badly needed. Another result was the quickening of mental activity throughout Europe be- cause of the mingling of the two civilizations. CHAPTER VI. THE DARK AGES Their Cause The Awakening THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE THE LOMBARD LEAGUE Growth of the GERMAN EMPIRE THE FRAN- CONIAN LINE THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG THE NORSEMEN OR NORTHMEN THE NORMANS Last of the Capetian Line in France THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS KING EGBERT ALFRED THE GREAT Conquest of England by the Danes and Afterward by the Normans THE PLANTAGENET LINE THE MAGNA CHARTA THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER THE LEAGUE OF LOMBARDY Venice and Florence The Saracens in Spain- Growth of Spain Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. YOU sometimes hear the expression "The Dark Ages." By that is meant the first six centuries of the Middle Ages, that is to say, from the close of the fifth to the end of the eleventh century. What a sad and impressive thought it is that the world after reaching the high civilization of Greece and Rome, drifted back into barbarism and remained thus for hundreds of years, but such is the fact. There were many causes for this dreadful condition. We have shown that even while Rome was at its zenith of power, it began de- clining, and had it not been destroyed by the hordes of barbarians, it would have fallen to pieces of itself because of its vice and corruption. Ignorance was everywhere. Printing was unknown, and all the books were written. They were scant in number and so costly that only a few could afford to buy them, and most of those who had the means, did not care to do so. Even Richard the Lion Hearted, King of England, was unable to write his own name. The Latin language was so corrupted by the mixture with the dia- lects of other countries that classical Latin ceased to be spoken. The "confusion of tongues" resulted in building up from the Latin, the Italian, French and Spanish languages. Since the books were in ancient Latin and it was dead or no longer spoken,- the one treasury of knowl- edge was locked against the people. The grossest superstition ruled. One strange belief was that the world itself would come to an end in A. D. 1000. It was believed that that date had been fixed by the Bible, and hardly a person could be found who doubted it. Other forms of superstition darkened the minds, and, as is the law, the morals sank low and industry existed only in its 94 THE DARK AGES. 95 crudest forms. The land was scarcely tilled, and there was so little in the way of manufactures that even the kings had to have their clothing made by women servants. The merchant who dared to gather a little money was in danger of being killed by some wretch for the sake of it. The nobles issued from their massive castles, plundered and robbed right and left and then shut themselves up again, where they were safe from those whom they had despoiled. Insecurity, superstition, igno- rance and lawlessness reigned on every hand. But this sad state of affairs could not last. Signs of the rising sun began to appear in the skies. Men saw their fallen condition, and longed for better things. The instinct of self preservation is the most powerful feeling that moves us, and people realized that something must be done to prevent ruin and destruction. What should be the first steps? One of the most important was the growth of towns and their union of interests. The cities in the north of Germany and the adjoining states made such a union, as a protection against the robberies of king and barons and piracy on the seas. This union included eighty cities, and is known as the Hanseatic League. It was made about the middle of the thirteenth century, and its results were far reaching. Similar steps were taken even earlier in Italy. The cities acquired controlling pow r er in Lombardy from the eleventh century. The forma- tion of the Lombard League took place in A. D. 1167, and less than twenty years later the city-republics of Venice, Genoa and others be- came independent. An impulse was given to commerce and different industries and as the progress continued, the Dark Ages drew to an end. With the revival of different industries came also a revival of art, science and literature. Universities and schools were established and the students increased to thousands. The studies as compared with those of the present day were primary, but the spirit of inquiry was awakened and the intellectual growth rapid. Let us now note the progress of the leading nations of Europe to the close of the mediaeval period. The greatest of these was the German Empire. It has been shown that when Charlemagne died, A. D. 814, he left his immense kingdom to his weak son Louis, who divided it into Germany, France and Italy, giving one to each of his sons. They and their de- scendants ruled until A. D. 911, when five powerful dukes came together 96 THE DARK AGES. in Germany and chose Duke Conrad of Franconia as their king. When he died a Saxon was placed on the throne (A. D. 919) and he was fol- lowed by four other Saxons who carried Germany to the front rank in Europe. In A. D. 1024, the Franconian line of emperors began, the first being Conrad II. Some of them took rank among the greatest of emperors. You have learned of the quarrel of Henry IV. with Pope Gregory VII., which quarrel was continued by his successor, Henry V. He died with- out a son and the Franconian line ended A. D. 1125. During the period named, the kingdom of Burgundy was united to the empire and under Henry VI. Sicily was conquered and also added. The next emperor brought together the crowns of Germany, Italy and Sicily. Then followed the usual confusion until a new line of rulers, known as the House of Hapsburg, or of Austria, came into power and were still at the head of affairs when the Middle Ages closed. Under Charlemagne, Gaul or ancient France was a part of his em- pire, and his feeble successors ruled for a time in that country. They had little power, and finally, when things were topsy turvy, a powerful duke, Hugh Capet of Franconia made himself king. This was in A. D. 987, which marks the birth of the kingdom of France. At that time Scandinavia was inhabited by a daring race of people known as Norsemen or Northmen. They were fond of the sea and their galleys, manned by sturdy sailors, kept pushing out further and further upon the ocean and into neighboring waters. Wherever they caught sight of the vessels of other nations, they looked upon them as lawful prey, and made haste to capture and plunder them. The Norsemen \vere sea rovers and pirates. One of the lands to attract their envious eyes was the northern coast of France. In A. D. 901, their galleys entered the Seine, and Charles the Simple, who well deserved his name, was so scared that he made friends by giving the province of Normandy to the terrible fellows. Gradually the Norsemen became so-called Christians, after which they were known by the more pleasing name of Normans. The line established by Hugh Capet lasted for three centuries and a half. In A. D. 1066, William who ruled the duchy of Normandy, crossed over to England and conquered the country. This act made the Nor- man king of England, as well as Duke of Normandy. France was very jealous of this and much fighting between the two countries followed. THE DARK AGES. 97 Finally, Normandy and other districts in northern France were wrested fro in England, and a period of wise rule made France one of the leading nations of Europe. Charles IV. was the last of the Capetian line and died in A. D. 1328, without leaving a son. The crown passed to the House of Valois, in which it remained until the assassination of Henry III., A. D. 1589. In England the numerous petty kingdoms were united at the begin- ning of the ninth century under King Egbert, but were not left long to themselves. The Danes and Norsemen gave Egbert and his successors much trouble. One of the greatest names in English history is that of Alfred the Great, who was the grandson of Egbert and became King of Wessex, A. D. 872. He was kept very busy fighting the Danes, who after his death conquered the country and ruled it from A. D. 1017 to A. D. 1041. The next important event in the history of England was its conquest by William the Conqueror, which, as has been stated, took place in A. D. 1066. England was overrun by Normans, who took possession of the offices, the church and the courts. The Norman line lasted until A. D. 1154, when the Plantagenet line of sovereigns began and contin- ued until the death of Richard II. in A. D. 1399. Early in the begin- ning of the line, the French won Normandy away from England. Momentous events took place during those far away days. In A. D. 1215, King John was compelled to grant the Magna Charta, or Great Charter, which confirmed to the people all their old rights and good laws. On this rock was reared English freedom. Some of the kings were a bad lot. Henry III. was one of them. He was so detested that the nobles united under Sir Simon Montfort, and defeated and made the king prisoner. Then Montfort issued writs which added to the old body of lords, clergy and knights, two burgesses from each borough. Thus in A. D. 1264 was established the English House of Commons, which secured true representative government to that country. England rapidly became national. The words Norman and Saxon ceased to have any meaning, and all were proud to be known simply as Englishmen. The Plantagenet line ending in A. D. 1399, three kings of the House of Lancaster followed, carrying events down to A. D. 1461. Six years previous the Wars of the Roses began. The symbol of the House of 98 THE DARK AGES. Lancaster was the red rose and of the House of York the white rose. The respective supporters fought for six years, when the House of York was successful and placed their king on the throne. He had two suc- cessors and all met troublous times. In A. D. 1485, the Tudor line of English sovereigns began and carries us out of the period of Mediaeval history. The third member of Charlemagne's empire, which went to one of his grandsons was Italy. There was constant trouble between the emperors and Popes, while the Italian people were always restless under the German Empire, which, as has been stated, absorbed their country. It was in A. D. 1167, that twenty-three Italian cities united as the League of Lombardy, claiming the right to make their own laws. The demands were resisted, but in A. D. 1183, were fully admitted by the emperor. This victory it may be said brought the republics of Venice and Florence into existence. The situation of Venice made her a leader in commerce. She estab- lished a profitable trade with the East, her manufactures rapidly in- creased, and, like Genoa on the other shore of Italy, she acquired vast wealth. She grew around the northern shore of the Gulf, gathering in the Ionian Isles, the Morea and Candia, Lombardy and Cyprus. You have heard of the Doge of Venice. The word means the Duke or ruler. In A. D. 1172, the appointment of the Doge and other leading officers was placed in a grand council composed of 480 members. Con- tinual wrangling and strife went on until finally the government fell into the hands of a Council of Ten, who were so corrupt and cruel that a reign of terror spread throughout the country. Like Home, Venice was falling apart because of its own vices and corruption. In A. D. 1508, the Pope, the Emperor and the kings of France and Spain formed the League of Cambray against the city and defeated her so decisively that she never recovered from the blow. Florence had endless troubles, but in spite of them, she grew rich. The republic lasted until A. D. 1537, when Cosmo I. was made Duke of Florence, a date which it will be noted was nearly a half century after the close of the Middle Ages, It seems strange that the overrunning of Spain by the Saracens in the early part of the eighth century should have proved of lasting bene- fit to the country, but those Saracens were a wonderful people. They established universities, libraries and museums; gathered what remained THE DARK AGES. 99 of Greek and Alexandrine learning, and created a noble order of archi- tecture, of which the Alhambra is a notable specimen. Because of the Saracens, Spain became the center of learning in the tenth century. Chemistry had its beginning there, and it was they who furnished the world with the Arabic system of figures. But the Sara- cens followed the example of the nations around them in bringing ruin upon their heads through their own folly. Knowing well that their only safety lay in perfect union, they broke into a number of clans, as they may be called, each under a distinct chief. This enabled the Christians to gain ground, and they began to press the Saracens hard. Meanwhile, the Spaniards increased their strength by continual additions. Finally, the Kingdom of Spain was formed in A. D. 1469, by the marriage of Ferdinand, King of Aragon, and Isabella, Queen of Castile, the two divisions being thus united. By that time the only place remaining in the possession of the Moors was Granada. They were driven out of that in A. D. 1491, and thus ended their long rule in Spain. MODERN HISTORY FROM A. D. 1492 TO THE PRESENT TIME CHAPTER VII. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE The First Use of Gunpowder Maritime Dis- coveries Invention of Printing SPAIN Its Greatness Causes of Its Decline Luther's Reformation Steady Decline of Spain GREAT BRITAIN Henry VIII. Elizabeth Destruction of the Spanish Armada The Elizabethian "Golden Age" End of the Tudor Line and Beginning of that of the Stuarts CHARLES I. The Cavaliers and Roundheads OLIVER CROMWELL His Character Civil War The Rump Parliament Execution of Charles I. THE COMMONWEALTH The RESTORATION Under Charles II. His Unwise Course WILLIAM PRINCE OF ORANGE AND MARY The Revolution of 1688 The Orangemen "GOOD QUEEN ANNE" THE FOUR GEORGES Beginning of the Guelph Line or House of Brunswick GEORGE I. GEORGE II. Great Events of His Reign GEORGE III. Leading Events of His Reign GEORGE IV. The "Holy Alliance" Wise Acts of England WILLIAM IV. The Reform Measures QUEEN VICTORIA Her Character and Long Reign Repeal of the Corn Laws The Chartist Agitation The Crimean War Disestablishment of the Church in Ireland England's Power and Greatness Growth of the Friendship Between England and the United States. THE first great event to be recorded in modern history is the fall of the Eastern Empire, which at the middle of the fifteenth century was confined almost to the bounds of the city of Constantinople, it having been brought thus low by the vice and folly of its rulers. The Turks grew in vigor as the Eastern Empire weakened. They conquered all Asia Minor, and in the fourteenth century crossed the Hellespont and made Adrianople their capital. When the Byzantine Empire was squeezed into Constantinople that city was besieged by an army of 300,- 000 men and captured on the 29th of May, 1453. In this battle the walls were battered down by gunpowder, which it is believed was then used in war for the first time. With the fall of Constantinople fell the Byzan- tine Empire forever. A marked feature of the times we are now studying was that of maritime discovery. In this, Portugal took the lead and was greatly helped by the knowledge gained of the value of the magnetic needle, of whose properties something was known long before. It is supposed that the Chinese were the first to make use of the discovery in a crude form. 101 PALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. Prince Henry of Portugal was the leading patron of maritime dis- covery. He delighted in its study and gathered round him the best navigators and astronomers with w r hom he loved to talk about the sub- ject. He was certain that by sailing around Africa it would be found easy to reach the East Indies, though everybody else seemed to think such a feat impossible. But the officers whom he persuaded to try it found the task no trouble, and, turning nortliw r ard, they entered the region of the tropics and discovered the Senegal River and the Cape Verde and Azore Islands. His navigators made their, way to within five degrees of the equator before the death of Henry in A. D. 14G3. Nothing more was done for a few years, until the reign of King John II., when the Portuguese crossed the equator. In 1484, settle- ments were made on the Guinea coast and a trade begun with that country. The first navigator to per- form the task laid out by Prince John was Vasco da Gama, who, passing aro u n d A f r i ca, reached Calicut, in Mala- bar, in the month of May, 1498. This exploit brought a revolution in the commerce of Eu- ro p e. Portugal cared little about gaining new coun- tries, but sought trade, which be- came very profit- able to her. Hith- erto the commerce THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 1C3 had been confined to the Mediterranean, but it now made the Atlantic its principal highway. The Dutch hastened to take up the same busi- ness, and pushed the Portuguese from their advantage by robbing them of their colonies. You will note that this was the time that Columbus made the grand- est discovery of all, when, in search of a route to the Indies by crossing the Atlantic, he found America, Of that epoch in the history of man- kind, we shall learn fully in another place. Commerce, which was stead- ily growing in all directions, received a new impulse when the globe was first circumnavigated by the ships of Magellan in A. D. 1519 and 1521. Another great step in progress must not be forgotten: that was the invention of printing. The honor of this is claimed for four different persons: John Guttenberg of Strasburg; John Faust of Mainz; Peter Schoeffer of Gernsheim, and Lawrence Koster of Haarlem. The credit is generally given to Guttenberg of having first used movable types. After a number of experiments in 1434 and 1439, he went to Mainz, where, aided by Schoeffer, he brought the art into practical use. In 1450, Guttenberg joined with John Faust, of Mainz, who furnished the needed capital for carrying on the business of printing. The oldest work of any size is Guttenberg's Latin Bible, which is supposed to have been printed in 1455. The art spread, so that by A. D. 1500, there were printing offices in more than 200 places. As we advance in the study of modern history in Europe, we shall find that the records of the different nations are much interwoven with one another, and that it is hard to understand one without learning all. It will be best, therefore, to take up separately the account of each and follow it down to the present time, leaving the most interesting history of all that of our own country to the last. If you were asked to name the leading nations of the world, as they are to-day, it is certain you would not include Spain among them, and yet when modern history begins, she was the foremost of all. Her great- ness dates from the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, which by unit- ing the houses of Castile and Aragon, made the kingdom powerful enough to drive the Moors from their last stronghold in the country. The conquest of Navarre in 1512, brought all the peninsula with the ex- ception of Portugal under Spanish dominion. In 1516, Charles V. ascended the throne of Spain, which included not only the territory named, but Naples, Sicily, Sardinia and the vast 104 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. possessions on this side of the Atlantic, which had gone to Spain through the discoveries of Columbus. There was some strife over the election of Charles, but in 1520, he became Emperor of Germany and also Don Carlos I. of Spain. He was not twenty-one years old, but his dominions were the mightiest on the globe. Although there had been much wrangling and often religious wars, the Roman Catholic religion was the leading one in all the western na- tions of Europe. When Leo X. became Pope he found the treasury of the church empty, and, to refill it, he had recourse to an extensive sale of indulgences, as they are called. In the early days this meant that the Church would relieve offenders from doing penance for certain sins. After a time, this was accepted as the actual pardon for sins, and the man who bought an indulgence was supposed to be freed from all sin for the period covered by his indulgence. The sale of these indulgences was so extensive in Germany that it caused deep offense to the friars there. One of them was Martin Luther, who was Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg. Hav- ing tried in vain to have the traffic forbidden, he published in 1517, a number of papers against it. He was supported by many nobles in Ger- many who were angered at seeing so much money taken out of the country. Pope Leo X. published a decree or bull in 1520, in which he con- demned the paper of Luther as impious and heretical. Luther burned the bull in public and appealed to a general council. Germany was thrown into great commotion and people rapidly took sides, some of the foremost princes supporting the Reformation, as the movement came to be called. To allay the storm and to silence Luther, the Pope appealed to the Emperor Charles V., who called an assembly, or Diet, of the German princes at the city of Worms and ordered Luther to appear before it. He did so, in 1521, and when called upon to retract, or take back, what he had written, refused and the war was on. The doctrines of Luther spread, and in the end nearly all the nations of Teutonic stock accepted them, while most of the Latin race clung to the faith of Rome. In 1529, the Diet of Spires forbade any change until the meeting of the general council. Luther and his friends protested, or rebelled, against this decree, which fact gave to the believers in the new relio-ion the name of Protestants, by which they have been known ever since. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 105 Luther had powerful friends who carefully guarded him from violence, and a number of princes formed a league for their mutual protection against 'the Emperor. Luther denied the papal infallibility (which means that the Pope cannot be wrong in spiritual matters), wrote a great deal and never hesitated to maintain his belief by argument with any opponent. He died in 1546 at the age of sixty-three years. The Emperor, Charles V., was involved in four wars with Francis I. of France, whose object was to maintain the balance of power against the threatening domination of the House of Austria. The successes were sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other and numerous alliances were made with different nations, some of them of a grotesque character when the different interests are kept in mind. The hostilities, beginning in 1525, were ended by treaty in 1544. The Emperor's course became so harsh that the Protestants and Catholics combined and forced him, in 1552, to sign a treaty which gave religious freedom to the Protestants. This was a great triumph for the Reformation. The Emperor's next step was one of which few rulers have been guilty. In 1556 he resigned his crown, retired to a monastery and died two years later. From Spain's high estate throughout the fifteenth and a part of the sixteenth century, she rapidly descended, steadily losing power and possessions, until the most serious blow of all was received in the year 1898, when she was rash enough to measure strength with the United States. Her weakness is really due to the Spanish character. Her peo- ple are cruel and treacherous by nature, and even when humanity calls for a different course, simply as a matter of prudence, the Spaniards are too unwise to follow it. This will appear in her history as connected with the Western Continent, which will be fully treated in the later pages. After the stormy reign of Philip V. peace lasted until 1759, when Spain was at war w r ith Great Britain until 1763. In 1778, during our Revolution, she again went to war with the same country, and in 1783, obtained the Floridas and the island of Minorca. Five years later she joined the alliance against republican France but concluded peace in 1795. In a little more than a year later she joined France in a war against Great Britain. The royal family abdicated, or gave up their power, at Bayonne, in May, 1808. Then Napoleon invaded the country and in turn was driven out by the English troops and those of Spain 10 6 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. and Portugal. The tyranny of Ferdinand led to a revolution in 1820, in which the constitution of the Cortes, as established in 1812, was re- stored and restraint placed upon the power of the crown. France invaded the country in 1823 and replaced Ferdinand on the throne. He died in 1833, and his widow served as Queen Regent until Isabella reached her majority. The late king's brother, Don Carlos, laid claim to the throne, and in the civil war that lasted until 1840, was de- feated. Strife never seemed to end, and finally in the revolution of Sep- tember, 1868, the gross and coarse Queen Isabella was compelled to flee from the country, and was succeeded by the Duke of Aosta, second son of the king of Italy, who was elected by a vote of the Cortes, in Decem- ber, 1870. The subsequent events will be told in our account of the Spanish-American war. Let us now note the growth and development of the empire of Great Britain. Henry VII., the first of the line of Tudors, came to the throne, A. D. 1485, and on his death, in 1509, was succeeded by the famous Henry VIII., who was only eighteen years old. He was a handsome, rollick- ing fellow whose domestic affairs were scandalous and worthy of a mod- ern Mormon. Before his death in 1547, he had beheaded two of his wives, divorced one against whom he could make no charge, and turned out a fourth because he was tired of her, but he managed to get on with two others. Sir Walter Raleigh said of Henry VIII. : "If all the pic- tures and patterns of a merciless prince were lost in the world, they might all again be painted to the life out of the story of this king." It was during Henry's reign that Luther's Reformation caused the great stir throughout Europe. England was then strongly Roman Catho- lic and the king wrote a book (or had some one write it for him), in which he savagely attacked the Lutheran doctrines. The Pope was so pleased that he called Henry the Defender of the Faith, but he did not long merit the title. He applied to the Pope to divorce him from his first wife on the ground that she was the widow of his brother when he married her. The Pope was unwilling to grant his request, so fenry married the beautiful Anne Boleyn and had the Archbishop of Canterbury declare his first marriage illegal. Anne Boleyn was crowned queen June 1, 1533. The daughter that was born to them was Elizabeth, afterward one of the most remarkable queens that ever ruled England. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 10? Although the country was Catholic, it was insisted that the Pope had no jurisdiction in England. The breach was widened, and in 1534 the Pope excommunicated the King and declared his subjects released from their allegiance. Henry retaliated by proclaiming the Pope's authority in England abolished, and requiring all his subjects to take the oath of allegiance. In the same year Parliament declared the king the head of the Church, and every one who denied the title guilty of treason. There were many conscientious Catholics who could not admit this and they were cruelly persecuted. While thus engaged Henry charged his queen with evil acts and she was beheaded in 1536. Then, although he had claimed to be a Catholic, he turned against the church and mod- eled the form of worship after the Lutheran. He destroyed several hundred monasteries, colleges and hospitals and then seemed to repent of what he had done and incline again toward the Catholic church. His opinions changed so often that many Catholics and Protestants were burned as heretics. The conduct of the reckless monarch was such that he really Lad no more pure religion in his heart than Satan himself. The good features of his reign were the lightness of the taxes and the contentment of the people which allowed the country to make great progress. His daughter Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558, at the age of twenty-five and died March 24, 1603. Her reign marks one of the grandest eras in English history. The right of Elizabeth to the succession was disputed by the Catho- lics, who looked upon Mary Queen of Scots, as the rightful heir. She was the grand-niece of Henry VIII., and a devout Catholic. Elizabeth became an equally ardent Protestant. With a view of strengthening her position as queen, Parliament passed an act compelling every cler- gyman and office holder under the crown to take an oath giving all power both in the church and state to Elizabeth, renouncing the spirit- ual jurisdiction of any foreign prince or prelate, and forbidding all to attend the preaching of any clergyman who was not of the estab- lished religion. These were fierce blows against the Catholics and they were executed without mercy. Under them many Catholics suf- fered death. The resentment of the Catholic countries on the Continent led them to form many plans for the annoyance of Elizabeth. Mary Queen of 108 FALL OP THE EASTERN EMPIRE. Scots, after suffering long imprisonment, had been found guilty of treason and beheaded in February, 1587. Spain was so incensed that she determined to invade and punish England. She gathered the greatest fleet ever seen up to that time, and which is known in his- tory as the Invincible Armada. It included 129 ships, 3,000 cannon and 20,000 men. In addition, more than 30,000 land forces prepared to unite with them from the Netherlands. The English mustered thirty vessels with which they attacked the Armada in the English Channel in July, 1588. Fighting continued in a disjointed way for a week, when the Spanish fleet was so injured that it took refuge in the roads of Calais, where it was thrown into a panic by the fire-ships which the English sent among them. They were assailed more furiously the next day and put to flight. A vio- lent storm destroyed many, and hardly a third of the vast fleet suc- ceeded in limping back to their country. The disaster was looked upon throughout Europe as a favor of heaven on the side of Protestantism, and the blow was so decisive that Spain lost forever her foremost rank among the powers of the Con- tinent. England made giant strides in material and mental progress. Her ships entered every sea and her commerce reached all parts of the world. Her colonies were planted on the western shores of the Atlantic and in the remote regions of the globe. Her manufactures increased a hundred-fold; houses were improved; clothing became better, gold ornaments and jewelry were worn by thousands; coaches came into use; theatrical amusements were popular in London and Sir Walter Raleigh introduced the smoking of tobacco in the country. The age of Elizabeth produced some of the greatest writers, paint- ers and artists that ever lived. Among the last Italy furnished Michel- Angelo, Raphael and Titian, and Germany Albert Durer and others, while to England belonged the poet Shakespeare, whose genius attained a height never equaled before or since. Elizabeth ended the line of the Tudors. When she died that of the Stuarts began in the person of James VI. of Scotland, son of the unfor- tunate Mary Queen of Scots, who took the title of James I. of Eng- land. He was a weak man, but somewhat learned and very conceited. He always had a weakness of the knees which made him wabble when he walked, and his one crazy, all-controlling belief was that all kings FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 109 are appointed of heaven and, therefore, are above and beyond the reach of human law. His son, Charles I., who became king in 1625, at the age of twenty-five, was, if possible, a still more ardent believer in the "Divine Right of Kings." When Charles came to the throne, his country was fighting Spain. The war was so causeless that Parliament refused to give the money needed to carry it on. The king showed his contempt for the body by raising the money unlawfully, and, when he disliked a person, he had him thrown into prison, in utter disregard of law. Seeing that some- thing must be done to check him, Parliament passed a bill that he was forced to sign which had the desired effect. This was in 1628, but soon afterward he had a bitter quarrel with Parliament and sent the members to their homes, resolved never again to call the body together. It looked as if the reckless king now had everything his own way. He broke the law he had signed, imprisoned people as the notion took him, and laid taxes as he saw fit. He went too far when he tried to force the Scotch to accept the liturgy of the Church of England. This was more than those people could stand and a Scotch army crossed into England. Charles was now forced in self defense to call Parliament together, and that body determined to bring the ruler to his senses by remov- ing all the causes of trouble in the kingdom. The body is known in history as the Long Parliament, because it remained so long in ses- sion. It convened in 1640, and the king saw he was helpless before it. A bill was passed which declared that there should be a Parlia- ment at least once every three years, and the king should not dissolve it without its own consent. It looked as if the trouble was over, for the legislation needed was passed and the monarch gave his assent, but a good many doubted his sincerity and insisted that some guarantee should be given that he would not again break his pledge. That there was good ground for this distrust was proven soon afterward, when he demanded the surrender of five of the members of Parliament on the charge of trea- son. They were not given up, and the king went to the House with a body of armed men to seize them, but knowing of his coming, they kept out of the way. The nation was so indignant over its insult that the king took up HO FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. his residence at York. Messages passed back and forth between him and Parliament, and he was ordered to give up the command of the army. He refused. It must be remembered that King Charles had a strong party behind him. They were called Cavaliers and included most of the country gentlemen, the nobles and the clergy. On the side of Parliament were a few of the nobles, country gentlemen, the tradesmen and what may be called the common people. Because of their practice of wearing their hair short, they were ridiculed as Round- heads. Civil war began in 1642 and lasted for six years. At first the Royal- ists or Cavaliers were successful, but by and by victory came to the Roundheads, One of the men who took part in the first battle, on the side of the Roundheads, was Oliver Cromwell, about forty years old and a captain of the horse. He was a man of intensely religious convictions, uneducated and slovenly in dress, homely in appearance, but with a natural military ability of the highest order. He was of dauntless courage and the strictest of Puritans, as the people were called who opposed the loose practices that had crept into the serv- ice of the Church of England. Cromwell fought so w^ell in the first battle that he was made colonel of a regiment, of cavalry. He put it under the most rigid discipline and struck such fearful blows that the "Ironsides" terrified their ene- mies. When the army was remodeled, although Sir Thomas Fair- fax was placed in chief command, Cromwell was made lieutenant-gen- eral and was the real leader. No more wonderful army was ever known. The men did little else than pray and fight. When they went into battle they sang psalms and gave glory to God for every- thing that happened. Catching their inspiration from the terrible Cromwell himself, they were resistless. W 7 hen they met the armies of the Royalists, who were of the drinking, carousing sort, they hewed them down and scattered them like so many children. In the decis- ive battle, fought in 1645 at Naseby, the royalist forces were swept from the field and the king's cause made hopeless. The majority of Parliament were content to limit the power of the king. These men were called Presbyterians. The army leaders would not be satisfied with anything less than the overturning of the throne.' They were the Independents and Cromwell was their leader. He arrested King Charles and confined him at Hampton Court. Negotia- FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. Ill tions went on for a time between the king and Parliament, and a com- promise was in sight, when Cromwell was alarmed at the prospect and sent an armed force which drove from the House of Commons all the members who favored the compromise. Those who opposed met to- gether, forming what is known in history as the "Rump Parliament," and brought King Charles to trial January 20, 1649. A week later he was condemned to death as a "tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy," and beheaded in front of Whitehall Palace, January 30, 1649. Charles I. was the only king of England to die on the scaffold. Thus the Commonwealth was established and lasted for eleven years. At first the Parliament, consisting of forty-one members, ruled the country, though even then Cromwell was the real head. His vigor was amazing. He led an army into Ireland and conquered the country. Scotland declared Charles II. the rightful king, but Cromwell soon sub- dued that country. Charles crossed into England at the head of a large force, but all his hopes were ended by his defeat at Worcester in 1651. The Dutch became ugly and the great Commoner quickly brought them to their senses. Cromwell's real trouble was at home, where certain members of Parliament continually annoyed him. He took a short way to end it. Walking into the hall one day in April, 1653, where Parliament was in session, he said: "Begone, all of you! We need honest men and I shall have them!" His armed force drove out the members and Cromwell locked the door and carried off the key. Having thus ridded himself of the Rump Parliament, a new one was elected, but it did not sit long when it turned over all its power to Cromwell, giving him the title of "Lord Protector of the Common- wealth." No king of England ever had more power than he. Cromwell ruled with a rod of iron. He divided the country into districts and placed each in charge of a military officer, who made every one obey. He conquered the Spaniards and forced them to give up the island of Jamaica. The peace with Holland had to be made as he wished, and he united the Protestant states of Europe. When such absolute power rests in one man, it never lasts long. Cromwell's rigid course made many enemies who plotted against him. He knew his life was in danger all the time and was greatly worried. The strain caused his death, September 3, 1658, and his son Richard succeeded him. He was so.weak and gentle that he resigned after a 112 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. few months and a time of confusion followed. Reaction then set in and Charles II. was brought back and received with great rejoicing. The new king was a bad one. He would have done the country a great deal of harm had he not so busied himself with his o'wn vices that he had time for little else. He was mean and wicked, and toward the end of his reign did things as tyrannical as those of his father. You will notice that w T hile he was king a good many of the colonies in our country were settled and they got their charters from him. De- spite his evil course the country prospered and its condition was good w r hen Charles II. died in 1685 and was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of York, under the title of James II. This ruler's one aim was to make Roman Catholicism the religion of the country, though those of that faith in England were very few in number. His efforts wore out the patience of the nation, and in 1688, the grandson of Charles I., and the nephew and son-in-law of James himself, was asked to save the people from their detested mon- arch. This man was William, Prince of Orange, the husband of the king's daughter. He landed with an army on the coast of England in 1688, and James was scared almost out of his wits. A large part of the king's army went over to William, and James sent his wife and son to France, flung the Great Seal into the Thames and ran off to France, where Louis XIV. took care of him. The events make up what is known in history as the Revolution of 1688. Parliament declared the throne vacant and shut out the Catho- lic line of the House of Stuart. The government was placed in the hands of William III. and his wife, Mary II. Remembering the bit- ter lessons of the past, the Bill of Rights was passed, which secured to the people all their rights and ended the absurd doctrine of the divine rule of kings. This important law laid the foundation of the true greatness of England. James II., sullen and soured, raised the standard of revolt, the fight- ing being mostly in Ireland, but he was overthrown at the battle of the Boyne in 1690, and went back to France to stay until he died. You hear to-day of the Orangemen among the Irish, who are fond of celebrating the victory of the Boyne. They are Protestant Irish- men and there are a good many of them in Ireland. Bitter feeling exists between them and the Catholic Irishmen and they often quarrel and fight. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE, 113 Queen Mary died in 1694, and the king was left to rule alone. He made a good ruler, but was killed by a fall from his horse March 8, 1702. His sister-in-law, Anne, a daughter of James II., succeeded and when she died in 1714, the Stuart line of sovereigns came to an end. Queen Anne's reign was marked by important events. England and Scotland were really two nations, each with its own Parliament. They grew further apart and soon would have been wholly separate, but for the wisdom of the leading men in both countries, who drew up a "Treaty of Union," which was accepted by both Parliaments in 1707. Under it England and Scotland were united under the name of Great Britain. During her reign, Queen Anne lost her husband and all of her seventeen children. She passed away in 1714. She was not brilliant, but was an excellent woman and is often referred to as "Good Queen Anne." While she was ruler the War for the Spanish Succession took place, of which more will be told in our history of France. We come now to the reign of the Four Georges. George I. was a descendant of James I. in the female line and the lawful Protestant heir. In him began the Guelph line or House of Brunswick, which still rules England. He came to the throne in 1714 and ruled until his death in 1727. He was fifty-four years old when he became king of England and was a stolid German who could not speak a word of English. He was best fitted to work as a day laborer and to spend his evenings with his pipe and mug of beer. The men who raised the Prince of Orange to the throne, took the name of Whigs. Since then the name has been borne by men of liberal principles, while the Tories are those who support church and state and oppose democracy. In this country we might call the Republicans Tories while the Demo- crats would be classed as Whigs. George I. was a Whig and he acted harshly toward the Tories. Rioting followed and by and by a strong party was formed who fav- ored making James III., son of James II., king. He is known as the Pretender, and those who supported him were called "Jacobites" be- cause the word "Jacobus," in Latin means "James." Louis XIV., of France, had promised to help James III. to gain the throne of Eng- land, but he died before he could do so, and the risings in England and Scotland were easily put down. George II., son of the first George I., was in his forty-fifth year 114 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. when, in 1727, he became king. He was much the same as his father, though he could speak broken English. His reign lasted until 1760 and saw many great events. A war with Spain was caused by the brutal treatment of Englishmen in America by the Spaniards. In 1745 another enemy of the throne appeared in the person of Charles Edward, son of the old Pretender. He tried with the help of the French to win the throne for his father, but was crushed at Culloden. In 1755 began the war with France for the mastery in America, ending in 1763 in the complete triumph of England. All this will be fully told in the history of our own country. George III., the best of the three, came to the throne in 1760 and was nominally king until 1811, but he was insane a part of the time and there was a regency from 1811 to 1820, when George IV. was made king, on the death of his father. George III. was personally a good man, but was narrow minded and bigoted. It was mainly due to his stubborness that his American colonies revolted and won their inde- pendence by the Eevolution which ended in 1781. A bitter struggle took place between France and England for the possession of India. England won, and since then has ruled that coun- try, whose population is more than four times her own. The Insane king dying in 1820 the regency ended, because such a system means a government that lasts only through the inability of the rightful sovereign to rule, and George IV. came to the throne. He had some ability, but spent his energies in drinking, carousing and indecent living. It was small loss to the nation, when he died in 1830, and his brother succeeded as William IV. During the regency of George IV. Napoleon Bonaparte was over- thrown at Waterloo. He had played such havoc with the peace of Europe that Austria, Russia and Prussia formed the "Holy Alliance," by which they bound themselves to help one another when in danger. France also joined, but England refused because she saw the real object was to check the growth of the people's power, and to interfere with the internal affairs of other nations a very dangerous thing for any coun- try to do. A wise step was taken by England when, in 1828, she repealed the law which required all persons taking office to be communicants of the Established Church. But very oppressive laws were in force against the Catholics, who were kept out of Parliament and many offices. FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 115 Under the lead of Daniel O'Connell, of Ireland, a brave fight was set on foot against these unjust acts. The House of Commons passed a repeal several times, but it was always defeated in the House of Lords, until the country reached the brink of civil war. O'Connell was elected to Parliament and so powerful was the battle he waged that he won a complete victory. A law was passed which placed Catholics and Protestants on exactly the same political footing. The bill was signed by the king in April, 1829. William IV. reigned until 1837. When he became king the repre- sentation in Parliament was very one-sided and unfair. Thus the large cities of Manchester and Liverpool had no representatives at all, while little places, whose names were hardly ever heard, had one or two members. These boroughs were spoken of as "pocket" or "rotten" boroughs and were generally under the control of one man, who in this country would be called a "boss." The protests against this state of things were too loud to pass dis- regarded, but several defeats of the bill for reform by the House of Lords caused great excitement and rioting broke out in many places. When the House of Lords awoke to the fact that the people and the crown itself were against them, they yielded and the Reform Bill be- came law. It brought many needed changes, one of the most satis- factory of which was the extension of the right of voting among the middle classes. Another marked step forward was made when slavery was abol- ished in all the colonies of England. By this one act 800,000 slaves were set free. Their owners were paid a million dollars for thus giv- ing up their "property." When William IV. died in 1837, he was succeeded by Alexandrina Victoria, daughter of his brother, Edward, Duke of Kent. She was then eighteen years old and three years later was married to her cousin, Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The match was a love one and no wedded life could have been more happy than that of this couple, which lasted until the death of the Prince Consort in De- cember, 1861. Under the reign of Victoria Great Britain has reached her highest power and greatness. The Queen herself, who is living at this writing, has occupied the throne longer than any other sovereign now reigning in Europe, and none was ever more loved and revered than she. Her 116 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. noble character, her goodness of heart and her true womanly qualities have won the respect of the civilized world, and in our own country her popularity is second only to that in her own. In the life of one of the very foremost nations of the world, stretch- ing through more than sixty years, there have been great events that would require volumes to do them justice. When Victoria was crowned the laws of England placed a heavy duty on all grain brought into the country. This was done that those who raised corn in England might get a better price for it. Such a law in this country would come under the head of "protection." On the other hand many able men believed that every nation and person should be free to buy where they can get the cheapest and sell where they can get the highest price. It was claimed there should be no duties at all and that trade should be free. In 1839 these inen formed the "Anti-Corn League," which in 1846 succeeded in having the duties taken off or made almost nothing on grain, cattle and other products. The Chartist agitation stirred England to its center. It was an uprising of the people, who demanded the right for all of voting by ballot, and that they should be granted electoral districts, and annual Parliaments whose members should be paid. There was rioting, but the Chartists failed to get what they asked. The agitation, however, educated the people and since then most of the reforms called for have been given. The only great war in Europe after Waterloo, in which England took part, was that of the Crimea. What is termed the "balance of power" was disturbed by the Czar of Russia, when he seized the Turkish prin- cipalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. An alliance was formed by Great Britain, France and Sardinia in behalf of the Sultan of Turkey. They won and peace was made in September, 1855, after more than a year of conflict Since then there have been many threatened wars, but none of them was of account, being mainly with England's own possessions in other countries. The Empire has steadily advanced in power and greatness, and the mighty naval strength of Great Britain is equal to that of any other two nations in the world, with the exception, perhaps, of our own. In 1867 the right of franchise or voting was greatly extended, and, under the lead of Gladstone, liberal measures were carried in 1869 and 1870 FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 117 for the benefit of Ireland. One of these was the act which disestab- lished the Church in Ireland that is to say, the Episcopal religion was no longer that of the country, for the good reason that a very large part of the people in Ireland are Catholics. In 1872 Parliamentary voting was made by ballot, instead of being open. This was one of the principles for which the Chartists contended. * Among the grandest steps in the progress of the Anglo-Saxon peo- ples, is the close friendship that has grown up within the last few years between England and our own country. We two are the hope of the world, and the future promises greater advances in Christianity and civilization than all the ages that have gone before have known. CHAPTER VIII. JOHN CALVIN The Religious Wars in France The Massacre of St. Bartholomew HENRY IV. LOUIS XIII. CARDINAL RICHELIEU France Under Louis XIV. Brave Defense of Holland The War for the Spanish Succession The Corruption and Vice in France Under LOUIS XV. AND XVI. The Uprising of the People THE REIGN OF TERROR The Marvelous Career of NAPO- LEON BONAPARTE His Downfall and Death Restoration of the Bourbons The Revolution of July, 1830 LOUIS PHILIPPE THE SECOND EMPIRE UNDER LOUIS NAPOLEON His War with Germany End of the Second Empire and Establishment of the Third Republic Latter Days of France. NO COUNTRY was probably ever more cursed with w T ars than France. Almost from the beginning there were furious con- flicts between the Protestants and Catholics. It has been said with truth that the bitterest quarrels are between members of the same family and the most savage wars are those that are waged in the name of religion. Luther's Reformation took strong hold in France, but most of the AFTER THE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 118 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE: 119 French Protestants were followers of John Calvin, the son of a cooper, and born in Picardy in 1509. He studied hard, took holy orders and in his twenty-fifth year withdrew from the Church of Rome. Persecu- tion compelled him to leave France and go to Switzerland where, in 1535, he published his famous Institutes of the Christian Religion. In the following year he was chosen Professor of Divinity and one of the pastors of the church at Geneva, but his notions of strict discipline caused much ill will and he was banished. He went to Strasburg, where he filled the same posts as in the former city. He was appointed to assist at the diets held by order of Charles V. to try to smooth over the differences with the Romish church. Calvin returned to Geneva by request and established a form of discipline of the severest nature conceivable. In that respect he was worse than Cromwell, for he caused to be burned at the stake his former intimate friend for no other reason than that he had written against the doctrine of the Trinity. This will always taint the name of a man who rendered immeasurable service to the cause of the Reformation. He wrote a great deal and with the highest ability. He seemed never at rest and died in 1564. Calvin gained many followers in France, where they were known as Huguenots. They were cruelly persecuted by successive rulers, many being driven to our own country. Some settled in the southern colo- nies, where they were the best immigrants that came across the At- lantic. There was no crime too horrible to be committed in the name of religion, and one side was fully as savage as the other. We will recall ,only one of the hideous deeds because it was of great importance. The war, or rather series of massacres, which began in 1562, were brought to an end in 1570, by the Treaty of Germain. To make this peace binding a marriage was proposed between young Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, and Princess Margaret, sister of the King. Henry was the Huguenot leader and the next heir to the crown of the coun- try after the sons of Henry II. The proposal delighted Catholics and Protestants alike, and thous- ands of them gathered in Paris to witness the nuptials, which were celebrated August 18, 1572. There have been many widely differing accounts of what took place, because most of those who wrote have been friends of one cause or the other, but the following is believed to be a truthful statement: 120 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. Charles IX. had just become of age, but he was a puny, sickly per- son, whose mind did not raise him much above the rank of a fool. The real power was wielded by Catherine de Medicis, who was the widow of Henry II., the king's father. The elder son who succeeded him died a year later, in 1560. Catherine was named regent during the minor- ity of the second son, who was the Charles IX. just referred to. Charles whined to Admiral Coligny over the way in which he was kept under by the queen regent. The Admiral was a Huguenot and one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. He felt sorry for the weak-minded young man and told him he would do what he could to help him. Charles was so happy that he began boasting that he would soon drive out his mother and brother and have things his own way. It w r as his right to be king and he meant to be., The words of the chatterbox reached his mother and it did not take her long to* find out who had been advising him. Aided by Henry, her other son, she had an effort made to assassinate the Admiral, but it failed. The Huguenots were so incensed by the blow struck at their leader that they vowed they would make Catherine de Medicis and her wicked son pay dearly for it. It was an imprudent boast, for the threats were soon carried to the ears of the woman. She called her friends together and they decided to strike a blow, on the eve of St. Bartholo- mew, from which the Huguenots would never recover. Late at night, August 23, 1572, Catherine and several of her clos- est friends hurried to Charles, and, with every appearance of terror, told him that the Protestants had formed a plan for killing every mem- ber of the royal family, and the only way of preventing it was by slay- ing the Huguenots. Charles IX. shook with terror, but refused to sign the order that had been prepared and was placed before him. They played upon his fears until he gave way, and with a trembling hand wrote his name, adding: "I do this on condition that you kill every one of the Huguenots, so there won't be any left to blame me." At two o'clock on the morning of August 23 the bells of Paris rang out the signal, and the fearful massacre of St. Bartholomew began. o To prevent any mistake, the criminals displayed a white cross on each hat and a scarf on the left arm. The startled Huguenots rushed out of their houses in their night clothes and were killed as soon as the savage miscreants could reach them. Admiral Coligny was one of the first to fall, but Henry of Navarre was spared on his promise to THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 121 go to mass. The massacre raged for three days, during which it is estimated that ten thousand people were killed. Orders were sent into the provinces to spare no one and 45,000 more victims perished. The expectation of Catherine that the Huguenots would submit from sheer terror proved an error. Since no mercy was shown them, they flew to arms, resolved to die fighting. The land was deluged with blood for a year. Charles IX. died in 1574, and the third son of Cath- erine de Medicis was crowned Henry III. Anarchy lasted throughout his reign of fifteen years, when he died by the hand of an assassin, the last of the House of Valois, that had held power for two centuries and a half. Henry of Navarre was now the rightful heir. He had to conquer' his enemies, and finally ended all opposition by becoming a Catholic. He was crowned Henry IV., King of France and Navarre, and was the first of the Bourbon line. Four years later he issued the Edict of Nantes, which restored to the Protestants all the favors they had en- joyed. Peace came and was followed by a period of great prosperity. Henry was very popular and proved to be a good and wise ruler. When it was not thought he had a living enemy, a fanatic or "crank," as he would be called in these times, sprang upon the wheel of his carriage, when he was riding through the streets of Paris, and stabbed the king to death. This crime was committed on the 14th of May, 1610. The heir to the throne was then a boy of nine years, and his mother ruled until he reached his majority. France w r ent backward, and in- trigues, plotting and trouble were constant for years. When Louis XIII. became king he banished his mother. She rallied enough sup- porters to keep the kingdom in a turmoil for two years. In the midst of these dreadful times one of the most remarkable men in history came to the front. He had been appointed Bishop of Lucon and the mother of the king made him her spiritual adviser. He healed the quarrel between Louis and his mother, who got the Pope to make the Bishop a Cardinal, and persuaded her son to admit him as a member of his cabinet. This man was Armand Duplessis de Richelieu, or, as he is better known, Cardinal Richelieu. The power he quickly gained was without limit. From 1622 to 1642, when he died, he was the real king. He had plenty of enemies among the nobles, but he outwitted them all. He crushed the Hugue- nots, helped to humble Austria, carried the glory of France to distant 122 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. regions, developed literature, founded the French Academy and made his country one of the leading nations of Europe. When Louis died his son was only five years old. His title was Louis XIV. and his reign lasted for seventy-two years. During his minority the regency was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria. Her adviser was an Italian, Cardinal Mazarin. The Thirty Years' War, which had begun under Richelieu, was raging and was pushed to a conclusion that brought glory to France. W T hen Mazarin died Louis XIV. was twenty-three years old, and he took the government in his own hands. He chose able men for his advisers, and, ambitious to enlarge his empire, he found excuse, in 1G6T, to march his army into the Netherlands. He made many conquests, but England, Holland and Sweden formed an alliance, and by the treaty of 1668, made Louis give nearly all of them back. The French king took the first chance that appeared for revenging himself upon Holland. He bribed Charles II. of England, to keep out of the affair, and won Sweden for an ally. Feeling the ground safe under him, Louis began another war against Holland in 1572. It lasted for seven years and in time involved most of the European states. The situation of the Hollanders seemed hopeless, and they turned in despair to William, Prince of Orange, who, as we have learned, after- ward became King of England. He calmly girded himself for the strug- gle, which could not have been in a more desperate plight. Holland was overrun in six weeks, and the French armies were nearing Amster- dam, when William opened the sluices of the miles of banks which shut out the German Ocean "and the Rhine from the low grounds of the country. The vast volume of water poured over the land in a deluge, and the invaders had to stay on the higher ground, where they could do nothing. The Dutchmen have always been great sailors, and their fleets now engaged those of the united French and English and gained the ad- vantage in three battles, though not to an extent to prove decisive. By this time England grew ashamed of the part she was playing against poor Holland. Parliament made Charles II. sign a treaty of peace with William of Orange in 1674. Other nations came to the help of the gallant little state, whose allies were England, Spain and Ger- many. Although opposed to half of Europe, Louis kept up the strug- gle for four years, without any great advantage being gained by either THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. side. Then everybody grew weary of the war and peace was made in 1678. France secured Alsace and many towns in Flanders; Holland got all for which she had been fighting, while Spain got nothing. France had become a great nation, though she paid dearly for it. The most cruel act of the reign of Louis XIV. was the "Revocation of the Edict of Nantes." This took away all the .rights that had been given to the Protestants. Their churches were torn down and their ministers driven out of the country, while the laymen were forbidden under heavy penalties to leave. In spite of this, their persecutions caused a half million of the best subjects in France to flee to other lands. You will admit that the Prince of Orange had no cause for lov- ing Louis XIV. and he remembered him when he became King of England. He put himself at the head of the "Grand Alliance," whose object was to curb Louis and which set out to do so. Battles were going on, chiefly in the Netherlands, in half a dozen different places at the same time. When peace was made in 1697 Louis was com- pelled to give up much that he had gained. To show the folly of many of the wars that cost thousands of lives, let me tell you about one of the most famous. When Charles II. of Spain died, in 1700, he left no children, but by his will named as his heir Philip of Anjou, who was the grandson of Louis XIV. Philip at that time was a small boy, and the other nations took the alarm at once. It was Louis who would be the real ruler of the two countries, the union would upset the "balance of power," as it was termed, and that would never do. So England and Germany united with Holland and Prussia to break the will of the dead Spanish monarch. They put forward the second son of the German Emperor as the right man for the King of Spain. Over this quarrel the nations fought for thirteen years and then found there was nothing to fight about. That wonderful general, the Duke of Maryborough, conducted the English campaigns with masterly skill, while Prince Eugene of Savoy did almost as well for the Germans. The result was the crushing of Louis XIV. England won Gibraltar from Spain, the French fleets were burned and France was threatened with invasion. To save his kingdom from ruin Louis was glad to make peace. And yet, despite his overwhelming defeat, Louis succeeded in plac- m THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. ing Philip of Anjou on the throne of Spain, and the way it came about was so odd that I am sure you could never guess. You remember that all this fighting was to prevent Louis from be- coming the real ruler of Spain, in addition to his own country. While the war was going on and when it had lasted thirteen years, the Em- peror of Germany died and his son Charles became Emperor. Now he was the very man that the alliance were fighting to make King of Spain. If they succeeded he would be the ruler of Germany and Spain, and the "balance of power" would be in a worse plight than the elec- tion of Philip of Anjou could place it. So after all the years of fighting and loss of thousands of lives, England and Holland wheeled squarely about and made Philip their candidate for the throne of Spain. He became the first Bourbon king of that country, just as he would have been, had there been no fight- ing at all. The war closed in 1714 and the following year Louis XIV. died. His reign was a glorious one for France, which reached a high point of power and prosperity. The age was brilliant, but the nation was rotten at heart and society corrupt to the core. Louis XV. now came to the throne and reigned until 1774, with vice, wickedness and degradation running riot. Wars were set on foot to please the nobles; the men about the court were as bad as they could be, and the same is to be said of the women. The peasants were ground to the dust and treated as if they were crawling worms, and when Louis XVI. became King corruption went to its furthest length. If a nobleman found his drunken sleep broken he made the barefooted peasants tramp the marshes near his home all night to keep the frogs from croaking. Another, when his carriage was driving through the street of Paris, ran over a little child and mangled it dreadfully. The nobleman's only concern was whether its blood had soiled the shining spokes of the wheel that killed the innocent one. When he found they were untainted, he was satisfied and cared nothing for the mourning and breaking hearts of the parents. If a peasant did not bow low enough, or step quickly aside to make room for one of the gilded gentry, he cut him down with his sword that other boors, might learn better manners. Was it any wonder that at last the crushed people turned on their upper classes? Louis XVI. was naturally kind of heart, weak, and believed he was pious because he went through the form of religion, and did nothing to THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. .125 check the vice around him. At the age of sixteen years, he married Marie Antoinette and was still a child in mind when, four years later, he was made king. The country had been at war for a century and a half, and though the people were taxed beyond bearing, the treasury was nearly a quarter of a million dollars in debt. Worst of all most of the middle and lower classes had become infi- dels. When they saw those above them, while claiming to be religious, not only indulging in every vice that the mind can think of, but spend- ing their time in trying to invent new and more shocking forms of wickedness, what respect could the poor people feel for them or for the religion they professed? There were clubs formed from among the high- est in social position whose sole thought was to find out strange meth- ods of doing wrong. The clergy were as bad as they. Sodom and Gomorrah were not more vile than France under Louis XVI., for it was beyond the power of any human beings to be worse. They sowed the wind and they reaped the whirlwind. God does not permit such a defiance of all his laws to go unpunished and the lashing to which France was soon subjected was fearful beyond the power to describe. One thing was clear to the shallow pate of Louis: the finances must be improved or the country would speedily go to the dogs. The first minister selected framed a common sense plan, which of necessity cut off many of the privileges of the hangers-on about the throne. They were alarmed and had no trouble in making the king dismiss the min- ister. Another was tried and after five years, he showed the amazing fact that the Country was saving more money than it spent. That was fine, but his accounts revealed another fact: the nobility were paying no taxes at all. So they began pestering the minister until he could stand it no longer and gave up his office. During those dreadful days France gave such help to us in our Revolution that England declared war against her. You must bear in mind one important fact that had much to do with the events I am soon to tell you about. Our forefathers were struggling for their rights, and France agreed to help them. Our friends on the other side of the Atlantic began to ask themselves why they should not have the same rights that they were so anxious to secure for the Americans, who were not suffering a tenth part of the tyranny that kept the peasants in the dust. 126 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. In France the nobility and priests, who formed only a small part of the population, owned two-thirds of the land and none of them paid taxes, all of which were rolled upon the bending shoulders of the peas- ants. These people, though slow and dull, began to think. France borrowed money right and left until the time came when she could not get another franc. No single man could figure out what was to be done, so the magistrates and leading nobles were called to- gether to talk it over. There seemed but one plan, which was to tax the land, but as the nobility owned nearly all of that, the proposal was rejected. Finally, after a long time, it was agreed to call a "States- General," which was a meeting of all classes in convention, with the right to discuss matters in which they were interested and to petition the king. Elections were held and 1,200 delegates met in the king's palace at Versailles, May 5, 1789. This remarkable assembly was made up of the clergy, nobility and the common people, who were as numerous as the first two together. They were still thinking hard, and it was not long before they showed their strength. The nobles and clergy refused to meet in the same chamber with them, whereupon they organized as the "National Assem- bly." This act was the first rumbling of the coming earthquake. There was no sa3 r ing to what length the National Assembly would go, and the dukes and archbishops hurried to the king. He was scared and uncertain what to do, and of course did the very thing he should not have done. He adjourned the Assembly for a month, and placed sol- diers at the door to prevent members from going in. Th$y met in another place and took a solemn oath not to adjourn until they had agreed upon a new constitution for France. A good many of the clergy and some of the nobles, seeing whither things were drifting, and with the Duke of Orleans at their head, joined the commons in their hall. Sad to say, among these new recruits were some of the worst miscreants in all France. One of them was coarse-featured, pockered, and wholly depraved, but he was eloquent and possessed of ability. He was Mirabeau. Another was a man of small size, who was wide awake, mean look- ing, with a greenish complexion, and grinning all the time. You would not have believed he would ever be heard of among so many able men, THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 127 but he was Robespierre, one of the most frightful monsters that ever lived. The French people are always excitable, and Paris was turned upside down. Clubs and meetings were filled with shouting people, the excitement increased and the streets swarmed with thousands, all eager to kill somebody. It is a fearful fact that about the first thing such mobs demand is blood, and unless promptly checked they are sure to get it. Some one spread the report that the soldiers were marching to dis- perse the National Assembly. The mob became wild. Tri or three colored flags seemed to blossom from every public building, men rushed to snatch up guns, pikes and anything that could be used as a weapon, and hurried to the defense of the Assembly. The guards were called out and when ordered to fire on the mob refused to do so. Houses in many parts of the city were plundered and the trembling noblemen did their best to keep out of sight. The most famous prison in Paris was the Bastile, built more than four hundred years before. It was looked upon with horror, for those who were once hidden within its gloomy walls, left hope behind. A king, to please some pretty but wicked woman, would thrust a noble- man into the Bastile, and he was left there to rot. Think of the king giving his favorites a lot of blank orders signed, leaving the man. or woman to write in what names he or she fancied! That was done hun- dreds of times. The Bastile, therefore, was hated beyond expression by the common people, who knew of the many that had suffered a living death behind its walls. On the 14th of July, amid the rioting in Paris, the cry was raised, "To the Bastile! Let us storm the Bastile!" Thither streamed the wild multitude, among whom were hundreds of women, as savage as their fathers, brothers and husbands. The place was defended by thirty-two Swiss and eighty-two invalid soldiers. They refused to surrender and the French guard joined the howling mob. When cannon were brought to bear, the guard surrendered. The tigerish people instantly killed the officers and most of the guards, and set free the few prisoners in the cells. As the pale men came tot- tering out and paused, dazed and blinking in the sunlight, they were wildly welcomed, the attack was renewed on the grim building and 128 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. never stopped until it was leveled to the ground. Then the frenzied swarm paraded through the streets clamoring for more victims. The revolution had fairly begun and the people were masters. The king came to Paris and the cowardly nobles ran across the frontier, caring nothing of what became of the royal family so long as they them- selves were safe. Returning to the royal residence at Versailles, a dozen miles away, Louis, sick at heart, awaited the end of the awful outburst. Every bit of news that reached him was terrifying. Not Paris alone, but the whole country was in revolt. Twenty-five million people were hunting down the "aristocrats" like so many rabid dogs. The demands of the nation must be granted and that quickly, or not a vestige of royalty would be left. Many noblemen rose in the Assembly and con- fessed their wrong doing and promised to grant everything the people asked. Had this been 'done a few weeks before, it w r ould have stayed the storm, which had now passed beyond control. The king was foolish enough to call some of the military to Ver- sailles, where at a banquet, when the officers were drunk, they trampled the tricolored cockades under foot, pledged their loyalty to the king and queen, and promised to make short work of the miserable people that had dared to insult them. News of all this w r as not long in reaching Paris, where the mob were in a most dangerous mood. Haggard, wild and famished, thousands of men and women set out for Versailles; the wives had become furies and were more savage than their husbands. They were armed with guns, pikes, swords, knives, clubs, stones and sticks anything that would aid the blows they were frantic to strike against the royal family and nobility. They were kept quiet for a while by promises from the Assembly, and from the king, but this could not last. The palace was attacked and while the mob was battering down the doors to the queen's apart- ments, Lafayette arrived with the guard and dispersed them. Paris was the seat of the revolution and the people demanded that the king should go thither. He could not refuse and the royal car- riage with Louis, Marie Antoinette and the Dauphin, as their child was called, rode thither at a snail's pace, escorted by screeching market women, bearing aloft on the points of their pikes, the heads of the vic- tims of their fury. They arrived in Paris, October 6, 1789. The king would have been blind had he not seen his frightful dan- THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 129 ger. All that could save him and the queen was flight. They were deserted by nearly all their friends, and often whispered over the mat- ter, but put off the attempt until the night of June 20, 1791, when they slipped out of the palace in disguise, entered a carriage and were driven beyond the city. All went well for a time, b.ut at the little town of Varennes, while they were changing horses, some one recognized the king. The news spread, the national guard caught up their arms, and the horses' heads were turned back toward Paris, which was entered amid a solemn still- ness, that boded ill for the royal couple. Meanwhile, a constitution was framed which made France a con- stitutional monarchy. The National Assembly, after sitting for three years, dissolved itself September 29, 1791. Three parties had formed, who opposed one another to the death. The first was the Feuillants, who were few and weak, and supported the law and the constitution. The second was the moderate Republicans known as Girondists, who were under the lead of Mirabeau. He was a man of great ability, and saw clearly the horrors into which the country was swiftly drifting. He did all he could to stay it, and might have succeeded, had he not died at the very time he was most needed. The terrible third party were the Red Republicans, who would listen to nothing but the death of the king and the establishment of a republic. Their leaders were Robespierre, Danton and Marat. The dreadful condition of France alarmed other nations, who did not know how soon they would be deluged in blood by similar uprisings. Austria and Prussia raised armies to help Louis. The Legislative Assembly, which took the place of the National Assembly, declared war, April 20, 1792. By taking all the church property the Red Republi- cans gained the money with which to push their terrible work. The action of Prussia and Austria was largely due to the nobles who had fled from France. When two large armies entered that coun- try Louis XVI. was doomed. A smaller army was raised by the Assem- bly and in several battles with the invaders the latter were defeated. Enraged by this interference from foreign powers, the mob attacked the palace of the Tuilleries on the 10th of August. The national guard, put there to defend the palace, joined them, but the Swiss guard fought until every one was killed. The king and his family fled to the Legis- lative Assembly and for safety were placed in the old Temple prison. 130 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. Thus opened the awful Reign of Terror. Danton urged that the only way to secure what they wanted \vas to kill all the royalists. His advice was greedily accepted and the imprisonments and murders began. The news of success to the Prussian arms caused the massacre of hundreds of prisoners, most of whom were simply accused of being lukewarm in supporting the revolution that was now under way. The Legislative Assembly having sat for a year, the new body called the National Convention took its place in the latter part of September, 1792. The Feuillants had disappeared, and those that were left were the Girondists and the Red Republicans, or the "Mountain," so called because its members sat on the highest seats in the hall where the J5J3 Assembly first met. These, it will be re- membered, were the extremists, led 5 b y Rob espierre, Danton and Marat, and in which were included all the rabble and cut- throats of Paris. They had but one aim, the death of the King and the founding of a "re- public." The first act of the National Convention was to proclaim the repub- lic, after which the king was placed on trial. The charges were vague, but he was found guilty, ^ and amid the howl- I ing of the mob out- side, was con- THE LAST MOMENTS OF THE GIRONDISTS demned tO THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 131 death within 24 hours. He was allowed to bid good-bye to his family, and on the forenoon of January 21, 1793, he ascended the scaffold and perished under the guillotine, which is an implement invented about forty years before by Dr. Guillotin, and which consists of a large knife set in a frame, which as it descends cuts the head off in a twinkling. The mad republic soon found itself at war with England, Germany, Spain, Holland, Sweden and Russia. They put 350,000 soldiers in mo- tion for the French frontier. France was forced to face insurrections within her own borders, but she decreed a levy of 300,000 men and sent them into Holland under General Dumouriez. He was successful for a time, but became so disgusted with the excesses of his government that he joined the enemy. The armies of France displayed an energy like that of Oliver Cromwell's "Ironsides" and defeated the allies again and again. No pen can describe the deeds of the Red Republicans at home. They lost their senses and became tigers. They abolished Sunday and religion, and worshiped the goddess of Reason, in the person of a de- based woman. Marie Antoinette, the Queen, the sister of the King, and thousands whose crime was simply that they were of gentle birth were given to the guillotine. The streets literally ran with blood, and the lives of millions, it may be said, were placed in the hands of the little company of Jacobins known as the Committee of Safety, the lead- ers of whom were the three monsters already named Robespierre, Dan- ton and Marat, and who reveled in slaughter. While in his bath one evening, Marat admitted a young woman, who sent him word that she had important information for him. Marat had a stool for writing, and his evil face glowed with delight as he rapidly wrote down the list of new victims with which she pretended to furnish him. While his attention was thus engaged, the young woman sudden- ly plunged a knife into his bosom and he instantly expired. Charlotte Corday was calm when brought before the revolutionary tribunal and said she had done her duty. "To stop the anarchy of France," said she, "I have slain one man to save a hundred thousand a wretch to preserve the innocent." She suffered death by the guil- lotine, July 17, 1793. Danton felt it was time to stop, but Robespierre would not listen to him. He had a few friends left and he craved their lives. In the fol- lowing spring, he became the despot at the head of the Convention. This 132 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. gave him at last the coveted chance of doing as he pleased. With him it was not enough that a man was an enemy to his grand republic, but if he did not favor it as warmly as he should, he was a traitor deserv- ing death. In a month, he sent more than a thousand persons to the guillotine and among them was Danton. It soon became clear that no one was safe from this demon. As likely as not the man with whom he dined to-day would be guillotined to-morrow; his most intimate friend was not secure against his raging thirst for blood. The Convention determined to get rid of him. In the latter part of July, 1794, he, his brother and several of their associates were arrested. Conflict and confusion followed, and Robespierre and a few of his companions fled to the Hotel de Ville. Seeing that the end was at hand, he tried to kill himself with a pistol, but only inflicted a painful wound. The party were flung into a cart and taken to the scaf- fold, where, July 28, 1794, they were beheaded a punishment that ought to have been inflicted years before. With the death of Robespierre the Reign of Terror ended. There was disturbance for a time, but the scales fell from the eyes of the people, who shrank with horror from the appalling crimes behind them. The prison doors were thrown open and the trembling thousands, await- ing death, walked forth into the sunshine of freedom again. The laws of Robespierre were repealed, the Girondists who had not been killed called back from exile, the goddess of Reason was dethroned and the churches given again to the worship of God. France had astonishing success in the field. The allies were de- feated everywhere. Amsterdam was captured, Holland made a depend- ency of France, and, in 1795, Prussia and Spain agreed to a peace. The allies were far more numerous and the triumph over them, therefore, was remarkable. France having emerged into a new life, as may be said, now adopted a constitution, by which two legislative councils were created, the An- cients and the Five Hundred. These bodies were to choose five direct- ors, each of whom was to be President for three months, such Presi- dent being the executive power. The people in Paris did not like this change, and mustered a strong body of soldiers against it. The Conven- tion placed General B arras in command of the regular troops, arid he chose as his second in command a young artillery officer named Napo- THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE.- 133 leon Bonaparte, the man who a few years later proved himself the greatest military genius that ever lived. Bonaparte placed his cannon so as to command all the streets lead- ing to the Tuilleries, and, when the forces of the enemy advanced, Octo- ber 4, 1795, he swept them away with discharges of grapeshot. All opposition ended and the Directory, as it is generally called, was secure. This incident brings forward Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican, whose career was, in many respects, the most wonderful in the annals of history. It would require a large volume to do justice to his mar- velous exploits. We shall, therefore, sum them up briefly in order that you may understand their effect upon France itself and upon Europe. He was about twenty-six years old when he attracted attention by his victory for the Convention. The following year, France placed three great armies in the field to fight the nations that had joined to crush her. The two that acted in Germany were defeated, but Bonaparte, com- manding the third, which entered Italy, drove the Austrians out and made a brilliant campaign. The Italian campaign ended in 1796, and the next year he defeated them again, captured Venice and overthrew her independent govern- ment, but was obliged to stop in his march on Vienna, because of the defeat of the French army in Germany. Peace was made in October, 1797, France gaining all of the Austrian Netherlands. Bonaparte came back to Paris and found himself the idol of the peo- ple. The Directory was jealous of his growing fame, and, when he pro- posed, in 1798, to invade Egypt for the purpose of attacking the power and commerce of England in the East, the Directory were quite glad to send him thither at the head of an army of 40,000 men, hoping that they would be well rid of him. By the display of his wonderful genius, Napoleon soon made himself master of Egypt, but in the "Battle of the Nile," fought August 1, 1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet. Learn- ing that civil affairs were in a bad way in France, Bonaparte, after other brilliant victories, left his army, which was reduced to one-half, in command of Kleber, and secretly returned to his own country, where be arrived in October. The ambitious man had come at the right moment. The people were dissatisfied with the Directory and anarchy reigned. Napoleon over- threw the Assembly and a new government was established with a First Consul and two assistants. Nominally, Napoleon was the First 134 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. Consul, but in effect he was all three, for the others acted merely as clerks, under his imperious will. He governed like a tyrant, but added vastly to the strength and real greatness of France. England and Austria were still fighting him, but he got Kussia to withdraw from the alliance, and then Napoleon donned his cocked hat and started with his army for Italy meaning to humble Austria, On the bloody field of Marengo, June 14, 1800, he crushed the Austrian army, more than double his own in numbers, and, by the treaty, signed in February following, Austria gave to France Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine. Napoleon formed a union to defeat England on the ocean, but Nel- son again brought it to naught and the greatly weakened army in Egypt was conquered. A treaty of peace between France and England was signed in March, 1802, but it did not last long. In the following August, the Senate named Napoleon Consul for life. By his direction, the best lawyers set to work arranging the laws of the land, which when put in shape were called the "Code Napoleon." He devoted his matchless genius to the improvement of every department of his country. But for his military ambition, he would have carried France to a height of pros- perity of which no one before had ever dreamed. England roused his wrath in May, 1803, by placing an embargo on all French vessels in English ports, and by issuing letters of marque, which allowed her cruisers to capture French vessels on the ocean. Napoleon seized the English and Dutch subjects living in France, lie took possession of Hanover and threatened England with invasion, whereupon Russia and Austria joined England. This grave situation gave Napoleon the chance of making himself Emperor. The French were pleased with the idea, and he was crowned by himself after Pope VII. had blessed the crown, at Notre Dame, December 2, 1804. Entering Italy, he was, in May, 1805, crowned King of Italy. He had arrayed against him "England, Austria and Russia, but in a series of amazing victories, he crushed the superior armies of Austria and Russia, and Austria was obliged to part with a large part of her territory in order to obtain peace. His hope of conquering Eng- land, however, on the sea, was destroyed forever by Nelson's great vic- tory off Cape Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. In 1806, Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Italy and an- other brother, Louis, King of Holland. He nagged Prussia into going to THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 135 war, and then utterly defeated her and entered Berlin in triumph. He overwhelmed the Russians in the terrific battle of Friedland in June, 1807, and the Czar begged for peace, which was made a month later. Napoleon's terms to those whom he had beaten were harsh, and he made his brother King of Westphalia, which had been wrested from Prussia. After expelling the royal family from Portugal and from Spain, he placed his brother Joseph upon the throne of the latter. Joseph had none of the military ability of Napoleon, and the English drove him out of the country and the French from Portugal. Napoleon took the field in per- son, and wher- ever h e ap- peared was vic- torious, but he could not be in two places at the same time, and while he was busy in one country, his ene- m i e s attacked his troops in another. A u s- tria believed she had a good chance to strike a fatal blow while he was at work in Spain. She gathered an immense army only to have it crushed at Wagram, July 5, 1809. Napoleon Bonaparte npw reached the zenith of his greatness, but his sun could not always remain in the heavens. After leading a resistless army to Moscow in 1812, the city was burned by the Russians, and Napo- leon was compelled to retreat through the frightful snow, with Cossacks attacking them from all sides and the men dying and starving at every step of the way. Those who were killed in battle, who died from cold and hunger and who were taken prisoners, have been estimated at more than four hundred thousand. But this mighty genius soon had another army in the field. He again NAPOLEON AND STAFF AT THE BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ 136 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. overcame the Prussians and Austrians, but at Leipsic, in October, 1813, in a conflict which has been called the "battle of the nations," he was hopelessly defeated. A million bayonets now began closing around Paris, and, unable to check them, Napoleon was deposed by the Senate. He signed his abdication, April 4, 1814, and went to the island of Elba. The allies placed Louis XVIII. on the throne (Louis XVII. was the Dauphin, who died of ill treatment in 1795). He was such a true Bour- bon that he soon made himself the most hated man in the kingdom. The people began to cast longing eyes toward Elba, and within less than a year after going thither, Napoleon made his escape and reappeared in France. He was received with the wildest rejoicing, and Louis lost no time in hurrying out of the country. While Napoleon was raising fresh troops, the allies again poured their armies across the border. With the same startling swiftness, Napoleon invaded Belgium and attacked the English under Wellington and the Prussians under Blucher. The battle, one of the- most import- ant in the history of the world, was fought at Waterloo, June 18, 1815. Napoleon was so crushed that he saw all was gone and hurried to Paris with the news. The god of the nation had fallen and no one did him reverence. He signed his second abdication, June 22, and in July, the allies entered Paris and placed Louis XVIII. once more on the throne. Napoleon tried .to escape to the United States, and his brother Joseph pro- posed that he should personate him. This might have succeeded, for their appearance was very similar, but Napoleon would not consent. He boarded a French ship July 15, and gave himself up. He was taken to the island of St. Helena, which he reached October, 1815, and was kept closely guarded until May 5, 1821, when he died. Once more Louis XVIII. was King. He was in his sixtieth year and the nation was so worn out with strife that it longed for peace and quiet. The corpulent, easy-tempered ruler shared the feeling, though many of those around him were urgent for the vigor of the earlier days. He died in 1824, and his brother became King as Charles X. He was a despot and it might be said of him, as of other Bourbons, that he forgot nothing and learned nothing. Heedless of the lessons of the career of the monarchs that had gone before him, he soon disbanded the Civic Guard, stopped the liberty of the press, dismissed the Chamber of Deputies before it met, and ordered that the elections THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 137 should be made by the Prefects, who dared do nothing against the wishes of the government. Once again the people rose in revolution. Barricades appeared, in the streets and there was sharp fighting with the troops in the latter days of July, 1830. By that time, the people were masters; Charles fled to Austria, where he died a few years later, and Louis Philippe, a cou- sin of the deposed King, and belonging to the House of Orleans, was elected King of France. The new ruler found an impossible task before him, for the country was made up of two parties, bitterly opposed to each other. They were the friends of despotism and the Red Republicans, and in trying to please both, the King pleased neither. After several attempts had been made upon his life, he tried harsh measures against the press and those who opposed him. Moreover, his personal traits made him disliked. He was mean and miserly, and spent vast sums of the public money. As a result, he became very unpopular. During those days of unrest, another man who had his wistful eyes upon the throne of France tried twice to gain it. He was the son of Louis Bonaparte, the brother of the great Napoleon, and bore the same name as his father. He was a seedy adventurer, who had spent a part of his time in England and in America, where he would have suffered for food had not his friends helped him. He was dishonest and without any of the genius of his uncle, who at one time threatened to overturn all the thrones in Europe. His sole capital was his name, whose glory can never lose its charm in France. In after years, when Louis Napoleon's measure had been taken, he was spoken of as the Nephew of his Uncle, and as Napoleon the Little. He was never a friend to our own country and therefore we cannot feel much sympathy for him. Louis Napoleon's first attempt was made in 1836, when he was twen- ty-eight years old. He tried to start a rising in Strasburg, but made such a laughable failure that the government did not punish him, and allowed him to come to America, where, as I have said, he led a sort of vagrant life for several years. Going to Europe, he landed near Bou- logne, France, in 1840, with a few friends and a tame eagle, which was counted upon to soar aloft and arouse the ardor of the Frenchmen; but the eagle would not fly, the troops would not rush around him, as other soldiers had done with his uncle, and he was arrested and sent to the 138 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. fortress at Ham, where he was held a prisoner for six years, when he managed to escape in disguise to England. Meanwhile, Louis Philippe by his odious course in France was clear- ing the way for the nephew of the great Napoleon. The crisis came on Washington's birthday in 1848, when the barricades suddenly appeared in the streets of Paris, and the temper of the people was so threatening that the king ran off to England, where he died two years later. When England and America decide to make a change in some of the methods of government, they do it by reform, that is, by voting, and rarely is there any trouble. That is the Anglo-Saxon style of im- proving matters. W r hen France, Spain and the South American countries feel the need of a change, they seek it by revolution, in which thousands of people do all they can to kill thousands of other people. That is the Latin style of improving matters. Upon the flight of Louis Philippe, a republic was established. The National Assembly began its sessions May 5, 1848, but the fighting was so fierce that Paris was in a state of siege, and General Cavaignac was placed at the head of affairs as Dictator. After nearly 20,000 people had been killed, something like quiet returned to the country. In the autumn of 1848, the Republic was fairly established, and it w r as ordered that its head should be a President, elected for four years. Louis Napoleon had returned to France, since it was safe to do so, and he offered himself as a candidate for the presidency. That his name had not lost its power was proven by his election by a vast majority. The presidency of the republic of France could never satisfy the am- bition of a Napoleon, and from the first he began plotting to place him- self at the head of affairs for life. There were not wanting those to help him, and they did the work well. On the morning of December 3, 1851, the streets of Paris were found placarded with notices that the Assembly was dissolved and universal suffrage or the right of voting restored. There was a revolt the next day, but it was speedily put down by the troops, who killed several hundred of the citizens in order to impress upon them the folly of resisting the new order of things, which had been planned with such care and skill that it was useless to oppose. On January 14, 1852, the new constitution of France was placed in the hands of Louis Napoleon for ten years. On the 2d of December fol- lowing, he was proclaimed Emperor with the title of Napoleon III. THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. 139 (Napoleon II. was the son of Bonaparte, born in 1811. He was a sickly youth, who never reigned, and died at the age of twenty-one in Austria, as the Duke of Reichstadt.) It was in 1853 that the quarrel broke out between Russia and Tur- key, which resulted in the Crimean War, referred to in another place. France and England united against Russia and defeated her. In 1859, Austria and Sardinia were at war and Louis Napoleon became the ally of Sardinia, which proved the victor. The reward of France was the two provinces of Nice and Savoy. Louis Napoleon did much for the material prosperity of his country. He built up its commerce, the railway system, its manufacturing inter- ests and greatly beautified the leading cities. But he could not fail to see that his popularity was waning. He concluded that the best way to revive it was by a successful war against some of his rivals. Nothing Is so dear to a Frenchman as military glory, and the general who comes back to them after victory is made a god. In looking around for a nation with which to pick a quarrel, Napo- leon fixed upon Prussia, and when he did that he made the greatest mis- take of his life. He had to have a pretext for his quarrel, and it was this: There was talk of giving the crown of Spain to a relative of the King of Prussia, and Napoleon declared he would never permit it. That there might be no cause for quarrel, Leopold, the candidate, withdrew. That surely would have satisfied any reasonable man, but Louis Napo- leon insisted that the King of Prussia should pledge himself that Leo- pold would never, no matter how long he lived, be a candidate. The demand was indignantly refused and France declared war against Prussia. Now, nothing could have suited the latter country better. Her wise men had seen for years that such a war was sure to come; they wished it, and, indeed, Prince Bismarck afterward confessed that he helped it along. Prussia was growing so niuch faster than France that the jeal- ousy of the latter was aroused. Prussia, therefore, improved her time by making preparations for the conflict. She brought her armies to the highest state of effectiveness, and she had able generals, with Von Moltke, the greatest of all, at the head. No detail was neglected. Hundreds of Germans had been scattered throughout France for years whose business it was to learn everything about her. They made drawings of all the roads, streams, forts, charac- ter of the country, and means of defence, just as if they were in the em- 140 THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE: ploy of the French government. Many of these spies were school teach- ers, and they did their work to perfection. When France was mapped out in detail from one border to the other, Germany waited for the declaration of war. It was just the other way with her opponent. France for a long time had been given over to luxury, dissipation and vice. Beneath the gilt and splendor of the court, was the rottenness that had so often proved the ruin of the country. Military matters were in a woful state, though all through France and in other parts of the world, where the truth was not suspected, it was believed that the French eagles would not fold their wings until they perched on the gates of Berlin. Full of high hopes the French armies crossed the German frontier, but it took only a few days to send them scurrying back to their own country, which was entered by the Germans, who, well trained and led by skillful officers, defeated the French wherever they met them. Napo- leon had taken the field, with the result that he and his army were made prisoners. Siege was laid to Paris and that proud city became a captive to the Germans. Angered with their Emperor, the French had de- posed him and set up the republic again. After holding him a prisoner for a time, the Germans allowed him to go to England, where he died in January, 1873. Empress Eugenie, who had proudly called the war "her own,-' when it was declared, would have been slain by her incensed countrymen had she not been smuggled out of the city by an American dentist. Some years later, her only son, the Prince Imperial, was killed while fighting the savage Zulus in Africa. No one could help pitying this mother, thus plunged from the heights of happiness, fame and all that it would seem the most ambitious of her sex could crave, to the lowest depth of sorrow and woe. The Second Empire, after lasting nearly eighteen years, gave way to the Third Republic. The country paid dearly for its rash attack upon Germany. By the treaty of peace, signed May 10, 1871, France gave up very nearly all of Alsace, a part of Lorraine and bound herself to pay a billion dollars in three years as a war indemnity, in addition to the 140,000,000 paid by the city of Paris on its surrender. It is estimated that it cost France to be whipped thus thoroughly, fully $3,000,000,000. Not only that, but Germany had the satisfaction of recovering a great deal of the territory of which she had been robbed by previous French kings. THE RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE. ui France was not yet through with her woes. Civil war broke out in Paris and for weeks the scenes of the Reign of Terror under Louis XVI. were repeated. The returning troops, after long and severe fighting and the loss of many lives, gained possession of the city and the vicious Communists were crushed. Since those crimson days, France has been comparatively at peace, though she is never wholly free from the danger of revolution. She showed her wonderful resources by paying off the war indemnity before it became due, and the best ground for hope of her future is that she has resisted so long the overturning of the republic, in the face of the threats made against it. The world was shocked when, on June 24, 1894, President Carnot was assassinated at Lyon by one of the wretches known as anarchists, who fortunately are growing fewer in number every year. France waa scandalized in 1889, when the company formed for building a canal across the Isthmus of Panama failed, and it came out that $350,000,000 had been squandered, a large part of which was stolen by men in high life. It was a dismal revelation of corruption, though every attempt was made to prevent the names of leading men from being smirched. France and Germany are still strong rivals and each keeps a power- ful military force at its command. France has added greatly to her naval power, while England, in accordance with her rule, has kept steadily in advance of her. In January, 1895, Captain Dreyfus was de- clared guilty of treason, it being alleged that he had furnished govern- ment secrets to Germany. He was sentenced to imprisonment on Devil's Island, but the belief in his innocence became so general that the Gov- ernment was obliged to bring him back to France and to grant him a new trial, which took place in 1899. Though declared technically guilty of the charges made against him, his innocence was clearly proven, and he was immediately pardoned by the President and restored to his family. Francois Felix Faure, the French President, died in February, 1899, and was succeeded by M. Emile Loubet. Disturbances followed his election, and but for the thorough preparations made by the govern- ment, doubtless a new revolution would have broken out and the streets of Paris have been again deluged with blood. As it is, no one can say whether this catastrophe will again befall the country that has been so often torn by civil war, nor how soon it will come. CHAPTER IX. THE GERMAN EMPIRE Its Early History The Rivalry Between Austria and Prussia Over the Control of Germany The "Seven Weeks' War" Establish- ment of the German Empire Its Organization Prince Bismarck WILLIAM I. FREDERICK III. WILLIAM n. His Policy AUSTRIA Its Early History EMPEROR JOSEPH HUNGARY PRUSSIA Its Early History WILLIAM FREDERICK I. FREDERICK THE GREAT His Military Genius and His Grand Work for Prussia. THE German Empire, now so prominent in Europe, has passed through so many changes in its limits, government and divisions that it is hard to follow them. Some of them have been given in the portion devoted to mediaeval history. From A. D. 887 down to the dissolution of the German Empire, in 1806, the emperors were elected by the most powerful vassals, some of whom w r ere really kings in their own domains. From 1745 to 1806, the emperor of Austria was also emperor of Germany, though a number of the Austrian dominions were not included in those of the German Empire. VISIT OF EMPEROR WILLIAM II. TO BISMARCK AT FREIDRICHSRUHE 142 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 143 When the French Revolution broke out, Germany was divided into Ten Great Circles, each of which had its local diet, but in general affairs they were directed by the Imperial Diet, called together by the Emperor. His dominion consisted of a large number of states, whose northern boundary was Northern Denmark and the Baltic; eastern, Prussian Poland, Galicia and Hungary; southern, the Italian Tyrol and Switzerland, and western, France and Holland. The southern half of Denmark and most of Prussia were a part of the German dominions, but Hungary, Galicia, Slavonia, etc., were not connected with the German Empire. Napoleon made important changes in these boundaries, and on August 6, 1806, the Austrian Emperor renounced the style and title of the Emperor of Germany. The downfall of Napoleon gave back the geographical and political position of Germany, but it was a confedera- tion of thirty-four independent sovereignties and four free cities, which took the place of the old elective monarchy. From 1792 to 1835, Austria, united politically with Russia and Prus- sia, was the leading state of Germany. This rule was a despotism, most of the time under Prince Metternich, an oily, adroit and skillful states- man. An insurrection in Vienna in 1848 overturned the civil and mili- tary power, and Metternich fled to England, from which he never re- turned. Risings elsewhere were put down with a merciless hand. An insurrection in Hungary threatened the throne which appealed to Rus- sia for help. Her army crossed the frontier in May, 1849, and the Hun- garian revolt, of which Louis Kossuth was the principal leader, was crushed. Meanwhile, Prussia was making rapid advances under Frederick William III., who reigned from 1797 to 1840. Germany at large felt the benefit, and the people began to think and talk of national unity. Fred- erick William IV., who reigned from 1840 to 1858, opposed political re- form, but yielded a good deal when the people broke out in revolt in Berlin, in March, 1848. The material development went on rapidly and education and military matters greatly improved. There was bitter rivalry between Austria and Prussia over the con- trol of Germany. Austria led until 1861, when King William I. came to the throne and bent all his energies to bringing about German unity throughout Prussia. In this great aim he had the help of Bismarck, one of the foremost statesmen of modern times. He became chief minister 14 4 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. in 1862 and imperial chancellor in 1871. His policy was "blood and iron," and he carried out the scheme of German unity, in the face of law and all opposition, no matter from whom or from what quarter. In 1864, the two Powers crushed Denmark and took away all her rights in Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenberg. They quarreled over the spoils, and in 1866 went to war. This is known as the "Seven Weeks' War," in which actual hostilities covered only a month. Italy sup- ported Prussia, while Austria had for her allies, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Baden and the two Hesses. Austria was completely beaten and peace was made through the mediation of France. The new arrangement shut out Austria and added a large territory to Prussia. A North German Confederation was formed, under the presidency of the Prussian sovereign, with Count Bismarck the chancellor. It com- prised twenty-one states and Prussia was firmly established as the lead- ing power in Germany and one of the chief military powers of Europe, a position greatly strengthened by the result of the war four years later with France. After the conquest of France, the King of Prussia on January 18, 1871, in the halls of Versailles, was declared "Emperor of Germany." This grand empire consisted of twenty-five states and the imperial terri- tory of Alsace-Lorraine. It had four kingdoms Prussia, Bavaria, Sax- ony and Wurtemberg; six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principal- ities and the free towns of Hamburg, Lubeck and Bremen. The govern- ing body consisted of a Federal Council of fifty-eight members, named for each session by the different states, and a Parliament or Diet, elected by popular vote every three years, and numbering 382 members. Thus at last, through wars, uprisings and all manner of troubles, a free, united and powerful German Empire was established. Prince Bismarck was the real center of the United Fatherland, and he conducted its affairs with a wisdom, skill and success that could not have been surpassed. Many of his acts were tyrannical, because other- wise they would not have succeeded. The commercial policy of the country became "protection," and in 1884, to give outlets for the excess of population, and for the new and increasing markets, a colonial policy was adopted which secured Germany many possessions in Western Africa, New Guinea and several islands of the Southern Pacific. Emperor William died in March, 1888, at the great age of ninety years, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III. Could his life have THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 145 been spared, he would have made one of the best rulers Germany ever had, but he died from cancer of the throat in June, 1889. His successor was his eldest son, William II. He soon showed great energy, versatil- ity and towering self-confidence. He believed he was Emperor by divine right, and did not doubt that the fact was the best thing that could happen for Germany. His conceit gave offence in many quarters, for his words were not always wise, and every now and then he said some- thing that startled the world. What seemed his most serious mistake Mas the dismissal of Bismarck from his councils in 1890. The German nation had come to look upon this mighty genius as indispensable to the empire, and they resented the act of the impulsive young Emperor. But William II. has agreeably disappointed his people in more than one respect. He won back the good will of Bismarck and pleased his subjects by the honors shown to the great man. Although fond of mili- tary display and a firm believer in war as a means of peace, he was lib- eral toward those who were discontented, helped the working classes, worked for peace and led a clean, honorable life. The history of Austria is another one so mixed and involved that you would weary of the particulars. Away back in 15 B. C. its seat was the province of Noricum bordering on Pannonia, These two included large territories between the Inn, the Save and the Danube rivers. After a time they were overrun by barbarians, who were driven out by Charlemagne eight centuries later, and a colony placed there was called the Eastern Mark or Ostreich, from which comes the present name. It was fought over and tossed back and forth by succeeding monarchs, but gradually extended its power and territory until the rest of Europe was alarmed at its growth. Although Switzerland gained its inde- pendence in 1307, royal marriages brought to Austria the rich inherit- ance of the Duke of Burgundy in the Low Countries, and another se- cured the succession of the monarchy of Spain, including its vast pos- sessions in Italy and the New World. The termination of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 gave independence to the German states. The Turks were driven out of Hungary in 1699. Other changes took place and those which followed the downfall of Napoleon have already been told. Austria is fortunate in having for the last half century the wise and far-seeing Joseph for Emperor. The Bourbon line never produced a bet- ter ruler. Having lost Lombardy and Venetia, he wisely strove to solid- ify his power north of the Alps. Hungary was given constitutional 146 THE GERMAN EMPIRE. freedom and new independence in 1867. Austria was divided into two parts and the emperor and empress were crowned "King and Queen of Hungary" at Pesth. This was done according to the old rites and the Hungarians were delighted, though the aged Kossuth refused to be pleased. Thus Hungary secured her own Parliament and the right of manag- ing the affairs in which she alone is concerned. She has prospered won- derfully. Education has advanced, many railways have been built and industry and commerce greatly extended. All this may be said of the other division of Austria, whose position gives her a rank as one of the great Powers of Europe. From what has been said, you have seen that Prussia had a great deal to do with the history of Austria and Germany, for it was Prussia which in modern times has welded the long separated states into the mighty German Empire, one of the most powerful nations in the world. Hundreds of years ago, the Electorate of Brandenburg Avas a mem- ber of the numerous states of the German Empire. In the sixteenth century, a small state called the Duchy of Prussia was added to the Electorate of Brandenburg. The enlarged Duchy prospered and in the latter years of the seventeenth century its ruler offered to help Germany in the War for the Spanish Succession on condition that the ruler se- cured the crown of Prussia. This was done, and in 1701, the last Elector of Brandenburg became the first king of Prussia under the title of Fred- erick I. Frederick had longed for this title, and his coronation was on so magnificent a scale that it used up all the money in the treasury. He placed the crown on his head with his own hands. He did a good work for his country and met with a strange death. His third wife became insane, but the fact was hidden from the king. One day she escaped, and, rushing into his apartments, smashed the glass door and furniture and so terrified him by her frenzy that he fell into a fever and died a few weeks later (1713). The son William Frederick I. reigned from 1713 to 1740. He was a savage old fellow and loved military matters more than anything in the world. He looked upon science and literature with contempt, but idol- ized money. He drilled and disciplined his army until it became the grand engine that was used with such effect after his death. Nothing so delighted him as the sight of an unusually tall soldier. He had agents all the time in different parts of Europe, hunting out men of THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 147 great stature, to whom extravagant prices were paid to join his troops. The king showed no more consideration for his son, who was the heir to his throne, than he did to a beast of the field. He treated him at times as if his presence was unbearable. He starved the youth almost to death until in desperation he ran away. He was captured and brought back, and only with the greatest difficulty was the King dis- suaded from having him shot as a deserter. After that, the son took things more coolly and gave himself to the study of his country, its needs and its possibilities, and, in short, made the best preparation he could for the career awaiting him. The son began to reign in 1740, when he was twenty-eight years old, his title being Frederick II., though he is always referred to as Freder- ick the Great, the most remarkable ruler who has ever sat on the throne of Prussia. The brutality and economy of his father gave to him a rich treasury and a powerful army. In a brief while, Frederick conquered Silesia from Austria, but a tremendous struggle for the existence of the kingdom began when the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756. Soon Prussia was like a lion driven at bay by a horde of enemies, for the country was assailed by the Austrians, the Russians, the French, the Saxons and the Swedes, who were intent on tearing her to pieces and dividing her among themselves. Prussia had but a single friend, and that w r as England. Time and time again during this terrific conflict, the situation of Prussia seemed hopeless. Frederick carried with him a small phial containing deadly poison, which he was resolved to swallow, when con- vinced that all was lost. Although several times he was on the point of drinking it, he did not do so, and when peace was signed in 1763, Prussia did not give up an inch of land or pay a dollar of money. All the credit for this glorious result was due to the King, who well won the title by which he is known in history. His military genius was of the highest order. He made his country one of the leading powers of Europe and when the war was ended gave all his energies to relieving the suffering that had been brought upon his country. It was Frederick who declared our own Washington to be one of the greatest of all military leaders, and it should be remembered also that in the last year of his reign (1786), he made a commercial treaty with the infant United States of America. He was the true founder and builder of Prussia. CHAPTER X. A Royal Workman PETER THE GREAT The Early History of Russia The Work of Peter CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN His Brilliant Career and His Down- fallThe Different Czars of Russia Catherine the Great ALEXANDER II. His Wise Reign His Assassination ALEXANDER III. NICHOLAS II. Growth of Modern Russia Friendship Between Russia and the United States The Checkered History of Italy EMANTJEL II. Oppressed by Austria The Work of Joseph Garibaldi Unification of Italy. IF YOU had been living about two hundred years ago in Holland, you might have seen a strange sight. At one of the villages near the city of Amsterdam, were a number of workmen in a shipyard. Perhaps you would have noticed Peter Michaeloff, a sturdy fellow, who swung his axe, hammered nails and spikes, shoved the plane and did his best to earn the scant wages which he was paid at the end of each week. He w T as not inclined to talk much with his fellow workmen, ex- cept now and then to ask a question, for he was very anxious to learn all he could about ship building. He lived in a little hut, cooked his own food, made his own bed and did a good deal of writing, Avhen his hours of labor in the shipyard were over for the day. Now, you will ask what there was so wonder- ful about a common workman in a shipyard in Amsterdam a long time ago. Why have I taken pains to mention the name of Peter Michaeloff? It is because that workman was ruler of one of the { greatest countries in the world. Peter Michaeloff was Peter the Great,Czar of Russia, and the most renowned Czar that country ever had. It is curious that so little is known about the early history of Russia that no one can tell what \ 148 PETER THE GREAT THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 149 the name itself came from. Its real beginning was in the ninth century under the Norseman Rurik. Lying directly in the path of the hordes of barbarians, it was trampled into the dust and ravaged out of all sem- blance of kingdom or empire. While she was struggling to gain deliv- erance from her enemies, Peter Alexeievitch was born in 1672. At the age of ten years, he and his half-brother Ivan were crowned. Ivan was underwitted, deformed and without any qualification to rule. Peter, therefore, shoved him aside and did the same with his half-sister, who was acting as regent and was very ambitious. This was done in 1789, when Peter was only seventeen years old. At that early age he became the Czar of Russia. No one who looked on him at that time could have seen much hope for his country with him as its ruler. He was tall, ill looking and his life was as coarse as his features, but he was full of tremendous energy, and, best of all, instead of using that quality for his own ambition, he used it solely for the good of his country, aiming to elevate the people by encouraging industry and rousing their interest in everything that tended to improve their condition. He had plenty of wars, but -he dis- liked them and only engaged in them when there was no escaping it. Peter saw one great disadvantage of Russia. It was shut off from the Baltic Sea by Poland and Sweden, while the Tartars held the Crimea and thus shut Russia out from the Black Sea on the south. Convinced that this loss must be met, Peter took away Azov from the Turks in 1696, and thus gained a footing on the Black Sea. Then he set to work to build a fleet strong enough to prevent Turkey from wresting the terri- tory from him. But the building of a fleet wa,s a great task and the Russians did not know how to go about it. It was this fact which led the Czar to place the government in the hands of a noble, while he set out for England and Holland to learn the trade of shipbuilding. I have told how faith- fully he worked in one of the villages of Holland. He could not afford to spend years at toil, like ordinary workmen, so he used all the energy and ability he had in learning fast. Not only that, but he learned how to make ropes and sails, and, in short, used his brains and hands for all that was in them. Having finished in Holland, he went to England, where, as you will recollect, William III. was king. He gave a hearty welcome to his royal brother and would have used his whole time in entertainments and 15 o THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. social enjoyments, but Peter had not come so far for anything of that nature. He spent most of his time in dockyards and finding out all he could about the building of vessels. Amid the great and lasting good he was doing his country, Peter remained a savage to the last. He was, a beast in his tastes and with no more mercy in his nature than an Apache Indian. When he reached Russia on his return, he learned that there had been a mutiny among the guards. With his terrible sword, he cut off the heads of twenty of the rebels. "I studied surgery in England," said Peter grimly, "and the style in which I finished that job shows that I learned something." Sometimes he would act as judge and executioner, and when heated by wine would subject his victims to torture. When he was shown a private library in London, his eyes expanded in amazement, and he re- marked that he never suspected there were so many books in the whole world. He was densely ignorant of them and did not wish to know any- thing of their contents. What impressed itself upon Peter was the need of an outlet on the Baltic. So energetic a ruler did not have to wait long to find a way by which to gain it. When he went back to Russia in 1700, the king of Sweden had been dead several years, and his successor was a youth of eighteen. He was a languid young man, interested only in gratify- ing his love for pleasure and seemingly caring naught what became of his country. The temptation was so strong that Russia, Denmark and Poland talked over the plan of dividing Sweden among them and agreed upon the part each was to receive. But before the attempt could be made that languid youth in Sweden sprang to his feet and straightway showed himself one of the giants of history. He was Charles XII., whose career for a number of years daz- zled all Europe. Placing himself at the head of his army, he marched swiftly into Denmark and laid siege to Copenhagen. The Danish sover- eign was so frightened that he begged for peace and withdrew from the alliance against Sweden. Charles then turned, and, attacking the Russian army at Narva, routed it, though it was five times as numerous as his own. Passing into Poland he beat its soldiers again and again, and compelled the peo- ple to dethrone their kind king and place the one selected by Charles THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 151 upon the throne. Invading Saxony, the ruler was glad to agree to a peace whose terms were named by Charles. The success of the young king of Sweden filled all Europe with won- der and alarm. What would he and his terrible army do next? The king of France tried to win his support against England, while the latter sent special messengers to Charles to draw him into an alliance with that country. If Charles had curbed his ambition at this point, it would have been a thousand times better for him and his country, but he was bent on dethroning Peter, Czar of Russia, the enemy who had begun all the trouble. Puffed up with conceit over his brilliant successes, Charles thought one year would be enough to finish that job, when he would attack the Pope. He sent a number of agents into Egypt and Asia to learn its military resources, for his intention was to enter upon a career of Oriental conquest, after he had brought Europe at his feet. Marching out of Saxony in the autumn of 1707, he entered Russian territory at the beginning of the following year. He gained two import- ant victories and the road to Moscow was open, but he turned off into the Ukraine, trusting to the pledge of an old Cossack chieftain Mazeppa that he would bring over the whole Cossack nation to the support of Charles, but Mazeppa was able to muster only the remnant of an army. Charles lost most of his men in the numerous battles and skirmishes and from the severity of the Russian winters. While Charles was besieging Putowa, Peter the Great attacked him with a much superior army (July 8, 1709), and the Swedish army was overwhelmingly defeated. With much difficulty Charles escaped into Turkey, where he was well treated. He stayed there for five years, during which his enemies were conquer- ing his best possessions in Germany and east of the Baltic. Rousing his energies, Charles suddenly left Turkey and placed him- self at the head of the bands that were making a desperate struggle against Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Denmark. He met with no sub- stantial success, and one night in 1718, while leaning on a breastwork before the fortress of Frederickshall in Norway, watching the opera- tions of the siege by moonlight, he was struck by a cannon ball and died instantly. It has been necessary to turn partly aside from the history of Peter the Great, because Charles XII. of Sweden intruded directly across his path. The result, as wiU be noted, was that the Czar obtained that 152 THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. which he sought a water front on the Baltic as well as on the Euxine. Still later, he pushed his borders to the Caspian Sea at the cost of Persia. It will be seen from what has been said that the wars into which Peter was forced were necessary to carry out his far reaching plans for the development of his empire. Whenever peace gave him the chance, he devoted himself heart and soul to his work. He founded the city of St. Petersburg in 1704, the city being named not in honor of him, but of the Apostle Peter, his patron saint. He introduced numerous reforms, remodeled his army, built a navy, enlarged commerce, dug canals, made roads, introduced the printing press, encouraged manufactures and raised Russia to the proud position which she has maintained ever since. While Charles XII. ruined his country, Peter rebuilt and established an empire. One winter day, in 1725, he waded into the water to help a boat off the rocks and caught a severe cold which developed into fever and caused his death. Many of the rulers of Russia have been women. The widow of Peter the Great carried out his policy for two years and then died, when Peter II., her grandson, ruled for three years. Numerous successors followed until the murder of Peter III. brought his widow to the throne in 1762, as Catherine II. She ruled until 1796. Her ability and success gave her a rank next to Peter the Great and the proud title of Catherine the Great. During her reign, the Crimea was won from the Turks, free access to the Black Sea being thus obtained and the partition of Poland was completed. It was a violation of all laws, human and divine, thus to divide the weak nation among Russia, Prussia and the Queen of Hungary, but there was no help for it. Russia has steadily grown in power and dominion since the time of Catherine. One of the most remarkable reigns of modern times is that of Alexander II., from 1855 to 1881. In 1861, in the face of solemn warn- ings from the nobility, he abolished the serfdom of 23,000,000 peasants, changing their condition, at a stroke of the pen, from that of subjects to the arbitrary whim of brutal masters to virtual freedom. Although Russia retained her horrible system of punishment by sending thou- sands of condemned prisoners yearly to Siberia, there to spend their lives toiling in the mines in hopeless drudgery and misery, yet many excellent reforms were made in the laws, among which was the establish- ment of trial by jury and the abolition of the frightful punishment by the knout or whip. THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 153 It is a striking fact that though the reign of Alexander II. proved him one of the kindest and most humane of men, yet the Nihilists were never more active than when he was on the throne. These people aim to dethrone all rulers, and they included many educated men and women in their ranks, some of whom belonged to the higher classes. An attempt was made on the Czar's life in 1866, followed by numerous plots which were detected by the vigilant police. In April, 1879, four shots were fired from a revolver at the Czar in St. Petersburg, and the merest accident the same year saved the car in which he was riding from being blown up by a mine that was set off at the wrong time. The most rigor- ous measures and merciless severity were put forth to suppress these people, but it was impossible, and some of them, as was proven by their acts, were members of the Czar's own household. The most trivial accidents prevented success in many attempts until March 13, 1881, when Alexander II., while returning to the Winter Pal- ace from a.review, was killed by the explosion of'a dynamite bomb. Two assassins were engaged in the crime. One of them flung a shell which wounded several of the guards walking in front of the carriage. The Emperor alighted, and was walking forward when the second assassin hurled a bomb which exploded at his feet, wounding him so dreadfully that he lived only a short time. Such ferocious acts never help any cause. Alexander III. was so incensed and terrified that he undid much of the humane work of his father, and made his rule as repressive and severe as possible. He died in June, 1894, and was succeeded by his son Nicholas II., under whom the empire of Russia has been greatly extended. The power of that country has steadily advanced into Central Asia, carrying her to the borders of Afghanistan, with the fixing of a definite frontier on the part of Russia and Great Britain, between the territory of the Czar and that of the ruler of Afghan. Three hundred and eight years after the first decree of banishment to Siberia was announced, Nicholas II., in 1899, determined to close the hideous chapter in the history of the Empire. During the period named, 1,500,000 have been sent on the long road, many of whom were hardened criminals, others outcasts or ne'er-do-wells, and still many others the victims of their religious or political opinions. All tramped in the com- mon chain-gangs over the bleak, dismal route that became a two years' journey by the time Russia reached the eastern ocean. The present 154 THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. emperor shares the opinion of his father and grandfather that this de- grading use should no longer be made of a vast and noble territory. The building of the great railway, the improvement of river navigation, the opening of immense areas to farming and mining enterprises, and the influx of hundreds of thousands of settlers has brought a new era to Siberia. Its population is 6,000,000, and since the beginning of 1896, 600,000 emigrants have passed into the country. The Czar appointed a commission to devise a plan to replace the transportation of criminals to that section. The first meeting of this commission was held in June, 1899. Though the details of the new plan have not been completed at this writing, they doubtless will be in the near future, and the sentence, "Exiled to Siberia," will be heard no more. Russia is so mighty a factor in the world's progress that her intentions always are a subject of profound concern to the other nations in Europe. She gave an evidence of this at the close of RUSSIAN ARTILLERY CROSSING A PONTOON BRIDGE THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. 155 the war between Japan and China, when she virtually decided the terms upon which the conquerors made peace with the conquered. The Czar's declaration in favor of a universal disarming with a view of bring- ing peace to the world, may have been the honest expression of the man, but it produced no effect on the surrounding nations. As for Nicholas himself, it need not be said that he has not yet begun lessening the number of his soldiers nor the dismantling of any ships of his navy. One singular fact must be noted: that is the unbroken friendship of Russia and the United States. The two governments represent ex- tremes and yet there has never been the shadow of trouble between the countries. We have had two wars with England, we have fought France on the ocean and came near fighting her more than once since then; we have fought Spain and had a flurry with Italy, Germany, and other nations, but never the slightest quarrel with Russia. During the great civil war in this country from 1861 to 1865, we were on the verge of a war with England and France, who were about to interfere on behalf of the Southern Confederacy. Russia sent a powerful fleet to New York, with orders that in the event of hostili- ties, the whole naval force should fight on the side of the Union. Since those stormy days England has become our best friend, and it is more natural that the two great Anglo-Saxon people should be brothers, but, no matter what the future may bring forth, we can never cease to feel grateful to Russia, who proved herself a true friend when we were in sore need of one. Italy, the seat of the mighty Roman Empire, once ruler of the world, was a weak, insignificant group of petty states, without any history, during the stirring incidents of the first half of the nineteenth century. The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, placed the country in the hands of a number of rulers, who had no sympathy for the longing of the Ital- ians for union and independence. When Pius IX. became Pope in 1848, great hopes were raised, but Austrian influence destroyed them. A revolt broke out in Lombardy and the Austrian troops were defeated. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, placed himself at the head of the revolutionary forces, but was so badly defeated in 1849, that he gave up his throne and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emanuel II. The patriots were repulsed in every quarter and the last state of Italy was as bad as the first. The only hope of the patriots now were in Victor Emanuel II., the new king of Sardinia. He proved worthy of their confidence. He 156 THE EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. introduced many reforms and showed himself so truthful and just that he won the title of "The Honest King." He formed an alliance with France against Austria, and at Magenta and Solferino the Austrians were so decisively defeated that peace was made and Lombardy sur- rendered to Italy, though the provinces of Nice and Savoy had to be given to France in payment for her help. In 1860 Parma, Modena and the ^Emiiian states were joined to Sardinia, followed immediately by the grand duchy of Tuscany. On March 17, of that year, Victor Eman- uel assumed the title of King of Italy. In May following Joseph Garibaldi, a patriot who had had many adventures in different parts of the world, and who had often risked his life in the defense of his country, left his home on the little island of Caprera, in the Mediterranean, and, landing at Marsala in Italy, an- nounced himself dictator for King Emanuel. He captured Palermo, the capital, defeated the troops of the tyrant king of Naples, and, push- ing inland, made other important captures. The king fled, and, enter- ing the capital, Garibaldi set up a government. More victories followed and the two Sicilies were united to Sardinia. There was much fighting, some of it of a severe nature, but finally the whole territory of Naples and Sicily came under the dominion of Emanuel, as King of Italy, which included all the country except Ven- etia and the city of Rome, the latter remaining the domain of the Pope. Garibaldi, against the wishes of Emanuel, made several attempts to capture the city of Rome, held by French troops, but was defeated. In 18G4, Florence succeeded Turin as the capital. In 1866, after the war between Austria and Prussia, Yenetia w r as transferred, first to the French Emperor and then to the king of Italy. And finally, when the French Empire fell in 1870, the Italian troops entered and took possession of Rome, which in June, 1871, became the capital of Italy. The temporal power of the Papacy came to an end, the Pope retain- ing only the Vatican, the Lateran palace and some adjoining property, with an income of $750,000 a year paid from the Italian revenues. Thus the unification of Italy was completed and she entered the European system of states as the sixth great power. Victor Emanuel died in January, 1878, and was succeeded by his oldest son, Humbert I., whose reign thus far has been creditable. The country has taxed itself severely to maintain a great military and naval force and her arms suffered a severe reverse a short time since when they invaded Abyssinia. CHAPTER XI. NORWAY Its Early History The Norsemen The Union of NORWAY, DEN- MARK AND SWEDEN Independence of Sweden HOLLAND PHILIP II. The Bitter Struggle Between Spain and Holland THE DUKE OF ALVA Assassination of William of Orange Prosperity of Holland Her Independence Holland and Belgium The New State LEOPOLD II. PORTUGAL Its Early History Its Present Status CHARLES I. SWITZERLAND Her Early and Later History GREECE Its Struggles for Independence The New Kingdom as Established in 1832 Its Last War With Turkey Defeat of Greece GEORGE I. WE HAVE now traced the history of the leading nations of Europe; but when you look on the map you will notice a number of other countries, respecting which it is proper that we should learn something. What is sometimes known as the Scandinavian Peninsula, in north- western Europe, is composed of the three countries, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, all of which have figured to a greater or less extent in the preceding pages. Norway, during the first centuries of the Christian era, was divided among the usual number of petty kings, with everything in confusion until the rule of Harold Haarfager from 863 to 930, when he made a solid realm of the country and introduced. the feudal system. He was so stern and repressive to the smaller kings and their piratical prac- tices that a large number of Norsemen left the country to live in the Faroe Islands, the Shetlands, the Orkneys, the Hebrides, the Isle of Man and Ireland. When they were strong enough they sailed back to Norway and made so much trouble, that the king drove them from the Orkneys and the Hebrides to Iceland, and placed earls over the island groups from which the freebooters fled. Strife and confusion followed the death of Harold, and one of the greatest of rulers was killed in A. D. 1000, while fighting against his Norwegian and Danish enemies off the south Baltic coast. That the grim Norsemen were daring sailors is proven by the fact that some of them crossed the Atlantic and made settlements in Greenland and portions of New England, all of which afterward disappeared. The country was united in the eleventh century and Christianity established. The language of ancient Denmark, Norway and Sweden, with tri- iliug variations, was the same and the history of the three countries 157 15 8 NORWAY, DENMARK AND SWEDEN. is closely interwoven, all being confused and obscure during the early centuries. In 1385 Margaret became queen of Denmark and Norway and four years later was chosen sovereign also of Sweden. It was be- lieved when the three crowns were united in 1397 that it was to last forever. Margaret, who was the daughter of a king of Denmark, and the wife of a king of Norway, has been called the "Semiramis of the North," and her reign is the most glorious in Danish annals. She died in 1412. Much warring followed her death, with the result that the Swedes in 1523 secured their independence from the Danish yoke. Lutheran- ism was introduced in that year and Catholicism suppressed in 1537. In 1658, Gustavus of Sweden invaded Denmark and wrested some of the finest provinces from her. At the conclusion of the European wars, in 1815, Norway, which all through the years had belonged to Den- mark, was given to Sweden.' By the treaty of 1864, Denmark lost still more of her provinces. She became an industrious and peaceful na- tion, and her greatest exploit of late years is that her royal family has given a king to Greece, a czarina to Russia and a Princess of Wales to England. Charles XIV., who reigned over Sweden and Norway from 1818 to 1844, devoted himself to reforms in educational and financial matters, to opening roads and canals and to reclaiming a vast amount of the waste lands under his control. The good work of reform and internal improvements has been continued ever since. At this writing Christian IX. is the King of Denmark. He was born in 1818, and besides being the father of the three distinguished persons named, the Duchess of Cumberland and Prince Waldemar, who declined the election of reigning Prince of Bulgaria, are his children. Oscar II. is King of Sweden and Norway. He is the son of Oscar I., and was born in 1829. He has proven an excellent ruler and is counted among the most accomplished of European monarchs and one of the strongest advocates of the policy of settling all disputes between nations by arbitration. Holland is one of the most interesting countries in Europe. It was a province of Rome during the palmy days of the empire, and was overrun by Saxons in the second century; it was conquered by Charles Martel in the eighth century and afterward formed a part of Charle- magne's dominions. From the tenth to the fourteenth centuries it was HOLLAND. 159 divided into petty states, with many changes following until 1548, when it came under the rule of Charles V. of Spain, a calamity that was one of the most woful that could befall that or any other country. We have seen that at the time of which we are speaking, Spain was the greatest power in Europe. It had immense dominions in Italy, America and the Spice Islands and its revenues were ten times greater than those of England. Philip II., of whose doings we have given an account elsewhere, was one of the vilest miscreants that ever lived. He was a little, lean, stoop-shouldered wretch, sour, brooding, never known to smile, and happy only when he could look upon the tortures of his miserable vic- tims. The great antagonist of Philip was the noble William, Prince of Orange. Philip could neither bribe nor frighten him. William risked his wealth, his life, everything in the defense of Holland, and never lost his courage in the darkest hour. Philip called the hideous Inquisition to his aid and persecuted the Lutherans with frightful ferocity. The bigotry was not confined to the followers of Philip. The Pro- testant rioters attacked the churches in several provinces and plun- dered and ruined the splendid cathedral at Antwerp. Fully 400 Cath- olic places of worship were pillaged. Philip took fearful revenge. The Duke of Alva, one of the most infamous wretches of history, arrived in Brussels in August, 1567, at the head of 15,000 troops. He was too powerful to be checked and he hanged, quartered, burned and confis- cated right and left, his law of action being not to spare a single here- tic. The duke was a skilful soldier, and during his reign of six years he put 18,000 persons to death, this estimate being his own. When afraid to meet the armies of the Hollanders, he adroitly avoided battle. He besieged Haarlem for seven months, 1572-1573, and it cost him 10,000 men to capture the city. The bravest of the defenders were the women, who flung blazing oil and burning ropes upon their assailants and used daggers and pistols in their defense. After the surrender the governor, leading officers and 2,000 of the garrison were massacred. The patriots met with many successes. One of their sea rovers captured the town of Brill and we have related in another place how William cut the dykes and let in the sea, during the siege of Leyden. This was in October, 1574, and provisions were brought in boats to 160 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. the starving people. A thousand of the Spaniards were drowned be- fore they could reach the higher ground. William displayed admirable diplomacy, brought about a union of many of the provinces against Spain, and in 1580 the union was de- clared a free and independent state. Philip was aflame with rage and he offered 25,000 golden crowns to any one who would deliver up Will- iam of Nassau, dead or alive, and to grant a patent of nobility to who- ever murdered him. Several attempts upon the life of William fol- lowed, and on the 10th of July, 1584, while at Delft, to be installed as ruler of the United Provinces, he was shot by an assassin as he was rising from his table, and died in a few minutes. Prince Maurice of Nassau, second son of William and eighteen years old, took up the work of his father. There was much fighting, but re- lief did not come until the death of Philip in September, 1598. The prosperity of Holland now began and grew fast. She did most of the carrying trade of Europe, and tillage and manufactures throve. Instead of heeding the woful lessons of the past, Holland was torn by civil war, over what the people chose to call religious questions. The Catholics suffered as savage persecutions as any in which they had taken part. Prince Maurice showed himself to be a coarse, brutal bigot, and his beheading of the noble patriot, Olden Barneveldt, in May, 1619, was one of the foulest of crimes. But Holland gradually cast off these dreadful hindrances to her progress, captured a number of important towns from Spain, and in 1648, compelled that country to acknowledge Dutch independence. The terrific struggle had lasted for more than three-fourths of a cen- tury, and no nobler war for freedom against overwhelming odds is on record. In 1689, William of Orange, then king of England, united that coun- try and Holland to the "League of Augsburg," and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 joined Holland and Belgium in a political connection, but it did not work well, for the people of the two states differed in religion, tastes, language and historic feeling. A revolt took place in 1830, that year of political unrest in Europe. The independence of the southern or Belgian provinces was recognized by England, Eussia, Prussia and Austria, The new state became a liberal monarchy. It was fortunate in having excellent rulers, and manufactures, arts and sciences and commerce have reached a high point of development. PORTUGAL. 161 The present King of the Belgians is Leopold II., born in 1835. He is the son of the Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, uncle of Queen Victoria, who was elected king of the Belgians in 1831. In Holland, during the reign of William III., in 1862, slavery was abolished in the Dutch West Indies. The owners were paid, the slaves about 42,000 in number, being mostly in Dutch Guiana. Capital pun- ishment was abolished in 1869. A new constitution in 1887 increased the voters by 200,000. The king dying in November, 1890, the young Princess Wilhelmina was brought to the throne. She assumed full power upon reaching the age of eighteen, August 31, 1898. Although frequent reference has been made to Portugal, no con- nected history of that once important country has been given. Origi- nally it was a part of Spain, but its history as a separate country be- gins at the close of the eleventh century. It had many contests with the Moors. In the capture of Lisbon, the English Crusaders gave val- uable aid, a fact which was the cause of the lasting connection between England and Portugal. The country reached its present limits under Alfonso III., who ruled from 1248 to 1279. The two wisest resolves of Portugal were to attend to its own business by having nothing to do with Spanish affairs, and to keep up the friendship with England. It will be remembered that it was during the reign of John the Great, closing in 1433, that Portugal entered upon her career of exploration and discovery. Prince Henry won the title of "The Navigator" by de- voting the years from 1418 to his death in 1460 to the pushing of the great work of maritime discovery. A period of decline followed, ow- ing mainly to the bigotry of the rulers. This was especially the case under John III., who reigned from 1521 to 1557. He introduced the Inquisition and his baleful influence extended to the colonies of the country. It was disgust which caused the great navigator, Magellan, to leave his native country and enlist in the service of Spain. Portu- gal also suffered from a large loss of its population, due to the mis- rule of the country. Philip II. bribed the true heir to the throne and enough members of the Cortes, or governing power of Portugal to declare him king of Portugal, and he entered Lisbon in triumph in 1581. The usual result of such a disaster followed. Portugal remained a province of Spain for nearly sixty years. During that woful period she lost a great deal of her territory in the East and in the Western world, because of Eng- 1G 2 SWITZERLAND. lish and Dutch attacks, and she suffered from the wars in the Nether- lands and Germany and against England. A general uprising ended Spanish dominion and John IV. came to the throne in January, 1641, the formal recognition of his country's independence by Spain taking place in 1668. Commercial treaties with England added much to the prosperity of Portugal. A memorable inci- dent in the history of the country was the destruction of Lisbon by an earthquake in 1755. In that awful calamity 30,000 people lost their lives. Portugal suffered greatly from Napoleon's invasion, but lie was driven out by Wellington and the country has had a fairly prosperous history since then. The ruling dynasty is that of the House of Bra- ganza, founded in A. D. 1400. The present king. is Charles L, born in 1863, son of the late King Louis. He succeeded to the throne October 19, 1889. The Swiss republic, so popular with tourists because of the grand- eur of its scenery, won its freedom after a brave struggle, and has kept it for four hundred years. Its early history, when it was pecked at from all sides, is not of special interest. One of the most interesting of its stories, that of William Tell shooting the apple off the head of his son, has not the slightest foundation in fact. Nothing of the kind ever took place. In the readjustment of national boundaries after the downfall of Napoleon in 1815, the 19 cantons of Switzerland became 22, by the addi- tion of three that had been annexed to France. Then the Vienna Con- gress declared that Switzerland should remain neutral in all future European wars. Thus the Swiss Confederation was established, with a diet in which each state was represented, and which met alternately at the cities of Berne, Zurich and Lucerne. There were religious troubles between the Protestant and Catholic cantons, and something resembling civil war broke out in 1847, but it soon ended and a new constitution was adopted. By this the government became a federal nation, with two councils sitting in Berne, one composed of members representing the government of the separate cantons, and the other an assembly for the whole people, elected according to the population. Switzerland, the "republic of the Alps," is an admirable country in many respects. It has perfect liberty of conscience, education and GREECE. 163 manufactures have reached a high degree of development, and it is visited annually by thousands of tourists from all parts of the world. One of the strangest facts in history is that Greece, after attaining heights never since reached by any people, then sinking into collapse and decay, showed renewed life and vigor, though in no way approach- ing that of the days of Pericles and Thennopyla3. Toward the close of the eighteenth century Greece made several efforts to throw off the galling Turkish yoke. She showed a gallantry that awoke the admiration of other nations, but Turkey crushed every attempt with her usual ferocity. The uprising in France thrilled Greece to new daring and sacrifices, and she had well wishers everywhere. Lord Byron aided the cause of patriotism by his splendid poetry, and in April, 1821, the war for free- dom began and lasted for six years. Every schoolboy is familiar with the poem "Marco Bozzaris," and most of them have recited it. That hero fell at the head of a band of patriots while bravely fighting in 1823. The struggle was most remarkable. The ancient Greeks never dis- played grander heroism than their descendants, and small bodies often defeated forces double and triple their own. It must be remembered, too, that the Turks rank among the best soldiers in Europe. But they are cruel to the last degree, and many of their deeds sent a shiver of horror throughout other nations. There seemed, however, to be no end to the troops that Turkey could place in the field. As fast as they were slain by the Greeks, they were followed by others, some of whom were led by skilful generals. Missolonghi was captured after one of the most desperate defenses ever recorded, and all continental Greece fell into the possession of the Turks, who deliberately resolved to slay the whole native population and replace them with Egyptians and Arabs. At last the pitiful condition of prostrate, bleeding Greece awoke something more than sympathy among other European powers. In July, 1827, England induced Prance and Russia to demand of Turkey an armistice, but it was refused, and the British, French and Russian fleets were sent to the Peloponnesus, where through an accident a col- lision was brought on in which the Turkish and Egyptian vessels were destroyed. Still Turkey would not consent to an armistice, and the war went on. The Turks were defeated by the Greek and French forces in 1829, and continental Greece freed from the presence of the invad- GREECE. ers. Russia delivered the decisive blow, and in 1830 Turkey was com- pelled to acknowledge the independence of Greece. The new kingdom as established by treaty in 1832 included the main- land south of the Gulfs of Pagasse and Ambraka, with Peloponnesus, Euboea and the Cyclades Islands, while Turkey retained Thessaly, Epi- rus, Macedonia and Crete. Otho, son of the king of Bavaria, was made king and ruled for thirty years. His reign was corrupt and tyrannical and filled the country with discontent. He was compelled to grant a constitutional government in 1843, but he was so unpopular that he had to retire in October, 1862. In the following March Prince George, of Denmark, brother of the Princess of Wales, accepted the throne. In 1864 the Ionian Isles were added to the country upon England yield- ing its protectorate over them. The prosperity of Greece was greatly hindered by her eagerness to wrest more land from Turkey. Through the friendship of the British government the Greek territory was increased in 1881 by the addition of portions of Thessaly and Epirus. The folly of Greece was shown when another revolt was set on foot in Crete, and the island was entered by Greek troops. The powers sent their fleets to the coasts of the island in March, 1897, with orders to the Greeks to withdraw. They refused and hurried their preparations for war with Turkey. In April her forces crossed the frontier. Their leaders were worthless and the troops badly equipped, while the opposite condition prevailed among the Turks, who utterly routed the Greeks. When the condition of Greece was desperate the Sultan granted an armistice, thus averting the overrunning of the country by his armies. Since Greece was wholly to blame in this rash undertaking, terms of peace were arranged with the consent of the powers, by which Greece was compelled to pay an indemnity of $20,000,000 and consent to a change of the frontier of Thessaly that gave the most important points to Turkey, which country also obtained a foothold on the southern bank of the river Peneus. At this writing George I., born in 1845, and the son of Christian IX., king of Denmark, is the ruler of Greece. He is only moderately popular, his course in the last war with Turkey having displeased many people and he cannot be ranked among the great rul- ers of the country. CHAPTER XII. HUNGABY Her Early and Later History POLAND Its Former Greatness and Its Final Extinction TURKEY "The Assassin Among Nations" Her Rise to Greatness and Her Decline Her Depravity arid Corruption Her Numerous Wars ABDUL HAMID II., the "Great Assassin" The Bulgarian Atrocities Independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania The "Eastern Question" The Armenian Massacres Why England Did Not Interfere. THE name of Hungary has been frequently mentioned in the pre- ceding pages. It is one of those countries whose early history is made up of wars, which it would be uninteresting to describe. Its situation laid it open to invasions from all sides and it had no end of them. In the fourteenth century it attained a high degree of pros- perity, including at that time, beside Hungary proper, Dalmatia, Croa- tia, Bosnia, Servia, Wallachia, Transylvania, Moldavia and Bulgaria. In 1526 the Turks conquered a great portion of the kingdom and kept it for many years. Then Austria drove them out and finally, in 1687, THE PRINCIPAL STREET IN WARSAW RUSSIAN POLAND 165 166 HUNGARY, POLAND, TURKEY. the crown of Hungary was declared hereditary in the house of Aus- tria, The country remained faithful to that kingdom until the revo- lution of 1848, which was subdued by Austria, whose rule, under Jos- eph, as related elsewhere, has fully met all the demands of the Hun- garians and opened a career of great prosperity to their country. "Unhappy Poland" has been the theme of many a poet, and its his- tory is a sad one. The Poles were originally a tribe of Vandals of whom nothing is known previous to the sixth century. About the middle of the eighth century, the people shook off the tyranny of their rulers and elected one of their own number as Duke. The country grew in strength and in 999 their ruler was made king. From the thirteenth century the Poles became the most warlike nation in Europe and by the marriage of its beautiful Queen Hedwiga, in 1386, to the Prince of Lithuania, the last heathen country on the continent was brought to Christianity and the two countries united. The country was devastated and ruined by the never ending wars, and the last king of Poland ascended the throne in 1764. Destruction followed and in 1772 came the shameful "partition" of the country, through which it was absorbed by Catherine of Russia, Joseph II. of Germany, and Frederick of Prussia. In 1795 another division took place among the three powers, by which all the country was swallowed up with the exception of the ancient city of Cracow and a few miles of adjacent country. Of the three spoilers, Russia got the largest share. Numerous insurrections took place, but they were subdued. In 1832 all that was left of Poland was declared a part of the Russian Empire. In 1846 an attempt was made at Cracow to recover independence, but it ended in the crushing of the last remnant, which was L ded to Aus- tria. Early in 1855, when Alexander II. became czar and had brought by pardon many exiles back to Poland, attempts were made to win the regard of the people by restoring the Poles to the tenure of public offices and by granting municipal government to Warsaw. The re- quest was refused and Poland struck her last blow for freedom in Feb- ruary, 1863. Her soldiers were mere guerrillas and could accomplish nothing. In the following year the revolt was crushed. In 1868 the Polish province was absorbed into that of Russia, and thus Poland van- ished from the map of the world and her people from among nations. Turkey has been well described as the assassin among; nations. She HUNGARY, POLAND, TURKEY. 167 has been an intolerable nuisance for centuries, and ought to have been partitioned like Poland long ago and blotted from the earth. It is a great misfortune that the location and condition of Turkey make her existence seemingly necessary to the balance of power among the na- tions of Europe. Any move by one power that threatens her injury is instantly resented by the other powers, and thus the horrible gov- ernment is kept alive and its rulers allowed to massacre and ravage and shame civilization, without being called to account. Turkey played so prominent a part in the early history of Europe that much has been said of her doings in the preceding chapters. The earliest authentic accounts of the people show that about the year 800 they issued from various parts of Turkestan and captured a part of Armenia, which because of that was named Turcomania. They were warlike and aggressive, and afterward extended their conquests over the neighboring parts of Asia, Africa and Europe, occupying Syria, Egypt and finally the territory that remained to the Greek empire. Upon the capture of Constantinople in 1453, it became the capital of the empire. Then the Crimea, parts of Hungary and the Morea and the Islands were overrun. The next exploit of the Turks was the seizure of the whole coun- try now known as Turkey in Asia, the Hezja in Egypt and the regencies of Tripoli, Tunis and Algiers. This was the period of the greatest glory of Turkey, but its decline began in the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury and was swift. It was due to the depravity and unspeakable corruption of everybody from the Sultan down to the lowest officer and menial. Nobody was honest, nobody truthful, nobody decent, but as bad as bad could be. In the account of Charles XII. of Sweden, it was shown that he was given shelter in 1711 by Turkey. This led to a war with Russia, which would have been ruined, had not the grand-vizier been bribed to allow the army of Peter the Great to escape. The many wars in which Turkey was afterward involved resulted in the continual lopping off of portions of her territory. We have seen Russia give the decisive blow to the Ottoman Empire when the Powers intervened in behalf of struggling Greece in 1827. Although much of the area taken from Turkey was given back to her, Russia kept most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea and assumed a protectorate over Wallachia and Moldavia. A revolt in Egypt placed Turkey some time later in so much peril that she had to beg Russia 168 HUNGARY, POLAND, TURKEY. to come to her help. Russia is the hereditary enemy of Turkey and longs for the possession of Constantinople from which she received the form of the Christian religion that is that of her empire. It was a humiliation, therefore, for the Sultan to see his old foes the only ones to stand between him and the Pasha of Egypt, but it proved effective and the Egyptian army withdrew. In payment for this service- Turkey undertook by treaty, in 1833, to close the Dardanelles to all armed ves- sels except those of Russia. It will be borne in mind that the Turks are Mohammedans w T ho hate all Christians with such intensity that they would be delighted to kill every one on the face of the earth. The Sultan's subjects in the north- ern provinces, Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, and Herzegovinia and in Wal- lachia and Moldavia were mostly members of the Greek Church. This fact gave Russia a pretext for continually interfering in the affairs of Turkey. It is the jealousy of the other powers that alone prevents Russia from giving the death blow to the "sick man of Europe," as Turkey has been called. It w T as this jealousy which caused the agree- ment that the Dardanelles should be closed against all armed ships when Turkey is at peace. A history of the Crimean war, in which Russia was defeated, has been told in another place. By the treaty of 1856 Turkey regained command of the Danubian mouths, and the protectorate of Russia over the Christians in Turkey and in Moldavia and Wallachia was ended, while Russia was forbidden to maintain any naval arsenals in the Black Sea or any naval force superior to that of Turkey. In I860 Wallachia and Moldavia drove out their vicious ruler and declared themselves independent as "Roumania." The outbreak of the Franco-German War in 1870 led Russia to de- clare that she would no longer be bound by the treaty of 1856, which forbade the armed vessels of other nations from entering the Black Sea. A Conference in 1871 resulted in the closing of the Dardanelles to all ships of war except those of Russia and Turkey. The Ottoman Empire is no more capable of giving good government to her subjects than Spain. Her brutality led to a revolt in Herze- govina in 1875, which was supported by Servia, Bosnia and Montenegro. A good many Russian volunteers joined the rebels, Russia winking at the action. In 1876 Abdul-Hamid II. became Sultan and at this time is still the reigning monarch/ He is' the blood-stained monster whom Gladstone fitly called "the Great Assassin." He well deserves the HUNGARY, POLAND, TURKEY. 169 name, for the crimes which he has committed against Christians are almost beyond belief. The revolt in Bulgaria was suppressed, but the outrages afterward committed by the irregular troops of Turkey horrified the world. Even in Russia the indignation carried everything before it and the Czar was forced to invade Turkey in April, 1877. Defeated at first, the Rus- sians soon gained great advantages and early the following year were almost at the gates of Constantinople. Peace was restored in the sum- mer of 1878, by which Servia, Montenegro and Roumania were made independent; Bosnia and Herzegovina were ceded to Austria; Bulgaria was made an independent principality; southern Bulgaria became the province of Eastern Roumelia and the Sultan's territory in Europe was reduced to the land south of the Balkans, which in ancient times was Thrace, Macedonia, part of Epirus and Illyria between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. Thus was the sensitive "balance of power" pre- served for the time. In reading about European affairs you will often note the term "Eastern Question." This is the problem of what shall be done with Turkey, still steadily declining and presenting the most shocking ex- ample of vice and misrule among the nations of the earth. Every now and then there is a fanatical outburst of the Mussulmans against the Christians, in which not the slightest mercy is shown to helpless men, women, children and babes. The Sultan, in the face of the pro- tests of a horrified world, calmly keeps up his massacres and outrages. By the Treaty of Berlin, Armenia came under the care of Great Britain, but the hope that thereby she would receive that protection for which the British flag has long been noted, proved without war- rant. The Armenians, not being adherents of the Greek Church, could not expect aid from Russia, while the Sultan, knowing that the jeal- ousies of the other powers would cause them to keep their hands off, proceeded, in 1894-95, to murder the innocent thousands, without mis- giving as to the results to himself. All England was stirred by the awful massacres. Public meetings were held and words of burning indignation rang out against the Eng- lish government because she permitted the crimes to go on. The aged Gladstone was never more thrillingly eloquent than in his outbursts, calling for the staying of the hand of "the Great Assassin," but England shrank from kindling the flames of a great European war, while Rus- sia remained mute, and the crime of the century went unpunished. CHAPTER XIII. ASIA THE CHINESE EMPIRE Kung-fu-tse, or Confucius The Great Wall The Chinese History of the Country Its Present Condition JAPAN Its Early History Its Sudden and Sweeping Acceptance of Modern Ideas and Civiliza- tion Its Astonishing Progress The Crushing Defeat of China INDIA Its Early and Later History SIAM CEYLON An English Colony ARABIA Its Rise and Fall. WE NOW return to Asia, the largest of the grand divisions of the earth, the birthplace of mankind, the cradle of the human race, the mother of nations, religions and states; of languages, arts and sciences and the scene of human progression in ancient times, with many traits remaining which marked it in the dim centuries that have come and gone. The two most important nations of Asia are the Chinese and Japa- nese. The Chinese Empire has a population estimated at 400,000,000. In the remote ages the people were known as the Seres, and in medi- eval times, the country was called "Cathay," which is a Tartar word. The origin of the people is so obscure that nothing need be said of it. Kung-fu-tse was born in the province of Shantung, B. C. 551. The title means "the Teacher Kung," the last word being his family name. The Jesuit missionaries Latinized his name into "Confucius," which is now generally used, lie was a very learned man, who spent his life in journey- ing from province to province, in the vain ef- fort to reform the abus- es of the times. He did not claim to originate any new doctrine or re- ligion, but to explain the teachings of the wise men who had lived and died before him. His creed included the Golden Rule and HIGH CASTE CHINESE AT DINNER 170 THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 171 he taught there was but one God and one emperor and that the rulers of other nations were his vassals. He enforced filial affection, the strict training of children and reverence for the "old truths." Confucianism is the religion of the higher classes in China, though other systems, includ- ing Buddhism and Taoism are prevalent and the creed of the lower classes is a mixture of all three, filled with gross superstition. The famous Great Wall of China was built in the third century before Christ. It extended for 1,400 miles over hill, hollows and plains, composed of gravel, stone and brick, and was intended as a protection against the barbarous tribes. While the Chinese are frugal, industri- ous, polite and devoted to their parents, they are among the greatest liars and gamblers that ever lived. They are treacherous, and, despite the fact that many crimes are punishable with death, the country has been pestered by numerous outbreaks, some of which have resulted in the killing of Christian missionaries and their families. The Chinese are a wonderfully ingenious people. They were the first to learn the use of the mariner's compass, to invent paper making, printing from wooden blocks, the manufacture of "China" or porcelain, exquisite earthenware, beautiful silken robes, lacquered ware and fine carving of ivory, tortoise shell, mother-of-pearl and wood. A China- man will kindle a fire and cook his meal, where an American could not produce a spark of flame. Thousands of them entered California, where they worked and saved money on wages that would not keep another person from starvation. They finally became such a nuisance in this country that rigid laws were passed to bar them out. In the face of this prohibition, many of them succeed in landing on our shores with- out being detected. The empire is wedded to its old methods and honeycombed with cor- ruption. The Chinese of to-day know no more than their ancestors of a thousand years ago, but in some respects that is much more than any other people know. But they do not advance. They are very jeal- ous of the "modernizing" of the empire by the introduction of reform and civilized methods. At this writing the nominal emperor of China has been deprived of his power and is really a prisoner in his own pal- ace, while the dowager empress, a strong-minded woman and a bitter enemy of modern ideas, holds the country in its motionless position. The question of the partition of China is one that has been discussed, and is still of leading importance among civilized nations, and it is THE CHINESE EMPIRE. probable that the division will take place at no distant day in the future. There is little of interest in the history of China previous to its com- ing in contact with European peoples. As long ago as the fifteenth century Japanese cruisers ravaged the coasts and the troubles with the Tartars who had plagued them for centuries continued. A number of Portuguese merchants settled a hundred years later in Macao, and early in the seventeenth century Dutch and Spaniards entered China. The present Manchoo dynasty was founded in 1644. The Tartars conquered the country and introduced the shaved head and pigtail which are a sign of Tartar sovereignty. Some time later the French and English appeared, the first direct intercourse between the British and Chinese governments occurring in 1792. The East India Company soon established a trade in tea, and before the close of the century had built up another in opium. It is to the great discredit of the English government that it forced traffic in this vicious drug. The exclusiveness of China was broken down by treaty with England in 1842, and two years later she made commercial treaties with the United States and France. A formidable rebellion broke out in 1850 and the rebels for a time met with great success in their efforts to overturn the throne and to found a new dynasty, that of Universal Peace. Finally, with the help of the soldiers of foreign nations, the rebellion was put down and peace came in 1864. In 1857 a small English vessel was seized and the Chi- nese government refused to make apology and pay an indemnity. This brought about a war in which France and England united. The mis- erable Chinese fleet was destroyed and Canton captured. The treaty of 1858 gave many advantages to England, France and the United States, but China would not carry out the terms and fighting was re- newed in 1859, with a crushing defeat of the Chinese forces. The most important treaty of all was agreed to in October, 1860, at Peking. (This name is often wrongly spelled "Pekin.") By it the for- mer treaties were ratified, Christianity was tolerated, a tariff was ar- ranged, British subjects were allowed to enter any part of China with- out passports and five new ports were opened to trade. Thus the Celes- tial Empire's doors were thrown open to the Western nations, and what may be called the true modern history of the country began, though the ponderous, backward and seemingly immovable empire lags wofully on the road of progress and prosperity. THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. 173 The present sluggishness of China and her resistance to progress is the more strange when it is remembered that she received a terrific object lesson only a short time since from her neighbor, the island em- pire of Japan. The Japanese, often called "the Yankees of the East," have a his- tory dating as far back as that of China. The two peoples have some traits in common, being frugal and wonderfully ingenious and similar in appearance, but the Japanese are vastly the superiors in other re- spects to their neighbors of the mainland, for they are brave, frank and very progressive. Their population is about one-tenth that of China. The most general religion is Buddhism, but there are many adherents of Shintoism, in which is included the worship of heroes, great men and many natural forces. The reliable records of the countrj' begin with the tenth century, when the emperor, or "Mikado," shared his authority with a military officer called the "Tycoon." The male population was divided into two classes those who tilled the soil and those who bore arms. There was a great deal of civil war and strife with neighboring nations, and, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the condition of Japan was very bad. About the middle of the seventeenth century the country adopted the policy of shutting out all foreigners except the Chinese and Dutch. Christianity was destroyed, but the empire advanced in prosperity, through the energy and ability of the people themselves. In 1854 Commodore Perry, of our own country, having visited Japan the previous year, with four men-of-war, persuaded the Tycoon to sign a treaty by which the Americans gained certain rights. Similar trea- ties were made with Great Britain and Russia within the following year, and still later, Japan agreed to open several of her ports to trade with Great Britain, the United States, France and Eussia. This pol- icy of the Tycoon, however, proved too "rapid" for the Mikado and his court, and intense resentment was shown toward the foreigners. The first Japanese embassy to this country arrived in 1860, and the prime minister who sent it was assassinated. In 1862 a member of the British embassy was killed, for which the Tycoon, who was not blamable, made all the reparation in his power. Where such opposing ideas were seething revolution was inevitable. There was constant friction with the foreigners, who, in their ardor in entering forbidden ports, were fired upon by Japanese forts. Con- 174 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. vinced that stern measures were necessary the British, American, French and Dutch vessels in 1863 and 1864 bombarded the batteries at Shimon- oseki and compelled the payment of a large indemnity. In 1867 the struggle between the opposing elements in Japan ended in the abol- ishment of the dual government and the establishment of the Mikado as the temporal and spiritual head of the empire. The royal residence was removed to Jeddo, whose name was changed to Tokio, which is a splendid city with a population of nearly two mil- lions. All the previous treaties with foreign nations were ratified and embassies visited the United States and European countries. Several hundred of the brightest young men in the empire were sent to Ameri- can and European institutions of learning, where the ability they dis- played was a revelation to their instructors and classmates. (I may be permitted to state at this point that it was my privilege to act as the teacher of one of these youths, whose aptitude in mathe- matics surpassed anything I ever saw. As I have recorded in another work, one of these Japanese students in the High School in New Bruns- wick, N. J. Samuri Takaki, by name one day placed on the black- board fourteen original demonstrations of the famous problem in geom- etry that the square described on the hypothenuse of a right-angled tri- angle equals the sum of the squares described on the other two sides. The feat of this youth, so far as I have been able to learn, has never been equaled by any other mathematician in the world.) It may be said of Japan that at one bound she leaped from medie- valism into the full noontide of nineteenth century civilization. She reached out eagerly for everything that the. West could give her and clamored for more. Railways and telegraphs were introduced; the criminal laws were changed; a government postal system established; female education, modern military drill, tactics and arms, general edu- cation, a modern navy and, indeed, everything that could hasten the empire forward over the road of prosperity, strength, power and prog- ress, came into existence. The change was not only thorough but its suddenness was startling. As an evidence of the astonishing ingenuity of those people the fol- lowing incident will serve: A contract was made with an American firm to build a number of locomotives for Japan. When the first lot arrived the Japanese work- men naturally showed great curiosity to learn all about them. The THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. 175 American engineer obligingly explained how the different parts were made and their uses. Some days later he found that the Japanese me- chanics were building a locomotive which, when finished, proved to be a perfect twin of the American, and its equal in every respect. There was logic in the advice given to a party who was making some ma- chinery for Japan: "Don't let those fellows see it until your contract is finished; for, if you do, they will run off to their shops and make a better piece of work than yours, and it won't cost more than half as much." The re- mark was often made that only one test re- mained of gain of Japan in adopting modern ideas: that was her ability in modern warfare. This test came in 1894 when a quarrel over Corean af- fairs caused a declara- tion of war against China. The first bat- JAPANESE FARM HANDS tie was fought in September, at Ping Yang, in Corea, and on the same day a naval action took place in Corea Bay. In both cases the Chinese were defeated with great loss. In the following month the Japanese crossed the Yalu Kiver and entered Chinese territory. Two cities were captured in November and Port Arthur occupied. In February, 1895, the Chinese fleet tried to escape from Wei-hai-wei, almost opposite Port Arthur, when it was attacked by the Japanese ships waiting outside the harbor. In a, brief but furious engagement the Chinese fleet was destroyed. The battle, if such it may be termed, was similar to that at Santiago and Manila, between the American and Spanish fleets, some three years later. By this time China saw her helplessness before this young but amaz- ingly vigorous nation. Western civilization anol Eastern barbarism had 176 THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. met in battle and the latter was smitten to the very dust. China begged for peace and a treaty was signed March 16, 1895, by which the island of Formosa and the adjoining Pescadores isles were ceded to Japan, in addition to which China bound herself to pay a heavy war indemnity. . The revised treaties between Japan and the other powers became operative July 17, 1899, when the empire was thrown open to all western people. The step restored to Japan the right to exercise the prerogatives of national sovereignty, which was temporarily suspended when she made her first treaties, and placed her on an equal footing with all other treaty powers. The date named, therefore, marked a momentous era in the history of that wonderful nation, since for the first time she stood forth as a co-equal with the chief powers of the world in all that pertains to the free and tmtrammeled exercise of the rights of national sov- ereignty. It is the triumphant climax of everything that that country has achieved, since it emerged only a short time before from the seclusion and gloom in which it had been Shrouded for centuries. The name Indies has had different meanings at different times. It was first used by the Greeks who borrowed it from the Persians, it be- ing unknown to the natives. As employed by the Grecian writers it meant a vague extent of country, beyond the Indus, of which they had scant knowledge. The Indus was crossed by Darius, B. C. 500, and he conquered Cashmere and part of the region known as the Punjaub. Two hundred years later Alexander pushed his conquests a little farther. A more accurate account of the country was given by Ptolemy in A. D. 150. He divided India into "India Within" and "India Beyond the Ganges." The decline of the Roman Empire, the rise of tlie Parthian Empire, and especially the spread of Mohammedanism over Western Asia broke off direct intercourse between India and Europe, while re- ligious hatred and commercial jealousy helped to close the road to Europeans. At that time caravans were the medium by which the pro- ductions of the East were brought to the shores of the Mediterranean. Not until the Portuguese navigators doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, were the Europeans able to visit that region of measureless wealth. When we speak of India to-day we mean the country beyond the Ganges, or, as it is also called, Hindustan. The value of India led to long and bloody conflicts for its possession. During the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) France and England fought as supporters of rival native princes in southern India. The British East INDIA, SIAM, CEYLON. 177 India Company won through the genius and daring of Robert Clive, but a period of misrule followed. An improvement came and Warren Hastings was the first of the governor-generals. He held office from 1772 to 1785, but his zeal and high-handed acts led to his trial on charges brought against him by Burke. He was acquitted and firmly estab- lished British rule in India, though it was sometimes threatened by the numerous wars that followed. Lord Cornwallis (who was obliged to surrender to Washington at Yorktown in 1781) succeeded Hastings as governor-general in 1786, and held the office until 1793. He improved upon the rule of Hastings, and extended British power and influence, as did several successors, until the power of England became supreme. The most serious of the later revolts in India was the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857-58. This broke out at Meerut, in June, 1857, and was due to a number of causes, the principal being the fanaticism of the natives, who were led to believe that the English were trying to interfere with their religion. The war was attended by many thrilling incidents, chief of which were the two massacres at Cawnpore; the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow by General Havelock; the siege of the Lucknow Resi- dency and its relief by Sir Colin Campbell; the siege of the mutineers in Delhi and its capture by English troops and the final taking of Luck- now by Lord Clyde in March, 1858. The rebellion being completely crushed, a radical change was made in the method of government. All political power was taken from the East India Company and the country was brought under the direct rule of the British crown. The "Governor-General" became a "Vice- roy," with a Council, and his supreme power in India was subject to the Secretary of State in England. On November 1, 1858, Queen Vic- toria was proclaimed as empress of India. After a series of revolts and much strife, England succeeded in plac- ing a friendly ruler in control of Afghanistan and his friendship so far has been retained by the payment of a yearly allowance of $600,000. In January, 1886, the drunken king of Bunnah, who had mistreated English traders, was deposed and Upper Bunnah was annexed to India. Russia is the great rival of England beyond the borders of India, and in 1887 a new boundary was marked out between Russian territory and Afghanistan, with a view of preserving peace, which more than once had been rudely threatened. In spite of all this Russia keeps edging- 178 INDIA, SI AM, CEYLON. toward India, and there is good reason to fear that before many years she and Great Britain will be at war over the disputes that are sure to arise. Persia has played a prominent part in ancient and mediaeval history. Toward the close of the latter period, the country became subject to Tamerlane or Timour the Tartar, but the dynasty founded by Ismail in 1501 lasted until 1736. The creed founded by Ismail is a form of Moham- medanism and the religion of the country. In the terrible wars that fol- lowed the death of the usurper Nadir Shah, in 1747, Persia lost Afghan- istan and Beloochistau. The present dynasty was founded toward the close of the eighteenth century. In 1848, Nasr-ed-din came to the throne and promised many reforms, but they were not granted, and his misrule caused many revolts. The Shah visited Europe in 1873 and 1889, and England expended an immense sum of money in the way of hospitality. The Shah was found to be a half savage, somewhat of a hunter and sportsman, fond of high living and with personal habits concerning which the least said the better. On May 1, 1896, he was shot by an assas- sin at Teheran and was succeeded by his second son, Muzaffer-ed-din. Siam's early history is unknown. Menam, the capital, was founded A. D. 1532, and plundered and burned by the Burmese in 1768. They were driven out and Bangkok became the capital. At first the curious system of having a first and second king prevailed, but this was abol- ished in 1868, w r hen Chulalongkorn I. came to the throne. During his reign, which still continues, he has abolished slavery, introduced modern educational methods and greatly helped his country in many ways. Ceylon, the "Cinnamon Isle," has records reaching back five hundred years before the Christian era. In that dim, misty civilization great cities, shrines and temples were built and their remains are found to-day, half-smothered in the rank vegetation of the country. There were numerous invasions from the mainland of India, and toward the close of the eleventh century, a strong monarchy of native rulers was founded, but it was soon extinguished by their enemies from Malabar. The first European foothold was gained in 1517, when the Portuguese built a factory at Colombo, and added other settlements. The Dutch ap- peared in 1602, and, by forming an alliance with the natives, drove out the Portuguese in 1638. The natives found they had gained nothing by the change of masters and after a vain resistance fled to the hills and forests. The Dutch dug canals, improved roads and built up a trade in INDIA, SI AM, CEYLON. 179 cinnamon, cocoanut-oil and pearls. The pearl fisheries of Ceylon have been famous throughout the world for many years. The British swooped down on Ceylon during the European wars at the close of the eighteenth century, and an expedition from Madras seized the most important towns on the coast. The treaty of peace in 1802 acknowledged the right of England to the island and it became one of her many colonies. As might have been expected, England had to suppress a number of rebellions by the natives, but order was fairly established in 1820, and much was done for the benefit of the natives and the development of their country. Several thousand miles of excellent roads were laid out, extensive irrigation works built, and a fine quality of tea has lately been cultivated, the coffee plants being unable to resist a peculiar disease that attacked them. Ceylon has many of the characteristics of the mainland of India, which is the home of the fiercest wild animals and the deadliest serpents. Thirty thousand people are killed every year by them in Hindustan. The most terrible of the animals is the tiger. You have heard the lion spoken of as the king of beasts, but it has been proven that the royal Bengal tiger is one-fifth stronger than the finest specimen of the African lion. Another fact must be remembered : there are no tigers in Africa. Asia is their home. The most noted animals in Ceylon are the elephants. They are famous for their strength and the ease with which they are tamed. Be- sides the elephants, the vast forests abound with leopards, bears, che- tahs and seemingly no end of monkeys, while alligators and serpents are plentiful. The last country in Asia to which we give attention is Arabia. Ac- cording to the ancients it was divided into Felix or "Happy" Arabia, which bordered on the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean and the southern extremity of the Red Sea; Arabia "Petraea" or "Stony" Arabia, lying along the Red Sea to the north of Arabia Felix; and Arabia "Deserta," or the "Desert," forming the interior portion north of the Tropic of Can- cer and extending to the borders of Syria. Arabia is the dryest and one of the hottest countries in the world. The frightful heat is made worse at times by the poisonous hot winds, called "simoons," but it is more tolerable among and near the mountains. The Arabs belong to the Caucasian race and claim descent from Jok- 180 INDIA, S1AM, CEYLON. tan, fifth from Shem, the son of Noah, and also from Adrian, in a direct line from Ishmael the son of Abraham. In time the Arabians became a distinct people and established gov- ernments in Arabia, Chaldea and Syria, but did not attain marked power until the time of Mohammed, who welded them into one great nation. We have learned of their magnificent career of conquest which began a century later and carried their arms from the Indies to the Atlantic, touched the African deserts, passed into Spain and Southern France, absorbed Asia Minor and the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea, subdued India, Persia and Egypt, and established the great caliphate of the Moslems at Damascus. Then the power began to decline, and, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Turks conquered and abol- ished the Eastern caliphate, which was merged into the great Ottoman Empire. In the eighteenth century the Arabians extended their rule from Mecca and Medina to the Persian Gulf, and numerous tribes of Bedouins were conquered and converted. Mehemet Ali of Egypt made many con- quests in Arabia during the nineteenth century. Oman became inde- pendent under the Sultan of Muscat, and Great Britain, having occupied Aden in 1839, has exercised much influence since that date in southern Arabia. CHAPTER XIV. & PRIG A Its Early History The Most Famous Explorers The BARB AH Y STATES Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli NUBIA ABYSSINIA KING THEO- DORE His Defeat by English Troops The War With the Dervishes Italy's Disastrous Campaign in Abyssinia Independence of the Country Recognized The "Partition of Africa" MADAGASCAR MAURITIUS AUSTRALASIA Settlement of Australia POLYNESIA The Remaining Islands. IT IS only within comparatively recent years that the Dark Continent has become known to the rest of the world. With few rivers of large size and bays opening the way into the interior, it has been the hardest continent of all to penetrate and explore. The name Africa is probably of native origin, but to the Greek and Roman writers the country was known as Libya, Egypt and Ethiopia figure in ear- liest history, and upon the occupation of the former by the Arabs, in the seventh century, the spread of the con- quering people through the region south of Sahara made that coun- try known to them, but at the opening of the fifteenth century the only part of the west coast familiar to Euro- pean navigators lay be- tween the Straits of Gibraltar and Cape Nan, Num or Non, whose extent was more than 600 miles. The career of discovery by THE CATHEDRAL, ALGIERS ALGERIA 181 182 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. the Portuguese begins at this point, and the entire coast of Africa has become known to the modern world. No more fascinating books have even been written than those recording the work of the explorers, such as Mungo Park, Captain Tuckey, Bowditch, Clapperton, Lander, Cap- tain Hop, Sparrman, Smith, Dr. Barth, Burton and Speke, Livingstone and Stanley. All these added greatly to our knowledge of the mysterious continent and opened the way for the development and building up of the vast region. Beginning at the north, we have the Barbary States, which include Morocco, Algeria, Tunis and Tripoli, all of which border on the Mediter- ranean Sea. This region was the seat of Carthage, which waged such a long war with Rome for the empire of the world. Its fertility caused Barbary long to be regarded as the granary of Rome. After being over- run by the northern barbarians, it was conquered by the Saracens, under whose sway it became one of the most brilliant and imposing powers of ancient times. Like the Romans, however, the Saracens in time lost their vigor and sank to the lowest depths of savagery, so that a small force of Turks and renegades gained control of the finest provinces, which they ruled with frightful brutality. Their piracy continued until Algeria was con- quered by the French. Morocco, the first of the states on the west, is one of the most fanati- cal, and though formed into one empire in 1692, it has been the theater of wars without number. Slavery was declared abolished in 1822, but it goes on to-day almost as openly as ever. In 1859, the mountain Moors attacked the Spanish posts on the Mediterranean, because of w r hich Spain declared war against Morocco. The fighting was of a desperate nature, but in the end the barbarians were decisively defeated and peace was made by Morocco giving up a part of its territory and agreeing to pay a war indemnity of f 20,000,000. Algeria, the second state, has a history quite similar to Morocco. The people were pirates, and, having dismissed the French envoy in 1829 and fired upon his vessel, while it was sailing away under a flag of truce, France sent a large fleet and army and captured the city of Algiers after bombardment. The Bey, or ruler, with his family was taken to Naples in a French frigate and that was the end of Mohammedan rule in Algeria. Under the French, the fighting was so continuous that France long looked upon Algeria as a training school for her soldiers and offi- THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 183 cers. Since 1870, however, when the military form of government was abolished, the country has enjoyed peace and a moderate degree of prosperity. Tunis, after being in Christian hands for a time, was overrun by Otto- man Turks in 1575 and then that country, too, went into the business of piracy. What will strike you as almost beyond belief was that the most powerful nations in Europe, and even the United States, meekly submitted to the demands of these insolent barbarians and paid them round sums of money on their promise not to capture their vessels. This was done because it was cheaper to pay tribute than to send a fleet into the distant waters strong enough to wipe out the pirates. The nations who thus submitted to this outrage were Great Britain, France, Austria, Spain, Holland, Sweden, Denmark and the United States. I shall have something more to say about this matter in the history of our own country. England compelled the Bey to sign a treaty in 1816 for the abolition of slavery in his dominions, and piracy speedily ceased after the bom- bardment of Algiers. France found pretext for invading the country in 1881, which was followed by its annexation to the French republic. Tripoli was also overrun by the Arabs in the eighth century, annexed to Spain in 1510, and a half century later conquered by Turkey. In 1715, it secured a partial independence from Turkey and for a hundred years the Tripolitans were among the worst pirates anywhere. We shall learn in the proper place how it came about that the United States taught them a lesson which they never forgot. Nubia was formerly a part of Ethiopia, but in 1820 it was annexed to Egypt. You will notice that it lies between Egypt and Abyssinia, and the Red Sea and the Desert of Sahara. In late years it has often been referred to as forming a part of "Egyptian Soudan." Abyssinia drew the eyes of the civilized world toward her during the latter half of the nineteenth century. It is the country which in ancient times was known as Ethiopia, and more than once it conquered the Egypt of the Pharaohs and held extensive sway in the southwestern part of the Arabian peninsula. To-day it includes the territories of Tigre in the northeast, Amhara in the west and center, and Shoa in the south, all of which were once separate kingdoms. Christianity was introduced in the fourth century, and the Abys- sinians are in communion with the Alexandrian Church. The empire of 184 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. Axum, whose ruined capital is still to be seen in the province of Nigre, grew to great power in the sixth century, ruling not only all Abyssinia, but Yamen and Saba in Arabia and controlling the waters of the Red Sea. This empire shows the further point reached by Greek culti- vation and the uttermost post of Christianity in that age. The conquests of Islam afterward shut in the Abyssinians from intercourse with the rest of the world. The capital was removed to Gondar and the rulers assumed the title of "Negus." The fierce raids of natives from the in- terior of Africa, in the sixteenth century, broke up the country into a number of independent states. About the middle of the nineteenth century, a young man in the western province drew attention to himself by his energy and ability. He overcame rival rulers and had himself crowned as Negus of Abys- sinia under the name of Theodore. He made himself master of the whole country and for a time ruled wisely and with moderation, but soon be- came a tyrant. Rebellions were put down with cruelty, and then he strove to introduce European civilization, but became angered against Great Britain and France because they refused to help him in his w r ars against the Moslems in Eastern Soudan. A more acute cause was the act of a missionary in writing severe criticisms of him in a book which were translated to Theodore. The missionary being in Abyssinia and in the power of the ruler, was made a prisoner. There was still another cause. In 1862, Theodore sent a letter to Queen Victoria which is said to have contained an offer of marriage. It ought to have received a courteous reply, but it was not even delivered. Other requests were denied, and Theodore became the bitter enemy of England. When Captain Cameron entered the country, he was seized and made prisoner. Thus the angry ruler had quite a party shut up in the fortress of Magdala, and refused to accept the presents that were offered for release. One of the proudest boasts of an Englishman is that his coun- try will stop at no expense or sacrifice to protect him in any part of the world, and England now set out to compel Theodore to do that which no persuasion could induce him to do. An army of more than 20,000 soldiers, including their attendants, landed in Abyssinia in 1867, and, with the greatest labor and difficulty, forced their way to Magdala, defeated the Negus in a hard fought battle and released the captives, but before doing so, Theodore killed more than THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 185 300 other prisoners with his own hand. Driven to the last extremity, he committed suicide by shooting himself with a pistol in the mouth. The rescue of the captives cost England $45,000,000, but she did not be- grudge it. Civil war followed the death of Theodore, ending in the crowning of John Kassai in 1872. Hostilities broke out with Egypt three years later and lasted until the evacuation of Soudan in 1884. There was the most desperate fighting with the Dervishes of Eastern Soudan, and at the head of an immense and well trained army they utterly defeated the Abyssinians. The second son of Theodore offered his aid to the Der- vishes, and, going to Omdurman, he was welcomed by the Khalifa, who promised to place him on the Abyssinian throne. In another furious battle, King John was killed and his troops thrown into a panic. The triumph of the Khalifa was complete. A powerful English expedition was sent to the country in 1884, under Lord Wolseley, but three days before it reached Khartoum, where Gen- eral Gordon and a number of prisoners were imprisoned, they were massacred. The natives, however, were defeated after furious fighting. The Mahdi dying in 1885, his successor, Osman Digna, reigned for years in the Soudan, where every species of outrage and bloodshed went on unhindered for years. In 1896, Sir Herbert Kitchener, "Sirdar" of the Egyptian army, led a force against the Dervishes, who suffered a disastrous defeat, June 7, and the campaign was brought to a brilliant conclusion in April, 1898. The object was to impress upon the fanatical natives the resistless strength of Egypt under British rule, and it was accomplished. The connection of Italy with Abyssinia was unfortunate. Greedy for territory, she occupied Massowah in 1885. Fighting lasted four years, when a treaty was made which the Italians insisted made Abyssinia a "protectorate." Menelek II. came to the throne about this time. He gave up certain territories in 1891 to the Italians, but denied that the treaty justified any claim to a protectorate. The Italians then at- tempted to bring him over to their view of the question by force of arms. Their campaign was badly managed, and, on March 1, 1896, in a battle near Adowa, the native forces under Italian officers were nearly exter- minated. The disgust in Italy was so deep that the government could not continue the war of conquest, and in the treaty soon afterward signed, the complete independence of Abyssinia was recognized. 186 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. With the successful exploration of Africa came the scramble of the European nations for territory. Each one showed that greediness for new lands wnich has been well named "earth hunger." Within the last few years, the United States has caught the disease. Without giving the particulars of the parceling out of Africa, it will be enough to note in a general way the results. The total area of the continent is estimated at 11,500,000 square miles. Of this France claims about 3,000,000 and Great Britain 2,600,000. Thus nearly half the con- tinent is accounted for, while 4,350,000 is claimed by Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Spain, Italy, the Boer republics, Liberia, Turkey (in Egypt and Tripoli), Morocco and Abyssinia. Of the 1,700,000 square miles remain- ing, the lakes represent some 100,000; the remainder must be given to the Libyan Desert, west of Egypt, to a region not yet claimed between the Portuguese colony of Angola and the British Central Africa pro- tectorate, but mainly to the States of the Central Soudan, which are Darfur and Kordofan, Bornu, Bagirmi, Kanem and Wadai. This "partition of Africa" was arranged among the leading European nations between 1876 and 1893, though within the past few months the English and French commissioners have been engaged in Paris in set- tling disputes over boundaries of territory in the Niger region, with the moral certainty that Great Britain will establish her title to all she claims. In conclusion, some reference must be made to the African islands. Madagascar, the third largest island in the world, was visited by Arab merchants and Indian traders as early as the ninth century, and was probably first seen among Europeans by Portuguese navigators at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Down to the middle of the succeed- ing century, the country was ruled by several independent chiefs, when it fell into the power of a warlike race, who with the help of the British acquired mastery of the island. The population was estimated at about 4,000,000, and in 1820, the Christian missionaries began work among them, but in 1836 were driven out of the country and the native Chris- tians cruelly persecuted. Matters changed in 1861, when the new queen and her husband, the prime minister, embraced Christianity, as did many nobles, and the country was thrown open to outside nations. A career of progress of the best type seemed before the whole island, and it surprised no one THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 187 when, in 1879, all the African slaves were set free and many judicial reforms established. All this, however, was sadly changed when Queen Ranavalona III. came to the throne in 1883. France had secured a foothold in the coun- try, and, by treaty in December, 1885, a representative was installed at the capital with control of the country's foreign policy. The usual "pro- tectorate" was established over the country in 1890 and was recognized by Great Britain. But the Queen and her government w r ould not agree to it, and in May, 1895, France sent a powerful armed force into the island, which conquered the government and captured the capital. In 1896 Madagascar and its dependencies were declared a French colony. When the island of Mauritius was discovered by Portuguese navigat- ors in 1507, there were no people on it and no signs that there ever had been. A Dutch admiral gave it its name in 1598, in honor of Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange. The Dutch settlements made in 1644 were abandoned in 1712, and soon afterward occupied by the French. It being used as a base of operations against Great Britain, a strong force captured the island in 1810, and British possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Paris in 1814. No country in the world has suffered so many disasters as Mauritius. It has been devastated by hurricanes, smallpox, cholera, fever, pesti- lence, cyclone and fire, until it was grimly remarked by a survivor that the next thing in natural order would be to have the island sink from sight in the ocean. Scores of the vast number of islands included under the general name of Australasia, were seen by the early Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese and English navigators, but England was the great colonizing power. Her famous navigator, Captain James Cook, landed on the southeastern coast of Australia in April, 1770, and took possession of the country as "New South Wales" for his King, George III. The first settlement was made in 1788, when more than a thousand convicts, officials and free settlers were landed. The introduction of merino sheep in 1797 brought prosperity, but the amazing increase of rabbits became a pest against which the settlers have long striven in vain. The colony of Victoria sprang from New South Wales and became a separate state in 1851. There was a vast rush of emigrants, due to the discovery of gold, of which the value taken from the earth in less than forty years was more than a billion of dollars. Queensland was made a 188 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. separate colony in 1859, followed later by South Australia and Western Australia, The progress of the country has been rapid and its prosperity great. Australia is one of the most loyal of English colonies, for Great Britain learned long since how to govern her dependencies so as to re- tain their good will and devotion. The federation of all these colonies, including New Zealand, is one of the certainties of the near future. If any of my readers should ever visit Australia, it will be well for them to bear in mind the sensitiveness of the people about their immedi- ate ancestors. It has been shown that among the first settlers were a large number of convicts. From some of these have descended many of the best citizens of the country. One day, during a political contest, a candidate referred to his opponent's grandfather as an "involuntary em- igrant" to Australia, For that remark he was convicted on trial and compelled to pay $50,000 for libelling the man who ran against him. Polynesia with its innumerable islands has been explored and divided among the nations. New Zealand was colonized by England in 1840, and is one of her most loyal and flourishing possessions. New Guinea has been divided among Holland, Great Britain and the German Em- pire, and the appropriation of the other islands has been too extensive for us to dwell upon further. In most of these islands the original native population is rapidly disappearing before the white settlers. CHAPTER XV. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The Story of CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS and His Discovery of the New World His Subsequent Voyages History of the First Spanish Settlement in America AMERICUS VESPUCCIUS The Voyages of the CABOTS The Northmen The Mound Builders. ONE cool autumn afternoon, toward the close of the fifteenth cen- tury, the heavy knocker of a grim old monastery ne,ar Palos, in Spain, was sounded and the porter, who was used to such calls, went forward and opened the door. He saw standing before him a man in plain garb, a staff in one hand and a bundle of clothing, containing, perhaps, also several trifles, in the other. His hair was sandy, scant and showed gray hairs. His eyes were blue, his nose slightly aquiline, and the worn, weary expression of his face did not hide the sign of mental strength. It was plain that he was superior to most of the dusty wan- derers who stopped to ask for food and lodging. "My boy is tired and starving," he said, after greeting the sturdy ser- vant; "I pray that he may be given bread and water." The porter saw that the companion of the man was a small boy, who had sunk down on the massive steps, a little to one side, where at first he was not noticed. He, too, was dressed neatly but plain- ly. He still held, loosely in his hands, a heavy stick that he had used as a staff, and it lay idly across his knees, while he leaned THE CONVENT OF LA RABIDA, WHERE COLUMBUS FOUND SHELTER 190 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. back, so as to rest his head and shoulders against the upper steps. His fair face was pinched and wan, and his looks and appearance were those of a lad who was so worn out that he could go no further. It was quite clear, too, that his weakness was mainly due to hunger. Even in the few moments used in knocking and awaiting the reply, the little fellow had closed his eyes and was sinking into slumber, when the words of his father and the porter caused him to open them slowly, and raising his head, to look around with a faint wildness that showed his frail frame had been taxed all it could bear. "All who are in need are welcome here," replied the porter; "if thou and thy boy will enter ye shall partake of our plain fare." "Come, Diego," said the parent, stepping toward him and reaching out his hand; "rest and food await thee." Rousing his slight strength, and helped by his parent, whose hand he clasped, the little fellow struggled to his feet, climbed the few re- maining steps and passed through the open door, into the broad hall of the convent. The face of the porter showed his pity for the youth, and, as he came up beside him, he spoke softly and also reached out his hand to give him aid. Diego smiled faintly, murmured his thanks, but kept hold of his staff with that hand. The door was closed behind them, and, directing the two to one of the small rooms a little way in advance and to the right of the hall, the porter hurried off to bring food and drink. The only furniture in the apartment entered by the father was a plain table, two short benches, with a painting on the bare wall that would bring many hundred dollars in these days. The emblem of the cross was displayed over the door, and where else it was fitting, and when father and son spoke it was in hushed voices, as if they felt they were breathing a more sacred air than in the bright sunshine outside. The porter's soft step was heard hurrying along the hall, and as he entered, his homely face lit up, and he set a jug of cool goat's milk on the table and placed a loaf of bread beside it. There were no plates, knives or forks, and the bread was hard and almost black, but the food was most welcome. Repeating his thanks to the servant, the visitor bowed his head and murmured his gratitude to heaven for ifs mercy, the lad remaining reverently quiet \vith closed eyes until grace was fin- ished. "Drink, Diego," he said, motioning toward the jug; "thou art in sorer need than I." THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 191 The lad applied his lips to the mouth of the jug, and, leaning back, allowed the cool, life-giving liquid to pass slowly down his parched throat. The father, while tardily breaking the loaf apart, kept his eye on his son, and his face lighted up with pleasure, as he noted the refresh- ment which the little fellow gained. With a sigh of happiness, Diego set the jug back on the table and with his sweet smile said: "I think, father, a little is left for thee." "I should much rather see thee drink it, my son; but now that the dust has been washed from thy throat, there is food for thee." The boy took the bread and ate greedily, for his thirst being quenched, it seemed to him that in all his life he was never so hungry. The milk and bread gave much content to the father, and the sight of his boy, so changed and hopeful, added to his own spirits. The humble meal was almost finished, when the guest turned to speak to the porter, who a few minutes before was standing at the door of the room looking upon the two with calm pleasure. But the servant was gone, and in his place w r as one whose garb showed he was a friar. The man and his boy instantly rose to their feet, and, bowing their heads, craved his blessing. It was graciously given and the monk, keeping on his feet, made known that he was Friar Juan Perez de Marchena of that Franciscan monastery, which is standing to-day and is known as Santa Maria de Rabida. "God is kind," he added, "for giving us the happiness of helping way- faring ones like thyself and boy. Thy dress and appearance show thou hast traveled far." "Yes, Father," reverently replied the visitor; "I have been tramping for weeks, months and years, and still am not at the end of my journey." "Life is but a journey and we must need walk with care to keep from going astray. It would please me to learn thy name, for I am frank to say I like thy looks and am sure thou art above most of those who knock at our doors." "I am Christopher Columbus; 'twas fifty years ago I was born in Genoa ; I have been to the courts of France and Portugal, but they scarce listened to me." "Thou must have important business with the courts to travel thus far to speak with the rulers?" The face of Columbus glowed. "Important business! True, but they are blind and see it not: if Spain 192 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, will listen, greater glory shall come to her than the driving out of the Moors, who have profaned her soil for hundreds of years; it was a happy day when Ferdinand of Aragon and good Queen Isabella of Castile were joined in marriage and the two great states united. If they will hear the humble Italian sailor Christopher Columbus, and do as he asks, their reign will prove the grandest that can ever come to Spain." "I fain would hear thy plan, for mayhap I may be of help to thee, but " The good father paused abruptly, smiled and pointed at the boy on the opposite side of the table, for while the men were speaking, the face of the parent was turned away from his child. The tired Diego had folded his arms on the table, and, laying his head upon them, was asleep The cap which he had worn into the house lay on the floor beside him. "He is aw r eary; we will let him be taken to bed, while it will please me to have further converse with thee." The porter was summoned and would have lifted the lad in his arms and carried him to his couch, but the father would not permit. The boy was roused, and placing his hand in that of the servant was led away, w r ith freedom to sleep to his heart's content. It was growing dusk when the friar and Columbus, sitting apart by themselves, held a long conversation and came fully to understand each other. Encouraged by the good man the visitor told the story of his life. His father was a poor wool-comber of Genoa, and when the son was still a boy he went to sea. As far back as he could remember, he had a longing for a sailor's life, and nothing delighted him so much as the stories of the old navigators. Several beliefs had become imbedded in the mind of Columbus. You no doubt have heard that in early times people believed the world, instead of being round, was flat. Conse- quently if one sailed too far out on the great ocean, he would drop off and go down somewhere. It w r as a silly belief, and I have often won- dered how those folks explained that when a vessel came across the sea from a long distance they first saw the tops of the masts, and that when it sailed away, the first part to sink from sight was the hull. There were some men in the time of Columbus who still clung to o the belief that the earth is flat, but while he was still a boy he became certain it is round. Now, that being so, it followed that if a ship sailed long enough, either to the west or the east, it would pass round the world and come back to the spot from which it started. When the THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 193 people in Europe traded with India and Asia, their vessels always went to the eastward, generally passing through the Mediterranean to ports near the further end, from which caravans made the rest of the jour- ney overland. Prince Henry of Portugal was sending his ships south- ward along the African coast, and one of them was soon to pass around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean. The main idea with Columbus was that, admitting the earth to be round, the plainest and easiest thing in the world to do was to pass out on the Atlantic and by sailing westward, reach India on the other side of the world, first sighting, of course, the eastern coast of Asia, Now, you will notice that while Columbus was right in a general way, yet he made a big mistake, for he never dreamed there was any land at all between Europe and Eastern Asia. No one had ever heard of the Pacific Ocean, and the immense space taken up by that body of water Columbus supposed was covered by the Atlantic. He believed further that the earth was much smaller than it is. To him the dis- tance from where he sat talking with the friar to the eastern shore of Asia was only three or four thousand miles, or about one-third of the actual distance. Such being his views, it is easy to see why he never suspected that a continent lay between Europe and Asia. As Columbus grew to manhood he came to believe that it was his mission to make that great voyage westward and discover the new route to the Indies. But he was poor and it would take a good deal of money to hire the ships and crews for the voyage. He tried to interest rich men in his plan. Some of them listened, but when he looked wistfully in their faces for their answer, they shook their heads. They did not think as he did and it w r as time thrown away to try to make them agree with him. A few still clung doggedly to the belief that the earth is flat, and they quoted the Bible in support of their views. Some were so shocked that they accused Columbus of impiety and warned him that if he kept on he would be punished by the Inquisition, or torture. Others, when they spoke about him to one another, touched their foreheads, nodded and winked, meaning that the fellow was not quite right in his head. Had our mode of expression been in use in those days, they would have set down Columbus as a "crank," for he certainly was one. Finding that no one at home would help him, Columbus went to Lisbon, where he married the daughter of an old sea captain, from whom 194 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. he got the papers that gave an account of his many voyages. These were studied with the deepest interest, and, if anything was needed to strengthen the faith of Columbus, it was found in those documents. While full of these stirring dreams he made a voyage to Iceland. In that country he heard of the exploits of the Norsemen, who had sailed still further west, and visited a country of which no one else knew any- thing. That it was Asia, Columbus had no more doubt than he had of his own name. He again went to Portugal, but the king had a war on his hands and would give him no heed. Columbus waited until John II. came to the throne, when he found an attentive listener in him. The sovereign seemed much impressed and called in several of his learned men, who shook their heads and declared the whole scheme an idle fancy. When Columbus spoke of King John his face flushed with anger. .- "He did a base act," he said; "he borrowed from me all my maps and papers, saying he wished to study them. I gladly loaned them, for his manner gave me much hope; but, without my knowledge, he sent one of his ships to the Cape Verde Islands with orders to sail to the westward. He meant to take all the glory to himself without benefit to me." "Be careful, my son," said the friar soothingly, "that thou dost not do injustice to a faithful son of the Church." "Nevertheless, good Father, his act was without excuse. Fortu- nately his captain was scared by the big waves and made haste home again. My soul was so filled with scorn at the trick, that I would not listen further to the king, and, hastily gathering my maps, I left him. My wife died, and, taking my little Diego by the hand, I set out to find some one to help me. I have had many wanderings, and years have passed since I left Genoa, but I am sure that God has guided my footsteps to thee, Father." "He guides our footsteps at all times, if we will but permit him; I am much impressed with what thou hast said, though the time in Spain is not favorable, because of our war with the Moors. I may be of help to thee, however, and shall gladly use every effort that can be mine." Father Marchena kept his word. He was widely known and loved, and he brought a number of learned men and old sailors, some of them wealthy, like the Pinzon brothers, that they might talk over the inter- esting subject with his visitor. It is a proof of the ability of Columbus THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 195 that he won them all to his way of thinking, the friar Himself being among the most enthusiastic. But they agreed that it was useless to apply to the court while the issue of the war was doubtful, and Colum- bus, who had become used to disappointment and waiting, stayed at the monastery until the spring of 1486. His boy remained with him, and the good friar promised to take care of and educate him. This was one of the kindest of acts, for it was not only the best thing possible for the youth, but it left the father free to give his energies to pushing the great scheme of his life. Furnished with a letter of introduction from Father Marchena to the confessor of the Queen, Columbus went to Cordova, where the court, that moved from place to place, happened to be; but the good man, after courteously listening to what the visitor had to say, told him he did not agree with his views and bade him good day. Columbus lin- gered for some weeks and drew a number of leading men to his views; but the sovereigns refused to give the project any attention until the war was over, and after a long time, Columbus abandoned hope of get- ting any aid from Spain. Among all that had refused him he recalled that King John of Port- ugal, who had played the scurvy trick on him, was the only one who seemed really interested. So he swallowed his pride and wrote to him. In reply the king invited the navigator to come to Lisbon, but, before starting, a letter arrived from the king of France, asking Columbus to go thither. He made up his mind to do so, and went to the convent for his boy. Father Marchena was so touched by the sight of the- sor- rowful and bowed man that he made him stay awhile longer. The old friends were called together and an earnest council was held. It must be remembered that all agreed with Columbus, and Father Marchena was oppressed by the belief that if their guest was allowed to leave Spain the loss to the kingdom would be beyond measure. Among the most ardent of the group was Captain Martin Alonzo Pinzon, an old sailor who was wealthy. He said with great emphasis: "Thou art right; did I doubt thy words, my own experience would convince me of their truth. I will prove my faith by engaging to go with thee on the voyage, and I will pay thy expenses for another appli- cation to court." Columbus was moved by this offer, and replied that he would wait awhile before going to France, but he had been rebuffed so many times 196 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. he would make no more application to the Spanish court. Then Father Marchena hit upon a happy solution. He had once been the confessor of Queen Isabella and he promised to see her himself. He did so, and Isabella delighted all by asking that Columbus be sent once more to her. It need not be said that he lost no time in making his way to the court, which happened to be at Santa Fe". From that point, he went to the camp of the army before Granada, where he witnessed the his- torical scene of the surrender of the last force of Moors to the armies COLUMBUS BEFORE ISABELLA of Spain. The Saracens, after occupying the country for centuries, were at last expelled. No doubt King Ferdinand was in high spirits over the success of the long war, but he did not seem to be in a very gracious mood when Columbus presented himself to him and the Queen. "Suppose thou art successful," he said bluntly, "which is not likely to be the case, what payment wilt thou demand?" The reply was prompt: "To me must be given the title and the privileges of an admiral and THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 197 viceroy over all the countries I discover, together with one-tenth of the gains by trade or conquest." The King shook his head. "The demand is beyond granting." "I will agree to provide one-eighth of the expense if one-eighth of the profits be allowed me." The king would not consent. It would be thought that Columbus, now that everything looked as if he w r as on the verge of success, w r ould have agreed almost to anything, but he was as resolute as the sover- eigns and refused to yield a point. No agreement was possible, and, when the visitor withdrew it was with the resolve to go to France with- out an hour's unnecessary delay. Columbus, however, had stronger friends at court than he suspected. They appealed to the sovereigns, and, although the King was stubborn, the Queen was won over. She said that it was true the country had been drained by the long and costly war, but she would pledge her jewels to raise the money for fitting out the expedition. Meanwhile Columbus was riding wearily homeward on his mule. All hope of help from Spain was given up, and he reproved himself for having wasted so much time in the country. He would hasten to Paris, and if the King could not be persuaded, he would try John of Portugal, though he disliked beyond expression to go to that mean monarch again. The hoofs of his mule were thumping the bridge of a small stream, when Columbus heard some one riding rapidly behind him. Turning his head he saw a man with his animal on a gallop, who, seeing Colum- bus looking back, waved his hand for him to stop. He did so, and the dusty messenger, reining in his mule as he came up, said he was sent by the sovereigns with orders for him to return without delay. Columbus was in no pleasant mood and hesitated. He had received so many rebuffs that he was in no mind to take another, but the mes- senger assured him the Queen was in earnest and he must lose no time in returning. Still doubting, he pulled the head of his animal around, and plodded after the messenger, who galloped off in the dust to let the sovereigns know he was coming. Joyful news indeed awaited Columbus. The Queen must have done some plain talking to her husband, for he did not object when she told Columbus his terms had been accepted, and she wished him to lose no time in fitting out his ships and starting on his westward voyage. The 198 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. soul of the great navigator was filled with profound gratitude, and the contract agreeing to his terms was signed April 17, 1492. The friends to whom he carried the tidings were as full of joy as he. Columbus did not let the grass grow under his feet. Going to Palos, he made it known that the sovereigns had ordered three caravels to be made ready and furnished with crews for the great voyage of discovery. Perhaps some of my readers saw the caravels at the Columbian Expo- sition in Chicago in the summer of 1893. They were exact models of the vessels of Columbus, and on the largest were a few of the articles that had once belonged to the famous navigator. The vessels were so small that it would be a dangerous undertaking for any crew to try to cross the Atlantic in them to-day. The largest was the Santa Maria, which was the only one that was decked. The others were pierced for oars, to be used when the wind did not blow, and there was a cabin in the high stern for the crew and also a forecastle forward. The Santa Maria was the flagship of Columbus, the Pinta was com- manded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon and the Nina by his brother, Vincent Yanez, while another brother acted as pilot of the Pinta. Counting everybody who went on the three little vessels, they numbered one hun- dred and twenty prsons. It was a woful day for Palos when, on the morning of August 3, 1492, the caravels started on the voyage, which, in some respects, was the most notable in the history of the world. The sailors and their fami- lies were so terrified that it looked for a time as if, despite the com- mands of the sovereigns, crews could not be got for the ships. A good many sailors ran away, and if the Pinzons, who were known to be skil- ful seamen, had not gone along, it is not likely that a single man could have been hired to join Columbus. Martin Pinzon also kept his promise and advanced one-eighth of the cost of the expedition. When the sails were hoisted there were weeping, lamentation and dismal cries on shore. The relatives of the crews did not believe they would ever see them again, while the sailors, as they waved them adieus, shed tears and faced their duty with heavy hearts. Columbus and the Pinzons were almost the only ones who were hopeful. But the great voyage had begun and the tiny ships soon sank out of sight beyond the horizon, their prows turned toward the unknown land, thousands of miles away, somewhere among the mysteries of the Atlantic. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 199 Nothing was clearer than that with the crews feeling that way Co- lumbus was sure to have trouble. While heading for the Canary Isl- ands, which were reached in six days, the rudder of the Pinta was broken, and no doubt it was injured on purpose to compel the expedi- tion to put back; but Columbus had the rudder repaired, and, taking on water and provisions, he made more haste than usual, for several Portuguese vessels were waiting outside to capture him. They might have done so, had they not been afraid to follow him westward. The caravels were very lucky in not meeting any of the furious storms that sometimes sweep the Atlantic and send much stancher craft to the bottom. It was no wonder that the superstitious sailors were filled with awe and foreboding when the darkness of the night was lit up by the vast, crimson glare of the volcano of Teneriffe. It seemed to be a warning of the awful fate that awaited them if they dared to go further, and they longed for something to happen that would force their crazy commander to return to Spain. They were sour and resentful. Columbus was alert. He slept only when worn out, and, mounting the high deck, peered into the billowy expanse which closed in on every side. Sometimes the Pinta and Nina were seen bobbing up and down like ocean fowl on the surface, and then they were mere specks in the distance, but the three kept company, and, though the admiral had some misgiving as to how long the other two would stand by him, the Pin- zons did their duty. Many a time the navigator stood gazing to the westward, sometimes fancying that a low bank of cloud was land, though he knew he would not see it for many days yet to come. It was before the discovery of the telescope and the seamen had to depend upon thir unaided eyesight. He could not fail to note the growing discontent of the crew, but he hoped by cheering words, by promises and by threats to hold them to their work until the wonderful voyage should be crowned with suc- cess. Some of the sailors talked together in undertones and their sul- len glances at Columbus, who pretended not to see them, showed they bore him ill will. Had there been 'a daring leader they would have thrown him overboard and returned to Spain, but they did no more than to growl and threaten, and vow that they would not sail many more days toward the frightful doom that awaited them. Nothing escaped the keen eye of Columbus and one day he was startled. He noticed that the needle of the ship's compass was acting 200 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. in a way that he never knew it to act before. Instead of pointing toward the north star it pointed to one side of it, and this variation be- came greater each day. He could not understand it, and it may be said that even at this time the variation of the needle is not fully un- derstood. No doubt Columbus was a little frightened, but, if so, it was not to that extent that it affected his resolve to go on. Nevertheless, he knew that others would soon notice the variation and would hurry to him for an explanation. So he prepared one, which was to the effect that the needle did not really point toward the North Star, but at a fixed point near it, and the change was caused by the revolution of the star itself. No one on the ships had as much learning as he, and, when he gave his explanation as airily as if it was one of the simplest matters in the world, they were satisfied. Day after day the blue sky shut down on every side, and only that and the heaving waters met the straining vision. The oppressive thought was ever present with the sailors that every da}^ and night and hour were taking them further from their loved homes, and rendering more hopeless the chance of ever seeing them again. They looked at the stern countenance of the navigator, and wondered how long he would be content to sail straight toward destruction; but there was no sign of yielding on that smooth face and their resentment deepened. They grimly determined soon to take matters in their own hands. On some of your maps you will see marked the "Saragossa Sea." It covers hundreds of miles in the North Atlantic, and is composed of floating seaweed and vegetation, some of which shows vigorous growth. When the ships swept into this and the prows pushed it in front or, parting the mass, opened a path through which the vessels swept, the seamen were filled with astonishment. After a time the caravels crossed the Saragossa Sea and glided out into the clear water again. One day several birds circled about the ships, as if curious to find out what they were. Looking aloft at their bright black eyes as they flitted past it seemed as if they were asking: "Who are you? Where do you come from? Why have you ven- tured into this part of the world, where we never saw the like of you before?" After some circlings the birds sped away to the westward and soon vanished in the sky. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 201 Now it would seem that this sight ought to have quieted all fear on board the vessels. It was certain that the birds had not come from any part of Europe, for that was hundreds of miles to the eastward. Their homes must be somewhere in the neighborhood and since they flew to the west were in that direction. Columbus did a cunning thing. He kept two reckonings. One was a true one which he took care no one should know but himself; the other was false and made it appear that the ships had not sailed nearly as far as was the fact. This latter reckoning, you need hardly be told, was for the benefit of the crews. The sovereigns made it known before the ships left Palos that a pen- sion would be given to the first man who saw land; but despite the signs named, the sailors grew more mutinous. Threats, promises and pleadings only led them to agree that they would obey the admiral for a few days longer, at the end of which time, he promised them that if no land appeared he would turn back. It must have cost him a keen pang to give this promise, but there was no help for it. One afternoon, just as it was growing dusk, Martin Pinzon, standing on the Pinta, and pointing ahead, startled everybody by shouting: "Land! land! the reward is mine!" Every eye was turned and saw what seemed to be a low flat island in the horizon. Columbus was so overcome that he sank on his knees and gave thanks to God for his great mercy. All were so thrilled that hardly an eye was closed in slumber that night. A moderate wind was blowing and the three ships, now quite near one another, kept steadily gliding toward the island and all were sure that the grandest of sights would meet their vision at daybreak. But, alas! when the sun rose behind them and threw its rays on the broad heaving ocean, not the first glimpse of land was to be seen. Captain Pinzon had mistaken a bank of clouds for earth, and even that had vanished. It was a sore disappointment and the sailors became more discontented than ever. They talked angrily together and warned the Admiral they would go no further. If he tried to keep on they would throw him into the sea and take charge of the ships themselves. He threatened and promised, but there is little doubt that they would have done as they said had not other signs of the nearness of land checked them. Columbus strengthened their hope by talking and acting as if all 202 THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. doubt was ended. He said that land would certainly be seen within a short time, and reminded them that the one who first discovered it would be given a pension for life by his sovereigns. The Admiral prom- ised to add a fine velvet waistcoat, so that you may be sure every one was on the alert. Objects floating in the water, such as grass that grew only close to land and pieces of carved wood, together with the sight of birds cir- cling about the ships and then skimming away to the westward proved that the vessels were nearing land every hour. There were no more threats from the sailors and the danger that had hung over the head of Columbus for weeks was gone. The night of October 11 was mild, clear and cool. The wind still blew just strongly enough to keep the caravels gliding smoothly through the sea, and the sky overhead was brilliant with stars. The sailors moved quietly about, attending to their duties, which were slight, and talked together in low tones. Not a minute passed that they did not peer ahead for the hundredth or more time into the gloom that kept parting before the prows of their vessels, half expecting to see at any moment some vast island loom out of the darkness in their path. It was quite early in the evening when the sailors saw a man climb silently to the upper deck and take his position at the stern where his view was the best on the ship. There was no need of guessing who he was. It was the favorite custom of Columbus, who spent hours in looking into the gloom. He spoke to no one, for the great navigator wished to be alone at such times. There is no way of telling what his thoughts were that night, but we can make a fair guess. They must have run back over the nearly score of years he had spent in wandering from one court of Europe to another, begging in vain for help from the kings and nobles. He had gone hungry and been in rags; he had been weak with thirst, and he knew that most of those to whom he applied looked upon him as a dreamer, whose brain had got askew from his long dwelling on one theme, and yet how strange it all was that while the truth was as clear to him as the sun at midday, no one else could see it. And yet some did see it, for had it not been so this expedition never would have been creeping over the mysterious Atlantic. And he must have recalled the events of the last few weeks, when the seamen, growing more and more rebellious, finally passed beyond THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 203 control and would have thrown him into the sea, but for the providen- tial signs that appeared at the right moment. The sailors on the three caravels were of the same mind and the Admiral was not quite certain that the Pinzon brothers did not share their feelings, for they had not always been as obedient as at the beginning. But he was filled with gratitude by the knowledge that the end was near. The faith that had sustained him from the beginning could not be shaken. A deep, profound thankfulness suffused his whole being, for he knew the dreams of long toilsome years were about to become real. The stars gleamed in the clear sky overhead; the soft ripple of the water as it plashed away from the prow, the occasional flapping of a sail, the gentle whistling of the breeze through the cordage and now and then the murmur of voices from the shadowy figures below and for- ward were in his ears. When he looked back the foamy wake of the Santa Maria opened out like a fan, and sparkled with phosphorescence, but in every direction was the same wall of darkness that had closed around the ship every night since sailing from Palos, away off toward the other side of the world. But not often did Columbus look into the world of darkness behind him. It was to the westward that his eyes continually turned with a longing that was almost impatience. How many more hours must pass before his vision would be greeted with the sight that was to mark the discovery of the ages, and hand down his name to all coming genera- tions as one of the greatest benefactors of men? Suddenly a shock went through him, as if his hand had touched a "live wire." At the very point upon which his eyes were fixed a star of exceeding brightness burst into sight. It had not been there a moment before and he wondered where it could have come from. It was so low that it seemed to be resting on the water, but with another start of amazement he perceived that the star was moving! It was gliding to the right, and, instead of doing so in a level line, kept rising and falling as it went forward, as if it were making slow, regular leaps along the horizon. Now, no star ever acted that way, and Columbus knew at once what it meant. It was not a star, but a light held by a man who was running along the beach. The sight was so strange that the Admiral rubbed his eyes and looked again. There it was, still bobbing forward. He called to a friend and 04 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. asked him whether he had noticed it. He answered that he did, and still uncertain the Admiral called to a third person. To the dismay of Columbus he answered that he saw nothing, and it was then noticed that the light had disappeared, but it soon gleamed forth again and then went out altogether. It had been agreed that when it was certain that land was discov- ered one of the little cannon was to be fired as notice to the other ships. Columbus would have ordered the signal to be given, but there had been so many disappointments that he thought it best to wait till morn- ing. Hardly had the first glow of the coming day shown itself in the hori- zon than one of the small cannon on the Pinta flashed out and its re- sounding boom rolled over the waters. With the sound still in the air Roderigo de Triana called that he saw land a few miles to the west- ward. He had fairly earned the reward, and we cannot think it was very creditable to Columbus that he set up a claim for it, because of what he observed the night before, but his claim was allowed, and he not only received the reward promised by his sovereigns, but saved him- self the expense of giving away the velvet doublet. What a glorious vision burst upon the sight of the officers and crews! There lay a beautiful island, green with grass and vegetation and gleam- ing with exquisite flowers, whose fragrance stole across the calm wa- ters to the ships. The winds were soft and cool and the caroling of birds from the branches of the trees, as they flitted back and forth, seemed to welcome the strangers from the other side of the world. Some of the birds gleamed with color and looked like balls of fire as they flitted in and out among the leaves and flowers. But interesting as all this was, the sight of the people who lived on the island was much more so. They were of a coppery color, wore scarcely anything resembling clothing, had no bows and arrows, but only simple lances, and were more amazed at sight of the white men than the latter were at sight of them. They peeped from among the trees, ran back and forth, chattered to one another, pointed at what they believed to be three huge birds that had come down from the clouds, and, when they saw smaller boats putting out from the sides of the larger ones, the natives ran down to the beach to welcome theni. There was no fear, for why should they be afraid of the strangers, even though their faces were of a different color and some of them were THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 205 covered with hair? It was a proud moment for Columbus when he stepped ashore, and he and his sailors knelt on the green earth and gave thanks to God. In their fervor they pressed their lips against the grassy ground as if saluting a sweetheart. While still on their knees they chanted the Te Deum Laudamus, and then as they rose Columbus circled his sword above his head, and, unfurling the royal standard, took possession of the country in the name of his sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS He and all his men believed they had reached -the Indies. Because of this he called the natives Indians, a name that will always cling to them. The sailors humbly begged the Admiral to forgive them for their rebellious actions and he was happy to do so. The pleasure of wandering about the island, plucking and eating the luscious fruit, and lolling in the cool shade wooed the men from all labor for several days. The natives strove to please them, and, what was strange on the part of the Spaniards, they in turn used them kindly. The white men, however, noticed that many wore golden rings in their 206 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ears and noses, and they were eager to trade trinkets for them, which the simple hearted natives gladly did. It is not known of a certainty where Columbus landed, but it is be- lieved to have been on Cat Island or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. He named it Guanahani, and spent several weeks in visiting parts of the island, as well as others in the neighborhood. He saw the natives twist the tobacco leaf in small rolls and smoke it, that being the first time the habit became known to Europeans. Among the islands vis- ited was Hayti, whose beauties so reminded Columbus of Spain that he named it Hispaniola. On Christmas eve, while cruising along shore, the Santa Maria was steered so badly that she ran aground and was wrecked. The cargo was removed to the Nina, the natives giving will- ing help in the work. Captain Pinzon of the Pinta had refused to fol- low Columbus and was not seen again for a long time. From the timbers of the Santa Maria a fort was built and forty of the Spaniards were left behind at their own request. The settlement was named La Navidad, and, bidding their former friends good bye, Columbus set sail for Spain January 16, 1493. The homeward voyage was tempestuous at times, and once the storm was so frightful that Co- lumbus did not believe either of the vessels would live through it. He wrote an account of his discoveries and placing it in a sealed cask threw it overboard. This interesting prize was never found and the Pinta and Nina safely w r eathered the gale and reached home. We must give a paragraph to the settlement made by the Spaniards on Hayti. As soon as they were left to themselves they began acting out their true nature. They treated the natives as if they were wild animals. They robbed them of their golden ornaments and if one of the poor people resisted they shot or beat him to death. They made the men and women work like beasts of the field, while the Spaniards spent their time roaming through the country in their eager hunt for gold. Their brutality became so dreadful that the Indians rallied, and overwhelming them, slew every one. That was the first attempt of the Spaniards to plant a settlement in the New World, and it may be taken as the policy that has guided them ever since. At noon on Friday, March 15, 1493, the Nina dropped anchor in the harbor at Palos. What an excitement! The men who had sailed away more than six months before and whom none expected ever to see again, were back safe and well, with the exception of those who stayed behind THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 207 in Hayti. It seemed as if everyone would go wild with joy. The bells were rung, hymns of thanksgiving sung, and Columbus and his com- panions were almost smothered with embraces. The welcome at court, if more formal, was none the less sincere, and there were no honors too great to be showered upon the man that had discovered a New World for Spain. As the news spread throughout Europe it made a profound impression, the like of which was never before known. When Columbus said he wished to make another voyage there was no lack of volunteers. He sailed from Cadiz on a second expedition September 25, 1493, in command of seventeen vessels and 1,200 persons. The results were disappointing, and it was a great shock to find that not a man was alive of the colony left in Hayti. Columbus made a third voyage on which he saw the mainland of South America, though he did not suspect the fact. He attempted to plant colonies, but everything went wrong. The Admiral, although the greatest of discoverers, did not know how to control and manage men, and there were so many com- plaints about his mismanagement that an officer who came over to in- vestigate sent him to Spain in irons. The sovereigns were shocked and indignant and had the irons instantly taken off. On a fourth voyage Columbus discovered and named a number of islands, coasting as far as the Isthmus of Darien. When he returned to Spain in 1504, he was broken in health and spirits. Queen Isabella was dead and the King would not give him his rights. He died, broken hearted and in poverty, May 20, 1506, under the belief that, instead of discovering a continent, he had found only the eastern part of Asia. One of the friends of Columbus was an Italian like himself, named Americus Vespuccius. He was a fine sailor and made several voyages westward. In an account of them he said he sailed on the first one in May, 1497. If this is true he saw the mainland before Columbus. Late investigations give ground for the belief that Americus Vespuccius really did what he claimed, though it is by no means certain. At any rate, the result was the naming of the continent in his honor instead of that of Columbus. It is a curious fact that the greatest discoverers at the close of the fifteenth century were Italians. Another of them, John Cabot, sailed from Bristol, England, under the flag of that country in the spring of 1497, in search of a northern route to China, and visited the American coast near the mouth of the St. Lawrence. In the following year Sebas- 208 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. tian the son of John, explored the coast from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras. These voyages gave England a fair claim to the continent of North America through right of discovery. More than once I have spoken of the visits of the Northmen to Amer- ica. There is no doubt that a number of those hardy sailors made set- tlements in Greenland and on the New England coasts nearly a thous- and years ago; but the settlements did not last and after a time not a white man remained in the country. Hundreds of years passed and the New World was forgotten until Columbus in his little caravels came across the Atlantic and found it again. He deserved as much credit as if the Northmen had never seen the bleak shores of New England. We know that at the time of the visits of the Northmen and of Co- lumbus, there were thousands of natives scattered throughout the coun- try. No one knows where they came from, but the most reasonable be- lief is that thousands of years ago they crossed Behring Strait from northeastern Asia and gradually overspread the continent. You learned in the earlier pages of this work that they belong to the Mon- golian race. You often hear mention made of the Mound Builders. A great many relics exist of their labors, some of them in the Mississippi Valley cov- ering an area of several acres each. It was long believed that the Mound Builders were a race who peopled this continent long before the Indians, but there is good reason to think they were the early Indians themselves, for when the first visitors came to the New World mound building was going on in some portions of the country. CHAPTER XVI. SPANISH EXPLORATION BALBOA The Discovery of the Pacific Ocean or South Sea PONCE DE LEON Brutal Treatment of the Indians by the Spaniards DE NARVAEZ DE SOTO His Discovery of the Pacific FRENCH EXPLORA- TION VERRAZANI JACQUES CARTIER CAPTAIN RIBAUT DE LAU- DONNIERE PEDRO MELENDEZ A Merited Punishment Founding of St. Augustine ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS MARTIN FROBISHER SIR HUM- PHREY GILBERT SIR WALTER RALEIGH The "Lost Colony" A Span- ish Settlement on the Site of Jamestown, Va. OUR study of the history of Europe makes it easier to understand that of our own country. The people who were to settle Amer- ica had to come across the Atlantic and it is necessary that we should know about them. We have learned that Spain was the leading power in Europe when Columbus sailed from Palos on his great voyage of discovery. Having accomplished so much, she was not the nation to remain idle while others hastened to pluck the fruit. Vasco Nunez de Balboa was a Spanish rogue whose bad habits DE SOTO'S DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 209 210 SPANISH EXPLORATION. caused him to fall into debt. To escape being locked up in prison by his creditors he hid himself on board of a vessel about sailing for Amer- ica and took care to keep concealed until so far out to sea that the cap- tain would not bother to return with him. He was very angry when the fellow crawled out of the barrel in which he had been nailed up and stood shamefacedly before him, but there was no help for it. More- over there was prospect that Balboa might be of use, since he had visited the Isthmus of Darien, whither the ship was sailing. The vessel was fretted and delayed by storms and more than once threatened with shipwreck, but finally the officers and crew were landed near a native village called Darien. The Spaniards quarreled among themselves and the shrewd Balboa managed to have himself made leader. He knew enough of the Indian tongue to talk with the natives, and he was deeply interested in two things said by them. One was that several days' journey to the westward was a vast body of water, and the other that gold was as plentiful there as the pebbles on the beach. It was the last statement that stirred the greed of Balboa and his com- panions, and made them resolve that they would gather all -they could of the precious metal. But Balboa was warned that the journey was a dangerous one. The natives would fight him and his companions all the way across, and, unless he took a strong force with him he would never see the gold or immense sea. This w r as in the year 1513 and the brother of Christopher Columbus was at the head of the Spanish colony in Hayti. To him Bal- boa applied for men and supplies. His request was granted, and it thus came about that when Balboa started lie was at the head of two hundred men. Since all carried firearms, they enjoyed the sport of shooting down the natives who attacked them with bow r s and arrow r s. Balboa took several Indian guides and a number of bloodhounds with him. The journey was laborious, for the heat was smothering, the mosquitoes drove them almost frantic and their armor was heavy. The only amusement they had was in shooting the natives whenever they came within reach of their guns. On the 26th of September the party reached the base of a rocky ele- vation, from the top of which the guides said the body of water was in sight. Ordering his men to remain where they were, Balboa began climbing the hill, while his companions watched him. He toiled up- ward until at the summit, when they saw him stand still and gaze stead- SPANISH EXPLORATION. 211 ily to the westward. For several minutes he was so rapt in the vision spread before him that he did not move or speak. Then he dropped on his knees and gave thanks to God. No matter how wicked those men were they never forgot to thank God when things went to suit them; and, whatever the crimes and murders they committed, they were regu- lar in their devotions and begged heaven to help them in the commis- sion of more crimes. But Balboa had cause for his emotion for he was looking upon the Pacific Ocean, the mightiest body of water on the globe. He had made a grand discovery, and could not fail to feel grateful for the opportu- nity that had come to him. He beckoned to his friends to join him, and they scrambled up the hill to his side and feasted their eyes on the glorious picture. Balboa named the body of water the South Sea, by which it is still often referred to. The name Pacific Ocean was given to it by Ferdi- nand Magellan, who in 1519 sailed along the eastern coast of South America and passed through the straits bearing his name. He was. a Spaniard on his way to circumnavigate or sail around the world. He died upon reaching the Philippine Islands, but one of his ships com- pleted the voyage, which was the first of its kind ever made. The nations of Europe which had to do mainly with the settlement of our country were Spain, France, England and Holland. Spain nat- urally liked the warmer portions. Most of her work was done in South America, though unhappily she took a hand in the development of a part of the territory that afterward became the United States. Wher- ever she did so it proved a blight and a curse. The year before the discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa (1513) an old Spanish soldier who belonged to a noble family, and had been a companion of Columbus on his second voyage, heard of a marvelous fountain in the southern part of our country, whose waters would bring back youth to old age. His name was Ponce de Leon and he resolved to find the wonderful spring. He sailed from Porto Kico at the head of a large expedition, and was wealthy enough to pay all the expenses himself. He gladly did this and he would have given his all for the restoration of his youth and vigor, as who would not? Landing on the coast of Florida in the spring of 1513, he and his men spent days and weeks looking for the fountain. It is easy to picture them running hither and thither, peering among the bushes, and drinking wherever 212 SPANISH EXPLORATION. they came upon a spring or rivulet until they must have been gorged almost to bursting. No doubt they gazed anxiously in one another's faces, or at their own as reflected in the clear waters, and watched for the wrinkles to vanish, for the gray hair to turn black or brown, and to feel the warm blood bounding through their veins. But it need not be said that nothing of the kind took place. When youth goes from us it never comes back, though by right living we can make its departing slow, and the poor fellows at last gave up the vain hunt. It was on Easter morning that the party had landed near the present city of St. Augustine. They took possession of the country in the name of Spain, and De Leon called it "Florida," some say because it was first seen on Palm Sunday, though others think it was on account of the florid and blooming vegetation. The visit of the Spaniards taught the Indians their cruelty, and so when, in 1521 Ponce de Leon came back with the intention of forming a settlement, the natives resisted their landing. Among the wounded was De Leon, whose breast was deeply pierced by an arrow. The ex- pedition was given up and the leader carried back to Porto Rico, where he died. You would think that the Spaniards would show fair treatment to the Indians for no other reason than that it was to their interest to do so. By following such a course they were sure of not being attacked, and the natives would gladly bring them the food they were certain to need before going far into the interior. But it must be said of the Spaniards that they were not only cruel and treacherous, but showed no more sense at times than so many fools. The decay and humiliation of Spain has been her own fault, because she has always shut her eyes to her own welfare. Thus in 1528 Pamphilo de Narvaez landed 400 men and 100 horses near Tampa Bay in Florida, with the intention of pushing inland. The first thing he and his men did after prayers was to begin shooting and killing all the Indians that came within reach. There was not a sha- dow of excuse for this, and every reason, as I have shown, why their own interests demanded that they should win the good will of the na- tives, but it seemed as if they could not help acting out their true nature. The firearms of the white men gave them great advantage, and for a time it was fine fun to shoot down the men, women and children. Once some of the troops brought in an Indian chief, whose nose they cut off. SPANISH EXPLORATION. 213 The Spaniards had a number of Cuban bloodhounds, which added to the amusement by rending the poor natives when trying to get away from them. Laying aside the question of the brutality and wickedness of all this, its utter folly soon appeared. The natives combined and kept up such an incessant attack on the wretches that De Narvaez saw his only hope was to return to his ships on the coast. The survivors did so with ex- treme difficulty, but the vessels had departed. The sufferings that fol- lowed were so dreadful that the time came when only a single white man was left alive. He was kept a prisoner for eight years among the Indians, but gradually worked his way across the continent to a port on the Gulf of California, where he found some of his own countrymen. With their help he finally reached Spain and published a history of his adventures. Among the Spaniards who helped to make conquests in South Amer- ica was Hernando de Soto. He became so wealthy from his wicked business that he proposed to his king to bear the whole expense of con- quering Florida. The monarch was pleased with the offer and made him governor of Cuba and captain-general of all the countries which he might bring under his rule. No expedition promised better, for it was composed of nine vessels and nearly a thousand men. Everything that could be needed was taken, including several hundred horses, hogs and a number of trained bloodhounds. I suppose the last were to furnish amusement in tear- ing the innocent natives. The history of the enterprise is so much like those already told that it isn't worth while to dwell upon it. It was shoot and kill from the first, with the Spaniards steadily falling before the arrows of the in- censed Indians, who were too numerous to be wiped out by the fiendish- ness of the white men. It is not known what route De Soto followed, but he probably reached the site of the present city of Little Rock, Ar- kansas. He crossed Mississippi in the spring and summer of 1541, and discovered the great river of that name. For three years the expedi- tion, continually diminishing in numbers, wandered through the South- west, until the iron-hearted De Soto at last yielded to the entreaties of his men and started to make his way back to the coast. By that time he was so worn out that he was attacked by fever and lay down to die. Calling his men around him he asked them to forgive him for 214 FRENCH EXPLORATION. any wrong he had done them, and, May 21, 1542, he closed his eyes in the long last sleep that awaits us all. Fearful that if the Indians learned of the death of the leader they would fall upon the others, his friends late that night silently rowed out into the river and, weighting the blanket wrapped about the body with stones, gently lowered it over the side and it sank out of sight. The discoverer of the Mississippi had found his grave in it. The rem- nant of the company floated down stream for several weeks, contin- ually fighting the Indians, and in July, 1543, reached the mouth. Thence they found their way to some settlements in Texas, where they received the care of which they were in sore need. We have one more Spanish expedition of which something must be said, but it is mixed with French explorations to which we now turn our attention. You will remember that France was a great rival of Spain, and that many of the ventures westward for a number of years after the death of Columbus, were in search of a short route to India. Even after the real settlement of the country began it was thought that no one needed to go far into the interior to find the Pacific Ocean. In January, 1524, four French ships left the Madeiras under the com- mand of Verrazani, who, curiously enough, was an Italian. When he sighted the mainland of America two months later, he had only a single ship left. It is thought by some that the land he first saw was in North Carolina, and that he coasted to New England, but on the other hand Verrazani's account is so vague that many doubt whether he ever saw this country at all. He was the first navigator, however, to form a cor- rect idea of the size of the globe. One of the most famous explorers of France was Jacques Cartier, who with two ships and crews of sixty-one men, sailed from his country in the spring of 1534 and, entering the mouth of the St. Lawrence, took possession of the country and soon after returned to France. He sailed again the following year with three ships and anchored in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, in August, 1535. He ascended the river a long way, treating the Indians kindly, and receiving the same treatment in return, just as might have been the case with the Spaniards. He passed the winter on the site of the city of Montreal, and made several attempts to plant colonies in the country. Although he failed, he gave France FRENCH EXPLORATION. 215 a just claim to the immense territory which she held for more than two hundred years. Having failed of success in the north France now gave her attention to the southern part of the country. It was a time when the Hugue- nots suffered such cruel persecution that many fled to other lands. Lord Admiral Coligny (who was killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572) sent Captain John Ribaut, in 1562, with two ships to explore the coast to the southward. He sailed up the St. Johns in Florida, being welcomed by the Indians, whom the Frenchmen used right. The different rivers received French names, and, cruising north- ward, he anchored in the harbor of Port Royal. Ribaut was so pleased with the country that he decided to make a settlement on an island in what is now known as Archer's Creek, six miles from where Beaufort, South Carolina, afterward stood. He left a party of men with all the supplies and ammunition that could be spared, and then bade them good bye and sailed for home. No better chance could have been given the colonists, but a lazier set of men never lived. They quit working and depended upon the In- dians to keep them in food until Ribaut came back. The only exertion put forth was to hunt now and then for gold which they never found. Then, naturally, they became homesick, and, rigging up a flimsy boat, put to sea. When several had starved to death and the survivors were ready to draw lots to decide who of their number should serve as food for the remainder, an English vessel picked them up and took them to England as prisoners. A second expedition, numbering three ships, arrived in June, 1564, under the command of Captain Rene de Laudonniere, and set to work building a fort. But they, like so many before them, were crazy for gold and matters were soon in a bad way; for failing to plant crops or to find the yellow metal, they grew desperate. Several plots were formed to kill Laudonniere, but he discovered them and shot the criminals. The next thing they did was to steal a couple of the ships and start for the West Indies as pirates. Laudonniere worked hard and built two other vessels with which to pursue them, but they were taken from him and their crews also went into the business of piracy. Surely Laudonniere could not have been in a worse plight, but when in despair, Captain Ribaut arrived with supplies. The meeting was a joyous one and all promised well ; but a few nights later another fleet 216 FRENCH EXPLORATION. silently stole up the river. It was under the command of Pedro Menendez (sometimes spelled Melendez), one of the most savage wretches that ever cruised under the flag of Spain. Nothing so delighted him as a chance of massacring those whose views of religion did not agree with his. The foui ships of Ribaut were no match for the Spaniards and put to sea, but three others were up the river. Seeing their danger, Ribaut turned about with the intention of helping them, but a tempest scattered his vessels and he could do nothing. The French did not dream of their peril. The Spaniards marched through swamps in the midst of a drenching rain storm, and, falling upon the fort at night, surprised and overwhelmed the defenders, who received no mercy. The terrified Huguenots fled to the woods, but were pursued and nearly all slain. The number who met their death was one hundred and fifty. Laudonniere and a companion stood in a morass with the water to their necks until morning, and managed to reach the two ships that Ribaut had left behind and sailed for France. It came to the ears of Menendez some time later that the Frenchmen w r ho had started to aid their companions were wrecked on Anastatia Island. He led his soldiers thither, and, under his pledge to treat the prisoners well, received their surrender. With the exception of two or three who abjured their faith and were likely to be useful as mechanics, he put all to death. Ribaut and the rest of his men reached the spot the next day. Menendez managed to make his force seem larger than it was, and demanded their surrender, promising to treat them as prisoners of war. Two hundred took to the woods, declaring that they would sooner trust themselves in the hands of savages than rely upon the honor of a Spaniard. Most of them were afterward captured and sent to Spain to the galleys. Those who surrendered were killed, Ribaut being among the victims. When the miserable victims were hanged to the trees, Menendez caused placards to be placed over their heads with the words: "I do this, not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans." Such a dreadful crime, it would seem, ought to have set France aflame, but she was so fretted with troubles at home that she gave it no attention. One of the nobility, however, a devout Catholic, determined to take the punishment of the wretches in his own hands. He and some of his friends secretly sent an expedition to the country, secured the aid of the Indians, who detested the Spaniards, and, furiously assailing them, hanged a largenumber upon ENGLISH EXPLORATION. 217 * the same trees that had served as gibbets for the poor Huguenots. Over their heads were placed the inscription : "I do not this as unto Spaniards, nor unto Moors, but as unto traitors, robbers and murderers." The most important event, historically connected with this affair, remains to be told. Unfortunately Menendez himself was not within reach of the indignant Catholics, but had gone back to the mouth of the River of Dolphins, as it was called, where in 1565 he began the settle- ment of St. Augustine. It had a weak existence for many years, but it lived and has the distinction of being the oldest city in the present ter- ritory of the United States, not regarding our colonial possessions. The frugal Hollanders cared more for trade than territory, and, therefore, had little to do with the exploration of our country. England, however, after a number of years became active. While Henry VIII. was king, two expeditions were sent across the ocean, but accomplished nothing. Three ships sailed in the spring of 1553, but two of them drifted into the Arctic regions and the crews were frozen to death. The third reached Archangel in Russia and was the cause of the opening of a new channel of trade. Martin Frobisher embarked on his first voyage westward in June, 1576, and made two subsequent ventures. Frobi- sher's Strait, far to the north, was named for him, but his work was un- important. The same may be said of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who sailed from England in June, 1583, and was drowned by the foundering of his vessel at sea. Sir Walter Raleigh was deeply interested in the scheme of coloniza- tion. He had aided his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and he sent two other ships to America in the spring of 1584. They visited the coast of North Carolina and came back with so pleasant a report that a still larger expedition sailed the following year. They began a settlement south of Cape Fear River, but made the mistake of treating the Indians harshly and would have starved to death had not Sir Francis Drake arrived and taken them to England. They carried with them some to- bacco, which was thus introduced into Europe. Sir Walter Raleigh was not discouraged by these failures, but dispatched another expedition in 1587, which included one hundred and fifty men and women. They did little but wrangle, and for a long time led a most unhappy existence. At Roanoke Island, the wife of Ananias Dare became the mother of a daughter which was named Virginia. To 218 ENGLISH EXPLORATION. her belongs the honor of being the first child of English parentage born within the present limits of the United States. Matters went so ill that Governor White, the head of the colony, sailed for England for help. Threatened wars kept him there for three years, and when he came back, to his dismay he was unable to find a single member of the colony. He was greatly afflicted, for his own daughter was among the missing, and he made many searches, but, though he discovered a good deal of property which he recognized as belonging to the missing ones, he never saw any of the owners. The fate of the "Lost Colony" is a pathetic mystery. Some think the members were all slain by Indians, which might well have been the case, but others cling to the belief that they made their homes among the red men, intermarried and were thus absorbed after many years. Captain Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from Falmouth in March, 1602, taking with him twenty persons, with which to found a colony. He gave the names to Martha's Vineyard, Cape Cod and the Elizabeth Islands. He made a brave effort to establish a settlement on New Eng- land soil, but the provisions gave out, the climate was severe and the men lost heart and returned to England. The reports taken with them convinced the people at home that colonization could be made successful and a very few years later it was done. There was one settlement of which few histories make mention, for the reason that the facts concerning it came to light only a few years ago. Lucas Vasquez de Allyon was a Spanish officer of the island of San Domingo and very rich and ambitious. He had made several ex- ploring expeditions along portions of the American coast. In the early summer of 1520, he sailed from Puerto de la Plata with three vessels, containing 600 men and women and 100 horses. After inspecting several places, he passed up the James River for nearly fifty miles and began a settlement which he named San Miguel de Guadalupe. The strange fact about this was that the site was exactly the same as that selected for the founding of Jamestown, more than eighty years afterward. Before the houses could be finished an unusually severe winter set in, and a number of the men were frozen to death. Others fell ill and De Allyon himself had died of a fever, October 18, 1526. A mutiny broke out among the survivors, sickness increased, there were many deaths, and, in the spring of 1527, the survivors, only one hundred and fifty in number, abandoned the place and returned to San Domingo. CHAPTER XVII. JOHN SMITH Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia Its Early Trials The Wise and Vigorous Bule of Captain John Smith Smith and Pocahontas Smith's Return to England The "Starvation Time" Marriage of Rolfe and Pocahontas In- troduction of African Slavery Indian Massacres SIB WILLIAM BERKELEY Bacon's Rebellion Subsequent Colonial History of Virginia. YOU and I do not like to listen to a boaster. The boy who brags of what he has done or will do is pretty certain to prove a coward . \when the test comes. His playmates laugh at him as he deserves to be laughed at, and, after awhile, if he has good sense, he ceases his boasting and is content to talk and act like the rest of his friends. But it happens now and then that a man who is a great braggart is almost what he claims to be. It does not often happen that way, but there have been really brave persons who were fond of telling of their exploits. Perhaps they mag- nified them, but it was true, all the same, that they. w r ere worthy of praise. I am now going to tell you something about such a person. His name was John Smith, which is the commonest name in the world. I remember not long ago, looking through a New York directory and counting exactly one hun- dred plain "John Smiths," while those who had a mid- dle letter were still more nu- merous. It is strange that parents of the name of Smith should give to any of their Children the Simple title Of POCAHONTAS PLEADING FOR CAPTAIN SMITH'S LIFE 219 220 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. "John," for it is certain to make confusion and bother. However, that has nothing to do with the man whom I have in mind, and who was born in England about 1579. He was fond of adventure from a boy, and enlisted as a soldier in the Netherlands. He fought bravely, and, after the war, wandered through France, Egypt and Italy. In 1602, he entered the service of Hungary against the Turks, and displayed such gallantry that his commander was delighted w T ith him. Smith often told how a giant Turk once rode out in front of the Hungarian army and challenged any horseman to meet him in single combat. The only one who dared do so was Smith, who overthrew his foe and cut off his head. Perhaps this was true, but a good many people doubt it. In one of the battles, Smith was wounded, taken prisoner and sold as a slave. He was treated with great cruelty and compelled to wear a yoke about his neck. One day while threshing grain, with his master standing by and abusing him, Smith hit him such a violent blow with the flail that the tyrant was killed. Then Smith leaped upon the Turk's horse, and by riding hard got safely out of the country. This story, too, you must remember, was Smith's, as was the one that he was once thrown overboard because he was a heretic, but swam safely through the mountainous waves to land. But we will let all these stories go and come down to later events. There is no doubt that Smith met with many strange adventures, and that he came back to England in 1606, just as arrangements were com- pleted for making a settlement in America. It came about this way: James I. was king of England, and in that country two important companies were formed for planting colonies on this side of the Atlantic, England claiming the whole country, because of the discovery of John Cabot in 1697, about which you have already learned. One of these companies was formed in London and the other in Ply- mouth. To the former King James granted all the North American coast from latitude 34 degrees to latitude 38 degrees, and to the Ply- mouth Company the coast from latitude 41 degrees to 45 degrees. Look on your maps and fix this territory in your mind. You will notice that the king was wise enough to leave a gap between the two grants, but he gave permission to both to settle in it, provided none of the settle- ments was within a hundred miles of the other's. He knew the danger of their becoming too close neighbors. Under the belief that the Pacific CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 221 Ocean lay only a little way from the eastern shore, the western bound- ary of each colony was made that body of water. It was a long time before Europe learned that when one of their vessels touched our Atlan- tic coast it was only half way to the other side of the continent. King James did not mean to let his American colonies slip away from him. You remember that he was an ardent believer in the "divine right" of rulers. He kept within himself the authority to name a resi- dent council or governing body, who were kindly allowed to select their presiding officer, providing he was not a clergyman. This may sound harsh on the clergy, but it was probably wise, for their calling does not make them the best directors of secular matters. The king had the right to change such laws as were made in America if they did not suit him, and it was agreed that after five years all should hold the land in common. The Plymouth Company sent out two ships in 1606, but the Spaniards captured one. The other visited the coast of Maine and went home with such a pleasing report, that a colony went thither the following year. After narrowly escaping death from freezing and starvation the settlers gave up and went home. The London Company had better fortune with their three vessels, which sailed December 19, 1606, though the one hundred and five emi- grants were not of the right mould, for there were no women among them, and nearly all were "gentlemen," who expected to pick up what gold they wished and then go back to England and enjoy it. John Smith learned of the expedition, and, since it promised him plenty of the ex- citing adventure of which he was so fond, he went with it. The ships had not sailed far when his boastful manner and brusque treatment of his fellow passengers made him strongly disliked. Some of them declared he was plotting to get control of the expedition. He was arrested and put in irons, which did not seem to trouble him much. The names of the three ships were the Sarah Constant, of one hun- dred tons burden; the Godspeed, of forty, and the -Discovery, a pinnace of twenty tons. Captain Christopher Newport was the commander. The intention was to settle on Roanoke Island, where Sir Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony had disappeared, but driven by storms along the coast, they entered Chesapeake Bay, naming one cape Henry and the other Charles, after sons of the king. Captain Newport had been given sealed letters of instruction which he was ordered not to open until 222 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. \ America was reached. When this was done, it was found that among the list of directors was the name of John Smith. The others were so indignant that at first they determined not to permit the boaster to accept the office; but cooler counsels prevailed add he was permitted to become one of the members of the governing body. It was May, the most charming season of the year. Turning into the mouth of a broad river which they named the James, in honor of their king, they sailed slowly up the stream until they saw the peninsula where De Allyon had begun his settlement eighty-one years before. They were so pleased with the spot that they agreed that no better could be found. Accordingly, they went ashore and began the settlement of Jamestown, May 13, 1607. Things did not look promising. The first thing to do was to build houses, but there were only four carpenters in the company, and the whole number of laborers was but twelve. The best that could be done was to compel the "gentlemen" to give what help they could, though they preferred to hunt for gold. Captain Newport stayed a month and then sailed for England. The ships being gone, the settlers saw they must do something to save themselves from starvation. Hardly any corn had been planted, and the Indians, instead of being friendly, kept firing their arrows from the woods, now and then with fatal effect. The heat became smothering as the summer advanced and a great deal of sickness was caused by drinking large quantities of unwholesome Avater. The hot air from the swamps was laden with malaria. Before the ships of Captain Newport reached England, there were not twenty men in Jamestown strong enough to stand on their feet. The whole place was a sick camp, and all must have perished but for the Indians, w r ho took pity on the gaunt, hollow-eyed sufferers and brought them food. President Wingfield proved so mean and selfish that he was turned out of office and John Ratcliffe chosen in his place. He was good for nothing and had sense enough to resign. It was plain that a wise, stern, iron-hearted ruler was all that could save the colony from ruin, and the only man who possessed those qualifications was John Smith. He was selected president. He did his duty nobly. Amid all the sickness around him, he re- tained rugged health. He was sturdy, powerful and with a courage that feared nothing. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 223 "No person shall eat who is too lazy to work," was his first rule, and he enforced it, setting the example by toiling as hard as any one. If he caught a well man shirking work and perhaps asleep, Smith would dash a pailful of water in his face or administer a kick that would make the fellow howl with pain. If he blustered and talked of punishment for the treatment, Smith replied that he was ready to fight at that moment. Finding the captain could not be browbeaten, all went to work, and, under the instruction of Smith, learned how to chop down trees and to cut them of proper length for burning. At the same time, he was as tender as a woman to any who were really ill. The London Company had ordered the colonists to make all the ex- plorations of the coast that were possible, and Captain Smith spent a good deal of his time in doing so. He was fond of going up the river and its tributaries in a small boat with several companions. He generally met a number of Indians at different points and won their good will by making them presents of gewgaws and trinkets. At the same time, he got from them much corn and game, which he took to the colonists, BUILDING JAMESTOWN 224 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. who were in great need of food. One of the best qualities of Smith was his unselfishness. He was always ready to do what he could for others and never sought his own advantage to the injury of any one else. Such a man can be pardoned for boasting of his exploits. Smith well earned the title of the "Saviour of Virginia," which has been bestowed upon him. Under his administration, everything im- proved. The "gentlemen" who had been too proud to work seemed rather to like it when they not only saw its good results but felt their own health benefited. The weather became cooler, and since the Indians caused little trouble, the outlook was promising. The opportunity was so favorable that Smith engaged in other hunts for the South Sea, though it is quite likely that his love of adventure was the chief motive that led him, one winter day, to start up the Chick- ahominy with several boats. When the stream became so shallow that the larger craft had to stop, Smith and two companions entered a canoe which would barely hold them, and paddled on until they, too, were checked. Meanwhile, the larger party further down stream, whom he had ordered to keep in their boats and well out from shore until he returned, disobeyed him and were attacked by a large party of Indians, who killed two of them and then hurried up stream after the canoe and its occu- pants. They quickly found the footprints of the three, who had landed, and the red men's training made it easy to follow the white men through the forest. It happened that Smith had separated from his friends to hunt by himself. While he knew there was danger of being attacked, he hoped to escape and kept his eyes and ears open. He had not gone far, when he caught sight of several dusky figures flitting among the trees at the rear. He saw they intended to attack him and faced about with his loaded weapon ready. The situation was enough to scare the bravest man, for Smith was alone, and there were fully fifty Indians, who left no doubt of their intention, when they sent several arrows whizzing past his head. He dodged them as best he could and brought his gun to his shoulder. The Indians knew the pow r er of that terrible weapon, which, when pointed at one of them flashed and made a big noise, and then the man dropped dead without any one being able to see how it w T as done. They sprang behind the trees and peeped out, waiting for the thunderous re- CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 225 port that did not come. Smith lowered his gun and began walking back- ward, closely watching his enemies. Afraid that he was about to get away, they swarmed from behind the tree trunks and ran forward. Smith saw he must do something besides level his weapon. So care- fully sighting at one of the foremost warriors, he fired his matchlock. All saw the flash and heard the dreadful report, but mingled with it was the cry of the leading Indian, who threw up his arms, sprang into the air and sprawled forward on his face. This checked the others for a time, and the captain improved the interval by reloading his awkward firearm. Could he have had one of our modern repeating Winchesters, no doubt he would have sent all the terrified savages scurrying into the forest. He did not build any false hopes on the action of his assailants. He knew they would speedily be after him again, and the only possible way of standing them off was by shooting among them as fast as he could load and fire his gun. Their arrows were flying all about him, and the wonder was that he was not struck and badly injured or killed. He kept slowly retreating, his face toward the foe, and on the lookout for a chance to shoot, when one of his feet suddenly sank into the ground. He staggered and struggled to draw it out, when the other went down. Not knowing how deeply he would sink, he strove desperately to release himself, and seeing his plight, the Indians ran forward and surrounded him. The brave captain saw he was caught, and, instead of resisting fur- ther, took out a small pocket compass and exhibited it to his captors. They were as curious as so many children, and, forgetting that the white man had just slain two of their warriors, they became absorbed at once in the instrument. Smith's manner made them think it was something supernatural. Unable to talk with them in his own language, he did so by signs. They were amazed at the tiny needle that flitted back and forth under the glass cover. Some of the bravest reached their fingers forward, to touch it, but drew hastily back, as if afraid of being hurt. The prisoner made such an impression on his captors that when several wished to shoot him to death with arrows others would not permit it. However, they did not set him free, but took him to their village, where they kept him for several days, feeding him so well that he began to suspect they were fattening him for a feast. Finally he was taken before their great war chief Powhatan, whose home was fifteen or twenty 226 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. miles from Jamestown. The stern old Indian surveyed the prisoner with interest, and then talked with several under chiefs. The decision reached by the council was that the white man must die. Smith knew how to meet his fate bravely, and he made no resistance when they tied his hands behind him, and, leading him into the open space in front of the chiefs and warriors, laid him on his back, with his head resting upon two large stones, placed side by side. Amid the solemn hush, a couple of Indians stepped forward, each grasping a huge club with which he intended to dash out the brains of the white man, lying on his back and looking calmly up at them. Among the group of spectators was Pocahontas, the young daughter of Pow- hatan, who, giving way to her grief at the dreadful sight, turned to her father and begged him to spare the life of the captive. The chieftain shook his head, and indicated to the executioners, who had paused, that they should complete their work. Before they could bring down the frightful clubs, Pocahontas ran forward, and dropping on her knees, threw her arms about the neck of Smith and leaned over so that if the blows fell, they would crush her own head instead of that of the white man. Her action did that which her words had failed to do. Powhatan told the waiting Indians not to harm the captive, who he said should be spared. So he was allowed to climb to his feet and his arms were unbound. The Indians w r ished to adopt him into their tribe, and kept him with them, until the gentle Pocahontas saw he was pining to go back to his friends, and persuaded her father to let him do so. The foregoing is the story that Captain Smith told after the death of Pocahontas a number of years later. We cannot be certain, therefore, that it is strictly true, though it is known that Smith was held a prisoner by the Indians for several weeks. The legend, therefore, has at least a good foundation. When Smith reached Jamestown, he found it in a sorry condition. Sickness was raging and starvation again threatened. He took charge once more and matters soon mended. When only forty men were left alive, Captain Newport arrived from England with a hundred persons and plenty of provisions, farming implements and seeds. This was a godsend to the colony, and, upon Smith's return from another of his exploring expeditions into the interior, he was formally elected presi- dent of the company and ruled as vigorously and wisely as before. Sad CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. 227 to say, however, he was so badly hurt by the explosion of some gunpow- der that he had to sail for England for medical treatment. He never returned to Virginia, though he made several voyages along the northern coast and gave New England its name. He died in 1631, after having won a most creditable record for his aid in the early settlement of Virginia. As proof of his value to the colony, it needs only to recall what hap- pened after he left. Six months later, there were but sixty people alive out of the five hundred that had come at different times. While a number had been killed by Indians, most of them died from disease and starvation. That awful period was the winter of 1609-10 and is known in history as the "Starving Time." The few miserable beings who were able to drag themselves around were sure they would die unless they managed to reach England. So, gathering up the few effects they were strong enough to carry they went on board one of the little ships, hoisted sail and started down the James on their voyage across the tempestuous Atlantic. To their astonishment, however, they met a vessel loaded with supplies, under charge of their new governor, Lord De la War. They gladly returned to Jamestown with him, and, other settlers arriving soon after, the colony fairly en- tered upon its career of prosperity. A second charter which had been given to the London Company in 1609 did not work well, and in 1612 a third was granted, which allowed the stockholders to manage matters as they thought best. The settlers could not help being fond of Pocahontas, for she often came to the settlement, sometimes bringing food and always showing a liking for the white people. She was very pretty, with her dusky skin, her luxuriant black hair, her white, even teeth and her supple limbs. She gradually learned to speak English in her attractive, broken way, and, though Captain Argall once tried to hold her a prisoner in the hope of making King Powhatan give a large amount of corn as a ransom, he quickly released her when he found the wrathful chieftain was making ready to attack the settlement. Among the admirers of Pocahontas was an Englishman of genteel family by the name of John Rolfe, who fell deeply in love with her. The maiden returned his affection, and when Powhatan was asked to give his consent to their marriage he did so. In the quaint little church at Jamestown, built from the logs of the forest, whose font where she had 228 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. been baptized, was hollowed from the trunk of a tree, she spoke in low and broken English the responses as required by the Church of England. Her baptismal name was Rebecca, and the marriage took place in April, 1613. The union made Powhatan, the powerful war chief, the friend of the white people as long as he lived. Rolfe and Pocahontas visited England some time later, and were re- ceived at court, where the dusky princess, the daughter of an American king, was treated kindly. There she met her old friend Captain John Smith. She won all hearts by her modest sweetness. A year later, when about to sail for America, she fell ill and died. She left an infant son from whom some of the proudest families in Virginia claim descent. One day, in 1619, a Dutch vessel came up the James and made fast to the wharf at Jamestown. She had twenty negroes on board, who had been kidnapped on the Guinea coast in Africa. The settlers were very busy just then in raising tobacco, which was largely sold in England, and were glad to buy the negroes. Thus the baleful system of African slavery was introduced into this country, bringing in its train evils and wars that were to deluge portions of our fair land in blood. Virginia was fairly started on its career of prosperity. In the year mentioned (1619), one hundred execellent young women arrived and proved the best of wives. Agreeably to the new charter, a local council was ordered, whose members were elected by the colonists. Eleven "plantations," as they were called, chose members of the body, which met at Jamestown, July 30, 1619. Including the governor and council, it was composed of tw T enty-two representatives and was the first legislative body that assembled in America. It was called and is still referred to as the House of Burgesses. It was agreed that neither the laws made by the colonial assembly nor those by the company in London should be binding upon the other body until accepted by it. The provisions were put in the form of a written constitution which in time was copied by the other colonies. You have been told that Powhatan was a friend of the settlers until his death, which took place in 1618. His son, Opecancanough, however, was a bitter enemy of the whites, and, as soon as he became chief, he set about plotting to destroy them. He kept his purpose a secret, and, on March 22, 1622, he and his warriors made a furious attack on the set- tlements. Within a short time, four hundred colonists, including their families, were killed and the eighty plantations reduced to eight. The SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY. 229 warning of a converted Indian was all that saved Jamestown and the nearest settlements. The enraged settlers turned upon the savages and spent a long time in hunting them down, until they were glad to make peace. On April 18, 1644, a second massacre took place under the same Ope- cancanough, who was nearly a hundred years old. Nearly as many white people were killed as before. Then the red men were punished with such severity that there was no more trouble for a long time. The Indians gave up a large tract of land and moved further back into the wilderness. King James thought the Virginians were becoming too bold in their views and too free in their sentiments. So he recalled his last charter and in October, 1623, gave another which was not nearly so liberal. He agreeably disappointed the colonists, however, by not oppressing them. King Charles was equally liberal, as was Cromwell, and, by the middle of the seventeenth century, Virginia had a thriving trade with London, Bristol, Holland and New England, and its population had grown to 30,000. You learned long ago about the civil war in England, when King Charles was beheaded and Cromwell gained supreme power. A great many of the Cavaliers fled to Virginia and Sir William Berkeley, the gov- ernor, refused to accept his commission except from Charles II., who was then an exile and fugitive in the Netherlands. The King sent an ex- pression of his gratitude to Virginia for her loyalty, and made the claim that the colony added a fifth country to his kingdom (England, Scotland, France, Ireland and Virginia). He formed the motto: "En dat Virginia quintam," meaning "Lo! Virginia gives the fifth." The Cavaliers were warmly welcomed, and thus originated the name "Old Dominion," which you often hear applied to Virginia. Sir William Berkeley was a brutal bigot, who thanked God that there were no free schools or printing in the province. He was one of the most intolerable tyrants that can be imagined. The members of the assembly were of the same mind as he, and they kept piling the taxes on the people until they were beyond bearing. With his aid they prevented the elec- tion of any new members from 1660 for sixteen years, and thus had every- thing their own way. All the trade fell into the hands of a few people, and they and the governor became very rich by making the people poor. Another grave charge against Governor Berkeley was that he was 230 SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY. favorable to the Indians, with whom he carried on a profitable trade. They committed so many outrages that the forts were put in a condi- tion of defence, and, in the spring of 1675, a force of settlers made ready to march against them. Before they could do so, the governor disbanded them. Thus encouraged, the Indians killed more white people. A young and popular planter named Nathaniel Bacon, declared that he would lead a body of volunteers against the savages, with or without the consent of the governor, if the outrages did not cease. A few days later, Bacon's own plantation was attacked by the red men and two of his employes killed. True to his word, he called upon his neighbors to join him, and, when all was ready, he sent to the governor for a com- mission. Berkeley angrily refused it and Bacon marched away. While on the road, a messenger overtook him from the governor with positive orders for him and his men to return to their homes. Bacon told his com- panions to do as they chose, and some of them were so scared, knowing the ugly temper of Berkeley, that they obeyed his order, leaving Bacon with only about fifty men. Learning of this, the governor hurried forward with an armed force to arrest the rebels. While on the road, word reached him that a rebel- lion had broken out in Jamestown, and, more savage than ever, he wheeled around and made all haste thither. Meanwhile, Bacon and his volunteers pressed on, gave the hostile Indians a good beating and then the volunteers dispersed to their homes. When the governor reached Jamestown, he found everything in a turmoil. The angry citizens demanded a new election and relief from their burdensome taxes. Much against his will, the irate Berkeley was obliged to grant both demands. Bacon, who had become still more popular by his brave course, was elected a member of the new assembly. Rising in his seat, he said he wished to confess that he had done very wrong in taking up arms without the permission of the governor, but he hoped he w r ould be forgiven. The assembly showed their sentiments by electing him commander-in-chief of the militia. Berkeley fumed and berated Bacon and refused to give him a commission. Bacon had a temper as well as the governor, though he knew better how to control it. But the Indians were making trouble again, and, at the head of a body of militia, Bacon marched to Jamestown and de- manded of the governor authority to march against the hostiles. Ber- keley was in a fury, and, pounding his breast, told the soldiers to shoot SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY. 231 but they would never get the permission from him. Nobody wished to hurt him, despite his unfitness as a ruler, and the men laughed at his outburst. The governor crossed the Chesapeake and gathered a lot of men, most of whom were slaves, to whom he promised their freedom and lots of plunder if they would aid in overthrowing the rebels. Now that the people were aroused, they were bolder than ever. They agreed that the flight of the governor was an abandonment of his office, and orders were issued for the election of a new assembly, who would select another governor. About this time, several ships arrived from England, with a number of armed men. Sir William placed himself at their head and marched against Jamestown. Bacon had just come back from a campaign against the Indians, and, to prevent the town being used by the governor, it was set on fire and burned to the ground. That is how it came about that the oldest English settlement in America is marked to-day by only a few ruins, for the place was never rebuilt. When everything pointed to the complete success of Bacon's rebel- lion, he became ill and died, October 1, 1676. No competent man was left to take his place and the revolt crumbled to pieces. The revengeful Berkeley hunted down the rebels as if they were so many wild beasts. Had not the body of Bacon been secretly buried, Sir William would have had it hanged in chains. As it was, he hanged twenty-two, three died in prison, while five, awaiting execution, managed to escape with the help of friends. The dissolute King Charles became disgusted with his sav- agery and ordered him to stop. He was recalled and felt so disgraced that soon after reaching England he died. Virginia had other bad mlers and a number of good ones, but con- tinued to prosper. A colony from Pennsylvania settled near the pres- ent site of Winchester in 1732, and was followed by others, some of whom passed the Alleghanies and made their homes in the valley of the Monon- gahela. A printing press was set up in Williamsburg, the capital, in 1738, and a weekly newspaper published. The towns of Richmond